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diff --git a/33052.txt b/33052.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..da1a45e --- /dev/null +++ b/33052.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18798 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 5, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 2 + "Camorra" to "Cape Colony" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33052] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Article CANAAN, CANAANITES: "If (Egyptian) troops come this year, + lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops + come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my + lord." quotes added after 'lord'. + + Article CANTATA: "... though at the same time not excludeing the + possibility of a brilliant climax in the shape of a light order of + fugue." 'excludeing' amended from 'exclude ing'. + + Article CAPE COLONY: "In the western part of the colony the winter + is the rainy season, in the eastern part the chief rains come in + summer." 'in' amended from 'is'. + + Article CAPE COLONY: "Agriculture and Allied Industries." + 'Industries' amended from 'Industires'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME V, SLICE II + + Camorra to Cape Colony + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + CAMORRA CANDYTUFT + CAMP CANE + CAMPAGNA DI ROMA CANEA + CAMPAIGN CANE-FENCING + CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE CANEPHORAE + CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO CANES VENATICI + CAMPANIA CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSE + CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO CANGAS DE ONIS + CAMPANILE CANGAS DE TINEO + CAMPANULA CANGUE + CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER CANINA, LUIGI + CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO + CAMPBELL, GEORGE CANIS MAJOR + CAMPBELL, JOHN CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG + CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL CANIZARES, JOSE DE + CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS CANNAE + CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD CANNANORE + CAMPBELL, LEWIS CANNES + CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN CANNIBALISM + CAMPBELL, THOMAS CANNING, CHARLES JOHN + CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY CANNING, GEORGE + CAMPBELTOWN CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO + CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH CANNOCK + CAMPECHE (state of Mexico) CANNON + CAMPECHE (city of Mexico) CANNON-BALL TREE + CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO CANNSTATT + CAMPER, PETER CANO, ALONZO + CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON CANO, MELCHIOR + CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM CANOE + CAMPHORS CANON + CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ CANONESS + CAMPI, GIULIO CANONIZATION + CAMPILLO, JOSE DEL CANON LAW + CAMPINAS CANOPUS + CAMPING OUT CANOPY + CAMPION, EDMUND CANOSA + CAMPION, THOMAS CANOSSA + CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE CANOVA, ANTONIO + CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO + CAMPOBASSO CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN + CAMPODEA CANT, ANDREW + CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ CANT + CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE CANTABRI + CAMPOS CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS + CAMPULUNG CANTACUZINO + CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO CANTAGALLO + CAMULODUNUM CANTAL + CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON CANTARINI, SIMONE + CAMUS, CHARLES ETIENNE LOUIS CANTATA + CAMUS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH DES CANTEEN + CAMUS DE MEZIERES, NICOLAS LE CANTEMIR + CANA CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON + CANAAN, CANAANITES CANTERBURY + CANACHUS CANTHARIDES + CANADA CANTICLES + CANAL CANTILEVER + CANAL DOVER CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE + CANALE ANTONIO CANTILUPE, WALTER DE + CANALIS CANTO + CANANDAIGUA CANTON, JOHN + CANARD CANTON (city of China) + CANARY CANTON (Illinois, U.S.A.) + CANARY ISLANDS CANTON (New York, U.S.A.) + CANCALE CANTON (Ohio, U.S.A.) + CANCEL CANTON (country division) + CANCELLI CANTONMENT + CANCER, LUIS CANTU, CESARE + CANCER (astronomy) CANUSIUM + CANCER (disease) CANUTE + CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON CANUTE VI. + CANDELABRUM CANVAS + CANDIA CANVASS + CANDIDATE CANYNGES, WILLIAM + CANDLE CANYON + CANDLEMAS CANZONE + CANDLESTICK CAPE BRETON + CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH CAPE COAST + CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE CAPE COLONY + CANDON + + + + +CAMORRA, a secret society of Naples associated with robbery, blackmail +and murder. The origin of the name is doubtful. Probably both the word +and the association were introduced into Naples by Spaniards. There is a +Spanish word _camorra_ (a quarrel), and similar societies seem to have +existed in Spain long before the appearance of the Camorra in Naples. It +was in 1820 that the society first became publicly known. It was +primarily social, not political, and originated in the Neapolitan +prisons then filled with the victims of Bourbon misrule and oppression, +its first purpose being the protection of prisoners. In or about 1830 +the Camorra was carried into the city by prisoners who had served their +terms. The members worked the streets in gangs. They had special methods +of communicating with each other. They mewed like cats at the approach +of the patrol, and crowed like cocks when a likely victim approached. A +long sigh gave warning that the latter was not alone, a sneeze meant he +was not "worth powder and shot," and so on. The society rapidly extended +its power, and its operations included smuggling and blackmail of all +kinds in addition to ordinary road-robberies. Its influence grew to be +considerable. Princes were in league with and shared the profits of the +smugglers: statesmen and dignitaries of the church, all classes in fact, +were involved in the society's misdeeds. From brothels the Camorra drew +huge fees, and it maintained illegal lottery offices. The general +disorder of Naples was so great and the police so badly organized that +merchants were glad to engage the Camorra to superintend the loading and +unloading of merchandise. Being non-political, the government did not +interfere with the society; indeed its members were taken into the +police service and the Camorra sometimes detected crimes which baffled +the authorities. After 1848 the society became political. In 1860, when +the constitution was granted by Francis II., the _camorristi_ then in +gaol were liberated in great numbers. The association became +all-powerful at elections, and general disorder reigned till 1862. +Thereafter severe repressive measures were taken to curtail its power. +In September 1877 there was a determined effort to exterminate it: +fifty-seven of the most notorious camorristi being simultaneously +arrested in the market-place. Though much of its power has gone, the +Camorra has remained vigorous. It has grown upwards, and highly-placed +and well-known camorristi have entered municipal administrations and +political life. In 1900 revelations as to the Camorra's power were made +in the course of a libel suit, and these led to the dissolution of the +Naples municipality and the appointment of a royal commissioner. A +government inquiry also took place. As the result of this investigation +the Honest Government League was formed, which succeeded in 1901 in +entirely defeating the Camorra candidates at the municipal elections. + +The Camorra was divided into classes. There were the "swell mobsmen," +the camorristi who dressed faultlessly and mixed with and levied fines +on people of highest rank. Most of these were well connected. There were +the lower order of blackmailers who preyed on shopkeepers, boatmen, &c.; +and there were political and murdering camorristi. The ranks of the +society were largely recruited from the prisons. A youth had to serve +for one year an apprenticeship so to speak to a fully admitted +camorrista when he was sometimes called _picciotto d' honore_, and after +giving proof of courage and zeal became a _picciotto di sgarro_, one, +that is, of the lowest grade of members. In some localities he was then +called _tamurro_. The initiatory ceremony for full membership is now a +mock duel in which the arm alone is wounded. In early times initiation +was more severe. The camorristi stood round a coin laid on the ground, +and at a signal all stooped to thrust at it with their knives while the +novice had at the same time to pick the coin up, with the result that +his hand was generally pierced through in several places. The noviciate +as _picciotto di sgarro_ lasted three years, during which the lad had to +work for the camorrista who had been assigned to him as master. After +initiation there was a ceremony of reception. The camorristi stood round +a table on which were a dagger, a loaded pistol, a glass of water or +wine supposed to be poisoned and a lancet. The _picciotto_ was brought +in and one of his veins opened. Dipping his hand in his own blood, he +held it out to the camorristi and swore to keep the society's secrets +and obey orders. Then he had to stick the dagger into the table, cock +the pistol, and hold the glass to his mouth to show his readiness to die +for the society. His master now bade him kneel before the dagger, placed +his right hand on the lad's head while with the left he fired off the +pistol into the air and smashed the poison-glass. He then drew the +dagger from the table and presented it to the new comrade and embraced +him, as did all the others. The Camorra was divided into centres, each +under a chief. There were twelve at Naples. The society seems at one +time to have always had a supreme chief. The last known was Aniello +Ansiello, who finally disappeared and was never arrested. The chief of +every centre was elected by the members of it. All the earnings of the +centre were paid to and then distributed by him. The camorristi employ a +whole vocabulary of cant terms. Their chief is _masto_ or _si masto_, +"sir master." When a member meets him he salutes with the phrase _Masto, +volite niente?_ ("Master, do you want anything?"). The members are +addressed simply as _si_. + + See Monnier, _La Camorra_ (Florence, 1863); Umilta, _Camorra et Mafia_ + (Neuchatel, 1878); Alongi, _La Camorra_ (1890); C.W. Heckethorn + _Secret Societies of All Ages_ (London, 1897); Blasio, _Usi e costumi + dei Camorriste_ (Naples, 1897). + + + + +CAMP (from Lat. _campus_, field), a term used more particularly in a +military sense, but also generally for a temporarily organized place of +food and shelter in open country, as opposed to ordinary housing (see +CAMPING-OUT). The shelter of troops in the field has always been of the +greatest importance to their well-being, and from the earliest times +tents and other temporary shelters have been employed as much as +possible when it is not feasible or advisable to quarter the troops in +barracks or in houses. The applied sense of the word "camp" as a +military post of any kind comes from the practice which prevailed in the +Roman army of fortifying every encampment. In modern warfare the word is +used in two ways. In the wider sense, "camp" is opposed to "billets," +"cantonments" or "quarters," in which the troops are scattered amongst +the houses of towns or villages for food and shelter. In a purely +military camp the soldiers live and sleep in an area of open ground +allotted for their sole use. They are thus kept in a state of +concentration and readiness for immediate action, and are under better +disciplinary control than when in quarters, but they suffer more from +the weather and from the want of comfort and warmth. In the restricted +sense "camp" implies tents for all ranks, and is thus opposed to +"bivouac," in which the only shelter is that afforded by improvised +screens, &c., or at most small _tentes d'abri_ carried in sections by +the men themselves. The weight of large regulation tents and the +consequent increase in the number of horses and vehicles in the +transport service are, however, disadvantages so grave that the +employment of canvas camps in European warfare is almost a thing of the +past. If the military situation permits, all troops are put into +quarters, only the outpost troops bivouacking. This course was pursued +by the German field armies in 1870-1871, even during the winter +campaign. + +Circumstances may of course require occasionally a whole army to +bivouac, but in theatres of war in which quarters are not to be depended +upon, tents must be provided, for no troops can endure many successive +nights in bivouac, except in summer, without serious detriment to their +efficiency. In a war on the Russo-German frontier, for instance, +especially if operations were carried out in the autumn and winter, +tents would be absolutely essential at whatever cost of transport. In +this connexion it may be said that a good railway system obviates many +of the disadvantages attending the use of tents. For training purposes +in peace time, _standing camps_ are formed. These may be considered +simply as temporary barracks. An _entrenched camp_ is an area of ground +occupied by, or suitable for, the camps of large bodies of troops, and +protected by fortifications. + +_Ancient Camps._--English writers use "camp" as a generic term for any +remains of ancient military posts, irrespective of their special age, +size, purpose, &c. Thus they include under it various dissimilar things. +We may distinguish (1) Roman "camps" (_castra_) of three kinds, large +permanent fortresses, small permanent forts (both usually built of +stone) and temporary earthen encampments (see ROMAN ARMY); (2) +Pre-Roman; and (3) Post-Roman camps, such as occur on many English +hilltops. We know far too little to be able to assign these to their +special periods. Often we can say no more than that the "camp" is not +Roman. But we know that enclosures fortified with earthen walls were +thrown up as early as the Bronze Age and probably earlier still, and +that they continued to be built down to Norman times. These consisted of +hilltops or cliff-promontories or other suitable positions fortified +with one or more lines of earthen ramparts with ditches, often attaining +huge size. But the idea of an artificial elevation seems to have come in +first with the Normans. Their _mottes_ or earthen mounds crowned with +wooden palisades or stone towers and surrounded by an enclosure on the +flat constituted a new element in fortification and greatly aided the +conquest of England. (See CASTLE.) + + + + +CAMPAGNA DI ROMA, the low country surrounding the city of Rome, bounded +on the N.W. by the hills surrounding the lake of Bracciano, on the N.E. +by the Sabine mountains, on the S.E. by the Alban hills, and on the S.W. +by the sea. (See LATIUM, and ROME (province).) + + + + +CAMPAIGN, a military term for the continuous operations of an army +during a war or part of a war. The name refers to the time when armies +went into quarters during the winter and literally "took the field" at +the opening of summer. The word is also used figuratively, especially in +politics, of any continuous operations aimed at a definite object, as +the "Plan of Campaign" in Ireland during 1886-1887. The word is derived +from the Latin _Campania_, the plain lying south-west of the Tiber, c.f. +Italian, _la Campagna di Roma_, from which came two French forms: (1) +_Champagne_, the name given to the level province of that name, and +hence the English "champaign," a level tract of country free from woods +and hills; and (2) _Campagne_, and the English "campaign" with the +restricted military meaning. + + + + +CAMPAN, JEANNE LOUISE HENRIETTE (1752-1822), French educator, the +companion of Marie Antoinette, was born at Paris in 1752. Her father, +whose name was Genest, was first clerk in the foreign office, and, +although without fortune, placed her in the most cultivated society. At +the age of fifteen she could speak English and Italian, and had gained +so high a reputation for her accomplishments as to be appointed reader +to the three daughters of Louis XV. At court she was a general +favourite, and when she bestowed her hand upon M. Campan, son of the +Secretary of the royal cabinet, the king gave her an annuity of 5000 +_livres_ as dowry. She was soon afterwards appointed first lady of the +bedchamber by Marie Antoinette; and she continued to be her faithful +attendant till she was forcibly separated from her at the sacking of the +Tuileries on the 20th of June 1792. Madame Campan survived the dangers +of the Terror, but after the 9th Thermidor finding herself almost +penniless, and being thrown on her own resources by the illness of her +husband, she bravely determined to support herself by establishing a +school at St Germain. The institution prospered, and was patronized by +Hortense de Beauharnais, whose influence led to the appointment of +Madame Campan as superintendent of the academy founded by Napoleon at +Ecouen for the education of the daughters and sisters of members of the +Legion of Honour. This post she held till it was abolished at the +restoration of the Bourbons, when she retired to Mantes, where she spent +the rest of her life amid the kind attentions of affectionate friends, +but saddened by the loss of her only son, and by the calumnies +circulated on account of her connexion with the Bonapartes. She died in +1822, leaving valuable _Memoires sur la vie privee de Marie Antoinette, +suivis de souvenirs et anecdotes historiques sur les regnes de Louis +XIV.-XV._ (Paris, 1823); a treatise _De l'Education des Femmes_; and one +or two small didactic works, written in a clear and natural style. The +most noteworthy thing in her educational system, and that which +especially recommended it to Napoleon, was the place given to domestic +economy in the education of girls. At Ecouen the pupils underwent a +complete training in all branches of housework. + + See Jules Flammermont, _Les Memoires de Madame de Campan_ (Paris, + 1886), and histories of the time. + + + + +CAMPANELLA, TOMMASO (1568-1639), Italian Renaissance philosopher, was +born at Stilo in Calabria. Before he was thirteen years of age he had +mastered nearly all the Latin authors presented to him. In his fifteenth +year he entered the order of the Dominicans, attracted partly by reading +the lives of Albertus Magnus and Aquinas, partly by his love of +learning. He took a course in philosophy in the convent at Morgentia in +Abruzzo, and in theology at Cosenza. Discontented with this narrow +course of study, he happened to read the _De Rerum Natura_ of Bernardino +Telesio, and was delighted with its freedom of speech and its appeal to +nature rather than to authority. His first work in philosophy (he was +already the author of numerous poems) was a defence of Telesio, +_Philosophia sensibus demonstrata_ (1591). His attacks upon established +authority having brought him into disfavour with the clergy, he left +Naples, where he had been residing, and proceeded to Rome. For seven +years he led an unsettled life, attracting attention everywhere by his +talents and the boldness of his teaching. Yet he was strictly orthodox, +and was an uncompromising advocate of the pope's temporal power. He +returned to Stilo in 1598. In the following year he was committed to +prison because he had joined those who desired to free Naples from +Spanish tyranny. His friend Naudee, however, declares that the +expressions used by Campanella were wrongly interpreted as +revolutionary. He remained for twenty-seven years in prison. Yet his +spirit was unbroken; he composed sonnets, and prepared a series of +works, forming a complete system of philosophy. During the latter years +of his confinement he was kept in the castle of Sant' Elmo, and allowed +considerable liberty. Though, even then, his guilt seems to have been +regarded as doubtful, he was looked upon as dangerous, and it was +thought better to restrain him. At last, in 1626, he was nominally set +at liberty; for some three years he was detained in the chambers of the +Inquisition, but in 1629 he was free. He was well treated at Rome by the +pope, but on the outbreak of a new conspiracy headed by his pupil, +Tommaso Pignatelli, he was persuaded to go to Paris (1634), where he was +received with marked favour by Cardinal Richelieu. The last few years of +his life he spent in preparing a complete edition of his works; but only +the first volume appears to have been published. He died on the 21st of +May 1639. + +In philosophy, Campanella was, like Giordano Bruno (q.v.), a follower of +Nicolas of Cusa and Telesio. He stands, therefore, in the uncertain +half-light which preceded the dawn of modern philosophy. The sterility +of scholastic Aristotelianism, as he understood it, drove him to the +study of man and nature, though he was never entirely free from the +medieval spirit. Devoutly accepting the authority of Faith in the region +of theology, he considered philosophy as based on perception. The prime +fact in philosophy was to him, as to Augustine and Descartes, the +certainty of individual consciousness. To this consciousness he assigned +a threefold content, power, will and knowledge. It is of the present +only, of things not as they are, but merely as they seem. The fact that +it contains the idea of God is the one, and a sufficient, proof of the +divine existence, since the idea of the Infinite must be derived from +the Infinite. God is therefore a unity, possessing, in the perfect +degree, those attributes of power, will and knowledge which humanity +possesses only in part. Furthermore, since community of action +presupposes homogeneity, it follows that the world and all its parts +have a spiritual nature. The emotions of love and hate are in +everything. The more remote from God, the greater the degree of +imperfection (i.e. _Not-being_) in things. Of imperfect things, the +highest are angels and human beings, who by virtue of the possession of +reason are akin to the Divine and superior to the lower creation. Next +comes the mathematical world of space, then the corporeal world, and +finally the empirical world with its limitations of space and time. The +impulse of self-preservation in nature is the lowest form of religion; +above this comes animal religion; and finally rational religion, the +perfection of which consists in perfect knowledge, pure volition and +love, and is union with God. Religion is, therefore, not political in +origin; it is an inherent part of existence. The church is superior to +the state, and, therefore, all temporal government should be in +subjection to the pope as the representative of God. + +In natural philosophy Campanella, closely following Telesio, advocates +the experimental method and lays down heat and cold as the fundamental +principles by the strife of which all life is explained. In political +philosophy (the _Civitas Solis_) he sketches an ideal communism, +obviously derived from the Platonic, based on community of wives and +property with state-control of population and universal military +training. In every detail of life the citizen is to be under authority, +and the authority of the administrators is to be based on the degree of +knowledge possessed by each. The state is, therefore, an artificial +organism for the promotion of individual and collective good. In +contrast to More's _Utopia_, the work is cold and abstract, and lacking +in practical detail. On the view taken as to his alleged complicity in +the conspiracy of 1599 depends the vexed question as to whether this +system was a philosophic dream, or a serious attempt to sketch a +constitution for Naples in the event of her becoming a free city. The +_De Monarchia Hispanica_ contains an able account of contemporary +politics especially Spanish. + +Thus Campanella, though neither an original nor a systematic thinker, is +among the precursors, on the one hand, of modern empirical science, and +on the other of Descartes and Spinoza. Yet his fondness for the +antithesis of Being and Not-being (_Ens_ and _Non-ens_) shows that he +had not shaken off the spirit of scholastic thought. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For his works see Quetif-Echard, appendix to E.S. + Cypriano, _Vita Campanellae_ (Amsterdam, 1705 and 1722); Al. + d'Ancona's edition, with introduction (Turin, 1854). The most + important are _De sensu rerum_ (1620); _Realis philosophiae + epilogisticae partes IV._ (with _Civitas Solis_) (1623); _Atheismus + triumphatus_ (1631); _Philos. rationalis_ (1637); _Philos. universalis + seu metaph._ (1637); _De Monarchia Hispanica_ (1640). For his life, + see Cypriano (above); M. Baldachini, _Vita e filos. di Tommaso + Campanella_ (Naples, 1840-1853, 1847-1857); Dom. Berti, _Lettere + inedite di T. Campanella e catalogo dei suoi scritti_ (1878); and + _Nuovi documenti di T.C._ (1881); and especially L. Amabile, _Fra T. + Campanella_ (3 vols., Naples, 1882). For his philosophy H. Ritter, + _History of Philos._; M. Carriere, _Philos. Weltanschauung d. + Reformationszeit_, pp. 542-608; C. Dareste, _Th. Morus et Campanella_ + (Paris, 1843); Chr. Sigwart, _Kleine Schriften_, i. 125 seq.; and + histories of philosophy. For his political philosophy, A. Calenda, + _Fra Tommaso Campanella e la sua dottrina sociale e politica di fronte + al socialismo moderno_ (Nocera Inferiore, 1895). His poems, first + published by Tobias Adami (1622), were rediscovered and printed again + (1834) by J.G. Orelli; the sonnets were rendered into English verse by + J.A. Symonds (1878). For a full bibliography see _Dict. de theol. + cath._, col. 1446 (1904). + + + + +CAMPANIA, a territorial division of Italy. The modern district (II. +below) is of much greater extent than that known by the name in ancient +times. + +I. _Campani_ was the name used by the Romans to denote the inhabitants +first of the town of Capua and the district subject to it, and then +after its destruction in the Hannibalic war (211 B.C.), to describe the +inhabitants of the Campanian plain generally. The name, however, is +pre-Roman and appears with Oscan terminations on coins of the early 4th +(or late 5th) century B.C. (R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, p. 143), +which were certainly struck for or by the Samnite conquerors of +Campania, whom the name properly denotes, a branch of the great +Sabelline stock (see SABINI); but in what precise spot the coins were +minted is uncertain. We know from Strabo (v. 4. 8.) and others that the +Samnites deprived the Etruscans of the mastery of Campania in the last +quarter of the 5th century; their earliest recorded appearance being at +the conquest of their chief town Capua, probably in 438 B.C. (or 445, +according to the method adopted in interpreting Diodorus xii. 31; on +this see under CUMAE), or 424 according to Livy (iv. 37). Cumae was +taken by them in 428 or 421, Nola about the same time, and the Samnite +language they spoke, henceforward known as Oscan, spread over all +Campania except the Greek cities, though small communities of Etruscans +remained here and there for at least another century (Conway, op. cit. +p. 94). The hardy warriors from the mountains took over not merely the +wealth of the Etruscans, but many of their customs; the haughtiness and +luxury of the men of Capua was proverbial at Rome. This town became the +ally of Rome in 338 B.C. (Livy viii. 14) and received the _civitas sine +suffragio_, the highest status that could be granted to a community +which did not speak Latin. By the end of the 4th century Campania was +completely Roman politically. Certain towns with their territories +(Neapolis, Nola, Abella, Nuceria) were nominally independent in alliance +with Rome. These towns were faithful to Rome throughout the Hannibalic +war. But Capua and the towns dependent on it revolted (Livy +xxiii.-xxvi.); after its capture in 211 Capua was utterly destroyed, and +the jealousy and dread with which Rome had long regarded it were both +finally appeased (cf. Cicero. _Leg. Agrar._ ii. 88). We have between +thirty and forty Oscan inscriptions (besides some coins) dating, +probably, from both the 4th and the 3rd centuries (Conway, _Italic +Dialects_, pp. 100-137 and 148), of which most belong to the curious +cult described under JOVILAE, while two or three are curses written on +lead; see OSCA LINGUA. + + See further Conway, op. cit. p. 99 ff.; J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd + ed.), c. "Capua"; Th. Mommsen, _C.I.L._ x. p. 365. (R. S. C.) + +The name Campania was first formed by Greek authors, from Campani (see +above), and did not come into common use until the middle of the 1st +century A.D. Polybius and Diodorus avoid it entirely. Varro and Livy use +it sparingly, preferring _Campanus ager_. Polybius (2nd century B.C.) +uses the phrase [Greek: ta pedia ta kata Kapuen] to express the district +bounded on the north by the mountains of the Aurunci, on the east by the +Apennines of Samnium, on the south by the spur of these mountains which +ends in the peninsula of Sorrento, and on the south and west by the sea, +and this is what Campania meant to Pliny and Ptolemy. But the +geographers of the time of Augustus (in whose division of Italy +Campania, with Latium, formed the first region) carried the north +boundary of Campania as far south as Sinuessa, and even the river +Volturnus, while farther inland the modern village of San Pietro in Fine +preserves the memory of the north-east boundary which ran between +Venafrum and Casinum. On the east the valley of the Volturnus and the +foot-hills of the Apennines as far as Abellinum formed the boundary; +this town is sometimes reckoned as belonging to Campania, sometimes to +Samnium. The south boundary remained unchanged. From the time of +Diocletian onwards the name Campania was extended much farther north, +and included the whole of Latium. This district was governed by a +_corrector_, who about A.D. 333 received the title of _consularis_. It +is for this reason that the district round Rome still bears the name of +Campagna di Roma, being no doubt popularly connected with Ital. _campo_, +Lat. _campus_. This district (to take its earlier extent), consisting +mainly of a very fertile plain with hills on the north, east and south, +and the sea on the south and west, is traversed by two great rivers, the +Liris and Volturnus, divided by the Mons Massicus, which comes right +down to the sea at Sinuessa. The plain at the mouth of the former is +comparatively small, while that traversed by the Volturnus is the main +plain of Campania. Both of these rivers rise in the central Apennines, +and only smaller streams, such as the Sarnus, Sebethus, Savo, belong +entirely to Campania. + +The road system of Campania was extremely well developed and touched all +the important towns. The main lines are followed (though less +completely) by the modern railways. The most important road centre of +Campania was Capua, at the east edge of the plain. At Casilinum, 3 m. to +the north-west, was the only bridge over the Volturnus until the +construction of the Via Domitiana; and here met the Via Appia, passing +through Minturnae, Sinuessa and Pons Campanus (where it crossed the +Savo) and the Via Latina which ran through Teanum Sidicinum and Cales. +At Calatia, 6 m. south-east of Capua, the Via Appia began to turn east +and to approach the mountains on its way to Beneventum, while the Via +Popillia went straight on to Nola (whence a road ran to Abella and +Abellinum) and thence to Nuceria Alfaterna and the south, terminating +at Regium. From Capua itself a road ran north to Vicus Dianae, Caiatia +and Telesia, while to the south the so-called Via Campana (there is up +ancient warrant for the name) led to Puteoli, with a branch to Cumae, +Baiae and Misenum; there was also connexion between Cumae, Puteoli and +Neapolis (see below), and another road to Atella and Neapolis. Neapolis +could also be reached by a branch from the Via Popillia at Suessula, +which passed through Acerrae. From Suessula, too, there was a short cut +to the Via Appia before it actually entered the mountains. Dornitian +further improved the communications of this district with Rome, by the +construction of the Via Domitiana, which diverged from the Via Appia at +Sinuessa, and followed the low sandy coast; it crossed the river +Volturnus at Volturnum, near its mouth, by a bridge, which must have +been a considerable undertaking, and then ran, still along the shore, +past Liternum to Cumae and thence to Puteoli. Here it fell into the +existing roads to Neapolis, the older Via Antiniana over the hills, at +the back, and the newer, dating from the time of Agrippa, through the +tunnel of Pausilypon and along the coast. The mileage in both cases was +reckoned from Puteoli. Beyond Naples a road led along the coast through +Herculaneum to Pompeii, where there was a branch for Stabiae and +Surrentum, and thence to Nuceria, where it joined the Via Popillia. From +Nuceria, which was an important road centre, a direct road ran to +Stabiae, while from Salernum, 11 m. farther south-east but outside the +limits of Campania proper, a road ran due north to Abellinum and thence +to Aeclanum or Beneventum. Teanum was another important centre: it lay +at the point where the Via Latina was crossed at right angles by a road +leaving the Via Appia at Minturnae, and passing through Suessa Aurunca, +while east of Teanum it ran on to Allifae, and there fell into the road +from Venafrum to Telesia. Five miles north of Teanum a road branched off +to Venafrum from the straight course of the Via Latina, and rejoined it +near Ad Flexum (San Pietro in Fine). It is, indeed, probable that the +original road made the detour by Venafrum, in order to give a direct +communication between Rome and the interior of Samnium (inasmuch as +roads ran from Venafrum to Aesernia and to Telesia by way of Allifae), +and Th. Mommsen (_Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ x., Berlin, 1883, p. 699) denies +the antiquity of the short cut through Rufrae (San Felice a Ruvo), +though it is shown in Kiepert's map at the end of the volume, with a +milestone numbered 93 upon it. This is no doubt an error bofh in placing +and in numbering, and refers to one numbered 96 found on the road to +Venafrum; but it is still difficult to believe that the short cut was +not used in ancient times. The 4th and 3rd century coins of Telesia, +Allifae and Aesernia are all of the Campanian type. + +Of the harbours of Campania, Puteoli was by far the most important from +the commercial point of view. Its period of greatest comparative +importance was the 2nd-1st century B.C. The harbours constructed by +Augustus by connecting the Lacus Avernus and Lacus Lucrinus with the +sea, and that at Misenum (the latter the station of one of the chief +divisions of the Roman navy, the other fleet being stationed at +Ravenna), were mainly naval. Naples also had a considerable trade, but +was less important than Puteoli. + +The fertility of the Campanian plain was famous in ancient as in modern +times;[1] the best portion was the Campi Laborini or Leborini (called +Phlegraei by the Greeks and Terra di Lavoro in modern times, though the +name has now extended to the whole province of Caserta) between the +roads from Capua to Puteoli and Cumae (Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xviii. III). +The loose black volcanic earth (_terra pulla_) was easier to work than +the stiffer Roman soil, and gave three or four crops a year. The spelt, +wheat and millet are especially mentioned, as also fruit and vegetables; +and the roses supplied the perfume factories of Capua. The wines of the +Mons Massicus and of the Ager Falernus (the flat ground to the east and +south-east of it) were the most sought after, though other districts +also produced good wine; but the olive was better suited to the slopes +than to the plain, though that of Venafrum was good. + +The Oscan language remained in use in the south of Campania (Pompeii, +Nola, Nuceria) at all events until the Social War, but at some date soon +after that Latin became general, except in Neapolis, where Greek was the +official language during the whole of the imperial period. + + See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890); Conway, _Italic + Dialects_, pp. 51-57; Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyklopadie_, + iii. (Stuttgart, 1899), 1434. + +II. Campania in the modern sense includes a considerably larger area +than the ancient name, inasmuch as to the _compartimento_ of Campania +belong the five provinces of Caserta, Benevento, Naples, Avellino and +Salerno. + +It is bounded on the north by the provinces of Rome, Aquila (Abruzzi) +and Campobasso (Molise), on the north-east by that of Foggia (Apulia), +on the east by that of Potenza (Basilicata) and on the south and west by +the Tyrrhenian Sea. The area is 6289 sq. m. It thus includes the whole +of the ancient Campania, a considerable portion of Samnium (with a part +of the main chain of the Apennines) and of Lucania, and some of _Latium +adjectum_, consisting thus of a mountainous district, the greater part +of which lies on the Mediterranean side of the watershed, with the +extraordinarily fertile and populous Campanian plain (Terra di Lavoro, +with 473 inhabitants to the square mile) between the mountains and the +sea. The principal rivers are the Garigliano or Liri (anc. Liris), which +rises in the Abruzzi (105 m. in length); the Volturno (94 m. in length), +with its tributary the Calore; the Sarno, which rises near Sarno and +waters the fertile plain south-east of Vesuvius; and the Sele, whose +main tributary is the Tanagro, which is in turn largely fed by another +Calore. The headwaters of the Sele have been tapped for the great +aqueduct for the Apulian provinces. + +The coast-line begins a little east of Terracina at the lake of Fondi +with a low-lying, marshy district (the ancient _Ager Caecubus_), +renowned for its wine (see FONDI). The mountains (of the ancient +Aurunci) then come down to the sea, and on the east side of the extreme +promontory to the south-east is the port of Gaeta, a strongly fortified +naval station. The east side of the Gulf of Gaeta is occupied by the +marshes at the mouth of the Liri, and the low sandy coast, with its +unhealthy lagoons, continues (interrupted only by the Monte Massico, +which reaches the sea at Mondragone) past the mouth of the Volturno, as +far as the volcanic district (no longer active) with its several extinct +craters (now small lakes, the Lacus Avernus, &c.) to the west of Naples, +which forms the north-west extremity of the Bay of Naples. Here the +scenery completely changes: the Bay of Naples, indeed, is one of the +most beautiful in the world. The island of Procida lies 2-1/2 m. +south-west of the Capo Miseno, and 3 m. south-west of Procida is that of +Ischia. In consequence of the volcanic character of the district there +are several important mineral springs which are used medicinally, +especially at Pozzuoli, Castellammare di Stabia, and on the island of +Ischia. + +Pozzuoli (anc. Puteoli), the most important harbour of Italy in the 1st +century B.C., is now mainly noticeable for the large armour-plate and +gun works of Messrs Armstrong, and for the volcanic earth (_pozzolana_) +which forms so important an element in concrete and cement, and is +largely quarried near Rome also. Naples, on the other hand, is one of +the most important harbours of modern Italy. Beyond it, Torre del Greco +and Torre Annunziata at the foot of Vesuvius, are active trading ports +for smaller vessels, especially in connexion with macaroni, which is +manufactured extensively by all the towns along the bay. Castellammare +di Stabia, on the west coast of the gulf, has a large naval shipbuilding +yard and an important harbour. Beyond Castellammare the promontory of +Sorrento, ending in the Punta della Campanella (from which Capri is 3 m. +south-west) forms the south-west extremity of the gulf. The highest +point of this mountain ridge, which is connected with the main Apennine +chain, is the Monte S. Angelo (4735 ft.). It extends as far east as +Salerno, where the coast plain of the Sele begins. As in the low marshy +ground at the mouths of the Liri and Volturno, malaria is very +prevalent. The south-east extremity of the Gulf of Salerno is formed by +another mountain group, culminating in the Monte Cervati (6229 ft.); +and on the east side of this is the Gulf of Policastro, where the +province of Salerno, and with it Campania, borders, on the province of +Potenza. + +The population of Campania was 3,080,503 in 1901; that of the province +of Caserta was 705,412, with a total of 187 communes, the chief towns +being Caserta (32,709), Sta Maria Capua Vetere (21,825), Maddaloni +(20,682), Sessa Aurunca (21,844); that of the province of Benevento was +256,504, with 73 communes, the only important town being Benevento +itself (24,647); that of the province of Naples 1,151,834, with 69 +communes, the most important towns being Naples (563,540), Torre del +Greco (33,299), Castellammare di Stabia (32,841), Torre Annunziata +(28,143), Pozzuoli (22,907); that of the province of Avellino +(Principato Ulteriore in the days of the Neapolitan kingdom) 402,425, +with 128 communes, the chief towns being Avellino (23,760) and Ariano di +Puglia (17,650); that of the province of Salerno (Principato Citeriore) +564,328, with 158 communes, the chief towns being Salerno (42,727), Cava +dei Tirreni (23,681), Nocera Inferiore (19,796). Naples is the chief +railway centre: a main line runs from Rome through Roccasecca (whence +there is a branch via Sora to Avezzano, on the railway from Rome to +Castellammare Adriatico), Caianello (junction for Isernia, on the line +between Sulmona and Campobasso or Benevento), Sparanise (branch to +Formia and Gaeta) and Caserta to Naples. From Caserta, indeed, there are +two independent lines to Naples, while a main line runs to Benevento and +Foggia across the Apennines. From Benevento railways run north to +Vinchiaturo (for Isernia or Campobasso) and south to Avellino. From +Cancello, a station on one of the two lines from Caserta to Naples, +branches run to Torre Annunziata, and to Nola, Codola, Mercato, San +Severino and Avellino. Naples, besides the two lines to Caserta (and +thence either to Rome or Benevento), has local lines to Pozzuoli and +Torregaveta (for Ischia) and two lines to Sarno, one via Ottaiano, the +other via Pompeii, which together make up the circum-Vesuvian electric +line, and were in connexion with the railway to the top of Vesuvius +until its destruction in April 1906. The main line for southern Italy +passes through Torre Annunziata (branch for Castellammare di Stabia and +Gragnano), Nocera (branch for Codola), Salerno (branch for Mercato San +Severino), and Battipaglia. Here it divides, one line going +east-south-east to Sicignano (branch to Lagonegro), Potenza and +Metaponto (for Taranto and Brindisi or the line along the east coast of +Calabria to Reggio), the other going south-south-east along the west +coast of Calabria to Reggio. + +Industrial activity is mainly concentrated in Naples, Pozzuoli and the +towns between Naples and Castellammare di Stabia (including the latter) +on the north-east shores of the Bay of Naples. The native peasant +industries are (besides agriculture, for which see ITALY) the +manufacture of pottery and weaving with small hand-looms, both of which +are being swept away by the introduction of machinery; but a government +school of textiles has been established at Naples for the encouragement +of the trade. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The name Osci--earlier Opsci, Opusci (Gr. [Greek: + Opikoi])--presumably meant "tillers of the soil." + + + + +CAMPANI-ALIMENIS, MATTEO, Italian mechanician and natural philosopher of +the 17th century, was born at Spoleto. He held a curacy at Rome in 1661, +but devoted himself principally to scientific pursuits. As an optician +he is chiefly celebrated for the manufacture of the large object-glasses +with which G.D. Cassini discovered two of Saturn's satellites, and for +an attempt to rectify chromatic aberration by using a triple eye-glass; +and in clock-making, for his invention of the illuminated dial-plate, +and that of noiseless clocks, as well as for an attempt to correct the +irregularities of the pendulum which arise from variations of +temperature. Campani published in 1678 a work on horology, and on the +manufacture of lenses for telescopes. His younger brother Giuseppe was +also an ingenious optician (indeed the attempt to correct chromatic +aberration has been ascribed to him instead of to Matteo), and is, +besides, noteworthy as an astronomer, especially for his discovery, by +the aid of a telescope of his own construction, of the spots in Jupiter, +the credit of which was, however, also claimed by Eustachio Divini. + + + + +CAMPANILE, the bell tower attached to the churches and town-halls in +Italy (from _campana_, a bell). Bells are supposed to have been first +used for announcing the sacred offices by Pope Sabinian (604), the +immediate successor to St Gregory; and their use by the municipalities +came with the rights granted by kings and emperors to the citizens to +enclose their towns with fortifications, and assemble at the sound of a +great bell. It is to the Lombard architects of the north of Italy that +we are indebted for the introduction and development of the campanile, +which, when used in connexion with a sacred building, is a feature +peculiar to Christian architecture--Christians alone making use of the +bell to gather the multitude to public worship. The campanile of Italy +serves the same purpose as the tower or steeple of the churches in the +north and west of Europe, but differs from it in design and position +with regard to the body of the church. It is almost always detached from +the church, or at most connected with it by an arcaded passage. As a +rule also there is never more than one campanile to a church, with a few +exceptions, as in S. Ambrogio, Milan; the cathedral of Novara; S. +Abbondio, Como; S. Antonio, Padua; and some of the churches in south +Italy and Sicily. The design differs entirely from the northern type; it +never has buttresses, is very tall and thin in proportion to its height, +and as a rule rises abruptly from the ground without base or plinth +mouldings undiminished to the summit; it is usually divided by +string-courses into storeys of nearly equal height, and in north and +central Italy the wall surface is decorated with pilaster strips and +arcaded corbel strings. Later, the square tower was crowned with an +octagonal turret, sometimes with a conical roof, as in Cremona and +Modena cathedrals. As a rule the openings increase in number and +dimensions as they rise, those at the top therefore giving a lightness +to the structure, while the lower portions, with narrow slits only, +impart solidity to the whole composition. + +The earliest examples are those of the two churches of S. Apollinare in +Classe (see BASILICA, fig. 8) and S. Apollinare Nuovo at Ravenna, dating +from the 6th century. They are circular, of considerable height, and +probably were erected as watch towers or depositories for the treasures +of the church. The next in order are those in Rome, of which there are a +very large number in existence, dating from the 8th to the 11th century. +These towers are square and in several storeys, the lower part quite +plain till well above the church to which they are attached. Above this +they are divided into storeys by brick cornices carried on stone +corbels, generally taken from ancient buildings, the lower storeys with +blind arcades and the upper storeys with open arcades. The earliest on +record was one connected with St Peter's, to the atrium of which, in the +middle of the 8th century, a bell-tower overlaid with gold was added. +One of the finest is that of S. Maria-in-Cosmedin, ascribed to the 8th +or 9th century. In the lower part of it are embedded some ancient +columns of the Composite Order belonging to the Temple of Ceres. The +tower is 120 ft. high, the upper part divided into seven storeys, the +four upper ones with open arcades, the bells being hung in the second +from the top. The arches of the arcades, two or three in number, are +recessed in two orders and rest on long impost blocks (their length +equal to the thickness of the wall above), carried by a mid-wall shaft. +This type of arcade or window is found in early German work, except +that, as a rule, there is a capital under the impost block. Rome is +probably the source from which the Saxon windows were derived, the +example in Worth church being identically the same as those in the Roman +campanili. In the campanile of S. Alessio there are two arcades in each +storey, each divided with a mid-wall shaft. Among others, those of SS. +Giovanni e Paolo, S. Lorenzo in Lucina, S. Francesca Romana, S. Croce in +Gerusalemme, S. Giorgio in Velabro (fig. 1), S. Cecilia, S. Pudenziana, +S. Bartolommeo in Isola (982), S. Silvestro in Capite, are +characteristic examples. On some of the towers are encrusted plaques of +marble or of red or green porphyry, enclosed in a tile or moulded brick +border; sometimes these plaques are in majolica with Byzantine patterns. + +[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari. + +FIG. 1.--Campanile of S. Giorgio in Velabro, Rome.] + +The early campanili of the north of Italy are of quite another type, the +north campanile of S. Ambrogio, Milan (1129), being decorated with +vertical flat pilaster strips, four on each face, and horizontal arcaded +corbel strings. Of earlier date (879), the campanile of S. Satiro at +Milan is in perfect preservation; it is divided into four storeys by +arched corbel tables, the upper storey having a similar arcade with +mid-wall shaft to those in Rome. One of the most notable examples in +north Italy is the campanile of Pomposa near Ferrara. It is of immense +height and has nine storeys crowned with a lofty conical spire, the wall +face being divided vertically with pilaster strips and horizontally with +arcaded corbel tables,--this campanile, the two towers of S. Antonio, +Padua, and that of S. Gottardo, Milan, of octagonal plan, being among +the few which are thus terminated. In the campanile at Torcello we find +an entirely different treatment: doubly recessed pilaster-strips divide +each face into two lofty blind arcades rising from the ground to the +belfry storey, over 100 ft. high, with small slits for windows, the +upper or belfry storey having an arcade of four arches on each front. +This is the type generally adopted in the campanili of Venice, where +there are no string-courses. The campanile of St Mark's was of similar +design, with four lofty blind arcades on each face. The lower portion, +built in brick, 162 ft. high, was commenced in 902 but not completed +till the middle of the 12th century. In 1510 a belfry storey was added +with an open arcade of four arches on each face, and slightly set back +from the face of the tower above was a mass of masonry with pyramidal +roof, the total height being 320 ft. On the 14th of July 1902 the whole +structure collapsed; its age, the great weight of the additions made in +1510, and probably the cutting away inside of the lower part, would seem +to have been the principal contributors to this disaster, as the pile +foundations were found to be in excellent condition. + +In central Italy the two early campanili at Lucca return to the Lombard +type of the north, with pilaster strips and arcaded corbel strings, and +the same is found in S. Francesco (Assisi), S. Frediano (Lucca), S. +Pietro-in-Grado and S. Michele-in-Orticaia (Pisa), and S. Maria-Novella +(Florence). The campanile of S. Niccola, Pisa, is octagonal on plan, +with a lofty blind arcade on each face like those in Venice, but with a +single string-course halfway up. The gallery above is an open eaves +gallery like those in north Italy. + +[Illustration: From a photograph by Brogi. + +FIG. 2.--Campanile of St Mark's, Venice.] + +In southern Italy the design of the campanile varies again. In the two +more important examples at Bari and Molfetta, there are two towers in +each case attached to the east end of the cathedrals. The campanili are +in plain masonry, the storeys being suggested only by blind arches or +windows, there being neither pilaster strips nor string-courses. The +same treatment is found at Barletta and Caserta Vecchia; in the latter +the upper storey has been made octagonal with circular turrets at each +angle, and this type of design is followed at Amalfi, the centre portion +being circular instead of octagonal and raised much higher. In Palermo +the campanile of the Martorana, of which the two lower storeys, +decorated with three concentric blind pointed arches on each face, +probably date from the Saracenic occupation, has angle turrets on the +two upper storeys. The upper portions of the campanile of the cathedral +have similar angle turrets, which, crowned with conical roofs, group +well with the central octagonal spires of the towers. The two towers of +the west front of the cathedral at Cefalu resemble those of Bari and +Molfetta as regards their treatment. + +The campanili of S. Zenone, Verona, and the cathedrals of Siena and +Prato, differ from those already mentioned in that they owe their +decoration to the alternating courses of black and white marble. Of this +type by far the most remarkable so far as its marble decoration is +concerned is Giotto's campanile at Florence, built in 1334. It measures +275 ft. high, 45 ft. square, and is encased in black, white and red +marble, with occasional sculptured ornament. The angles are emphasized +by octagonal projections, the panelling of which seems to have ruled +that of the whole structure. There are five storeys, of which the three +upper ones are pierced with windows; twin arcades side by side in the +two lower, and a lofty triplet window with tracery in the belfry stage. +A richly corbelled cornice crowns the structure, above which a spire was +projected by Giotto, but never carried out. + +[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari. + +FIG. 3.--Giotto's Campanile, Florence.] + +The loftiest campanile in Italy is that of Cremona, 396 ft. high. Though +built in the second half of the 13th century, and showing therefore +Gothic influence in the pointed windows of the belfry and two storeys +below, and the substitution of the pointed for the semicircular arch of +the arcaded corbel string-courses, it follows the Lombard type in its +general design, and the same is found in the campanile of S. Andrea, +Mantua. In the 16th century an octagonal lantern in two strings crowned +with a conical roof was added. Owing to defective foundations, some of +the Italian campanili incline over considerably; of these leaning +towers, those of the Garisendi and Asinelli palaces at Bologna form +conspicuous objects in the town; the two more remarkable examples are +the campanile of S. Martino at Este, of early Lombard type, and the +leaning tower at Pisa, which was built by the citizens in 1174 to rival +that of Venice. The Pisa tower is circular on plan, about 51 ft. in +diameter and 172 ft. high. Not including the belfry storey, which is set +back on the inner wall, it is divided into seven storeys all surrounded +with an open gallery or arcade. (See ARCHITECTURE, Plate I. fig. 62.) +Owing to the sinking of the piles on the south side, the inclination was +already noticed when the tower was about 30 ft. high, and slight +additions in the height of the masonry on that side were introduced to +correct the level, but without result, so that the works were stopped +for many years and taken up again in 1234 under the direction of William +of Innsbruck; he also attempted to rectify the levels by increasing the +height of the masonry on the south side. At a later period the belfry +storey was added. The inclination now approaches 14 ft. out of the +perpendicular. The outside is built entirely in white marble and is of +admirable workmanship, but it is a question whether the equal +subdivision of the several storeys is not rather monotonous. The +campanili of the churches of S. Nicolas and S. Michele in Orticaia, both +in Pisa, are also inclined to a slight extent. + +[Illustration: From a photograph by Alinari. + +FIG. 4.--Campanile of the Palazzo del Signore, Verona.] + +The campanili hitherto described are all attached to churches, but there +are others belonging to civic buildings some of which are of great +importance. The campanile of the town hall of Siena rises to an enormous +height, being 285 ft., and only 22 ft. wide; it is built in brick and +crowned with a battlemented parapet carried on machicolation corbels, +16 ft. high, all in stone, and a belfry storey above set back behind the +face of the tower. The campanile of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence is +similarly crowned, but it does not descend to the ground, being balanced +in the centre of the main wall of the town hall. A third example is the +fine campanile of the Palazzo-del-Signore at Verona, fig. 4, the lower +portion built in alternate courses of brick and stone and above entirely +in brick, rising to a height of nearly 250 ft., and pierced with putlog +holes only. The belfry window on each face is divided into three lights +with coupled shafts. An octagonal tower of two storeys rises above the +corbelled eaves. + +In the campanili of the Renaissance in Italy the same general +proportions of the tower are adhered to, and the style lent itself +easily to its decoration; in Venice the lofty blind arcades were adhered +to, as in the campanile of the church of S. Giorgio dei Greci. In that +of S. Giorgio Maggiore, however, Palladio returned to the simple +brickwork of Verona, crowned with a belfry storey in stone, with angle +pilasters and columns of the Corinthian order in antis, and central +turret with spire above. In Genoa there are many examples; the quoins +are either decorated with rusticated masonry or attenuated pilasters, +with or without horizontal string-courses, always crowned with a belfry +storey in stone and classic cornices, which on account of their greater +projection present a fine effect. (R. P. S.) + + + + +CAMPANULA (Bell-flower), in botany, a genus of plants containing about +230 species, found in the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere, +chiefly in the Mediterranean region. The name is taken from the +bell-shaped flower. The plants are perennial, rarely annual or biennial, +herbs with spikes or racemes of white, blue or lilac flowers. Several +are native in Britain; _Campanula rotundifolia_ is the harebell (q.v.) +or Scotch bluebell, a common plant on pastures and heaths,--the delicate +slender stem bears one or a few drooping bell-shaped flowers; _C. +Rapunculus_, rampion or ramps, is a larger plant with a panicle of +broadly campanulate red-purple or blue flowers, and occurs on gravelly +roadsides and hedgebanks, but is rare. It is cultivated, but not +extensively, for its fleshy roots, which are used, either boiled or raw, +as salad. Many of the species are grown in gardens for their elegant +flowers; the dwarf forms are excellent for pot culture, rockeries or +fronts of borders. _C. Medium_, Canterbury bell, with large blue, purple +and white flowers, is a favourite and handsome biennial, of which there +are numerous varieties. _C. persicifolia_, a perennial with more open +flowers, is also a well-known border plant, with numerous forms, +including white and blue-flowered and single and double. _C. glomerata_, +which has sessile flowers crowded in heads on the stems and branches, +found native in Britain in chalky and dry pastures, is known in numerous +varieties as a border plant. _C. pyramidalis_, with numerous flowers +forming a tall pyramidal inflorescence, is a handsome species. There are +also a number of alpine species suitable for rockeries, such as _C. +alpina, caucasica, caespitosa_ and others. The plants are easily +cultivated. The perennials are propagated by dividing the roots or by +young cuttings in spring, or by seeds. + + + + +CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER (1788-1866), American religious leader, was born +near Ballymena, Co. Antrim, Ireland, on the 12th of September 1788, and +was the son of Thomas Campbell (1763-1854), a schoolmaster and clergyman +of the Presbyterian "Seceders." Alexander in 1809, after a year at +Glasgow University, joined his father in Washington, Pennsylvania, where +the elder Campbell had just formed the Christian Association of +Washington, "for the sole purpose of promoting simple evangelical +Christianity." With his father's desire for Church unity the son agreed. +He began to preach in 1810, refusing any salary; in 1811 he settled in +what is now Bethany, West Virginia, and was licensed by the Brush Run +Church, as the Christian Association was now called. In 1812, urging +baptism by immersion upon his followers by his own example, he took his +father's place as leader of the Disciples of Christ (q.v., popularly +called Christians, Campbellites and Reformers). He seemed momentarily to +approach the doctrinal position of the Baptists, but by his statement, +"I will be baptized only into the primitive Christian faith," by his +iconoclastic preaching and his editorial conduct of _The Christian +Baptist_ (1823-1830), and by the tone of his able debates with +Paedobaptists, he soon incurred the disfavour of the Redstone +Association of Baptist churches in western Pennsylvania, and in 1823 his +followers transferred their membership to the Mahoning Association of +Baptist churches in eastern Ohio, only to break absolutely with the +Baptists in 1830. Campbell, who in 1829 had been elected to the +Constitutional Convention of Virginia by his anti-slavery neighbours, +now established _The Millennial Harbinger_ (1830-1865), in which, on +Biblical grounds, he opposed emancipation, but which he used principally +to preach the imminent Second Coming, which he actually set for 1866, in +which year he died, on the 4th of March, at Bethany, West Virginia, +having been for twenty-five years president of Bethany College. He +travelled, lectured, and preached throughout the United States and in +England and Scotland; debated with many Presbyterian champions, with +Bishop Purcell of Cincinnati and with Robert Owen; and edited a revision +of the New Testament. + + See Thomas W. Grafton's _Alexander Campbell, Leader of the Great + Reformation of the Nineteenth Century_ (St Louis, 1897). + + + + +CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA (Mrs PATRICK CAMPBELL) (1865- ), English +actress, was born in London, her maiden name being Tanner, and in 1884 +married Captain Patrick Campbell (d. 1900). After having appeared on the +provincial stage she first became prominent at the Adelphi theatre, +London, in 1892, and next year created the chief part in Pinero's +_Second Mrs Tanqueray_ at the St James's, her remarkable impersonation +at once putting her in the first rank of English actresses. For some +years she displayed her striking dramatic talent in London, playing +notably with Mr Forbes Robertson in Davidson's _For the Crown_, and in +_Macbeth_; and her _Magda_ (Royalty, 1900) could hold its own with +either Bernhardt or Duse. In later years she paid successful visits to +America, but in England played chiefly on provincial tours. + + + + +CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719-1796), Scottish theologian, was born at Aberdeen +on the 25th of December 1719. His father, the Rev. Colin Campbell, one +of the ministers of Aberdeen, the son of George Campbell of Westhall, +who claimed to belong to the Argyll branch of the family, died in 1728, +leaving a widow and six children in somewhat straitened circumstances. +George, the youngest son, was destined for the legal profession, and +after attending the grammar school of Aberdeen and the arts classes at +Marischal College, he was sent to Edinburgh to serve as an apprentice to +a writer to the Signet. While at Edinburgh he attended the theological +lectures, and when the term of his apprenticeship expired, he was +enrolled as a regular student in the Aberdeen divinity hall. After a +distinguished career he was, in 1746, licensed to preach by the +presbytery of Aberdeen. From 1748 to 1757 he was minister of Banchory +Ternan, a parish on the Dee, some 20 m. from Aberdeen. He then +transferred to Aberdeen, which was at the time a centre of considerable +intellectual activity. Thomas Reid was professor of philosophy at King's +College; John Gregory (1724-1773), Reid's predecessor, held the chair of +medicine; Alexander Gerard (1728-1795) was professor of divinity at +Marischal College; and in 1760 James Beattie (1735-1803) became +professor of moral philosophy in the same college. These men, with +others of less note, formed themselves in 1758 into a society for the +discussions of questions in philosophy. Reid was its first secretary, +and Campbell one of its founders. It lasted till about 1773, and during +this period numerous papers were read, particularly those by Reid and +Campbell, which were afterwards expanded and published. + +In 1759 Campbell was made principal of Marischal College. In 1763 he +published his celebrated _Dissertation on Miracles_, in which he seeks +to show, in opposition to Hume, that miracles are capable of proof by +testimony, and that the miracles of Christianity are sufficiently +attested. There is no contradiction, he argues, as Hume said there was, +between what we know by testimony and the evidence upon which a law of +nature is based; they are of a different description indeed, but we can +without inconsistency believe that both are true. The _Dissertation_ is +not a complete treatise upon miracles, but with all deductions it was +and still is a valuable contribution to theological literature. In 1771 +Campbell was elected professor of theology at Marischal College, and +resigned his city charge, although he still preached as minister of +Greyfriars, a duty then attached to the chair. His _Philosophy of +Rhetoric_, planned at Banchory Ternan years before, appeared in 1776, +and at once took a high place among books on the subject. In 1778 his +last and in some respects his greatest work appeared, _A New Translation +of the Gospels_. The critical and explanatory notes which accompanied it +gave the book a high value. + +In 1795 he was compelled by increasing weakness to resign the offices he +held in Marischal College, and on his retirement he received a pension +of L300 from the king. He died on the 31st of March 1796. + + His _Lectures on Ecclesiastical History_ were published after his + death with a biographical notice by G.S. Keith; there is a uniform + edition of his works in 6 vols. + + + + +CAMPBELL, JOHN (1708-1775), Scottish author, was born at Edinburgh on +the 8th of March 1708. Being designed for the legal profession, he was +sent to Windsor, and apprenticed to an attorney; but his tastes soon led +him to abandon the study of law and to devote himself entirely to +literature. In 1736 he published the _Military History of Prince Eugene +and the Duke of Marlborough_, and soon after contributed several +important articles to the _Ancient Universal History_. In 1742 and 1744 +appeared the _Lives of the British Admirals_, in 4 vols., a popular work +which has been continued by other authors. Besides contributing to the +_Biographia Britannica_ and Dodsley's _Preceptor_, he published a work +on _The Present State of Europe_, onsisting of a series of papers which +had appeared in the _Museum_. He also wrote the histories of the +Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, French, Swedish, Danish and Ostend +settlements in the East Indies, and the histories of Spain, Portugal, +Algarve, Navarre and France, from the time of Clovis till 1656, for the +_Modern Universal History_. At the request of Lord Bute, he published a +vindication of the peace of Paris concluded in 1763, embodying in it a +descriptive and historical account of the New Sugar Islands in the West +Indies. By the king he was appointed agent for the provinces of Georgia +in 1755. His last and most elaborate work, _Political Survey of +Britain_, 2 vols. 4to, was published in 1744, and greatly increased the +author's reputation. Campbell died on the 28th of December 1775. He +received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of Glasgow in +1745. + + + + +CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL, BARON (1779-1861), lord chancellor of England, +the second son of the Rev. George Campbell, D.D., was born on the 17th +of September 1779 at Cupar, Fife, where his father was for fifty years +parish minister. For a few years Campbell studied at the United College, +St Andrews. In 1800 he was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn, and, +after a short connexion with the _Morning Chronicle_, was called to the +bar in 1806, and at once began to report cases decided at _nisi prius_ +(i.e. on jury trial). Of these _Reports_ he published altogether four +volumes, with learned notes; they extend from Michaelmas 1807 to Hilary +1816. Campbell also devoted himself a good deal to criminal business, +but in spite of his unceasing industry he failed to attract much +attention behind the bar; he had changed his circuit from the home to +the Oxford, but briefs came in slowly, and it was not till 1827 that he +obtained a silk gown and found himself in that "front rank" who are +permitted to have political aspirations. He unsuccessfully contested the +borough of Stafford in 1826, but was elected for it in 1830 and again in +1831. In the House he showed an extraordinary, sometimes an excessive +zeal for public business, speaking on all subjects with practical sense, +but on none with eloquence or spirit. His main object, however, like +that of Brougham, was the amelioration of the law, more by the abolition +of cumbrous technicalities than by the assertion of new and striking +principles. + +Thus his name is associated with the Fines and Recoveries Abolition Act +1833; the Inheritance Act 1833; the Dower Act 1833; the Real Property +Limitation Act 1833; the Wills Act 1837; one of the Copyhold Tenure Acts +1841; and the Judgments Act 1838. All these measures were important and +were carefully drawn; but their merits cannot be explained in a +biographical notice. The second was called for by the preference which +the common law gave to a distant collateral over the brother of the +half-blood of the first purchaser; the fourth conferred an indefeasible +title on adverse possession for twenty years (a term shortened by Lord +Cairns in 1875 to twelve years); the fifth reduced the number of +witnesses required by law to attest wills, and removed the vexatious +distinction which existed in this respect between freeholds and +copyholds; the last freed an innocent debtor from imprisonment only +before final judgment (or on what was termed _mesne_ process), but the +principle stated by Campbell that only fraudulent debtors should be +imprisoned was ultimately given effect to for England and Wales in +1869.[1] In one of his most cherished objects, however, that of Land +Registration (q.v.), which formed the theme of his maiden speech in +parliament, Campbell was doomed to disappointment. His most important +appearance as member for Stafford was in defence of Lord John Russell's +first Reform Bill (1831). In a temperate and learned speech, based on +Fox's declaration against constitution-mongering, he supported both the +enfranchising and the disfranchising clauses, and easily disposed of the +cries of "corporation robbery," "nabob representation," "opening for +young men of talent," &c. The following year (1832) found Campbell +solicitor-general, a knight and member for Dudley, which he represented +till 1834. In that year he became attorney-general and was returned by +Edinburgh, for which he sat till 1841.[2] + +His political creed declared upon the hustings there was that of a +moderate Whig. He maintained the connexion of church and state, and +opposed triennial parliaments and the ballot. In parliament he continued +to lend the most effective help to the Liberal party. His speech in 1835 +in support of the motion for inquiry into the Irish Church temporalities +with a view to their partial appropriation for national purposes (for +disestablishment was not then dreamed of as possible) contains much +terse argument, and no doubt contributed to the fall of Peel and the +formation of the Melbourne cabinet. The next year Campbell had a fierce +encounter with Lord Stanley in the debate which followed the motion of +T. Spring Rice (afterwards Lord Monteagle) on the repair and maintenance +of parochial churches and chapels. The legal point in the dispute (which +Campbell afterwards made the subject of a separate pamphlet) was whether +the church-wardens of the parish, in the absence of the vestry, had any +means of enforcing a rate except the antiquated interdict or +ecclesiastical censure. It was not on legal technicalities, however, but +on the broad principle of religious equality, that Campbell supported +the abolition of church rates, in which he included the Edinburgh +annuity-tax. + +In the same year he spoke for Lord Melbourne, in the action (thought by +some to be a political conspiracy[3]) which the Hon. G.C. Norton brought +against the Whig premier for criminal conversation with his wife. At +this time also he exerted himself for the reform of justice in the +ecclesiastical courts, for the uniformity of the law of marriage (which +he held should be a purely civil contract) and for giving prisoners +charged with felony the benefit of counsel. His defence of _The Times_ +newspaper, which had accused Sir John Conroy, equerry to the duchess of +Kent, of misappropriation of money (1838), is chiefly remarkable for the +Confession--"I despair of any definition of libel which shall exclude no +publications which ought to be suppressed, and include none which ought +to be permitted." His own definition of blasphemous libel was enforced +in the prosecution which, as attorney-general, he raised against the +bookseller H. Hetherington, and which he justified on the singular +ground that "the vast bulk of the population believe that morality +depends entirely on revelation; and if a doubt could be raised among +them that the ten commandments were given by God from Mount Sinai, men +would think they were at liberty to steal, and women would consider +themselves absolved from the restraints of chastity." But his most +distinguished effort at the bar was undoubtedly the speech for the House +of Commons in the famous case of _Stockdale v. Hansard_, 1837, 7 C. and +P. 731. The Commons had ordered to be printed, among other papers, a +report of the inspectors of prisons on Newgate, which stated that an +obscene book, published by Stockdale, was given to the prisoners to +read. Stockdale sued the Commons' publisher, and was met by the plea of +parliamentary privilege, to which, however, the judges did not give +effect, on the ground that they were entitled to define the privileges +of the Commons, and that publication of papers was not essential to the +functions of parliament. The matter was settled by an act of 1840. + +In 1840 Campbell conducted the prosecution against John Frost, one of +the three Chartist leaders who attacked the town of Newport, all of whom +were found guilty of high treason. We may also mention, as matter of +historical interest, the case before the high steward and the House of +Lords which arose out of the duel fought on Wimbledon Common between the +earl of Cardigan and Captain Harvey Tuckett. The law of course was clear +that the "punctilio which swordsmen falsely do call honour" was no +excuse for wilful murder. To the astonishment of everybody, Lord +Cardigan escaped from a capital charge of felony because the full name +of his antagonist (Harvey Garnett Phipps Tuckett) was not legally +proved. It is difficult to suppose that such a blunder was not +preconcerted. Campbell himself made the extraordinary declaration that +to engage in a duel which could not be declined without infamy (i.e. +social disgrace) was "an act free from moral turpitude," although the +law properly held it to be wilful murder. Next year, as the Melbourne +administration was near its close, Plunkett, the venerable chancellor of +Ireland, was forced by discreditable pressure to resign, and the Whig +attorney-general, who had never practised in equity, became chancellor +of Ireland, and was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron +Campbell of St Andrews, in the county of Fife. His wife, Mary Elizabeth +Campbell, the eldest daughter of the first Baron Abinger by one of the +Campbells of Kilmorey, Argyllshire, whom he had married in 1821, had in +1836 been created Baroness Stratheden in recognition of the withdrawal +of his claim to the mastership of the rolls. The post of chancellor +Campbell held for only sixteen days, and then resigned it to his +successor Sir Edward Sugden (Lord St Leonards). The circumstances of his +appointment and the erroneous belief that he was receiving a pension of +L4000 per annum for his few days' court work brought Campbell much +unmerited obloquy.[4] It was during the period 1841-1849, when he had no +legal duty, except the self-imposed one of occasionally hearing Scottish +appeals in the House of Lords, that the unlucky dream of literary fame +troubled Lord Campbell's leisure.[5] + +Following in the path struck out by Miss Strickland in her _Lives of the +Queens of England_, and by Lord Brougham's _Lives of Eminent Statesmen_, +he at last produced, in 1849, _The Lives of the Lord Chancellors and +Keepers of the Great Seal of England, from the earliest times till the +reign of King George IV._, 7 vols. 8vo. The conception of this work is +magnificent; its execution wretched. Intended to evolve a history of +jurisprudence from the truthful portraits of England's greatest lawyers, +it merely exhibits the ill-digested results of desultory learning, +without a trace of scientific symmetry or literary taste, without a +spark of that divine imaginative sympathy which alone can give flesh and +spirit to the dead bones of the past, and without which the present +becomes an unintelligible maze of mean and selfish ideas. A charming +style, a vivid fancy, exhaustive research, were not to be expected from +a hard-worked barrister; but he must certainly be held responsible for +the frequent plagiarisms, the still more frequent inaccuracies of +detail, the colossal vanity which obtrudes on almost every page, the +hasty insinuations against the memory of the great departed who were to +him as giants, and the petty sneers which he condescends to print +against his own contemporaries, with whom he was living from day to day +on terms of apparently sincere friendship. + +These faults are painfully apparent in the lives of Hardwicke, Eldon, +Lyndhurst and Brougham, and they have been pointed out by the +biographers of Eldon and by Lord St Leonards.[6] And yet the book is an +invaluable repertory of facts, and must endure until it is superseded by +something better. It was followed by the _Lives of the Chief Justices of +England, from the Norman Conquest till the death of Lord Mansfield_, +8vo, 2 vols., a book of similar construction but inferior merit. + +It must not be supposed that during this period the literary lawyer was +silent in the House of Lords. He spoke frequently. The 3rd volume of the +_Protests of the Lords_, edited by Thorold Rogers (1875), contains no +less than ten protests by Campbell, entered in the years 1842-1845. He +protests against Peel's Income Tax Bill of 1842; against the Aberdeen +Act 1843, as conferring undue power on church courts; against the +perpetuation of diocesan courts for probate and administration; against +Lord Stanley's absurd bill providing compensation for the destruction of +fences to dispossessed Irish tenants; and against the Parliamentary +Proceedings Bill, which proposed that all bills, except money bills, +having reached a certain stage or having passed one House, should be +continued to next session. The last he opposed because the proper remedy +lay in resolutions and orders of the House. He protests in favour of +Lord Monteagle's motion for inquiry into the sliding scale of corn +duties; of Lord Normanby's motion on the queen's speech in 1843, for +inquiry into the state of Ireland (then wholly under military +occupation); of Lord Radnor's bill to define the constitutional powers +of the home secretary, when Sir James Graham opened Mazzini's letters. +In 1844 he records a solitary protest against the judgment of the House +of Lords in _R._ v. _Millis_, 1844, 10 Cla. and Fin. 534, which affirmed +that a man regularly married according to the rites of the Irish +Presbyterian Church, and afterwards regularly married to another woman +by an episcopally ordained clergyman, could not be convicted of bigamy, +because the English law required for the validity of a marriage that it +should be performed by an ordained priest. + +On the resignation of Lord Denman in 1850, Campbell was appointed chief +justice of the queen's bench. For this post he was well fitted by his +knowledge of common law, his habitual attention to the pleadings in +court and his power of clear statement. On the other hand, at _nisi +prius_ and on the criminal circuit, he was accused of frequently +attempting unduly to influence juries in their estimate of the +credibility of evidence. It is also certain that he liked to excite +applause in the galleries by some platitude about the "glorious +Revolution" or the "Protestant succession." He assisted in the reforms +of special pleading at Westminster, and had a recognized place with +Brougham and Lyndhurst in legal discussions in the House of Lords. But +he had neither the generous temperament nor the breadth of view which is +required in the composition of even a mediocre statesman. In 1859 he was +made lord chancellor of Great Britain, probably on the understanding +that Bethell should succeed as soon as he could be spared from the House +of Commons. His short tenure of this office calls for no remark. In the +same year he published in the form of a letter to Payne Collier an +amusing and extremely inconclusive essay on Shakespeare's legal +acquirements. One passage will show the conjectural Drocess which runs +through the book: "If Shakespeare was really articled to a Stratford +attorney, in all probability, during the five years of his clerkship, he +visited London several times on his master's business, and he may then +have been introduced to the green-room at Blackfriars by one of his +countrymen connected with that theatre." The only positive piece of +evidence produced is the passage from Thomas Nash's "Epistle to the +Gentlemen of the Two Universities," prefixed to Greene's _Arcadia_, +1859, in which he upbraids somebody (not known to be Shakespeare) with +having left the "trade of Noverint" and busied himself with "whole +Hamlets" and "handfuls of tragical speeches." The knowledge of law shown +in the plays is very much what a universal observer must have picked up. +Lawyers always underestimate the legal knowledge of an intelligent +layman. Campbell died on the 23rd of June 1861. It has been well said of +him in explanation of his success, that he lived eighty years and +preserved his digestion unimpaired. He had a hard head, a splendid +constitution, tireless industry, a generally judicious temper. He was a +learned, though not a scientific lawyer, a faithful political adherent, +thoroughly honest as a judge, dutiful and happy as a husband. But there +was nothing admirable or heroic in his nature. On no great subject did +his principles rise above the commonplace of party, nor had he the +magnanimity which excuses rather than aggravates the faults of others. +His life was the triumph of steady determination unaided by a single +brilliant or attractive quality. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Life of Lord Campbell, a Selection from his + Autobiography, Diary and Letters_, ed. by Hon. Mrs Hardcastle (1881); + E. Foss, _The Judges of England_ (1848-1864); W.H. Bennet, _Select + Biographical Sketches from Note-books of a Law Reporter_ (1867); E. + Manson, _Builders of our Law_ (ed. 1904); J.B. Atlay, _The Victorian + Chancellors_, vol. ii. (1908). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Two of his later acts, allowing the defendant in an action for + libel to prove _veritas_, and giving a right of action to the + representatives of persons killed through negligence, also deserve + mention. + + [2] Greville in his _Memoirs_ says that Campbell got this post on + condition that he should not expect the ordinary promotion to the + bench; a condition which, it if were so, he immediately violated by + claiming the vice-chancellorship on the death of Sir John Leach. + Pepys (Lord Cottenham) and Bickersteth (Lord Langdale) were both + promoted to the bench in preference to Campbell. + + [3] "There can be no doubt that old Wynton was at the bottom of it + all, and persuaded Lord Grantley to urge it on for mere political + purposes."--Greville, iii. 351. + + [4] See thereon J.B. Atlay, _The Victorian Chancellors_ (1908), vol. + ii. p. 174. + + [5] In 1842 he published the _Speeches of Lord Campbell at the Bar + and in the Home of Commons, with an Address to the Irish Bar as Lord + Chancellor of Ireland_ (Edin., Black). + + [6] It was of this book that Sir Charles Wetherell said, referring to + its author, "and then there is my noble and biographical friend who + has added a new terror to death." See _Misrepresentations in + Campbell's "Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham" corrected by St + Leonards_ (London, 1869). + + + + +CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS, of Islay (1822-1885), Gaelic scholar, was born +on the 29th of December 1822, heir to the beautiful Isle of Islay, on +the west coast of Argyllshire. Of this inheritance he never became +possessed, as the estate had to be sold by his father, and he began life +under greatly changed conditions. Educated at Eton and at Edinburgh +University, he occupied at various times several minor government posts. +His leisure was largely employed in collecting, translating and editing +the folklore of the western Highlands, taken down from the lips of the +natives. The results of his investigations were published in four +volumes under the title _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_ +(1860-1862), and form a most important contribution to the subject, the +necessary precursor to the subsequent Gaelic revival in Great Britain. +Campbell was also devoted to geology and other scientific pursuits, and +he invented the sunshine recorder, used in most of the British +meteorological stations. He died at Cannes on the 17th of February +1885. + + + + +CAMPBELL, JOHN McLEOD (1800-1872), Scottish divine, son of the Rev. +Donald Campbell, was born at Kilninver, Argyllshire, in 1800. Thanks to +his father he was already a good Latin scholar when he went to Glasgow +University in 1811. Finishing his course in 1817, he became a student at +the Divinity Hall, where he gained some reputation as a Hebraist. After +further training at Edinburgh he was licensed as preacher by the +presbytery of Lorne in 1821. In 1825 he was appointed to the parish of +Row on the Gareloch. About this time the doctrine of Assurance of Faith +powerfully influenced him. He began to give so much prominence to the +universality of the Atonement that his parishioners went so far as to +petition the presbytery in 1829. This petition was withdrawn, but a +subsequent appeal in March 1830 led to a presbyterial visitation +followed by an accusation of heresy. The General Assembly by which the +charge was ultimately considered found Campbell guilty of teaching +heretical doctrines and deprived him of his living. Declining an +invitation to join Edward Irving in the Catholic Apostolic Church, he +worked for two years as an evangelist in the Highlands. Returning to +Glasgow in 1843, he was minister for sixteen years in a large chapel +erected for him, but he never attempted to found a sect. In 1856 he +published his famous book on _The Nature of the Atonement_, which has +profoundly influenced all writing on the subject since his time. His aim +is to view the Atonement in the light of the Incarnation. The divine +mind in Christ is the mind of perfect sonship towards God and perfect +brotherhood towards men. By the light of this divine fact the +Incarnation is seen to develop itself naturally and necessarily as an +atonement; the penal element in the sufferings of Christ is minimized. +Subsequent critics have pointed out that Campbell's position was not +self-consistent in the place assigned to the penal and expiatory element +in the sufferings of Christ, nor adequate in its recognition of the +principle that the obedience of Christ perfectly affirms all +righteousness and so satisfies the holiness of God. In 1859 his health +gave way, and he advised his congregation to join the Barony church, +where Norman McLeod was pastor. In 1862 he published _Thoughts on +Revelation_. In 1868 he received the degree of D.D. from Glasgow +University. In 1870 he removed to Roseneath, and there began his +_Reminiscences and Reflections_, an unfinished work published after his +death by his son. Campbell was greatly loved and esteemed by a circle of +friends, which included Thomas Erskine, Norman McLeod, Bishop Alexander +Ewing, F.D. Maurice, D.J. Vaughan, and he lived to be recognized and +honoured as a man whose opinion on theological subjects carried great +weight. In 1871 a testimonial and address were presented to him by +representatives of most of the religious bodies in Scotland. He died on +the 27th of February 1872, and was buried in Roseneath churchyard. + (D. Mn.) + + + + +CAMPBELL, LEWIS (1830-1908), British classical scholar, was born at +Edinburgh on the 3rd of September 1830. His father, Robert Campbell, +R.N., was a first cousin of Thomas Campbell, the poet. He was educated +at Edinburgh Academy, and Glasgow and Oxford universities. He was fellow +and tutor of Queen's College, Oxford (1855-1858), vicar of Milford, +Hants (1858-1863), and professor of Greek and Gifford lecturer at the +university of St Andrews (1863-1894). In 1894 he was elected an honorary +fellow of Balliol. As a scholar he is best known by his work on +Sophocles and Plato. His published works include: Sophocles (2nd ed., +1879); Plato, _Sophistes_ and _Politicus_ (1867), _Theaetetus_ (2nd ed., +1883), _Republic_ (with Jowett, 1894); _Life and Letters of Benjamin +Jowett_ (with E. Abbott, 1897), _Letters of B. Jowett_ (1899); _Life of +James Clerk Maxwell_ (with W. Garnett, new ed., 1884); _A Guide to Greek +Tragedy for English Readers_ (1891); _Religion in Greek Literature_ +(1898); _On the Nationalisation of the Old English Universities_ (1901); +Verse translations of the plays of Aeschylus (1890); Sophocles (1896); +_Tragic Drama in Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare_ (1904); +_Paralipomena Sophoclea_ (1907). He died on the 25th of October 1908. + + + + +CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN (1867- ), British Congregationalist divine, +son of a United Free Methodist minister of Scottish descent, was born in +London, and educated at schools in Bolton and Nottingham, where his +father successively removed, and in Belfast, the home of his +grandfather. At an early age he taught in the high school at Ashton, +Cheshire, and was already married when in 1891 he went to Christchurch, +Oxford, where he graduated in 1895 in the honours school of modern +history. He had gone to Oxford with the intention of becoming a +clergyman in the Church of England, but in spite of the influence of +Bishop Gore, then head of the Pusey House, and of Dean Paget (afterwards +bishop of Oxford), his Scottish and Irish Nonconformist blood was too +strong, and he abandoned the idea in order to take up work in the +Congregational ministry. He accepted a call, on leaving Oxford, to the +small Congregational church in Union Street, Brighton, and quickly +became famous there as a preacher, so much so that on Joseph Parker's +death he was chosen as his successor (1903) at the City Temple, London. +Here he notably enhanced his popularity as a preacher, and became one of +the recognized leaders of Nonconformist opinion. At the end of 1906 he +attracted widespread attention by his vigorous propagation of what was +called the "New Theology," a restatement of Christian beliefs to +harmonize with modern critical views and beliefs, and published a book +with this title which gave rise to considerable discussion. + + + + +CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777-1844), Scottish poet, eighth son of Alexander +Campbell, was born at Glasgow on the 27th of July 1777. His father, who +was a cadet of the family of Campbell of Kirnan, Argyllshire, belonged +to a Glasgow firm trading in Virginia, and lost his money in consequence +of the American war. Campbell was educated at the grammar school and +university of his native town. He won prizes for classics and for +verse-writing, and the vacations he spent as a tutor in the western +Highlands. His poem "Glenara" and the ballad of "Lord Ullin's Daughter" +owe their origin to a visit to Mull. In May 1797 he went to Edinburgh to +attend lectures on law. He supported himself by private teaching and by +writing, towards which he was helped by Dr Robert Anderson, the editor +of the _British Poets_. Among his contemporaries in Edinburgh were Sir +Walter Scott, Henry Brougham, Francis Jeffrey, Dr Thomas Brown, John +Leyden and James Grahame. To these early days in Edinburgh may be +referred "The Wounded Hussar," "The Dirge of Wallace" and the "Epistle +to Three Ladies." In 1799, six months after the publication of the +_Lyrical Ballads_ of Wordsworth and Coleridge, _The Pleasures of Hope_ +was published. It is a rhetorical and didactic poem in the taste of his +time, and owed much to the fact that it dealt with topics near to men's +hearts, with the French Revolution, the partition of Poland and with +negro slavery. Its success was instantaneous, but Campbell was deficient +in energy and perseverance and did not follow it up. He went abroad in +June 1800 without any very definite aim, visited Klopstock at Hamburg, +and made his way to Regensburg, which was taken by the French three days +after his arrival. He found refuge in a Scottish monastery. Some of his +best lyrics, "Hohenlinden," "Ye Mariners of England" and "The Soldier's +Dream," belong to his German tour. He spent the winter in Altona, where +he met an Irish exile, Anthony McCann, whose history suggested "The +Exile of Erin."[1] He had at that time the intention of writing an epic +on Edinburgh to be entitled "The Queen of the North." On the outbreak of +war between Denmark and England he hurried home, the "Battle of the +Baltic" being drafted soon after. At Edinburgh he was introduced to the +first Lord Minto, who took him in the next year to London as occasional +secretary. In June 1803 appeared a new edition of the _Pleasures of +Hope_, which some lyrics were added. + +In 1803 Campbell married his second cousin, Matilda Sinclair, and +settled in London. He was well received in Whig society, especially at +Holland House. His prospects, however, were slight when in 1805 he +received a government pension of L200. In that year the Campbells +removed to Sydenham. Campbell was at this time regularly employed on the +_Star_ newspaper, for which he translated the foreign news. In 1809 he +published a narrative poem in the Spenserian stanza, "Gertrude of +Wyoming," with which were printed some of his best lyrics. He was slow +and fastidious in composition, and the poem suffered from +over-elaboration. Francis Jeffrey wrote to the author: "Your timidity or +fastidiousness, or some other knavish quality, will not let you give +your conceptions glowing, and bold, and powerful, as they present +themselves; but you must chasten, and refine, and soften them, forsooth, +till half their nature and grandeur is chiselled away from them. Believe +me, the world will never know how truly you are a great and original +poet till you venture to cast before it some of the rough pearls of your +fancy." In 1812 he delivered a series of lectures on poetry in London at +the Royal Institution; and he was urged by Sir Walter Scott to become a +candidate for the chair of literature at Edinburgh University. In 1814 +he went to Paris, making there the acquaintance of the elder Schlegel, +of Baron Cuvier and others. His pecuniary anxieties were relieved in +1815 by a legacy of L4000. He continued to occupy himself with his +_Specimens of the British Poets_, the design of which had been projected +years before. The work was published in 1819. It contains on the whole +an admirable selection with short lives of the poets, and prefixed to it +an essay on poetry containing much valuable criticism. In 1820 he +accepted the editorship of the _New Monthly Magazine_, and in the same +year made another tour in Germany. Four years later appeared his +"Theodric", a not very successful poem of domestic life. He took an +active share in the foundation of the university of London, visiting +Berlin to inquire into the German system of education, and making +recommendations which were adopted by Lord Brougham. He was elected lord +rector of Glasgow University three times (1826-1829). In the last +election he had Sir Walter Scott for a rival. Campbell retired from the +editorship of the _New Monthly Magazine_ in 1830, and a year later made +an unsuccessful venture with the _Metropolitan Magazine_. He had +championed the cause of the Poles in _The Pleasures of Hope_, and the +news of the capture of Warsaw by the Russians in 1831 affected him as if +it had been the deepest of personal calamities. "Poland preys on my +heart night and day," he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy +found a practical expression in the foundation in London of the +Association of the Friends of Poland. In 1834 he travelled to Paris and +Algiers, where he wrote his _Letters from the South_ (printed 1837). + +The small production of Campbell may be partly explained by his domestic +calamities. His wife died in 1828. Of his two sons, one died in infancy +and the other became insane. His own health suffered, and he gradually +withdrew from public life. He died at Boulogne on the 15th of June 1844, +and was buried in Westminster Abbey. + + Campbell's other works include a _Life of Mrs Siddons_ (1842), and a + narrative poem, "The Pilgrim of Glencoe" (1842). See _The Life and + Letters of Thomas Campbell_ (3 vols., 1849), edited by William + Beattie, M.D.; _Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell_ + (1860), by Cyrus Redding; _The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell_ + (1875), in the Aldine Edition of the British Poets, edited by the Rev. + W. Alfred Hill, with a sketch of the poet's life by William Allingham; + and the "Oxford Edition" of the _Complete Works of Thomas Campbell_ + (1908), edited by J. Logie Robertson. See also _Thomas Campbell_ in + the Famous Scots Series, by J.C. Hadden, and a selection by Lewis + Campbell (1904) for the Golden Treasury Series. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The original authorship of this poem was by many people assigned + to G. Nugent Reynolds. Campbell's claim is established in _Literary + Remains of the United, Irishmen_, by R.R. Madden (1887). + + + + +CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN, SIR HENRY (1836-1908), English prime minister, was +born on the 7th of September 1836, being the second son of Sir James +Campbell, Bart., of Stracathro, Forfarshire, lord provost of Glasgow. +His elder brother James, who just outlived him, was Conservative M.P. +for Glasgow and Aberdeen Universities from 1880 to 1906. Both his father +and his uncle William Campbell, who had together founded an important +drapery business in Glasgow, left him considerable fortunes; and he +assumed the name of Bannerman in 1872, in compliance with the provisions +of the will of his maternal uncle, Henry Bannerman, from whom he +inherited a large property in Kent. He was educated at Glasgow +University and at Trinity College, Cambridge (senior optime, and +classical honours); was returned to parliament for Stirling as a Liberal +in 1868 (after an unsuccessful attempt at a by-election); and became +financial secretary at the war office (1871-1874; 1880-1882), secretary +to the admiralty (1882-1884), and chief secretary for Ireland +(1884-1885). When Mr Gladstone suddenly adopted the cause of Home Rule +for Ireland, he "found salvation", to use his own phrase, and followed +his leader. In Mr Gladstone's 1886 ministry he was secretary for war, +and filled the same office in the Liberal ministry of 1892-1895. In the +latter year he was knighted (G.C.B.). It fell to his lot as war minister +to obtain the duke of Cambridge's resignation of the office of +commander-in-chief; but his intended appointment of a chief of the staff +in substitution for that office was frustrated by the resignation of the +ministry. It was an imputed omission on the part of the war office, and +therefore of the war minister, to provide a sufficient supply of +small-arms ammunition for the army which on the 21st of June 1895 led to +the defeat of the Rosebery government. Wealthy, popular and possessed of +a vein of oratorical humour (Mr T. Healy had said that he tried to +govern Ireland with Scottish jokes), Sir Henry had already earned the +general respect of all parties, and in April 1895, when Mr Speaker Peel +retired, his claims for the vacant post were prominently canvassed; but +his colleagues were averse from his retirement from active politics and +Mr Gully was selected. Though a prominent member of the inner Liberal +circle and a stanch party man, it was not supposed by the public at this +time that any ambition for the highest place could be associated with +Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman; but the divisions among the Liberals, and +the rivalry between Lord Rosebery and Sir William Harcourt, made the +political situation an anomalous one. The very fact that he was +apparently unambitious of personal supremacy combined with his +honourable record and experience to make him a safe man; and in December +1898, on Sir W. Harcourt's formal resignation of the leadership of the +Opposition, he was elected to fill the position in the House of Commons +with the general assent of the party. In view of its parliamentary +impotence, and its legacy of an unpopular Home Rule programme, Sir Henry +had a difficult task to perform, but he prudently interpreted his duty +as chiefly consisting in the effort to keep the Radical party together +in the midst of its pronounced differences. In this he was successful, +although the advent of the Boer War of 1899-1902 created new +difficulties with the Liberal Imperialists. The leader of the Opposition +from the first denounced the diplomatic steps taken by Lord Milner and +Mr Chamberlain, and objected to all armed intervention or even +preparation for hostilities. Sir Henry's own tendency to favour the +anti-war section, his refusal to support the government in any way, and +his allusion to "methods of barbarism" in connexion with the conduct of +the British army (June 14, 1901), accentuated the crisis within the +party; and in 1901 the Liberal Imperialists, who looked to Lord Rosebery +(q.v.) and Mr Asquith (q.v.) for their political inspiration, showed +pronounced signs of restiveness. But a party meeting was called on the +9th of July, and Sir Henry was unanimously confirmed in the leadership. + +The end of the war in 1902 showed the value of his persistency +throughout the years of Liberal unpopularity and disunion. The political +conflict once more resumed its normal condition, for the first time +since 1892. The blunders of the government were open to a united attack, +and Mr Chamberlain's tariff-reform movement in 1903 provided a new +rallying point in defence of the existing fiscal system. In the Liberal +campaign on behalf of free trade the real leader, however, was Mr +Asquith. Sir Henry's own principal contribution to the discussion was +rather unfortunate, for while insisting on the blessings derived by +England from its free-trade policy, he coupled this with the rhetorical +admission (at Bolton in 1903) that "12,000,000 British citizens were +underfed and on the verge of hunger." But Lord Salisbury's retirement, +Unionist divisions, the staleness of the ministry, and the accumulating +opposition in the country to the Education Act of 1902 and to the +continued weight of taxation, together with the growth of the Labour +movement, and the antagonism to the introduction of Chinese coolies +(1904) into South Africa under conditions represented by Radical +spokesmen as those of "slavery," made the political pendulum swing back. +A Liberal majority at the dissolution was promised by all the signs at +by-elections. The government held on, but collapse was only a question +of time (see the articles on BALFOUR, A.J., and CHAMBERLAIN, J.). On the +4th of December 1905 the Unionist government resigned, and the king sent +for Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, who in a few days formed his cabinet. +Lord Rosebery, who until a short time before had seemed likely to +co-operate, alone held aloof. In a speech at Stirling on the 23rd of +November, Sir Henry appeared to him to have deliberately flouted his +well-known susceptibilities by once more writing Home Rule in large +letters on the party programme, and he declared at Bodmin that he would +"never serve under that banner." Sir Henry's actual words, which +undoubtedly influenced the Irish vote, were that he "desired to see the +effective management of Irish affairs in the hands of a representative +Irish assembly. If an instalment of representative control was offered +to Ireland, or any administrative improvement, he would advise the +Nationalists to accept it, provided it was consistent and led up to +their larger policy." But if Lord Rosebery once more separated himself +from the official Liberals, his principal henchmen in the Liberal League +were included in the cabinet, Mr Asquith becoming chancellor of the +exchequer, Sir Edward Grey foreign secretary, and Mr Haldane war +minister. Other sections of the party were strongly represented by Mr +John Morley as secretary for India, Mr Bryce (afterwards ambassador at +Washington) as chief secretary for Ireland, Sir R.T. Reid (Lord +Loreburn) as lord chancellor, Mr Augustine Birrell as education minister +(afterwards Irish secretary), Mr Lloyd-George as president of the Board +of Trade, Mr Herbert Gladstone as home secretary, and Mr John Burns--a +notable rise for a Labour leader--as president of the Local Government +Board. Lord Ripon became leader in the House of Lords; and Lord Elgin +(colonial secretary), Lord Carrington (agriculture), Lord Aberdeen (lord +lieutenant of Ireland), Sir Henry Fowler (chancellor of the duchy of +Lancaster), Mr Sidney Buxton (postmaster-general), Mr L.V. Harcourt +(first commissioner of works), and Captain John Sinclair (secretary for +Scotland) completed the ministry, a place of prominence outside the +cabinet being found for Mr Winston Churchill as under-secretary for the +colonies. In 1907 Mr R. McKenna was brought into the cabinet as +education minister. There had been some question as to whether Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman should go to the House of Lords, but there was a +decided unwillingness in the party, and he determined to keep his seat +in the Commons. + +At the general election in January 1906 an overwhelming Liberal majority +was returned, irrespective of the Labour and Nationalist vote, and Sir +Henry himself was again elected for Stirling. The Liberals numbered 379, +the Labour members 51, the Nationalists 83, and the Unionists only 157. +His premiership was the reward of undoubted services rendered to his +party; it may be said, however, that, in contradistinction to the prime +ministers for some time previous, he represented the party, rather than +that the party represented him. It was not his ideas or his commanding +personality, nor any positive programme, that brought the Liberals back +to power, but the country's weariness of their predecessors and the +successful employment at the elections of a number of miscellaneous +issues. But as the man who had doggedly, yet unpretentiously, filled the +gap in the days of difficulty, and been somewhat contemptuously +criticized by the Unionist press for his pains, Sir Henry was clearly +marked out for the post of prime minister when his party got its chance; +and, as the head of a strongly composed cabinet, he satisfied the +demands of the situation and was accepted as leader by all sections. +Once prime minister, his personal popularity proved to be a powerful +unifying influence in a somewhat heterogeneous party; and though the +illness and death (August 30, 1906) of his wife (daughter of General Sir +Charles Bruce), whom he had married in 1860, made his constant +attendance in the House of Commons impossible, his domestic sorrow +excited widespread sympathy and appealed afresh to the affection of his +political followers. This became all the more apparent as his own health +failed during 1907; for, though he was obliged to leave much of the +leadership in the Commons to Mr Asquith, his possible resignation of the +premiership was strongly deprecated; and even after November, when it +became clear that his health was not equal to active work, four or five +months elapsed before the necessary change became a _fait accompli_. +Personal affection and political devotion had in these two years made +him appear indispensable to the party, although nobody ever regarded him +as in the front line of English statesmen so far as originality of ideas +or brilliance of debating power were concerned. It is not the fortune of +many more brilliant statesmen to earn this testimonial to character. +From the beginning of the session of 1908 it was evident, however, that +Mr Asquith, who was acting as deputy prime minister, would before long +succeed to the Liberal leadership; and on the 5th of April Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman's resignation was formally announced. He died on the +22nd of the same month. He had spoken in the House of Commons on the +13th of February, but since then had been prostrated and unable to +transact business, his illness dating really from a serious heart attack +in the night of the 13th of November at Bristol, after a speech at the +Colston banquet. + +From a party-political point of view the period of Sir Henry +Campbell-Bannerman's premiership was chiefly marked by the continued +controversies remaining from the general election of 1906,--tariff +reform and free trade, the South African question and the allied +Liberal policy for abolishing Chinese labour, the administration of +Ireland, and the amendment of the Education Act of 1902 so as to remove +its supposed denominational character. In his speech at the Albert Hall +on the 21st of December 1905 it was noticeable that, before the +elections, the prime minister laid stress on only one subject which +could be regarded as part of a constructive programme--the necessity of +doing something for canals, which was soon shelved to a royal +commission. But in spite of the fiasco of the Irish Councils Bill +(1907), the struggles over education (Mr Birrell's bill of 1906 being +dropped on account of the Lords' amendments), the rejection by the peers +of the Plural Voting Abolition Bill (1906), and the failure (again due +to the Lords) of the Scottish Small Holdings Bill and Valuation Bill +(1907), which at the time made his premiership appear to be a period of +bitter and unproductive debate, a good many reforming measures of some +moment were carried. A new Small Holdings Act (1907) for England was +passed; the Trades Disputes Act (1906) removed the position of trades +unions from the controversy excited over the Taff Vale decision; Mr +Lloyd-George's Patents Act (1907) and Merchant Shipping Act (1906) were +welcomed by the tariff reformers as embodying their own policy; a +long-standing debate was closed by the passing of the Deceased Wife's +Sister Act (1907); and acts for establishing a public trustee, a court +of criminal appeal, a system of probation for juvenile offenders, and a +census of production, were passed in 1907. Meanwhile, though the +Colonial Conference (re-named Imperial) of 1907 showed that there was a +wide difference of opinion on the tariff question between the free-trade +government and the colonial premiers, in one part of the empire the +ministry took a decided step--in the establishment of a self-governing +constitution for the Transvaal and Orange River colonies--which, for +good or ill, would make the period memorable. Mr Haldane's new army +scheme was no less epoch-making in Great Britain. In foreign affairs, +the conclusion of a treaty with Russia for delimiting the British and +Russian spheres of influence in the Middle East laid the foundations of +entirely new relations between the British and Russian governments. On +the other hand, so far as concerned the ultimate fortunes of the Liberal +party, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's premiership can only be regarded +as a period of marking time. He had become its leader as a conciliator +of the various sections, and it was as a conciliator, ready to +sympathize with the strong views of all sections of his following, that +he kept the party together, while his colleagues went their own ways in +their own departments. His own special "leads" were few, owing to the +personal reasons given above; his declaration at the Queen's Hall, +London, early in 1907, in favour of drastic land reform, served only to +encourage a number of extremists; and the Liberal enthusiasm against the +House of Lords, violently excited in 1906 by the fate of the Education +Bill and Plural Voting Bill, was rather damped than otherwise, when his +method of procedure by resolution of the House of Commons was disclosed +in 1907. The House passed by an enormous majority a resolution +(introduced on June 25) "that in order to give effect to the will of the +people, as expressed by their representatives, it is necessary that the +power of the other House to alter or reject bills passed by this House +should be so restricted by law as to secure that within the limits of a +single parliament the final decision of the Commons shall prevail"; but +the prime minister's explanation that statutory provision should be made +for two or three successive private conferences between the two Houses +as to any bill in dispute at intervals of about six months, and that, +only after that, the bill in question should be finally sent up by the +Commons with the intimation that unless passed in that form it would +become law over their heads, was obviously not what was wanted by +enthusiastic opponents of the second chamber. The problem still +remained, how to get the House of Lords to pass a "law" to restrict +their own powers. After the passing of this resolution the cry against +the House of Lords rapidly weakened, since it became clear at the +by-elections (culminating at Peckham in March 1908) that the "will of +the people" was by no means unanimously on the side of the bills which +had failed to pass. + +The result of the two years was undoubtedly to revive the confidence of +the Opposition, who found that they had outlived the criticisms of the +general election, and both on the question of tariff reform and on +matters of general politics were again holding their own. The failure of +the government in Ireland (where the only success was Mr Birrell's +introduction of the Universities Bill in April 1908), their internal +divisions as regards socialistic legislation, their variance from the +views of the self-governing colonies on Imperial administration, the +admission after the general election that the alleged "slavery" of the +Chinese in the Transvaal was, in Mr Winston Churchill's phrase, a +"terminological inexactitude," and the introduction of extreme measures +such as the Licensing Bill of 1908, offered excellent opportunities of +electioneering attack. Moreover, the Liberal promises of economy had +been largely falsified, the reductions in the navy estimates being +dangerous in themselves, while the income tax still remained at +practically the war level. For much of all this the prime minister's +colleagues were primarily responsible; but he himself had given a lead +to the anti-militarist section by prominently advocating international +disarmament, and the marked rebuff to the British proposals at the Hague +conference of 1907 exposed alike the futility of this Radical ideal and +the general inadequacy of the prime minister's policy of pacificism. Sir +Henry's rather petulant intolerance of Unionist opposition, shown at the +opening of the 1906 session in his dismissal of a speech by Mr Balfour +with the words "Enough of this foolery!" gradually gave way before the +signs of Unionist reintegration. His resignation took place at a moment +when the Liberal, Irish and Labour parties were growing restive under +their obligations, government policy stood in need of concentration +against an Opposition no longer divided and making marked headway in the +country, and the ministry had to be reconstituted under a successor, Mr +Asquith, towards whom, so far, there was no such feeling of personal +devotion as had been the chief factor in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's +leadership. (H. Ch.) + + + + +CAMPBELTOWN, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and seaport of +Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8286. It is situated on a fine bay, +towards the S.E. extremity of the peninsula of Kintyre, 11 m. N.E. of +the Mull and 83 m. S.W. of Glasgow by water. The seat of the Dalriad +monarchy in the 6th or 7th century, its importance declined when the +capital was transferred to Forteviot. No memorial of its antiquity has +survived, but the finely sculptured granite cross standing on a pedestal +in the market-place belongs to the 12th century, and there are ruins of +some venerable chapels and churches. Through the interest of the +Campbells, who are still the overlords and from whom it takes its name, +it became a royal burgh in 1700. It was the birthplace of the Rev. Dr +Norman Macleod (1812). The chief public buildings are the churches (one +of which occupies the site of a castle of the Macdonalds), the town +house, the Academy and the Athenaeum. The staple industry is whisky +distilling, of which the annual output is 2,000,000 gallons, more than +half for export. The port is the head of a fishery district and does a +thriving trade. Shipbuilding, net and rope-making, and woollen +manufacturing are other industries, and coal is mined in the vicinity. +There are three piers and a safe and capacious harbour, the bay, called +Campbeltown Loch, measuring 2 m. in length by 1 in breadth. At its +entrance stands a lighthouse on the island of Davaar. On the Atlantic +shore is the splendid golf-course of Machrihanish, 5 m. distant. +Machrihanish is connected with Campbeltown by a light railway. Near the +village of Southend is Machrireoch, the duke of Argyll's shooting-lodge, +an old structure modernized, commanding superb views of the Firth of +Clyde and its islands, and of Ireland. On the rock of Dunaverty stood +the castle of Macdonald of the Isles, who was dispossessed by the +Campbells in the beginning of the 17th century. At this place in 1647 +General David Leslie is said to have ordered 300 of the Macdonalds to be +slain after their surrender. Of the ancient church founded here by +Columba, only the walls remain. Campbeltown unites with Ayr, Inveraray, +Irvine and Oban in sending one member (for the "Ayr Burghs") to +parliament. + + + + +CAMPE, JOACHIM HEINRICH (1746-1818), German educationist, was born at +Deensen in Brunswick in 1746. He studied theology at the university of +Halle, and after acting for some time as chaplain at Potsdam, he +accepted a post as director of studies in the Philanthropin at Dessau +(see BASEDOW). He soon after set up an educational establishment of his +own at Trittow, near Hamburg, which he was obliged to give up to one of +his assistants within a few years, in consequence of feeble health. In +1787 he proceeded to Brunswick as counsellor of education, and purchased +the _Schulbuchhandlung_, which under his direction became a most +prosperous business. He died in 1818. His numerous educational works +were widely used throughout Germany. Among the most popular were the +_Kleine Kinderbibliothek_ (11th ed., 1815); _Robinson der Jungere_ (59th +ed., 1861), translated into English and into nearly every European +language; and _Sammtliche Kinder- und Jugendschriften_, 37 vols. + + + + +CAMPECHE (CAMPEACHY), a southern state of Mexico, comprising the western +part of the peninsula of Yucatan, bounded N. and E. by Yucatan, S. by +Guatemala, S.W. by Tabasco and N.W. by that part of the Gulf of Mexico +designated on English maps as the Bay of Campeachy. Pop. (1895) 87,264; +(1900) 86,542, mostly Indians and mestizos. Area, 18,087 sq. m. The name +of the state is derived from its principal forest product, _palo de +campeche_ (logwood). The surface, like that of Yucatan, consists of a +vast sandy plain, broken by a group of low elevations in the north, +heavily forested in the south, but with open tracts in the north adapted +to grazing. The northern part is insufficiently watered, the rains +filtering quickly through the soil. In the south, however, there are +some large rivers, and the forest region is very humid. The climate is +hot and unhealthy. In the north-west angle of the state is the Laguna de +Terminos, a large tide-water lake, which receives the drainage of the +southern districts. Among the products and exports are logwood, fustic, +lignum-vitae, mahogany, cedar, hides, tortoiseshell and _chicle_, the +last extracted from the _zapote chico_ trees (_Achras sapota_, L.). +Stock-raising engages some attention. One railway crosses the state from +the capital, Campeche, to Merida, Yucatan, but there are no other means +of transportation except the rivers and mule-paths. The port of Carmen +(pop. in 1900, about 6000), on a sand key between the Laguna de Terminos +and the Gulf, has an active trade in dyewoods and other forest products, +and owing to its inland water communications with the forest areas of +the interior is the principal port of the state and of Tabasco. + + + + +CAMPECHE, or CAMPECHE DE BARANDA, a fortified city and port of Mexico, +and capital of a state of the same name, situated on the Bay of +Campeche, 825 m. E. of the city of Mexico and 90 m. S.W. of Merida, in +lat. 20 deg. 5' N., long. 90 deg. 16' W. Pop. (1900) 17,109. Campeche +was one of the three open ports of this coast under the Spanish regime, +and its walls, general plan, fine public edifices, shady squares and +comfortable stone residences are evidence of the wealth it once +possessed. It is still one of the most attractive towns on the Gulf +coast of Mexico. It had a monopoly of the Yucatan trade and enjoyed +large profits from its logwood exports, both of which have been largely +lost. It was formerly the principal port for the state and for a part of +Yucatan, but the port of Carmen at the entrance to Laguna de Terminos is +now the chief shipping port for logwood and other forest products, and a +considerable part of the trade of Campeche has been transferred to +Progreso, the port of Merida. The port of Campeche is a shallow +roadstead defended by three forts and protected by a stone pier or wharf +160 ft. long, but vessels drawing more than 9 ft. are compelled to lie +outside and discharge cargo into lighters. The exports include logwood, +cotton, hides, wax, tobacco, salt and cigars of local manufacture. The +principal public buildings are the old citadel, some old churches, the +town hall, a handsome theatre, hospital and market. The streets are +traversed by tramways, and a railway runs north-eastward to Merida. +Campeche stands on the site of an old native town, of which there are +interesting remains in the vicinity, and which was first visited by +Hernandez de Cordoba in 1517. The Spanish town was founded in 1540, and +was sacked by the British in 1659 and by buccaneers in 1678 and 1685. +During the revolution of 1842 Campeche was the scene of many engagements +between the Mexicans and people of Yucatan. + + + + +CAMPEGGIO, LORENZO (1464-1539), Italian cardinal, was born at Milan of a +noble Bolognese family. At first he followed a legal career at Pavia and +Bologna, and when in 1499 he took his doctorate he was esteemed the most +learned canonist in Europe. In 1500 he married Francesca de' +Gualtavillani, by whom he had five children, one of whom, Allessandro, +born in 1504, became cardinal in 1551, and another, Gianbaptista, became +bishop of Minorca. His wife dying in 1510, he went into the church; on +account of his services during the rebellion of Bologna, he was made by +Julius II. auditor of the Rota in 1511, and sent to Maximilian and to +Vienna as nuncio. Raised to the see of Feltre in 1512, he went on +another embassy to Maximilian in 1513, and was created cardinal priest +of San Tommaso in Pavione, 27th of June 1517. Leo X., needing a subsidy +from the English clergy, sent Campeggio to England on the ostensible +business of arranging a crusade against the Turks. Wolsey, then engaged +in beginning his reform of the English church, procured that he himself +should be joined to the legation as senior legate; thus the Italian, who +arrived in England on the 23rd of July 1518, held a subordinate position +and his special legatine faculties were suspended. Campeggio's mission +failed in its immediate object; but he returned to Rome, where he was +received in Consistory on the 28th of November 1519, with the gift from +the king of the palace of Cardinal Adriano Castellesi (q.v.), who had +been deposed, and large gifts of money and furniture. He was made +protector of England in the Roman curia; and in 1524 Henry VIII. gave +him the rich see of Salisbury, and the pope the archbishopric of +Bologna. After attending the diet of Regensburg, he shared the captivity +of Clement VII. during the sack of Rome in 1527 and did much to restore +peace. On the 1st of October 1528 he arrived in England as co-legate +with Wolsey in the matter of Henry's divorce. He brought with him a +secret document, the Decretal, which defined the law and left the +legates to decide the question of fact; but this important letter was to +be shown only to Henry and Wolsey. "Owing to recent events," that is, +the loss of the temporal power, Clement was in no way inclined to offend +the victorious Charles V., Catherine's nephew, and Campeggio had already +received (16th of September 1528) distinct instructions "not to proceed +to sentence under any pretext without express commission, but protract +the matter as long as possible." After using all means of persuasion to +restore peace between the king and queen, Campeggio had to resist the +pressure brought upon him to give sentence. The legatine court opened at +Blackfriars on the 18th of June 1529, but the final result was certain. +Campeggio could not by the terms of his commission give sentence; so his +only escape was to prorogue the court on the 23rd of July on the plea of +the Roman vacation. Having failed to satisfy the king, he left England +on the 26th of October 1529, after his baggage had been searched at +Dover to find the Decretal, which, however, had been burnt. Returning to +Bologna, the cardinal assisted at the coronation of Charles V. on the +24th of February 1530, and went with him to the diet of Augsburg. He was +deprived by Henry of the English protectorate; and when sentence was +finally given against the divorce, Campeggio was deprived of the see of +Salisbury as a non-resident alien, by act of parliament (11th of March +1535); but his rich benefices in the Spanish dominions made ample +amends. In 1537 he became cardinal bishop of Sabina, and died in Rome on +the 25th of July 1539. His tomb is in the church of S. Maria in +Trastevere. (E. Tn.) + + + + +CAMPER, PETER (1722-1789), Dutch anatomist and naturalist, was born at +Leiden on the 11th of May 1722. He was educated at the university there, +and in 1746 graduated in philosophy and medicine. After the death of his +father in 1748 he spent more than a year in England, and then visited +Paris, Lyons and Geneva, and returned to Franeker, where in 1750 he had +been appointed to the professorship of philosophy, medicine and +surgery. He visited England a second time in 1752, and in 1755 he was +called to the chair of anatomy and surgery at the Athenaeum in +Amsterdam. He resigned this post after six years, and retired to his +country house near Franeker, in order uninterruptedly to carry on his +studies. In 1763, however, he accepted the professorship of medicine, +surgery and anatomy at Groningen, and continued in the chair for ten +years. He then returned to Franeker, and after the death of his wife in +1776 spent some time in travelling. In 1762 he had been returned as one +of the deputies in the assembly of the province of Friesland, and the +latter years of his life were much occupied with political affairs. In +1787 he was nominated to a seat in the council of state, and took up his +residence at the Hague, where he died on the 7th of April 1789. + + Camper's works, mainly memoirs and detached papers, are very numerous; + the most important of those bearing on comparative anatomy were + published in 3 vols. at Paris in 1803, under the title _Oeuvres de P. + Camper qui ont pour objet l'histoire naturelle, la physiologie, et + l'anatomie comparee_. His _Dissertation physique sur les differences + reelles que presentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de + differents pays et de differents ages; sur le beau qui caracterise les + statues antiques et les pieces gravees_, &c., which was published in + 1781 both in Dutch and in French, contains an account of the facial + angle which he used as a cranial characteristic. (See also ANATOMY.) + + + + +CAMPHAUSEN, OTTO VON (1812-1896), Prussian statesman, was born at +Hunshoven in the Rhine Provinces on the 21st of October 1812. Having +studied jurisprudence and political economy at the universities of Bonn, +Heidelberg, Munich and Berlin, he entered the legal career at Cologne, +and immediately devoted his attention to financial and commercial +questions. Nominated assessor in 1837, he acted for five years in this +capacity at Magdeburg and Coblenz, became in 1845 counsellor in the +ministry of finance, and was in 1849 elected a member of the second +chamber of the Prussian diet, joining the Moderate Liberal party. In +1869 he was appointed minister of finance. On taking office, he was +confronted with a deficit in the revenue, which he successfully cleared +off by effecting a conversion of a greater part of the state loans. The +French war indemnity enabled him to redeem a considerable portion of the +state debt and to remit certain taxes. He was, however, a too warm +adherent of free trade principles to enjoy the confidence either of the +Agrarian party or of Prince Bismarck, and his antagonism to the tobacco +monopoly and the general economic policy of the latter brought about his +retirement. Camphausen's great services to Prussia were recognized by +his sovereign in the bestowal of the order of the Black Eagle in 1895, a +dignity carrying with it a patent of nobility. He died at Berlin on the +18th of May 1896. + + + + +CAMPHAUSEN, WILHELM (1818-1885), German painter, was born at Dusseldorf, +and studied under A. Rethel and F.W. von Schadow. As an historical and +battle painter he rapidly became popular, and in 1859 was made professor +of painting at the Dusseldorf academy, together with other later +distinctions. His "Flight of Tilly" (1841), "Prince Eugene at the Battle +of Belgrade" (1843; in the Cologne museum), "Flight of Charles II. after +the Battle of Worcester" (Berlin National Gallery), "Cromwell's Cavalry" +(Munich Pinakothek), are his principal earlier pictures; and his +"Frederick the Great at Potsdam," "Frederick II. and the Bayreuth +Dragoons at Hohenfriedburg," and pictures of the Schleswig-Holstein +campaign and the war of 1866 (notably "Lines of Duppel after the +Battle," at the Berlin National Gallery), made him famous in Germany as +a representative of patriotic historical art. He also painted many +portraits of German princes and celebrated soldiers and statesmen. He +died at Dusseldorf on the 16th of June 1885. + + + + +CAMPHORS, organic chemical compounds, the alcohols and ketones of the +hydrocarbons known as terpenes, occurring associated with volatile oils +in many plants. They are extracted together with volatile oils by +distilling certain plants with steam, the volatile oils being +subsequently separated by fractional distillation. The term "camphor" is +generally applied to the solid products so obtained, and hence includes +the "stearoptenes," or solid portions of the volatile oils. They are +mostly white crystalline solids, possessing a characteristic odour; they +are sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolve in alcohol and +ether. Chemically, the camphors may be divided into two main groups, +according to the nature of the corresponding hydrocarbon or terpene. In +this article only the camphors of commercial importance will be treated; +details as to the chemical structure, syntheses and relations will be +found in the article TERPENES. + +_Menthol, mentha or peppermint camphor_, C10H19OH, 5-methyl-2-isopropyl +hexahydrophenol, an oxyhexahydrocymene, occurs in the volatile oils of +_Mentha piperita_ and _M. arvensis_ (var. _piperascens_ and _glabrata_), +from which it is obtained by cooling and subsequently pressing the +separated crystals; or by fractional distillation. It crystallizes in +prisms, having the odour and taste of peppermint; it melts at 42 deg. +and boils at 212 deg.. It is very slightly soluble in water, but readily +dissolves in alcohol and ether. It is optically active, being +laevo-rotatory. Menthol is used in medicine to relieve pain, as in +rheumatism, neuralgia, throat affections and toothache. It acts also as +a local anaesthetic, vascular stimulant and disinfectant. + +_Thymol, thyme camphor_, C10H13OH, 3-methyl-6-isopropyl phenol, an +oxycymene, occurs in the volatile oil of Ajowan, _Carum ajowan_, garden +thyme, _Thymus vulgaris_, wild thyme, _T. Serpyllum_ and horse mint, +_Monarda punctata_. Thymol crystallizes in large colourless plates which +melt at 44 deg. and boil at 230 deg.. It has the odour of thyme, is +sparingly soluble in water, but very soluble in alcohol, ether and in +alkaline solutions. In medicine it is used as an antiseptic, being more +active than phenol. Iodine and potash convert it into di-iodthymol, +which has been introduced in surgery under the names _aristol_ and +_annidalin_, as a substitute for iodoform. + +_Borneol, Borneo camphor_ or camphol, also known as Malayan, Barus or +Dryobalanops camphor, C10H17OH, occurs in fissures in the wood of +_Dryobalanops aromatica_, a majestic tree flourishing in the East +Indies. This product is dextro-rotatory; the laevo and inactive +modifications occur in the so-called baldrianic camphor. Borneol melts +at 203 deg. and boils at 212 deg.. It is very similar to common or Japan +camphor, but has a somewhat peppery odour. Sodium and alcohol reduce +common camphor to a mixture of d- and l-borneol. + +_Common camphor, Japan or Laurel camphor_, C10H16O, which constitutes +the bulk of the camphor of commerce, is the product of the camphor +laurel, _Cinnamonum camphora_, a tree flourishing in Japan, Formosa and +central China. It also occurs in various volatile oils, e.g. lavender, +rosemary, sage and spike. To extract the camphor, chips of the tree are +steamed, and the mixed vapours of camphor, volatile oils and water are +conducted to a condensing plant, where most of the camphor separates +out. This is filtered, and the remainder, about 20% of the total, which +is retained in solution, is extracted by fractional distillation and +cooling the distillate. The crude camphor so obtained is exported from +Japan in two grades--Samuel A and Samuel B. It is purified by mixing +with a little charcoal, sand, iron filings or quicklime and subliming, +by steam distillation or by crystallization. Common camphor forms a +translucent mass of hexagonal prisms, melting at 175 deg. and boiling at +204 deg. It sublimes very readily. In alcoholic solution it is +dextro-rotatory; the laevo form, Matricaria camphor, occurs in the oil +of _Matricaria parthenium_ and closely resembles the d form. Camphor +is chiefly used in the celluloid industry. The so-called "artificial +camphor" is pinene hydrochloride (see TERPENES). + +Externally applied it acts medicinally as a counter-irritant, and, in +some degree, as a local anaesthetic, being also a definite antiseptic. +It is, therefore, largely used in liniments for the relief of myalgia, +sciatica, lumbago, etc. Combined with chloroform, thymol or carbolic +acid, it is a valuable local application for neuralgia and for toothache +due to dental caries. Taken internally, camphor is a nerve stimulant, a +diaphoretic and a feeble antipyretic. It is excreted by the kidneys as +various substances, including campho-glycuric acid (Schmiedeberg). In +large doses it causes marked nervous symptoms, exhilaration being +followed by abdominal pain, violent epileptiform convulsions, coma and +death. Its internal uses are in hysteria, and in such conditions as +diarrhoea, dysentery and cholera. It is a popular remedy for "cold in +the head," but it is not to be relied upon as a prophylactic against +infection either by an ordinary cold or true influenza. + + + + +CAMPHUYSEN, DIRK RAFELSZ (1586-1627), Dutch painter, poet and +theologian, was the son of a surgeon at Gorcum. As he manifested great +artistic talent, his brother, in whose charge he was left on the death +of his parents, placed him under the painter Govaerts. But at that time +there was intense interest in theology; and Camphuysen, sharing in the +prevailing enthusiasm, deserted the pursuit of art, to become first a +private tutor and afterwards minister of Vleuten near Utrecht(1616). As, +however, he had embraced the doctrines of Arminius with fervour, he was +deprived of this post and driven into exile (1619). His chief solace was +poetry; and he has left a translation of the Psalms, and a number of +short pieces, remarkable for their freshness and depth of poetic +feeling. He is also the author of several theological works of fair +merit, among which is a _Compendium Doctrinae Sociniorum_; but his fame +chiefly rests on his pictures, which, like his poems, are mostly small, +but of great beauty; the colouring, though thin, is pure; the +composition and pencilling are exquisite, and the perspective above +criticism. The best of his works are his sunset and moonlight scenes and +his views of the Rhine and other rivers. The close of his life was spent +at Dokkum. His nephew Raphael (b. 1598) is by some considered to have +been the author of several of the works ascribed to him; and his son +Govaert (1624-1674), a follower or imitator of Paul Potter, is similarly +credited. + + + + +CAMPI, GIULIO (1500-1572), the founder of a school of Italian painters, +was born at Cremona. He was son of a painter, Galeazzo Campi +(1475-1536), under whom he took his first lessons in art. He was then +taught by Giulio Romano; and he made a special study of Titian, +Correggio and Raphael. His works are remarkable for their correctness, +vigour and loftiness of style. They are very numerous, and the church of +St Margaret in his native town owes all its paintings to his hand. Among +the earliest of his school are his brothers, Vincenzo and Antonio, the +latter of whom was also of some mark as a sculptor and as historian of +Cremona. + +Giulio's pupil, BERNARDINO CAMPI (1522-1592), in some respects superior +to his master, began life as a goldsmith. After an education under +Giulio Campi and Ippolito Corta, he attained such skill that when he +added another to the eleven Caesars of Titian, it was impossible to say +which was the master's and which the imitator's. He was also much +influenced by Correggio and Raphael. His principal work is seen in the +frescoes of the cupola at San Sigismondo, at Cremona. + + + + +CAMPILLO, JOSE DEL (1695-1743), Spanish statesman, was of very obscure +origin. From his own account of his youth, written to Antonio de Mier in +1726, we only know that he was born in "a house equally poor and +honest," that he studied Latin by his own wish, that he entered the +service of Don Antonio Maldonado, prebendary of Cordoba, who wished +apparently to train him as a priest, and that he declined to take +orders. He left the service of Maldonado in 1713, being then eighteen +years of age. In 1715 he became "page" to D. Francisco de Ocio, +superintendent general of customs, who doubtless employed him as a +clerk. In 1717 he attracted the favourable notice of Patino, the head of +the newly-organized navy, and was by him transferred to the naval +department. Under the protection of Patino, who became prime minister in +1726, Campillo was constantly employed on naval administrative work both +at home and in America. It was Patino's policy to build up a navy +quietly at home and in America, without attracting too much attention +abroad, and particularly in England. Campillo proved an industrious and +honest subordinate. Part of his experience was to be present at a +shipwreck in Central America in which he was credited with showing +spirit and practical ability in saving the lives of the crew. In 1726 he +was denounced to the Inquisition for the offence of reading forbidden +books. The proceedings against him were not carried further, but the +incident is an example of the vexatious tyranny exercised by the Holy +Office, and the effect it must have had even in its decadence in damping +all intellectual activity. It was not until in 1741, when Spain was +entangled in a land war in Italy and a naval war with England, that +Campillo was summoned by the king to take the place of prime minister. +He had to find the means of carrying on a policy out of all proportion +to the resources of Spain, with an empty treasury. His short tenure of +power was chiefly notable for his vigorous attempt to sweep away the +system of farming the taxes, which left the state at the mercy of +contractors and financiers. Campillo's predecessors were constantly +compelled to apply to capitalists to provide funds to meet the demands +of the king for his buildings and his foreign policy. A whole year's +revenue was frequently forestalled. Campillo persuaded the king to allow +him to establish a system of direct collection, by which waste and +pilfering would be avoided. Some progress was made towards putting the +national finances on a sound footing, though Campillo could not prevent +the king from disposing, without his knowledge, of large sums of money +needed for the public service. He died suddenly on the 11th of April +1743. Campillo was the author of a treatise on a _New System of +Government for America_ printed at Madrid 1789. He also left a MS. +treatise with the curious title, _What is superfluous and is wanting in +Spain, in order that it may be what it ought to be, and not what it is._ + + See D. Antonio Rodriquez Villa, _Patino y Campillo_ (Madrid, 1882). + + + + +CAMPINAS, an inland city of the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, 65 m. by +rail N.W. of the city of Sao Paulo and 114 m. from the port of Santos, +with which it is connected by the Paulista & Sao Paulo railway. Pop. +(1890) of the city and municipality, 33,921. Campinas is the commercial +centre of one of the oldest coffee-producing districts of the state and +the outlet for a rich and extensive agricultural region lying farther +inland. The Mogyana railway starts from this point and extends north to +Uberaba, Minas Geraes, while the Paulista lines extend north-west into +new and very fertile regions. Coffee is the staple production, though +Indian corn, mandioca and fruit are produced largely for local +consumption. The city is built in a bowl-like depression of the great +central plateau, and the drainage from the surrounding hillsides has +produced a dangerously insanitary condition, from which one or two +virulent fever epidemics have resulted. + + + + +CAMPING OUT. The sport of abandoning ordinary house-life, and living in +tents, touring in vans, boats, &c., has been elaborately developed in +modern times, and a considerable literature has been devoted to it, to +which the curious may be referred. + + See, for Europe, A.A. Macdonell's _Camping-out_ (1892) and _Voyages on + German Rivers_ (1890); G.R. Lowndes, _Gipsy Tents_ (1890). + + For Australia and Africa, W.B. Lord, _Shifts and Expedients of Camp + Life_ (1871); the articles by F.J. Jackson in the _Big Game Shooting_ + volume of the "Badminton Library"; the articles on "Camping out" in + _The Encyclopaedia of Sport_; F.C. Selous, _A Hunter's Wanderings in + Africa_ (1881), and _Travel and Adventure in South Africa_ (1893); + A.W. Chanler, _Through Jungle and Desert_ (1896); A.B. Rathbone, + _Camping and Tramping in Malaya_ (1898). + + For America, G.O. Shields, _Camping and Camp Outfits_ (1890); W.W. + Pascoe, _Canoe and Camp Cookery_ (1893); _Woodcraft_, by "Nessmuk" + (1895); W.S. Rainsford, _Camping and Hunting in the Shoshone_ (1896); + S.E. White, _The Forest_ (1903), and _The Mountains_ (1904); + _Suggestions as to Outfit for Tramping and Camping_ (1904), published + by "The Appalachian Mountain Club," Boston. Valuable information will + be found in the sporting periodicals, and in the catalogues of + outfitters and dealers in sporting goods. + + + + +CAMPION, EDMUND (1540-1581), English Jesuit, was born in London, +received his early education at Christ's Hospital, and, as the best of +the London scholars, was chosen in their name to make the complimentary +speech when Queen Mary visited the city on the 3rd of August 1553. He +went to Oxford and became fellow of St John's College in 1557, taking +the oath of supremacy on the occasion of his degree in 1564, in which +year he was orator in the schools. He had already shown his talents as a +speaker at the funeral of Amy Robsart in 1560; and when Sir Thomas +White, the founder of the college, was buried in 1564, the Latin oration +fell to the lot of Campion. Two years later he welcomed Queen Elizabeth +to the university, and won a regard, which the queen preserved until +the end. Religious difficulties now began to beset him; but at the +persuasion of Edward Cheyney, bishop of Gloucester, although holding +Catholic doctrines, he took deacon's orders in the English Church. +Inwardly "he took a remorse of conscience and detestation of mind." +Rumours of his opinions began to spread and, giving up the office of +proctor, he left Oxford in 1569 and went to Ireland to take part in a +proposed restoration of the Dublin University. The suspicion of papistry +followed him; and orders were given for his arrest. For some three +months he eluded pursuit, hiding among friends and occupying himself by +writing a history of Ireland (first published in Holinshed's +_Chronicles_), a superficial work of no real value. At last he escaped +to Douai, where he joined William Allen (q.v.) and was reconciled to the +Roman Church. After being ordained subdeacon, he went to Rome and became +a Jesuit in 1573, spending some years at Brunn, Vienna and Prague. In +1580 the Jesuit mission to England was begun, and he accompanied Robert +Parsons (q.v.) who, as superior, was intended to counterbalance +Campion's fervour and impetuous zeal. He entered England in the +characteristic guise of a jewel merchant, arrived in London on the 24th +of June 1580, and at once began to preach. His presence became known to +the authorities and an indiscreet declaration, "Campion Brag," made the +position more difficult. The hue and cry was out against him; henceforth +he led a hunted life, preaching and ministering to Catholics in +Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Lancashire. During this +time he was writing his _Decem Rationes_, a rhetorical display of +reasons against the Anglican Church. The book was printed in a private +press at Stonor Park, Henley, and 400 copies were found on the benches +of St Mary's, Oxford, at the Commencement, on the 27th of June 1581. The +sensation was immense, and the pursuit became keener. On his way to +Norfolk he stopped at Lyford in Berkshire, where he preached on the 14th +of July and the following day, yielding to the foolish importunity of +some pious women. Here he was captured by a spy and taken to London, +bearing on his hat a paper with the inscription, "Campion, the Seditious +Jesuit." Committed to the Tower, he was examined in the presence of +Elizabeth, who asked him if he acknowledged her to be really queen of +England, and on his replying straightly in the affirmative, she made him +offers, not only of life but of wealth and dignities, on conditions +which his conscience could not allow. He was kept a long time in prison, +twice racked by order of the council, and every effort was made to shake +his constancy. Despite the effect of a false rumour of retraction and a +forged confession, his adversaries in despair summoned him to four +public conferences (1st, 18th, 23rd and 27th of September), and although +still suffering, and allowed neither time nor books for preparation, he +bore himself so easily and readily that he won the admiration of most of +the audience. Racked again on the 31st of October, he was indicted at +Westminster that he with others had conspired at Rome and Reims to raise +a sedition in the realm and dethrone the queen. On the 20th of November +he was brought in guilty before Lord Chief Justice Wray; and in reply to +him said: "If our religion do make traitors we are worthy to be +condemned; but otherwise are and have been true subjects as ever the +queen had." He received the sentence of the traitor's death with the _Te +Deum laudamus_, and, after spending his last days in pious exercises, +was led with two companions to Tyburn (1st of December 1581) and +suffered the barbarous penalty. Of all the Jesuit missionaries who +suffered for their allegiance to the ancient religion, Campion stands +the highest. His life and his aspirations were pure, his zeal true and +his loyalty unquestionable. He was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886. + + An admirable biography is to be found in Richard Simpson's _Edmund + Campion_ (1867); and a complete list of his works in De Backer's + _Bibliotheque de la compagnie de Jesus_. (E. Tn.) + + + + +CAMPION, THOMAS (1567-1620), English poet and musician, was born in +London on the 12th of February 1567, and christened at St Andrew's, +Holborn. He was the son of John Campion of the Middle Temple, who was by +profession one of the cursitors of the chancery court, the clerks "of +course," whose duties were to draft the various writs and legal +instruments in correct form. His mother was Lucy Searle, daughter of +Laurence Searle, one of the queen's serjeants-at-arms. Upon the death of +Campion's father in 1576, his mother married Augustine Steward and died +herself soon after. Steward acted for some years as guardian of the +orphan, and sent him in 1581, together with Thomas Sisley, his stepson +by his second wife Anne, relict of Clement Sisley, to Peterhouse, +Cambridge, as a gentleman pensioner. He studied at Cambridge for four +years, and left the university, it would appear, without a degree, but +strongly imbued with those tastes for classical literature which +exercised such powerful influence upon his subsequent work. In April +1587 he was admitted to Gray's Inn, possibly with the intention of +adopting a legal profession, but he had little sympathy with legal +studies and does not appear to have been called to the bar. His +subsequent movements are not certain, but in 1591 he appears to have +taken part in the French expedition under Essex, sent for the assistance +of Henry IV. against the League; and in 1606 he first appears with the +degree of doctor of physic, though the absence of records does not +permit us to ascertain where this was obtained. The rest of his life was +probably spent in London, where he practised as a physician until his +death on the 1st of March 1620, leaving behind him, it would appear, +neither wife nor issue. He was buried the same day at St +Dunstan's-in-the-West, Fleet Street. + +The body of his works is considerable, the earliest known being a group +of five anonymous poems included in the _Songs of Divers Noblemen and +Gentlemen_, appended to Newman's surreptitious edition of Sidney's +_Astrophel and Stella_, which appeared in 1591. In 1595 appeared under +his own name the _Poemata_, a collection of Latin panegyrics, elegies +and epigrams, which evince much skill in handling, and won him +considerable reputation. This was followed in 1601 by _A Booke of +Ayres_, one of the song-books so fashionable in his day, the music of +which was contributed in equal proportions by himself and Philip +Rosseter, while the words were almost certainly all written by him. The +following year he published his _Observations in the Art of English +Poesie_, "against the vulgar and unartificial custom of riming," in +favour of rhymeless verse on the model of classical quantitative poetry. +Its appearance at this stage was important as the final statement of the +crazy prejudice by one of its sanest and best equipped champions, but +the challenge thus thrown down was accepted by Daniel, who in his +_Defence of Ryme_, published the same year, finally demolished the +movement. + +In 1607 he wrote and published a masque for the occasion of the marriage +of Lord Hayes, and in 1613 he issued a volume of _Songs of Mourning_ +(set to music by Coperario or John Cooper) for the loss of Prince Henry, +which was sincerely lamented by the whole English nation. The same year +he wrote and arranged three masques, the _Lords' Masque_ for the +marriage of Princess Elizabeth, an entertainment for the amusement of +Queen Anne at Caversham House, and a third for the marriage of the earl +of Somerset to the infamous Frances Howard, countess of Essex. If, +moreover, as appears quite likely, his _Two Bookes of Ayres_ (both words +and music written by himself) belongs also to this year, it was indeed +his _annus mirabilis_. + +Some time in or after 1617 appeared his _Third and Fourth Booke of +Ayres_; while to that year probably also belongs his _New Way of making +Foure Parts in Counter-point_, a technical treatise which was for many +years the standard text-book on the subject. It was included, with +annotations by Christopher Sympson, in Playfair's _Brief Introduction to +the Skill of Musick_, and two editions appear to have been bought up by +1660. In 1618 appeared _The Ayres that were sung and played at Brougham +Castle_ on the occasion of the king's entertainment there, the music by +Mason and Earsden, while the words were almost certainly by Campion; and +in 1619 he published his _Epigrammatum Libri II. Umbra Elegiarum liber +unus_, a reprint of his 1595 collection with considerable omissions, +additions (in the form of another book of epigrams) and corrections. + +While Campion had attained a considerable reputation in his own day, in +the years that followed his death his works sank into complete oblivion. +No doubt this was due to the nature of the media in which he mainly +worked, the masque and the song-book. The masque was an amusement at +any time too costly to be popular, and with the Rebellion it was +practically extinguished. The vogue of the song-books was even more +ephemeral, and, as in the case of the masque, the Puritan ascendancy, +with its distaste for all secular music, effectively put an end to the +madrigal. Its loss involved that of many hundreds of dainty lyrics, +including those of Campion, and it is due to the enthusiastic efforts of +Mr A.H. Bullen, who first published a collection of the poet's works in +1889, that his genius has been recognized and his place among the +foremost rank of Elizabethan lyric poets restored to him. + +Campion set little store by his English lyrics; they were to him "the +superfluous blossoms of his deeper studies," but we may thank the fates +that his precepts of rhymeless versification so little affected his +practice. His rhymeless experiments are certainly better conceived than +many others, but they lack the spontaneous grace and freshness of his +other poetry, while the whole scheme was, of course, unnatural. He must +have possessed a very delicate musical ear, for not one of his songs is +unmusical; moreover, the fact of his composing both words and music gave +rise to a metrical fluidity which is one of his most characteristic +features. Rarely indeed are his rhythms uniform, while they frequently +shift from line to line. His range was very great both in feeling and +expression, and whether he attempts an elaborate epithalamium or a +simple country ditty, the result is always full of unstudied freshness +and tuneful charm. In some of his sacred pieces he is particularly +successful, combining real poetry with genuine religious fervour. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Works_, &c., ed. A.H. Bullen (1889) excluding _A New + Way_, &c.; _Songs and Masques_, ed. A.H. Bullen (1903), with an + introduction on Campion's music by Janet Dodge; _Poems_, &c. (in + English), ed. P. Vivian (1907); _Complete Works_, ed. P. Vivian + (Clarendon Press, 1908). The "Observations in the Art of English + Poesie" are also published in Haslewood's _Ancient Critical Essays_ + and Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical Essays_, vol. ii. (1903). + (P. Vn.) + + + + +CAMPISTRON, JEAN GALBERT DE (1656-1723), French dramatist, was born at +Toulouse of noble family in 1656. At the age of seventeen he was wounded +in a duel and sent to Paris. Here he became an ardent disciple of +Racine. If he copied his master's methods of construction with some +success, in the execution of his plans he never advanced beyond +mediocrity, nor did he ever approach the secret of the musical lines of +_Athalie_ and _Phedre_. He secured the patronage of the influential +duchesse de Bouillon by dedicating _Arminius_ to her, and in 1685 he +scored his first success with _Andronic_, which disguised under other +names the tragic story of Don Carlos and Elizabeth of France. The piece +made a great sensation, but Campistron's treatment is weak, and he +failed to avail himself of the possibilities inherent in his subject. +Racine was asked by Louis Joseph, duc de Vendome, to write the book of +an opera to be performed at a fete given in honour of the Dauphin. He +handed on the commission to Campistron, who produced _Acis et Galathee_ +for Lulli's music. Campistron had another success in _Tiridate_ (1691), +in which he treated, again under changed names, the biblical story of +Amnon's passion for his sister Tamar. He wrote many other tragedies and +two comedies, one of which, _Le Jaloux desabuse_, has been considered by +some judges to be his best work. In 1686 he had been made intendant to +the duc de Vendome and followed him to Italy and Spain, accompanying him +on all his campaigns. If he was not a good poet he was an honest man +under circumstances in which corruption was easy and usual. Many honours +were conferred on him. The king of Spain bestowed on him the order of St +James of the Sword; the duke of Mantua made him marquis of Penango in +Montferrat; and in 1701 he was received into the Academy. After thirty +years of service with Vendome he retired to his native place, where he +died on the 11th of May 1723. + + + + +CAMPOAMOR Y CAMPOOSORIO, RAMON DE (1817-1901), Spanish poet, was born at +Navia (Asturias) on the 24th of September 1817. Abandoning his first +intention of entering the Jesuit order, he studied medicine at Madrid, +found an opening in politics as a supporter of the Moderate party, and, +after occupying several subordinate posts, became governor of Castellon +de la Plana, of Alicante and of Valencia. His conservative tendencies +grew more pronounced with time, and his _Polemicas con la +Democracia_ (1862) may be taken as the definitive expression of his +political opinions. His first appearance as a poet dated from 1840, when +he published his _Ternezas y flores_, a collection of idyllic verses, +remarkable for their technical excellence. His _Ayes del Alma_ (1842) and +his _Fabulas morales y politicas_ (1842) sustained his reputation, but +showed no perceptible increase of power or skill. An epic poem in +sixteen cantos, _Colon_ (1853), is no more successful than modern epics +usually are. Campoamor's theatrical pieces, such as _El Palacio de la +Verdad_ (1871), _Dies Irae_ (1873), _El Honor_ (1874) and _Glorias +Humanas_ (1885), are interesting experiments; but they are totally +lacking in dramatic spirit. He always showed a keen interest in +metaphysical and philosophic questions, and defined his position in _La +Filosofia de las leyes_ (1846), _El Personalismo_ (1855), _Lo +Absoluto_ (1865) and _El Ideismo_ (1883). These studies are chiefly +valuable as embodying fragments of self-revelation, and as having led to +the composition of those _doloras, humoradas_ and _pequenos poemas_, +which the poet's admirers consider as a new poetic species. The first +collection of _Doloras_ was printed in 1846, and from that date onwards +new specimens were added to each succeeding edition. It is difficult to +define a _dolora_. One critic has described it as a didactic, symbolic +stanza which combines the lightness and grace of the epigram, the +melancholy of the _endecha_, the concise narrative of the ballad, and +the philosophic intention of the apologue. The poet himself declared +that a _dolora_ is a dramatic _humorada_, and that a _pequeno poema_ is +a _dolora_ on a larger scale. These definitions are unsatisfactory. The +humoristic, philosophic epigram is an ancient poetic form to which +Campoamor has given a new name; his invention goes no further. It cannot +be denied that in the _Doloras_ Campoamor's special gifts of irony, +grace and pathos find their best expression. Taking a commonplace theme, +he presents in four, eight or twelve lines a perfect miniature of +condensed emotion. By his choice of a vehicle he has avoided the fatal +facility and copiousness which have led many Spanish poets to +destruction. It pleased him to affect a vein of melancholy, and this +affectation has been reproduced by his followers. Hence he gives the +impression of insincerity, of trifling with grave subjects and of using +mysticism as a mask for frivolity. The genuine Campoamor is a poet of +the sunniest humour who, under the pretence of teaching morality by +satire, is really seeking to utter the gay scepticism of a genial, +epicurean nature. His influence has not been altogether for good. His +formula is too easily mastered, and to his example is due a plague of +_doloras_ and _humoradas_ by poetasters who have caricatured their +model. Campoamor, as he himself said, did not practise art for art's +sake; he used art as the medium of ideas, and in ideas his imitators are +poor. He died at Madrid on the 12th of February 1901. Of late years a +deep silence had fallen upon him, and we are in a position to judge him +with the impartiality of another generation. The overwhelming bulk of +his work will perish; we may even say that it is already dead. His +pretensions, or the pretensions put forward in his name, that he +discovered a new poetic _genre_ will be rejected later, as they are +rejected now by all competent judges. The title of a philosophic poet +will be denied to him. But he will certainly survive, at least in +extract, as a distinguished humorist, an expert in epigrammatic and +sententious aphorism, an artist of extremely finished execution. + (J. F. K.) + + + + +CAMPOBASSO, a city of Molise, Italy, the capital of the province of +Campobasso, 172 m. E.S.E. of Rome by rail, situated 2132 ft. above +sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 11,273; commune 14,491. The town itself +contains no buildings of antiquarian interest, but it has some fine +modern edifices. Its chief industry is the manufacture of arms and +cutlery. Above the town are the picturesque ruins of a castle of the +15th century. The date of the foundation of Campobasso is unknown. The +town, with the territory surrounding it, was under the feudal rule of +counts until 1739, when it passed to the Neapolitan crown, in +consideration of a payment of 108,000 ducats. + + + + +CAMPODEA, a small whitish wingless insect with long flexible antennae +and a pair of elongated caudal appendages. The best-known species +(_Campodea staphylinus_) has a wide distribution and is equally at home +in the warm valleys of south Europe, in the subarctic conditions of +mountain tops, in caves and in woods and gardens in England. It lives in +damp places under stones, fallen trees or in rotten wood and leaves. +Although blind, it immediately crawls away on exposure to the light into +the nearest crevice or other sheltered spot, feeling the way with its +antennae. Its action is characteristically serpentine, recalling that of +a centipede. Campodea is one of the bristle-tailed or thysanurous +insects of the order Aptera (q.v.). + + + + +CAMPOMANES, PEDRO RODRIGUEZ, CONDE DE (1723-1802), Spanish statesman and +writer, was born at Santa Eulalia de Sorribia, in Asturias, on the 1st +of July 1723. From 1788 to 1793 he was president of the council of +Castile; but on the accession of Charles IV. he was removed from his +office, and retired from public life, regretted by the true friends of +his country. His first literary work was _Antiquidad maritima de la +republica de Cartago_, with an appendix containing a translation of the +_Voyage of Hanno_ the Carthaginian, with curious notes. This appeared in +a quarto volume in 1756. His principal works are two admirable essays, +_Discurso sobre el fomento de la industria popular_, 1774, and _Discurso +sobre la educacion popular de los artesanos y su fomento_, 1775. As a +supplement to the last, he published four appendices, each considerably +larger than the original essay. The first contains reflections on the +origin of the decay of arts and manufactures in Spain during the last +century. The second points out the steps necessary for improving or +re-establishing the old manufactures, and contains a curious collection +of royal ordinances and rescripts regarding the encouragement of arts +and manufactures, and the introduction of foreign raw materials. The +third treats of the gild laws of artisans, contrasted with the results +of Spanish legislation and the municipal ordinances of towns. The fourth +contains eight essays of Francisco Martinez de Mata on national +commerce, with some observations adapted to present circumstances. These +were all printed at Madrid in 1774 and 1777, in five volumes. Count +Campomanes died on the 3rd of February 1802. + + Don A. Rodriguez Villa has placed a biographical notice of Campomanes + as an introduction to the first edition of his _Cartas + politico-economicas_, published in 1878. + + + + +CAMPOS, ARSENIO MARTINEZ DE (1831-1900), Spanish marshal, senator and +knight of the Golden Fleece, was born at Segovia on the 14th of December +1831. He graduated as a lieutenant in 1852, and for some years was +attached to the staff college as an assistant professor. He took part in +the Morocco campaign of 1850-1860, and distinguished himself in sixteen +actions, obtaining the cross of San Fernando, and the rank of +lieutenant-colonel. He then returned to the staff college as a +professor. Afterwards he joined the expedition to Mexico under Prim. In +1869 he was sent to Cuba, where he was promoted to the rank of general +in 1872. On his return to the Peninsula, the Federal Republican +government in 1873 confided to General Campos several high commands, in +which he again distinguished himself against the Cantonal Republicans +and the Carlists. About that time he began to conspire with a view to +restore the son of Queen Isabella. Though Campos made no secret of his +designs, Marshal Serrano, in 1874, appointed him to the command of a +division which took part in the relief of Bilbao on the 2nd of May of +that year, and in the operations around Estella in June. On both +occasions General Campos tried in vain to induce the other commanders to +proclaim Alphonso XII. He then affected to hold aloof, and would have +been arrested, had not the minister of war, Ceballos, answered for his +good behaviour, and quartered him in Avila under surveillance. He +managed to escape, and after hiding in Madrid, joined General Daban at +Sagunto on the 29th of December 1874, where he proclaimed Alphonso XII. +king of Spain. From that date he never ceased to exercise great +influence in the politics of the restoration. He was considered as a +sort of supreme counsellor, being consulted by King Alphonso, and later +by his widow, the queen-regent, in every important political crisis, +and on every international or colonial question, especially when other +generals or the army itself became troublesome. He took an important +part in the military operations against the Carlists, and in the +negotiations with their leaders, which put an end to the civil war in +1876. In the same way he brought about the pacification of Cuba in 1878. +On his return from that island he presided over a Conservative cabinet +for a few months, but soon made way for Canovas, whom he ever afterwards +treated as the leader of the Conservative party. In 1881, with other +discontented generals, he assisted Sagasta in obtaining office. After +the death of King Alphonso, Campos steadily supported the regency of +Queen Christina, and held high commands, though declining to take +office. In 1893 he was selected to command the Spanish army at Melilla, +and went to the court of Morocco to make an advantageous treaty of +peace, which averted a war. When the Cuban rising in 1895 assumed a +serious aspect, he was sent out by the Conservative cabinet of Canovas +to cope with the rebellion, but he failed in the field, as well as in +his efforts to win over the Creoles, chiefly because he was not allowed +to give them local self-government, as he wished. Subsequently he +remained aloof from politics, and only spoke in the senate to defend his +Cuban administration and on army questions. After the war with America, +and the loss of the colonies in 1899, when Senor Silvela formed a new +Conservative party and cabinet, the old marshal accepted the presidency +of the senate, though his health was failing fast. He held this post up +to the time of his death. This took place in the summer recess of 1900 +at Zarauz, a village on the coast of Guipuzcoa, where he was buried. + + + + +CAMPOS, an inland city of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on the +Parahyba river, 30 m. from the sea, and about 143 m. N.E. of the city of +Rio de Janeiro. Pop. (1890) of the city, 22,518; of the municipality, +78,036. The river is navigable for small steamers above and below the +city, but is closed to coast-wise navigation by dangerous sandbars at +its mouth. The shipping port for Campos is Imbetiba (near Macahe), 60 m. +south-west, with which it is connected by rail. There is also water +communication between the two places by means of coastal lakes united by +canals. Campos has indirect railway communication with Rio de Janeiro by +way of Macahe, and is the starting point for several small independent +lines. The elevation of the city is only 69 ft. above sea level, and it +stands near the western margin of a highly fertile alluvial plain +devoted to the production of sugar. The climate is hot and humid, and +many kinds of tropical fruit are produced in abundance. + + + + +CAMPULUNG (also written Campu Lung and Kimpulung), the capital of the +department of Muscel, Rumania, and the seat of a suffragan bishop; +situated among the outlying hills of the Carpathian Mountains, at the +head of a long well-wooded glen traversed by the river Tirgului, a +tributary of the Argesh. Pop. (1900) 13,033. Its pure air and fine +scenery render Campulung a popular summer resort. In the town are more +than twenty churches, besides a monastery and a cathedral, which both +claim to have been founded, in the 13th century, by Radul Negru, first +prince of Walachia. The Tirgului supplies water-power for several +paper-mills; annual fairs are held on the 20th of July and the 24th of +October; and there is a considerable traffic with Transylvania, over the +Torzburg Pass, 15 m. north, and with the south by a branch railway to +Ploesci. Near Campulung are the remains of a Roman camp; and, just +beyond the gates, vestiges of a Roman colony, variously identified with +Romula, Stepenium and Ulpia Traiana, but now called Gradistea or Jidovi. + + + + +CAMUCCINI, VINCENZO (1773-1844), Italian historical painter, was born at +Rome. He was educated by his brother Pietro, a picture-restorer, and +Borubelli, an engraver, and, up to the age of thirty, attempted nothing +higher than copies of the great masters, his especial study being +Raphael. As an original painter, Camuccini belongs to the school of the +French artist David. His works are rather the fruits of great cleverness +and patient care than of fresh and original genius; and his style was +essentially imitative. He enjoyed immense popularity, both personally, +and as an artist, and received many honours and preferments from the +papal and other Italian courts. He was appointed director of the Academy +of San Luca and of the Neapolitan Academy at Rome, and conservator of +the pictures of the Vatican. He was also made chevalier of nearly all +the orders in Italy, and member of the Legion of Honour. His chief works +are the classical paintings of the "Assassination of Caesar," the "Death +of Virginia," the "Devotion of the Roman Women," "Young Romulus and +Remus," "Horatius Cocles," the "St Thomas," which was copied in mosaic +for St Peter's, the "Presentation of Christ in the Temple" and a number +of excellent portraits. He became a rich man, and made a fine collection +of pictures which in 1856 were sold, a number of them (including +Raphael's "Madonna with the Pink") being bought by the duke of +Northumberland. + + + + +CAMULODUNUM, also written CAMALODUNUM (mod. Colchester, q.v.), a British +and Roman town. It was the capital of the British chief Cunobelin and is +named on his coins: after his death and the Roman conquest of south +Britain, the Romans established (about A.D. 48) a _colonia_ or +municipality peopled with discharged legionaries, and intended to serve +both as an informal garrison and as a centre of Roman civilization. It +was stormed and burnt A.D. 61 in the rising of Boadicea (q.v.), but soon +recovered and became one of the chief towns in Roman Britain. Its walls +and some other buildings still stand and abundant Roman remains enrich +the local museum. The name denotes "the fortress of Camulos," the Celtic +Mars. + + + + +CAMUS, ARMAND GASTON (1740-1804), French revolutionist, was a successful +advocate before the Revolution. In 1789 he was elected by the third +estate of Paris to the states general, and attracted attention by his +speeches against social inequalities. Elected to the National Convention +by the department of Haute-Loire, he was named member of the committee +of general safety, and then sent as one of the commissioners charged +with the surveillance of General C.F. Dumouriez. Delivered with his +colleagues to the Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, he was exchanged +for the daughter of Louis XVI. in November 1795. He played an +inconspicuous role in the council of the Five Hundred. On the 14th of +August 1789 the Constituent Assembly made Camus its archivist, and in +that capacity he organized the national archives, classified the papers +of the different assemblies of the Revolution and drew up analytical +tables of the _proces-verbaux_. He was restored to the office in 1796 +and became absorbed in literary work. He remained an austere republican, +refusing to take part in the Napoleonic regime. + + + + +CAMUS, CHARLES ETIENNE LOUIS (1699-1768), French mathematician and +mechanician, was born at Crecy-en-Brie, near Meaux, on the 25th of +August 1699. He studied mathematics, civil and military architecture, +and astronomy, and became associate of the Academie des Sciences, +professor of geometry, secretary to the Academy of Architecture and +fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1736 he accompanied Pierre +Louis Maupertuis and Alexis Claude Clairaut in the expedition to Lapland +for the measurement of a degree of the meridian. He died on the 2nd of +February 1768. He was the author of a _Cours de mathematiques_ (Paris, +1766), and a number of essays on mathematical and mechanical subjects +(see Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit. Handworterbuch_). + + + + +CAMUS, FRANCOIS JOSEPH DES (1672-1732), French mechanician, was born +near St Mihiel, on the 14th of September 1672. After studying for the +church, he devoted himself to mechanical inventions, a number of which +he described in his _Traite des forces mouvantes pour la pratique des +arts et metiers_, Paris, 1722. He died in England in 1732. + + + + +CAMUS DE MEZIERES, NICOLAS LE (1721-1789), French architect, was born at +Paris on the 26th of March 1721, and died it the same city on the 27th +of July 1789. He published several works on architectural and related +subjects. + + + + +CANA, of Galilee, a village of Palestine remarkable as the home of +Nathanael, and the scene of Christ's "beginning of miracles" (John ii. +I-II, iv. 46-54). Its site is unknown, but it is evident from the +biblical narrative that it was in the neighbourhood of, and higher than, +Capernaum. Opinion as to identification is fairly divided between Kefr +Kenna and Kand-el-Jelil. The former, about 4 m. N.N.E. of Nazareth, +contains a ruined church and a small Christian population; the latter is +an uninhabited village about 9 m. N. of Nazareth, with no remains but a +few cisterns. + + + + +CANAAN, CANAANITES. These geographical and ethnic terms have a shifting +reference, which doubtless arises out of the migrations of the tribes to +which the term "Canaanites" belongs. Thus in Josh. v. 1 the term seems +to be applied to a population on the coast of the Mediterranean, and in +Josh. xi. 3, Num. xiii. 29 (cf. also Gen. xiii, 12) not only to these, +but to a people in the Jordan Valley. In Isa. xxiii. 11 it seems to be +used of Phoenicia, and in Zeph. ii. 5 (where, however, the text is +disputed) of Philistia. Most often it is applied comprehensively to the +population of the entire west Jordan land and its pre-Israelitish +inhabitants. This usage is characteristic of the writer called the +Yahwist (J); see _e.g. _Gen. xii. 5, xxxiii. 18; Ex. xv. 15; Num. +xxxiii. 51; Josh. xxii. 9; Judg. in. i; Ps. cvi. 38, and elsewhere. It +was also, as Augustine tells us,[1] a usage of the Phoenicians to call +their land "Canaan." This is confirmed by coins of the city of Laodicea +by the Lebanon, which bear the legend, "Of Laodicea, a metropolis in +Canaan"; these coins are dated under Antiochus IV. (17 5-1648.0.), and +his successors, Greek writers, too, tell us a fact of much interest, +viz. that the original name of Phoenicia was [Greek: Chna], i.e. Kena, a +short, collateral form of Kena'an or Kan'an The form Kan'an is favoured +by the Egyptian usage. Seti I. is said to have conquered the Shasu, or +Arabian nomads, from the fortress of Taru (Shur?) to "the Ka-n-'-na," +and Rameses III. to have built a temple to the god Amen in "the +Ka-n-'-na." By this geographical name is probably meant all western +Syria and Palestine with Raphia--"the (first) city of the +Ka-n-'-na"--for the south-west boundary towards the desert.[2] In the +letters sent by governors and princes of Palestine to their Egyptian +overlord[3]--commonly known as the Tel-el-Amarna tablets--we find the +two forms Kinahhi and Kinahna, corresponding to Kena' and Kena'an +respectively, and standing, as Ed. Meyer has shown, for Syria in its +widest extent. + +On the name "Canaan" Winckler remarks,[4] "There is at present no +prospect of an etymological explanation." From the fact that Egyptian +(though not Hebrew) scribes constantly prefix the article, we may +suppose that it originally meant "the country of the Canaanites," just +as the Hebrew phrase "the Lebanon" may originally have meant "the +highlands of the Libnites"; and we are thus permitted to group the term +"Canaan" with clan-names such as Achan, Akan, Jaakan, Anak (generally +with the article prefixed), Kain, Kenan. Nor are scholars more unanimous +with regard to the region where the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan" +arose. It may be true that the term Kinahhi in the Amarna letters +corresponds to Syria and Palestine in their entirety. But this does not +prove that the terms "Canaanite" and "Canaan" arose in that region, for +they are presumably much older than the Amarna tablets. Let us refer at +this point to a document in Genesis which is perhaps hardly estimated at +its true value, the so-called Table of Peoples in Gen. x. Here we find +"Canaan" included among the four sons of Ham. If Cush in v. 6 really +means Ethiopia, and M-s-r-i-m Egypt, and Put the Libyans, and if Ham is +really a Hebraized form of the old Egyptian name for Egypt, Kam-t +(black),[5] the passage is puzzling in the extreme. But if, as has +recently been suggested,[6] Cush, M-s-r-i-m, and Put are in north +Arabia, and Ham is the short for Yarham or Yerahme'el (see i Chr. ii. +25-27, 42), a north Arabian name intimately associated with Caleb, all +becomes clear, and Canaan in particular is shown to be an Arabian name. +Now it is no mere hypothesis that beginning from about 4000 B.C.[7] a +wave of Semitic migration poured out of Arabia, and flooded Babylonia +certainly, and possibly, more or less, Syria and Palestine also. Also +that between 2800 and 2600 B.C. a second wave from Arabia took the same +course, covering not only Babylonia, but also Syria and Palestine and +probably also Egypt (the Hyksos). It is soon after this that we meet +with the great empire-builder and civilizer, Khammurabi (2267-2213), the +first king of a united Babylonia. It is noteworthy that the first part +of his name is identical with the name of the father of Canaan in +Genesis (Ham or Kham), indicating his Arabian origin.[8] It was he, too, +who restored the ancient supremacy of Babylonia over Syria and +Palestine, and so prevented the Babylonizing of these countries from +coming to an abrupt end. + +We now understand how the Phoenicians, whose ancestors arrived in the +second Semitic migration, came to call their land "Canaan." They had in +fact the best right to do so. The first of the Canaanite immigrants were +driven seawards by the masses which followed them. They settled in +Phoenicia, and in after times became so great in commerce that +"Canaanite" became a common Hebrew term for "merchant" (e.g. Isa. xxiii. +8). It is a plausible theory that in the conventional language of their +inscriptions they preserved a number of geographical and religious +phrases which, for them, had no clear meaning, and belonged properly to +the land of their distant ancestors, Arabia.[9] For their own traditions +as to their origin see PHOENICIA; we cannot venture to reject these +altogether. The masses of immigrants which followed them may have borne +the name of Amorites. A few words on this designation must here be +given. Both within and without Palestine the name was famous. + +First, as regards the Old Testament. We find "the Amorite" (a collective +term) mentioned in the Table of Peoples (Gen. x. 16-18a) among other +tribal names, the exact original reference of which had probably been +forgotten. No one in fact would gather from this and parallel passages +how important a part was played by the Amorites in the early history of +Palestine. In Gen. xiv. 7 f., Josh. x. 5 f., Deut. i. 19 ff., 27, 44 we +find them located in the southern mountain country, while in Num. xxi. +13, 21 f., Josh. ii 10, ix 10, xxiv. 8, 12, &c. we hear of two great +Amorite kings, residing respectively at Heshbon and Ashtaroth on the +east of the Jordan. Quite different, however, is the view taken in Gen. +xv. 16, xlviii. 22, Josh. xxiv. 15, Judg. i. 34, Am. ii. 9, 10, &c., +where the name of Amorite is synonymous with "Canaanite," except that +"Amorite" is never used for the population on the coast. Next, as to the +extra-Biblical evidence. In the Egyptian inscriptions and in the Amarna +tablets Amar and Amurru have a more limited meaning, being applied to +the mountain-region east of Phoenicia, extending to the Orontes. Later +on, Amurru became the Assyrian term for the interior of south as well as +north Palestine, and at a still more recent period the term "the land of +Hatti" (conventionally = Hittites) displaced "Amurru" so far as north +Palestine is concerned (see HITTITES). + +Thus the Phoenicians and the Amorites belong to the first stage of the +second great Arabian migration. In the interval preceding the second +stage Syria with Palestine became an Egyptian dependency, though the +links with the sovereign power were not so strong as to prevent frequent +local rebellions. Under Thothmes III. and Amen-hotep II. the pressure of +a strong hand kept the Syrians and Canaanites sufficiently loyal to the +Pharaohs. The reign of Amen-hotep III., however, was not quite so +tranquil for the Asiatic province. Turbulent chiefs began to seek their +opportunities, though as a rule they did not find them because they +could not obtain the help of a neighbouring king.[10] The boldest of the +disaffected was Aziru, son of Abdashirta, a prince of Amurru, who even +before the death, of Amen-hotep III. endeavoured to extend his power +into the plain of Damascus. Akizzi, governor of Katna (near Horns or +Hamath), reported this to the Pharaoh who seems to have frustrated the +attempt. In the next reign, however, both father and son caused infinite +trouble to loyal servants of Egypt like Rib-Addi, governor of Gubla +(Gebal). + +It was, first, the advance of the Hatti (Hittites) into Syria, which +began in the time of Amen-hotep III., but became far more threatening in +that of his successor, and next, the resumption of the second Arabian +migration, which most seriously undermined the Egyptian power in Asia. +Of the former we cannot speak here (see HITTITES), except so far as to +remark the Abd-Ashirta and his son Aziru, though at first afraid of the +Hatti, was afterwards clever enough to make a treaty with their king, +and, with other external powers, to attack the districts which remained +loyal to Egypt. In vain did Rib-Addi send touching appeals for aid to +the distant Pharaoh, who was far too much engaged in his religious +innovations to attend to such messages. What most interests us is the +mention of troublesome invaders called some times _sa-gas_ (a Babylonian +ideogram meaning "robber"), sometimes Habiri. Who are these Habiri? Not, +as was at first thought by some, specially the Israelites, but all those +tribes of land-hungry nomads ("Hebrews") who were attracted by the +wealth and luxury of the settled regions, and sought to appropriate it +for themselves. Among these we may include not only the Israelites or +tribes which afterwards became Israelitish, but the Moabites, Ammonites +and Edomites. We meet with the Habiri in north Syria. Itakkama writes +thus to the Pharaoh,[11] "Behold, Namyawaza has surrendered all the +cities of the king, my lord, to the SA-GAS in the land of Kadesh and in +Ubi. But I will go, and if thy gods and thy sun go before me, I will +bring back the cities to the king, my lord, from the Habiri, to show +myself subject to him; and I will expel the SA-GAS." Similarly Zimrida, +king of Sidon, declares, "All my cities which the king has given into my +hand, have come into the hand of the Habiri."[12] Nor had Palestine any +immunity from the Arabian invaders. The king of _Jerusalem_, Abd-Hiba, +the second part of whose name has been thought to represent the Hebrew +Yahweh,[13] reports thus to the Pharaoh, "If (Egyptian) troops come this +year, lands and princes will remain to the king, my lord; but if troops +come not, these lands and princes will not remain to the king, my +lord."[14] Abd-Hiba's chief trouble arose from persons called Milkili and +the sons of Lapaya, who are said to have entered into a treasonable +league with the Habiri. Apparently this restless warrior found his death +at the siege of Gina.[15] All these princes, however, malign each other +in their letters to the Pharaoh, and protest their own innocence of +traitorous intentions. Namyawaza, for instance, whom Itakkama (see +above) accuses of disloyalty, writes thus to the Pharaoh, "Behold, I and +my warriors and my chariots, together with my brethren and my SA-GAS, +and my Suti[16] are at the disposal of the (royal) troops, to go +whithersoever the king, my lord, commands."[17] This petty prince, +therefore, sees no harm in having a band of Arabians for his garrison, +as indeed Hezekiah long afterwards had his Urbi to help him against +Sennacherib. + +From the same period we have recently derived fresh and important +evidence as to pre-Israelitish Palestine. As soon as the material +gathered is large enough to be thoroughly classified and critically +examined, a true history of early Palestine will be within measurable +distance. At present, there are five places whence the new evidence has +been obtained: 1. Tell-el-Hasy, generally identified with the Lachish of +the Old Testament. Excavations were made here in 1890-1892 by Flinders +Petrie and Bliss. 2. Gezer, plausibly identified with the Gezer of I +Kings ix. 16. Here R.A.S. Macalister began excavating in 1902. 3. +Tell-es-Safy, possibly the Gath of the Old Testament, 6 m. from +Eleutheropolis. Here F.J. Bliss and R.A.S. Macalister made some +discoveries in 1899-1900. A complete examination of the site, however, +was impossible. 4. Tell-el-Mutasellim, near Lejjun (Megiddo-Legio). +Schumacher began working here in 1903 for the German Palestine Society. +5. Taannek, on the south of the plain of Esdraelon. Here Prof. Ernst +Sellin of Vienna was able to do much in a short time (1902-1904). It may +be mentioned here that on the first of these sites a cuneiform tablet +belonging to the Amarna series was discovered; at Gezer, a deed of sale; +at Tell-el-Hasy the remains of a Babylonian stele, three seals, and +three cylinders with Babylonian mythological representations; at +Tell-el-Mutasellim, a seal bearing a Babylonian legend, and at Taannek, +twelve tablets and fragments of tablets were found near the fragments of +the terracotta box in which they were stored. It is a remarkable fact +that the kings or chiefs of the neighbourhood should have used +Babylonian cuneiform in their own official correspondence. But much +beside tablets has been found on these sites; primitive sanctuaries, for +instance. The splendid alignment of monoliths at Gezer is described in +detail in _P.E.F. Quart. Statement_, January 1903, p. 23, and July 1903, +p. 219. There is reason, as Macalister thinks, to believe that it is the +result of a gradual development, beginning with two small pillars, and +gradually enlarging by later additions. There is a smaller one at +Tell-es-Safy. The Semitic cult of sacred standing stones is thus proved +to be of great antiquity; Sellin's discoveries at Taannek and those of +Bliss at Tell-es-Safy fully confirm this. Rock-hewn altars have also +been found, illustrating the prohibition in Ex. xx. 25, 26, and numerous +jars with the skeletons of infants. We cannot doubt that the sacrificing +of children was practised on a large scale among the Canaanites. Their +chief deity was Ashtart (Astarte), the goddess of fertility. Numerous +images of her have been found, but none of the god Baal. The types of +the divine form vary in the different places. The other images which +have been found represent Egyptian deities. We must not, however, infer +that there was a large Egyptian element in the Canaanitish Pantheon. +What the images do prove is the large amount of intercourse between +Egypt and Canaan, and the presence of Egyptians in the subject country. + + See the _Tell-el-Amarna Letters_, ed. by Winckler, with translation + (1896); the reports of Macalister in the Pal. Expl. Fund Statements + from 1903 onwards; Sellin's report of excavations at Tell Ta'annek; + also H.W. Hogg, "Recent Assyriology," &c., in _Inaugural Lectures_ ed. + by Prof. A.S. Peake (Manchester University, 1905). On Biblical + questions, see Dillmann's commentaries and the Bible dictionaries. See + further articles PALESTINE; JEWS. (T. K. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Enarralio in Psalm civ._ + + [2] W.M. Muller, _Asien und Europa, _p. 205. + + [3] The letters are written in the official and diplomatic + language--Babylonian, though "Canaanitish" words and idioms are not + wanting. + + [4] _Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, _p. 181. + + [5] These explanations are endorsed by Driver _ (Genesis, on _Gen. x.). + + [6] See the relevant articles in _Ency. Bib. _and Cheyne's _Genesis + and Exodus._ + + [7] For the grounds of these dates see Winckler, _Gesch. Isr._ i. 127 + f.; Paton, _Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine_ (1902), pp. 6-8, + 25-28. + + [8] It is true the Babylonians themselves interpreted the name + differently (5 R. 44 a b 21), _kimta rapashtum_, "wide family." That, + however, is only a natural protest against what we may call Canaanism + or Arabism. + + [9] See Cheyne, _Genesis and Exodus_ (on Gen. i. 26), and cf. G.A. + Cooke, _N. Sem. Inscriptions_ (e.g. pp. 30-40, on Eshmunazar's + inscription). + + [10] See _Amarna Letters_, Winckler's edition, No. 7. + + [11] _Op. cit._ No. 146. + + [12] _Op. cit._ No. 147. + + [13] Johns, _Assyrian Deeds_, iii. p. 16. + + [14] _Amarna Letters_, No. 180 (xi. 20-24). + + [15] _Ibid._ No. 164 (xi. 15-18). + + [16] Nomads of the Syrian desert. + + [17] _Amarna Letters_, No. 144 (xi. 24-32). + + + + +CANACHUS, a sculptor of Sicyon in Achaea, of the latter part of the 6th +century B.C. He was especially noted as the author of two great statues +of Apollo, one in bronze made for the temple at Miletus, and one in +cedar wood made for Thebes. The coins of Miletus furnish us with copies +of the former and show the god to have held a stag in, one hand and a +bow in the other. The rigidity of these works naturally impressed later +critics. + + + + +CANADA. The Dominion of Canada comprises the northern half of the +continent of North America and its adjacent islands, excepting Alaska, +which belongs to the United States, and Newfoundland, still a separate +colony of the British empire. Its boundary on the south is the parallel +of latitude 49 deg., between the Pacific Ocean and Lake-of-the-Woods, +then a chain of small lakes and rivers eastward to the mouth of Pigeon +river on the north-west side of Lake Superior, and the Great Lakes with +their connecting rivers to Cornwall, on the St Lawrence. From this +eastward to the state of Maine the boundary is an artificial line nearly +corresponding to lat. 45 deg.; then an irregular line partly determined +by watersheds and rivers divides Canada from Maine, coming out on the +Bay of Fundy. The western boundary is the Pacific on the south, an +irregular line a few miles inland from the coast along the "pan handle" +of Alaska to Mount St Elias, and the meridian of 141 deg. to the Arctic +Ocean. A somewhat similar relationship cuts off Canada from the Atlantic +on the east, the north-eastern coast of Labrador belonging to +Newfoundland. + +_Physical Geography._--In spite of these restrictions of its natural +coast line on both the Atlantic and the Pacific, Canada is admirably +provided with harbours on both oceans. The Gulf of St Lawrence with its +much indented shores and the coast of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick +supply endless harbours, the northern ones closed by ice in the winter, +but the southern ones open all the year round; and on the Pacific +British Columbia is deeply fringed with islands and fjords with +well-sheltered harbours everywhere, in strong contrast with the unbroken +shore of the United States to the south. The long stretches of sheltered +navigation from the Straits of Belle Isle north of Newfoundland to +Quebec, and for 600 m. on the British Columbian coast, are of great +advantage for the coasting trade. The greatly varied Arctic coast line +of Canada with its large islands, inlets and channels is too much +clogged with ice to be of much practical use, but Hudson Bay, a +mediterranean sea 850 m. long from north to south and 600 m. wide, with +its outlet Hudson Strait, has long been navigated by trading ships and +whalers, and may become a great outlet for the wheat of western Canada, +though closed by ice except for four months in the summer. Of the nine +provinces of Canada only three have no coast line on salt water, +Manitoba, Alberta and Saskatchewan, and the first may soon be extended +to Hudson Bay. Ontario has a seaboard only on Hudson Bay's southern +extension, James Bay, and there is no probability that the shallow +harbours of the latter bay will ever be of much importance for shipping, +though Churchill Harbour on the west side of Hudson Bay may become an +important grain port. What Ontario lacks in salt water navigation is, +however, made up by the busy traffic of the Great Lakes. + + + Geology. + +The physical features of Canada are comparatively simple, and drawn on a +large scale, more than half of its surface sloping gently inwards +towards the shallow basin of Hudson Bay, with higher margins to the +south-east and south-west. In the main it is a broad trough, wider +towards the north than towards the south, and unsymmetrical, Hudson Bay +occupying much of its north-eastern part, while to the west broad plains +rise gradually to the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern +member of the Cordillera which follows the Pacific coast of America. The +physical geography of Canada is so closely bound up with its geology +that at least an outline of the geological factors involved in its +history is necessary to understand the present physiography. The +mountain structures originated in three great orogenic periods, the +earliest in the Archean, the second at the end of the Palaeozoic and the +third at the end of the Mesozoic. The Archean mountain chains, which +enclosed the present region of Hudson Bay, were so ancient that they had +already been worn down almost to a plain before the early Palaeozoic +sediments were laid down. This ruling geological and physical feature of +the North American continent has been named by E. Suess the "Canadian +Shield." Round it the Palaeozoic sands and clays, largely derived from +its own waste, were deposited as nearly horizontal beds, in many places +still almost undisturbed. Later the sediments lying to the south-east of +this "protaxis," or nucleus of the continent, were pushed against its +edge and raised into the Appalachian chain of mountains, which, however, +extends only a short distance into Canada. The Mesozoic sediments were +almost entirely laid down to the west and south-west of the protaxis, +upon the flat-lying Palaeozoic rocks, and in the prairie region they are +still almost horizontal; but in the Cordillera they have been thrust up +into the series of mountain chains characterizing the Pacific coast +region. The youngest of these mountain chains is naturally the highest, +and the oldest one in most places no longer rises to heights deserving +the name of mountains. Owing to this unsymmetric development of North +America the main structural watershed is towards its western side, on +the south coinciding with the Rocky Mountains proper, but to the +northward falling back to ranges situated further west in the same +mountain region. The great central area of Canada is drained towards +Hudson Bay, but its two largest rivers have separate watersheds, the +Mackenzie flowing north-west to the Arctic Ocean and the St Lawrence +north-east towards the Atlantic, the one to the south-west and the other +to the south-east of the Archean protaxis. While these ancient events +shaped the topography in a broad way, its final development was +comparatively recent, during the glacial period, when the loose +materials were scoured from some regions and spread out as boulder clay, +or piled up as moraines in others; and the original water-ways were +blocked in many places. The retreat of the ice left Canada much in its +present condition except for certain post-glacial changes of level which +seem to be still in progress. For this reason the region has a very +youthful topography with innumerable lakes and waterfalls as evidence +that the rivers have not long been at work. The uneven carving down of +the older mountain systems, especially that of the Archean pro taxis, +and the disorderly scattering of glacial material provide most of the +lake basins so characteristic of Canada. + +_Lakes and Rivers._--As a result of the geological causes just mentioned +many parts of Canada are lavishly strewn with lakes of all sizes and +shapes, from bodies of water hundreds of miles long and a thousand feet +deep to ponds lost to sight in the forest. Thousands of these lakes have +been mapped more or less carefully, and every new survey brings to light +small lakes hitherto unknown to the white man. For numbers they can be +compared only with those of Finland and Scandinavia in Europe, and for +size with those of eastern Africa; but for the great extent of +lake-filled country there is no comparison. From the map it will be +noticed that the largest and most thickly strewn lakes occur within five +hundred or a thousand miles of Hudson Bay, and belong to the Archean +protaxis or project beyond its edges into the Palaeozoic sedimentary +rocks which lean against it. The most famous of the lakes are those of +the St Lawrence system, which form part of the southern boundary of +Canada and are shared with the United States; but many others have the +right to be called "Great Lakes" from their magnitude. There are nine +others which have a length of more than 100 m., and thirty-five which +are more than 50 m. long. Within the Archean protaxis they are of the +most varied shapes, since they represent merely portions of the +irregular surface inundated by some morainic dam at the lowest point. +Comparatively few have simple outlines and an unbroken surface of water, +the great majority running into long irregular bays and containing many +islands, sometimes even thousands in number, as in Georgian Bay and +Lake-of-the-Woods. In the Cordilleran region on the other hand the lakes +are long, narrow and deep, in reality sections of mountain valleys +occupied by fresh water, just as the fjords of the adjoining coast are +valleys occupied by the sea. The lakes of the different regions present +the same features as the nearest sea coasts but on a smaller scale. The +majority of the lakes have rocky shores and islands and great variety of +depth, many of the smaller ones, however, are rimmed with marshes and +are slowly filling up with vegetable matter, ultimately becoming peat +bogs, the _muskegs_ of the Indian. Most of Canada is so well watered +that the lakes have outlets and are kept fresh, but there are a few +small lakes in southern Saskatchewan, e.g. the Quill and Old Wives +lakes, in regions arid enough to require no outlets. In such cases the +waters are alkaline, and contain various salts in solution which are +deposited as a white rim round the basin towards the end of the summer +when the amount of water has been greatly reduced by evaporation. It is +interesting to find maritime plants, such as the samphire, growing on +their shores a thousand miles from the sea and more than a thousand feet +above it. In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over at the +lowest point from one basin into the next below, making chains of lakes +with no long or well-defined channels between, since in so young a +country there has not yet been time for the rivers to have carved wide +valleys. Thus canoe navigation may be carried on for hundreds of miles, +with here and there a waterfall or a rapid requiring a portage of a few +hundred yards or at most a mile or two. The river systems are therefore +in many cases complex and tortuous, and very often the successive +connecting links between the lakes receive different names. The best +example of this is the familiar one of the St Lawrence, which may be +said to begin as Nipigon river and to take the names St Mary's, St +Clair, Detroit and Niagara, before finally flowing from Lake Ontario to +the sea under its proper name. As these lakes are great reservoirs and +settling basins, the rivers which empty them are unusually steady in +level and contain beautifully clear water. The St Lawrence varies only a +few feet in the year and always has pellucid bluish-green water, while +the Mississippi, whose tributaries begin only a short distance south of +the Great Lakes, varies 40 ft. or more between high- and low-water and +is loaded with mud. The St Lawrence is far the most important Canadian +river from the historic and economic points of view, since it provided +the main artery of exploration in early days, and with its canals past +rapids and between lakes still serves as a great highway of trade +between the interior of the continent and the seaports of Montreal and +Quebec. It is probable that politically Canada would have followed the +course of the States to the south but for the planting of a French +colony with widely extended trading posts along the easily ascended +channel of the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes, so that this river was +the ultimate bond of union between Canada and the empire. + +North of the divide between the St Lawrence system and Hudson Bay there +are many large rivers converging on that inland sea, such as Whale +river, Big river, East Main, Rupert and Nottaway rivers coming in from +Ungava and northern Quebec; Moose and Albany rivers with important +tributaries from northern Ontario; and Severn, Nelson and Churchill +rivers from the south-west. All of these are rapid and shallow, +affording navigation only for canoes; but the largest of them, Nelson +river, drains the great Manitoban lakes, Winnipeg, Winnipegosis and +Manitoba, which are frequented by steamers, and receive the waters of +Lake-of-the-Woods, Lake Seul and many others emptying into Winnipeg +river from Ontario; of Red river coming in from the United States to the +south; and of the southern parts of the Rocky Mountains and the western +prairie provinces drained by the great Saskatchewan river. The parallel +of 49 deg. approximately separates the Saskatchewan waters from the +streams going south to the Missouri, though a few small tributaries of +the latter river begin on Canadian territory. + +The northern part of Alberta and Saskatchewan and much of northern +British Columbia are drained through the Athabasca and Peace rivers, +first north-eastwards towards Athabasca Lake, then north through Slave +river to Great Slave Lake, and finally north-west through Mackenzie +river to the Arctic Ocean. If measured to the head of Peace river the +Mackenzie has a length of more than 2000 m., and it provides more than +1000 m. of navigation for stern-wheel steamers. Unfortunately, like +other northward-flowing rivers, it does not lead down to a frequented +sea, and so bears little traffic except for the northern fur-trading +posts. The Mackenzie forms a large but little-known delta in lat. 69 +deg., and in its flood season the head-waters pour down their torrents +before the thick ice of the lower part with its severer climate has yet +given way, piling up the ice in great barriers and giving rise to +widespread floods along the lower reaches. Similar flooding takes place +in several other important northward-flowing rivers in Canada, the St +Lawrence at Montreal affording the best-known instance. Second among the +great north-western rivers is the Yukon, which begins its course about +18 m. from tide-water on an arm of the Pacific, 2800 ft. above the sea +and just within the Canadian border. It flows first to the north, then +to the north-west, passing out of the Yukon territory into Alaska, and +then south-west, ending in Bering Sea, the northward projection of the +Pacific, 2000 m. from its head-waters. Of its course 1800 m. are +continuously navigable for suitable steamers, so that most of the +traffic connected with the rich Klondike gold-fields passes over its +waters. The rest of the rivers flowing into the Pacific pass through +British Columbia and are much shorter, though the two southern ones +carry a great volume of water owing to the heavy precipitation of snow +and rain in the Cordilleran region. The Columbia is the largest, but +after flowing north-west and then south for about 400 m., it passes into +the United States. With its expansions, the narrow and deep Arrow lakes, +it is an important waterway in the Kootenay region. The Fraser, next in +size but farther north, follows a similar course, entering the sea at +Vancouver; while the Skeena and Stikine in northern British Columbia are +much shorter and smaller, owing to the encroachments of Peace and Liard +rivers, tributaries of the Nelson, on the Cordilleran territory. All of +these rivers are waterways of some importance in their lower course, and +are navigated by powerful stern-wheel boats supplying the posts and +mining camps of the interior with their requirements. In most cases they +reach the coast through deep valleys or profound canyons, and the +transcontinental railways find their way beside them, the Canadian +Pacific following at first tributaries of the Columbia near its great +bend, and afterwards Thompson river and the Fraser; while the Grand +Trunk Pacific makes use of the valley of the Skeena and its tributaries. +The divide between the rivers flowing west and those flowing east and +north is very sharp in the southern Rocky Mountains, but there are two +lakes, the Committee's Punch Bowl and Fortress Lake, right astride of +it, sending their waters both east and west; and there is a mountain +somewhat south of Fortress Lake whose melting snows drain in three +directions into tributaries of the Columbia, the Saskatchewan and the +Athabasca, so that they are distributed between the Pacific, the +Atlantic (Hudson Bay) and the Arctic Oceans. The divide between the St +Lawrence and Hudson Bay in eastern Canada also presents one or two lakes +draining each way, but in a much less striking position, since the +water-parting is flat and boggy instead of being a lofty range of +mountains. The rivers of Canada, except the St Lawrence, are losing +their importance as means of communication from year to year, as +railways spread over the interior and cross the mountains to the +Pacific; but from the point of view of the physical geographer there are +few things more remarkable than the intricate and comprehensive way in +which they drain the country. As most of the Canadian rivers have +waterfalls on their course, they must become of more and more importance +as sources of power. The St Lawrence system, for instance, generates +many thousand horse-power at Sault Ste Marie, Niagara and the Lachine +rapids. All the larger cities of Canada make use of water power in this +way, and many new enterprises of the kind are projected in eastern +Canada; but the thousands of feet of fall of the rivers in the Rocky +Mountain region are still almost untouched, though they will some day +find use in manufactures like those of Switzerland. + +_The Archean Protaxis._--The broad geological and geographical +relationships of the country have already been outlined, but the more +important sub-divisions may now be taken up with more detail, and for +that purpose five areas may be distinguished, much the largest being the +Archean protaxis, covering about 2,000,000 sq. m. It includes Labrador, +Ungava and most of Quebec on the east, northern Ontario on the south; +and the western boundary runs from Lake-of-the-Woods north-west to the +Arctic Ocean near the mouth of Mackenzie river. The southern parts of +the Arctic islands, especially Banksland, belong to it also. This vast +area, shaped like a broad-limbed V or U, with Hudson Bay in the centre, +is made up chiefly of monotonous and barren Laurentian gneiss and +granite; but scattered through it are important stretches of Keewatin +and Huronian rocks intricately folded as synclines in the gneiss, as +suggested earlier, the bases of ancient mountain ranges. The Keewatin +and Huronian, consisting of greenstones, schists and more or less +metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, are of special interest for their ore +deposits, which include most of the important metals, particularly iron, +nickel, copper and silver. The southern portion of the protaxis is now +being opened up by railways, but the far greater northern part is known +only along the lakes and rivers which are navigable by canoe. Though +once consisting of great mountain ranges there are now no lofty +elevations in the region except along the Atlantic border in Labrador, +where summits of the Nachvak Mountains are said to reach 6000 ft. or +more. In every other part the surface is hilly or mammilated, the harder +rocks, such as granite or greenstone, rising as rounded knobs, or in the +case of schists forming narrow ridges, while the softer parts form +valleys generally floored with lakes. From the summit of any of the +higher hills one sees that the region is really a somewhat dissected +plain, for all the hills rise to about the same level with a uniform +skyline at the horizon. The Archean protaxis is sometimes spoken of as +a plateau, but probably half of it falls below 1000 ft. The lowland part +includes from 100 to 500 m. all round the shore of Hudson Bay, and +extends south-west to the edge of the Palaeozoic rocks on Lake Winnipeg. +Outwards from the bay the level rises slowly to an average of about 1500 +ft., but seldom reaches 2000 ft. except at a few points near Lake +Superior and on the eastern coast of Labrador. In most parts the +Laurentian hills are bare _roches moutonnees_ scoured by the glaciers of +the Ice Age, but a broad band of clay land extends across northern +Quebec and Ontario just north of the divide. The edges of the protaxis +are in general its highest parts, and the rivers flowing outwards often +have a descent of several hundred feet in a few miles towards the Great +Lakes, the St Lawrence or the Atlantic, and in some cases they have cut +back deep gorges or canyons into the tableland. The waterfalls are +utilized at a few points to work up into wood pulp the forests of spruce +which cover much of Labrador, Quebec and Ontario. Most of the pine that +formerly grew on the Archean at the northern fringe of the settlements +has been cut, but the lumberman is still advancing northwards and +approaching the northern limit of the famous Canadian white pine +forests, beyond which spruces, tamarack (larch) and poplar are the +prevalent trees. As one advances northward the timber grows smaller and +includes fewer species of trees, and finally the timber line is reached, +near Churchill on the west coast of Hudson Bay and somewhat farther +south on the Labrador side. Beyond this to the north are the "barren +grounds" on which herds of caribou (reindeer) and musk ox pasture, +migrating from north to south according to the season. There are no +permanent ice sheets known on the mainland of north-eastern Canada, but +some of the larger islands to the north of Hudson Bay and Straits are +partially covered with glaciers on their higher points. Unless by its +mineral resources, of which scarcely anything is known, the barren +grounds can never support a white population and have little to tempt +even the Indian or Eskimo, who visit it occasionally in summer to hunt +the deer in their migrations. + +_The Acadian Region._--The "maritime provinces" of eastern Canada, +including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island, may be +considered together; and to these provinces as politically bounded may +be added, from a physical point of view, the analogous south-eastern +part of Quebec--the entire area being designated the Acadian region. +Taken as a whole, this eastern part of Canada, with a very irregular and +extended coast-line on the Gulf of St Lawrence and the Atlantic, may be +regarded as a northern continuation of the Appalachian mountain system +that runs parallel to the Atlantic coast of the United States. The rocks +underlying it have been subjected to successive foldings and crumplings +by forces acting chiefly from the direction of the Atlantic Ocean, with +alternating prolonged periods of waste and denudation. The main axis of +disturbance and the highest remaining land runs through the +south-eastern part of Quebec, forming the Notre Dame Mountains, and +terminates in the Gaspe peninsula as the Shickshock Mountains. The +first-named seldom exceed 1500 ft. in height, but the Shickshocks rise +above 3000 ft. The province of New Brunswick exhibits approximately +parallel but subordinate ridges, with wide intervening areas of nearly +flat Silurian and Carboniferous rocks. The peninsula of Nova Scotia, +connected by a narrow neck with New Brunswick, is formed by still +another and more definite system of parallel ridges, deeply fretted on +all sides by bays and harbours. A series of quartzites and slates +referred to the Cambrian, and holding numerous and important veins of +auriferous quartz, characterize its Atlantic or south-eastern side, +while valuable coal-fields occur in Cape Breton and on parts of its +shores on the Gulf of St Lawrence. In New Brunswick the Carboniferous +rocks occupy a large area, but the coal seams so far developed are thin +and unimportant. Metalliferous ores of various kinds occur both in Nova +Scotia and in this province, but with the exception of the gold already +mentioned, have not yet become the objects of important industries. +Copper and asbestos are the principal mineral products of that part of +Quebec included in the region now under description, although many +other minerals are known and already worked to some extent. Extensive +tracts of good arable land exist in many parts of the Acadian region. +Its surface was originally almost entirely wooded, and the products of +the forest continue to hold a prominent place. Prince Edward Island, the +smallest province of Canada, is low and undulating, based on +Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic rocks affording a red and very fertile +soil, much of which is under cultivation. + +_The St Lawrence Plain._--As the St Lawrence invited the earliest +settlers to Canada and gave the easiest communication with the Old +World, it is not surprising to find the wealthiest and most populous +part of the country on its shores and near the Great Lakes which it +leads up to; and this early development was greatly helped by the flat +and fertile plain which follows it inland for over 600 m. from the city +of Quebec to Lake Huron. This affords the largest stretch of arable land +in eastern Canada, including the southern parts of Ontario and Quebec +with an area of some 38,000 sq. m. In Quebec the chief portion is south +of the St Lawrence on the low plain extending from Montreal to the +mountains of the "Eastern Townships," while in Ontario it extends from +the Archean on the north to the St Lawrence and Lakes Ontario, Erie and +Huron. The whole region is underlain by nearly horizontal and +undisturbed rocks of the Palaeozoic from the Devonian downward. +Superimposed on these rocks are Pleistocene boulder clay, and clay and +sand deposited in post-glacial lakes or an extension of the Gulf of St +Lawrence. Though petroleum and salt occur in the south-west peninsula of +Ontario, metalliferous deposits are wanting, and the real wealth of this +district lies in its soil and climate, which permit the growth of all +the products of temperate regions. Georgian Bay and the northern part of +Lake Huron with the whole northern margin of Lake Superior bathe the +foot of the Laurentian plateau, which rises directly from these lakes; +so that the older fertile lands of the country with their numerous +cities and largely-developed manufactures are cut off by an elevated, +rocky and mostly forest-covered tract of the Archean from the newer and +far more extensive farm lands of the west. For many years this southern +projection of the northern wilderness was spanned by only one railway, +and offered a serious hindrance to the development of the regions +beyond; but settlements are now spreading to the north and rapidly +filling up the gap between east and west. + +_The Interior Continental Plain._--Passing westward by rail from the +forest-covered Archean with its rugged granite hills, the flat prairie +of Manitoba with its rich grasses and multitude of flowers comes as a +very striking contrast, introducing the Interior Continental plain in +its most typical development. This great plain runs north-westward +between the border of the Archean protaxis and the line of the Rocky +Mountains, including most of Manitoba, the southern part of Saskatchewan +and most of Alberta. At the international boundary in lat. 49 deg. it is +800 m. wide, but in lat. 56 deg. it has narrowed to 400 m. in width, and +to the north of lat. 62 deg. it is still narrower and somewhat +interrupted, but preserves its main physical features to the Arctic +Ocean about the mouth of the Mackenzie. This interior plain of the +continent represents the area of the ancient sea by which it was +occupied in Mesozoic times, with a more ancient margin towards the +north-west against the Archean, where undisturbed limestones and other +rocks of the Silurian and Devonian rest upon the downward slope of the +Laurentian Shield. Most of the plains are underlain by Cretaceous and +early Tertiary shales and sandstones lying nearly unaltered and +undisturbed where they were deposited, although now raised far above +sea-level, particularly along the border of the Rocky Mountains where +they were thrust up into foot-hills when the range itself was raised. +These strata have been subjected to great denudation, but owing to their +comparatively soft character this has been, in the main, nearly uniform, +and has produced no very bold features of relief, Coal and lignitic coal +are the principal economic minerals met with in this central plain, +though natural gas occurs and is put to use near Medicine Hat, and "tar +sands" along the north-eastern edge of the Cretaceous indicate the +presence of petroleum. Its chief value lies in its vast tracts of +fertile soil, now rapidly filling up with settlers from all parts of the +world, and the grassy uplands in the foot-hill region affording +perennial pasturage for the cattle, horses and sheep of the rancher. +Though the region is spoken of as a plain there are really great +differences of level between the highest parts in south-western Alberta, +4500 ft. above the sea, and the lowest in the region of Lake Winnipeg, +where the prairie is at an elevation of only 800 ft. The very flat and +rich prairie near Winnipeg is the former bed of the glacial Lake +Agassiz; but most of the prairie to the west is of a gently rolling +character and there are two rather abrupt breaks in the plain, the most +westerly one receiving the name of the Missouri Coteau. The first step +represents a rise to 1600 ft., and the second to 3000 ft. on an average. +In so flat a country any elevation of a few hundred feet is remarkable +and is called a mountain, so that Manitoba has its Duck and Riding +mountains. More important than the hills are the narrow and often rather +deep river valleys cut below the general level, exposing the soft rocks +of the Cretaceous and in many places seams of lignite. When not too deep +the river channels may be traced from afar across the prairie by the +winding band of trees growing beside the water. The treeless part of the +plains, the prairie proper, has a triangular shape with an area twice as +large as that of Great Britain. North of the Saskatchewan river groves +or "bluffs" of trees begin, and somewhat farther north the plains are +generally wooded, because of the slightly more humid climate. It has +been proved, however, that certain kinds of trees if protected will grow +also on the prairie, as may be seen around many of the older +farm-steads. In the central southern regions the climate is arid enough +to permit of "alkaline" ponds and lakes, which may completely dry up in +summer, and where a supply of drinking-water is often hard to obtain, +though the land itself is fertile. + +_The Cordilleran Belt._--The Rocky Mountain region as a whole, best +named the Cordillera or Cordilleran belt, includes several parallel +ranges of mountains of different structures and ages, the eastern one +constituting the Rocky Mountains proper. This band of mountains 400 m. +wide covers towards the south almost all of British Columbia and a strip +of Alberta east of the watershed, and towards the north forms the whole +of the Yukon Territory. While it is throughout essentially a mountainous +country, very complicated in its orographic features and interlocking +river systems, two principal mountain axes form its ruling features--the +Rocky Mountains proper, above referred to, and the Coast Ranges. Between +them are many other ranges shorter and less regular in trend, such as +the Selkirk Mountains, the Gold Ranges and the Caribou Mountains. There +is also in the southern inland region an interior plateau, once probably +a peneplain, but now elevated and greatly dissected by river valleys, +which extends north-westward for 500 m. with a width of about 100 m. and +affords the largest areas of arable and pasture land in British +Columbia. Similar wide tracts of less broken country occur, after a +mountainous interruption, in northern British Columbia and to some +extent in the Yukon Territory, where wide valleys and rolling hills +alternate with short mountain ranges of no great altitude. The Pacific +border of the coast range of British Columbia is ragged with fjords and +channels, where large steamers may go 50 or 100 m. inland between +mountainous walls as on the coast of Norway; and there is also a +bordering mountain system partly submerged forming Vancouver Island and +the Queen Charlotte Islands. The highest mountains of the Cordillera in +Canada are near the southern end of the boundary separating Alaska from +the Yukon Territory, the meridian of 141 deg., and they include Mount +Logan (19,540 ft.) and Mount St Elias (18,000 ft.), while the highest +peak in North America, Mount McKinley (20,000 ft.), is not far to the +north-west in Alaska. This knot of very lofty mountains, with Mount +Fairweather and some others, all snowy and glacier-clad for almost their +whole height, are quite isolated from the highest points of the Rocky +Mountains proper, which are 1000 m. to the south-east. Near the height +of land between British Columbia and Alberta there are many peaks which +rise from 10,000 to 12,000 ft. above sea-level, the highest which has +been carefully measured being Mount Robson (13,700 ft.). The next range +to the east, the Selkirks, has several summits that reach 10,000 ft. or +over, while the Coast Ranges scarcely go beyond 9000 ft. The snow line +in the south is from 7500 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being lower on +the Pacific side where the heaviest snowfall comes in winter than on the +drier north-eastern side. The snow line gradually sinks as one advances +north-west, reaching only 2000 or 3000 ft. on the Alaskan coast. The +Rockies and Selkirks support thousands of glaciers, mostly not very +large, but having some 50 or 100 sq. m. of snowfield. All the glaciers +are now in retreat, with old tree-covered moraines, hundreds or +thousands of feet lower down the valley. The timber line is at about +7500 ft. in southern British Columbia and 4000 ft. in the interior of +the Yukon Territory. On the westward slopes, especially of the Selkirks +and Coast Ranges, vegetation is almost tropical in its density and +luxuriance, the giant cedar and the Douglas fir sometimes having +diameters of 10 ft. or more and rising to the height of 150 ft. On the +eastern flanks of the ranges the forest is much thinner, and on the +interior plateau and in many of the valleys largely gives way to open +grass land. The several ranges of the Cordillera show very different +types of structure and were formed at different ages, the Selkirks with +their core of pre-Cambrian granite, gneiss and schists coming first, +then the Coast Ranges, which seem to have been elevated in Cretaceous +times, formed mainly by a great upwelling of granite and diorite as +batholiths along the margin of the continent and sedimentary rocks lying +as remnants on their flanks; and finally the Rocky Mountains in the +Laramie or early Eocene, after the close of the Cretaceous. This latest +and also highest range was formed by tremendous thrusts from the Pacific +side, crumpling and folding the ancient sedimentary rocks, which run +from the Cambrian to the Cretaceous, and faulting them along overturned +folds. The outer ranges in Alberta have usually the form of tilted +blocks with a steep cliff towards the north-east and a gentler slope, +corresponding to the dip of the beds, towards the south-west. Near the +centre of the range there are broader foldings, carved into castle and +cathedral shapes. The most easterly range has been shown to have been +actually pushed 7 m. out upon the prairies. In the Rocky Mountains +proper no eruptive rocks have broken through, so that no ore deposits of +importance are known from them, but in the Cretaceous synclines which +they enclose valuable coal basins exist. Coal of a bituminous and also +semi-anthracite kind is produced, the best mined on the Pacific slope of +the continent, the coking coals of the Fernie region supplying the fuel +of the great metal mining districts of the Kootenays in British +Columbia, and of Montana and other states to the south. The Selkirks and +Gold Ranges west of the Rockies, with their great areas of eruptive +rocks, both ancient and modern, include most of the important mines of +gold, silver, copper and lead which give British Columbia its leadership +among the Canadian provinces as a producer of metals. In early days the +placer gold mines of the Columbia, Fraser and Caribou attracted miners +from everywhere, but these have declined, and lode mines supply most of +the gold as well as the other metals. The Coast Ranges and islands also +include many mines, especially of copper, but up to the present of less +value than those inland. Most of the mining development is in southern +British Columbia, where a network of railways and waterways gives easy +access; but as means of communication improve to the north a similar +development may be looked for there. The Atlin and White Horse regions +in northern British Columbia and southern Yukon have attracted much +attention, and the Klondike placers still farther north have furnished +many millions of dollars' worth of gold. Summing up the economic +features of the Cordilleran belt, it includes many of the best +coal-mines and the most extensive deposits of gold, copper, lead and +zinc of the Dominion, while in silver, nickel and iron Ontario takes the +lead. When its vast area stretching from the international boundary to +beyond the Arctic circle is opened up, it may be expected to prove the +counterpart of the great mining region of the Cordillera in the United +States to the south. + +_Climate_.--In a country like Canada ranging from lat. 42 deg. to the +Arctic regions and touching three oceans, there must be great variations +of climate. If placed upon Europe it would extend from Rome to the North +Cape, but latitude is of course only one of the factors influencing +climate, the arrangement of the ocean currents and of the areas of high +and low pressure making a very wide difference between the climates of +the two sides of the Atlantic. In reality the Pacific coast of Canada, +rather than the Atlantic coast, should be compared with western Europe, +the south-west corner of British Columbia, in lat. 48 deg. to 50 deg., +having a climate very similar to the southern coast of England. In +Canada the isotherms by no means follow parallels of latitude, +especially in summer when in the western half of the country they run +nearly north-west and south-east; so that the average temperature of 55 +deg. is found about on the Arctic circle in the Mackenzie river valley, +in lat. 50 deg. near the Lake-of-the-Woods, in lat. 55 deg. at the +northern end of James Bay, and in lat. 49 deg. on Anticosti in the Gulf +of St Lawrence. The proximity of the sea or of great lakes, the +elevation and the direction of mountain chains, the usual path of storms +and of prevalent winds, and the relative length of day and amount of +sunshine in summer and winter all have their effect on different parts +of Canada. One cannot even describe the climate of a single province, +like Ontario or British Columbia, as a unit, as it varies so greatly in +different parts. Details should therefore be sought in articles on the +separate provinces. In eastern Canada Ungava and Labrador are very chill +and inhospitable, owing largely to the iceberg-laden current sweeping +down the coast from Davis Strait, bringing fogs and long snowy winters +and a temperature for the year much below the freezing-point. South of +the Gulf of St Lawrence, however, the maritime provinces have much more +genial temperatures, averaging 40 deg. F. for the year and over 60 deg. +for the summer months. The amount of rain is naturally high so near the +sea, 40 to 56 in., but the snowfall is not usually excessive. In Quebec +and northern Ontario the rainfall is diminished, ranging from 20 to 40 +in., while the snows of winter are deep and generally cover the ground +from the beginning of December to the end of March. The winters are +brilliant but cold, and the summers average from 60 deg. to 65 deg. F., +with generally clear skies and a bracing atmosphere which makes these +regions favourite summer resorts for the people of the cities to the +south. The winter storms often sweep a little to the north of southern +Ontario, so that what falls as snow in the north is rain in the south, +giving a much more variable winter, often with too little snow for +sleighing. The summers are warm, with an average temperature of 65 deg. +and an occasional rise to 90 deg.. As one goes westward the +precipitation diminishes to 17.34 in. in Manitoba and 13.35 for the +other two prairie provinces, most of this, however, coming opportunely +from May to August, the months when the growing grain most requires +moisture. There is a much lighter snowfall in winter than in northern +Ontario and Quebec, with somewhat lower temperatures. The snow and the +frost in the ground are considered useful as furnishing moisture to +start the wheat in spring. The precipitation in southern Saskatchewan +and Alberta is much more variable than farther east and north, so that +in some seasons crops have been a failure through drought, but large +areas are now being brought under irrigation to avoid such losses. The +prairie provinces have in most parts a distinctly continental climate +with comparatively short, warm summers and long, cold winters, but with +much sunshine in both seasons. In southern Alberta, however, the winter +cold is often interrupted by chinooks, westerly winds which have lost +their moisture by crossing the mountains and become warmed by plunging +down to the plains, where they blow strongly, licking up the snow and +raising the temperature, sometimes in a few hours, from 20 deg. to 40 +deg. F. In this region cattle and horses can generally winter on the +grass of the ranges without being fed, though in hard seasons there may +be heavy losses. Northwards chinooks become less frequent and the +winter's cold increases, but the coming of spring is not much later, and +the summer temperatures, with sunshine for twenty hours out of +twenty-four in June, are almost the same as for hundreds of miles to +the south, so that most kinds of grain and vegetables ripen far to the +north in the Peace river valley. Though the climate of the plains is one +of extremes and often of rather sudden changes, it is brisk and +invigorating and of particular value for persons affected with lung +troubles. + +The climate of the Cordilleran region presents even more variety than +that of the other provinces because of the ranges of mountains which run +parallel to the Pacific. Along the coast itself the climate is insular, +with little frost in winter and mild heat in summer, and with a very +heavy rainfall amounting to 100 in. on the south-west side of Vancouver +Island and near Port Simpson. Within 100 m. inland beyond the Coast +Range the precipitation and general climate are, like those of Ontario, +comparatively mild and with moderate snowfall towards the south, but +with keen winters farther north. The interior plateau may be described +as arid, so that irrigation is required if crops are to be raised. The +Selkirk Mountains have a heavy rainfall and a tremendous snowfall on +their western flanks, but very much less precipitation on their eastern +side. The Rocky Mountains have the same relationships but the whole +precipitation is much less than in the Selkirks. The temperature depends +largely, of course, on altitude, so that one may quickly pass from +perpetual snow above 8000 ft. in the mountains to the mild, moist +climate of Vancouver or Victoria, which is like that of Devonshire. In +the far north of the territories of Yukon, Mackenzie and Ungava the +climate has been little studied, as the region is uninhabited by white +men except at a few fur-trading posts. North-west and north-east of +Hudson Bay it becomes too severe for the growth of trees as seen on the +"barren grounds," and there may be perpetual ice beneath the coating of +moss which serves as a non-conducting covering for the "tundras." There +is, however, so little precipitation that snow does not accumulate on +the surface to form glaciers, the summer's sun having warmth enough to +thaw what falls in the winter. Leaving out the maritime provinces, +southern Ontario, southern Alberta and the Pacific coast region on the +one hand, and the Arctic north, particularly near Hudson Bay, on the +other, Canada has snowy and severe winters, a very short spring with a +sudden rise of temperature, short warm summers, and a delightful autumn +with its "Indian summer." There is much sunshine, and the atmosphere is +bracing and exhilarating. + +_Flora_.--The general flora of the Maritime Provinces, Quebec and +Eastern Ontario is much the same, except that in Nova Scotia a number of +species are found common also to Newfoundland that are not apparent +inland. Professor Macoun gives us a few notable species--_Calluna +vulgaris_, Salisb., _Alchemilla vulgaris_, L., _Rhododendron maximum_, +L., _Ilex glabia_, Gray, _Hudsonia ericoides_, L., _Gaylussacia dumosa_, +F. and G., and _Schezaea pusilla_, Pursh. In New Brunswick the western +flora begins to appear as well as immigrants from the south, while in +the next eastern province, Quebec, the flora varies considerably. In the +lower St Lawrence country and about the Gulf many Arctic and sub-Arctic +species are found. On the shores of the lower reaches _Thalictrum +alpinum_, L., _Vesicaria arctica_, Richards, _Arapis alpina_, L., +_Saxifraga oppositifolia_, L., _Cerastium alpinum_, L., _Saxifraga +caespitosa_, L. and S. have been gathered, and on the Shickshock +Mountains of Eastern Canada _Silene acaulis_, L., _Lychnis alpina_, L., +_Cassiope hypnoides_, Don., _Rhododendron laponicum_, Wahl, and many +others. On the summit of these hills (4000 ft.) have been collected +_Aspidium aculeatum_, Swartz var., _Scopulinum_, D.C. Eaton, _Pellaea +densa_, Hook, _Gallium kamtschaticum_, Sletten. From the city of Quebec +westwards there is a constantly increasing ratio of southern forms, and +when the mountain (so called) at Montreal is reached the representative +Ontario flora begins. In Ontario the flora of the northern part is much +the same as that of the Gulf of St Lawrence, but from Montreal along the +Ottawa and St Lawrence valleys the flora takes a more southern aspect, +and trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants not found in the eastern parts +of the Dominion become common. In the forest regions north of the lakes +the vegetation on the shores of Lake Erie requires a high winter +temperature, while the east and north shores of Lake Superior have a +boreal vegetation that shows the summer temperature of this enormous +water-stretch to be quite low. Beyond the forest country of Ontario come +the prairies of Manitoba and the North-West Territories. In the ravines +the eastern flora continues for some distance, and then disappearing +gives place to that of the prairie, which is found everywhere between +the Red river and the Rocky Mountains except in wooded and damp +localities. Northwards, in the Saskatchewan country, the flora of the +forest and that of the prairies intermingle. On the prairies and the +foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains a great variety of grasses are found, +several years' collection resulting in 42 genera and 156 species. Of the +best hay and pasture grasses, _Agropyrum Elymus, Stipa, Bromus, +Agrostis, Calamagrostes_ and _Poa_, there are 59 species. Besides the +grasses there are leguminous plants valuable for pasture--_Astragalus, +Vicia_ (wild vetch), _Lathyrus_ (wild pea) of which there are many +species. The rose family is represented by _Prunus, Potentilla, +Fragaria, Rosa, Rubus_ and _Amelanchier_. + +About the saline lakes and marshes of the prairie country are found +_Ruppia maritima_, L., _Heliotropium curassavicum_, L., natives of the +Atlantic coast, and numerous species of _Chenopodium, Atriplex_ and +allied genera. The flora of the forest belt of the North-West +Territories differs little from that of northern Ontario. At the +beginning of the elevation of the Rocky Mountains there is a luxurious +growth of herbaceous plants, including a number of rare umbellifers. At +the higher levels the vegetation becomes more Arctic. Northwards the +valleys of the Peace and other rivers differ little from those of Quebec +and the northern prairies. On the western slope of the mountains, that +is, the Selkirk and Coast ranges as distinguished from the eastern or +Rocky Mountains range, the flora differs, the climate being damp instead +of dry. In some of the valleys having an outlet to the south the flora +is partly peculiar to the American desert, and such species as _Purshia +tridentata_, D.C., and _Artemisia tridentata_, Nutt., and species of +_Gilia, Aster_ and _Erigonum_ are found that are not met with elsewhere. +Above Yale, in the drier part of the Fraser valley, the absence of rain +results in the same character of flora, while in the rainy districts of +the lower Fraser the vegetation is so luxuriant that it resembles that +of the tropics. So in various parts of the mountainous country of +British Columbia, the flora varies according to climatic conditions. +Nearer the Pacific coast the woods and open spaces are filled with +flowers and shrubs. Liliaceous flowers are abundant, including +_Erythoniums, Trilliums, Alliums, Brodeaeas, Fritillarias, Siliums, +Camassias_ and others. + +_Fauna_.--The larger animals of Canada are the musk ox and the caribou +of the barren lands, both having their habitat in the far north; the +caribou of the woods, found in all the provinces except in Prince Edward +Island; the moose, with an equally wide range in the wooded country; the +Virginia deer, in one or other of its varietal forms, common to all the +southern parts; the black-tailed deer or mule deer and allied forms, on +the western edge of the plains and in British Columbia; the pronghorn +antelope on the plains, and a small remnant of the once plentiful bison +found in northern Alberta and Mackenzie, now called "wood buffalo." The +wapiti or American elk at one time abounded from Quebec to the Pacific, +and as far north as the Peace river, but is now found only in small +numbers from Manitoba westwards. In the mountains of the west are the +grizzly bear, black bear and cinnamon bear. The black bear is also +common to most other parts of Canada; the polar bear everywhere along +the Arctic littoral. The large or timber wolf is found in the wooded +districts of all the provinces, and on the plains there is also a +smaller wolf called the coyote. In British Columbia the puma or cougar, +sometimes called the panther and the American lion, still frequently +occurs; and in all parts the common fox and the silver fox, the lynx, +beaver, otter, marten, fisher, wolverene, mink, skunk and other +fur-bearing animals. Mountain and plain and Arctic hares and rabbits are +plentiful or scarce in localities, according to seasons or other +circumstances. In the mountains of British Columbia are the bighorn or +Rocky Mountain sheep and the Rocky Mountain goat, while the saddleback +and white mountain sheep have recently been discovered in the northern +Cordillera. The birds of Canada are mostly migratory, and are those +common to the northern and central states of the United States. The +wildfowl are, particularly in the west, in great numbers; their +breeding-grounds extending from Manitoba and the western prairies up to +Hudson Bay, the barren lands and Arctic coasts. The several kinds of +geese--including the Canada goose, the Arctic goose or wavey, the +laughing goose, the brant and others--all breed in the northern regions, +but are found in great numbers throughout the several provinces, passing +north in the spring and south in the autumn. There are several varieties +of grouse, the largest of which is the grouse of British Columbia and +the pennated grouse and the prairie chicken of Manitoba and the plains, +besides the so-called partridge and willow partridge, both of which are +grouse. While the pennated grouse (called the prairie chicken in Canada) +has always been plentiful, the prairie hen (or chicken) proper is a more +recent arrival from Minnesota and the Dakotas, to which it had come from +Illinois and the south as settlement and accompanying wheatfields +extended north. In certain parts of Ontario the wild turkey is +occasionally found and the ordinary quail, but in British Columbia is +found the California quail, and a larger bird much resembling it called +the mountain partridge. The golden eagle, bald-headed eagle, osprey and +a large variety of hawks are common in Canada, as are the snowy owl, the +horned owl and others inhabiting northern climates. The raven frequently +remains even in the colder parts throughout the winter; these, with the +Canada jay, waxwing, grosbeak and snow bunting, being the principal +birds seen in Manitoba and northern districts in that season. The rook +is not found, but the common crow and one or two other kinds are there +during the summer. Song-birds are plentiful, especially in wooded +regions, and include the American robin, oriole, thrushes, the cat-bird +and various sparrows; while the English sparrow, introduced years ago, +has multiplied excessively and become a nuisance in the towns. The +smallest of the birds, the ruby throat humming-bird, is found +everywhere, even up to timber line in the mountains. The sea-birds +include a great variety of gulls, guillemots, cormorants, albatrosses +(four species), fulmars and petrels, and in the Gulf of St Lawrence the +gannet is very abundant. Nearly all the sea-birds of Great Britain are +found in Canadian waters or are represented by closely allied species. + (A. P. C.) + +_Area and Population._--The following table shows the division of the +Dominion into provinces and districts, with the capital, population and +estimated area of each. + + +------------------------+-------------+--------------------------+---------------+ + | | | Population. | | + | | Area in +------------+-------------+ Official | + | | sq. mi. | 1881. | 1901. | Capital. | + +------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+ + | Provinces-- | | | | | + | Ontario | 260,862 | 1,926,922 | 2,182,947 | Toronto | + | Quebec | 351,873 | 1,359,027 | 1,648,898 | Quebec | + | Nova Scotia | 21,428 | 440,572 | 459,574 | Halifax | + | New Brunswick | 27,985 | 321,233 | 331,120 | Fredericton | + | Manitoba | 73,732 | 62,260 | 255,211[1]| Winnipeg | + | British Columbia | 372,630 | 49,459 | 178,657 | Victoria | + | Prince Edward Island | 2,184 | 108,891 | 103,259 | Charlottetown | + | Saskatchewan | 250,650 | \ 25,515 | 91,460[1]| Regina | + | Alberta | 253,540 | / | 72,841[1]| Edmonton | + | | | | | | + | Districts-- | | | | | + | Keewatin | 516,571 | \ | 8,800 | . . | + | Yukon | 196,976 | | | 27,219 | Dawson City | + | Mackenzie | 562,182 | > 30,931 | 5,216 | . . | + | Ungava | 354,961 | | | 5,113 | . . | + | Franklin | 500,000 | / | | . . | + +------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+ + | The Dominion | 3,745,574[2]| 4,324,810 | 5,371,315 | Ottawa | + +------------------------+-------------+------------+-------------+---------------+ + +In 1867 the Dominion was formed by the union of the provinces of Nova +Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec (Lower Canada) and Ontario (Upper Canada). +In 1869 the North-west Territories were purchased from the Hudson's Bay +Company, from a corner of which Manitoba was carved in the next year. In +1871 British Columbia and in 1873 Prince Edward Island joined the +Dominion. + +The islands and other districts within the Arctic circle became a +portion of the Dominion only in 1880, when all British possessions in +North America, excepting Newfoundland, with its dependency, the Labrador +coast, and the Bermuda islands, were annexed to Canada. West of the +province of Ontario, then inaccurately defined, the provinces of +Manitoba and British Columbia were the only organized divisions of the +western territory, but in 1882 the provisional districts of Assiniboia, +Athabasca, Alberta and Saskatchewan were formed, leaving the remainder +of the north-west as unorganized territories, a certain portion of the +north-east, called Keewatin, having previously been placed under the +lieutenant-governor of Manitoba. In 1905 these four districts were +formed into the two provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, and Keewatin +was placed directly under the federal government. In 1898, owing to the +influx of miners, the Yukon territory was constituted and granted a +limited measure of self-government. The unorganized territories are +sparsely inhabited by Indians, the people of the Hudson's Bay Company's +posts and a few missionaries. + +_Population_.--The growth of population is shown by the following +figures:--1871, 3,485,761; 1881, 4,324,810; 1891, 4,833,239; 1901, +5,371,315. Since 1901 the increase has been more rapid, and in 1905 +alone 144,621 emigrants entered Canada, of whom about two-fifths were +from Great Britain and one-third from the United States. + +The density of population is greatest in Prince Edward Island, where it +is 51.6 to the sq. m.; in Nova Scotia it is 22.3; New Brunswick, 11.8; +Ontario, 9.9; Manitoba, 4.9; Quebec, 4.8; Saskatchewan, 1.01; Alberta, +0.72; British Columbia, 0.4; the Dominion, 1.8. This is not an +indication of the density in settled parts; as in Quebec, Ontario and +the western provinces there are large unpopulated districts, the area of +which enters into the calculation. The population is composed mainly of +English- or French-speaking people, but there are German settlements of +some extent in Ontario, and of late years there has been a large +immigration into the western provinces and territories from other parts +of Europe, including Russians, Galicians, Polish and Russian Jews, and +Scandinavians. These foreign elements have been assimilated more slowly +than in the United States, but the process is being hastened by the +growth of a national consciousness. English, Irish and Scots and their +descendants form the bulk of the population of Ontario, French-Canadians +of Quebec, Scots of Nova Scotia, the Irish of a large proportion of New +Brunswick. In the other provinces the latter race tends to confine +itself to the cities. Manitoba is largely peopled from Ontario, together +with a decreasing number of half-breeds--i.e. children of white fathers +(chiefly French or Scottish) and Indian mothers--who originally formed +the bulk of its inhabitants. Alberta and Saskatchewan, particularly the +ranching districts, are chiefly peopled by English immigrants, though +since 1900 there has also been a large influx from the United States. +British Columbia contains a mixed population, of which in the mining +districts a large proportion is American. Since 1871 a great change has +taken place throughout the west, i.e. from Lake Superior to the Pacific. +Then Manitoba was principally inhabited by English and French +half-breeds (or Metis), descendants of Hudson's Bay Company's employes, +or adventurous pioneers from Quebec, together with Scottish settlers, +descendants of those brought out by Lord Selkirk (q.v.), some English +army pensioners and others, and the van of the immigration that shortly +followed from Ontario. Beyond Manitoba buffalo were still running on the +plains, and British Columbia having lost its mining population of 1859 +and 1860 was largely inhabited by Indians, its white population which +centred in the city of Victoria being principally English. + +French is the language of the province of Quebec, though English is much +spoken in the cities; both languages are officially recognized in that +province, and in the federal courts and parliament. Elsewhere, English +is exclusively used, save by the newly-arrived foreigners. The male sex +is slightly the more numerous in all the provinces except Quebec, the +greatest discrepancy existing in British Columbia. + +The birth-rate is high, especially in Quebec, where families of twelve +to twenty are not infrequent, but is decreasing in Ontario. In spite of +the growth of manufactures since 1878, there are few large cities, and +the proportion of the urban population to the rural is small. Herein it +differs noticeably from Australia. Between 1891 and 1901 the number of +farmers in Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime provinces decreased, and +there seemed a prospect of the country being divided into a +manufacturing east and an agricultural west, but latterly large tracts +in northern Ontario and Quebec have proved suitable for cultivation and +are being opened up. + +_Religion_.--There is no established church in Canada, but in the +province of Quebec certain rights have been allowed to the Roman +Catholic church ever since the British conquest. In that province about +87% of the population belongs to this church, which is strong in the +others also, embracing over two-fifths of the population of the +Dominion. The Protestants have shown a tendency to subdivision, and many +curious and ephemeral sects have sprung up; of late years, however, the +various sections of Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists have united, +and a working alliance has been formed between Presbyterians, Methodists +and Congregationalists. The Methodists are the strongest, and in Ontario +form over 30% of the population. Next come the Presbyterians, the +backbone of the maritime provinces. The Church of England is strong in +the cities, especially Toronto. Save among the Indians, active disbelief +in Christianity is practically non-existent, and even among them 90% are +nominally Christian. + +_Indians_.--The Indian population numbers over 100,000 and has slightly +increased since 1881. Except in British Columbia and the unorganized +territories, nearly all of these are on reservations, where they are +under government supervision, receiving an annuity in money and a +certain amount of provisions; and where, by means of industrial schools +and other methods, civilized habits are slowly superseding their former +mode of life. British Columbia has about 25,000, most of whom are along +the coast, though one of the important tribes, the Shuswaps, is in the +interior. An almost equal number are found in the three prairie +provinces. Those of Ontario, numbering about 20,000, are more civilized +than those of the west, many of them being good farmers. In all the +provinces they are under the control of the federal government which +acts as their trustee, investing the money which they derive chiefly +from the sale of lands and timber, and making a large annual +appropriation for the payment of their annuities, schools and other +expenses. While unable to alienate their reservations, save to the +federal government, they are not confined to them, but wander at +pleasure. As they progress towards a settled mode of life, they are +given the franchise; this process is especially far advanced in Ontario. +A certain number are found in all the provinces. They make incomparable +guides for fishing, hunting and surveying parties, on which they will +cheerfully undergo the greatest hardships, though tending to shrink from +regular employment in cities or on farms. + +_Orientals_.--The Chinese and Japanese numbered in 1906 about 20,000, of +whom, three-quarters were in British Columbia, though they were +spreading through the other provinces, chiefly as laundrymen. They are +as a rule frugal, industrious and law-abiding, and are feared rather for +their virtues than for their vices. Since 1885 a tax has been imposed on +all Chinese entering Canada, and in 1903 this was raised to L100 ($500). +British Columbia endeavoured in 1905 to lay a similar restriction on the +Japanese, but the act was disallowed by the federal legislature. + +_Finance_.--Since 1871 the decimal system of coinage, corresponding to +that of the United States, has been the only one employed. One dollar is +divided into one hundred cents (L1=$4.86-2/3). The money in circulation +consists of a limited number of notes issued by the federal government, +and the notes of the chartered banks, together with gold, silver and +copper coin. Previous to 1906 this coin was minted in England, but in +that year a branch of the royal mint was established at Ottawa. Though +the whole financial system rests on the maintenance of the gold +standard, gold coin plays a much smaller part in daily business than in +England, France or Germany. United States' notes and silver are usually +received at par; those of other nations are subject to a varying rate of +exchange. + +The banking system, which retains many features of the Scotch system, on +which it was originally modelled, combines security for the note-holders +and depositors with prompt increase and diminution of the circulation in +accordance with the varying conditions of trade. This is especially +important in a country where the large wheat crop renders an additional +quantity of money necessary on very short notice during the autumn and +winter. There has been no successful attempt to introduce the "wild cat" +banking, which had such disastrous effects in the early days of the +western states. Since federation no chartered bank has been compelled to +liquidate without paying its note-holders in full. The larger banks are +chartered by the federal government; in the smaller towns a number of +private banks remain, but their importance is small, owing to the great +facilities given to the chartered banks by the branch system. In 1906 +there were 34 chartered banks, of which the branches had grown from 619 +in 1900 to 1565 in 1906, and the number since then has rapidly +increased. The banks are required by law to furnish to the finance +minister detailed monthly statements which are published in the official +gazette. Once in every ten years the banking act is revised and +weaknesses amended. Clearing-houses have been established in the chief +commercial centres. In October 1906 the chartered banks had an aggregate +paid-up capital of over $94,000,000 with a note circulation of +$83,000,000 and deposits of over $553,000,000. + +There are four kinds of savings banks in Canada:--(1) the post-office +savings banks; (2) the government savings banks of the Maritime +provinces taken over at federation and being gradually merged with the +former; (3) two special savings banks in the cities of Montreal and +Quebec; (4) the savings bank departments of the chartered banks. The +rate of interest allowed by the government is now 3%, and the chartered +banks usually follow the government rate. The amount on deposit in the +first three increased from $5,057,607 in 1868 to $89,781,546 in October +1906. The returns from the chartered banks do not specify the deposits +in these special accounts. + +The numerous loan and trust companies also possess certain banking +privileges. + +The federal revenue is derived mainly from customs and excise duties, +with subsidiary amounts from mining licences, timber dues, post-office, +&c. Both the revenue and the expenditure have in recent years increased +greatly, the revenue rising from $46,743,103 in 1899 to $71,186,073 in +1905 and the expenditure keeping pace with it. The debt of the Dominion +in 1873 and in 1905 was:-- + + +------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | 1873. | 1905. | + +------------+--------------+--------------+ + | Gross debt | $129,743,432 | $377,678,580 | + | Assets | 30,894,970 | 111,454,413 | + | Net debt | 98,848,462 | 266,224,413 | + +------------+--------------+--------------+ + +While the debt had thus increased faster than the population, it weighed +less heavily on the people, not only on account of the great increase +in commercial prosperity, but of the much lower rate of interest paid, +and of the increasing revenue derived from assets. Whereas in 1867 the +rate of interest was over 4%, and interest was being paid on former +provincial loans of over 6%, Canada could in 1906 borrow at 3%. + +The greater part of the debt arises from the assumption of the debts of +the provinces as they entered federation, expenditure on canals and +assistance given to railways. It does not include the debts incurred by +certain provinces since federation, a matter which concerns themselves +alone. A strong prejudice against direct taxation exists, and none is +imposed by the federal government, though it has been tentatively +introduced in the provinces, especially in Quebec, in the form of liquor +licences, succession duties, corporation taxes, &c. British Columbia has +a direct tax on property and on income. The cities, towns and +municipalities resort to it to supply their local needs, and there is a +tendency, especially pronounced in Ontario on account of the excellence +of her municipal system, to devolve the burden of educational payments, +and others more properly provincial, upon the municipal authorities on +the plea of decentralization. + +_Commerce and Manufactures._--Since 1867 the opening up of the fertile +lands in the north-west, the increase of population, the discovery of +new mineral fields, the construction of railways and the great +improvement of the canal system have changed the conditions, methods and +channels of trade. The great extension during the same period of the use +of water-power has been of immense importance to Canada, most of the +provinces possessing numerous swift-flowing streams or waterfalls, +capable of generating a practically unlimited supply of power. + +In 1878 the introduction of the so-called "National Policy" of +protection furthered the growth of manufactures. Protection still +remains the trade policy of Canada, though modified by a preference +accorded to imports from Great Britain and from most of the British +colonies. The tariff, though moderate as compared with that of the +United States, amounted in 1907 to about 28% on dutiable imports and to +about 16% on total imports. Tentative attempts at export duties have +also been made. Inter-provincial commerce is free, and the home market +is greatly increasing in importance. The power to make commercial +treaties relating to Canada rests with the government of Great Britain, +but in most cases the official consent of Canada is required, and for +many years no treaty repugnant to her interests has been signed. The +denunciation by the British government in 1897 of commercial treaties +with Belgium and Germany, at the request of Canada, was a striking proof +of her increasing importance, and attempts have at various times been +made to obtain the full treaty-making power for the federal government. +The great proportion of the foreign trade of the Dominion is with the +United States and Great Britain. From the former come most of the +manufactured goods imported and large quantities of raw materials; to +the latter are sent food-stuffs. Farm products are the most important +export, and with the extension of this industry in the north-west +provinces and in northern Ontario will probably continue to be so. Gold, +silver, copper and other minerals are largely exported, chiefly in an +unrefined state and almost entirely to the United States. The exports of +lumber are about equally divided between the two. Formerly, the logs +were shipped as square timber, but now almost always in the form of +deals, planks or laths; such square timber as is still shipped goes +almost entirely to Great Britain. Wood pulp for the manufacture of paper +is exported chiefly to the United States. To that country fresh fish is +sent in large quantities, and there is an important trade in canned +salmon between British Columbia and Great Britain. Few of the +manufacturers do more than compete with the foreigner for an increasing +share of the home market. In this they have won increased success, at +least five-sixths of the manufactured goods used being produced within +the country, but a desire for further protection is loudly expressed. +Though the chief foreign commerce is with Great Britain and the United +States, the Dominion has trade relations with all the chief countries of +the world and maintains commercial agents among them. Her total foreign +trade (import and export) was in 1906 over L100,000,000. + +_Shipping_.--The chief seaports from east to west are Halifax, N.S., +Sydney, N.S., St John, N.B., Quebec and Montreal on the Atlantic; and +Vancouver, Esquimalt and Victoria, B.C., on the Pacific. Halifax is the +ocean terminus of the Intercolonial railway; St John, Halifax and +Vancouver of the Canadian Pacific railway. Prince Rupert, the western +terminus of the Grand Trunk Pacific railway, was in 1906 only an +uninhabited harbour, but was being rapidly developed into a flourishing +city. Though Halifax and St John are open in winter, much of the winter +trade eastwards is done through American harbours, especially Portland, +Maine, owing to the shorter railway journey. Esquimalt, Halifax, +Kingston (Ont.) and Quebec have well-equipped graving-docks. The coast, +both of the ocean and of the Great Lakes, is well lighted and protected. +The decay of the wooden shipbuilding industry has lessened the +comparative importance of the mercantile marine, but there has been a +great increase in the tonnage employed in the coasting trade and upon +inland waters. Numerous steamship lines ply between Canada and Great +Britain; direct communication exists with France, and the steamers of +the Canadian Pacific railway run regularly to Japan and to Australia. + +_Internal Communications_.--Her splendid lakes and rivers, the +development of her canal system, and the growth of railways have made +the interprovincial traffic of Canada far greater than her foreign, and +the portfolio of railways and canals is one of the most important in the +cabinet. There are, nominally, about 200 railways, but about one-half of +these, comprising five-sixths of the mileage, have been amalgamated into +four great systems: the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, the Canadian +Northern and the Intercolonial; most of the others have been more or +less consolidated. With the first of the four large systems is connected +the Grand Trunk Pacific. The Intercolonial, as also a line across Prince +Edward Island, is owned and operated by the federal government. +Originally built chiefly as a military road, and often the victim of +political exigencies, it has not been a commercial success. With the +completion of the Grand Trunk Pacific (planned for 1911) and the +Canadian Northern, the country would possess three trans-continental +railways, and be free from the reproach, so long hurled at it, of +possessing length without breadth. + +At numerous points along the frontier, connexion is made with the +railways of the United States. Liberal aid is given by the federal, +provincial and municipal governments to the construction of railways, +amounting often to more than half the cost of the road. The government +of Ontario has constructed a line to open up the agricultural and mining +districts of the north of the province, and is operating it by means of +a commission. Practically all the cities[3] and large towns have +electric tramways, and electricity is also used as a motive power on +many lines uniting the larger cities with the surrounding towns and +villages. Since 1903 the Dominion government has instituted a railway +commission of three members with large powers of control over freight +and passenger rates and other such matters. Telephone and express +companies are also subject to its jurisdiction. From its decisions an +appeal may be made to the governor-general in council, i.e. to the +federal cabinet. It has exercised a beneficial check on the railways and +has been cheerfully accepted by them. In Ontario a somewhat similar +commission, appointed by the local government, exercises extensive +powers of control over railways solely within the province, especially +over the electric lines. + +Despite the increase in railway facilities, the waterways remain +important factors in the transportation of the country. Steamers ply on +lakes and rivers in every province, and even in the far northern +districts of Yukon and Mackenzie. Where necessary obstacles are +surmounted by canals, on which over L22,000,000 have been spent, chiefly +since federation. The St Lawrence river canal system from Lake Superior +to tide water overcomes a difference of about 600 ft., and carries large +quantities of grain from the west to Montreal, the head of summer +navigation on the Atlantic. These canals have a minimum depth of 14 ft. +on the sills, and are open to Canadian and American vessels on equal +terms; the equipment is in every respect of the most modern character. +So great, however, is the desire to shorten the time and distance +necessary for the transportation of grain from Lake Superior to Montreal +that an increasing quantity is taken by water as far as the Lake Huron +and Georgian Bay ports, and thence by rail to Montreal. Numerous smaller +canals bring Ottawa into connexion with Lake Champlain and the Hudson +river via Montreal; by this route the logs and sawn lumber of Ontario, +Quebec and New Brunswick find their destination. It has long been a +Canadian ideal to shorten the distance from Lake Superior to the sea. +With this object in view, the Trent Valley system of canals has been +built, connecting Lake Ontario with the Georgian Bay (an arm of Lake +Huron) via Lake Simcoe. In 1899 and subsequently surveys were made with +a view to connecting the Georgian Bay through the intervening water +stretches, with the Ottawa river system, and thence to Montreal. In 1903 +all tolls were taken off the Canadian canals, greatly to the benefit of +trade. + +_Mining_.--The mineral districts occur from Cape Breton to the islands +in the Pacific and the Yukon district. Nova Scotia, British Columbia and +the Yukon are still the most productive, but the northern parts of +Ontario are proving rich in the precious metals. Coal, chiefly +bituminous, occurs in large quantities in Nova Scotia, British Columbia +and in various parts of the north-west (lignite), though most of the +anthracite is imported from the United States, as is the greater part of +the bituminous coal used in Ontario. Under the stimulus of federal +bounties, the production of pig iron and of steel, chiefly from imported +ore, is rapidly increasing. Bounties on certain minerals and metals are +also given by some of the provinces. The goldfields of the Yukon, though +still valuable, show a lessening production. Sudbury, in Ontario, is the +centre of the nickel production of the world, the mines being chiefly in +American hands, and the product exported to the United States. Of the +less important minerals, Canada is the world's chief producer of +asbestos and corundum. Copper, lead, silver and all the important metals +are mined in the Rocky Mountain district. From Quebec westwards, vast +regions are still partly, or completely, unexplored. + +_Lumber_.--In spite of great improvidence, and of loss by fire, the +forest wealth of Canada is still the greatest in the world. Measures +have been taken, both by the provincial and the federal governments, for +its preservation, and for re-forestation of depleted areas. Certain +provinces prohibit the exportation of logs to the United States, in +order to promote the growth of saw-mills and manufactures of wooden-ware +within the country, and the latter have of late years developed with +great rapidity. The lumber trade of British Columbia has suffered from +lack of an adequate market, but is increasing with the greater demand +from the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. A great development has +also taken place in Ontario and the eastern provinces, through the use +of spruce and other trees, long considered comparatively useless, in the +manufacture of wood-pulp for paper-making. + +_Crown Lands_.--Large areas of unoccupied land remain in all the +provinces (except Prince Edward Island). In Manitoba, Saskatchewan, +Alberta, the so-called railway belt of British Columbia and the +territories, these crown lands are chiefly owned by the federal +parliament; in the other provinces, by the local legislatures. So great +is their extent that, in spite of the immigration of recent years, the +Dominion government gives a freehold of 160 acres to every _bona fide_ +settler, subject to certain conditions of residence and the erection of +buildings during the first three years. Mining and timber lands are sold +or leased at moderate rates. All crown lands controlled by the provinces +must be paid for, save in certain districts of Ontario, where free +grants are given, but the price charged is low. The Canadian Pacific +railway controls large land areas in the two new provinces; and large +tracts in these provinces are owned by land companies. Both the Dominion +and the provincial governments have set apart certain areas to be +preserved, largely in their wild state, as national parks. Of these the +most extensive are the Rocky Mountains Park at Banff, Alberta, owned by +the Dominion government, and the "Algonquin National Park," north-east +of Lake Simcoe, the property of Ontario. + +_Fisheries_.--The principal fisheries are those on the Atlantic coast, +carried on by the inhabitants of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince +Edward Island, and the eastern section of Quebec. Cod, herring, mackerel +and lobsters are the fish chiefly caught, though halibut, salmon, +anchovies and so-called sardines are also exported. Bounties to +encourage deep-sea fishing have been given by the federal government +since 1882. In British Columbian waters the main catch is of salmon, in +addition to which are halibut, oolachan, herring, sturgeon, cod and +shellfish. The lakes of Ontario and Manitoba produce white fish, +sturgeon and other fresh-water fish. About 80,000 persons find more or +less permanent employment in the fishing industry, including the +majority of the Indians of British Columbia. + +The business of fur-seal catching is carried on to some extent in the +North Pacific and in Bering Sea by sealers from Victoria, but the +returns show it to be a decreasing industry, as well as one causing +friction with the United States. Indeed, no department of national life +has caused more continual trouble between the two peoples than the +fisheries, owing to different laws regarding fish protection, and the +constant invasion by each of the territorial waters of the other. + +_Education_.--The British North America Act imposes on the provincial +legislatures the duty of legislating on educational matters, the +privileges of the denominational and separate schools in Ontario and +Quebec being specially safeguarded. In 1871, the New Brunswick +legislature abolished the separate school system, and a contest arose +which was finally settled by the authority of the legislature being +sustained, though certain concessions were made to the Roman Catholic +dissentients. Subsequently a similar difficulty arose in Manitoba, where +the legislature in 1890 abolished the system of separate schools which +had been established in 1871. After years of bitter controversy, in +which a federal ministry was overthrown, a compromise was arranged in +1897, in which the Roman Catholic leaders have never fully acquiesced. +In the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, formed in 1905, certain +educational privileges, (though not amounting to a separate school +system) were granted to the Roman Catholics. + +All the provinces have made sacrifices to insure the spread of +education. In 1901, 76% of the total population could read and write, +and 86% of those over five years of age. These percentages have +gradually risen ever since federation, especially in the province of +Quebec, which was long in a backward state. The school systems of all +the provinces are, in spite of certain imperfections, efficient and +well-equipped, that of Ontario being especially celebrated. A fuller +account of their special features will be found under the articles on +the different provinces. + +Numerous residential schools exist and are increasing in number with the +growth of the country in wealth and culture. In Quebec are a number of +so-called classical colleges, most of them affiliated with Laval +University. + +Higher education was originally organized by the various religious +bodies, each of which retains at least one university in more or less +integral connexion with itself. New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba +support provincial universities at Fredericton, Toronto and Winnipeg. +Those of most importance[4] are:--Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S. +(1818); the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. (1800); +McGill University, Montreal, Que. (1821); Laval University, Quebec, and +Montreal, Que. (1852); Queen's University, Kingston, Ont. (1841); the +University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. (1827); Trinity University, +Toronto, Ont. (1852); Victoria University, Toronto, Ont. (1836); the +University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ont. (1848); the University of Manitoba, +Winnipeg, Man. (1877). + +Of these McGill (see MONTREAL) is especially noted for the excellence of +its training in practical and applied science. Many of the students, +especially in the departments of medicine and theology, complete their +education in the United States, Britain or Europe. + +Most of the larger towns and cities contain public libraries, that of +Toronto being especially well-equipped. + +Of the numerous learned and scientific societies, the chief is the Royal +Society of Canada, founded in 1881. + +_Defence_.--The command in chief of all naval and military forces is +vested in the king, but their control rests with the federal parliament. +The naval forces, consisting of a fisheries protection service, are +under the minister of marine and fisheries, the land forces under the +minister of militia and defence. Prior to 1903, command of the latter +was vested in a British officer, but since then has been entrusted to a +militia council, of which the minister is president. The fortified +harbours of Halifax (N.S.) and Esquimalt (B.C.) were till 1905 +maintained and garrisoned by the imperial government, but have since +been taken over by Canada. This has entailed the increase of the +permanent force to about 5000 men. Previously, it had numbered about +1000 (artillery, dragoons, infantry) quartered in various schools, +chiefly to aid in the training of the militia. In this all able-bodied +citizens between the ages of 18 and 60 are nominally enrolled, but the +active militia consists of about 45,000 men of all ranks, in a varying +state of efficiency. These cannot be compelled to serve outside the +Dominion, though special corps may be enlisted for this purpose, as was +done during the war in South Africa (1899-1902). At Quebec is a Dominion +arsenal, rifle and ammunition factories. Cadet corps flourish in most of +the city schools. At Kingston (Ont.) is the Royal Military College, to +the successful graduates of which a certain number of commissions in the +British service is annually awarded. + +_Justice and Crime_.--Justice is well administered throughout the +country, and even in the remotest mining camps there has been little of +the lawlessness seen in similar districts of Australia and the United +States. For this great credit is due to the "North-west mounted police," +the "Riders of the Plains," a highly efficient body of about seven +hundred men, under the control of the federal government. Judges are +appointed for life by the Dominion parliament, and cannot be removed +save by impeachment before that body, an elaborate process never +attempted since federation, though more than once threatened. From the +decisions of the supreme court of Canada appeal may be made to the +judicial committee of the imperial privy council. + + AUTHORITIES.--The Canadian Geological Survey has published (Ottawa, + since 1845) a series of reports covering a great number of subjects. + Several provinces have bureaus or departments of mines, also issuing + reports. The various departments of the federal and the provincial + governments publish annual reports and frequent special reports, such + as the decennial report on the census, from which a vast quantity of + information may be obtained. Most of this is summed up in the annual + _Statistical Year Book of Canada_ and in the _Official Handbook of the + Dominion of Canada_, issued at frequent intervals by the Department of + the Interior. See also J.W. White (the Dominion geographer), _Atlas of + Canada_ (1906); J. Castell Hopkins, _Canada: an Encyclopaedia_ (6 + vols., 1898-1900); _The Canadian Annual Review_ (yearly since 1902), + replacing H.J. Morgan's _Canadian Annual Register_ (1878-1886); Sir + J.W. Dawson, _Handbook of Canadian Geology_ (1889); George Johnson, + _Alphabet of First Things in Canada_ (3rd ed., 1898); A.G. Bradley, + _Canada in the Twentieth Century_ (1903); _Transactions of the Royal + Society of Canada_ (yearly since 1883); R.C. Breckenridge, _The + Canadian Banking System_ (1895); A. Shortt, _History of Canadian + Banking_ (1902-1906); Sir S. Fleming, _The Intercolonial_ (1876); John + Davidson, "Financial Relations of Canada and the Provinces" (_Economic + Journal_, June 1905); _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, + passim_, for valuable papers by H.M. Ami, A.P. Coleman, G.M. Dawson, + W.F. Ganong, B.J. Harrington and others; also articles in _Canadian + Economics_ and in the _Handbook of Canada_, published on the occasion + of visits of the British Association. (W. L. G.) + + +AGRICULTURE + +Canada is pre-eminently an agricultural country. Of the total population +(estimated in 1907 at 6,440,000) over 50% are directly engaged in +practical agriculture. In addition large numbers are engaged in +industries arising out of agriculture; among these are manufacturers of +agricultural implements, millers of flour and oatmeal, curers and +packers of meat, makers of cheese and butter, and persons occupied in +the transportation and commerce of grain, hay, live stock, meats, +butter, cheese, milk, eggs, fruit and various other products. The +country is splendidly formed for the production of food. Across the +continent there is a zone about 3500 m. long and as wide as or wider +than France, with (over a large part of this area) a climate adapted to +the production of foods of superior quality. Since the opening of the +20th century, great progress has been made in the settlement and +agricultural development of the western territories between the +provinces of Manitoba and British Columbia. The three "North-West +Provinces" (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta) have a total area of +369,869,898 acres, of which 12,853,120 acres are water. In 1906 their +population was 808,863, nearly double what it was in 1901. The land in +this vast area varies in virginal fertility, but the best soils are very +rich in the constituents of plant food. Chemical analyses made by Mr +F.T. Shutt have proved that soils from the North-West Provinces contain +an average of 18,000 lb of nitrogen, 15,580 lb of potash and 6,700 lb of +phosphoric acid per acre, these important elements of plant food being +therefore present in much greater abundance than they are in ordinary +cultivated European soils of good quality. The prairie lands of Manitoba +and Saskatchewan produce wheat of the finest quality. Horse and cattle +ranching is practised in Alberta, where the milder winters allow of the +outdoor wintering of live stock to a greater degree than is possible in +the colder parts of Canada. The freezing of the soil in winter, which at +first sight seems a drawback, retains the soluble nitrates which might +otherwise be drained out. The copious snowfall protects vegetation, +supplies moisture, and contributes nitrogen to the soil. The +geographical position of Canada, its railway systems and steamship +service for freight across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, are +favourable to the extension of the export trade in farm products to +European and oriental countries. Great progress has been made in the +development of the railway systems of Canada, and the new +transcontinental line from the Atlantic to the Pacific, passing through +Saskatchewan via Saskatoon, and Alberta via Edmonton, renders possible +of settlement large areas of fertile wheat-growing soil. The canal +system of Canada, linking together the great natural waterways, is also +of much present and prospective importance in cheapening the +transportation of agricultural produce. + + + Crops + +Of _wheat_ many varieties are grown. The methods of cultivation do not +involve the application of so much hand labour per acre as in Europe. +The average yield of wheat for the whole of Canada is nearly 20 bushels +per acre. In 1901 the total production of wheat in Canada was 55-1/2 +million bushels. In 1906 the estimated total production was 136 million +bushels. The total wheat acreage, which at the census of 1901 was +4,224,000, was over 6,200,000 in 1906, an increase of nearly two million +acres in five years. + +Up to the close of the 19th century, Ontario was the largest +wheat-growing province in Canada. In 1900 the wheat acreage in Ontario +was 1,487,633, producing 28,418,907 bushels, an average yield of 19.10 +bushels per acre. Over three-quarters of this production was of fall or +winter wheat, the average yield of which in Ontario over a series of +years since 1883 had been about 20 bushels per acre. But the +predominance in wheat-growing has now shifted to the new prairie regions +of the west. A census taken in 1906 shows that the total acreage of +wheat in the North-West Provinces was 5,062,493, yielding 110,586,824 +bushels, an average in a fairly normal season of 21.84 bushels per acre. +Of this total wheat acreage, 2,721,079 acres were in Manitoba, 2,117,484 +acres in Saskatchewan, and 223,930 acres in Alberta, with average +yields per acre at the rates of 20.02 bushels in Manitoba, 23.70 in +Saskatchewan and 26.49 in Alberta. In these provinces spring wheat is +almost universally sown, except in Alberta where fall or winter wheat is +also sown to a considerable extent. Summer fallowing for wheat is a +practice that has gained ground in the North-West Provinces. Land +ploughed and otherwise tilled, but left unseeded during the summer, is +sown with wheat in the succeeding autumn or spring. Wheat on summer +fallow land yielded, according to the North-West census of 1906, from 2 +to 8 bushels per acre more than that sown on other land. Summer +fallowing is, however, subject to one drawback: the strong growth which +it induces is apt to retard the ripening of the grain. Canada is clearly +destined to rank as one of the most important grain-producing countries +of the world. The northern limits of the wheat-growing areas have not +been definitely ascertained; but samples of good wheat were grown in +1907 at Fort Vermilion on the Peace river, nearly 600 m. north of +Winnipeg in lat. 58.34 and at Fort Simpson on the Mackenzie river in +lat. 61.52, more than 800 m. north of Winnipeg and about 1000 m. north +of the United States boundary. As a rule the weather during the +harvesting period permits the grain to be gathered safely without damage +from sprouting. Occasionally in certain localities in the north-west the +grain is liable to injury from frost in late summer; but as the +proportion of land under cultivation increases the climate becomes +modified and the danger from frost is appreciably less. The loss from +this cause is also less than formerly, because any grain unfit for +export is now readily purchased for the feeding of animals in Ontario +and other parts of eastern Canada. + +Suitable machinery for cleaning the grain is everywhere in general use, +so that weed seeds are removed before the wheat is ground. This gives +Canadian wheat excellent milling properties, and enables the millers to +turn out flour uniform in quality and of high grade as to keeping +properties. Canadian flour has a high reputation in European markets. It +is known as flour from which bakers can make the best quality of bread, +and also the largest quantity per barrel, the quantity of albuminoids +being greater in Canadian flour than in the best brands of European. +Owing to its possession of this characteristic of what millers term +"strength," i.e. the relative capacity of flour to make large loaves of +good quality, Canadian flour is largely in demand for blending with the +flour of the softer English wheats. For this reason some of the strong +Canadian wheats have commanded in the home market 5s. and 6s. a quarter +more than English-grown wheat. At the general census of 1901 the number +of flouring and grist mill establishments, each employing five persons +and over, was returned at 400, the number of employes being 4251 and the +value of products $31,835,873. A special census of manufactures in 1906 +shows that these figures had grown in 1905 to 832 establishments, 5619 +employes and $56,703,269 value of the products. There is room for a +great extension in the cultivation of wheat and the manufacture and +exportation of flour. + +In the twelve months of 1907 Canada exported 37,503,057 bushels of wheat +of the value of $34,132,759 and 1,858,485 barrels of flour of the value +of $7,626,408. The corresponding figures in 1900 were--wheat, 16,844,650 +bushels, value, $11,995,488, and flour, 768,162 bushels, value, +$2,791,885. + +Oats of fine quality are grown in large crops from Prince Edward Island +on the Atlantic coast to Vancouver Island on the Pacific coast. Over +large areas the Canadian soil and climate are admirably adapted for +producing oats of heavy weight per bushel. In all the provinces of +eastern Canada the acreage under oats greatly exceeds that under wheat. +The annual average oat crop in all Canada is estimated at about 248 +million bushels. As the total annual export of oats is now less than +three million bushels the home consumption is large, and this is an +advantage in maintaining the fertility of the soil. In 1907 the area +under oats in Ontario was 2,932,509 acres and yielded 83,524,301 +bushels, the area being almost as large as that of the acreage under hay +and larger than the combined total of the other principal cereals grown +in the province. Canadian oatmeal is equal in quality to the best. It is +prepared in different forms, and in various degrees of fineness. + +Barley was formerly grown for export to the United States for malting +purposes. After the raising of the duty on barley under the McKinley and +Dingley tariffs that trade was practically destroyed and Canadian +farmers were obliged to find other uses for this crop. Owing to the +development of the trade with the mother-country in dairying and meat +products, barley as a home feeding material has become more +indispensable than ever. Before the adoption of the McKinley tariff +about nine million bushels of barley were exported annually, involving +the loss of immense stores of plant food. In 1907, with an annual +production of nearly fifty million bushels, only a trifling percentage +was exported, the rest being fed at home and exported in the form of +produce without loss from impoverishment of the soil. The preparation of +pearl or pot barley is an incidental industry. + +Rye is cultivated successfully, but is seldom used for human food. Flour +from wheat, meal from oats, and meal from Indian corn are preferred. + +Buckwheat flour is used in considerable quantities in some districts for +the making of buckwheat cakes, eaten with maple syrup. These two make an +excellent breakfast dish, characteristic of Canada and some of the New +England states. There are also numerous forms of preparations from +cereals, sold as breakfast foods, which, owing to the high quality of +the grains grown in Canada and the care exercised in their manufacture, +compare favourably with similar products in other countries. + +Peas in large areas are grown free from serious trouble with insect +pests. Split peas for soup, green peas as vegetables and sweet peas for +canning are obtained of good quality. + +Vegetables are grown everywhere, and form a large part of the diet of +the people. There is a comparatively small export, except in the case of +turnips and potatoes and of vegetables which have been canned or dried. +Besides potatoes, which thrive well and yield large quantities of +excellent quality, there are turnips, carrots, parsnips and beets. The +cultivation of sugar beets for the manufacture of sugar has been +established in Ontario and in southern Alberta, where in 1906 an acreage +under this crop of 3344 yielded 27,211 tons, an average of 8.13 tons per +acre. Among the common vegetables used in the green state are peas, +beans, cabbage, cauliflowers, asparagus, Indian corn, onions, leeks, +tomatoes, lettuce, radish, celery, parsley, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash +and rhubarb. Hay, of good quality of timothy (_Phleum pratense_), and +also of timothy and clover, is grown over extensive areas. For export it +is put up in bales of about 150 lb each. Since 1899 a new form of +pressing has been employed, whereby the hay is compressed to stow in +about 70 cub. ft. per ton. This has been a means of reducing the ocean +freight per ton. The compact condition permits the hay to be kept with +less deterioration of quality than under the old system of more loose +baling. Austrian brome grass (_Bromus inermis_) and western rye grass +(_Agropyrum tenerum_) are both extensively grown for hay in the +North-West Provinces. + + + Live stock. + +The almost universal adoption of electrical traction in towns has not +led to the abandonment of the breeding of horses to the extent that was +at one time anticipated. Heavy draught horses are reared in Ontario, and +to a less but increasing extent in the North-West Provinces, the breeds +being mainly the Clydesdale and the Shire. Percherons are also bred in +different parts of Canada, and a few Belgian draught horses have been +introduced. Good horses suitable for general work on farms and for cabs, +omnibuses, and grocery and delivery wagons, are plentiful for local +markets and for export. Thoroughbred and pure bred hackney stallions are +maintained in private studs and by agricultural associations throughout +the Dominion, and animals for cavalry and mounted infantry remounts are +produced in all the provinces including those of the North-West. Useful +carriage horses and saddle horses are bred in many localities. Horse +ranching is practised largely in Alberta. There are no government stud +farms. The total number of horses in the Dominion was estimated on the +basis of census returns at 2,019,824 for the year 1907, an increase of +609,309 since 1901. + +Cattle, sheep, swine and poultry are reared in abundance. The bracing +weather of Canadian winters is followed by the warmth and humidity of +genial summers, under which crops grow in almost tropical luxuriance, +while the cool evenings and nights give the plants a robustness of +quality which is not to be found in tropical regions, and also make life +for the various domestic animals wholesome and comfortable. In the +North-West Provinces there are vast areas of prairie land, over which +cattle pasture, and from which thousands of fat bullocks are shipped +annually. Throughout other parts bullocks are fed on pasture land, and +also in stables on nourishing and succulent feed such as hay, Indian +corn fodder, Indian corn silage, turnips, carrots, mangels, ground oats, +barley, peas, Indian corn, rye, bran and linseed oil cake. The breeding +of cattle, adapted for the production of prime beef and of dairy cows +for the production of milk, butter and cheese, has received much +attention. There is government control of the spaces on the steamships +in which the cattle are carried, and veterinary inspection prevents the +exportation of diseased animals. + +A considerable trade has been established in the exportation of dressed +beef in cold storage, and also in the exportation of meat and other +foods in hermetically sealed receptacles. By the Meat and Canned Foods +Act of 1907 of the Dominion parliament and regulations thereunder, the +trade is carried on under the strictest government supervision, and no +canned articles of food may be exported unless passed as absolutely +wholesome and officially marked as such by government inspectors. There +is a considerable trade in "lunch tongues." + +The cattle breeds are principally those of British origin. For beef, +shorthorns, Herefords, Galloways and Aberdeen-Angus cattle are bred +largely, whilst for dairying purposes, shorthorns, Ayrshires, Jerseys, +Guernseys and Holstein-Friesians prevail. The French-Canadian cattle are +highly esteemed in eastern Canada, especially by the farmers of the +French provinces. They are a distinct breed of Jersey and Brittany type, +and are stated to be descended from animals imported from France by the +early settlers. The estimated number of cattle in Canada in 1907 was +7,439,051, an increase of 2,066,547 over the figures of the census of +1901. + +All parts of the Dominion are well adapted for sheep; but various +causes, amongst which must be reckoned the prosperity of other branches +of agriculture, including wheat-growing and dairying, have in several of +the provinces contributed to prevent that attention to this branch which +its importance deserves, though there are large areas of rolling, rugged +yet nutritious pastures well suited to sheep-farming. In the maritime +provinces and in Prince Edward Island sheep and lambs are reared in +large numbers. In Ontario sheep breeding has reached a high degree of +perfection, and other parts of the American continent draw their +supplies of pure bred stock largely from this province. All the leading +British varieties are reared, the Shropshire, Oxford Down, Leicester and +Cotswold breeds being most numerous. There are also excellent flocks of +Lincolns and Southdowns. The number of sheep and lambs in Canada was +estimated for the year 1907 at 2,830,785, as compared with 2,465,565 in +1901. + +Pigs, mostly of the Yorkshire, Berkshire and Tamworth breeds, are reared +and fattened in large numbers, and there is a valuable export trade in +bacon. Canadian hogs are fed, as a rule, on feeds suited for the +production of what are known as "fleshy sides." Bacon with an excess of +fat is not wanted, except in the lumber camps; consequently the farmers +of Canada have cultivated a class of swine for bacon having plenty of +lean and firm flesh. The great extension of the dairy business has +fitted in with the rearing of large numbers of swine. Experimental work +has shown that swine fattened with a ration partly of skim-milk were +lustier and of a more healthy appearance than swine fattened wholly on +grains. Slaughtering and curing are carried on chiefly at large packing +houses. The use of mechanical refrigerating plants for chilling the pork +has made it practicable to cure the bacon with the use of a small +percentage of salt, leaving it mild in flavour when delivered in +European markets. Regular supplies are exported during every week of the +year. Large quantities of lard, brawn and pigs' feet are exported. In +1907 the number of pigs in Canada was estimated at 3,530,060, an +increase of 1,237,385 over the census record of 1901. Turkeys thrive +well, grow to a fine size and have flesh of tender quality. Chickens are +raised in large numbers, and poultry-keeping has developed greatly since +the opening of the 20th century. Canadian eggs are usually packed in +cases containing thirty dozens each. Cardboard fillers are used which +provide a separate compartment for each egg. There are cold storage +warehouses at various points in Canada, at which the eggs are collected, +sorted and packed before shipment. These permit the eggs to be landed in +Europe in a practically fresh condition as to flavour, with the shells +quite full. + + + Dairy products. + +Canada has been called the land of milk and honey. Milk is plentiful, +and enters largely into the diet of the people. With a climate which +produces healthy, vigorous animals, notably free from epizootic +diseases, with a fertile soil for the growth of fodder crops and +pasture, with abundance of pure air and water, and with a plentiful +supply of ice, the conditions in Canada are ideal for the dairying +industry. Large quantities of condensed milk, put up in hermetically +sealed tins, are sold for use in mining camps and on board steamships. +The cheese is chiefly of the variety known as "Canadian Cheddar." It is +essentially a food cheese rather than a mere condiment, and 1 lb of it +will furnish as much nourishing material as 2-1/4 lb of the best beefsteak. +The industry is largely carried on by co-operative associations of +farmers. The dairy factory system was introduced into Canada in 1864, +and from that time the production and exportation of cheese grew +rapidly. Legislation was passed to protect Canadian dairy produce from +dishonest manipulation, and soon Canadian cheese obtained a deservedly +high reputation in the British markets. In 1891 cheese factories and +creameries numbered 1733, and in 1899 there were 3649. In 1908 there +were 4355 of these factories, of which 1284 were in Ontario, 2806 in +Quebec, and 265 in the remaining seven provinces of Canada. Those in +Ontario are the largest in size. Amongst the British imports of cheese +the Canadian product ranks first in quality, whilst in quantity it +represents about 72% of the total value of the cheese imports, and 84% +of the total value of the imports of that kind of cheese which is +classed as Cheddar. In 1906 the total exports of cheese to all countries +from Canada reached 215,834,543 lb of the value of $24,433,169. + +Butter for export is made in creameries, where the milk, cream and +butter are handled by skilled makers. The creameries are provided with +special cold storage rooms, into which the butter is placed on the same +day in which it is made. From them it is carried in refrigerator railway +cars and in cold storage chambers on steamships to its ultimate +destination. For the export trade it is packed in square boxes made of +spruce or some other odourless wood. These are lined with parchment +paper, and contain each 56 lb net of butter. The total export of butter +from Canada in 1906 was 34,031,525 lb., of the value of $7,075,539. +According to a census of manufactures taken in 1906, the total value of +factory cheese and butter made in Canada during that year was +$32,402,265. + + + Fruits. + +There are large districts lying eastward of the Great Lakes and westward +of the Rocky Mountains, where apples of fine quality can be grown; and +there are other smaller areas in which pears, peaches and grapes are +grown in quantities in the open air. The climate is favourable to the +growth of plums, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants, +gooseberries, etc. There are many localities in which cranberries are +successfully grown, and in which blueberries also grow wild in great +profusion. + +Apples and pears are the chief sorts of fruit exported. The high +flavour, the crisp, juicy flesh and the long-keeping qualities of the +Canadian apples are their chief merits. Apples are exported in barrels +and also in boxes containing about one bushel each. Large quantities are +also evaporated and exported. Establishments for evaporating fruit are +now found in most of the larger apple-growing districts, and canning +factories and jam factories have been established in many parts of +Canada, and are conducted with advantage and profit. + +The chief fruit-growing districts have long been in southern and western +Ontario and in Nova Scotia; but recently much attention has been devoted +to fruit-growing in British Columbia, where large areas of suitable land +are available for the cultivation of apples, pears and other fruits. In +some parts of the semi-arid districts in the interior of the province +irrigation is being successfully practised for the purpose of bringing +land under profitable cultivation for fruit. Collections of fruit grown +in British Columbia have received premier honours at the competitive +exhibitions of the Royal Horticultural Society in London, where their +high quality and fine colour have been greatly appreciated. + +Wine is made in considerable quantities in the principal vine-growing +districts, and in several localities large vineyards have been planted +for this purpose. An abundance of cider is also made in all the large +apple-growing districts. + +Honey is one of the minor food-products of Canada, and in many +localities bees have abundance of pasturage. Canadian honey for colour, +flavour and substance is unsurpassed. Maple sugar and syrup are made in +those areas of the country where the sugar-maple tree flourishes. The +syrup is used chiefly as a substitute for jam or preserved fruits, and +the sugar is used in country homes for sweetening, for cooking purposes +and for the making of confectionery. The processes of manufacture have +been improved by the introduction of specially constructed evaporators, +and quantities of maple sugar and syrup are annually exported. + +Tobacco is a new crop which has been grown in Canada since 1904. Its +cultivation promises to be successful in parts of Ontario, Quebec and +British Columbia. + + + State aid. + +The department of agriculture of the Dominion government renders aid to +agriculture in many ways, maintaining the experimental farms and various +effective organizations for assisting the live-stock, dairying and +fruit-growing industries, for testing the germination and purity of +agricultural seeds, and for developing the export trade in agricultural +and dairy produce. The health of animals branch, through which are +administered the laws relating to the contagious diseases of animals, +and the control of quarantine and inspection stations for imported +animals, undertakes also valuable experiments on the diseases of farm +livestock, including glanders in horses, tuberculosis in cattle, &c. The +policy of slaughtering horses reacting to the mallein test has been +successfully initiated by Canada, the returns for 1908 from all parts of +the country indicating a considerable decrease from the previous year in +the number of horses destroyed and the amount of compensation paid. A +disease of cattle in Nova Scotia, known as the Pictou cattle disease, +long treated as contagious, has now been demonstrated by the veterinary +officers of the department to be due to the ingestion of a weed, the +ragwort, _Senecio Jacobea_. Hog cholera or swine fever has been almost +eradicated. A laboratory is maintained for bacteriological and +pathological researches and for the preparation of preventive vaccines. +Canada is entirely free from rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia and +foot-and-mouth disease. + +The work of the live-stock branch is directed towards the improvement of +the stock-raising industry, and is carried on through the agencies of +expert teachers and stock judges, the systematic distribution of +pure-bred breeding stock, the yearly testing of pure-bred dairy herds, +the supervision of the accuracy of the registration of pure-bred animals +and the nationalization of live-stock records. The last two objects are +secured by act of the Dominion parliament passed in 1905. Under this act +a record committee, appointed annually by the pedigree stud, herd and +flock book associations of Canada, perform the duties of accepting the +entries of pure-bred animals for the respective pedigree registers, and +are provided with an office and with stationery and franking privileges +by the government. Pedigree certificates are certified as correct by an +officer of the department of agriculture, so that in Canada there exist +national registration and government authority for the accuracy of +pedigree livestock certificates. The government promotes the extension +of markets for farm products; it maintains officers in the United +Kingdom who make reports from time to time on the condition in which +Canadian goods are delivered from the steamships, and also on what they +can learn from importing and distributing merchants regarding the +preferences of the market for different qualities of farm goods and +different sorts of packages. Through this branch of the public service a +complete chain of cold-storage accommodation between various points in +Canada and markets in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, has been +arranged. The government offered a bonus to those owners of creameries +who would provide cold-storage accommodation at them and keep the room +in use for a period of three years. It also arranged with the various +railway companies to run refrigerator cars weekly on the main lines +leading to Montreal and other export points. The food-products from any +shippers are received into these cars at the various railway stations at +the usual rates, without extra charge for icing or cold-storage service. +The government offered subventions to those who would provide +cold-storage warehouses at various points where these were necessary, +and also arranged with the owners of ocean steamships to provide +cold-storage chambers on them by means of mechanical refrigerators. The +policy of encouraging the provision of ample cold-storage accommodation +has been developed still further by the Cold Storage Act of the Dominion +parliament passed in 1907, under which subsidies are granted in part +payment of the cost of erecting and equipping cold-storage warehouses in +Canada for the preservation of perishable food-products. + +Besides furnishing technical and general information as to the carrying +on of dairying operations, the government has established and maintained +illustration cheese factories and creameries in different places for the +purpose of introducing the best methods of co-operative dairying in both +the manufacturing and shipping of butter and cheese. Inspectors are +employed to give information regarding the packing of fruit, and also to +see to the enforcement of the Fruit Marks Acts, which prohibit the +marking of fruit with wrong brands and packing in any fraudulent manner. + +The seed branch of the department of agriculture was established in 1900 +for the purpose of encouraging the production and use of seeds of +superior quality, thereby improving all kinds of field and garden crops +grown in Canada. Seeds are tested in the laboratory for purity and +germination on behalf of farmers and seed merchants, and scientific +investigations relating to seeds are conducted and reported upon. In the +year 1906-1907 6676 samples of seeds were tested. Encouragement to +seed-growing is given by the holding of seed fairs, and bulletins are +issued on weeds, the methods of treating seed-wheat against smut and on +other subjects. Collections of weed seeds are issued to merchants and +others to enable them readily to identify noxious weed seeds. The Seed +Control Act of 1905 brings under strict regulations the trade in +agricultural seeds, prohibiting the sale for seeding of cereals, +grasses, clovers or forage plants unless free from weeds specified, and +imposing severe penalties for infringements. + +The census and statistics office, reorganized as a branch of the +department of agriculture in 1905, undertakes a complete census of +population, of agriculture, of manufactures and of all the natural +products of the Dominion every ten years, a census of the population and +agriculture of the three North-West Provinces every five years, and +various supplemental statistical inquiries at shorter intervals. + + + Experimental farms. + +Experimental farms were established in 1887 in different parts of the +Dominion, and were so located as to render efficient help to the +farmers in the more thickly settled districts, and at the same time to +cover the varied climatic and other conditions which influence +agriculture in Canada. The central experimental farm is situated at +Ottawa, near the boundary line between Quebec and Ontario, where it +serves as an aid to agriculture in these two important provinces. One of +the four branch farms then established is at Nappan, Nova Scotia, near +the boundary between that province and New Brunswick, where it serves +the farmers of the three maritime provinces. A second branch +experimental farm is at Brandon in Manitoba, a third is at Indian Head +in Saskatchewan and the fourth is at Agassiz in the coast climate of +British Columbia. In 1906-1907 two new branch farms were established. +One is situated at Lethbridge, southern Alberta, where problems will be +investigated concerning agriculture upon irrigated land and dry farming +under conditions of a scanty rainfall. The other is at Lacombe, northern +Alberta, about 70 m. south of Edmonton, in the centre of a good +agricultural district on the Canadian Pacific railway. Additional branch +farms in different parts of the Dominion are in process of +establishment. At all these farms experiments are conducted to gain +information as to the best methods of preparing the land for crop and of +maintaining its fertility, the most useful and profitable crops to grow, +and how the various crops grown can be disposed of to the greatest +advantage. To this end experiments are conducted in the feeding of +cattle, sheep and swine for flesh, the feeding of cows for the +production of milk, and Of poultry both for flesh and eggs. Experiments +are also conducted to test the merits of new or untried varieties of +cereals and other field crops, of grasses, forage plants, fruits, +vegetables, plants and trees; and samples, particularly of the most +promising cereals, are distributed freely among farmers for trial, so +that those which promise to be most profitable may be rapidly brought +into general cultivation. Annual reports and occasional bulletins are +published and widely distributed, giving the results of this work. +Farmers are invited to visit these experimental farms, and a large +correspondence is conducted with those interested in agriculture in all +parts of the Dominion, who are encouraged to ask advice and information +from the officers of the farms. + + + Agricultural organizations and education. + +The governments of the several provinces each have a department of +agriculture. Among other provincial agencies for imparting information +there are farmers' institutes, travelling dairies, live-stock +associations, farmers', dairymen's, seed-growers', and fruit-growers' +associations, and agricultural and horticultural societies. These are +all maintained or assisted by the several provinces. Parts of the +proceedings and many of the addresses and papers presented at the more +important meetings of these associations are published by the provincial +governments, and distributed free to farmers who desire to have them. +There are also annual agricultural exhibitions of a highly important +character, where improvements in connexion with agricultural and +horticultural products, live-stock, implements, &c., are shown in +competition. The Dominion government makes in turn to one of the chief +local agricultural exhibition societies a grant of $50,000 for the +purposes of the national representation of agriculture and live-stock. +The exhibition receiving the grant loses its local character, and thus +becomes the Dominion exhibition or fair for that year. + +There are several important agricultural colleges for the practical +education of young men in farming, foremost amongst them being the +Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph. Agricultural colleges are also +maintained at Truro, Nova Scotia, and Winnipeg, Manitoba. In most of the +provinces are dairy schools where practical instruction and training are +given. Since the beginning of the 20th century agricultural education +and rural training in Canada have been greatly stimulated by the +munificence of Sir William C. Macdonald of Montreal. A donation by him +of $10,000, distributed to boys and girls on Canadian farms for prizes +in a competition for the selection of seed grain, as recommended by +Professor J.W. Robertson, led to the Macdonald-Robertson Seed Growers' +Association. This soon assumed national proportions in the Canadian +Seed Growers' Association, which, with the seed branch of the department +of agriculture mentioned above, has done much to raise to a uniform +standard of excellence the grain grown over large areas of the Canadian +wheat-fields. The Macdonald Institute at Guelph, Ontario, the buildings +and equipment of which Sir William provided at a cost of $182,500, and +the Macdonald College at Ste Anne de Bellevue, 20 m. west of Montreal, +have been established to promote the cause of rural education upon the +lines of nature study, with school gardens, manual training domestic +science, &c., which on both sides of the Atlantic are now being found so +effective in the hands of properly trained and enthusiastic teachers. +The property of the Macdonald College at Ste Anne de Bellevue comprises +561 acres, of which 74 acres are devoted to campus and field-research +plots, 100 acres to a _petite culture_ farm and 387 acres to a +live-stock and grain farm. The college includes a school for teachers, a +school of theoretical and practical agriculture and a school of +household science for the training of young women. The land, buildings +and equipment of the college, which cost over $2,500,000, were presented +by Sir William Macdonald, who in addition has provided for the future +maintenance of the work by a trust fund of over $2,000,000. In connexion +with the public elementary schools throughout Canada, where the +principles of agriculture are taught to some extent, manual training +centres, provided out of funds supplied by the same public-spirited +donor, are now maintained by local and provincial public school +authorities. (E. H. G.) + + +HISTORY + + Discovery. + +About A.D. 1000 Leif Ericsson, a Norseman, led an expedition from +Greenland to the shores probably of what is now Canada, but the first +effective contact of Europeans with Canada was not until the end of the +15th century. John Cabot (q.v.), sailing from Bristol, reached the +shores of Canada in 1497. Soon after fishermen from Europe began to go +in considerable numbers to the Newfoundland banks, and in time to the +coasts of the mainland of America. In 1534 a French expedition under +Jacques Cartier, a seaman of St Malo, sent out by Francis I., entered +the Gulf of St Lawrence. In the following year Cartier sailed up the +river as far as the Lachine Rapids, to the spot where Montreal now +stands. During the next sixty years the fisheries and the fur trade +received some attention, but no colonization was undertaken. + + + French colony. + +At the beginning of the 17th century we find the first great name in +Canadian history. Samuel de Champlain (q.v.), who had seen service under +Henry IV. of France, was employed in the interests of successive +fur-trading monopolies and sailed up the St Lawrence in 1603. In the +next year he was on the Bay of Fundy and had a share in founding the +first permanent French colony in North America--that of Port Royal, now +Annapolis, Nova Scotia. In 1608 he began the settlement which was named +Quebec. From 1608 to his death in 1635 Champlain worked unceasingly to +develop Canada as a colony, to promote the fur trade and to explore the +interior. He passed southward from the St Lawrence to the beautiful lake +which still bears his name and also westward, up the St Lawrence and the +Ottawa, in the dim hope of reaching the shores of China. He reached Lake +Huron and Lake Ontario, but not the great lakes stretching still farther +west. + +The era was that of the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), and during that +great upheaval England was sometimes fighting France. Already, in 1613, +the English from Virginia had almost completely wiped out the French +settlement at Port Royal, and when in 1629 a small English fleet +appeared at Quebec, Champlain was forced to surrender. But in 1632 +Canada was restored to France by the treaty of St Germain-en-Laye. Just +at this time was formed under the aegis of Cardinal Richelieu the +"Company of New France," known popularly as "The Company of One Hundred +Associates." With 120 members it was granted the whole St Lawrence +valley; for fifteen years from 1629 it was to have a complete monopoly +of trade; and products from its territory were to enter France free of +duty. In return the company was to take to New France 300 colonists a +year; only French Catholics might go; and for each settlement the +company was to provide three priests. Until 1663 this company controlled +New France. + +It was an era of missionary zeal in the Roman Catholic church, and +Canada became the favourite mission. The Society of Jesus was only one +of several orders--Franciscans (Recollets), Sulpicians, Ursulines, +&c.--who worked in New France. The Jesuits have attracted chief +attention, not merely on account of their superior zeal and numbers, but +also because of the tragic fate of some of their missionaries in Canada. +In the voluminous _Relations_ of their doings the story has been +preserved. Among the Huron Indians, whose settlements bordered on the +lake of that name, they secured a great influence. But there was +relentless war between the Hurons and the Iroquois occupying the +southern shore of Lake Ontario, and when in 1649 the Iroquois ruined and +almost completely destroyed the Hurons, the Jesuit missionaries also +fell victims to the conquerors' rage. Missionaries to the Iroquois +themselves met with a similar fate and the missions failed. Commercial +life also languished. The company planned by Richelieu was not a +success. It did little to colonize New France, and in 1660, after more +than thirty years of its monopoly, there were not more than 2000 French +in the whole country. In 1663 the charter of the company was revoked. No +longer was a trading company to discharge the duties of a sovereign. New +France now became a royal province, with governor, intendant, &c., on +the model of the provinces of France. + +In 1664 a new "Company of the West Indies" (_Compagnie des Indes +Occidentales_) was organized to control French trade and colonization +not only in Canada but also in West Africa, South America and the West +Indies. At first it promised well. In 1665 some 2000 emigrants were sent +to Canada; the European population was soon doubled, and Louis XIV. +began to take a personal interest in the colony. But once more, in +contrast with English experience, the great trading company proved a +failure in French hands as a colonizing agent, and in 1674 its charter +was summarily revoked by Louis XIV. Henceforth in name, if not in fact, +monopoly is ended in Canada. + +By this time French explorers were pressing forward to unravel the +mystery of the interior. By 1659 two Frenchmen, Radisson and +Groseillers, had penetrated beyond the great lakes to the prairies of +the far West; they were probably the first Europeans to see the +Mississippi. By 1666 a French mission was established on the shores of +Lake Superior, and in 1673 Joliet and Marquette, explorers from Canada, +reached and for some distance descended the Mississippi. Five years +later Cavelier de la Salle was making his toilsome way westward from +Quebec to discover the true character of the great river and to perform +the feat, perilous in view of the probable hostility of the natives, of +descending it to the sea. In 1682 he accomplished his task, took +possession of the valley of the Mississippi in the name of Louis XIV. +and called it Louisiana. Thus from Canada as her basis was France +reaching out to grasp a continent. + +There was a keen rivalry between church and state for dominance in this +new empire. In 1659 arrived at Quebec a young prelate of noble birth, +Francois Xavier de Laval-Montmorency, who had come to rule the church in +Canada. An ascetic, who practised the whole cycle of medieval +austerities, he was determined that Canada should be ruled by the +church, and he desired for New France a Puritanism as strict as that of +New England. His especial zeal was directed towards the welfare of the +Indians. These people showed, to their own ruin, a reckless liking for +the brandy of the white man. Laval insisted that the traders should not +supply brandy to the natives. He declared excommunicate any one who did +so and for a time he triumphed. More than once he drove from Canada +governors who tried to thwart him. In 1663 he was actually invited to +choose a governor after his own mind and did so, but with no cessation +of the old disputes. In 1672 Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac (q.v.), +was named governor of New France, and in him the church found her match. +Yet not at once; for, after a bitter struggle, he was recalled in 1682. +But Canada needed him. He knew how to control the ferocious Iroquois, +who had cut off France from access to Lake Ontario; to check them he had +built a fort where now stands the city of Kingston. With Frontenac gone, +these savages almost strangled the colony. On a stormy August night in +1689 1500 Iroquois burst in on the village of Lachine near Montreal, +butchered 200 of its people, and carried off more than 100 to be +tortured to death at their leisure. Then the strong man Frontenac was +recalled to face the crisis. + + + Struggles with England. + +It was a critical era. James II. had fallen in England, and William III. +was organizing Europe against French aggression. France's plan for a +great empire in America was now taking shape and there, as in Europe, a +deadly struggle with England was inevitable. Frontenac planned attacks +upon New England and encouraged a ruthless border warfare that involved +many horrors. Him, in return, the English attacked. Sir William Phips +sailed from Boston in 1690, conquered Acadia, now Nova Scotia, and then +hazarded the greater task of leading a fleet up the St Lawrence against +Quebec. On the 16th of October 1690 thirty-four English ships, some of +them only fishing craft, appeared in its basin and demanded the +surrender of the town. When Frontenac answered defiantly, Phips attacked +the place; but he was repulsed and in the end sailed away unsuccessful. + +Each side had now begun to see that the vital point was control of the +interior, which time was to prove the most extensive fertile area in the +world. La Salle's expedition had aroused the French to the importance of +the Mississippi, and they soon had a bold plan to occupy it, to close in +from the rear on the English on the Atlantic coast, seize their colonies +and even deport the colonists. The plan was audacious, for the English +in America outnumbered the French by twenty to one. But their colonies +were democracies, disunited because each was pursuing its own special +interests, while the French were united under despotic leadership. +Frontenac attacked the Iroquois mercilessly in 1696 and forced these +proud savages to sue for peace. But in the next year was made the treaty +of Ryswick, which brought a pause in the conflict, and in 1698 Frontenac +died. + +After Frontenac the Iroquois, though still hostile to France, are +formidable no more, and the struggle for the continent is frankly +between the English and the French. The peace of Ryswick proved but a +truce, and when in 1701, on the death of the exiled James II., Louis +XIV. flouted the claims of William III. to the throne of England by +proclaiming as king James's son, renewed war was inevitable. In Europe +it saw the brilliant victories of Marlborough; in America it was less +decisive, but France lost heavily. Though the English, led by Sir +Hovenden Walker, made in 1711 an effort to take Quebec which proved +abortive, they seized Nova Scotia; and when the treaty of Utrecht was +made in 1713, France admitted defeat in America by yielding to Britain +her claims to Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. But she still +held the shores of the St Lawrence, and she retained, too, the island of +Cape Breton to command its mouth. There she built speedily the fortress +of Louisbourg, and prepared once more to challenge British supremacy in +America. With a sound instinct that looked to future greatness, France +still aimed, more and more, at the control of the interior of the +Continent. The danger from the Iroquois on Lake Ontario had long cut her +off from the most direct access to the West, and from the occupation of +the Ohio valley leading to the Mississippi, but now free from this +savage scourge she could go where she would. In 1701 she founded +Detroit, commanding the route from Lake Erie to Lake Huron. Her +missionaries and leaders were already at Sault Ste Marie commanding the +approach to Lake Superior, and at Michilimackinac commanding that to +Lake Michigan. They had also penetrated to what is now the Canadian +West, and it was a French Canadian, La Verendrye, who, by the route +leading past the point where now stands the city of Winnipeg, pressed +on into the far West until in 1743, first recorded of white men, he came +in sight of the Rocky Mountains. In the south of the continent France +also crowned La Salle's work by founding early in the 18th century New +Orleans at the mouth of the Mississippi. It was a far cry from New +Orleans to Quebec. If France could link them by a chain of settlements +and shut in the English to their narrow strip of Atlantic seaboard there +was good promise that North America would be hers. + +The project was far-reaching, but France could do little to make it +effective. Louis XV. allowed her navy to decline and her people showed +little inclination for emigration to the colonies. In 1744, when the war +of the Austrian Succession broke out, the New England colonies planned +and in 1745 effected the capture of Louisbourg, the stronghold of France +in Cape Breton Island, which menaced their commerce. But to their +disgust, when the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was made in 1748, this +conquest was handed back to France. She continued her work of building a +line of forts on the great lakes--on the river Niagara, on the Ohio, on +the Mississippi; and the English colonies, with the enemy thus in their +rear, grew ever more restive. In 1753 Virginia warned the French on the +Ohio that they were encroaching on British territory. The next year, in +circumstances curiously like those which were repeated when the French +expedition under Marchand menaced Britain in Egypt by seeking to +establish a post on the Upper Nile, George Washington, a young Virginian +officer, was sent to drive the French from their Fort Duquesne on the +Ohio river, where now stands Pittsburgh. The result was sharp fighting +between English and French in a time of nominal peace. In 1755 the +British took the stern step of deporting the Acadian French from Nova +Scotia. Though this province had been ceded to Great Britain in 1713 +many of the Acadians had refused to accept British sovereignty. In 1749 +the British founded Halifax, began to colonize Nova Scotia, and, with +war imminent, deemed it prudent to disperse the Acadians, chiefly along +the Atlantic seaboard (see NOVA SCOTIA: _History_). In 1756 the Seven +Years' War definitely began. France had no resources to cope with those +of Britain in America, and the British command of the sea proved +decisive. On the 13th of September 1759 Wolfe won his great victory +before Quebec, which involved the fall of that place, and a year later +at Montreal the French army in Canada surrendered. By the peace of +Paris, 1763, the whole of New France was finally ceded to Great Britain. + + + English possesion. + +With only about 60,000 French in Canada at the time of the conquest it +might have seemed as if this population would soon be absorbed by the +incoming British. Some thought that, under a Protestant sovereign, the +Canadian Catholics would be rapidly converted to Protestantism. But the +French type proved stubbornly persistent and to this day dominates the +older Canada. The first English settlers in the conquered country were +chiefly petty traders, not of a character to lead in social or public +affairs. The result was that the government of the time co-operated +rather with the leaders among the French. + +After peace was concluded in 1763, Canada was governed under the +authority of a royal proclamation, but sooner or later a constitution +specially adapted to the needs of the country was inevitable. In 1774 +this was provided by the Quebec Act passed by the Imperial parliament. +Under this act the western territory which France had claimed, extending +as far as the Mississippi and south to the Ohio, was included with +Canada in what was called the Province of Quebec. This vast territory +was to be governed despotically from Quebec; the Roman Catholic church +was given its old privileges in Canada; and the French civil law was +established permanently side by side with the English criminal law. The +act linked the land-owning class in Canada and the church by ties of +self-interest to the British cause. The _habitant_, placed again under +their authority, had less reason to be content. + +In 1775 began the American Revolution. Its leaders tried to make the +revolt continental, and invaded Canada, hoping that the French would +join them. They took Montreal and besieged Quebec during the winter of +1775-1776; but the prudent leadership of Sir Guy Carleton, afterwards +Lord Dorchester, saved Quebec and in 1776 the revolutionary army +withdrew unsuccessful from Canada. Since that time any prospect of +Canada's union to the United States has been very remote. + +But the American Revolution profoundly influenced the life of Canada. +The country became the refuge of thousands of American loyalists who +would not desert Great Britain. To Nova Scotia, to what are now New +Brunswick (q.v.) and Ontario (q.v.) they fled in numbers not easily +estimated, but probably reaching about 40,000. Until this time the +present New Brunswick and Ontario had contained few European settlers; +now they developed, largely under the influence of the loyalists of the +Revolution. This meant that the American type of colonial life would be +reproduced in Canada; but it meant also bitter hostility on the part of +these colonists to the United States, which refused in any way to +compensate the loyalists for their confiscated property. Great Britain +did something; the loyalists received liberal grants of land and cash +compensation amounting to nearly L4,000,000. + +A prevailingly French type of government was now no longer adequate in +Canada, and in 1791 was passed by the British parliament the +Constitutional Act, separating Canada at the Ottawa river into two +parts, each with its own government; Lower Canada, chiefly French, +retaining the old system of laws, with representative institutions now +added, and Upper Canada, on the purely British model. (For the history +of Lower and Upper Canada, now Quebec and Ontario, the separate articles +must be consulted.) Each province had special problems; the French in +Lower Canada aimed at securing political power for their own race, while +in Upper Canada there was no race problem, and the great struggle was +for independence of official control and in all essential matters for +government by the people. It may be doubted whether at this time it +would have been safe to give these small communities complete +self-government. But this a clamorous radical element demanded +insistently, and the issue was the chief one in Canada for half a +century. + +But before this issue matured war broke out between Great Britain and +the United States in 1812 from causes due chiefly to Napoleon's +continental policy. The war seemed to furnish a renewed opportunity to +annex Canada to the American Union, and Canada became the chief theatre +of conflict. The struggle was most vigorous on the Niagara frontier. But +in the end the American invasion failed and the treaty made at Ghent in +1814 left the previous status unaltered. + + + Lord Durham. + +In 1837 a few French Canadians in Lower Canada, led by Louis Joseph +Papineau (q.v.), took up arms with the wild idea of establishing a +French republic on the St Lawrence. In the same year William Lyon +Mackenzie (q.v.) led a similar armed revolt in Upper Canada against the +domination of the ruling officialdom called, with little reason, the +"Family Compact." Happening, as these revolts did, just at the time of +Queen Victoria's accession, they attracted wide attention, and in 1838 +the earl of Durham (q.v.) was sent to govern Canada and report on the +affairs of British North America. Clothed as he was with large powers, +he undertook in the interests of leniency and reconciliation to banish, +without trial, some leaders of the rebellion in Lower Canada. For this +reason he was censured at home and he promptly resigned, after spending +only five months in the country. But his _Report_, published in the +following year, is a masterly survey of the situation and included +recommendations that profoundly influenced the later history of Canada. +He recommended the union of the two Canadian provinces at once, the +ultimate union of all British North America and the granting to this +large state of full self-government. The French element he thought a +menace to Canada's future, and partly for this reason he desired all the +provinces to unite so that the British element should be dominant. + +To carry out Lord Durham's policy the British government passed in 1840 +an Act of Union joining Upper and Lower Canada, and sent out as governor +Charles Poulett Thompson, who was made Baron Sydenham and Toronto In the +single parliament each province was equally represented. By this time +there was more than a million people in Canada, and the country was +becoming important. Lord Sydenham died in 1841 before his work was +completed, and he left Canada still in a troubled condition. The French +were suspicious of the Union, aimed avowedly at checking their +influence, and the complete self-government for which the "Reformers" in +English-speaking Canada had clamoured was not yet conceded by the +colonial office. But rapidly it became obvious that the provinces united +had become too important to be held in leading strings. The issue was +finally settled in 1849 when the earl of Elgin was governor and the +Canadian legislature, sitting at Montreal, passed by a large majority +the Rebellion Losses Bill, compensating citizens, some of them French, +in Lower Canada, for losses incurred at the hands of the loyal party +during the rebellion a decade earlier. The cry was easily raised by the +Conservative minority that this was to vote reward for rebellion. They +appealed to London for intervention. The mob in Montreal burned the +parliament buildings and stoned Lord Elgin himself because he gave the +royal assent to the bill. He did so in the face of this fierce +opposition, on the ground that, in Canadian domestic affairs, the +Canadian parliament must be supreme. + +The union of the two provinces did not work well. Each was jealous of +the other and deadlocks frequently occurred. Commercially, after 1849, +Canada was prosperous. In 1854 Lord Elgin negotiated a reciprocity +treaty with the United States which gave Canadian natural products free +entrance to the American market. The outbreak of the Civil War in the +United States in 1861 increased the demand for such products, and Canada +enjoyed an extensive trade with her neighbour. But, owing largely to the +unfriendly attitude of Great Britain to the northern side during the +war, the United States cancelled the treaty, when its first term of ten +years ended in 1865, and it has never been renewed. + +Under the party system in Canada cabinets changed as often as, until +recently, they did in France, and the union of the two provinces did not +give political stability. The French and English were sufficiently equal +in strength to make the task of government well nigh impossible. In 1864 +came the opportunity for change, when New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and +Prince Edward Island were considering a federal union. Canada suggested +a wider plan to include herself and, in October 1864, a conference was +held at Quebec. The conference outlined a plan of federation which +subsequently, with slight modifications, passed the imperial parliament +as "The British North America Act," and on the 1st of July 1867, the +Dominion of Canada came into existence. It was born during the era of +the American Civil War, and was planned to correct defects which time +had revealed in the American federation. The provinces in Canada were +conceded less power than have the states in the American union; the +federal government retaining the residuum of power not conceded. + (G. M. W.) + + + Canada since federation. + +When federation was accomplished in 1867 the Dominion of Canada +comprised only the four provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and +Nova Scotia. Lord Monck was appointed the first governor-general, and at +his request the Hon. John Alexander Macdonald undertook the formation of +an administration. A coalition cabinet was formed, including the +foremost Liberals and Conservatives drawn from the different provinces. +Under a proclamation issued from Windsor Castle by Queen Victoria on the +22nd of May the new constitution came into effect on the 1st of July. +This birthday of the Dominion has been fixed by statute as a public +holiday, and is annually observed under the name of "Dominion Day." +Seventy-two senators--half Conservatives and half Liberals--were +appointed, and lieutenant-governors were named for the four provinces. +The prime minister was created a K.C.B., and minor honours were +conferred on other ministers in recognition of their services in +bringing about the union. + + + Nova Scotia question. + +The first general election for the Dominion House of Commons was held +during the month of August, and except in the province of Nova Scotia +was favourable to the administration, which entered upon its +parliamentary work with a majority of thirty-two. The first session of +parliament was opened on the 8th of November, but adjourned on the 21st +of December till the 12th of March 1868, chiefly on account of the fact +that members of the Dominion parliament were allowed, in Ontario and +Quebec, to hold seats in the local legislatures, so that it was +difficult for the different bodies to be in session simultaneously. It +was not till 1873 that an act was passed making members of the local +legislatures ineligible for seats in the House of Commons. Immediately +after the completion of federation a serious agitation for repeal of the +union arose in Nova Scotia, which had been brought into the federal +system by a vote of the existing legislature, without any direct +preliminary appeal to the people. Headed by Joseph Howe (q.v.), the +advocates of repeal swept the province at the Dominion election. Out of +19 members then elected 18 were pledged to repeal, Dr Tupper, the +minister responsible for carrying the Act of Union, alone among the +supporters of federation securing a seat. The local assembly, in which +36 out of 38 members were committed to repeal, passed an address to Her +Majesty praying her not to "reduce this free, happy and hitherto +self-governed province to the degraded condition of a servile dependency +of Canada," and sent Howe with a delegation to London to lay the +petition at the foot of the throne. Howe enlisted the support of John +Bright and other members of parliament, but the imperial government was +firm, and the duke of Buckingham, as colonial secretary, soon informed +the governor-general in a despatch that consent could not be given for +the withdrawal of Nova Scotia from the Dominion. Meanwhile Howe, +convinced of the impossibility of effecting separation, and fearing +disloyal tendencies which had manifested themselves in some of its +advocates, entered into negotiations with Dr Tupper in London, and later +with the Dominion government, for better financial terms than those +originally arranged for Nova Scotia in the federal system. The estimated +amount of provincial debt assumed by the general government was +increased by $1,186,756, and a special annual subsidy of $82,698 was +granted for a period of ten years. These terms having been agreed to, +Howe, as a pledge of his approval and support, accepted a seat as +secretary of state in the Dominion cabinet. By taking this course he +sacrificed much of his remarkable popularity in his native province, but +confirmed the work of consolidating the Dominion. It was many years +before the bitterness of feeling aroused by the repeal agitation +entirely subsided in Nova Scotia. + +A gloom was cast over the first parliament of the Dominion by the +assassination in 1868 of one of the most brilliant figures in the +politics of the time, D'Arcy McGee (q.v.) His murderer, a Fenian acting +under the instructions of the secret society to which he belonged, was +discovered, and executed in 1869. + +The reorganization of the various departments of state, in view of the +wider interests with which they had to deal, occupied much of the +attention of the first parliament of the Dominion. In 1867 the postal +rates were reduced and unified. In 1868 a militia system for the whole +Dominion was organized, the tariff altered and systematized, and a Civil +Service Act passed. The banking system of the country was put on a sound +footing by a series of acts culminating in 1871, and in the same year a +uniform system of decimal currency was established for the whole +Dominion. While the new machinery of state was thus being put in +operation other large questions presented themselves. + + + Inter-Colonial railway. + +The construction of the Inter-Colonial railway as a connecting link +between the provinces on the seaboard and those along the St Lawrence +and the Great Lakes was a part of the federation compact, a clause of +the British North America Act providing that it should be begun within +six months after the date of union. The guarantee of the imperial +government made easy the provision of the necessary capital, but as +this was coupled with a voice in the decision of the route, it +complicated the latter question, about which a keen contest arose. The +most direct and therefore commercially most promising line of +construction passed near the boundary of the United States. Recent +friction with that country made this route objected to by the imperial +and many Canadian authorities. Ultimately the longer, more expensive, +but more isolated route along the shores of the Gulf of St Lawrence was +adopted. The work was taken in hand at once, and pressed steadily +forward to completion. It has since been supplemented by other lines +built for more distinctly commercial ends. Though not for many years a +financial success, the Inter-Colonial railway, which was opened in 1876, +has in a marked way fulfilled its object by binding together socially +and industrially widely separated portions of the Dominion. + + + Hudson's Bay Company territories. + +Within a month of the meeting of the first parliament of the Dominion a +question of vast importance to the future of the country was brought +forward by the Hon. W. McDougall in a series of resolutions which were +adopted, and on which was based an address to the queen praying that +Majesty would unite Rupert's Land and the North-West Territories to +Canada. A delegation consisting of Sir G.E. Cartier and the Hon. W. +McDougall was in 1868 sent to England to negotiate with the Hudson's Bay +Company (q.v.) for the extinction of its claims, and to arrange with the +imperial government for the transfer of the territory. After prolonged +discussions the company agreed to surrender to the crown, in +consideration of a payment of L300,000, the rights and interests in the +north-west guaranteed by its charter, with the exception of a +reservation of one-twentieth part of the fertile belt, and 45,000 acres +of land adjacent to the trading posts of the company. For the purposes +of this agreement the "fertile belt" was to be bounded as follows:--"On +the south by the U.S. boundary, on the west by the Rocky Mountains, on +the north by the northern branch of the Saskatchewan river, on the east +by Lake Winnipeg, the Lake of the Woods, and the waters connecting +them." An act authorizing the change of control was passed by the +imperial parliament in July 1868; the arrangement made with the Hudson's +Bay Company was accepted by the Canadian parliament in June 1869; and +the deed of surrender from the Hudson's Bay Company to Her Majesty is +dated November 19th, 1869. In anticipation of the formal transfer to the +Dominion an act was passed by the Canadian parliament in the same month +providing for the temporary government of Rupert's Land and the +North-West Territories. On the 28th of September the Hon. W. McDougall +was appointed the first governor, and left at once to assume control on +the 1st of December, when it had been understood that the formal change +of possession would take place. + + + Red river rebellion. + +Meanwhile a serious condition of affairs was developing in the Red river +settlement, the most considerable centre of population in the newly +acquired territory. The half-breeds regarded with suspicion a transfer +of control concerning which they had not been consulted. They resented +the presence of the Canadian surveyors sent to lay out roads and +townships, and the tactless way in which some of these did their work +increased the suspicion that long-established rights to the soil would +not be respected. A population largely Roman Catholic in creed, and +partly French in origin and language, feared that an influx of new +settlers would overthrow cherished traditions. Some were afraid of +increased taxation. A group of immigrants from the United States +fomented disturbance in the hope that it would lead to annexation. Louis +Riel, a fanatical half-breed, placed himself at the head of the +movement. His followers established what they called a "provisional +government" of which he was chosen president, and when the newly +appointed governor reached the boundary line he was prevented from +entering the territory. Several of the white settlers who resisted this +rebellious movement were arrested and kept in confinement. One of these, +a young man named Thomas Scott, having treated Riel with defiance, was +court-martialled for treason to the provisional government, condemned, +and on the 4th of March 1870, shot in cold blood under the walls of Fort +Garry. This crime aroused intense excitement throughout the country, +and the Orange body, particularly, to which Scott belonged, demanded the +immediate punishment of his murderer and the suppression of the +rebellion. An armed force, composed partly of British regulars and +partly of Canadian volunteers, was made ready and placed under the +command of Colonel Garnet Wolseley, afterwards Lord Wolseley. As a +military force could not pass through the United States, the expedition +was compelled to take the route up Lake Superior, and from the head of +that lake through 500 m. of unbroken and difficult wilderness. In August +1870, the force reached Fort Garry, to find the rebels scattered and +their leader, Riel, a fugitive in the neighbouring states. Meanwhile, +during the progress of the expedition, an act had been passed creating +Manitoba a province, with full powers of self-government, and the +arrival of the military was closely followed by that of the first +governor, Mr (later Sir) Adams G. Archibald, who succeeded in organizing +the administration on a satisfactory basis. Fort Garry became Winnipeg, +and there were soon indications that it was destined to be a great city, +and the commercial doorway to the vast prairies that lay beyond. +Meanwhile, till adequate means of transportation were provided, it was +seen that city and prairie alike must wait for any large inflow of +population. + + + New provinces. + +Provision was made in the British North America Act to receive new +provinces into the Dominion. Manitoba was the first to be constituted; +in 1871 British Columbia, which had hitherto held aloof, determined, +under the persuasion of a sympathetic governor, Mr (later Sir) Antony +Musgrave, to throw in its lot with the Dominion. Popular feeling in +British Columbia itself was not strongly in favour of union, and the +terms under which the new province was to be received were the subject +of much negotiation with the provincial authorities, and were keenly +debated in parliament before the bill in which they were embodied was +finally carried. The clause on which there was the widest divergence of +opinion was one providing that a trans-continental railway, connecting +the Pacific province with the eastern part of the Dominion, should be +begun within two, and completed within ten years. To a province which at +the time contained a population of only 36,000, and but half of this +white, the inducement thus held out was immense. The Opposition in +parliament claimed that the contract was one impossible for the Dominion +to fulfil. The government of Sir John Macdonald felt, however, that the +future of the Dominion depended upon linking together the Atlantic and +the Pacific, and in view of the vast unoccupied spaces lying between the +Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains, open to immigration from the United +States, their audacity in undertaking the work was doubtless justified. +The construction of the Canadian Pacific railway, thus inaugurated, +became for several years the chief subject of political contention +between opposing parties. + +Anticipating the order of chronology slightly, it may be mentioned here +that in 1873 Prince Edward Island (q.v.), which had in 1865 decisively +rejected proposals of the Quebec conference and had in the following +year repeated its rejection of federation by a resolution of the +legislature affirming that no terms Canada could offer would be +acceptable, now decided to throw in its lot with the Dominion. The +island had become involved in heavy railway expenditure, and financial +necessities led the electors to take a broader view of the question. In +the end the federal government assumed the railway debt, arrangements +were made for extinguishing certain proprietary rights which had long +been a source of discontent, and on the 1st of July 1873 the Dominion +was rounded off by the accession of the new province. + +Finally in 1878, in order to remove all doubts about unoccupied +territory, an imperial order in council was passed in response to an +address of the Canadian parliament, annexing to the Dominion all British +possessions in North America, except Newfoundland. That small colony, +which had been represented at the Quebec conference, also rejected the +proposals of 1865, and, in spite of various efforts to arrange +satisfactory terms, has steadily held aloof, and so has proved the only +obstacle to the complete political unification of British North America. + +[Illustration: CANADA] + + + Difficulties with the United States. + +A signal proof was soon furnished of the new standing in the empire +which federation had given to the Canadian provinces. A heritage of +differences and difficulties had been left to be settled between +England, Canada and the American Union as the result of the Civil War. +In retaliation for the supposed sympathy of Canadians with the South in +this struggle the victorious North took steps to abrogate in 1866 the +reciprocity treaty of 1854, which had conferred such great advantages on +both countries. It followed that the citizens of the United States lost +the right which they had received under the treaty to share in the +fisheries of Canada. American fishermen, however, showed so little +inclination to give up what they had enjoyed so long, that it was found +necessary to take vigorous steps to protect Canadian fishing rights, and +frequent causes of friction consequently arose. During the progress of +the Civil War American feeling had been greatly exasperated by the +losses inflicted on commerce by the cruiser "Alabama," which, it was +claimed, was allowed to leave a British port in, violation of +international law. On the other hand, Canadian feeling had been equally +exasperated by the Fenian raids, organized on American soil, which had +cost Canada much expenditure of money and some loss of life. In, +addition to these causes of difference there was an unsettled boundary +dispute in British Columbia, and questions about the navigation of +rivers common to the United States and Canada. In 1869 the government of +Canada sent a deputation to England to press upon the imperial +government the necessity of asserting Canada's position in regard to the +fisheries, and the desirability of settling other questions in dispute +with the republic. The outcome of this application was the appointment +of a commission to consider and if possible settle outstanding +differences between the three countries. The prime minister of the +Dominion, Sir John Macdonald, was asked to act as one of the imperial +commissioners in carrying on these negotiations. This was the first time +that a colonist had been called upon to assist in the settlement of +international disputes. The commission assembled at the American capital +in February 1871, and after discussions extending over several weeks +signed what is known as the treaty of Washington. By the terms of this +treaty the "Alabama" claims and the San Juan boundary were referred to +arbitration; the free navigation of the St Lawrence was granted to the +United States in return for the free use of Lake Michigan and certain +Alaskan rivers; and it was settled that a further commission should +decide the excess of value of the Canadian fisheries thrown open to the +United States over and above the reciprocal concessions made to Canada. +Much to the annoyance of the people of the Dominion the claims for the +Fenian raids were withdrawn at the request of the British government, +which undertook, to make good to Canada any losses she had suffered. To +some of these terms the representative of Canada made a strenuous +opposition, and in finally signing the treaty stated that he did so +chiefly for imperial interests, although in these he believed Canadian +interests to be involved. The clauses relating to the fisheries and the +San Juan boundary were reserved for the approval of the Canadian +parliament, which, in spite of much violent opposition, ratified them by +a large majority. Under the "Alabama" arbitration Great Britain paid to +the United States damages to the amount of $15,500,000, while the German +Emperor decided the San Juan boundary in favour of the United States. +The Fishery Commission, on the other hand, which sat in Halifax, awarded +Canada $5,500,000 as the excess value of its fisheries for twelve years, +and after much hesitation this sum was paid by the United States into +the Canadian treasury. An imperial guarantee of a loan for the +construction of railways was the only compensation Canada received for +the Fenian raids. + + + Canadian Pacific railway question. + +The second general election for the Dominion took place in 1872. It was +marked by the complete defeat of the Anti-Unionist party in Nova Scotia, +only one member of which secured his election, thus exactly reversing +the vote of 1867. While Sir John Macdonald's administration was +supported in Nova Scotia, it was weakened in Ontario on account of the +clemency shown to Riel, and in Quebec by the refusal to grant a general +amnesty to all who had taken part in the rebellion. Two important +members of the cabinet, Sir G. Cartier and Sir F. Hincks, were defeated. +Opposition to the Washington treaty and dread of the bold railway policy +of the government also contributed to weaken its position. But a graver +blow, ending in the complete overthrow of the administration, was soon +to fall as the result of the election. In 1872 two companies had been +formed and received charters to build the Canadian Pacific railway. Sir +Hugh Allan of Montreal was at the head of the one, and the Hon. David +Macpherson of Toronto was president of the other. The government +endeavoured to bring about an amalgamation of these rival companies, +believing that the united energies and financial ability of the whole +country were required for so vast an undertaking. While negotiations to +this end were still proceeding the election of 1872 came on with the +result already mentioned. Soon after the meeting of parliament, a +Liberal member of the House, Mr L.S. Huntingdon, formally charged +certain members of the cabinet with having received large sums of money, +for use in the election, from Sir Hugh Allan, on condition, as it was +claimed, that the Canadian Pacific contract should be given to the new +company, of which he became the head on the failure of the plan for +amalgamation. These charges were investigated by a royal commission, +which was appointed after it had been decided that the parliamentary +committee named for that purpose could not legally take evidence under +oath. Parliament met in October 1873, to receive the report of the +commission. While members of the government were exonerated by the +report from the charge of personal corruption, the payment of large sums +of money by Sir Hugh Allan was fully established, and public feeling on +the matter was so strong that Sir J. Macdonald, while asserting his own +innocence, felt compelled to resign without waiting for the vote, of +parliament. Lord Dufferin, who had succeeded Lord Lisgar as +governor-general in 1872, at once sent for the leader of the Opposition, +Mr Alexander Mackenzie (q.v.), who succeeded in forming a Liberal +administration which, on appealing to the constituencies, was supported +by an overwhelming majority, and held power for the five following +years. + +On the accession to power of the Liberal party, a new policy was adopted +for the construction of the trans-continental railway. It was proposed +to lessen the cost of construction by utilizing the water stretches +along the route, while, on the ground that the contract made was +impossible of fulfilment, the period of completion was postponed +indefinitely. Meanwhile the surveys and construction were carried +forward not by a company, but as a government work. Under this +arrangement British Columbia became exceedingly restive, holding the +Dominion to the engagement by which it had been induced to enter the +union. A representative of the government, Mr (later Sir James) Edgar, +sent out to conciliate the province by some new agreement, failed to +accomplish his object, and all the influence of the governor-general, +Lord Dufferin, who paid a visit at this time to the Pacific coast, was +required to quiet the public excitement, which had shown itself in a +resolution passed by the legislature for separation from the Dominion +unless the terms of union were fulfilled. + + + Economic "national policy." + +Meanwhile a policy destined to affect profoundly the future of the +Dominion had, along with that of the construction of the Canadian +Pacific railway, become a subject of burning political discussion and +party division. During the period of Mr Mackenzie's administration a +profound business depression affected the whole continent of America. +The Dominion revenue showed a series of deficits for several years in +succession. The factories of the United States, unduly developed by an +extreme system of protection, sought in Canada a slaughter market for +their surplus products, to the detriment or destruction of Canadian +industries. Meanwhile the republic, which had for many years drained +Canada of hundreds of thousands of artisans to work its factories, +steadily declined to consider any suggestion for improving trade +relations between the two countries. In these circumstances Sir J. +Macdonald brought forward a proposal to adopt what was called a +"national policy," or, in other words, a system of protection for +Canadian industries. Mr Mackenzie and his chief followers, whose +inclinations were towards free trade, pinned their political fortunes to +the maintenance of a tariff for revenue only. After some years of fierce +discussion in parliament and throughout the country the question was +brought to an issue in 1878, when, with a large majority of followers +pledged to carry out protection, Sir John Macdonald was restored to +power. The new system was laid before parliament in 1879 by the finance +minister, Sir Leonard Tilley; and the tariff then agreed upon, although +it received considerable modification from time to time, remained, under +both Conservative and Liberal administrations, the basis of Canadian +finance, and, as Canadians generally believed, the bulwark of their +industry. It had almost immediately the effect of lessening the exodus +of artisans to the United States, and of improving the revenue and so +restoring the national credit. + + + Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. + +In October 1878 Lord Dufferin's term of office expired, and his place as +governor-general was taken by the marquess of Lorne, whose welcome to +the Dominion was accentuated by the fact that he was the son-in-law of +the queen, and that his viceroyalty was shared by the princess Louise. +The election of 1878 marked the beginning of a long period of +Conservative rule--the premiership of Sir J. Macdonald continuing from +that time without a break until his death in 1891, while his party +remained in power till 1896. This long-continued Conservative supremacy +was apparently due to the policy of bold and rapid development which it +had adopted, and which appealed to a young and ambitious country more +strongly than the more cautious proposals of the Liberal leaders. As +soon as the government had redeemed its pledge to establish a system of +protection a vigorous railway policy was inaugurated. A contract was +made with a new company to complete the Canadian Pacific railway within +ten years, on condition of receiving a grant of $25,000,000 and +25,000,000 acres of land, together with those parts of the line already +finished under government direction. After fierce debate in parliament +these terms were ratified in the session of 1881. The financial +difficulties encountered by the company in carrying out their gigantic +task were very great, and in 1884 they were compelled to obtain from the +Dominion government a loan of $20,000,000 secured on the company's +property. This loan was repaid by 1887. Meanwhile the work was carried +forward with so much energy that, five years before the stipulated +period of completion, on the 7th of November 1886, the last spike was +driven by Mr Donald A. Smith (Lord Strathcona), whose fortune had been +largely pledged to the undertaking, along with those of other prominent +Canadian business men, especially Mr George Stephen (Lord Mountstephen), +Mr Duncan McIntyre, and Mr R.B. Angus. Under the energetic management of +Mr (later Sir) W.C. Van Home, who was appointed president of the company +in 1888, the new railway soon became the most prominent feature in the +development of the country; lines of steamships were established on the +great lakes and the Pacific; a stream of immigration began to flow into +the prairie region; and the increasing prosperity of the railway had a +poverful influence in improving the public credit. + + + Riel's rebellion. + +Even before the Canadian Pacific railway was fully completed, it proved +of great service in a national emergency which suddenly arose in the +north-west. With the organization of Manitoba and the opening of +improved communication immigrants began to move rapidly westward, and +government surveyors were soon busy laying off lands in the Saskatchewan +valley. The numbers of the half-breed settlers of this district had been +increased by the migration of many of those who had taken part in the +first uprising at Fort Garry. Influenced by somewhat similar motives, +fearing from the advance of civilization the destruction of the buffalo, +on which they chiefly depended for food, with some real grievances and +others imaginary, the discontented population sent for Riel, who had +been living, since his flight from Fort Garry, in the United States. He +returned to put himself at the head of a second rebellion. At first he +seemed inclined to act with moderation and on lines of constitutional +agitation, but soon, carried away by fanaticism, ambition and vanity, he +turned to armed organization against the government. To half-breed +rebellion was added the imminent danger of an Indian uprising, to which +Riel looked for support. The authorities at Ottawa were at first +careless or sceptical in regard to the danger, the reality of which was +only brought home to them when a body of mounted police, advancing to +regain a small post at Duck Lake, of which the rebels had taken +possession, was attacked and twelve of their number killed. Volunteers +and militia were at once called out in all the old provinces of Canada, +and were quickly conveyed by the newly constructed line of railway to +the neighbourhood of the point of disturbance. Major-general Middleton, +of the imperial army, who was then in command of the Canadian militia, +led the expedition. Several minor engagements with half-breeds or +Indians preceded the final struggle at Batoche, where Gabriel Dumont, +Riel's military lieutenant, had skilfully entrenched his forces. After a +cautious advance the eagerness of the troops finally overcame the +hesitation of the commander in exposing his men, the rifle pits were +carried with a rush, and the rebellion crushed at a single stroke. +Dumont succeeded in escaping across the United States boundary; Riel was +captured, imprisoned, and in due course tried for treason. This second +rebellion carried on under his leadership had lasted about three months, +had cost the country many valuable lives, and in money about five +millions of dollars. Clear as was his guilt, Riel's trial, condemnation +and execution on the 16th of November 1885, provoked a violent political +storm which at one time threatened to overthrow the Conservative +government. The balance of power between parties in parliament was held +by the province of Quebec, and there racial and religious feeling evoked +no slight sympathy for Riel. But while a section of Quebec was eager to +secure the rebel's pardon, Ontario was equally bent on the execution of +justice, so that in the final vote on the question in parliament the +defection of French Conservatives was compensated for by the support of +Ontario Liberals. In the end 25 out of 53 French members voted in +justification of Kiel's punishment. With him were executed several +Indian chiefs who had been concerned in a massacre of whites. Painful as +were the circumstances connected with this rebellion, it is certain that +the united action of the different provinces in suppressing it tended to +consolidate Canadian sentiment, and the short military campaign had the +effect of fixing public attention upon the immense fertile territory +then being opened up. + + + Macdonald's fiscal policy. + +The general election of 1882 turned chiefly upon endorsement of the +national policy of protection; in that of 1887 the electoral test was +again applied to the same issue, while Sir John Macdonald also asked for +approval of the government's action in exacting from Riel the full +penalty of his guilt. On both issues the Conservative policy was upheld +by the electors, and Macdonald was continued in power with a large +parliamentary majority. From the election of 1887 the Riel agitation +ceased to seriously influence politics, but the fiscal controversy +continued under new forms. Between 1887 and 1891 a vigorous agitation +was kept up under Liberal auspices in favour of closer trade relations +with the United States, at first under the name of Commercial Union and +later under that of Unrestricted Reciprocity. The object in both cases +was to break down tariff barriers between the United States and Canada, +even though that should be at the expense of discrimination against +Great Britain. The Conservative party took the position that commercial +union, involving as it would a common protective tariff against all +other countries, including the motherland, would inevitably lead to +political unification with the United States. The question after long +and vehement discussion was brought to a final issue in the election of +1891, and Sir John Macdonald's government was again sustained. From that +time protection became the settled policy of the country. On their +accession to power in 1896 it was adopted by the Liberals, who joined to +it a preference for the products of the mother country. Under the +protective policy thus repeatedly confirmed, Canada gradually became +more independent of the American market than in earlier times, and +enjoyed great commercial prosperity. Soon after the election of 1891 Sir +John Macdonald (q.v.) died, after an active political career of more +than forty years. Under his direction the great lines of policy which +have governed the development of Canada as a confederated state within +the empire were inaugurated and carried forward with great success, so +that his name has become indissolubly connected with the history of the +Dominion at its most critical stage. + + + Macdonald's successors. + +During the years which succeeded the death of Sir John Macdonald a +succession of losses weakened the position of the Conservative party +which had held power so long. The Hon. J.C.C. Abbott, leader of the +party in the Senate, became prime minister on Macdonald's death in 1891, +but in 1892 was compelled by ill-health to resign, and in 1893 he died. +His successor, Sir John Thompson, after a successful leadership of about +two years, died suddenly of heart disease at Windsor Castle, immediately +after being sworn of the imperial privy council. Charges of corruption +in the administration of the department of public works, which led to +the expulsion of one member of parliament, involved also the resignation +from the cabinet of Sir Hector Langevin, leader of the French +Conservatives, against whom carelessness at least in administration had +been established. The brief premiership of Sir Mackenzie Bowell, between +1894 and 1896, was marked by much dissension in the Conservative ranks, +ending finally in a reconstruction of the government in 1896 under Sir +Charles Tupper. Breaks had been made in the Liberal ranks also by the +death in 1892 of the Hon. Alexander Mackenzie and the withdrawal of the +Hon. Edward Blake from Canadian politics to accept a seat in the British +parliament as a member of the Home Rule party. But the appeal made to +the electors in 1896 resulted in a decisive victory for the Liberal +party, and marked the beginning of a long period of Liberal rule. + + + Laurier. + +Sir Wilfrid Laurier (q.v.) became prime minister, and strengthened the +cabinet which he formed by drawing into it from provincial politics the +premiers of Ontario, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. The administration +thus established underwent many changes, but after winning three general +elections it was still in power in 1909. The period of Sir Wilfrid +Laurier's rule was one of striking progress in material growth, and a +marked development of national feeling. While the federation of the +provinces favoured the growth of a strong sentiment of Canadian +individuality, the result of unification had been to strengthen +decidedly the ties that bind the country to the empire. This was as true +under Liberal as under Conservative auspices--as Canadians understood +the meaning of these party names. The outbreak of the South African war +in 1899 furnished an occasion for a practical display of Canadian +loyalty to imperial interests. Three contingents of troops were +despatched to the seat of war and took an active part in the events +which finally secured the triumph of the British arms. These forces were +supplemented by a regiment of Canadian horse raised and equipped at the +sole expense of Lord Strathcona, the high commissioner of the Dominion +in London. The same spirit was illustrated in other ways. In bringing +about a system of penny postage throughout the empire; in forwarding the +construction of the Pacific cable to secure close and safe imperial +telegraphic connexion; in creating rapid and efficient lines of +steamship communication with the motherland and all the colonies; in +granting tariff preference to British goods and in striving for +preferential treatment of inter-imperial trade; in assuming +responsibility for imperial defence at the two important stations of +Halifax and Esquimalt,--Canada, under the guidance of Sir Wilfrid +Laurier and his party, took a leading part and showed a truly national +spirit. + + + Canadian expansion. + +The opening years of the 20th century were marked by a prolonged period +of great prosperity. A steady stream of emigrants from Europe and the +United States, sometimes rising in number to 300,000 in a single year, +began to occupy the vast western prairies. So considerable was the +growth of this section of the Dominion that in 1905 it was found +necessary to form two new provinces, Alberta and Saskatchewan, from the +North-West Territories, the area of each being 275,000 sq. m. Each +province has a lieutenant-governor and a single legislative chamber, +with a representation of four members in the Senate and five in the +House of Commons of the Dominion parliament. The control of the public +lands is retained by the general government on the ground that it has +been responsible for the development of the country by railway +construction and emigration. With the rapid increase of population, +production in Canada also greatly increased; exports, imports and +revenue constantly expanded, and capital, finding abundant and +profitable employment, began to flow freely into the country for further +industrial development. New and great railway undertakings were a marked +feature of this period. The Canadian Pacific system was extended until +it included 12,000 m. of line. The Canadian Northern railway, already +constructed from the Great Lakes westward to the neighbourhood of the +Rockies, and with water and rail connexions reaching eastward to Quebec, +began to transform itself into a complete transcontinental system, with +an extension to the Hudson Bay. That this line owed its inception and +construction chiefly to the joint enterprise of two private individuals, +Messrs Mackenzie and Mann, was a striking proof of the industrial +capacities of the country. To a still more ambitious line, the Grand +Trunk Pacific, extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, aiming at +extensive steamship connexion on both oceans, and closely associated +with the Grand Trunk system of Ontario and Quebec, the government of +Canada gave liberal support as a national undertaking. The eastern +section of 1875 m., extending from Winnipeg to Moncton, where connexion +is secured with the winter ports of Halifax and St John, was, under the +act of incorporation, to be built by the government, and then leased for +fifty years, under certain conditions, to the Grand Trunk Pacific +Company. The western portion, of 1480 m., from Winnipeg to the Pacific, +was to be built, owned and operated by the company itself, the +government guaranteeing bonds to the extent of 75% of the whole cost of +construction. The discovery of large deposits of nickel at Sudbury; of +extremely rich gold mines on the head-waters of the Yukon, in a region +previously considered well-nigh worthless for human habitation; of +extensive areas of gold, copper and silver ores in the mountain regions +of British Columbia; of immense coal deposits in the Crow's Nest Pass of +the same province and on the prairies; of veins of silver and cobalt of +extraordinary richness in northern Ontario--all deeply affected the +industrial condition of the country and illustrated the vastness of its +undeveloped resources. The use of wood-pulp in the manufacture of paper +gave a greatly enhanced value to many millions of acres of northern +forest country. The application of electricity to purposes of +manufacture and transportation made the waterfalls and rapids in which +the country abounds the source of an almost unlimited supply of energy +capable of easy distribution for industrial purposes over wide areas. + + + Relations with the United States. + +Since confederation a series of attempts has been made with varying +degrees of success to settle the questions in dispute between the +Dominion and the United States, naturally arising from the fact that +they divide between them the control of nearly the whole of a large +continent and its adjoining waters. Considering the vastness of the +interests involved, there is much cause for satisfaction in the fact +that these differences have been settled by peaceful arbitrament rather +than by that recourse to force which has so often marked the +delimitation of rights and territory on other continents The Washington +Treaty of 1871 has already been referred to. Its clauses dealing with +the fisheries and trade lasted for fourteen years, and were then +abrogated by the action of the United States. Various proposals on the +part of Canada for a renewal of the reciprocity were not entertained. +After 1885 Canada was therefore compelled to fall back upon the treaty +of 1818 as the guarantee of her fishing rights. It became necessary to +enforce the terms of that convention, under which the fishermen of the +United States could not pursue their avocations within the three miles' +limit, tranship cargoes of fish in Canadian ports, or enter them except +for shelter, water, wood or repairs. On account of infractions of the +treaty many vessels were seized and some were condemned. In 1887 a +special commission was appointed to deal with the question. On this +commission Mr Joseph Chamberlain, Sir Sackville West and Sir Charles +Tupper represented British and Canadian interests; Secretary T.F. +Bayard, Mr W. le B. Putnam and Mr James B. Angell acted for the United +States. The commission succeeded in agreeing to the terms of a treaty, +which was recommended to Congress by President Cleveland as supplying "a +satisfactory, practical and final adjustment, upon a basis honourable +and just to both parties, of the difficult and vexed questions to which +it relates." This agreement, known as the Chamberlain-Bayard treaty, was +rejected by the Senate, and as a consequence it became necessary to +carry on the fisheries under a _modus vivendi_ renewed annually. + +In 1886 a difference about international rights on the high seas arose +on the Pacific coast in connexion with the seal fisheries of Bering Sea. +In that year several schooners, fitted out in British Columbia for the +capture of seals in the North Pacific, were seized by a United States +cutter at a distance of 60 m. from the nearest land, the officers were +imprisoned and fined, and the vessels themselves subjected to +forfeiture. The British government at once protested against this +infraction of international right, and through long and troublesome +negotiations firmly upheld Canada's claims in the matter. The dispute +was finally referred to a court of arbitration, on which Sir John +Thompson, premier of the Dominion, sat as one of the British +arbitrators. It was decided that the United States had no jurisdiction +in the Bering Sea beyond the three miles' limit, but the court also made +regulations to prevent the wholesale slaughter of fur-bearing seals. The +sum of $463,454 was finally awarded as compensation to the Canadian +sealers who had been unlawfully seized and punished. This sum was paid +by the United States in 1898. + +As the result of communications during 1897 between Sir Wilfrid Laurier +and Secretary Sherman, the governments of Great Britain and the United +States agreed to the appointment of a joint high commission, with a view +of settling all outstanding differences between the United States and +Canada. The commission, which included three members of the Canadian +cabinet and a representative of Newfoundland, and of which Lord +Herschell was appointed chairman, met at Quebec on the 23rd of August +1898. The sessions continued in Quebec at intervals until the 10th of +October, when the commission adjourned to meet in Washington on the 1st +of November, where the discussions were renewed for some weeks. Mr +Nelson Dingley, an American member of the commission, died during the +month of January, as did the chairman, Lord Herschell, in March, as the +result of an accident, soon after the close of the sittings of the +commission. The Alaskan boundary, the Atlantic and inland fisheries, the +alien labour law, the bonding privilege, the seal fishery in the Bering +Sea and reciprocity of trade in certain products were among the subjects +considered by the commission. On several of these points much progress +was made towards a settlement, but a divergence of opinion as to the +methods by which the Alaskan boundary should be determined put an end +for the time to the negotiations. + +In 1903 an agreement was reached by which the question of this boundary, +which depended on the interpretation put upon the treaty of 1825 between +Russia and England, should be submitted to a commission consisting of +"six impartial jurists of repute," three British and three American. The +British commissioners appointed were: Lord Alverstone, lord chief +justice of England; Sir Louis Jette, K.C., of Quebec; and A.B. +Aylesworth, K.C., of Toronto. On the American side were appointed: the +Hon. Henry C. Lodge, senator for Massachusetts; the Hon. Elihu Root, +secretary of war for the United States government; and Senator George +Turner. Canadians could not be persuaded that the American members +fulfilled the condition of being "impartial jurists," and protest was +made, but, though the imperial government also expressed surprise, no +change in the appointments was effected. The commission met in London, +and announced its decision in October. This was distinctly unfavourable +to Canada's claims, since it excluded Canadians from all ocean inlets as +far south as the Portland Channel, and in that channel gave to Canada +only two of the four islands claimed. A statement made by the Canadian +commissioners, who refused to sign the report, of an unexplained change +of opinion on the part of Lord Alverstone, produced a widespread +impression for a time that his decision in favour of American claims was +diplomatic rather than judicial. Later Canadian opinion, however, came +to regard the decision of the commission as a reasonable compromise. The +irritation caused by the decision gradually subsided, but at the moment +it led to strong expressions on the part of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and +others in favour of securing for Canada a fuller power of making her own +treaties. While the power of making treaties must rest ultimately in the +hands that can enforce them, the tendency to give the colonies chiefly +interested a larger voice in international arrangements had become +inevitable. The mission of a Canadian cabinet minister, the Hon. R. +Lemieux, to Japan in 1907, to settle Canadian difficulties with that +country, illustrated the change of diplomatic system in progress. + + + Education. + +Under the British North American Act the control of education was +reserved for the provincial governments, with a stipulation that all +rights enjoyed by denominational schools at the time of confederation +should be respected. Provincial control has caused some diversity of +management; the interpretation of the denominational agreement has led +to acute differences of opinion which have invaded the field of +politics. In all the provinces elementary, and in some cases secondary, +education is free, the funds for its support being derived from local +taxation and from government grants. The highly organized school system +of Ontario is directed by a minister of education, who is a member of +the provincial cabinet. The other provinces have boards of education, +and superintendents who act under the direction of the provincial +legislatures. In Quebec the Roman Catholic schools, which constitute the +majority, are chiefly controlled by the local clergy of that church. The +Protestant schools are managed by a separate board. In Ontario as well +as in Quebec separate schools are allowed to Roman Catholics. In Nova +Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba and British +Columbia the public schools are strictly undenominational. This position +was only established in New Brunswick and Manitoba after violent +political struggles, and frequent appeals to the highest courts of the +empire for decisions on questions of federal or provincial jurisdiction. +The right of having separate schools has been extended to the newly +constituted provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. + +Secondary education is provided for by high schools and collegiate +institutes in all towns and cities, and by large residential institutions +at various centres, conducted on the principle of the English public +schools. The largest of these is Upper Canada College at Toronto. Each +province has a number of normal and model schools for the training of +teachers. For higher education there are also abundant facilities. M'Gill +University at Montreal has been enlarged and splendidly endowed by the +munificence of a few private individuals, Toronto University by the +provincial legislature of Ontario; Queen's University at Kingston largely +by the support of its own graduates and friends. University work in the +maritime provinces, instead of being concentrated, as it might well be, +in one powerful institution, is distributed among five small, but within +their range efficient universities. The agricultural college at Guelph +and the experimental farms maintained by the federal government give +excellent training and scientific assistance to farmers. Sir William +Macdonald in 1908 built and endowed, at an expenditure of at least +L700,000, an agricultural college and normal school at St Anne's, near +Montreal. While the older universities have increased greatly in +influence and efficiency, the following new foundations have been made +since confederation:--University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, 1877; +Presbyterian College, Winnipeg, 1870; Methodist College, Winnipeg, 1888; +Wesleyan College, Montreal, 1873; Presbyterian College, Montreal, 1868; +School of Practical Science, Toronto, 1877; Royal Military College, +Kingston, 1875; M'Master University, Toronto, 1888. All the larger +universities have schools of medicine in affiliation, and have the power +of conferring medical degrees. Since 1877 Canadian degrees have been +recognized by the Medical Council of Great Britain. + + + Indian tribes. + +In her treatment of the aboriginal inhabitants of the country (numbering +93,318 in 1901) Canada has met with conspicuous success. Since the +advance of civilization and indiscriminate slaughter have deprived them +of the bison, so long their natural means of subsistence, the north-west +tribes have been maintained chiefly at the expense of the country. As a +result of the great care now used in watching over them there has been a +small but steady increase in their numbers. Industrial and boarding +schools, established in several of the provinces, by separating the +children from the degrading influences of their home life, have proved +more effectual than day schools for training them in the habits and +ideas of a higher civilization. (See INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN.) + + + Constitution. + +The constitution of the Dominion embodies the first attempt made to +adapt British principles and methods of government to a federal system. +The chief executive authority is vested in the sovereign, as is the +supreme command of the military and naval forces. The governor-general +represents, and fulfils the functions of, the crown, which appoints him. +He holds office for five years, and his powers are strictly limited, as +in the case of the sovereign, all executive acts being done on the +advice of his cabinet, the members of which hold office only so long as +they retain the confidence of the people as expressed by their +representatives in parliament. The governor-general has, however, the +independent right to withhold his assent to any bill which he considers +in conflict with imperial interests. The following governors-general +have represented the crown since the federation of the provinces, with +the year of their appointment: Viscount Monck, 1867; Sir John Young +(afterwards Baron Lisgar), 1868; the earl of Dufferin, 1872; the +marquess of Lome (afterwards duke of Argyll), 1878; the marquess of +Lansdowne, 1883; Lord Stanley of Preston (afterwards earl of Derby), +1888; the earl of Aberdeen, 1893; the earl of Minto, 1898; Earl Grey, +1904. The upper house, or Senate, is composed of members who hold office +for life and are nominated by the governor-general in council. It +originally consisted of 72 members, 24 from Quebec, 24 from Ontario, and +24 from the maritime provinces, but this number has been from time to +time slightly increased as new provinces have been added. The House of +Commons consists of representatives elected directly by the people. The +number of members, originally 196, is subject to change after each +decennial census. The basis adopted in the British North America Act is +that Quebec shall always have 65 representatives, and each of the other +provinces such a number as will give the same proportion of members to +its population as the number 65 bears to the population of Quebec at +each census. In 1908 the number of members was 218. + +Members of the Senate and of the House of Commons receive an annual +indemnity of $2500, with a travelling allowance. Legislation brought +forward in 1906 introduced an innovation in assigning a salary of $7000 +to the recognized leader of the Opposition, and pensions amounting to +half their official income to ex-cabinet ministers who have occupied +their posts for five consecutive years. This pension clause has since +been repealed. One principal object of the framers of the Canadian +constitution was to establish a strong central government. An opposite +plan was therefore adopted to that employed in the system of the United +States, where the federal government enjoys only the powers granted to +it by the sovereign states. The British North America Act assigns to the +different provinces, as to the central parliament, their spheres of +control, but all residuary powers are given to the general government. +Within these limitations the provincial assemblies have a wide range of +legislative power. In Nova Scotia and Quebec the bicameral system of an +upper and lower house is retained; in the other provinces legislation is +left to a single representative assembly. For purely local matters +municipal institutions are organized to cover counties and townships, +cities and towns, all based on an exceedingly democratic franchise. + +The creation of a supreme court engaged the attention of Sir John +Macdonald in the early years after federation, but was only finally +accomplished in 1876, during the premiership of Alexander Mackenzie. +This court is presided over by a chief justice, with five puisne judges, +and has appellate civil and criminal jurisdiction for the Dominion. By +an act passed in 1891 the government has power to refer to the supreme +court any important question of law affecting the public interest. The +right of appeal from the supreme court, thus constituted, to the +judicial committee of the privy council marks, in questions judicial, +Canada's place as a part of the British empire. + +The appointment, first made in 1897, of the chief justice of Canada, +along with the chief justices of Cape Colony and South Australia, as +colonial members of the judicial committee still further established the +position of that body as the final court of appeal for the British +people. The grave questions of respective jurisdiction which have from +time to time arisen between the federal and provincial governments have +for the most part been settled by appeal to one or both of these +judicial bodies. Some of these questions have played a considerable part +in Canadian politics, but are of too complicated a nature to be dealt +with in the present brief sketch. They have generally consisted in the +assertion of provincial rights against federal authority. The decision +of the courts has always been accepted as authoritative and final. + + An excellent bibliography of Canadian history will be found in the + volume _Literature of American History_, published by the American + Library Association. The annual _Review of Historical Publications + Relating to Canada_, published by the University of Toronto, gives a + critical survey of the works on Canadian topics appearing from year to + year. (G. R. P.) + + +LITERATURE + +1. _English-Canadian Literature_ is marked by the weaknesses as well as +the merits of colonial life. The struggle for existence, the conquering +of the wilderness, has left scant room for broad culture or scholarship, +and the very fact that Canada is a colony, however free to control her +own affairs, has stood in the way of the creation of anything like a +national literature. And yet, while Canada's intellectual product is +essentially an offshoot of the parent literature of England, it is not +entirely devoid of originality, either in manner or matter. There is in +much of it a spirit of freedom and youthful vigour characteristic of the +country. It is marked by the wholesomeness of Canadian life and Canadian +ideals, and the optimism of a land of limitless potentialities. + +The first few decades of the period of British rule were lean years +indeed so far as native literature is concerned. This period of unrest +gave birth to little beyond a flood of political pamphlets, of no +present value save as material for the historian. We may perhaps except +the able though thoroughly partisan writings of Sir John Beverley +Robinson and Bishop Strachan on the one side, and Robert Fleming Gourlay +and William Lyon Mackenzie on the other. In the far West, however, a +little group of adventurous fur-traders, of whom Sir Alexander +Mackenzie, David Thompson, Alexander Henry and Daniel Williams Harmon +may be taken as conspicuous types, were unfolding the vast expanse of +the future dominion. They were men of action, not of words, and had no +thought of literary fame, but their absorbingly interesting journals +are none the less an essential part of the literature of the country. + +Barring the work of Francis Parkman, who was not a Canadian, no history +of the first rank has yet been written in or of Canada. Canadian +historians have not merely lacked so far the genius for really great +historical work, but they have lacked the point of view; they have stood +too close to their subject to get the true perspective. At the same time +they have brought together invaluable material for the great historian +of the future. Robert Christie's _History of Lower Canada_ (1848-1854) +was the first serious attempt to deal with the period of British rule. +William Kingsford's (1819-1898) ambitious work, in ten volumes, comes +down like Christie's to the Union of 1841, but goes back to the very +beginnings of Canadian history. In the main it is impartial and +accurate, but the style is heavy and sometimes slovenly. J.C. Dent's +(1841-1888) _Last Forty Years_ (1880) is practically a continuation of +Kingsford. Dent also wrote an interesting though one-sided account of +the rebellion of 1837. Histories of the maritime provinces have been +written by Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Beamish Murdoch and James Hannay. +Haliburton's is much the best of the three. The brief but stirring +history of western Canada has been told by Alexander Begg (1840-1898); +and George Bryce (b. 1844) and Beckles Willson (b. 1869) have written +the story of the Hudson's Bay Company. Much scholarship and research +have been devoted to local and special historical subjects, a notable +example of which is Arthur Doughty's exhaustive work on the siege of +Quebec. J. McMullen (b. 1820), Charles Roberts (b. 1860) and Sir John +Bourinot (1837-1902) have written brief and popular histories, covering +the whole field of Canadian history more or less adequately. Alpheus +Todd's (1821-1884) _Parliamentary Government in England_ (1867-1869) and +_Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies_ (1880) are standard +works, as is also Bourinot's _Parliamentary Procedure and Practice_ +(1884). + +Biography has been devoted mainly to political subjects. The best of +these are Joseph Pope's _Memoirs of Sir John Macdonald_ (1894), W.D. le +Sueur's _Frontenac_ (1906), Sir John Bourinot's _Lord Elgin_ (1905), +Jean McIlwraith's _Sir Frederick Haldimand_ (1904), D.C. Scott's _John +Graves Simcoe_ (1905), A.D. de Celles' _Papineau and Cartier_ (1904), +Charles Lindsey's _William Lyon Mackenzie_ (1862), J.W. Longley's +_Joseph Howe_ (1905) and J.S. Willison's _Sir Wilfrid Laurier_ (1903). + +In _belles lettres_ very little has been accomplished, unless we may +count Goldwin Smith (q.v.) as a Canadian. As a scholar, a thinker, and a +master of pure English he has exerted a marked influence upon Canadian +literature and Canadian life. + +While mediocrity is the prevailing characteristic of most of what passes +for poetry in Canada, a few writers have risen to a higher level. The +conditions of Canadian life have not been favourable to the birth of +great poets, but within the limits of their song such men as Archibald +Lampman (1861-1891), William Wilfred Campbell (b. 1861), Charles +Roberts, Bliss Carman (b. 1861) and George Frederick Cameron have +written lines that are well worth remembering. Lampman's poetry is the +most finished and musical. He fell short of being a truly great poet, +inasmuch as great poetry must, which his does not, touch life at many +points, but his verses are marked by the qualities that belonged to the +man--sincerity, purity, seriousness. Campbell's poetry, in spite of a +certain lack of compression, is full of dramatic vigour: Roberts has put +some of his best work into sonnets and short lyrics, while Carman has +been very successful with the ballad, the untrammelled swing and sweep +of which he has finely caught; the simplicity and severity of Cameron's +style won the commendation of even so exacting a critic as Matthew +Arnold. One remarkable drama--Charles Heavysege's (1816-1876) _Saul_ +(1857)--belongs to Canadian literature. Though unequal in execution, it +contains passages of exceptional beauty and power. The sweetness and +maturity of Isabella Valency Crawford's (1851-1887) verse are also very +worthy of remembrance. The _habitant_ poems of Dr W.H. Drummond +(1854-1907) stand in a class by themselves, between English and French +Canadian literature, presenting the simple life of the _habitant_ with +unique humour and picturesqueness. + +The first distinctively Canadian novel was John Richardson's (1796-1852) +_Wacousta_ (1832), a stirring tale of the war of 1812. Richardson +afterwards wrote half a dozen other romances, dealing chiefly with +incidents in Canadian history. Susanna Moodie (1803-1885) and Katharine +Parr Traill (1802-1899), sisters of Agnes Strickland, contributed novels +and tales to one of the earliest and best of Canadian magazines, the +_Literary Garland_ (1838-1847). _The Golden Dog_, William Kirby's +(1817-1906) fascinating romance of old Quebec, appeared in 1877, in a +pirated edition. Twenty years later the first authorized edition was +published. James de Mille (1833-1880) was the author of some thirty +novels, the best of which is _Helena's Household_ (1868), a story of +Rome in the 1st century. _The Dodge Club_ (1869), a humorous book of +travel, appeared, curiously enough, a few months before _Innocents +Abroad_. De Mille's posthumous novel, _A Strange Manuscript found in a +Copper Cylinder_ (1888), describes a singular race whose cardinal +doctrine is that poverty is honourable and wealth the reverse. Sir +Gilbert Parker (b. 1862) stands first among contemporary Canadian +novelists. He has made admirable use in many of his novels of the +inexhaustible stores of romantic and dramatic material that lie buried +in forgotten pages of Canadian history. Of later Canadian novelists +mention may be made of Sara Jeannette Duncan (Mrs Everard Cotes, b. +1862), Ralph Connor (Charles W. Gordon, b. 1866), Agnes C. Laut (b. +1872), W.A. Fraser (b. 1859) and Ernest Thompson Seton (b. 1860). Thomas +Chandler Haliburton (q.v.) stands in a class by himself. In many +respects his is the most striking figure in Canadian literature. He is +best known as a humorist, and as a humorist he ranks with the creators +of "My Uncle Toby" and "Pickwick." But there is more than humour in +Haliburton's books. He lacked, in fact, but one thing to make him a +great novelist: he had no conception of how to construct a plot. But he +knew human nature, and knew it intimately in all its phases; he could +construct a character and endow it with life; his people talk naturally +and to the point; and many of his descriptive passages are admirable. +Those who read Haliburton's books only for the sake of the humour will +miss much of their value. His inimitable _Clockmaker_ (1837), as well as +the later books, _The Old Judge_ (1849), _The Attache_ (1843), _Wise +Saws and Modern Instances_ (1853) and _Nature and Human Nature_ (1855), +are mirrors of colonial life and character. + + For general treatment of English-Canadian literature, reference may be + made to Sir John Bourinot's _Intellectual Development of the Canadian + People_ (1881); G. Mercer Adam's _Outline History of Canadian + Literature_ (1887); "Native Thought and Literature," in J.E. Collins's + _Life of Sir John A. Macdonald_ (1883); "Canadian Literature," by J.M. + Oxley, in the _Encyclopaedia Americana_, vol. ix. (1904); A. + MacMurchy's _Handbook of Canadian Literature_ (1906); and articles by + J. Castell Hopkins, John Reade, A.B. de Mille and Thomas O'Hagan, in + vol. v. of _Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country_ (1898-1900); + also to Henry J. Morgan's _Bibliotheca Canadensis_ (1867) and + _Canadian Men and Women of the Time_ (1898); W.D. Lighthall, _Songs of + the Great Dominion_; Theodore Rand's _Treasury of Canadian Verse_ + (1900); C.C. James's _Bibliography of Canadian Verse_ (1898); L.E. + Horning's and L.J. Burpee's _Bibliography of Canadian Fiction_ (1904); + S.E. Dawson's _Prose Writers of Canada_ (1901); "Canadian Poetry," by + J.A. Cooper, in _The National_, 29, p. 364; "Recent Canadian Fiction," + by L.J. Burpee, in _The Forum_, August 1899. For individual authors, + see Haliburton's _A Centenary Chaplet_ (1897), with a bibliography; + "Haliburton," by F. Blake Crofton, in _Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the + Country_; C.H. Farnham's _Life of Francis Parkman_ and H.D. Sedgwick's + _Francis Parkman_ (1901); and articles on "Parkman," by E.L. Godkin, + in _The Nation_, 71, p. 441; by Justin Winsor in _The Atlantic_, 73, + p. 660; by W.D. Howells, _The Atlantic_, 34, p. 602; by John Fiske, + _The Atlantic_, 73, p. 664; by J.B. Gilder in _The Critic_, 23, p. + 322; "Goldwin Smith as a Critic," by H. Spencer, _Contemp. Review_, + 41, p. 519; "Goldwin Smith's Historical Works," by C.E. Norton, _North + American Review_, 99, p. 523; "Poetry of Charles Heavysege," by Bayard + Taylor, _Atlantic_, 16, p. 412; "Charles Heavysege," by L.J. Burpee, + in _Trans. Royal Society of Canada_, 1901; "Archibald Lampman," by + W.D. Howells, _Literature_ (N.Y.), 4, p. 217; "Archibald Lampman," by + L.J. Burpee, in _North American Notes and Queries_ (Quebec), August + and September 1900; "Poetry of Bliss Carman," by J.P. Mowbray, + _Critic_, 41, p. 308; "Isabella Valency Crawford," in _Poet-Lore_ + (Boston), xiii. No. 4; _Roberts and the Influences of his Time_ + (1906), by James Cappon; "William Wilfred Campbell," _Sewanee Review_, + October 1900; "Kingsford's History of Canada," by G.M. Wrong, _N.A. + Review_, I p. 550; "Books of Gilbert Parker," by C.A. Pratt, _Critic_, + 33, p. 271. (L. J. B.) + +2. _French-Canadian Literature_ at the opening of the 20th century might +be described as entirely the work of two generations, and it was +separated from the old regime by three more generations whose racial +sentiment only found expression in the traditional songs and tales which +their forefathers of the 17th century had brought over from the _mere +patrie_. Folk-lore has always been the most essentially French of all +imaginative influences in Canadian life; and the songs are the +quintessence of the lore. Not that the folk-songs have no local +variants. Indian words, like _moccasin_ and _toboggan_, are often +introduced. French forms are freely turned into pure Canadianisms, like +_cageux_, raftsman, _boucane_, brushwood smoke, _portage_, &c. New +characters, which appeal more directly to the local audience, sometimes +supplant old ones, like the _quatre vieux sauvages_ who have ousted the +time-honoured _quatre-z-officiers_ from the Canadian version of +_Malbrouk_. There are even a few entire songs of transatlantic origin. +But all these variants together are mere stray curios among the crowding +souvenirs of the old home over sea. No other bridge can rival _le Pont +d'Avignon_. "_Ici_" in _C'est le ban vin qui danse ici_ can be nowhere +else but in old France--_le ban vin_ alone proves this. And the Canadian +folk-singer, though in a land of myriad springs, still goes _a la claire +fontaine_ of his ancestral fancy; while the lullabies his mother sang +him, like the love-songs with which he serenades his _blonde_, were +nearly all sung throughout the Normandy of _le Grand Monarque_. The +_habitant_ was separated from old-world changes two centuries ago by +difference of place and circumstances, while he has hitherto been +safeguarded from many new-world changes by the segregative influences of +race, religion, language and custom; and so his folk-lore still remains +the intimate _alter et idem_ of what it was in the days of the great +pioneers. It is no longer a living spirit among the people at large; but +in secluded villages and "back concessions" one can still hear some +charming melodies as old and pure as the verses to which they are sung, +and even a few quaint survivals of Gregorian tunes. The best collection, +more particularly from the musical point of view, is _Les Chansons +populaires du Canada_, started by Ernest Gagnon (1st ed. 1865). + +Race-patriotism is the distinguishing characteristic of French-Canadian +literature, which is so deeply rooted in national politics that L.J. +Papineau, the most insistent demagogue of 1837, must certainly be named +among the founders, for the sake of speeches which came before written +works both in point of time and popular esteem. Only 360 volumes had +been published during 80 years, when, in 1845, the first famous book +appeared--Francois Xavier Garneau's (1809-1866) _Histoire du Canada_. It +had immense success in Canada, was favourably noticed in France, and has +influenced all succeeding men of letters. Unfortunately, the imperfect +data on which it is based, and the too exclusively patriotic spirit in +which it is written, prevent it from being an authoritative history: the +author himself declares "_Vous verrez si la defaite de nos ancetres ne +vaut pas toutes las victoires_." But it is of far-reaching importance as +the first great literary stimulus to racial self-respect. "_Le Canada +francais avait perdu ses Ictlres de noblesse; Garneau les lui a +rendues_." F.X. Garneau is also remembered for his poems, and he was +followed by his son Alfred Garneau (1836-1904). + +A. Gerin-Lajoie was a mere lad when the exile of some compatriots +inspired _Le Canadien errant_, which immediately became a universal +folk-song. Many years later he wrote discriminatingly about those _Dix +ans au Canada_ (1888) that saw the establishment of responsible +government. But his fame rests on _Jean Rivard_ (1874), the prose +bucolic of the _habitant_. The hero, left at the head of a fatherless +family of twelve when nearly through college, turns from the glut of +graduates swarming round the prospects of professional city-bred +careers, steadfastly wrests a home from the wilderness, helps his +brothers and sisters, marries a _habitante_ fit for the wife of a +pioneer, brings up a large family, and founds a settlement which grows +into several parishes and finally becomes the centre of the electoral +district of "Rivardville," which returns him to parliament. These simple +and earnest _Scenes de la vie reelle_ are an appealing revelation of +that eternal secret of the soil which every people wishing to have a +country of its own must early lay to heart; and _Jean Rivard, le +defricheur_, will always remain the eponym of the new _colons_ of the +19th century. + +Philippe de Gaspe's historical novel, _Les Anciens Canadiens_ (1863), is +the complement of Garneau and Gerin-Lajoie. Everything about the +author's life helped him to write this book. Born in 1784, and brought +up among reminiscent eye-witnesses of the old regime, he was an eager +listener, with a wonderful memory and whole-hearted pride in the glories +of his race and family, a kindly _seigneur_, who loved and was loved by +all his _censitaires_, a keen observer of many changing systems, down to +the final Confederation of 1867, and a man who had felt both extremes of +fortune (_Memoires_, 1866). The story rambles rather far from its +well-worn plot. But these very digressions give the book its intimate +and abiding charm; for they keep the reader in close personal touch with +every side of Canadian life, with songs and tales and homely forms of +speech, with the best features of seigniorial times and the strong +guidance of an ardent church, with _voyageurs, coureurs de bois_, +Indians, soldiers, sailors and all the strenuous adventurers of a wild, +new, giant world. The poet of this little band of authors was Octave +Cremazie, a Quebec bookseller, who failed in business and spent his last +years as a penniless exile in France. He is usually rather too +derivative, he lacks the saving grace of style, and even his best +Canadian poems hardly rise above fervent occasional verse. Yet he became +a national poet, because he was the first to celebrate occasions of +deeply felt popular emotion in acceptable rhyme, and he will always +remain one because each occasion touched some lasting aspiration of his +race. He sings what Garneau recounts--the love of mother country, mother +church and Canada. The _Guerre de Crimee, Guerre d'ltalie_, even +_Castel-fidardo_, are duly chronicled. An ode on _Mgr. de +Montmorency-Laval_, first bishop of Quebec, brings him nearer to his +proper themes, which are found in full perfection in the _Chant du vieux +soldat canadien_, composed in 1856 to honour the first French man-of-war +that visited British Quebec, and _Le Drapeau de Carillon_ (1858), a +centennial paean for Montcalm's Canadians at Ticonderoga. Much of the +mature work of this first generation, and of the juvenilia of the +second, appeared in _Les Soirees canadiennes_ and _Le Foyer canadien_, +founded in 1862 and 1863 respectively. The abbe Ferland was an +enthusiastic editor and historian, and Etienne Parent should be +remembered as the first Canadian philosopher. + +At Confederation many eager followers began to take up the work which +the founders were laying down. The abbe Casgrain devoted a life-time to +making the French-Canadians appear as the chosen people of new-world +history; but, though an able advocate, he spoilt a really good case by +trying to prove too much. His _Pelerinage au pays d'Evangeline_ (1888) +is a splendid defence of the unfortunate Acadians; and all his books +attract the reader by their charm of style and personality. But his +_Montcalm et Levis_ (1891) and other works on the conquest, are all +warped by a strong bias against both Wolfe and Montcalm, and in favour +of Vandreuil, the Canadian-born governor; while they show an inadequate +grasp of military problems, and practically ignore the vast determining +factor of sea-power altogether. Benjamin Sulte's comprehensive _Histoire +des Canadiens-francais_ (1882) is a well-written, many-sided work. +Thomas Chapais' monographs are as firmly grounded as they are finely +expressed; his _Jean Talon_ (1904) is of prime importance; and his +_Montcalm_ (1901) is the generous _amende honorable_ paid by +French-Canadian literature to a much misrepresented, but admirably +wrought, career. A. Gerin-Lajoie's cry of "back to the land" was +successfully adapted to modern developments in _Le Saguenay_ (1896) and +_L'Outaouais superieur_ (1889) by Arthur Buies, who showed what immense +inland breadths of country lay open to suitable "Jean Rivards" from the +older settlements along the St Lawrence. In oratory, which most +French-Canadians admire beyond all other forms of verbal art, Sir +Wilfrid Laurier has greatly surpassed L.J. Papineau, by dealing with +more complex questions, taking a higher point of view, and expressing +himself with a much apter flexibility of style. + +Among later poets may be mentioned Pierre Chauveau (1820-1890), Louis +Fiset, (b. 1827), and Adolphe Poisson (b. 1849). Louis Frechette +(1830-1908) has, however, long been the only poet with a reputation +outside of Canada. In 1879 _Les Fleurs boreales_ won the Prix Monthyon +from the French Academy. In 1887 _La Legende d'un peuple_ became the +acknowledged epic of a race. He occasionally nods; is rather strident in +the patriotic vein; and too often answers the untoward call of rhetoric +when his subject is about to soar into the heights of poetry. But a rich +vocabulary, a mastery of verse-forms quite beyond the range of Cremazie, +real originality of conception, individual distinction of style, deep +insight into the soul of his people, and, still more, the glow of +warm-blooded life pulsing through the whole poem, all combine to give +him the greatest place at home and an important one in the world at +large. _Les Vengeances_ (1875), by Leon Pamphile Le May, and _Les +Aspirations_ (1904), by W. Chapman, worthily represent the older and +younger contemporaries. Dr Neree Beauchemin keeps within somewhat narrow +limits in _Les Floraisons matutinales_ (1897); but within them he shows +true poetic genius, a fine sense of rhythm, rhyme and verbal melody, a +_curiosa felicitas_ of epithet and phrase, and so sure an eye for local +colour that a stranger could choose no better guide to the imaginative +life of Canada. + +A Canadian drama hardly exists; among its best works are the pleasantly +epigrammatic plays of F.G. Marchand. Novels are not yet much in vogue; +though Madame Conan's _L'Oublie_ (1902) has been crowned by the Academy; +while Dr Choquette's _Les Ribaud_ (1898) is a good dramatic story, and +his _Claude Paysan_ (1899) is an admirably simple idyllic tale of the +hopeless love of a soil-bound _habitant_, told with intense natural +feeling and fine artistic reserve. Chief-Justice Routhier, a most +accomplished occasional writer, is very French-Canadian when arraigning +_Les Grands Drames_ of the classics (1889) before his ecclesiastical +court and finding them guilty of Paganism. + + The best bibliographies are Phileas Gagnon's _Essai de bibliographie + canadienne_ (1895), and Dr N.E. Dionne's list of publications from the + earliest times in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_ + for 1905. (W. Wo.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The census is taken every ten years, save in these three + provinces, where it is taken every five. Their population in 1906 + was:--Manitoba, 360,000; Saskatchewan, 257,000; Alberta, 184,000. + + [2] The areas assigned to Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New + Brunswick and British Columbia are exclusive of the territorial seas, + that to Quebec is exclusive of the Gulf of St Lawrence (though + including the islands lying within it), and that to Ontario is + exclusive of the Canadian portion of the Great Lakes. About 500,000 + sq. m. belong to the Arctic region and 125,755 sq. m. are water. + + [3] In Canada a city must have over 10,000 inhabitants, a town over + 2000. + + [4] The date of foundation is given in brackets. + + + + +CANAL (from Lat. _canalis_, "channel" and "kennel" being doublets of the +word), an artificial water course used for the drainage of low lands, +for irrigation (q.v.), or more especially for the purpose of navigation +by boats, barges or ships. Probably the first canals were made for +irrigation, but in very early times they came also to be used for +navigation, as in Assyria and Egypt. The Romans constructed various +works of the kind, and Charlemagne projected a system of waterways +connecting the Main and the Rhine with the Danube, while in China the +Grand Canal, joining the Pei-ho and Yang-tse-Kiang and constructed in +the 13th century, formed an important artery of commerce, serving also +for irrigation. But although it appears from Marco Polo that inclines +were used on the Grand Canal, these early waterways suffered in general +from the defect that no method being known of conveniently transferring +boats from one level to another they were only practicable between +points that lay on nearly the same level; and inland navigation could +not become generally useful and applicable until this defect had been +remedied by the employment of locks. Great doubts exist as to the +person, and even the nation, that first introduced locks. Some writers +attribute their invention to the Dutch, holding that nearly a century +earlier than in Italy locks were used in Holland where canals are very +numerous, owing to the favourable physical conditions. On the other +hand, the contrivance has been claimed for engineers of the Italian +school, and it is said that two brothers Domenico of Viterbo constructed +a lock-chamber enclosed by a pair of gates in 1481, and that in 1487 +Leonardo da Vinci completed six locks uniting the canals of Milan. Be +that as it may, however, the introduction of locks in the 14th or 15th +century gave a new character to inland navigation and laid the basis of +its successful extension. + +The Languedoc Canal (Canal du Midi) may be regarded as the pioneer of +the canals of modern Europe. Joining the Bay of Biscay and the +Mediterranean it is 148 m. long and rises 620 ft. above sea-level with +119 locks, its depth being about 6-1/2 ft. It was designed by Baron Paul +Riquet de Bonrepos (1604-1680) and was finished in 1681. With it and the +still earlier Briare canal (1605-1642) France began that policy of canal +construction which has provided her with over 3000 m. of canals, in +addition to over 4600 m. of navigable rivers. In Russia Peter the Great +undertook the construction of a system of canals about the beginning of +the 18th century, and in Sweden a canal with locks, connecting +Eskilstuna with Lake Malar, was finished in 1606. In England the oldest +artificial canal is the Foss Dyke, a relic of the Roman occupation. It +extends from Lincoln to the river Trent near Torksey (11 m.), and formed +a continuation of the Caer Dyke, also of Roman origin but now filled up, +which ran from Lincoln to Peterborough (40 m.). Camden in his +_Britannia_ says that the Foss Dyke was deepened and to some extent +rendered navigable in 1121. Little, however, was done in making canals +in Great Britain until the middle of the 18th century, though before +that date some progress had been made in rendering some of the larger +rivers navigable. In 1759 the duke of Bridgewater obtained powers to +construct a canal between Manchester and his collieries at Worsley, and +this work, of which James Brindley was the engineer, and which was +opened for traffic in 1761, was followed by a period of great activity +in canal construction, which, however, came to an end with the +introduction of railways. According to evidence given before the royal +commission on canals in 1906 the total mileage of existing canals in the +United Kingdom was 3901. In the United States the first canal was made +in 1792-1796 at South Hadley, Massachusetts, and the canal-system, +though its expansion was checked by the growth of railways, has attained +a length of 4200 m., most of the mileage being in New York, Ohio, and +Pennsylvania. The splendid inland navigation system of Canada mainly +consists of natural lakes and rivers, and the artificial waterways are +largely "lateral" canals, cut in order to enable vessels to avoid rapids +in the rivers. (See the articles on the various countries for accounts +of the canal-systems they possess.) + +The canals that were made in the early days of canal-construction were +mostly of the class known as _barge_ or _boat canals_, and owing to +their limited depth and breadth were only available for vessels of small +size. But with the growth of commerce the advantage was seen of cutting +canals of such dimensions as to enable them to accommodate sea-going +ships. Such _ship-canals_, which from an engineering point of view +chiefly differ from barge-canals in the magnitude of the works they +involve, have mostly been constructed either to shorten the voyage +between two seas by cutting through an intervening isthmus, or to +convert important inland places into seaports. An early example of the +first class is afforded by the Caledonian Canal (q.v.), while among +later ones may be mentioned the Suez Canal (q.v.), the Kaiser Wilhelm, +Nord-Ostsee or Kiel Canal, connecting Brunsbuttel at the mouth of the +Elbe with Kiel (q.v.) on the Baltic, and the various canals that have +been proposed across the isthmus that joins North and South America (see +PANAMA CANAL). Examples of the second class are the Manchester Ship +Canal and the canal that runs from Zeebrugge on the North Sea to Bruges +(q.v.). + +_Construction._--In laying out a line of canal the engineer is more +restricted than in forming the route of a road or a railway. Since water +runs downhill, gradients are inadmissible, and the canal must either be +made on one uniform level or must be adapted to the general rise or fall +of the country through which it passes by being constructed in a series +of level reaches at varying heights above a chosen datum line, each +closed by a lock or some equivalent device to enable vessels to be +transferred from one to another. To avoid unduly heavy earthwork, the +reaches must closely follow the bases of hills and the windings of +valleys, but from time to time it will become necessary to cross a +sudden depression by the aid of an embankment or aqueduct, while a piece +of rising ground or a hill may involve a cutting or a tunnel. Brindley +took the Bridgewater canal over the Irwell at Barton by means of an +aqueduct of three stone arches, the centre one having a span of 63 ft., +and T. Telford arranged that the Ellesmere canal should cross the Dee +valley at Pont-y-Cysyllte partly by embankment and partly by aqueduct. +The embankment was continued till it was 75 ft. above the ground, when +it was succeeded by an aqueduct, 1000 ft. long and 127 ft. above the +river, consisting of a cast iron trough supported on iron arches with +stone piers. Occasionally when a navigable stream has to be crossed, a +swing viaduct is necessary to allow shipping to pass. The first was that +built by Sir E. Leader Williams to replace Brindley's aqueduct at +Barton, which was only high enough to give room for barges (see +MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL). One of the earliest canal tunnels was made in +1766-1777 by Brindley at Harecastle on the Trent and Mersey canal; it is +2880 yds. long, 12 ft. high and 9 ft. wide, and has no tow-path, the +boats being propelled by men lying on their backs and pushing with their +feet against the tunnel walls ("leggers"). A second tunnel, parallel to +this but 16 ft. high and 14 ft. wide, with a tow-path, was finished by +Telford in 1827. Standedge tunnel, on the Huddersfield canal, is over 3 +m. long, and is also worked by leggers. + + + Dimensions. + +The dimensions of a canal, apart from considerations of water-supply, +are regulated by the size of the vessels which are to be used on it. +According to J.M. Rankine, the depth of water and sectional area of +waterway should be such as not to cause any material increase of the +resistance to the motion of the boats beyond what would be encountered +in open water, and he gives the following rules as fulfilling these +conditions:-- + + Least breadth of bottom = 2 X greatest breadth of boat. + Least depth of water = 1-1/2 ft. + greatest draught of boat. + Least area of waterway = 6 X greatest midship section of boat. + +The ordinary inland canal is commonly from 25 to 30 ft. wide at the +bottom, which is flat, and from 40 to 50 ft. at the water level, with a +depth of 4 or 5 ft., the angle of slope of the sides varying with the +nature of the soil. To retain the water in porous ground, and especially +on embankments, a strong watertight lining of puddle or tempered clay +must be provided on the bed and sides of the channel. Puddle is made of +clay which has been finely chopped up with narrow spades, water being +supplied until it is in a semi-plastic state. It is used in thin layers, +each of which is worked so as to be firmly united with the lower +stratum. The full thickness varies from 2 to 3 ft. To prevent the +erosion of the sides at the water-line by the wash from the boats, it +may be necessary to pitch them with stones or face them with brushwood. +In some of the old canals the slopes have been cut away and vertical +walls built to retain the towing-paths, with the result of adding +materially to the sectional area of the waterway. + + + Water supply. + +A canal cannot be properly worked without a supply of water calculated +to last over the driest season of the year. If there be no natural lake +available in the district for storage and supply, or if the engineer +cannot draw upon some stream of sufficient size, he must form artificial +reservoirs in suitable situations, and the conditions which must be +attended to in selecting the positions of these and in constructing them +are the same as those for drinking-water supply, except that the purity +of the water is not a matter of moment. They must be situated at such an +elevation that the water from them may flow to the summit-level of the +canal, and if the expense of pumping is to be avoided, they must command +a sufficient catchment area to supply the loss of water from the canal +by evaporation from the surface, percolation through the bed, and +lockage. If the supply be inadequate, the draught of the boats plying on +the canal may have to be reduced in a dry season, and the consequent +decrease in the size of their cargoes will both lessen the carrying +capacity of the canal and increase the working expenses in relation to +the tonnage handled. Again, since the consumption of water in lockage +increases both with the size of the locks and the frequency with which +they are used, the difficulty of finding a sufficient water supply may +put a limit to the density of traffic possible on a canal or may +prohibit its locks from being enlarged so as to accommodate boats of the +size necessary for the economical handling of the traffic under modern +conditions. It may be pointed out that the up consumes more water than +the down traffic. An ascending boat on entering a lock displaces a +volume of water equal to its submerged capacity. The water so displaced +flows into the lower reach of the canal, and as the boat passes through +the lock is replaced by water flowing from the upper reach. A descending +boat in the same way displaces a volume of water equal to its submerged +capacity, but in this case the water flows back into the higher reach +where it is retained when the gates are closed. + + + Waste-weirs and stop-gates. + +An essential adjunct to a canal is a sufficient number of waste-weirs to +discharge surplus water accumulating during floods, which, if not +provided with an exit, may overflow the tow-path, and cause a breach in +the banks, stoppage of the traffic, and damage to adjoining lands. The +number and positions of these waste-weirs must depend on the nature of +the country through which the canal passes. Wherever the canal crosses a +stream a waste-weir should be formed in the aqueduct; but independently +of this the engineer must consider at what points large influxes of +water may be apprehended, and must at such places form not only +waste-weirs of sufficient size to carry off the surplus, but also +artificial courses for its discharge into the nearest streams. These +waste-weirs are placed at the top water-level of the canal, so that when +a flood occurs the water flows over them and thus relieves the banks. + +Stop-gates are necessary at short intervals of a few miles for the +purpose of dividing the canal into isolated reaches, so that in the +event of a breach the gates may be shut, and the discharge of water +confined to the small reach intercepted between two of them, instead of +extending throughout the whole line of canal. In broad canals these +stop-gates may be formed like the gates of locks, two pairs of gates +being made to shut in opposite directions. In small works they may be +made of thick planks slipped into grooves formed at the narrow points of +the canal under road bridges, or at contractions made at intermediate +points to receive them. Self-acting stop-gates have been tried, but have +not proved trustworthy. When repairs have to be made stop-gates allow of +the water being run off by "off-lets" from a short reach, and afterwards +restored with but little interruption of the traffic. These off-lets are +pipes placed at the level of the bottom of the canal and provided with +valves which can be opened when required. They are generally formed at +aqueducts or bridges crossing rivers, where the contents of the canal +between the stop-gates can be run off into the stream. + + + Locks. + +Locks are chambers, constructed of wood, brickwork, masonry or concrete, +and provided with gates at each end, by the aid of which vessels are +transferred from one reach of the canal to another. To enable a boat to +ascend, the upper gates and the sluices which command the flow of water +from the upper reach are closed. The sluices at the lower end of the +lock are then opened, and when the level of the water in the lock has +fallen to that of the lower reach, the boat passes in to the lock. The +lower gates and sluices being then closed, the upper sluices are opened, +and when the water rising in the lock has floated the boat up the level +of the upper reach the upper gates are opened and it passes out. For a +descending boat the procedure is reversed. The sluices by which the lock +is filled or emptied are carried through the walls in large locks, or +consist of openings in the gates in small ones. The gates are generally +of oak, fitting into recesses of the walls when open, and closing +against sills in the lock bottom when shut. In small narrow locks +single gates only are necessary; in large locks pairs of gates are +required, fitting together at the head or "mitre-post" when closed. The +vertical timber at the end of the gate is known as the "heel-post," and +at its foot is a casting that admits an iron pivot which is fixed in the +lock bottom, and on which the gate turns. Iron straps round the head of +the heel-post are let into the lock-coping to support the gate. The +gates are opened and closed by balance beams projecting over the lock +side, by gearing or in cases where they are very large and heavy by the +direct action of a hydraulic ram. In order to economize water canal +locks are made only a few inches wider than the vessels they have to +accommodate. The English canal boat is about 70 or 75 ft. long and 7 or +8 ft. in beam; canal barges are the same length but 14 or 15 ft. in +width, so that locks which will hold one of them will admit two of the +narrower canal boats side by side. In general canal locks are just long +enough to accommodate the longest vessels using the navigation. In some +cases, however, provision is made for admitting a train of barges; such +long locks have sometimes intermediate gates by which the effective +length is reduced when a single vessel is passing. The lift of canal +locks, that is, the difference between the level of adjoining reaches, +is in general about 8 or 10 ft., but sometimes is as little as 1-1/2 ft. +On the Canal du Centre (Belgium) there are locks with a lift of 17 ft., +and on the St Denis canal near La Villette basins in Paris there is one +with a lift of 32-1/2 ft. In cases where a considerable difference of +level has to be surmounted the locks are placed close together in a +series or "flight," so that the lower gates of one serve also as the +upper gates of the next below. To save water, expecially where the lift +is considerable, side ponds are sometimes employed; they are reservoirs +into which a portion of the water in a lock-chamber is run, instead of +being discharged into the lower reach, and is afterwards used for +partially filling the chamber again. Double locks, that is, two locks +placed side by side and communicating by a passage which can be opened +or closed at will, also tend to save water, since each serves as a side +pond to the other. The same advantage is gained with double flights of +locks, and time also is saved since vessels can pass up and down +simultaneously. + + + Inclines. + +A still greater economy of water can be effected by the use of inclined +planes or vertical lifts in place of locks. In China rude inclines +appear to have been used at an early date, vessels being carried down a +sloping plane of stonework by the aid of a flush of water or hauled up +it by capstans. On the Bude canal (England) this plan was adopted in an +improved form, the small flat-bottomed boats employed being fitted with +wheels to facilitate their course over the inclines. Another variant, +often adopted as an adjunct to locks where many small pleasure boats +have to be dealt with, is to fit the incline itself with rollers, upon +which the boats travel. In some cases the boats are conveyed on a +wheeled trolley or cradle running on rails; this plan was adopted on the +Morris canal, built in 1825-1831, in the case of 23 inclines having +gradients of about 1 in 10, the rise of each varying from 44 to 100 ft. +Between the Ourcq canal and the Marne, near Meaux, the difference of +level is about 40 ft., and barges weighing about 70 tons are taken from +the one to the other on a wheeled cradle weighing 35 tons by a wire rope +over an incline nearly 500 yards long. But heavy barges are apt to be +strained by being supported on cradles in this way, and to avoid this +objection they are sometimes drawn up the inclines floating in a tank or +caisson filled with water and running on wheels. This arrangement was +utilized about 1840 on the Chard canal (England), and 10 years later it +was adapted at Blackhill on the Monkland canal (Scotland) to replace a +double flight of locks, in consequence of the traffic having been +interrupted by insufficiency of water. There the height to be overcome +was 96 ft. Two pairs of rails, of 7 ft. gauge, were laid down on a +gradient of 1 in 10, and on these ran two carriages having wrought iron, +water-tight caissons with lifting gates at each end, in which the barges +floated partially but not wholly supported by water. The carriages, with +the barge and water, weighed about 80 tons each, and were arranged to +counterbalance each other, one going up as the other was going down. The +power required was provided by two high pressure steam engines of 25 +h.p., driving two large drums round which was coiled, in opposite +directions, the 2-inch wire rope that hauled the caissons. An incline +constructed on the Union canal at Foxton (England) to replace 10 locks +giving a total rise of 75 ft., accommodates barges of 70 tons, or two +canal boats of 33 tons. It is in some respects like the Monkland canal +incline, but the movable caissons work on four pairs of rails on an +incline of 1 in 14, broadside on, and the boats are entirely waterborne. +Steam power is employed, with an hydraulic accumulator which enables +hydraulic power to be used in keeping the caisson in position at the top +of the incline while the boats are being moved in or out, a water-tight +joint being maintained with the final portion of the canal during the +operation. The gates in the caisson and canal are also worked by +hydraulic power. The incline is capable of passing 200 canal boats in 12 +hours, and the whole plant is worked by three men. + + + Lifts. + +Vertical lifts can only be used instead of locks with advantage at +places where the difference in level occurs in a short length of canal, +since otherwise long embankments or aqueducts would be necessary to +obtain sites for their construction. An early example was built in 1809 +at Tardebigge on the Worcester and Birmingham canal. It consisted of a +timber caisson, weighing 64 tons when full of water, counterpoised by +heavy weights carried on timber platforms. The lift of 12 ft. was +effected in about three minutes by two men working winches. Seven lifts, +erected on the Grand Western canal between Wellington and Tiverton about +1835, consisted of two chambers with a masonry pier between them. In +each chamber there worked a timber caisson, suspended at either end of a +chain hung over large pulleys above. As one caisson descended the other +rose, and the apparatus was worked by putting about a ton more water in +the descending caisson than in the ascending one. At Anderton a lift was +erected in 1875 to connect the Weaver navigation with the Trent and +Mersey canal, which at that point is 50 ft. higher than the river. The +lift is a double one, and can deal with barges up to 100 tons. The +change is made while the vessels are floating in 5 ft. of water +contained in a wrought iron caisson, 75 ft. long and 15-1/2 ft. wide. An +hydraulic ram 3 ft. in diameter supports each caisson, the bottom of +which is strengthened so as to transfer the weight to the side girders. +The descending caisson falls owing to being filled with 6 in. greater +depth of water than the ascending one, the weight on the rams (240 tons) +being otherwise constant, since the barge displaces its own weight of +water; an hydraulic accumulator is used to overcome the loss of weight +in the descending caisson when it begins to be immersed in the lower +level of the river. The two presses in which the rams work are connected +by a 5-in. pipe, so that the descent of one caisson effects the raising +of the other. A similar lift, completed in 1888 at Fontinettes on the +Neuffosse canal in France, can accommodate vessels of 250 tons, a total +weight of 785 tons being lifted 43 ft.; and a still larger example on +the Canal du Centre at La Louviere in Belgium has a rise of 50 ft., with +caissons that will admit vessels up to 400 tons, the total weight lifted +amounting to over 1000 tons. This lift, with three others of the same +character, overcomes the rise of 217 ft., which occurs in this canal in +the course of 4-1/3 m. + + + Animal power. + +_Haulage._--The horse or mule walking along a tow-path and drawing or +"tracking" a boat or barge by means of a towing rope, still remains the +typical method of conducting traffic on the smaller canals; on +ship-canals vessels proceed under their own steam or are aided by tugs. +Horse traction is very slow. The maximum speed on a narrow canal is +about 3-1/2 m. an hour, and the average speed, which, of course, depends +largely on the number of locks to be passed through, very much less. It +has been calculated that in England on the average one horse hauls one +narrow canal boat about 2 m. an hour loaded or 3 m. empty, or two narrow +canal boats 1-1/2 m. loaded and 2-1/2 m. empty. Efforts have +accordingly been made not only to quicken the rate of transit, but also +to move heavier loads, thus increasing the carrying capacity of the +waterways. But at speeds exceeding about 3-1/2 m. an hour the "wash" of +the boat begins to cause erosion of the banks, and thus necessitates the +employment of special protective measures, such as building side walls +of masonry or concrete. For a canal of given depth there is a particular +speed at which a boat can be hauled with a smaller expenditure of energy +than at a higher or a lower speed, this maximum being the speed of free +propagation of the primary wave raised by the motion of the boat (see +WAVE). About 1830 when, in the absence of railways, canals could still +aspire to act as carriers of passengers, advantage was taken of this +fact on the Glasgow and Ardrossan canal, and subsequently on some +others, to run fast passenger boats, made lightly of wrought iron and +measuring 60 ft. in length by about 6 ft. in breadth. Provided with two +horses they started at a low speed behind the wave, and then on a given +signal were jerked on the top of the wave, when their speed was +maintained at 7 or 8 m. an hour, the depth of the canal being 3 or 4 ft. +This method, however, is obviously inapplicable to heavy barges, and in +their case improved conditions of transport had to be sought in other +directions. + + + Mechanical power. + +Steam towage was first employed on the Forth and Clyde canal in 1802, +when a tug-boat fitted with steam engines by W. Symington drew two +barges for a distance of 19-1/2 m. in 6 hours in the teeth of a strong +headwind. As a result of this successful experiment it was proposed to +employ steam tugs on the Bridgewater canal; but the project fell through +owing to the death of the duke of Bridgewater, and the directors of the +Forth and Clyde canal also decided against this method because they +feared damage to the banks. Steam tugs are only practicable on +navigations on which there are either no locks or they are large enough +to admit the tug and its train of barges simultaneously; otherwise the +advantages are more than counterbalanced by the delays at locks. On the +Bridgewater canal, which has an average width of 50 ft. with a depth of +5-1/2 ft., is provided with vertical stone walls in place of sloping +banks, and has no locks for its entire length of 40 m. except at +Runcorn, where it joins the Mersey, tugs of 50 i.h.p., with a draught of +4 ft., tow four barges, each weighing 60 tons, at a rate of nearly 3 m. +an hour. On the Aire and Calder navigation, where the locks have a +minimum length of 215 ft., a large coal traffic is carried in trains of +boat-compartments on a system designed by W.H. Bartholomew. The boats +are nearly square in shape, except the leading one which has an ordinary +bow; they are coupled together by knuckle-joints fitted into hollow +stern-posts, so that they can move both laterally and vertically, and a +wire rope in tension on each side enables the train to be steered. No +boat crews are required, the crew of the steamer regulating the train. +If the number of boats does not exceed 11 they can be pushed, but beyond +that number they are towed. Each compartment carries 35 tons, and the +total weight in a train varies from 700 to 900 tons. On the arrival of a +train at Goole the boats are detached and are taken over submerged +cradles under hydraulic hoists which lift the boat with the cradle +sufficiently high to enable it to be turned over and discharge the whole +cargo at once into a shoot and thence into sea-going steamers. Another +method of utilizing steam-power, which was also first tried on the Forth +and Clyde canal by Symington in 1789, is to provide each vessel with a +separate steam engine, and many barges are now running fitted in this +way. Experiments have also been made with internal combustion engines in +place of steam engines. In some cases, chiefly on rivers having a strong +current, recourse has been had to a submerged chain passed round a drum +on a tug: this drum is rotated by steam power and thus the tug is hauled +up against the current. To obviate the inconvenience of passing several +turns of the chain round the drum in order to get sufficient grip, the +plan was introduced on the Seine and Oise in 1893 of passing the chain +round a pulley which could be magnetized at will, the necessary +adhesion being thus obtained by the magnetic attraction exercised on +the iron chain; and it was also adopted about the same time in +combination with electrical haulage on a small portion of the Bourgogne +canal, electricity being employed to drive the motor that worked the +pulley. Small locomotives running on rails along the towpath were tried +on the Shropshire Union canal, where they were abandoned on account of +practical difficulties in working, and also on certain canals in France +and Germany, where, however, the financial results were not +satisfactory. On portions of the Teltow canal, joining the Havel and the +Spree, electrical tractors run on rails along both banks, taking their +power from an overhead wire; they attain a speed of 2-1/2 m. an hour +when hauling two 600-ton barges. The electrical supply is also utilized +for working the lock gates and for various other purposes along the +route of the canal. In the Mont-de-Rilly tunnel, at the summit level of +the Aisne-Marne canal, a system of cable-traction was established in +1894, the boats being taken through by being attached to an endless +travelling wire rope supported by pulleys on the towpath. + + When railways were being carried out in England some canal companies + were alarmed for their future, and sold their canals to the railway + companies, who in 1906 owned 1138 m. of canals out of a total length + in the United Kingdom of 3901 m. As some of these canals are links in + the chain of internal water communication complaints have frequently + arisen on the question of through traffic and tolls. The great + improvements carried out in America and on the continent of Europe by + state aid enable manufacturers to get the raw material they use and + goods they export to and from their ports at much cheaper rates than + those charged on British canals. The association of chambers of + commerce and other bodies having taken up the matter, a royal + commission was appointed in 1906 to report on the canals and + water-ways of the kingdom, with a view to considering how they could + be more profitably used for national purposes. Its Report was + published in December 1909. + + AUTHORITIES.--L.F. Vernon-Harcourt, _Rivers and Canals_ (2nd ed., + 1896); Chapman, _Canal Navigation_; Firisi, _On Canals_; R. Fulton, + _Canal Navigation_; Tatham, _Economy of Inland Navigation_; Valancy, + _Treatise on Inland Navigation_; D. Stevenson, _Canal and River + Engineering_; John Phillips, _History of Inland Navigation_; J. + Priestley, _History of Navigable Rivers, Canals, &c. in Great Britain_ + (1831); T. Telford, _Life_ (1838); John Smeaton, _Reports_ (1837); + _Reports of the International Congresses on Interior Navigation_; + _Report and Evidence of the Royal Commission on Canals_ (_Great + Britain_), 1906-9. (E. L. W.) + + + + +CANAL DOVER, a city of Tuscarawas county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the +Tuscarawas river, about 70 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 3470; +(1900) 5422 (930 foreign-born); (1910) 6621. It is served by the +Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways, and by the Ohio canal, +and is connected with Cleveland by an inter-urban electric line. It lies +on a plateau about 880 ft. above sea-level and commands pleasant views +of diversified scenery. Coal and iron ore abound in the vicinity, and +the city manufactures iron, steel, tin plate, electrical and telephone +supplies, shovels, boilers, leather, flour, brick and tile, salt, +furniture and several kinds of vehicles. The municipality owns and +operates its water-works. Canal Dover was laid out as a town in 1807, +and was incorporated as a village in 1842, but its charter was soon +allowed to lapse and was not revived until 1867. Canal Dover became a +city under the Ohio municipal code of 1903. + + + + +CANALE (or CANALETTO), ANTONIO (1697-1768), Venetian painter, born on +the 18th of October 1697, was educated under his father Bernard, a +scene-painter of Venice, and for some time followed his father's line of +art. In 1719 he went to Rome, where he employed himself chiefly in +delineating ancient ruins, and particularly studied effects of light and +shade, in which he became an adept. He was the first painter who made +practical use of the camera lucida. On returning home he devoted his +powers to views in his native city, which he painted with a clear and +firm touch and the most facile mastery of colour in a deep tone, +introducing groups of figures with much effect. In his latter days he +resided some time in England. His pictures, in their particular range, +still remain unrivalled for their magnificent perspective. The National +Gallery, London, has five pictures by him, notably the "View on the +Grand Canal, Venice," and the "Regatta on the Grand Canal." He died on +the 20th of August 1768. Bellotto (commonly named Bernardo), who is also +sometimes called CANALETTO (1724-1780), was his nephew and pupil, and +painted with deceptive resemblance to the style of the more celebrated +master. + + + + +CANALIS (also "canal" and "channel"; from the Latin), in architecture, +the sinking between the fillets of the volute of the Ionic capital: in +the earliest examples, though sunk below the fillets, it is slightly +convex in section. + + + + +CANANDAIGUA, a village and the county-seat of Ontario county, New York, +U.S.A., 30 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop. (1890) 5868; (1900) 6151; (1910) +7217. It is served by the New York Central and Hudson River, and the +Northern Central (Pennsylvania system) railways, and is connected with +Rochester by an inter-urban electric line. Among the manufactures are +pressed bricks, tile, beer, ploughs, flour, agate and tin-ware. The +village, picturesquely situated at the north end of Canandaigua Lake, a +beautiful sheet of water about 15 m. long with a breadth varying from a +mile to a mile and a half, is a summer resort. It has a county court +house; the Canandaigua hospital of physicians and surgeons; the +Frederick Ferris Thompson memorial hospital, with a bacteriological +laboratory supported by the county; the Clark Manor House (a county home +for the aged), given by Mrs Frederick Ferris Thompson in memory of her +mother and of her father, Myron Holley Clark (1806-1892), president of +the village of Canandaigua in 1850-1851 and governor of New York in +1855-1857; the Ontario Orphan Asylum; Canandaigua Academy; Granger Place +school for girls; Brigham Hall (a private sanatorium for nervous and +mental diseases); Young Men's Christian Association building (1905); and +two libraries, the Wood (public) library and the Union School library, +founded in 1795. There is a public playground in the village with free +instruction by a physical director; and a swimming school, endowed by +Mrs F.F. Thompson, gives free lessons in swimming. The village owns its +water-supply system. A village of the Seneca Indians, near the present +Canandaigua, bearing the same name, which means "a settlement was +formerly there" (not, as Lewis Morgan thought, "chosen spot"), was +destroyed by Gen. John Sullivan in 1779. There are boulder memorials of +Sullivan's expedition and of the treaty signed here on the 11th of +November 1794 by Timothy Pickering, on behalf of the United States with +the Six Nations--a treaty never ratified by the Senate. Canandaigua was +settled in 1789 and was first incorporated in 1812. + + + + +CANARD (the Fr. for "duck"), a sensational or extravagant story, a hoax +or false report, especially one circulated by newspapers. This use of +the word in France dates from the 17th century, and is supposed by +Littre to have originated in the old expression, "_vendre un canard a +moitie_" (to half-sell a duck); as it is impossible to "half-sell a +duck," the phrase came to signify to take in, or to cheat. + + + + +CANARY (_Serinus canarius_), a well-known species of passerine bird, +belonging to the family _Fringillidae_ or finches (see FINCH). It is a +native of the Canary Islands and Madeira, where it occurs abundantly in +the wild state, and is of a greyish-brown colour, slightly varied with +brighter hues, although never attaining the beautiful plumage of the +domestic bird. It was first domesticated in Italy during the 16th +century, and soon spread over Europe, where it is now the most common of +cage-birds. During the years of its domestication, the canary has been +the subject of careful artificial selection, the result being the +production of a bird differing widely in the colour of its plumage, and +in a few of its varieties even in size and form, from the original wild +species. The prevailing colour of the most admired varieties of the +canary is yellow, approaching in some cases to orange, and in others to +white; while the most robust birds are those which, in the dusky green +of the upper surface of their plumage, show a distinct approach to the +wild forms. The least prized are those in which the plumage is +irregularly spotted and speckled. In one of the most esteemed varieties, +the wing and tail feathers are at first black--a peculiarity, however, +which disappears after the first moulting. Size and form have also been +modified by domestication, the wild canary being not more than 5-1/2 in. +in length, while a well-known Belgian variety usually measures 8 in. +There are also hooped or bowed canaries, feather-footed forms and +top-knots, the latter having a distinct crest on the head; but the +offspring of two such top-knotted canaries, instead of showing an +increased development of crest, as might be expected, are apt to be bald +on the crown. Most of the varieties, however, of which no fewer than +twenty-seven were recognized by French breeders so early as the +beginning of the 18th century, differ merely in the colour and the +markings of the plumage. Hybrids are also common, the canary breeding +freely with the siskin, goldfinch, citril, greenfinch and linnet. The +hybrids thus produced are almost invariably sterile. It is the female +canary which is almost invariably employed in crossing, as it is +difficult to get the females of the allied species to sit on the +artificial nest used by breeders. In a state of nature canaries pair, +but under domestication the male bird has been rendered polygamous, +being often put with four or five females; still he is said to show a +distinct preference for the female with which he was first mated. It is +from the others, however, that the best birds are usually obtained. The +canary is very prolific, producing eggs, not exceeding six in number, +three or four times a year; and in a state of nature it is said to breed +still oftener. The work of building the nest, and of incubation, falls +chiefly on the female, while the duty of feeding the young rests mainly +with the cock bird. The natural song of the canary is loud and clear; +and in their native groves the males, especially during the pairing +season, pour forth their song with such ardour as sometimes to burst the +delicate vessels of the throat. The males appear to compete with each +other in the brilliancy of their melody, in order to attract the +females, which, according to the German naturalist Johann Matthaus +Bechstein (1757-1822) always select the best singers for their mates. +The canary readily imitates the notes of other birds, and in Germany and +especially Tirol, where the breeding of canaries gives employment to a +large number of people, they are usually placed for this purpose beside +the nightingale. (A. N.) + + + + +CANARY ISLANDS (_Canarias_), a Spanish archipelago in the Atlantic +Ocean; about 60 m. W. of the African coast, between 27 deg. 40' and 29 +deg. 30' N., and between 13 deg. 20' and 18 deg. 10' W. Pop. (1900) +358,564; area 2807 sq. m. The Canary Islands resemble a roughly-drawn +semicircle, with its convex side facing south-wards, and with the island +of Hierro detached on the south-west. More precisely, they may be +considered as two groups, one of which, including Teneriffe, Grand +Canary, Palma, Hierro and Gomera, consists of mountain peaks, isolated +and rising directly from an ocean of great depth; while the other, +comprising Lanzarote, Fuerteventura and six uninhabited islets, is based +on a single submarine plateau, of far less depth. Teneriffe and Gomera, +the only members of the principal group which have a common base, may be +regarded as the twin peaks of one great volcanic mass. Ever since the +researches of Leopold von Buch the Canary Islands have been classical +ground to the student of volcanic action. Buch considered them to be +representative of his "craters of elevation." In common with the other +West African islands they are of volcanic origin. The lavas consist +chiefly of trachytes and basalts. + +[Illustration: CANARY ISLANDS MAP] + +_Climate_.--From April to October a north or north-east wind blows upon +the islands, beginning about 10 A.M. and continuing until 5 or 6 P.M. In +summer this wind produces a dense stratum of sea-cloud (_cumuloni_), 500 +ft. thick, whose lower surface is about 2500 ft. above the sea at +Teneriffe. This does not reach up to the mountains, which have on every +side a stratum of their own, about 1000 ft. thick, the lower surface +being about 3500 ft. above the level of the sea. Between these two +distinct strata there is a gap, through which persons on a vessel near +the island may obtain a glimpse of the peak. The sea-cloud conceals from +view the other islands, except those whose mountains pierce through it. +On the south-west coasts there is no regular sea or land breeze. In +winter they are occasionally visited by a hot south-east wind from +Africa, which is called the _Levante_, and produces various disagreeable +consequences on the exposed parts of the person, besides injuring the +vegetation, especially on the higher grounds. Locusts have sometimes +been brought by this wind. In 1812 it is said that locusts covered some +fields in Fuerteventura to the depth of 4 ft. Hurricanes, accompanied by +waterspouts, sometimes cause much devastation; but, on the whole, the +islands are singularly free from such visitations. The climate generally +is mild, dry and healthy. On the lower grounds the temperature is +equable, the daily range seldom exceeding 6 deg. Fahr. At Santa Cruz the +mean for the year is about 71 deg. The rainy season occurs at the same +period as in southern Europe. The dry season is at the time of the +trade-winds, which extend a few degrees farther north than this +latitude. + +_Fauna_.--The indigenous mammals of the Canary Islands are very few in +number. The dog, swine, goat and sheep were alone found upon the island +by the Spanish conquerors: The race of large dogs which is supposed to +have given a name to the islands has been long extinct. A single +skeleton has been found, which is deposited in one of the museums at +Paris. The ferret, rabbit, cat, rat, mouse and two kinds of bat have +become naturalized. The ornithology is more interesting, on account at +once of the birds native to the islands, and the stragglers from the +African coast, which are chiefly brought over in winter, when the wind +has blown for some time from the east. Among the indigenous birds are +some birds of prey, as the African vulture, the falcon, the buzzard, the +sparrow-hawk and the kite. There are also two species of owl, three +species of sea-mew, the stockdove, quail, raven, magpie, chaffinch, +goldfinch, blackcap, canary, titmouse, blackbird, house-swallow, &c. As +to the insects, mention may be made of a species of gnat or mosquito +which is sometimes troublesome, especially to strangers. The list of +reptiles is limited to three varieties of lizard and one species of +frog. The only fresh-water fish is the eel. Marine fishes are not +numerous, the reason perhaps being that the steepness of the coast does +not allow seaweed to grow in sufficient quantity to support the lower +forms of marine animal life. Whales and seals are occasionally seen. The +cuttle-fish is abundant, and is sought for as an article of food. + +_Flora_.--The position of mountainous islands like the Canaries, in the +subtropical division of the temperate zone, is highly favourable to the +development, within a small space, of plants characteristic of both warm +and cold climates. Von Buch refers to five regions of vegetation in +Teneriffe:--(1) From the sea to the height of 1300 ft. This he styles +the African region. The climate in the hottest parts is similar to that +of Egypt. Here grow, among the introduced plants, the coffee tree, the +date-palm, the sugar-cane, the banana, the orange tree, the American +agave and two species of cactus; and among indigenous plants, the dragon +tree on the north-west of Teneriffe. A leafless and fantastic euphorbia, +_E. canariensis_, and a shrubby composite plant, _Cacalia kleinia_, give +a character to the landscape about Santa Cruz. (2) Between 1300 ft. and +2800 ft. This is the region of south European vegetation, the climate +answering to that of southern France and central Italy. Here nourish +vines and cereals. (3) The region of indigenous trees, including +various species of laurel, an _Ardisia, Ilex, Rhamnus, Olea, Myrica_, +and other trees found wild also at Madeira. The clouds rest on this +region during the day, and by their humidity support a vegetation +amongst the trees, partly of shrubs, and partly of ferns. It extends to +the height of 4000 ft. (4) The region of the beautiful _Pinus +canariensis_, extending to the height of 6400 ft.; here the broad-leaved +trees have ceased to grow, but arborescent heaths are found throughout +its whole extent, and specimens of _Juniperus oxycedrus_ may be met +with. (5) The region of Retama (_Cytisus nubigenus_), a species of +white-flowering and sweet-scented broom, which is found as high as +11,000 ft. At the upper edge of this region a lilac-coloured violet +clings to the soil, and above there is nothing but a little lichen. The +number of wild flowering plants may be estimated at 900, upwards of 270 +of which are peculiar to the Canaries. The forms of vegetation must in +the main be considered North African. The character of the vegetation in +Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, islands composed of extensive plains and +low hills, with few springs, is different from that of the other +islands, which are more elevated and have many springs. The wood is less +abundant, and the vegetation less luxuriant. + +_Inhabitants_.--The Guanches (q.v.), who occupied the Canaries at the +time of the Spanish invasion, no longer exist as a separate race, for +the majority were exterminated, and the remainder intermarried with +their conquerors. The present inhabitants are slightly darker than the +people of Spain, but in other respects are scarcely distinguishable from +them. The men are of middle height, well-made and strong; the women are +not striking in respect of beauty, but they have good eyes and hair. +Spanish is the only language in use. The birth-rate is uniformly high +and the death-rate low; and, despite the emigration of many families to +South America and the United States, the census of 1900 showed that the +population had increased by over 75,000 since 1877. The excess of +females over males, which in 1900 amounted to upwards of 22,000, is +partly explained by the fact that few women emigrate. Fully 80% of the +inhabitants could neither read nor write in 1900; but education +progresses more rapidly than in many other Spanish provinces. Good +schools are numerous, and the return of emigrants and their children who +have been educated in the United States, tends to raise the standard of +civilization. The sustenance of the poorer classes is chiefly composed +of fish, potatoes and _gofio_, which is merely Indian corn or wheat +roasted, ground and kneaded with water or milk. The land is, in great +part, strictly entailed. + +_Government_.--The archipelago forms one Spanish province, of which the +capital is Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the residence of the civil governor, +who has under his command one of the two districts into which the +archipelago is divided, this first district comprising Teneriffe, Palma, +Gomera and Hierro. The other district includes Grand Canary, Lanzarote, +Fuerteventura, and has at its head a sub-governor, residing in Las +Palmas, on Grand Canary, who is independent of the governor except in +regard to elections and municipal administration. The chief finance +office is at Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The court of appeal, created in +1526, is in Las Palmas. The captain-general and second commandant of the +archipelago reside in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and there is a +brigadier-governor of Grand Canary, residing in Las Palmas, besides +eight inferior military commandants. The province furnishes no men for +the Spanish peninsular army, but its annual conscription provides men +for the local territorial militia, composed of regiments of infantry, +squadrons of mounted rifles and companies of garrison artillery--about +5000 men all told. The archipelago is divided into two naval districts, +commanded by royal navy captains. Roman Catholicism is the official +religion, and ecclesiastical law is the same as in other Spanish +provinces. The convents have been suppressed, and in many cases +converted to secular uses. Laguna and Las Palmas are episcopal sees, in +the archbishopric of Seville. + +_Industry and Commerce._--Owing to the richness of the volcanic soil, +agriculture in the Canaries is usually very profitable. Land varies in +value according to the amount of water available, but as a rule commands +an extraordinarily high price. In the _Terrenos de secano_, or +non-irrigable districts, the average price of an acre ranges from L7 to +L17; in the _Terrenes de riego_, or irrigable land, it ranges from L100 +to L250. Until 1853 wine was the staple product, and although even the +finest brand (known as _Vidonia_) never equalled the best Madeira +vintages, it was largely consumed abroad, especially in England. The +annual value of the wine exported often exceeded L500,000. In 1853, +however, the grape disease attacked the vineyards; and thenceforward the +production of cochineal, which had been introduced in 1825, took the +place of viticulture so completely that, twenty years later, the exports +of cochineal were worth L556,000. France and England were the chief +purchasers. This industry declined in the later years of the 19th +century, and was supplanted by the cultivation of sugar-cane, and +afterwards of bananas, tomatoes, potatoes and onions. Bananas are the +most important crop. Other fruits grown in smaller quantities include +oranges, figs, dates, pineapples, guavas, custard-apples and prickly +pears. Tobacco-planting is encouraged by the Spanish government, and the +sugar trade is maintained, despite severe competition. The grain harvest +does not supply the needs of the islanders. Pigs and sheep of a small, +coarse-woolled breed, are numerous; and large herds of goats wander in +an almost wild state over the higher hills. Fishing is a very important +industry, employing over 10,000 hands. The fleet of about 2200 boats +operates along some 600 m. of the African coast, between Cape Cantin and +the Arguin Bank. Shipbuilding is carried on at Las Palmas; and the minor +industries include the manufacture of cloth, drawn-linen (_calado_) +work, silk, baskets, hats, &c. A group of Indian merchants, who employ +coolie labour, produce silken, jute and cotton goods, Oriental +embroideries, wrought silver, brass-ware, porcelain, carved sandal-wood, +&c. The United Kingdom heads the import trade in coal, textiles, +hardware, iron, soap, candles and colonial products. Timber comes +chiefly from North America and Scandinavia, alcohol from Cuba and the +United States, wheat and flour from various British possessions, maize +from Morocco and Argentina. Large quantities of miscellaneous imports +are sent by Germany, Spain, France and Italy. Bananas, tomatoes, +potatoes, sugar and wine are exported. The total value of the foreign +trade fluctuates very greatly, and the difficulty of forming an estimate +is enhanced in many years by the absence of official statistics; but +imports and exports together probably amount in a normal year to about +L1,000,000. The chief ports are Las Palmas and Santa Cruz, which +annually accommodate about 7000 vessels of over 8,000,000 tons. In 1854 +all the ports of the Canaries were practically declared free; but on the +1st of November 1904 a royal order prohibited foreign vessels from +trading between one island and another. This decree deprived the +outlying islands of their usual means of communication, and, in answer +to a protest by the inhabitants, its operation was postponed. + +_History_.--There is ground for supposing that the Phoenicians were not +ignorant of the Canaries. The Romans learned of their existence through +Juba, king of Mauretania, whose account of an expedition to the islands, +made about 40 B.C., was preserved by the elder Pliny. He mentions +"Canaria, so called from the multitude of dogs of great size," and +"Nivaria, taking its name from perpetual snow, and covered with clouds," +doubtless Teneriffe. Canaria was said to abound in palms and pine trees. +Both Plutarch and Ptolemy speak of the Fortunate Islands, but from their +description it is not clear whether the Canaries or one of the other +island groups in the western Atlantic are meant; see ISLES OF THE BLEST. +In the 12th century the Canaries were visited by Arab navigators, and in +1334 they were rediscovered by a French vessel driven among them by a +gale. A Portuguese expedition, undertaken about the same time, failed to +find the archipelago, and want of means frustrated the project of +conquest entertained by a grandson of Alphonso X. of Castile, named Juan +de la Cerda, who had obtained a grant of the islands and had been +crowned king of them at Avignon, by Pope Clement VI. Two or possibly +more Spanish expeditions followed, and a monastic mission was +established, but at the close of the 14th century the Guanches remained +unconquered and unconverted. In 1402, however, Gadifer de la Salle and +Jean de Bethencourt (q.v.) sailed with two vessels from Rochelle, and +landed early in July on Lanzarote. The relations between these two +leaders, and their respective shares in the work of conquest and +exploration, have been the subject of much controversy. Between 1402 and +1404 La Salle conquered Lanzarote and part of Fuerteventura, besides +exploring other islands; Bethencourt meanwhile sailed to Cadiz for +reinforcements. He returned in 1404 with the title of king, which he had +secured from Henry III. of Castile. La Salle, thus placed in a position +of inferiority, left the islands and appealed unsuccessfully for redress +at the court of Castile. In 1405 Bethencourt visited Normandy, and +returned with fresh colonists who conquered Hierro. In December 1406 he +left the Canaries, entrusting their government to his nephew Maciot de +Bethencourt, and reserving for himself a share in any profits obtained, +and the royal title. Eight years of misrule followed before Queen +Catherine of Castile intervened. Maciot thereupon sold his office to her +envoy, Pedro Barba de Campos; sailed to Lisbon and resold it to Prince +Henry the Navigator; and a few years afterwards resold it once more to +Enrique de Guzman, count of Niebla. Jean de Bethencourt, who died in +1422, bequeathed the islands to his brother Reynaud; Guzman sold them to +another Spaniard named Paraza, who was forced to re-sell to Ferdinand +and Isabella of Castile in 1476; and Prince Henry twice endeavoured to +enforce his own claims. Meanwhile the Guanches remained unconquered +throughout the greater part of the archipelago. In 1479 the sovereignty +of Ferdinand and Isabella over the Canaries was established by the +treaty of Alcacova, between Portugal and Castile. After much bloodshed, +and with reinforcements from the mother country, the Spaniards, under +Pedro de Vera, became masters of Grand Canary in 1483. Palma was +conquered in 1491, and Teneriffe in 1495, by Alonzo de Lugo. The +archipelago was included for administrative purposes in the +captaincy-general of Andalusia until 1833, when it was made a separate +province. In 1902 a movement in favour of local autonomy was repressed +by Spanish troops. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For a general description of the islands, see _Les Iles + Canaries_, by J. Pitard and L. Proust (Paris, 1909); _Madeira and the + Canary Islands_, by A. Samler Brown, a guide for travellers and + invalids, with coloured maps and plates (London, 1901); _A Guide to + the Canary Islands_, by J.H.T. Ellerbeck (London, 1892); _The Canary + Islands as a Winter Resort_, by J. Whitford (London, 1890, with maps + and illustrations); _De la Tierra Canaria_, by L. and A. Millares + Cubas (Madrid, 1894); and _Physikalische Beschreibung der kanarischen + Inseln_, by L. von Buch (Berlin, 1825). Besides the interesting folio + atlas of von Buch (Paris, 1836), good modern maps have been published + by E. Stanford (London, 1891, 12-1/2 English m. to 1 in.), and M. + Perez y Rodriquez (Madrid, 1896-1898, 4 sheets). See also _Histoire + naturelle des iles Canaries_, by P. Barker-Webb and S. Berthelot + (Paris, 1835-1849); and "Les Iles Canaries et les parages de peche + canariens," by Dr. A. Taquin, in the _B.S.R. Beige G. 26_ (1902), and + 27 (1903); and, for history and antiquities, the _Historia general de + las islas Canarias_, by A. Millares Cubas, in 10 vols. (Las Palmas, + 1893-1895),and _Historia de la Inquisicion en las islas Canarias_, by + the same author (Las Palmas, 1874); _Antiquites canariennes_, by S. + Berthelot (Paris, 1879). + + + + +CANCALE, a fishing port of north-western France in the department of +Ille-et-Vilaine on the Bay of Cancale, 9 m. E.N.E. of St Malo by road. +Pop. (1906) town 3827, commune 7061. It exports oysters, which are found +in its bay in large numbers and of excellent quality, and equips a fleet +for the Newfoundland cod-fisheries. The harbour is protected by the +rocks known as the Rochers de Cancale. In 1758 an English army under the +duke of Marlborough landed here for the purpose of attacking St Malo and +pillaged the town. It was again bombarded by the English in 1779. + + + + +CANCEL (from the Lat. _cancelli_, a plural diminutive of _cancer_, a +grating or lattice, from which are also derived "chancel" and +"chancellor"), a word meaning to cross out, from the crossed latticed +lines drawn across a legal document to annul it, hence to delete or +destroy. + + + + +CANCELLI (plural of Lat. _cancellus_, dim. of _cancer_, a crossing bar), +in architecture, the term given to barriers which correspond to the +modern balustrade or railing, especially the screen dividing the body of +a church from the part occupied by the ministers; hence "chancel" +(q.v.). By the Romans _cancelli_ were similarly employed to divide off +portions of the courts of law (cf. the English "bar"). + + + + +CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549), Spanish missionary to Central America, was born +at Barbastro near Saragossa. After working for some time in Dominica and +Haiti, he crossed to the mainland, where he had great success in +pacifying the Indians whom more violent methods had failed to subdue. He +upheld the cause of the natives at an ecclesiastical assembly held in +Mexico in 1546, and three years later, on the 26th of June, met his +death at their hands on the west coast of Florida. + + + + +CANCER ("THE CRAB"), in astronomy, the fourth sign of the zodiac, +denoted by the symbol [Crab symbol]. Its name may be possibly derived +from the fact that when the sun arrives at this part of the ecliptic it +apparently retraces its path, resembling in some manner the sidelong +motion of a crab. It is also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th +century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.); Ptolemy catalogued 13 stars +in it, Tycho Brahe 15 and Hevelius 29. Its most interesting objects are: +a large loose cluster of stars, known as _Praesepe_ or the Beehive, +visible as a nebulous patch to the naked eye, and [zeta] _Cancri_, a +remarkable multiple star, composed of two stars, of magnitudes 5 and +5.7, revolving about each other in 60 years, and a third star of +magnitude 5.5 which revolves about these two in an opposite direction in +a period of 17-1/2 years; from irregularities in the motion of this star, +it is supposed to be a satellite of an invisible body which itself +revolves about the two stars previously mentioned, in a period of 600 to +700 years. + + + + +CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. _cancer_, Gr. _[Greek: karkiuoma]_, an +eating ulcer), the name given to a class of morbid growths or tumours +which occur in man, and also in most or all vertebrate animals. The term +"malignant disease" is commonly used as synonymous with "cancer." For +the general pathology, &c., of tumours see TUMOUR. + +Cancer exists in various forms, which, although differing from each +other in many points, have yet certain common characters to which they +owe their special significance. + +1. In structure such growths are composed of nucleated cells and free +nuclei together with a milky fluid called cancer juice, all contained +within a more or less dense fibrous stroma or framework. + +2. They have no well-defined limits, and they involve all textures in +their vicinity, while they also tend to spread by the lymphatics and +veins, and to cause similar growths in distant parts or organs called +"secondary cancerous growths." + +3. They are undergoing constant increase, and their progress is usually +rapid. + +4. Pain is a frequent symptom. When present it is generally of a severe +and agonizing character, and together with the local effects of the +disease and the resulting condition of ill health or "cachexia," hastens +the fatal termination to which all cancerous growths tend. + +5. When such growths are removed by the surgeon they are apt to return +either at the same or at some other part. + +The chief varieties of cancer are _Scirrhus_ or hard cancer, +_Encephaloid_ or soft cancer and _Epithelial cancer_. + +Scirrhus is remarkable for its hardness, which is due to the large +amount of its fibrous, and relatively small proportion of its cell +elements. It is of comparatively slow growth, but it tends to spread and +to ulcerate. Its most common seat by far is the female breast, though it +sometimes affects internal organs. + +Encephaloid is in structure the reverse of the last, its softness +depending on the preponderance of its cell over its fibrous elements. +Its appearance and consistence resemble brain substance (hence its +name), and it is of such rapid growth as to have given rise to its being +occasionally termed _acute cancer_. Its most frequent seats are +internal organs or the limbs. Ulceration and haemorrhage are common +accompaniments of this form of cancer. + +Epithelial cancer is largely composed of cells resembling the natural +epithelium of the body. It occurs most frequently in those parts +provided with epithelium, such as the skin and mucous membranes, or +where those adjoin, as in the lips. This form of cancer does not spread +so rapidly nor produce secondary growths in other organs to the same +extent as the two other varieties, but it tends equally with them to +involve the neighbouring lymphatic glands, and to recur after removal. + +Cancer affects all parts of the body, but is much more frequent in some +tissues than in others. According to recent statistics prepared by the +registrar-general for England and Wales (sixty-seventh annual report) +the most frequent seats are, in numerical order, as +follows:--_males_--stomach, liver, rectum, intestines, aesophagus, +tongue; _females_--uterus, breast, stomach, liver, intestines, rectum. +Other statistics give similar, though not identical results. It may be +said, broadly, that the most frequent seats are the female sexual organs +and after them the digestive tract in both sexes. In children, in whom +cancer is rare, the most frequent seats appear to be--under five, the +kidneys and supra-renal bodies; five to ten, the brain; ten to twenty, +the arm and leg bones. + +Cancer tends to advance steadily to a fatal termination, but its +duration varies in different cases according to the part affected and +according to the variety of the disease. Soft cancer affecting important +organs of the body often proves fatal in a few months, while, on the +other hand, cases of hard or epithelial cancer may sometimes last for +several years; but no precise limit can be assigned for any form of the +disease. In some rare instances growths exhibiting all the signs of +cancer may exist for a great length of time without making any progress, +and may even dwindle and disappear altogether. This is called +"spontaneous cure." + + + Cancer research. + +Cancer has been the subject of observation from time immemorial, and of +the most elaborate investigation by innumerable workers in recent years; +but the problems of its origin and character have hitherto baffled +inquiry. Modern scientific study of them may be said to have begun with +J. Muller's microscopic work in the structure of cancerous tissue early +in the 19th century. A great impetus to this line of investigation was +given by the cellular theory of R. Virchow and the pathological +researches of Sir J. Paget, and general attention was directed to the +microscopic examination of the cells of which cancer is composed. This +led to a classification, on which much reliance was once placed, of +different kinds of cancer, based on the character of the cells, and +particularly to a distinction between _carcinoma_, in which the cells +are of the epithelial type, and _sarcoma_, in which they are of the +connective tissue type. The distinction, though still maintained, has +proved barren; it never had any real significance, either clinical or +pathological, and the tendency in recent research is to ignore it. The +increased knowledge gained in numerous other branches of biological +science has also been brought to bear on the problem of cancer and has +led to a number of theories; and at the same time the apparently +increasing prevalence of the disease recorded by the vital statistics of +many countries has drawn more and more public attention to it. Two +results have followed. One is the establishment of special endowed +institutions devoted to cancer research; the other is the publication +and discussion of innumerable theories and proposed methods of +treatment. Popular interest has been constantly fanned by the +announcement of some pretended discovery or cure, in which the public is +invited to place its trust. Such announcements have no scientific value +whatever. In the rare cases in which they are not pure quackery, they +are always premature and based on inadequate data. + +Organized cancer research stands on a different footing. It may be +regarded as the revival at the end of the 19th century of what was +unsuccessfully attempted at the beginning. As early as 1792, at the +suggestion of Mr. John Howard, surgeon, a ward was opened at the +Middlesex hospital in London for the special benefit of persons +suffering from cancer. It was fitted up and endowed anonymously by Mr. +Samuel Whitbread, M.P. for Bedford, and according to the terms of the +benefaction at least six patients were to be continually maintained in +it until relieved by art or released by death. The purpose was both +philanthropic and scientific, as Mr. Howard explained in bringing +forward the suggestion. Two principal objects, he said, presented +themselves to his mind, "namely, the relief of persons suffering under +this disease and the investigation of a complaint which, although +extremely common, is both with regard to its natural history and cure +but imperfectly known." This benefaction was the origin of one of the +most complete institutions for the scientific study of cancer that +exists to-day. + +In 1804 a Society for Investigating the Nature of Cancer was formed by a +number of medical men in London, Edinburgh and other towns at the +instigation of John Hunter. The aim was collective investigation, and an +attempt was made to carry it out by issuing forms of inquiry; but the +imperfect means of communication then existing caused the scheme to be +abandoned in a short time. Subsequent attempts at collective +investigation also failed until recently. About 1900 a movement, which +had been for some time gathering force, began to take visible shape +simultaneously in different countries. The cancer ward at the Middlesex +hospital had then developed into a cancer wing, and to it were added +special laboratories for the investigation of cancer, which were opened +on the 1st of March 1900. In this establishment the fully equipped means +of clinical and laboratory research were united under one roof and +manned by a staff of investigators under the direction of Dr W.S. +Lazarus Barlow. In the same year the _Deutsche Comite fur +Krebsforschung_ was organized in Berlin, receiving an annual subsidy of +5000 marks (L250) from the imperial exchequer. This body devoted its +energies to making a census of cancer patients in Germany on a definite +date. A special ward for cancer was also set apart at the Charite +hospital in Berlin, with a state endowment of 53,000 marks (L2560) per +annum, and a laboratory for cancer research was attached to the first +medical clinique under Professor Ernst von Leyden at the same hospital. +A third institution in Germany is a special cancer department at the +Royal Prussian Institute for Experimental Therapeutics at +Frankfort-on-Main, which has been supported, like the Imperial Cancer +Research Fund in England, by private contributions on a generous scale. +The fund just mentioned was initiated in October 1901, and its +operations took definite shape a year later, when Dr. E.F. Bashford was +appointed general superintendent of research. The patron of the +foundation was King Edward VII., and the president was the prince of +Wales. It had in 1908 a capital endowment of about L120,000, subscribed +by private munificence and producing an income of about L7000 a year. +The central laboratory is situated in the examination building of the +Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons in London, and the work is +conducted under the superintendence of an executive committee formed by +representatives of those bodies. In the United States a cancer +laboratory, which had been established in Buffalo in 1899 under Dr +Roswell Park, was formally placed under the control of New York state in +June 1901, and is supported by an annual grant of $15,000 (L3000). There +are other provisions in the United States connected with Harvard and +Cornell universities. At the former the "Caroline Brewer Croft Fund for +Cancer Research" started special investigations in the surgical +department of the Harvard Medical School in 1900 or the previous year, +and in connexion with the Cornell University Medical School there is a +small endowment called the "Huntingdon Cancer Research Fund." There +appear to be institutions of a similar character in other countries, in +addition to innumerable investigators at universities and other ordinary +seats of scientific research. + +Some attempt has been made to co-ordinate the work thus carried on in +different countries. An international cancer congress was held at +Heidelberg and Frankfort in 1906, and a proposal was put forward by +German representatives that a permanent international conference on +cancer should be established, with headquarters in Berlin. The committee +of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund did not fall in with the proposal, +being of opinion that more was to be gained in the existing stage of +knowledge by individual intercourse and exchange of material between +actual laboratory workers. + + + Theories of cancer. + +In spite of the immense concentration of effort indicated by the +simultaneous establishment of so many centres of endowed research, and +in spite of the light thrown upon the problem from many sides by modern +biological science, our knowledge of the origin of cancer is still in +such a tentative state that a detailed account of the theories put +forward is not called for; it will suffice to indicate their general +drift. The actual pathological process of cancer is extremely simple. +Certain cells, which are apparently of a normal character and have +previously performed normal functions, begin to grow and multiply in an +abnormal way in some part of the body. They continue this process so +persistently that they first invade and then destroy the surrounding +tissues; nothing can withstand their march. They are moreover carried to +other parts of the body, where they establish themselves and grow in the +same way. Their activity is carried on with relentless determination, +though at a varying pace, until the patient dies, unless they are bodily +removed. Hence the word "malignant." The problem is--what are these +cells, or why do they behave in this way? The principal answers put +forward may be summarized:--(1) they are epithelial cells which grow +without ceasing because the connective tissue has lost the capacity to +hold their proliferative powers in check (H. Freund, following K. +Thiersch and W. Waldeyer); (2) they are embryonic cells accidentally +shut off (J.F. Cohnheim); (3) they are epithelial cells with a latent +power of unlimited proliferation which becomes active on their being +dislocated from the normal association (M.W.H. Ribbert and Borrmann); +(4) they are stimulated to unlimited growth by the presence of a +parasite (Plimmer, Sanfelice, Roncali and others); (5) they are +fragments of reproductive tissue (G.T. Beatson); (6) they are cells +which have lost their differentiated character and assumed elementary +properties (von Hausemann, O. Hertwig). The very number and variety of +hypotheses show that none is established. Most of them attempt to +explain the growth but not the origin of the disease. The hypothesis of +a parasitic origin, suggested by recent discoveries in relation to other +diseases, has attracted much attention; but the observed phenomena of +cancerous growths are not in keeping with those of all known parasitic +diseases, and the theory is now somewhat discredited. A more recent +theory that cancer is due to failure of the normal secretions of the +pancreas has not met with much acceptance. + +Some generalizations bearing on the problem have been drawn from the +work done in the laboratories of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund. They +may be summarily stated thus. Cancer has been shown to be an identical +process in all vertebrates (including fishes), and to develop at a time +which conforms in a striking manner to the limits imposed by the long or +short compass of life in different animals. Cancerous tissue can be +artificially propagated in the short-lived mouse by actual transference +to another individual, but only to one of the same species. Cancerous +tissue thus propagated presents all the characteristic features of the +malignant growth of sporadic tumours; it infiltrates and produces +extensive secondary growths. Under suitable experimental conditions the +aggregate growth of a cancer is undefined, of enormous and, so far as we +can judge, of limitless amount. This extraordinary growth is due to the +continued proliferation of cancerous cells when transplanted. The +processes by which growing cancer cells are transferred to a new +individual are easily distinguishable and fundamentally different from +all known processes of infection. The artificial propagation of cancer +causes no specific symptoms of illness in the animal in which it +proceeds. Under artificial propagation cancer maintains all the +characters of the original tumours of the primary hosts. _Carcinoma_ and +_sarcoma_ agree in possessing all the pathological and cellular +features of malignant new growths. + + + Statistics of cancer. + +Simultaneously with the active pursuit of laboratory research much +statistical work has been devoted to establishing the broad facts of the +prevalence and incidence of cancer on a firm basis. The point of most +general interest is the apparently steady increase of the disease in all +countries possessing fairly trustworthy records. It will be sufficient +to give the figures for England and Wales as an example. + + ANNUAL DEATH-RATES FROM CANCER TO A MILLION LIVING. _England and + Wales._ + + +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + |1871-1875.|1876-1880.|1881-1885.|1886-1890.|1891-1895.|1896-1900.|1901-1904.| + +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + | 445 | 493 | 547 | 631 | 711 | 800 | 861 | + +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ + +In forty years the recorded rate had risen from 403 to 861. The question +how far these and similar statistics represent a real increase cannot be +satisfactorily resolved, because it is impossible to ascertain how much +of the apparent increase is due to more accurate diagnosis and improved +registration. Some of it is certainly due to those causes, so that the +recorded figures cannot be taken to represent the facts as they stand. +At the same time it is certain that some increase has taken place in +consequence of the increased average length of life; a larger proportion +of persons now reach the ages at which cancer is most frequent. Increase +due to this fact, though it is a real increase, does not indicate that +the cause of cancer is more rife or more potent; it only means that the +condition of the population in regard to age is more favourable to its +activity. On the whole it seems probable that, when allowance has been +made for this factor and for errors due to improved registration, a real +increase due to other causes has taken place, though it is not so great +as the recorded statistics would indicate. + +The long-established conclusions concerning the incidence of the disease +in regard to age and sex have been confirmed and rendered more precise +by modern statistics. Cancer is a disease of old age; the incidence at +the ages of sixty-five to seventy-five is ten times greater than at the +ages thirty-five to forty-five. This fact is the source of frequent +fallacies when different countries or districts and different periods +are compared with each other, unless account is taken of the differences +in age and constitution. With regard to sex females are far more liable +than males; the respective death-rates per million living for England +and Wales in 1904 were--males 740; females 1006. But the two rates show +a tendency to approximate; the increase shown over a series of years has +been considerably more rapid among males than among females. One result +of more careful examination of statistics has been to discredit, though +perhaps somewhat hastily, certain observations regarding the prevalence +of cancer in special districts and special houses. On the other hand the +fuller statistics now available concerning the relative frequency of +cancer in the several organs and parts of the body, of which some +account is given above, go to confirm the old observation that cancer +commonly begins at the seat of some local irritation. By far the most +frequent seats of disease are the uterus and breast in women and the +digestive tract in both sexes, and these are all particularly subject to +such irritation. With regard to the influence of heredity the trend of +modern research is to minimize or deny its importance in cancer, as in +phthisis, and to explain family histories by other considerations. At +most heredity is only thought to confer a predisposition. + + + Treatment. + +The only "cure" for cancer remains removal by operation; but improved +methods of diagnosis enable this to be done in many cases at an earlier +stage of the disease than formerly; and modern methods of surgery permit +not only of operation in parts of the body formerly inaccessible, but +also more complete removal of the affected tissues. Numerous forms of +treatment by modern therapeutic means, both internal and external, have +been advocated and tried; but they are all of an experimental nature and +have failed to meet with general acceptance. One of the most recent is +treatment by trypsin, a pancreatic ferment. This has been suggested by +Dr John Beard of Edinburgh in conformity with the theory, mentioned +above, that failure of the pancreatic secretions is the cause of cancer. +It has been claimed that the drug exercises a favourable influence in +conjunction with operation and even without it. The experience of +different observers with regard to results is contradictory; but +clinical investigations conducted at Middlesex hospital in a number of +cases of undoubted cancer in strict accordance with Dr Beard's +directions, and summarized by Dr Walter Ball and Dr Fairfield Thomas in +the _Sixth Report from the Cancer Research Laboratories_ (_Archives of +Middlesex Hospital_, vol. ix.) in May 1907, resulted in the conclusion +"that the course of cancer, considered both as a disease and as a morbid +process, is unaltered by the administration of trypsin and amylopsin." +The same conclusion has been reached after similar trials at the cancer +hospital. Another experimental method of treatment which has attracted +much attention is application of the X-rays. The results vary in a +capricious and inexplicable manner; in some cases marked benefit has +followed, in others the disease has been as markedly aggravated. Until +more is known both of cancer and of X-rays, their use must be considered +not only experimental but risky. (A. Sl.) + + + + +CANCRIN, FRANZ LUDWIG VON (1738-1812), German mineralogist and +metallurgist, was born on the 21st of February 1738, at Breitenbach, +Hesse-Darmstadt. In 1764 he entered the service of the landgrave of +Hesse-Darmstadt at Hanau, becoming professor of mathematics at the +military academy, head of the civil engineering department of the state, +director of the theatre and (1774) of the mint. A work on the copper +mines of Hesse (1767) earned him a European reputation, and in 1783 he +accepted from Catherine II. of Russia the directorship of the famous +Staraya salt-works, living thenceforth in Russia. In 1798 he became a +councillor of state at St Petersburg. He published many works on +mineralogy and metallurgy, of which the most important, the _Grundzuge +der Berg- und Salzwerkskunde_ (13 vols., Frankfort, 1773-1791), has been +translated into several languages. His son, Count Georg von Cancrin, or +Kankrin (1774-1845), was the eminent Russian minister of finance. + + + + +CANDELABRUM (from Lat. _candela_, a taper or candle), the stand on which +ancient lamps were placed. The most ancient example is the bronze +candelabrum made by Callimachus for the Erechtheum at Athens, to carry +the lamp sacred to Minerva. In this case it is probable the lamp was +suspended, as in the example from Pompeii, now in the Naples museum; +this consisted of a stalk or reed, the upper part moulded with +projecting feature to carry the lamps, and a base resting on three +lions' or griffins' feet; sometimes there was a disk at the top to carry +a lamp, and sometimes there was a hollow cup, in which resinous woods +were burnt. The origin of the term suggests that on the top of the disk +was a spike to carry a wax or tallow candle (_candela_ or _funalia_). +Besides these bronze candelabra, of which there are many varieties in +museums, the Romans used more ponderous supports in stone or marble, of +which many examples were found in the Thermae. These consisted of a +base, often triangular, and of similar design to the small sacrificial +altars, and a shaft either richly moulded or carved with the acanthus +plant and crowned with a large cup or basin. There is a fine example of +the latter in the Vatican. The Roman examples seem to have served as +models for many of the candelabra in the churches in Italy. The word +"candelabrum" is also now used to describe many different forms of +lighting with multiple points, and is often applied to hanging lights as +well as to those which rise from a stand. + + + + +CANDIA, formerly the capital and still the most populous city of Crete +(q.v.), to which it has given its name. It is situated on the northern +shore somewhat nearer the eastern than the western end of the island, in +35 deg. 20' N. lat. and 25 deg. 9' E. long. It is still surrounded by its +extensive Venetian fortifications; but they have fallen into disrepair, +and a good part of the town is in a dilapidated condition, mainly from +the effects of earthquakes. The principal buildings are the Venetian +loggia (barbarously mutilated by the new regime), the Konak (now +Prefecture), the mosques, which are fourteen in number, the new +cathedral, the two Greek churches, the Armenian church, the Capuchine +monastery, the bazaars and the baths. There are also some beautiful +Venetian fountains. The town is the seat of a Greek archbishop. A highly +interesting museum has been formed here containing the antiquities found +during the recent excavations. The chief trade is in oil and soap, both +of which are of excellent quality. The coasting trade, which is of +considerable importance, is mainly carried on in Turkish vessels. The +manufacture of leather for home consumption is an extensive industry and +wine of good quality is produced in the neighbourhood. The harbour, +which had grown almost inaccessible, was deepened by Mustapha Pasha +between 1820 and 1840. It is formed for the most part by the ancient +moles, and was never deep enough to admit the larger vessels even of the +Venetians, which were accustomed to anchor in the port of the +neighbouring island of Standia. A short distance from St George's Gate +there was a small village exclusively inhabited by lepers, who numbered +about seventy families, but they have now been transported to +Spinalonga. The population of the town is estimated at from 15,000 to +18,000, about half being Mahommedan Greeks. The site of Candia, or, as +it was till lately locally known, Megalo castro (the Great Fortress), +has been supposed to correspond with that of the ancient _Heracleion_, +the seaport of Cnossus, and this appellation has now been officially +revived by its Greek inhabitants. The ruins of Cnossus are situated at +the distance of about 3 m. to the south-east at the village of +Makryteichos or Long Wall. Founded by the Saracens in the 9th century, +Candia was fortified by the Genoese in the 12th, and was greatly +extended and strengthened by the Venetians in the 13th, 14th and 15th +centuries. It was besieged by the Turks under the vizier Achmet in 1667; +and, in spite of a most heroic defence, in which the Venetians lost +30,000 in killed and wounded, it was forced to surrender in 1669. (See +also CRETE.) + + + + +CANDIDATE, one who offers himself or is selected by others for an office +or place, particularly one who puts up for election to parliament or to +any public body. The word is derived from the Latin _candidatus_, clad +in white (_candidus_). In Rome, candidates for election to the higher +magistracies appeared in the Campus Martius, the Forum and other public +places, during their canvass, in togas with the white of the natural +wool brightened by chalk. + + + + +CANDLE (Lat. _candela_, from _candere_, to glow), a cylindrical rod of +solid fatty or waxy matter, enclosing a central fibrous wick, and +designed to be burnt for giving light. The oldest materials employed for +making candles are beeswax and tallow, while among those of more recent +introduction are spermaceti, stearine and paraffin wax. Waxlights +(_cereus_, sc. _funis_) were known to the Romans. In the midlde ages wax +candles were little used, owing to their expense, except for the +ceremonies of the church and other religious purposes (see LIGHTS, +CEREMONIAL USE OF), but in the 15th century, with the cheapening of wax, +they began to find wider employment. The tallow candle, mentioned by +Apuleius as _sebaceus_, was long an article of domestic manufacture. The +tallow was melted and strained, and then lengths of cotton or flax +fibre, or rushes from which most of the external skin had been stripped, +only sufficient being left to support the pith ("rushlights"), were +dipped into it, the operation being repeated until the desired thickness +had been attained. In Paris, in the 13th century, there was a gild of +candlemakers who went from house to house to make tallow candles, the +manufacture of wax candles being in the hands of another gild. This +separation of the two branches of the trade is also exemplified by the +existence of two distinct livery companies in the city of London--the +Waxchandlers and the Tallowchandlers; the French _chandelle_ properly +means tallow candle, candles made of materials less fusible than tallow +being called _bougies_, a term said to be derived from the town of +Bougie in Algeria, either because wax was produced there or because the +Venetians imported wax candles thence into Europe. The old tallow "dips" +gave a poor light, and tallow itself is now used only to a limited +extent, except as a source of "stearine." This is the trade name for a +mixture of solid fatty acids--mainly stearic and palmitic--manufactured +not only from tallow and other animal fats, but also from such vegetable +fats as palm-oil. Paraffin wax, a mixture of solid hydrocarbons obtained +from crude North American and Rangoon petroleum, and also yielded in +large quantities by the Scotch shale oil industry, is, at least in Great +Britain, a still more important material of candle-manufacture, which +came into use about 1854. Spermaceti, a crystalline fatty substance +obtained from the sperm whale (_Physeter macrocephalus_), was introduced +as a material for candles about a century earlier. In practice the +candlemaker mostly uses mixtures of these materials. For instance, 5-10% +of stearine, which is used alone for candles that have to be burnt in +hot climates, is mixed with paraffin wax, to counteract the tendency to +bend with heat exhibited by the latter substance. Again, the brittleness +of spermaceti is corrected by the addition of beeswax, stearine, +paraffin wax or ceresin (obtained from the mineral wax ozocerite). In +some "composite" candles stearine is mixed with the hard fat ("cocoa-nut +stearine") expressed from cocoa-nut oil by hydraulic pressure; and this +cocoa-nut stearine is also used for night-lights, which are short thick +candles with a thin wick, calculated to burn from six to ten hours. + +The stearine or stearic acid industry originated in the discovery made +by M.E. Chevreul about 1815, that fats are glycerides or compounds of +glycerin with fatty acids, mostly palmitic, stearic and oleic. The +object of the candlemaker is to remove this glycerin, not only because +it is a valuable product in itself, but also because it is an +objectionable constituent of a candle; the vapours of acrolein formed by +its decomposition in the flame are the cause of the unpleasant odours +produced by tallow "dips." He also removes the oleic acid, which is +liquid at ordinary temperatures, from the palmitic and stearic acids, +mixtures of which solidify at temperatures varying from about 130 deg. +to 155 deg. F., according to the percentage of each present. Several +methods are in use for the decomposition of the fats. In the autoclave +process the fat, whether tallow, palm-oil or a mixture of the two, mixed +with 25 or 30% of water and about 3% of lime, is subjected in an +autoclave to steam at a pressure of about 120 lb per square inch for +eight or ten hours, when nearly all of it is saponified. On standing the +product separates into two layers--"sweet water" containing glycerin +below, and the fatty acids with a certain amount of lime soap above. The +upper layer is then boiled and treated with enough sulphuric acid to +decompose the lime soap, the calcium sulphate formed is allowed to +subside, and the fatty acids are run off into shallow boxes to be +crystallized or "seeded" prior to the separation of the oleic acid, +which is effected by pressing the solid blocks from the boxes, first +cold and then hot, by hydraulic machinery. In another process +saponification is effected by means of concentrated sulphuric acid. The +fat is mixed with 4-6% of the acid and treated with steam in boiling +water till the hydrolysis is complete, when on standing the glycerin and +sulphuric acid sink to the bottom and the fatty acids rise to the top. +Owing to the darkness of their colour, when this process is employed, +the latter usually have to be distilled before being crystallized. The +autoclave process yields about 45% of stearine, one-third of which is +recovered from the expressed oleic acid, but with sulphuric acid +saponification the amount of stearine is higher--over 60%--and that of +oleic acid less, part of it being converted into solid material by the +action of the acid. The yield of glycerin is also less. In a combination +of the two processes the fat may first be treated by the autoclave +process, so as to obtain a full yield (about 10%) of glycerin, and the +resulting fatty acids then subjected to acid saponification, so as to +get the higher amount of stearine. At the best, however, some 30% of +oleic acid remains, and though often sought, no satisfactory method of +converting this residue into solid has been discovered. It constitutes +"red oil," and is used in soap-making and in woollen manufacture. In the +process patented by Ernst Twitchell in 1898, decomposition is effected +by boiling the fat with half its bulk of water in presence of a reagent +obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on oleic acid and an aromatic +hydrocarbon such as benzene. + +The wick is a most important part of a candle, and unless it is of +proper size and texture either too much or too little fuel will be +supplied to the flame, and the candle will gutter or be otherwise +unsatisfactory. The material generally employed is cotton yarn, plaited +or "braided" by machinery, and treated or "pickled" with a solution of +boracic acid, ammonium or potassium nitrate, or other salt. The +tightness of the plaiting varies with the material used for the candle, +wicks for stearine being looser than for paraffin, but tighter than for +wax or spermaceti. The plaited wick is flat and curls over as the candle +burns, and thus the end is kept projecting into the outer part of the +flame where it is consumed, complete combustion being aided by the +pickling process it has undergone. In the old tallow dips the strands of +cotton were merely twisted together, instead of being plaited; wicks +made in this way had no determinate bias towards the outside of the +flame, and thus were not wholly consumed, the result being that there +was apt to be an accumulation of charred matter, which choked the flame +unless removed by periodical "snuffing." + +Four ways of making candles may be distinguished--dipping, pouring, +drawing and moulding, the last being that most commonly employed. +_Dipping_ is essentially the same as the domestic process already +described, but the rate of production is increased by mounting a number +of wicks in a series of frames, each of which in turn is brought over +the tallow bath so that its wicks can be dipped. _Pouring_, used in the +case of wax, which cannot well be moulded because it contracts in +cooling and also has a tendency to stick to the moulds, consists in +ladling molten wax upon the wicks suspended from an iron ring. When of +the desired thickness the candles are rolled under a plate on a marble +slab. In _drawing_, used for small tapers, the wick, rolled on a drum, +is passed through the molten wax or paraffin, drawn through a circular +hole and slowly wound on a second drum; it is then passed again through +the molten material and through a somewhat larger hole, and reeled back +on the first drum, this process being repeated with larger and larger +holes until the coating is of the required thickness. In _moulding_, a +number of slightly conical moulds are fixed by the larger extremity to a +kind of trough, with their tapered ends projecting downwards and with +wicks arranged down their centres. The molten material is poured into +the trough and fills the moulds, from which the candles are withdrawn +when solidified. Modern candle-moulding machines are continuous in their +operation; long lengths of wick are coiled on bobbins, one for each +mould, and the act of removing one set of candles from their moulds +draws in a fresh set of wicks. "Self-fitting ends," which were invented +by J.L. Field in 1864, and being shaped like a truncated cone enable the +candles to be fixed in candlesticks of any diameter, are formed by means +of an attachment to the tops of the moulds; spirally twisted candles +are, as it were, unscrewed from their moulds. It is necessary to be able +to regulate the temperature of the moulds accurately, else the candles +will not come out freely and will not be of good appearance. For +stearine candles the moulds are immersed in tepid water and the cooling +must be slow, else the material will crystallize, though if it be too +slow cracking will occur. For paraffin, on the other hand, the moulds +must be rather hotter than the molten material (about 200 deg. F.), and +must be quickly cooled to prevent the candles from sticking. + +A candle-power, as a unit of light in photometry, was defined by the +(London) Metropolis Gas Act of 1860 as the light given by a sperm +candle, of which six weighed 1 lb and each burned 120 grains an hour. + + See W. Lant Carpenter, _Soaps and Candles_ (London, 1895); C.E. Groves + and W. Thorp, _Chemical Technology_, vol. ii. "Lighting" (London, + 1895); L.L. Lamborn, _Soaps, Candles and Glycerine_ (New York, 1906); + J. Lewkowitsch, _Oils, Fats, and Waxes_ (London, 1909). + + + + +CANDLEMAS (Lat. _festum candelarum sive luminum_), the name for the +ancient church festival, celebrated annually on the 2nd of February, in +commemoration of the presentation of Christ in the Temple. In the Greek +Church it is known as [Greek: Upapante tou Kuriou] ("the meeting of the +Lord," i.e. with Simeon and Anna), in the West as the Purification of +the Blessed Virgin. It is the most ancient of all the festivals in +honour of the Virgin Mary. A description is given of its celebration at +Jerusalem in the _Peregrinatio_ of Etheria (Silvia), in the second half +of the 4th century. It was then kept on the 14th of February, forty days +after Epiphany, the celebration of the Nativity (Christmas) not having +been as yet introduced; the Armenians still keep it on this day, as "the +Coming of the Son of God into the Temple." The celebration gradually +spread to other parts of the church, being moved to the 2nd of February, +forty days after the newly established feast of Christmas. In 542 it was +established throughout the entire East Roman empire by Justinian. Its +introduction in the West is somewhat obscure. The 8th-century _Gelasian +Sacramentary_, which embodies a much older tradition, mentions it under +the title of Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary, which has led some +to suppose that it was ordained by Pope Gelasius I. in 492[1] as a +counter-attraction to the heathen Lupercalia; but for this there is no +warrant. The procession on this day was introduced by Pope Sergius I. +(687-701). The custom of blessing the candles for the whole year on this +day, whence the name Candlemas is derived, did not come into common use +until the 11th century. + +In the _Quadragesimae de Epiphania_ as described by Etheria there is, as +Monsignor Duchesne points out (_Christian Worship_, p. 272), no +indication of a special association with the Blessed Virgin; and the +distinction between the festival as celebrated in the East and West is +that in the former it is a festival of Christ, in the latter a festival +pre-eminently of the Virgin Mother. + + See L. Duchesne, _Christian Worship_ (Eng. trans., London, 1904); art. + s.v. by F.G. Holweck in the _Catholic Encyclopaedia_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] So Baronius, _Ann. ad ann._ 544. + + + + +CANDLESTICK, the receptacle for holding a candle, nowadays made in +various art-forms. The word was formerly used for any form of support on +which lights, whether candles or lamps, were fixed; thus a candelabrum +(q.v.) is sometimes spoken of from tradition as a candlestick, e.g. as +when Moses was commanded to make a candlestick for the tabernacle, of +hammered gold, a talent in weight, and consisting of a base with a shaft +rising out of it and six arms, and with seven lamps supported on the +summits of the six arms and central shaft. When Solomon built the +temple, he placed in it ten golden candlesticks, five on the north and +five on the south side of the Holy Place; but after the Babylonish +captivity the golden candlestick was again placed in the temple, as it +had been before in the tabernacle by Moses. On the destruction of +Jerusalem by Titus, it was carried with other spoils to Rome. +Representations of the seven-branched candlestick, as it is called, +occur on the arch of Titus at Rome, and on antiquities found in the +Catacombs at Rome. The primitive form of candlestick was a torch made of +slips of bark, vine tendrils or wood dipped in wax or tallow, tied +together and held in the hand by the lower end, such as are frequently +figured on ancient painted vases. The next step was to attach to them a +cup (_discus_) to catch the dripping wax or tallow. + +A candlestick may be either "flat" or "tall." The former has a short +stem, rising from a dish, and is usually furnished with an extinguisher +fitting into a socket; the latter has a pillar which may be only a few +inches in height or may rise to several feet, and rarely has an +extinguisher. The flat variety is sometimes called a "bedroom +candlestick." The beginnings of this interesting and often beautiful +appliance are not exactly known, but it dates certainly as far back as +the 14th century and is probably older. It is most usually of metal, +earthenware or china, but originally it was made of some hard wood and +had no socketed pillar, the candle fitting upon a metal spike, in the +fashion still familiar in the case of many church candlesticks. It has +been constantly influenced by mobiliary and architectural fashions, and +has varied, as it still varies, from the severest simplicity of form and +material to the most elaborate artistic treatment and the costliest +materials--gold and silver, crystal, marble and enamel. Previous to the +17th century, iron, latten, bronze and copper were chiefly used, but +thenceforward the most elegant examples were chiefly of silver, though +in more modern periods Sheffield plate, silver plate and china became +exceedingly popular. Sometimes the base and sconce are of one material +and the pillar of another, as when the former are of silver and the +pillar of marble or china. The choice and combination of materials are, +indeed, infinite. The golden age of the candlestick lasted, roughly +speaking, from the third quarter of the 17th century to the end of the +18th. The later Jacobean, Queen Anne and early Georgian forms were often +extremely elegant, with broad bases, round, oval or square and swelling +stems. Fine examples of these periods, especially when of silver, are +much sought after and command constantly augmenting prices. As with most +domestic appliances the history of the candlestick is an unceasing +tendency towards simplicity, the most elaborate and fantastic forms, +animals and reptiles, the monstrous creatures of mythology, lions and +men-at-arms, angels and cupids, having gradually given place to +architectural motives such as the baluster stem and to the classic grace +of the Adam style. The candlestick in its modern form is, indeed, +artistically among the least unsatisfactory of household plenishings. + + + + +CANDLISH, ROBERT SMITH (1806-1873), Scottish divine, was born at +Edinburgh on the 23rd of March 1806, and spent his early years in +Glasgow, where he graduated in 1823. During the years 1823-1826 he went +through the prescribed course at the divinity hall, then presided over +by Dr Stevenson MacGill, and on leaving, accompanied a pupil as private +tutor to Eton, where he stayed two years. In 1829 he entered upon his +life's work, having been licensed to preach during the summer vacation +of the previous year. After short assistant pastorates at St Andrew's, +Glasgow, and Bonhill, Dumbartonshire, he obtained a settled charge as +minister of the important parish of St George's, Edinburgh. Here he at +once took the place he so long held as one of the ablest preachers in +Scotland. Destitute of natural oratorical gifts and somewhat ungainly in +his manner, he attracted and even riveted the attention of his audience +by a rare combination of intellectual keenness, emotional fervour, +spiritual insight and power of dramatic representation of character and +life. His theology was that of the Scottish Calvinistic school, but his +sympathetic character combined with strong conviction gathered round him +one of the largest and most intelligent congregations in the city. + +From the very commencement of his ministry in Edinburgh, Candlish took +the deepest interest in ecclesiastical questions, and he soon became +involved as one of the chief actors in the struggle which was then +agitating the Scottish church. His first Assembly speech, delivered in +1839, placed him at once among the leaders of the party that afterwards +formed the Free Church, and his influence in bringing about the +Disruption of 1843 was inferior only to that of Thomas Chalmers. Great +as was his popularity as a preacher, it was in the arena of +ecclesiastical debate that his ability chiefly showed itself, and +probably no other single man had from first to last so large a share in +shaping the constitution and guiding the policy of the Free Church. He +took his stand on two principles: the right of the people to choose +their ministers, and the independence of the church in things spiritual. +On his advice Hugh Miller was appointed editor of the _Witness_, the +powerful Free Church organ. He was actively engaged at one time or other +in nearly all the various schemes of the church, but special mention +should be made of his services on the education committee, of which he +was convener from 1846 to 1863, and in the unsuccessful negotiations for +union among the non-established Presbyterian denominations of Scotland, +which were carried on during the years 1863-1873. In the Assembly of +1861 he filled the moderator's chair. + +As a theologian the position of Candlish was perhaps inferior to that +which he held as a preacher and ecclesiastic, but it was not +inconsiderable. So early as 1841 his reputation in this department was +sufficient to secure for him the government nomination to the newly +founded chair of Biblical criticism in the university of Edinburgh. +Owing to the opposition of Lord Aberdeen, however, the presentation was +cancelled. In 1847 Candlish, who had received the degree of D.D. from +Princeton, New Jersey, in 1841, was chosen by the Assembly of the Free +Church to succeed Chalmers in the chair of divinity in the New College, +Edinburgh. After partially fulfilling the duties of the office for one +session, he was led to resume the charge of St George's, the clergyman +who had been chosen by the congregation as his successor having died +before entering on his work. In 1862 he succeeded William Cunningham as +principal of New College with the understanding that he should still +retain his position as minister of St George's. He died on the 19th of +October 1873. + +Though his greatest power was not displayed through the press, Candlish +made a number of contributions to theological literature. In 1842 he +published the first volume of his _Contributions towards the Exposition +of the Book of Genesis_, a work which was completed in three volumes +several years later. In 1854 he delivered, in Exeter Hall, London, a +lecture on the _Theological Essays_ of the Rev. F.D. Maurice, which he +afterwards published, along with a fuller examination of the doctrine of +the essays. In this he defended the forensic aspect of the gospel. A +treatise entitled _The Atonement; its Reality, Completeness and Extent_ +(1861) was based upon a smaller work which first appeared in 1845. In +1864 he delivered the first series of Cunningham lectures, taking for +his subject _The Fatherhood of God_. Published immediately afterwards, +the lectures excited considerable discussion on account of the peculiar +views they represented. Further illustrations of these views were given +in two works published about the same time as the lectures, one a +treatise _On the Sonship and Brotherhood of Believers_, and the other an +exposition of the first epistle of St John. + + See William Wilson, _Memorials of R.S. Candlish, D.D._, with a chapter + on his position as a theologian by Robert Rainy. + + + + +CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE (1778-1841), Swiss botanist, was born at +Geneva on the 4th of February 1778. He was descended from one of the +ancient families of Provence, whence his ancestors had been expatriated +for their religion in the middle of the 16th century. Though a weakly +boy he showed great aptitude for study, and distinguished himself at +school by his rapid attainments in classical and general literature, and +specially by a faculty for writing elegant verse. He began his +scientific studies at the college of Geneva, where the teaching of +J.P.E. Vaucher first inspired him with the determination to make +botanical science the chief pursuit of his life. In 1796 he removed to +Paris. His first productions, _Historia Plantarum Succulentarum_ (4 +vols., 1799) and _Astragalogia_ (1802), introduced him to the notice of +Cuvier, for whom he acted as deputy at the College de France in 1802, +and to J.B. Lamarck, who afterwards confided to him the publication of +the third edition of the _Flore francaise_ (1803-1815). The _Principes +elementaires de botanique_, printed as the introduction to this work, +contained the first exposition of his principle of classification +according to the natural as opposed to the Linnean or artificial method. +In 1804 he was granted the degree of doctor of medicine by the medical +faculty of Paris, and published his _Essai sur les proprietes medicales +des plantes comparees avec leurs formes exterieures et leur +classification naturelle_, and soon after, in 1806, his _Synopsis +plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum_. At the desire of the French +government he spent the summers of the following six years in making a +botanical and agricultural survey of the whole kingdom, the results of +which were published in 1813. In 1807 he was appointed professor of +botany in the medical faculty of the university of Montpellier, and in +1810 he was transferred to the newly founded chair of botany of the +faculty of sciences in the same university. From Montpellier, where he +published his _Theorie elementaire de la botanique_ (1813), he removed +to Geneva in 1816, and in the following year was invited by the now +independent republic to fill the newly created chair of natural history. +The rest of his life was spent in an attempt to elaborate and complete +his "natural" system of botanical classification. The results of his +labours in this department are to be found in his _Regni vegetabilis +systema naturale_, of which two volumes only were completed (1821) when +he found that it would be impossible for him to execute the whole work +on so extensive a scale. Accordingly in 1824 he began a less extensive +work of the same kind--his _Prodromus systematis regni vegetabilis_--but +even of this he was able to finish only seven volumes, or two-thirds of +the whole. He had been for several years in delicate health when he died +on the 9th of September 1841 at Geneva. + +His son, ALPHONSE LOUIS PIERRE PYRAME DE CANDOLLE, born at Paris on the +28th of October 1806, at first devoted himself to the study of law, but +gradually drifted to botany and finally succeeded to his father's chair. +He published a number of botanical works, including continuations of the +_Prodromus_ in collaboration with his son, Anne Casimir Pyrame de +Candolle. He died at Geneva on the 4th of April 1893. + + + + +CANDON, a town of South Ilocos province, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on +the W. coast, about 200 m. N. by W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 18,828. Its +climate is hot, though healthy. Candon is surrounded by an extensive and +fertile plain, and is defended by a small fort. Its inhabitants are +noted for their honesty and industry, as well as for their regard for +law and order. They carry on an extensive traffic with the wild tribes +of the neighbouring mountains. Indigo is grown in considerable quantity, +as are rice and tobacco. The weaving of blankets, handkerchiefs, and +cotton and silk cloths constitutes quite an important industry. The +language is Ilocanc. + + + + +CANDYTUFT (_Iberis amara_, so called from Iberia, i.e. Spain, where many +species of the genus are native, and _amara_, bitter, i.e. in taste), a +small annual herb (natural order Cruciferae) with white or purplish +flowers, the outer petals of which are longer than the rest. It is a +native of western Europe and found wild on dry soil in cultivated ground +in the centre and east of England. This and several other species of the +genus are known as garden plants, and are of easy culture in ordinary +garden soil if well exposed to sun and air. The common candytuft of +gardens is _I. umbellata_, a hardy annual, native of southern Europe, +and known in a number of varieties differing in colour of flowers. _I. +coronaria_ (rocket candytuft) has long dense heads of white flowers and +is also an annual. Some species have a shrubby growth and are evergreen +perennials; the best-known is _I. sempervirens_, a native of southern +Europe, a much-branched plant about a foot high with long racemes of +white flowers. _I. gibraltarica_ is a showy, handsome half hardy +evergreen. + + + + +CANE, a name applied to many plants which have long, slender, reed-like +stalks or stems, as, for example, the sugar-cane, the bamboo-cane or the +reed-cane. From the use as walking-sticks to which many of these plants +have been applied, the name "cane" is improperly given to sticks, +irrespective of the source from which they are derived. Properly it +should be restricted to a peculiar class of palms, known as rattans, +included under the two closely allied genera _Calamus_ and +_Daemonorops_, of which there are a large number of species. The plants +are found widely extended throughout the islands of the Indian +Archipelago, the Malay Peninsula, China, India and Ceylon; and also in +Australia and Africa. They were described by Georg Eberhard Rumpf or +Rumphius (1627-1702), governor of Amboyna, and author of the _Herbarium +Amboynense_ (6 vols. folio, Amsterdam, 1741-1755), under the name of +Palmijunci, as inhabitants of dense forests into which the rays of the +sun scarce can penetrate, where they form spiny bushes, obstructing the +passage through the jungle. The slender stems rarely exceed an inch in +diameter and are generally much smaller. They creep or trail to an +enormous length, often reaching 500 or 600 ft., and support themselves +on trees or bushes by recurved spines borne on the stalk or back of the +midrib of the leaf, or by stiff hooks replacing the upper leaflets. In +some cases the midrib is elongated beyond the leaflets to form a long +whip-like structure, bearing recurved hooks at intervals. The natives, +in preparing the canes for the market, strip off the leaves by pulling +the cut plant through a notch made in a tree. The canes always present +distinct rings at the junction of the sheathing leaves with the stem. +They assume a yellow colour as they dry; and those imported from +Calcutta have a glossy surface, while the produce of the Eastern +Archipelago presents a dull exterior. + +Canes, on account of their lightness, length, strength and flexibility, +are used for a great variety of purposes by the inhabitants of the +countries in which they grow. Split into thin strips they are twisted to +form ropes and ships' cables, an application mentioned by Captain +Dampier in his _Voyages_. A more important application, however, is for +basket-work, and for making chairs, couches, pillows, &c., as the great +strength and durability of thin and easily prepared strips admit of such +articles being made at once airy, strong and flexible. Much of the +beautiful and elaborate basket-work of the Chinese and Japanese is made +from thin strips of cane, which are also used by the Chinese for larger +works, such as door-mats, houses and sheds. + +A very large trade with Western countries and the United States is +carried on in canes and rattans, the principal centres of the trade +being Batavia, Sarawak, Singapore, Penang and Calcutta. In addition to +the varieties used for walking-sticks, whip and umbrella handles, &c., +the common rattans are in extensive demand for basket-making, the seats +and backs of chairs, the ribs of cheap umbrellas, saddles and other +harness-work; and generally for purposes where their strength and +flexibility make them efficient substitutes for whalebone. The +walking-stick "canes" of commerce include a great many varieties, some +of which, however, are not the produce of trailing palms. The well-known +Malacca canes are obtained from _Calamus Scipionum_, the stems of which +are much stouter than is the case with the average species of _Calamus_. + + + + +CANEA, or KHANIA, the principal seaport and since 1841 the capital of +Crete, finely situated on the northern coast of the island, about 25 m. +from its western extremity, on the isthmus of the Akrotiri peninsula, +which lies between the Bay of Canea and the Bay of Suda (latitude 35 +deg. 31' N., longitude 24 deg. 1' E.). Surrounded by a massive Venetian +wall, it forms a closely built, irregular and overcrowded town, though +of late years a few of its streets have been widened. The ordinary +houses are of wood; but the more important buildings are of more solid +materials. The Turks have a number of mosques; there are Greek churches +and a Jewish synagogue; an old Venetian structure serves as a military +hospital; and the prison is of substantial construction. The town is now +the principal seat of government; the seat of a Greek bishop, who is +suffragan to the metropolitan at Candia, and the official residence of +the European consuls. The harbour, formed by an ancient transverse mole +nearly 1200 ft. long, and protected by a lighthouse and a fort, would +admit vessels of considerable tonnage; but it has been allowed to silt +up until it shoals off from 24 ft. to 10 or even 8, so that large +vessels have to anchor about 4 or 5 m. out. The principal articles of +trade are oil and soap, and there is a pretty extensive manufacture of +leather. The fosse is laid out in vegetable gardens; public gardens have +been constructed outside the walls; and artesian wells have been bored +by the government. To the east of the town a large Arab village had +grown up, inhabited for the most part by natives of Egypt and Cyrenaica, +who acted as boatmen, porters and servants, but since the fall of the +Turkish government most of these have quitted the island; while about a +mile off on the rising ground is the village of Khalepa, where the +consuls and merchants reside. The population of the town is estimated at +20,000. Canea probably occupies the site of the ancient Cydonia, a city +of very early foundation and no small importance. During the Venetian +rule it was one of the strongest cities in the island, but it fell into +the hands of the Turks in 1646, several years before the capture of +Candia. In 1856 it suffered from an earthquake. The neighbouring plain +is famous for its fruitfulness, and the quince is said to derive its +name _Cydonia_ from the town. (See also CRETE.) + + + + +CANE-FENCING (the Fr. _canne_), the art of defending oneself with a +walking-stick. It may be considered to be single-stick fencing without a +guard for the hand, with the important difference that in cane-fencing +the thrust is as important as the cut, and thus _canne_ approaches +nearer to sabre-play. The cuts are practically identical with those of +the single-stick (q.v.), but they are generally given after one or more +rapid preliminary flourishes (_moulinets_, circles) which the lightness +of the stick facilitates, and which serve to perplex and disconcert an +assailant. The thrusts are similar to those in foil-play, but are often +carried out with both hands grasping the stick, giving greater force and +enabling it to be used at very close quarters. The canes used in French +fencing schools are made of several kinds of tough wood and are about 3 +ft. long, tapering towards the point. As very severe blows are +exchanged, masks, gloves, padded vests and shin-guards, similar to those +used in football, are worn. + + See Georges d'Amoric, _French Method of the Noble Art of Self-Defence_ + (London, 1898); J. Charlemont, _L'Art de la Boxe francaise et de la + Canne_ (Paris, 1899). + + + + +CANEPHORAE (Gr. [Greek: kaneon], a basket, and [Greek: ferein], to +carry), "basket-bearers," the title given of old to Athenian maidens of +noble family, annually chosen to carry on their heads baskets with +sacrificial implements and apparatus at the Panathenaic and other +festivals. The term (also in the form _Canephori_) is applied in +architecture to figures of either sex carrying on their heads baskets, +containing edibles or material for sacrifices. The term might well be +applied to the Caryatide figures of the Erechtheum. Those represented in +the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon carry vases on their shoulders. + + + + +CANES VENATICI ("The HOUNDS," or "the GREYHOUNDS"), in astronomy, a +constellation of the northern hemisphere named by Hevelius in 1690, who +compiled it from the stars between the older asterisms Ursa Major, +Bootes and Coma Berenices. Interesting objects in this portion of the +heavens are: the famous spiral nebula first described by Lord Rosse; +_a-Canum Venaticorum_, a double star, of magnitudes 3 and 6; this star +was named _Cor Caroli_, or The Heart of Charles II., by Edmund Halley, +on the suggestion of Sir Charles Scarborough (1616-1694), the court +physician; a cluster of stars of the 11th magnitude and fainter, +extremely rich in variables, of the 900 stars examined no less than 132 +being regularly variable. + + + + +CANGA-ARGUELLES, JOSE (1770-1843), Spanish statesman, was born in 1770. +He took an active part in the Spanish resistance to Napoleon in a civil +capacity and was an energetic member of the cortes of 1812. On the +return of the Bourbon line in 1814, Canga-Arguelles was sent into exile +in the province of Valencia. On the restoration in 1820 of the +constitution of 1812, he was appointed minister of finance. He continued +at this post till the spring of 1821, distinguishing himself by the zeal +and ability with which he sought to reform the finances of Spain. It was +high time; for the annual deficit was greater than the entire revenue +itself, and landed and other property was, to an unheard-of extent, +monopolized by the priests. The measures he proposed had been only +partially enforced, when the action of the king with regard to the +ministry, of which he was a member, obliged him to resign. Thereafter, +as a member of the Moderate Liberal party, Canga-Arguelles advocated +constitutional government and financial reform, till the overthrow of +the constitution in 1823, when he fled to England. He did not return to +Spain till 1829, and did not again appear in public life, being +appointed keeper of the archives at Simancas. He died in 1843. +Canga-Arguelles is the author of three works: _Elementos de la Ciencia +de Hacienda_ (Elements of the Science of Finance), London, 1825; +_Diccionario de Hacienda_ (Dictionary of Finance), London, 1827; and +_Observaciones sobre la guerra de la Peninsula_ (Observations on the +Peninsular War), in which he endeavoured to show that his countrymen had +taken a far more effective part in the national struggle against the +French than English historians were willing to admit. + + + + +CANGAS DE ONIS, or CANGAS, a town of northern Spain, in the province of +Oviedo; situated on the right bank of the river Sella, in a fertile, +well-watered, partly wooded, undulating region. Pop. (1900) 8537. The +trade of Cangas de Onis is chiefly in live-stock and coal from the +neighbouring mines. A Latin inscription on the town-hall records the +fact that this place was the residence of the first Spanish kings after +the spread of the Moors over the Peninsula. Here early in the 8th +century lived King Pelayo, who started the Christian reconquest of +Spain. His historic cave of Covadonga is only 8 m. distant (see +ASTURIAS). The church of the Assumption, rebuilt in the 19th century, is +on the model and site of an older church of the middle ages. Near Cangas +are ruins and bridges of the Roman period. + + + + +CANGAS DE TINEO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, +and on the river Narcea. Pop. (1900) 22,742. There is no railway and the +river is not navigable, but a good road runs through Tineo, Grado and +the adjacent coal-fields, to the ports of Cudillero and Aviles. The +inhabitants have thus an easily accessible market for the farm produce +of the fertile hills round Cangas de Tineo, and for the cloth, leather, +pottery, &c., manufactured in the town. + + + + +CANGUE, or CANG, the European name for the Chinese _Kia_ or _Kea_, a +portable pillory, carried by offenders convicted of petty offences. It +consists of a square wooden collar weighing from 20 to 60 lb., through a +hole in which the victim's head is thrust. It fits tight to the neck and +must be worn day and night for the period ordered. The offender is left +exposed in the street. Over the parts by which it fastens slips of paper +bearing the mandarin's seal are pasted so that no one can liberate the +condemned. The length of the punishment is usually from a fortnight to a +month. As the cangue is 3 to 4 ft. across the convict is unable to feed +himself or to lie down, and thus, unless fed by friends or passersby, +often starves to death. As in the English pillory, the name of the man +and the nature of his offence are inscribed on the cangue. + + + + +CANINA, LUIGI (1795-1856), Italian archaeologist and architect, was born +at Casale in Piedmont. He became professor of architecture at Turin, and +his most important works were the excavation of Tusculum in 1829 and of +the Appian Way in 1848, the results of which he embodied in a number of +works published in a costly form by his patroness, the queen of +Sardinia. + + + + +CANINI, GIOVANNI AGNOLO (1617-1666), Italian designer and engraver, was +born at Rome. He was a pupil of Domenichino and afterwards of Antonio +Barbalonga. He painted some altar-pieces at Rome, including two admired +pictures for the church of San Martino a' Monti, representing the +martyrdom of St Stephen and of St Bartholomew. Having accompanied +Cardinal Chigi to France, he was encouraged by the minister Colbert to +carry into execution his project of designing from medals, antique gems +and similar sources a series of portraits of the most illustrious +characters of antiquity, accompanied with memoirs; but shortly after the +commencement of the undertaking Canini died at Rome. The work, however, +was prosecuted by his brother Marcantonio, who, with the assistance of +Picard and Valet, completed and published it in 1699, under the title of +_Iconografia di Gio. Ag. Canini_. It contains 150 engravings. A reprint +in Italian and French appeared at Amsterdam in 1731. + + + + +CANIS MAJOR ("Great Dog"), in astronomy, a constellation placed south of +the Zodiac, just below and behind the heels of Orion. _Canis minor_, the +"little dog," is another constellation, also following Orion and +separated from Canis major by the Milky Way. Both these constellations, +or at least their principal stars, Sirius in the Great Dog and Procyon +in the Little Dog, were named in very remote times, being referred to as +the "dogs of Orion" or in equivalent terms. Sirius is the brightest star +in the heavens; and the name is connected with the adjectives [Greek: +seirhos] and [Greek: sehirios], scorching. It may possibly be related to +the Arabic _Siraj_, thus meaning the "glittering one." Hommel has shown +that Sirius and Procyon were "the two _Si'ray_" or glitterers. It is +doubtful whether Sirius is referred to in the Old Testament. By some it +has been identified with the Hebrew _mazzaroth_, the _Lucifer_ of the +Vulgate; by others with _mazzaloth_, the _duodecim signa_ of the +Vulgate; while Professor M.A. Stern identifies it with the Hebrew +_kimah_, which is rendered variously in the Vulgate as Arcturus, Hyades +and Pleiades.[1] The inhabitants of the Euphrates valley included both +constellations in their stellar system; but considerable difficulty is +encountered in the allocation of the Babylonian names to the dominant +stars. The name _kak-ban_, which occurs on many tablets, has been +determined by Epping and Strassmaier, and also by Jensen and Hommel, as +equivalent to Sirius; etymologically this word means "dog-star" (or, +according to R. Brown, _Primitive Constellations_, "bow-star"). On the +other hand, _Kaksidi_ or _Kak-si-sa_, meaning the "leader," has been +identified by Sayce and others with Sirius, while Hommel regards it as +Procyon. The question is mainly philological, and the arguments seem +inconclusive. We may notice, however, that connexions were made between +Kaksidi and the weather, which have strong affinities with the ideas +expressed at a later date by the Greeks. For example, its appearance in +the morning with the sun heralded the "north winds," the [Greek: boreai +etaesiai] or _aquilones etesiae_, the strong and dangerous +north-westerly winds of Greece which blow for forty days from the rising +of the star; again, when Sirius appeared misty the "locusts devour." +Sirius also appears in the cosmogony of Zoroaster, for Plutarch records +that Ormuzd appointed this star to be a guard and overseer in the +heavens, and in the _Avesta_ we find that Tistrya (Sirius) is "the +bright and happy star, that gives happy dwelling." With the Egyptians +Sirius assumed great importance. Appearing with the sun when the Nile +was rising, Sirius was regarded as a herald of the waters which would +overspread the land, renewing its fertility and promising good harvests +for the coming season. Hephaestion records that from its aspect the rise +of the water was foretold, and the Roman historian Florus adds that the +weather was predicted also. Its rising marked the commencement of their +new year, the _annus canarius_ and _annus cynicus_ of the Romans. It was +the star of Sept or Sothis, and, according to one myth, was identified +with the goddess Hathor--the Aphrodite of the Greeks. It was the "second +sun" of the heavens, and according to Maspero (_Dawn of Civilization_, +1894) "Sahu and Sopdit, Orion and Sirius, were the rulers of this +mysterious world of night and stars." + +The Greeks, borrowing most of their astronomical knowledge from the +Babylonians, held similar myths and ideas as to the constellations and +stars. Sirius was named [Greek: Seirios, Kuon] (the dog) and [Greek: to +astron], the star; and its heliacal rising was associated with the +coming of the dry, hot and sultry season. Hesiod tells us that "Sirius +parches head and knees"; Homer speaks similarly, calling it [Greek: +kakon saema], the evil star, and the star of late summer ([Greek: +opora]), the rainy and stormy season. Procyon ([Greek: Prokuon]) was so +named because it rose before [Greek: Kuon]. The Euphratean myth of the +dogs has its parallel in Greece, Sirius being the hound of the hunter +Orion, and as recorded by Aratus always chasing the Hare; Pindar refers +to the chase of Pleione, the mother of the Pleiads, by Orion and his +dogs. Similarly Procyon became Maera, the dog of Icarius, when Bootes +became Icarius, and Virgo his daughter Erigone. + +The Romans adopted the Greek ideas. They named the constellation +_Canis_, and Sirius was known as _Canis_ also, and as _Canicula_. +Procyon became _Antecanem_ and _Antecanis_, but these names did not come +into general use. They named the hottest part of the year associated +with the heliacal rising of Sirius the _Dies caniculares_, a phrase +which has survived in the modern expression "dog-days"; and the +pestilences which then prevailed occasioned the offering of sacrifices +to placate this inimical star. Festus narrates, in this connexion, the +sacrificing of red dogs at the feast of Floralia, and Ovid of a dog on +the Robigalia. The experience of the ancient Greeks that Sirius rose +with the sun as the latter entered Leo, i.e. the hottest part of the +year, was accepted by the Romans with an entire disregard of the +intervening time and a different latitude. To quote Sir Edward Sherburne +(_Sphere of Manilius_, 1675), "The greater part of the Antients assign +the Dog Star rising to the time of the Sun's first entering into Leo, +or, as Pliny writes, 23 days after the summer solstice, as Varro 29, as +Columella 30.[2] ...At this day with us, according to Vulgar +computation, the rising and setting of the said Star is in a manner +coincident with the Feasts of St Margaret (which is about the 13th of +our July) and St Lawrence (which falls on the 10th of our August)." + +Sirius is the most conspicuous star in the sky; it sends to the earth +eleven times as much light as Aldebaran, the unit standard adopted in +the revised Harvard Photometry; numerically its magnitude is -1.6. At +the present time its colour is white with a tinge of blue, but +historical records show that this colour has not always prevailed. +Aratus designated it [Greek: poikilos], many coloured; the Alexandrian +Ptolemy classified it with Aldebaran, Antares and Betelgeuse as [Greek: +upokirros], fiery red; Seneca describes it as "redder than Mars"; while, +in the 10th century, the Arabian Biruni termed it "shining red." On the +other hand Sufi, who also flourished in the 10th century, pointedly +omits it from his list of coloured stars. The question has been +thoroughly discussed by T.J.J. See, who shows that Sirius has shone +white for the last 1000 to 1200 years.[3] The parallax has been +determined by Sir David Gill and W.L. Elkin to be 0.37"; it is therefore +distant from the earth over 5 X 10^13 miles, and its light takes 8.6 +years to traverse the intervening space. If the sun were at the same +distance Sirius would outshine it 30 times, the sun appearing as a star +of the second magnitude. It has a large proper motion, which shows +recurrent undulations having a 50-year period. From this Bessel surmised +the existence of a satellite or companion, for which C.A.F. Peters and +A. Auwers computed the elements. T.H. Safford determined its position +for September 1861; and on the 31st of January 1862, Alvan G. Clark, of +Cambridgeport, Mass., telescopically observed it as a barely visible, +dull yellow star of the 9th to 10th magnitude. The mean distance apart +is about 20 astronomical units; the total mass of the pair is 3.7 times +the mass of the sun, Sirius itself being twice as massive as its +companion, and, marvellously enough, forty thousand times as bright. The +spectrum of Sirius is characterized by prominent absorption lines due to +hydrogen, the metallic lines being weak; other stars having the same +spectra are said to be of the "Sirian type." Such stars are the most +highly heated (see STAR). + +_Procyon_, or a Canis minoris, is a star of the 2nd magnitude, one-fifth +as bright as Sirius, or numerically 0.47 when compared with Aldebaran. +It is more distant than Sirius, its parallax being 0.33"; and its light +is about six times that of the sun. Its proper motion is large, 1.25", +and its velocity at right angles to the line of sight is about 11 m. per +second. Its proper motion shows large irregularities, pointing to a +relatively massive companion; this satellite was discovered on the 13th +of November 1896 by J.M. Schaeberle, with the great Lick telescope, as a +star of the 13th magnitude. Its mass is equal to about that of the sun, +but its light is only one twenty-thousandth. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See G. Schiaparelli, _Astronomy in the Old Testament_ (1905). + + [2] For other values of the interval between the summer solstice and + the rising of Sirius, see Smith's _Dict. of Greek and Roman + Antiquities_. + + [3] See Thomas Barker, _Phil. Trans._, 1760, 51, p. 498, for + quotations from classical authors; also T.J.J. See, _Astronomy and + Astrophysics_. vol. xi. p. 269. + + + + +CANITZ, FRIEDRICH RUDOLF LUDWIG, FREIHERR VON (1654-1699), German poet +and diplomatist, was born at Berlin on the 27th of November 1654. He +attended the universities of Leiden and Leipzig, travelled in England, +France, Italy and Holland, and on his return was appointed groom of the +bedchamber (Kammerjunker) to the elector Frederick William of +Brandenburg, whom he accompanied on his campaigns in Pomerania and +Sweden. In 1680 he became councillor of legation, and he was employed on +various embassies. In 1697 the elector Frederick III. made him a privy +councillor, and the emperor Leopold I. created him a baron of the +Empire. Having fallen ill on an embassy to the Hague, he obtained his +discharge and died at Berlin in 1699. Canitz's poems (_Nebenstunden +unterschiedener Gedichte_), which did not appear until after his death +(1700), are for the most part dry and stilted imitations of French and +Latin models, but they formed a healthy contrast to the coarseness and +bombast of the later Silesian poets. + + A complete edition of Canitz's poems was published by U. Konig in + 1727; see also L. Fulda, _Die Gegner der zweiten schlesischen Schule_, + ii. (1883). + + + + +CANIZARES, JOSE DE (1676-1750), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on +the 4th of July 1676, entered the army, and retired with the rank of +captain in 1702 to act as censor of the Madrid theatres and steward to +the duke of Osuna. In his fourteenth year Canizares recast a play by +Lope de Vega under the title of _Las Cuentas del Gran Capitan_, and he +speedily became a fashionable playwright. His originality, however, is +slight, and _El Domine Lucas_, the only one of his pieces that is still +read, is an adaptation from Lope de Vega. Canizares produced a version +of Racine's _Iphigenie_ shortly before 1716, and is to some extent +responsible for the destruction of the old Spanish drama. He died on the +4th of September 1750, at Madrid. + + + + +CANNAE (mod. _Canne_), an ancient village of Apulia, near the river +Aufidus, situated on a hill on the right bank, 6 m. S.W. from its mouth. +It is celebrated for the disastrous defeat which the Romans received +there from Hannibal in 216 B.C. (see PUNIC WARS). There is a +considerable controversy as to whether the battle took place on the +right or the left bank of the river. In later times the place became a +_municipium_, and unimportant Roman remains still exist upon the hill +known as Monte di Canne. In the middle ages it became a bishopric, but +was destroyed in 1276. + + See O. Schwab, _Das Schlachtfeld von Canna_ (Munich, 1898), and + authorities under PUNIC WARS. + + + + +CANNANORE, or KANANORE, a town of British India, in the Malabar district +of Madras, on the coast, 58 m. N. from Calicut and 470 m. by rail from +Madras. Pop. (1901) 27,811. Cannanore belonged to the Kalahasti or +Cherakal rajas till the invasion of Malabar by Hyder Ali. In 1498 it was +visited by Vasco da Gama; in 1501 a Portuguese factory was planted here +by Cabral; in 1502 da Gama made a treaty with the raja, and in 1505 a +fort was built. In 1656 the Dutch effected a settlement and built the +present fort, which they sold to Ali Raja in 1771. In 1783 Cannanore was +captured by the British, and the reigning princess became tributary to +the East India Company. Here is the residence of the Moplah chief, known +as the Ali Raja, who owns most of the Laccadive Islands. Cannanore was +the military headquarters of the British on the west coast until 1887. + + + + +CANNES, a seaport of France, in the department of the Alpes Maritimes, +on the Mediterranean, 19 m. S.W. of Nice and 120 m. E. of Marseilles by +rail. Pop.(1906) 24,531. It enjoys a southern exposure on a seaward +slope, and is defended from the northern winds by ranges of hills. +Previous to 1831, when it first attracted the attention of Lord +Brougham, it mainly consisted of the old quarter (named Sucquet), and +had little to show except an ancient castle, and a church on the top of +Mont Chevalier, dedicated in 1603 to Notre Dame du Mont Esperance; but +since that period it has become a large and important town, and is now +one of the most fashionable winter resorts in the south of France, much +frequented by English visitors, the Americans preferring Nice. The +neighbourhood is thickly studded with magnificent villas, which are +solidly built of a stone so soft that it is sawn and not hewn. There is +an excellent quay, and a beautiful promenade runs along the beach; and +numerous sheltered roads stretch up the valleys amidst groves of olive +trees. On the north the modern town climbs up to Le Cannet (2 m.), while +on the east it practically extends along the coast to Golfe Jouan (3-1/2 +m.), where Napoleon landed on the 1st of March 1815, on his return from +Elba. From Cannes a railway runs north in 12-1/2 m. to Grasse. On the top +of the hill behind the town are a Roman Catholic and a Protestant +cemetery. In the most prominent part of the latter is the grave of Lord +Brougham, distinguished by a massive stone cross standing on a double +basement, with the simple inscription--"Henricus Brougham, Natus +MDCCLXXVIII., Decessit MDCCCLXVIII."; and in the immediate vicinity lies +James, fourth duke of Montrose, who died December 1874. The country +around is very beautiful and highly fertile; orange and lemon trees are +cultivated like peach trees in England, while olives, almonds, figs, +peaches, grapes and other fruits are grown in abundance, and, along with +the produce of the fisheries, form the chief exports of the town. +Essences of various kinds are manufactured, and flowers are extensively +cultivated for the perfumers. The climate of Cannes has been the subject +of a considerable variety of opinion,--the preponderance being, however, +in its favour. According to Dr de Valcourt, it is remarkable by reason +of the elevation and regularity of the temperature during the height of +the day, the clearness of the atmosphere and abundance of light, the +rarity of rain and the absence of fogs. + +Cannes is a place of great antiquity, but its earlier history is very +obscure. It was twice destroyed by the Saracens in the 8th and the 10th +centuries; but it was afterwards repeopled by a colony from Genoa. +Opposite the town is the island of Ste Marguerite (one of the Lerins), +in the citadel of which the Man with the Iron Mask was confined from +1686 to 1698, and which acquired notoriety as the prison whence Marshal +Bazaine escaped in August 1874. On the other chief island (St Honorat) +of the Lerins is the famous monastery (5th century to 1788), in +connexion with which grew up the school of Lerins, which had a wide +influence upon piety and literature in the 5th and 6th centuries. + + See L. Alliez, _Histoire du monastere de Lerins_ (2 vols., Paris, + 1862); and _Les Iles de Lerins, Cannes, et les rivages environnants_ + (Paris, 1860); _Cartulaire du monastere de Lerins_ (2 vols., Paris, + 1883 and 1905); de Valcourt, _Cannes and its Climate_ (London, 1873); + Joanne, special _Guide to Cannes_; J.R. Green, essay on Cannes and St + Honorat, in the first series of his _Stray Studies_ (1st ed., 1876); + A. Cooper-Marsdin, _The School of Lerins_ (Rochester, 1905). + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +CANNIBALISM, the eating of human flesh by men (from a Latinized form of +Carib, the name of a tribe of South America, formerly found also in the +West Indies), also called "anthropophagy" (Gr. [Greek: authrpspos], man, +and [Greek: phaneiu], to eat). Evidence has been adduced from some of +the palaeolithic cave-dwellings in France to show that the inhabitants +practised cannibalism, at least occasionally. From Herodotus, Strabo and +others we hear of peoples like the Scythian Massagetae, a nomad race +north-east of the Caspian Sea, who killed old people and ate them. In +the middle ages reports, some of them probably untrustworthy, by Marco +Polo and others, attributed cannibalism to the wild tribes of China, the +Tibetans, &c. In our own days cannibalism prevails, or prevailed until +recently, over a great part of West and Central Africa, New Guinea, +Melanesia (especially Fiji) and Australia. New Zealand and the +Polynesian Islands were great centres of the practice. It is extensively +practised by the Battas of Sumatra and in other East Indian islands and +in South America; in earlier days it was a common feature of Indian wars +in North America. Sporadic cannibalism occurs among more civilized +peoples as a result of necessity or as a manifestation of disease (see +LYCANTHROPY). + +_Classification._--Cannibalistic practices may be classified from two +points of view: (1) the motives of the act; (2) the ceremonial +regulations. A third division of subordinate importance is also +possible, if we consider whether the victims are actually killed for +food or whether only such are eaten as have met their death in battle or +other ways. + +1. From a psychological point of view the term cannibalism groups +together a number of customs, whose only bond of union is that they all +involve eating of human flesh. (a) Food cannibalism, where the object is +the satisfaction of hunger, may occur sporadically as a result of real +necessity or may be kept up for the simple gratification of a taste for +human flesh in the absence of any lack of food in general or even of +animal food, (i.) Cannibalism from necessity is found not only among the +lower races, such as the Fuegians or Red Indian tribes, but also among +civilized races, as the records of sieges and shipwrecks show. (ii.) +Simple food cannibalism is common in Africa; the Niam-Niam and Monbuttu +carry on wars for the sake of obtaining human flesh; in West Africa +human flesh could formerly be seen exposed for sale in the market like +any other article of commerce; and among some tribes it is the practice +to sell the corpses of dead relatives for consumption as food. (b) In +curious contrast to this latter custom is the practice of devouring +dead kinsfolk as the most respectful method of disposing of their +remains. In a small number of cases this practice is combined with the +custom of killing the old and sick, but in the great majority of peoples +it is simply a form of burial; it seems to prevail in most parts of +Australia, many parts of Melanesia, Africa and South America, and less +frequently in other parts of the world. To this group belong the customs +described by Herodotus; we may perhaps regard as a variant form the +custom of using the skull of a dead man as a drinking-cup. This practice +is widely found, and the statement of Herodotus that the skull was set +in gold and preserved by the Issedones may point in this direction; from +the account given of the Tibetans some seven hundred years ago by +William of Ruysbruck (Rubruquis) it appears that they had given up +cannibalism but still preserved the use of the skull as a drinking +vessel. Another modification of an original ritual cannibalism is the +custom of drinking the ashes of the dead, which is practised by some +African and South American tribes. The custom of holding burial feasts +has also been traced to the same origin. More incomprehensible to the +European than any other form of cannibalism is the custom of partaking +of the products of putrefaction as they run down from the body. The +Australians smoke-dry the bodies of tribesmen; here, too, it is the +custom to consume the portions of the body which are rendered liquid by +the heat. (c) The ritual cannibalism just mentioned shades over into and +may have been originally derived from magical cannibalism, of which +three sub-species may be distinguished. (i.) Savages are accustomed, on +the one hand, to abstain from certain foods in order that they may not +acquire certain qualities; on the other hand other foods are eagerly +desired in order that they may by partaking of the flesh also come to +partake of the mental or bodily peculiarities of the man or animal from +which the meat is derived; thus, after the birth of a child, especially +the first-born, the parents are frequently forbidden the flesh of +slow-moving animals, because that would prevent the child from learning +to walk; conversely, eating the heart of a lion is recommended for a +warrior to make him brave; from this point of view therefore we readily +understand the motives which lead to the eating of those slain in +battle, both friends and foes. (ii.) We may term protective an entirely +different kind of magical cannibalism, which consists in the consumption +of a small portion of the body of a murdered man, in order that his +ghost may not trouble the murderer; according to Hans Egede, the Eskimo, +when they kill a witch, eat a portion of her heart, that she may not +haunt them. (iii.) The practice is also said to have the effect of +causing the relatives of the murdered man to lose heart or to prevent +them from exercising the right of revenge; in this case it may be +brought into relation with the ceremony of the blood covenant in one of +the forms of which the parties drink each other's blood; or, it may +point to a reminiscence of a ritual eating of the dead kinsman. The late +survival of this idea in Europe is attested by its mention by Dante in +the _Purgatorio_. (d) The custom of eating food offered to the gods is +widespread, and we may trace to this origin Mexican cannibalism, +perhaps, too, that of Fiji. The Aztec worship of the god of war, +Huitzilopochtli, led to the sacrifice of prisoners, and the custom of +sacrifice to their frequent wars. The priest took out the heart, offered +it to the sun, and then went through the ceremonies of feeding the idol +with the heart and blood; finally the bodies of the victims were +consumed by the worshippers. (e) We reach an entirely different set of +motives in penal and revenge cannibalism. For the origin of these ideas +we may perhaps look to that of protective magic, dealt with above; but +it seems possible that there is also some idea of influencing the lot of +the criminal in a future life; it may be noted that the whole of the +body is seldom eaten in protective cannibalism; among the Battas, +however, the criminal, and in parts of Africa the debtor, are entirely +consumed. Other cases, especially where the victim is an enemy, may be +due to mere fury and bravado. (f) In the west of North America a +peculiar kind of cannibalism is found, which is confined to a certain +body of magicians termed "Hametzen" and a necessary condition of +admission to their order. Another kind of initiatory cannibalism +prevailed in the south of Australia, where a magician had to eat a +portion of a child's body before he was admitted. The meaning of these +ceremonials is not clear. + +2. Most kinds of cannibalism are hedged round with ceremonial +regulations. Certain tribes, as we have seen above, go to war to provide +human flesh; in other cases it is only the nearest relatives who may not +partake of a body; in other cases again it is precisely the nearest +relatives on whom the duty falls. A curious regulation in south-east New +Guinea prescribes that the killer of the victim shall not partake in the +feast; in some cases the whole of the clan to which belonged the man for +whom revenge is taken abstains also; in other cases this clan, together +with any others of the same intermarrying group, takes part in the feast +to the exclusion of (a) the clan or group with which they intermarry and +(b) all outside clans. Some peoples forbid women to eat human flesh; in +others certain classes, as the Muri of the Bambala, a tribe in the +Kassai, may be forbidden to eat it. In Mindanao the only person who +might eat of a slain enemy was the priest who led the warriors, and he +was not permitted to escape this duty. In Grand Bassam all who had taken +part in a festival at the foundation of a new village were compelled to +eat of the human victim. But the variations are too numerous for any +general account to be given of ceremonial limitations. S.R. Steinmetz +has proposed a division into endo-and exo-cannibalism; but these +divisions are frequently of minor importance, and he has failed to +define satisfactorily the limits of the groups on which his +classification is based. + +_Origin._--It will probably never be possible to say how cannibalism +originated; in fact the multiplicity of forms and the diversity of +ceremonial rules--some prescribing that tribesmen shall on no account be +eaten, others that the bodies of none but tribesmen shall provide the +meal of human flesh--point to a multiple origin. It has been maintained +that the various forms of endo-cannibalism (eating of tribesmen) spring +from an original practice of food cannibalism which the human race has +in common with many animals; but this leaves unexplained _inter alia_ +the limitation of the right of participation in the funeral meal to the +relatives of the dead man; at the same time it is possible to argue that +the magical ideas now associated with cannibalism are of later growth. +Against the view put forward by Steinmetz it may be urged that we have +other instances of magical foods, such as the eating of a lion's heart, +which do not point to an original custom of eating the animal as food. +We shall probably be justified in referring all forms of +endo-cannibalism to a ritual origin; otherwise the limitation is +inexplicable; on the other hand exo-cannibalism, in some of its forms, +and much of the extension of endo-cannibalism must be referred to a +desire for human flesh, grown into a passion. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Steinmetz, in _Mitt. Anthrop. Ges. Wien_, N.F. xvi.; + Andree, _Die Anthropophagie_; Bergmann, _Die Verbreitung der + Anthropophagie_; Schneider, _Die Naturvolker_, i. 121-200; + Schaffhausen, _Anthropologische Studien, Internat. Archiv_ iii. 69-73; + xii. 78; E.S. Hartland, _Legend of Perseus_, vol. ii.; _Dictionnaire + des sci. med., s.v._ "Anthropophagie"; Dr Seligmann in _Reports of the + Cook-Daniels Expedition to New Guinea._ (N. W. T.) + + + + +CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL (1812-1862), English statesman, +governor-general of India during the Mutiny of 1857, was the youngest +child of George Canning, and was born at Brompton, near London, on the +14th of December 1812. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where +he graduated B.A. in 1833, as first class in classics and second class +in mathematics. In 1836 he entered parliament, being returned as member +for the town of Warwick in the Conservative interest. He did not, +however, sit long in the House of Commons; for, on the death of his +mother in 1837, he succeeded to the peerage which had been conferred on +her with remainder to her only surviving son, and as Viscount Canning +took his seat in the House of Lords. His first official appointment was +that of under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, in the +administration formed by Sir Robert Peel in 1841--his chief being the +earl of Aberdeen. This post he held till January 1846; and from January +to July of that year, when the Peel administration was broken up, Lord +Canning filled the post of commissioner of woods and forests. He +declined to accept office under the earl of Derby; but on the formation +of the coalition ministry under the earl of Aberdeen in January 1853, he +received the appointment of postmaster-general. In this office he showed +not only a large capacity for hard work, but also general administrative +ability and much zeal for the improvement of the service. He retained +his post under Lord Palmerston's ministry until July 1855, when, in +consequence of the death of Lord Dalhousie and a vacancy in the +governor-generalship of India, he was selected by Lord Palmerston to +succeed to that great position. This appointment appears to have been +made rather on the ground of his father's great services than from any +proof as yet given of special personal fitness on the part of Lord +Canning. The new governor sailed from England in December 1855, and +entered upon the duties of his office in India at the close of February +1856. His strong common sense and sound practical judgment led him to +adopt a policy of conciliation towards the native princes, and to +promote measures tending to the betterment of the condition of the +people. + +In the year following his accession to office the deep-seated discontent +of the people broke out in the Indian Mutiny (q.v.). Fears were +entertained, and even the friends of the viceroy to some extent shared +them, that he was not equal to the crisis. But the fears proved +groundless. He had a clear eye for the gravity of the situation, a calm +judgment, and a prompt, swift hand to do what was really necessary. By +the union of great moral qualities with high, though not the highest, +intellectual faculties, he carried the Indian empire safely through the +stress of the storm, and, what was perhaps a harder task still, he dealt +wisely with the enormous difficulties arising at the close of such a +war, established a more liberal policy and a sounder financial system, +and left the people more contented than they were before. The name of +"Clemency Canning," which was applied to him during the heated +animosities of the moment, has since become a title of honour. + +While rebellion was raging in Oudh he issued a proclamation declaring +the lands of the province forfeited; and this step gave rise to much +angry controversy. A "secret despatch," couched in arrogant and +offensive terms, was addressed to the viceroy by Lord Ellenborough, then +a member of the Derby administration, which would have justified the +viceroy in immediately resigning. But from a strong sense of duty he +continued at his post; and ere long the general condemnation of the +despatch was so strong that the writer felt it necessary to retire from +office. Lord Canning replied to the despatch, calmly and in a +statesman-like manner explaining and vindicating his censured policy. In +April 1859 he received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament for his +great services during the mutiny. He was also made an extra civil grand +cross of the order of the Bath, and in May of the same year he was +raised to the dignity of an earl. By the strain of anxiety and hard work +his health and strength were seriously impaired, while the death of his +wife was also a great shock to him; in the hope that rest in his native +land might restore him, he left India, reaching England in April 1862. +But it was too late. He died in London on the 17th of June following. +About a month before his death he was created K.G. As he died without +issue the title became extinct. + + See Sir H.S. Cunningham, _Earl Canning_ ("Rulers of India" series), + 1891; and A.J.C. Hare, _The Story of Two Noble Lilies_ (1893). + + + + +CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827), British statesman, was born in London on +the 11th of April 1770. The family was of English origin and had been +settled at Bishop's Canynge in Wiltshire. In 1618 a George Canning, son +of Richard Canning of Foxcote in Warwickshire, received a grant of the +manor of Garvagh in Londonderry, Ireland, from King James I. The father +of the statesman, also named George, was the eldest son of Mr Stratford +Canning, of Garvagh. He quarrelled with and was disowned by his family. +He came to London and led a struggling life, partly in trade and partly +in literature. In May 1768 he married Mary Annie Costello, and he died +on the 11th of April 1771, exactly one year after the birth of his son. +Mrs Canning, who was left destitute, received no help from her husband's +family, and went on the stage, where she was not successful. She married +a dissolute and brutal actor of the name of Reddish. Her son owed his +escape from the miseries of her household to another member of the +company, Moody, who wrote to Mr Stratford Canning, a merchant in London +and younger brother of the elder George Canning. Moody represented to Mr +Stratford Canning that the boy, although full of promise, was on the +high road to the gallows under the evil influence of Reddish. Mr +Stratford Canning exerted himself on behalf of his nephew. An estate of +the value of L200 a year was settled on the boy, and he was sent in +succession to a private school at Hyde Abbey near Winchester, to Eton in +1781, and to Christchurch, Oxford, in 1787. After leaving Eton and +before going to Oxford, he was entered as a student at Lincoln's Inn. At +Eton he edited the school magazine, _The Microcosm_, and at Oxford he +took the leading part in the formation of a debating society. He made +many friends, and his reputation was already so high that Sheridan +referred to him in the House of Commons as a rising hope of the Whigs. +According to Lord Holland, he had been noted at Oxford as a furious +Jacobin and hater of the aristocracy. In 1792 he came to London to read +for the bar. He had taken his B.A. in 1791 and proceeded M.A. on the 6th +of July 1794. + +Soon after coming to London he became acquainted with Pitt in some +uncertain way. The hatred of the aristocracy, for which Lord Holland +says he was noted at Oxford, would naturally deter an ambitious young +man with his way to make in the world, and with no fixed principles, +from attaching his fortune to the Whigs. Canning had the glaring +examples of Burke and Sheridan himself to show him that the great +"revolution families"--Cavendishes, Russells, Bentincks--who controlled +the Whig party, would never allow any man, however able, who did not +belong to their connexion, to rise to the first rank. He therefore took +his place among the followers of Pitt. It is, however, only fair to note +that he always regarded Pitt with strong personal affection, and that he +may very naturally have been influenced, as multitudes of other +Englishmen were, by the rapid development of the French Revolution from +a reforming to an aggressive and conquering force. In a letter to his +friend Lord Boringdon (John Parker, afterwards earl of Morley), dated +the 13th of December 1792, he explicitly states that this was the case. +Enlightened self-interest was doubtless combined with honest conviction +in ranking him among the followers of Pitt. By the help of the prime +minister he entered parliament for the borough of Newtown in the Isle of +Wight in July 1793. His maiden speech, on the subvention to the king of +Sardinia, was made on the 31st of January 1794. It is by some said to +have been a failure, but he satisfied himself, and he soon established +his place as the most brilliant speaker on the ministerial side. It may +be most conveniently noted here, that his political patrons exerted +themselves to provide for his private as well as his official +prosperity. Their favour helped him to make a lucrative marriage with +Miss Joan Scott, who had a fortune of L100,000, on the 8th of July 1800. +The marriage was a very happy one, though the bulk of the fortune was +worn away in the expenses of public and social life. Mrs Canning, who +survived her husband for ten years, was created a viscountess in 1828. +Four children were born of the marriage--a son who died in his father's +lifetime, and was lamented by him in very touching verse; another a +captain in the navy, drowned at Madeira in 1827; a third son, Charles +(q.v.), afterwards created Earl Canning; and a daughter Harriet, who +married the marquess of Clanricarde in 1825. + +The public life of Canning may be divided into four stages. From 1793 to +1801 he was the devoted follower of Pitt, was in minor though important +office, and was the wittiest of the defenders of the ministry in +parliament and in the press. From 1801 to 1809 he was partly in +opposition, partly in office, fighting for the foremost place. Between +1809 and 1822 there was a period of comparative eclipse, during which he +was indeed at times in office, but in lesser places than he would have +been prepared to accept between 1804 and 1809, and was regarded with +general distrust. From 1822 till his death in 1827 he was the most +powerful influence in English, and one of the most powerful in European, +politics. + +In the spring of 1796 he was appointed under-secretary for the foreign +office, and in the election of that year he was returned for Wendover. +He was also appointed receiver-general of the alienation office, a +sinecure post which brought him L700 a year. His position as +under-secretary brought him into close relations with Pitt and the +foreign secretary, Lord Grenville (q.v.). During the negotiations for +peace at Lille (1797), Canning was actively concerned in the devices +which were employed by Pitt and Grenville to keep the real character of +the discussion secret from other members of the cabinet. Canning had a +taste for mystery and disguises, which he had shown at Oxford, and which +did much to gain him his unfortunate reputation for trickery. From the +20th of November 1797, till the 9th of July 1798, he was one of the most +active, and was certainly the most witty of the contributors to the +_Anti-Jacobin_, a weekly paper started to ridicule the frothy +philanthropic and eleutheromaniac rant of the French republicans, and to +denounce their brutal rapacity and cruelty. But Canning's position as +under-secretary was not wholly pleasant to him. He disliked his +immediate chief Grenville, one of the Whigs who joined Pitt, and a man +of thoroughly Whiggish aristocratic insolence. In 1799 he left the +foreign office and was named one of the twelve commissioners for India, +and in 1800 joint paymaster of the forces, a post which he held till the +retirement of Pitt in 1801. + +During these years of subordinate activity Canning had established his +position as an orator and a wit. His oratory cannot be estimated with +absolute confidence. Speeches were then badly reported. The text of his +own, published by Therry (6 volumes, London, 1828), were revised by +himself, and not for the better. Though his favourite author was Dryden, +whose prose is uniformly manly and simple, and though he had a keen eye +for faults of taste in the style of others, Canning had himself a +leaning to preciosity and tinsel. His wit was, and remains, above all +question. In public life it did him some harm in the opinion of serious +people, who could not believe that so jocose a politician had solid +capacity. It exasperated opponents, some of whom, notably Peter Pindar +(see WOLCOT, JOHN), retaliated by brutal personalities. Canning was +constantly reminded that his mother was a strolling actress, and was +accused of foisting his pauper family on the public funds. The +accusation was perfectly untrue, but this style of political controversy +was common, and was adopted by Canning. He put himself on a level with +Peter Pindar when he assailed Pitt's successor Addington (see SIDMOUTH, +VISCOUNT) on the ground that he was the son of a doctor. + +While out of office with Pitt, Canning proved a somewhat insubordinate +follower. The snobbery and malignity of his attacks on Addington roused +considerable feeling against him, and his attempts to act as a political +go-between in ministerial arrangements were unfortunate. On the +formation of Pitt's second ministry he took the post of treasurer of the +navy on the 12th of May 1804. In office he continued to be +insubordinate, and committed mistakes which got him into bad odour as +untrustworthy. He endeavoured to persuade Lord Hawkesbury (see +LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF) to join in a scheme for turning an old friend out +of the India Office. Though his relations with Pitt began to be somewhat +strained towards the end, he left office on the minister's death on the +21st of January 1806. + +Canning, who delivered the eulogy of Pitt in the House of Commons on the +3rd of February, refused to take office in Fox's ministry of "all the +talents." Attempts were made to secure him, and he was offered the +leadership of the House of Commons, under the supervision of Fox, an +absurd proposal which he had the good sense to decline. After the death +of Fox, and the dismissal by the king of Lord Grenville's ministry, he +joined the administration of the duke of Portland as secretary of state +for foreign affairs. He held the office from the 25th of March 1807 till +the 9th of September 1809. During these two years he had a large share +in the vigorous policy which defeated the secret articles of the treaty +of Tilsit by the seizure of the Danish fleet. As foreign secretary it +fell to him to defend the ministry when it was attacked in parliament. +He refused to tell how he became aware of the secret articles, and the +mystery has never been fully solved. He threw himself eagerly into the +prosecution of the war in Spain, yet his tenure of office ended in +resignation in circumstances which left him under deep discredit. He +became entangled in what can only be called two intrigues. In view of +the failing health of the duke of Portland he told his colleague, +Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer, that a new prime minister +must be found, that he must be in the House of Commons, that the choice +lay between them, adding that he might not be prepared to serve as +subordinate. In April of 1809 he had told the duke of Portland that Lord +Castlereagh, secretary for the colonies and war, was in his opinion +unfit for his post, and must be removed to another office. The duke, a +sickly and vacillating man, said nothing to Castlereagh, and took no +steps, and Canning did not enlighten his colleague. When he found that +no measures were being taken to make a change of office, Canning +resigned on the 7th of September. Castlereagh then learnt the truth, and +after resigning sent Canning a challenge on the 19th of September. In +the duel on Putney Heath which followed Canning was wounded in the +thigh. His apologists have endeavoured to defend him against the charge +of double dealing, but there can be no question that Castlereagh had +just ground to be angry. Public opinion was strong against Canning, and +in the House of Commons he was looked upon with distrust. For twelve +years he remained out of office or in inferior places. His ability made +it impossible that he should be obscure. In 1810 he was a member of the +Bullion Committee, and his speeches on the report showed his mastery of +the subject. It was no doubt his reputation for economic knowledge which +chiefly recommended him to the electors of Liverpool in 1812. He had +been elected for Tralee in 1803, for Newtown (Hants) in 1806 and for +Harwich in 1807. But in parliament he had lost all influence, and is +described as wandering about neglected and avoided. In 1812 he committed +the serious mistake of accepting a well-paid ornamental mission to +Lisbon, which he was about to visit for the health of his eldest son. He +remained abroad for eighteen months. In 1816 he submitted to enter +office as president of the Board of Control in Lord Liverpool's cabinet, +in which Castlereagh, to whom he had now become reconciled, was +secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1820 he resigned his post in +order to avoid taking any part in the proceedings against Queen +Caroline, the wife of George IV. + +Canning's return to great office and influence dates from the suicide of +Castlereagh in 1822. He had accepted the governor-generalship of India, +which would have implied his retirement from public life at home, and +refused to remain unless he was promised "the whole inheritance" of +Castlereagh,--the foreign office and the leadership of the House of +Commons. His terms were accepted, and he took office in September 1822. +He held the office from that date till April 1827, when he became prime +minister in succession to Lord Liverpool, whose health had broken down. +Even before this he was the real director of the policy of the +cabinet--as Castlereagh had been from 1812 to 1822. It may be noted that +he resigned his seat for Liverpool in 1823, and was elected for Harwich, +which he left for Newport in 1826. Few English public men have +represented so many constituencies. + +His fame as a statesman is based mainly on the foreign policy which he +pursued in those years--the policy of non-intervention, and of the +patronage, if not the actual support, of national and liberal movements +in Europe (see the historical articles under EUROPE, SPAIN, PORTUGAL, +TURKEY, GREECE). To this policy he may be said to have given his name, +and he has enjoyed the reputation of having introduced a generous spirit +into British politics, and of having undone the work of his predecessor +at the foreign office, who was constantly abused as the friend of +despotism and of despots. It may well be believed that Canning followed +his natural inclinations, and it can be asserted without the +possibility of contradiction, if also without possibility of proof, that +he had influenced the mind of Castlereagh. Yet the fact remains that +when Canning came into office in September 1822, he found the +instructions to be given to the representative of the British government +at the congress of Verona already drawn up by his predecessor, who had +meant to attend the congress himself (see LONDONDERRY, ROBERT STEWART, +2ND MARQUESS OF). These instructions were handed on without change by +Canning to the duke of Wellington, who went as representative, and they +contain all the principles which have been said to have been peculiarly +Canning's. Indeed this policy was dictated by the character and position +of the British government, and had been followed in the main since the +conference of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818. Canning was its orator and +minister rather than its originator. Yet his eloquence has associated +with his name the responsibility for British policy at the time. No +speech of his is perhaps more famous than that in which he claimed the +initiative in recognizing the independence of the revolted Spanish +colonies in South America in 1823--"I resolved that, if France had +Spain, it should not be Spain with the Indies. I called the New World +into existence to redress the balance of the Old" (December 12, 1826). + +When Lord Liverpool was struck down in a fit on the 17th of February +1827, Canning was marked out by position as his only possible successor. +He was not indeed accepted by all the party which had followed +Liverpool. The duke of Wellington, Sir Robert Peel and several other +members of the ministry, moved perhaps by personal animosity, and +certainly by dislike of his known and consistent advocacy of the claims +of the Roman Catholics, refused to serve with him. Canning succeeded in +constructing a ministry in April--but the hopes and the fears of friends +and enemies proved to be equally unfounded. His health had already begun +to give way, and broke down altogether under the strain of the effort +required to form his ministry. He had caught cold in January at the +funeral of the duke of York, and never recovered. He died on the 8th of +August 1827, at Chiswick, in the house of the duke of Devonshire, where +Fox had died, and in the same room. + + See _Speeches_, with a memoir by R. Therry (London, 1826); A.G. + Stapleton, _Political Life of Canning_, 1822-1827 (2nd ed., London, + 1831); _Canning and His Times_ (London, 1859); Lord Dalling and + Bulwer, _Historical Characters_ (London, 1868); F.H. Hill, _George + Canning_ (London, 1887); _Some Political Correspondence of George + Canning_, ed. E.J. Stapleton (2 vols., 1897); J.A.R. Marriott, _George + Canning and His Times, a Political Study_ (London, 1903); W. Alison + Phillips, _George Canning_ (London, 1903), with reproductions of + contemporary portraits and caricatures; H.W.V. Temperley, _George + Canning_ (London, 1905). + + + + +CANNIZZARO, STANISLAO (1826-1910), Italian chemist, was born at Palermo +on the 13th of July 1826. In 1841 he entered the university of his +native place with the intention of making medicine his profession, but +he soon turned to the study of chemistry, and in 1845 and 1846 acted as +assistant to Rafaelle Piria (1815-1865), known for his work on salicin, +who was then professor of chemistry at Pisa and subsequently occupied +the same position at Turin. During the Sicilian revolution he served as +an artillery officer at Messina and was also chosen deputy for +Francavilla in the Sicilian parliament; and after the fall of Messina in +September 1848 he was stationed at Taormina. On the collapse of the +insurgents he escaped to Marseilles, in May 1849, and after visiting +various French towns reached Paris in October. There he gained an +introduction to M.E. Chevreul's laboratory, and in conjunction with F.S. +Cloez (1817-1883) made his first contribution to chemical research in +1851, when they prepared cyanamide by the action of ammonia on cyanogen +chloride in ethereal solution. In the same year he was appointed +professor of physical chemistry at the National College of Alexandria, +where he discovered that aromatic aldehydes are decomposed by alcoholic +potash into a mixture of the corresponding acid and alcohol, e.g. +benzaldehyde into benzoic acid and benzyl alcohol ("Cannizzaro's +reaction"). In the autumn of 1855 he became professor of chemistry at +Geneva university, and six years later, after declining professorships +at Pisa and Naples, accepted the chair of inorganic and organic +chemistry at Palermo. There he spent ten years, studying the aromatic +compounds and continuing to work on the amines, until in 1871 he was +appointed to the chair of chemistry at Rome university. Apart from his +work on organic chemistry, which includes also an investigation of +santonin, he rendered great service to the philosophy of chemistry when +in his memoir _Sunto di un corso di Filosofia chemica_ (1858) he +insisted on the distinction, till then imperfectly realized, between +molecular and atomic weights, and showed how the atomic weights of +elements contained in volatile compounds can be deduced from the +molecular weights of those compounds, and how the atomic weights of +elements of whose compounds the vapour densities are unknown can be +ascertained from a knowledge of their specific heats. For this +achievement, of fundamental importance for the atomic theory in +chemistry, he was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society in 1891. +Cannizzaro's scientific eminence in 1871 secured him admission to the +Italian senate, of which he was vice-president, and as a member of the +Council of Public Instruction and in other ways he rendered important +services to the cause of scientific education in Italy. + + + + +CANNOCK, a market town in the western parliamentary division of +Staffordshire, England, in the district known as Cannock Chase, 130 m. +N.W. from London by the London and North Western railway. Pop. of urban +district (1891) 20,613; (1901) 23,974. The church of St Luke is +Perpendicular, enlarged in modern times. The famous political preacher, +Henry Sacheverell, held the living early in the 18th century. Cannock +has tool, boiler, brick and tile works. Cannock Chase, a tract generally +exceeding 500 ft. in elevation, extends on an axis from north-west to +south-east over some 36,000 acres. It was a royal preserve, and remains +for the most part an uncultivated waste, but it is also a rich +coalfield, and there are mines in every direction. Brownhills, Burntwood +and Chase Town, Great Wyrley, Hednesford, Hammerwich, and Pelsall are +townships or villages of the mining population. + + + + +CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. _canna_, a +reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination _-on, +-one_), a gun or piece of ordnance. The word, first found about 1400 +(there is an indenture of Henry IV. 1407 referring to _"canones, seu +instrumenta Anglice gunnes vocata"_), is commonly applied to any form of +firearm which is fired from a carriage or fixed mounting, in +contradistinction to "small-arms," which are fired without a rest or +support of any kind.[1] An exception must be made, however, in the case +of _machine guns_ (q.v.), and the word as used in modern times may be +defined as follows: "a piece of ordnance mounted upon a fixed or movable +carriage and firing a projectile of greater calibre than 1-1/2 in." In +French, however, _canon_ is the term applied to the barrel of small +arms, and also, as an alternative to _mitrailleuse_ or _mitrailleur_, to +machine guns, as well as to ordnance properly so-called. The Hotchkiss +machine gun used in several navies is officially called "revolving +cannon." For details see ARTILLERY, ORDNANCE, MACHINE GUNS, &c. Amongst +the many derived senses of the word may be mentioned "cannon curls," in +which the hair is arranged in horizontal tubular curls one above the +other. For "cannon" in billiards see BILLIARDS. + +In the 16th and 17th centuries the "cannon" in England was distinctively +a large piece, smaller natures of ordnance being called by various +special names such as culverin, saker, falcon, demi-cannon, &c. We hear +of Cromwell taking with him to Ireland (1649) "two cannon of eight +inches, two cannon of seven, two demi-cannon, two twenty-four pounders," +&c. + +Sir James Turner, a distinguished professional soldier contemporary with +Cromwell, says: "The cannon or battering ordnance is divided by the +English into Cannon Royal, Whole Cannon and Demi-Cannon. The first is +likewise called the Double Cannon, she weighs 8000 pound of metal and +shoots a bullet of 60, 62 or 63 pound weight. The Whole Cannon weighs +7000 pound of metal and shoots a bullet of 38, 39 or 40 pound. The +Demi-Cannon weighs about 6000 pound and shoots a bullet of 28 or 30 +pound. ... These three several guns are called cannons of eight, cannons +of seven and cannons of six." The generic sense of "cannon," in which +the word is now exclusively used, is found along with the special sense +above mentioned as early as 1474. A warrant of that year issued by +Edward IV. of England to Richard Copcote orders him to provide +"_bumbardos, canones, culverynes ... et alias canones quoscumque, ac +pulveres, sulfer ... pro eisdem canonibus necessarias_." "Artillery" and +"ordnance," however, were the more usual terms up to the time of Louis +XIV. (c. 1670), about which time heavy ordnance began to be classified +according to the weight of its shot, and the special sense of "cannon" +disappears. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The original small arms, however, are often referred to as hand + cannon. + + + + +CANNON-BALL TREE (_Couroupita guianensis_), a native of tropical South +America (French Guiana), which bears large spherical woody fruits, +containing numerous seeds, as in the allied genus _Bertholletia_ (Brazil +nut). + + + + +CANNSTATT, or KANNSTATT, a town of Germany in the kingdom of +Wurttemberg, pleasantly situated in a fertile valley on both banks of +the Neckar, 2-1/2 m. from Stuttgart, with which it has been incorporated +since 1904. Pop. (1905) 26,497. It is a railway centre, has two +Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, two bridges across the Neckar, +handsome streets in the modern quarter of the town and fine promenades +and gardens. There is a good deal of business in the town. Railway +plant, automobiles and machinery are manufactured; spinning and weaving +are carried on; and there are chemical works and a brewery here. Fruit +and vines are largely cultivated in the neighbourhood. A large +population is temporarily attracted to Cannstatt by the fame of its +mineral springs, which are valuable for diseases of the throat and +weaknesses of the nervous system. These springs were known to the +Romans. Besides the usual bathing establishments there are several +medical institutions for the treatment of disease. Near the town are the +palaces of Rosenstein and Wilhelma; the latter, built (1842-1851) for +King William of Wurttemberg in the Moorish style, is surrounded by +beautiful gardens. In the neighbourhood also are immense caves in the +limestone where numerous bones of mammoths and other extinct animals +have been found. On the Rotenberg, where formerly stood the ancestral +castle of the house of Wurttemberg, is the mausoleum of King William and +his wife. + +Cannstatt (Condistat) is mentioned early in the 8th century as the place +where a great court was held by Charlemagne for the trial of the +rebellious dukes of the Alamanni and the Bavarians. From the emperor +Louis the Bavarian it received the same rights and privileges as were +enjoyed by the town of Esslingen, and until the middle of the 14th +century it was the capital of the county of Wurttemberg. Cannstatt was +the scene of a victory gained by the French over the Austrians on the +21st of July 1796. + + See Veiel, _Der Kurort Kannstatt und seine Mineralquellen_ (Cannstatt, + 1875). + + + + +CANO, ALONZO (1601-1667), Spanish painter, architect and sculptor, was +born at Granada. He has left in Spain a very great number of specimens +of his genius, which display the boldness of his design, the facility of +his pencil, the purity of his flesh-tints and his knowledge of +chiaroscuro. He learned architecture from his father, Miguel Cano, +painting from Pacheco and sculpture from Juan Martinez Montanes. As a +statuary, his most famous works are the Madonna and Child in the church +of Nebrissa, and the colossal figures of San Pedro and San Pablo. As an +architect he indulged in too profuse ornamentation, and gave way too +much to the fancies of his day. Philip IV. made him royal architect and +king's painter, and gave him the church preferment of a canon. His more +important pictures are at Madrid. He was notorious for his ungovernable +temper; and it is said that once he risked his life by committing the +then capital offence of dashing to pieces the statue of a saint, when in +a rage with the purchaser who grudged the price he demanded. His known +passionateness also (according to another story) caused him to be +suspected, and even tortured, for the murder of his wife, though all +other circumstances pointed to his servant as the culprit. + + + + +CANO, MELCHIOR (1325-1560), Spanish theologian, born at Tarancon, in New +Castile, joined the Dominican order at an early age at Salamanca, where +in 1546 he succeeded to the theological chair in that university. A man +of deep learning and originality, proud and a victim to the _odium +theologicum_, he could brook no rivalry. The only one who at that time +could compare with him was the gentle Bartolomeo de Caranza, also a +Dominican and afterwards archbishop of Toledo. At the university the +schools were divided between the partisans of the two professors; but +Cano pursued his rival with relentless virulence, and took part in the +condemnation for heresy of his brother-friar. The new society of the +Jesuits, as being the forerunners of Antichrist, also met with his +violent opposition; and he was not grateful to them when, after +attending the council of Trent in 1545, he was sent, by their influence, +in 1552, as bishop of the far-off see of the Canaries. His personal +influence with Philip II. soon procured his recall, and he was made +provincial of his order in Castile. In 1556 he wrote his famous +_Consultatio theologica_, in which he advised the king to resist the +temporal encroachments of the papacy and, as absolute monarch, to defend +his rights by bringing about a radical change in the administration of +ecclesiastical revenues, thus making Spain less dependent on Rome. With +this in his mind Paul IV. styled him "a son of perdition." The +reputation of Cano, however, rests on a posthumous work, _De Locis +theologicis_ (Salamanca, 1562), which stands to-day unrivalled in its +own line. In this, a genuine work of the Renaissance, Cano endeavours to +free dogmatic theology from the vain subtleties of the schools and, by +clearing away the puerilities of the later scholastic theologians, to +bring religion back to first principles; and, by giving rules, method, +co-ordination and system, to build up a scientific treatment of +theology. He died at Toledo on the 30th of September 1560. (E. Tn.) + + + + +CANOE (from Carib. _canaoa_, the West Indian name found in use by +Columbus; the Fr. _canot_, boat, and Ger. _Kahn_, are derived from the +Lat. _canna_, reed, vessel), a sort of general term for a boat sharp at +both ends, originally designed for propulsion by one or more paddles +(not oars) held without a fixed fulcrum, the paddler facing the bow. As +the historical native name for certain types of boat used by savages, it +is applied in such cases to those which, like other boats, are open +within from end to end, and the modern "Canadian canoe" preserves this +sense; but a more specific usage of the name is for such craft as differ +essentially from open boats by being covered in with a deck, except for +a "well" where the paddler sits. Modern developments are the cruising +canoe, combining the use of paddle and sails, and the racing canoe, +equipped with sails only. + +The primitive canoes were light frames of wood over which skins (as in +the Eskimo canoe) or the bark of trees (as in the North American +lndians' birch-bark canoe) were tightly stretched. The modern painted +canvas canoe, built on Indian lines, was a natural development of this +idea. The Indian also used, and the African still uses, the "dug-out," +made from a tree hollowed by fire after the manner of Robinson Crusoe. +Many of these are of considerable size and carrying capacity; one in the +New York Natural History Museum from Queen Charlotte's Island is 63 ft. +long, 8 ft. 3 in. wide, and 5 ft. deep, cut from a single log. The "war +canoe" of paddling races is its modern successor. In the islands of the +Pacific primitive canoes are wonderfully handled by the natives, who +make long sea voyages in them, often stiffening them by attaching +another hull (see CATAMARAN). + +In the earlier part of the 19th century, what was known as a "canoe" in +England was the short covered-in craft, with a "well" for the paddler to +sit in, which was popularly used for short river practice; and this type +still survives. But the sport of canoeing in any real sense dates from +1865, when John MacGregor (q.v.) designed the canoe "Rob Roy" for long +journeys by water, using both double-bladed paddle and sails, yet light +enough (about 70 lb) to be carried over land. The general type of this +canoe is built of oak with a cedar deck; the length is from 12 ft. to +15 ft., the beam from 26 in. to 30 in., the depth 10 in. to 16 in. The +paddle is 7 ft. long and 6 in. wide in the blade, the canoeist sits low +in a cockpit, and in paddling dips the blades first on one side and then +the other. The rig is generally yawl. + +In 1866 the Royal Canoe Club was formed in England, and the prince of +Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) became commodore. Its headquarters are at +Kingston-on-Thames and it is still the leading organization. There is +also the British Canoe Association, devoted to cruising. After the +English canoes were seen in Paris at the Exhibition of 1867, others like +them were built in France. Branches and clubs were formed also at the +English universities, and in Liverpool, Hull, Edinburgh and Glasgow. The +New York Canoe Club was founded in 1871. One member of the Royal Canoe +Club crossed the English Channel in his canoe, another the Irish Channel +from Scotland to Ireland, and many rivers were explored in inaccessible +parts, like the Jordan, the Kishon, and the Abana and the Pharpar at +Damascus, as well as the Lake Menzaleh in the Delta of the Nile, and the +Lake of Galilee and Waters of Merom in Syria. + +W. Baden Powell modified the type of the "Rob Roy" in the "Nautilus," +intended only for sailing. From this time the two kinds of pleasure +canoe--paddling and sailing--parted company, and developed each on its +own lines; the sailing canoe soon (1882) had a deck seat and tiller, a +smaller and smaller cockpit, and a larger and larger sail area, with the +consequent necessary air and water-tight bulkheads in the hull. Paul +Butler of Lowell, Mass., added (1886) the sliding outrigger seat, +allowing the canoeist to slide out to windward. The final stage is the +racing machine pure and simple, seen in the exciting contests at the +annual August meets of the American Canoe Association on the St Lawrence +river, or at the more frequent race days of its constituent divisions, +associated as Canadian (47 clubs), Atlantic (32 clubs), Central (26 +clubs) and Western. + +The paddling canoe, propelled by single-bladed paddles, is also +represented in single, tandem and crew ("war canoe") races, and this +form of the sport remains more of the amateur type. The "Canadian," a +clinker or carvel built mahogany or cedar or bass-wood canoe, or the +painted canvas, bark or compressed paper canoe, all on the general lines +of the Indian birch bark, are as common on American rivers as the punt +is on the Thames, and are similarly used. + + See MacGregor, _A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe_ (1866), _The + Rob Roy on the Baltic_, &c.; W. Baden Powell, _Canoe Travelling_ + (1871); W.L. Alden, _Canoe and the Flying Proa_ (New York, 1878); J.D. + Hayward, _Camping out with the British Canoe Association_; C.B. Vaux, + _Canoe Handling_ (New York, 1888); Stephens, _Canoe and Boat Building_ + (New York, 1881). + + + + +CANON. The Greek word [Greek: kanon] means originally a straight rod or +pole, and metaphorically what serves to keep a thing upright or +straight, a rule. In the New Testament it occurs in Gal. vi. 16, and 2 +Cor. x. 13, 15, 16, signifying in the former passage a measure, in the +latter what is measured, a district. The general applications of the +word fall mainly into two groups, in one of which the underlying meaning +is that of rule, in the other that of a list or catalogue, i.e. of books +containing the rule. Of the first, such uses as that of a standard or +rule of conduct or taste, or of a particular form of musical composition +(see below) may be mentioned, but the principal example is of the sum of +the laws regulating the ecclesiastical body (see CANON LAW). In the +second group of uses that of the ecclesiastical dignitary (see below), +that of the list of the names of those persons recognized as saints by +the Church (see CANONIZATION), and that of the authoritative body of +Scriptures (see below) are examples. + +_Music._--A canon in part-music is the form taken by the earliest +compositions in harmony, successive or consequent parts having the same +melody, but each beginning at a stated period after its precursor or +antecedent. In many early polyphonic compositions, one or more voices +were imitated note for note by the others, so that the other parts did +not need to be written out at all, but were deduced from the leaders by +a rule or canon. Sir Frederick Bridge has pointed out that in this way +the term "canon" came to supersede the old name of the art-form, _Fuga +ligata_. (See also under FUGUE, CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS and Music.) When the +first part completes its rhythmical sentence before the second enters, +and then continues the melody as an accompaniment to the second, and so +on for the third or fourth, this form of canon in England was styled a +"round" or "catch"; the stricter canon being one in which the succession +of parts did not depend on the ending of the phrase. But outside England +catches and canons were undifferentiated. The "round" derived its name +from the fact that the first part returned to the beginning while the +others continued the melody; the "catch" meant that each later part +caught up the tune. The problem of the canon, as an artistic +composition, is to find one or more points in a melody at which one or +more successive parts may start the same tune harmoniously. Catches were +familiar in English folk music until after the Restoration; different +trades having characteristic melodies of their own. In the time of +Charles II they took a bacchanalian cast, and later became sentimental. +Gradually the form went out as a type of folk music, and now survives +mainly in its historical interest. (H. Ch.) + +_The Church Dignitary_.--A canon is a person who possesses a prebend, or +revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or +collegiate church. Though the institute of canons as it at present +exists does not go back beyond the 11th century it has a long history +behind it. The name is derived from the list (_matricula_) of the clergy +belonging to a church, [Greek: kanon] being thus used in the council of +Nicaea (c. 16). In the synod of Laodicea the adjective [Greek: +kanonikos] is found in this sense (c. 15); and during the 6th century +the word _canonicus_ occurs commonly in western Europe in relation to +the clergy belonging to a cathedral or other church. Eusebius of +Vercelli (d. 370) was the first to introduce the system whereby the +cathedral clergy dwelt together, leading a semi-monastic life in common +and according to rule; and St Augustine established a similar manner of +life for the clergy of his cathedral at Hippo. The system spread widely +over Africa, Spain and Gaul; a familiar instance is St Gregory's +injunction to St Augustine that at Canterbury the bishop and his clergy +should live a common life together, similar to the monastic life in +which he had been trained; that these "clerics" at Canterbury were not +monks is shown by the fact that those of them in the lower clerical +grades were free to marry and live at home, without forfeiting their +position or emoluments as members of the body of cathedral clergy (Bede, +_Hist. Eccl._ i. 27). This mode of life for the secular clergy, which +became common in the west, seems never to have taken root in the east. +It came to be called _vita canonica_, canonical life, and it was the +object of various enactments of councils during the 6th, 7th and 8th +centuries. The first serious attempt to legislate for it and reduce it +to rule was made by Chrodegang, bishop of Metz (c. 750), who composed +a rule for the clergy of his cathedral, which was in large measure an +adaptation of the Benedictine Rule to the case of secular clergy living +in common. Chrodegang's Rule was adopted in many churches, both +cathedral and collegiate (i.e. those served by a body of clergy). In 816 +the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (see _Mon. Germ. Concil._ ii. 307) made +further regulations for the canonical life, which became the law in the +Frankish empire for cathedral and collegiate churches. The Rule of +Chrodegang was taken as the basis, but was supplemented and in some +points mitigated and made less monastic in character. There was a common +dormitory and common refectory for all, but each canon was allowed a +dwelling room within the cloister; the use of flesh meat was permitted, +and the clothing was of better quality than that of monks. Each canon +retained the use of his private property and money, but the revenues of +the cathedral or church were treated as a common fund for the +maintenance of the whole establishment. The chief duty of the canons was +the performance of the church services. Thus the canons were not monks, +but secular clergy living in community, without taking the monastic vows +or resigning their private means--a form of life somewhat resembling +that of the fathers of the London or Birmingham Oratory in our day. The +bishop was expected to lead the common life along with his clergy. + +The canonical life as regulated by the synod of Aix, subsisted in the +9th and 10th centuries; but the maintenance of this intermediate form +of life was of extreme difficulty. There was a constant tendency to +relax the bonds of the common life, and attempts in various directions +to restore it. In England, by the middle of the 10th century, the +prescriptions of the canonical life seem to have fallen into desuetude, +and in nine cathedrals the canons were replaced by communities of +Benedictines. In the 11th century the Rule of Chrodegang was introduced +into certain of the English cathedrals, and an Anglo-Saxon translation +of it was made under Leofric for his church of Exeter. The turning point +came in 1059, when a reforming synod, held at the Lateran, exhorted the +clergy of all cathedral and collegiate churches to live in community, to +hold all property and money in common, and to "lead the life of the +Apostles" (cf. Acts ii. 44, 45). The clergy of numerous churches +throughout Western Europe (that of the Lateran Basilica among them) set +themselves to carry out these exhortations, and out of this movement +grew the religious order of Canons Regular or Augustinian Canons (q.v.). +The opposite tendency also ran its course and produced the institute of +secular canons. The revenues of the cathedral were divided into two +parts, that of the bishop and that of the clergy; this latter was again +divided among the clergy themselves, so that each member received his +own separate income, and the persons so sharing, whatever their clerical +grade, were the canons of the cathedral church. Naturally all attempt at +leading any kind of common life was frankly abandoned. In England the +final establishment of this order of things was due to St Osmund (1090). +The nature and functions of the institute of secular canons are +described in the article CATHEDRAL. + + See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, under "Canonicus"; Amort, _Vetus + Disciplina Canonicorum_ (1747), to be used with caution for the + earlier period; C. du Molinet, _Reflexions historiques et curieuses + sur les antiquites des chanoines tant seculiers que reguliers_ (1674); + Herzog, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.), art. "Kapitel"; Wetzer und + Welte, _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Canonica vita" and + "Canonikat." The history of the canonical institute is succinctly + told, and the best literature named, by Max Heimbucher, _Orden und + Kongregationen_, 1896, i. S 55; also by Otto Zockler, _Askese und + Monchtum_, 1897, pp. 422-425. On medieval secular canons a standard + work is Chr. Wordsworth's _Statutes of Lincoln Cathedral_ (1892-1897); + see also an article thereon by Edm. Bishop in _Dublin Review_, July + 1898. (E. C. B.) + +In the Church of England, the canons of cathedral or collegiate churches +retain their traditional character and functions, though they are now, +of course, permitted to marry. Their duties were defined by the Canons +of 1603, and included that of residence at the cathedrals according to +"their local customs and statutes," and preaching in the cathedral and +in the churches of the diocese, "especially those whence they or their +church receive any yearly rent or profit." A canonry not being legally a +"cure of souls," a canon may hold a benefice in addition to his prebend, +in spite of the acts against pluralities. By the Canons of 1603 he was +subject to discipline if he made his canonry an excuse for neglecting +his cure. By the act of 1840 reforming cathedral chapters the number of +canonries was greatly reduced, while some were made applicable to the +endowment of archdeaconries and professorships. At the same time it was +enacted that a canon must have been six years in priest's orders, except +in the case of canonries annexed to any professorship, headship or other +office in any university. The obligatory period of residence, hitherto +varying in different churches, was also fixed at a uniform period of +three months. The right of presentation to canonries is now vested in +some cases in the crown, in others in the lord chancellor, the +archbishop or in the bishop of the diocese. + +Honorary canons are properly canons who have no prebend or other +emoluments from the common fund of the chapter. In the case of old +cathedrals the title is bestowed upon deserving clergymen by the bishop +as a mark of distinction. In new cathedrals, e.g. Manchester or +Birmingham, where no endowment exists for a chapter, the bishop is +empowered to appoint honorary canons, who carry out the ordinary +functions of a cathedral body (see CATHEDRAL). + +Minor canons, more properly styled priest-vicars, are appointed by the +dean and chapter. Their function is mainly to sing the service, and they +are selected therefore mainly for their voices and musical +qualifications. They may hold a benefice, if it lies within 6 m. of the +cathedral. + +In the Protestant churches of the continent canons as ecclesiastical +officers have ceased to exist. In Prussia and Saxony, however, certain +chapters, secularized at the Reformation, still exist. The canons +(_Domherren_) are, however, laymen with no ecclesiastical character +whatever, and their rich prebends are merely sources of endowment for +the cadets of noble families. + + See Phillimore, _Eccles. Law_, 2 vols. (London, 1895). (W. A. P.) + +_The Scriptures._--There are three opinions as to the origin of the +application of the term "canon" to the writings used by the Christian +Church. According to Semler, Baur and others, the word had originally +the sense of list or catalogue--the books publicly read in Christian +assemblies. Others, as Steiner, suppose that since the Alexandrian +grammarians applied it to collections of old Greek authors as models of +excellence or classics, it meant classical (canonical) writings. +According to a third opinion, the term included from the first the idea +of a regulating principle. This is the more probable, because the same +idea lies in the New Testament use of the noun, and pervades its +applications in the language of the early Fathers down to the time of +Constantine, as Credner has shown.[1] The "[Greek: kanon] of the church" +in the Clementine homilies,[2] the "ecclesiastical [Greek: kanon]"[3] +and the "[Greek: kanon] of the truth" in Clement and Irenaeus,[4] the +[Greek: kanon] of the faith in Polycrates,[5] the _regula fidei_ of +Tertullian,[6] and the _libri regulares_ of Origen[7] imply a _normative +principle_. Credner's view of [Greek: kanon] as an abbreviation of +[Greek: grachai kanonos], equivalent to _Scripturae legis_ in +Diocletian's Act,[8] is too artificial, and is unsanctioned by usage. + +The earliest example of its application to a catalogue of the Old or New +Testament books occurs in the Latin translation of Origen's homily on +Joshua, where the original seems to have been [Greek: kanon]. The word +itself is certainly in Amphilochius,[9] as well as in Jerome[10] and +Rufinus.[11] As the Latin translation of Origen has _canonicus_ and +_canonizatus_, we infer that he used [Greek: kanonikos], opposed as it +is to _apocryphus_ or _secretus_. The first occurrence of [Greek: +kanonikos] is in the 59th canon of the council of Laodicea, where it is +contrasted with [Greek: idiotikos] and [Greek: akanonistos]. [Greek: +Kanonixomena], "_canonized_ books," is first used in Athanasius's festal +epistle.[12] The kind of rule which the earliest Fathers thought the +Scriptures to be can only be conjectured; it is certain that they +believed the Old Testament books to be a divine and infallible guide. +But the New Testament was not so considered till towards the close of +the 2nd century, when the conception of a Catholic Church was realized. +The collection of writings was not called _Scripture_, or put on a par +with the Old Testament as sacred and inspired, till the time of +Theophilus of Antioch (about 180 A.D.). Hence Irenaeus applies the +epithets divine and perfect to the Scriptures; and Clement of Alexandria +calls them inspired. + +When distinctions were made among the Biblical writings other words were +employed, synonymous with [Greek: kanonixomena] or [Greek: +kekanonismena], such as [Greek: endiathaeka], [Greek: orismena]. The +canon was thus a catalogue of writings, forming a rule of truth, sacred, +divine, revealed by God for the instruction of men. The rule was perfect +for its purpose. (See BIBLE: section _Canon_.) + +The term "canonical," i.e. that which is approved or ordered by the +"canon" or rule, is applied to ecclesiastical vestments, "canonicals," +and to those hours set apart by the Church for prayer and devotion, the +"Canonical Hours" (see BREVIARY). (S. D.) + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Zur Geschichte des Kanons_, pp. 3-68. + + [2] _Clement Hom._, ap. Coteler. vol. i. p. 608. + + [3] _Stromata_, vi. 15, p. 803, ed. Potter. + + [4] _Adv. Haeres._ i. 95. + + [5] Euseb. _H.E._ v. 24. + + [6] _De praescript. Haereticorum_, chs. 12, 13. + + [7] _Comment. in Mat._ iii. p. 916, ed. Delarue. + + [8] _Monumenta vetera ad Donatistarum historiam pertinentia_, ed. + Dupin, p. 168. + + [9] At the end of the _Iambi ad Seleucum_, on the books of the New + Testament, he adds, [Greek: outos acheudestatos kanon an ein ton + theopneuston grachon]. + + [10] _Prologus galeatus in ii. Reg._ + + [11] _Expos. in Symb. Apost._ 37, p. 374, ed. Migne. + + [12] After the word is added [Greek: kai paradothenta, pioteuthenta + te theia einai]. _Opp._ vol. i. p. 961, ed. Benedict. + + + + +CANONESS (Fr. _chanoinesse_, Ger. _Kanonissin_, Lat. _canonica_ or +_canonica virgo_), a female beneficiary of a religious college. In the +8th century chapters of canons were instituted in the Frankish empire, +and in imitation of these certain women took common vows of obedience +and chastity, though not of poverty. Like nuns they had common table and +dormitory, and recited the breviary, but generally the rule was not so +strict as in the case of nuns. The canonesses often taught girls, and +were also employed in embroidering ecclesiastical vestments and +transcribing liturgical books. A distinction was drawn between regular +and secular canonesses, the latter being of noble family and not +practising any austerity. Some of their abbesses were notable feudal +princesses. In Germany several foundations of this kind (e.g. +Gandersheim, Herford and Quedlinburg), which were practically secular +institutions before the Reformation, adopted the Protestant faith, and +still exist, requiring of their members the simple conditions of +celibacy and obedience to their superior during membership. These +institutions (_Stifter_) are now practically almshouses for the +unmarried daughters of noble families. In some cases the right of +presentation belongs to the head of the family, sometimes admission is +gained by purchase; but in modern times a certain number of prebends +have been created for the daughters of deserving officials. The +organization of the _Stift_ is collegiate, the head bearing the ancient +titles of abbess, prioress or provostess (_Probstin_), and the +canonesses (_Stiftsdamen_) meet periodically in _Konvent_ for the +discussion of the affairs of the community. The ladies are not bound to +residence. In many of these _Stifter_ quaint pre-Reformation customs and +ceremonies still survive; thus, at the convent of St John the Baptist at +Schleswig, on the day of the patron saint, the room in which the +_Konvent_ is held is draped in black and a realistic life-size wax head +of St John on a charger is placed in the centre of the table round which +the canonesses sit. + + + + +CANONIZATION, in its widest sense, an act by which in the Christian +Church the ecclesiastical authority grants to a deceased believer the +honour of public _cultus_. In the early Church there was no formal +canonization. The _cultus_ applied at first to local martyrs, and it was +only in exceptional circumstances that a kind of judiciary inquiry and +express decision became necessary to legitimate this _cultus_. The +peculiar situation of the Church of Africa explains the _Vindicatio +martyrum_, which was early practised there (_Optatus Milevit._, i. 16). +In the _cultus_ rendered to confessors, the authorization of the Church +had long been merely implicit. But when an express decision was given, +it was the bishop who gave it. Gradually the canonization of saints came +to be included in the centralizing movement which reserved to the pope +the most important acts of ecclesiastical power. The earliest +acknowledged instance of canonization by the pope is that of Ulric of +Augsburg, who was declared a saint by John XV. in A.D. 993. From that +time the pontifical intervention became more and more frequent, and, in +practice, the right of the bishops in the matter of canonization +continued to grow more restricted. In 1170 the new right was +sufficiently established for Pope Alexander III. to affirm that the +bishops could not institute the _cultus_ of a new saint without the +authority of the Roman Church (Cap. _Audivimus_, Decret. _De Rell. et +venerat. Sanctorum_, iii. 115). The 12th and, especially, the 13th +centuries furnish many examples of canonizations pronounced by the +popes, and the procedure of this period is well ascertained. It was much +more summary than that practised in modern times. The evidence of those +who had known the holy personages was collected on the spot. The inquiry +was as rapid as the judgment, and both often took place a short time +after the death of the saint, as in the cases of St Thomas of Canterbury +(died 1170, canonized 1173), St Peter of Castelnau (died on the 15th of +January 1208, canonized on the 12th of March of the same year), St +Francis of Assisi (died on the 4th of October 1226, canonized on the +19th of July 1228), and St Anthony of Padua (died on the 13th of June +1231, canonized on the 3rd of June 1232). + +At this period there was no marked difference between canonization and +beatification. In modern practice, as definitively settled by the +decrees of Pope Urban VIII. (1625 and 1634), the two acts are totally +distinct. Canonization is the solemn and definitive act by which the +pope decrees the plenitude of public honours. Beatification consists in +permitting a _cultus_, the manifestations of which are restricted, and +is merely a step towards canonization. + +The procedure at present followed at the Roman curia is either +_exceptional_ or _common_. The approval of immemorial _cultus_ comes +within the category of exceptional procedure. Urban VIII., while +forbidding the rendering of a public _cultus_ without authorization from +the Holy See, made an exception in favour of the blessed who were at +that time (1625) in possession of an immemorial _cultus_, i.e. dating +back at least a century (1525). The procedure _per viam casus excepti_ +consists in the legitimation of a _cultus_ which has been rendered to a +saint for a very long time. The causes of the martyrs (_declarationis +martyrii_) also are exceptional. Juridical proof is required of the +_fact_ of the martyrdom and of its _cause_, i.e. it must be established +that the servant of God was put to death through hatred of the faith. +These are the two cases which constitute exceptional procedure. + +The _common_ procedure is that in which the cause is prosecuted _per +viam non cultus_. It is, in reality, a suit at law, pleaded before the +tribunal of the Congregation of Rites, which is a permanent commission +of cardinals, assisted by a certain number of subordinate officers and +presided over by a cardinal. The supreme judge in the matter is the pope +himself. The _postulator_, who is the mandatory of a diocese or +ecclesiastical commonalty, is the solicitor. He must furnish the proofs, +which are collected according to very stringent rules. The _promoter of +the faith_, popularly called the "devil's advocate" (_advocatus +diaboli_), is the defendant, whose official duty is to point out to the +tribunal the weak points of the case. + +The procedure is loaded with many formalities, of which the historical +explanation lies in the tribunals of the ancient system, and which +considerably delay the progress of the causes. The first decisive step +is the _introduction of the cause_. If, by the advice of the cardinals +who have examined the documents, the pope pronounce his approval, the +servant of God receives the title of "Venerable," but is not entitled to +any manifestation of _cultus_. Only in the event of the claimant passing +this test successfully can the essential part of the procedure be begun, +which will result in conferring on the Venerable the title of "Blessed." +This part consists in three distinct proceedings: (1) to establish a +reputation for sanctity, (2) to establish the heroic quality of the +virtues, (3) to prove the working of miracles. A favourable judgment on +all three of these tests is called the decree _de tuto_, by which the +pope decides that they may safely proceed to the solemn beatification of +the servant of God (_Tuto procedi potest ad solemnem V.S.D.N. +beatificationem_). In the ceremony of beatification the essential part +consists in the reading of the pontifical brief, placing the Venerable +in the rank of the Blessed, which is done during a solemn mass, +celebrated with special rites in the great hall above the vestibule of +the basilica of St Peter. + +The process of canonization, which follows that of beatification, is +usually less lengthy. It consists principally in the discussion of the +miracles (usually two in number) obtained by the intercession of the +Blessed since the decree of beatification. After a great number of +formalities and prayers, the pope pronounces the sentence, and indicates +eventually the day on which he will proceed to the ceremony of +canonization, which takes place with great solemnity in the basilica of +St Peter. + +The extremely complicated procedure which is prescribed for the conduct +of the cases in order to ensure every opportunity for exercising rigour +and discretion, considerably retards the progress of the causes, and +necessitates a numerous staff. This circumstance, together with the +custom of ornamenting the basilica of St Peter very richly on the day of +the ceremony, accounts for the considerable cost which a canonization +entails. To prevent abuses, a minute tariff of expenses was drawn up +during the pontificate of Leo XIII. + +The Greek Church, represented by the patriarch of Constantinople, and +the Russian Church, represented by the Holy Synod, also canonize their +saints after a preliminary examination of their titles to public +_cultus_. Their procedure is less rigorous than that of the Roman +Church, and as yet has been but imperfectly studied. + + See J. Fontanini, _Codex Constitutionum quas summi pontifices + ediderunt in solemni canonizatione sanctorum_ (Rome, 1729, a + collection of original documents); Pr. Lambertini (Pope Benedict + XIV.), _De servorum Dei beatificatione et beatorum canonizatione_ + (Bologna, 1734-1738), several times reprinted, and more remarkable for + erudition and knowledge of canon law than for historical criticism; + Al. Lauri, _Codex pro postulatoribus causarum beatificationis et + canonizationis, recognovit Joseph Fornari_ (Romae, 1899); F.W. Faber, + _Essay on Beatification, Canonization, &c._ (London, 1848); A. + Boudinhon, _Les Proces de beatification et de canonisation_ (Paris, + 1905); E. Golubinskij, _Istorija Kanonizacii sviatich v russko j + cerkvi_ (Moscow, 1903). (H. De.) + + + + +CANON LAW. Canon law, _jus canonicum_, is the sum of the laws which +regulate the ecclesiastical body; for this reason it is also called +ecclesiastical law, _jus ecclesiasticum_. It is also referred to under +the name of _canones, sacri canones_, a title of great antiquity, for +the [Greek: kanones], _regulae_, were very early distinguished from the +secular laws, the [Greek: nomoi], _leges_. + + + Word "canon." Different meanings. + +The word [Greek: kanon], canon, has been employed in ecclesiastical +literature in several different senses (see CANON above). The +disciplinary decisions of the council of Nicaea, for example (can. 1, 2, +&c.), employ it in the sense of an established rule, ecclesiastical in +its origin and in its object. But the expression is most frequently used +to designate disciplinary laws, in which case canons are distinguished +from dogmatic definitions. With regard to form, the decisions of +councils, even when dogmatic, are called canons; thus the definitions of +the council of Trent or of the Vatican, which generally begin with the +words "_Si quis dixerit_," and end with the anathema, are canons; while +the long chapters, even when dealing with matters of discipline, retain +the name of chapters or decrees. Similarly, it has become customary to +give the name of canons to the texts inserted in certain canonical +compilations such as the _Decretum_ of Gratian, while the name of +chapters is given to the analogous quotations from the Books of the +Decretals. It is merely a question of words and of usage. As to the +expression _jus canonicum_, it implies the systematic codification of +ecclesiastical legislation, and had no existence previous to the labours +which resulted in the _Corpus juris canonici_. + + + Divisions. + +Canon law is divided into public law and private law; the former is +concerned with the constitution of the Church, and, consequently, with +the relations between her and other bodies, religious and civil; the +latter has as its object the internal discipline of the ecclesiastical +body and its members. This division, which has been found convenient for +the study of canon law, has no precedent in the collections of texts. +With regard to the texts now in force, the name of _jus antiquum_, +ancient law, has been given to the laws previous to the _Corpus juris +canonici_; the legislation of this _Corpus_ has been called _jus novum_, +new law; and finally, the name of recent law, _jus novissimum_, has been +given to the law established by the council of Trent and subsequent +papal constitutions. There is a further distinction between the written +law, _jus scriptum_, laws made by the councils or popes, which are to be +found in the collections, and the unwritten law, _jus non scriptum_, a +body of practical rules arising rather from natural equity and from +custom than from formal laws; with this is connected the customary law. +In the Church, as in other societies, it has happened that the unwritten +customary law has undergone a gradual diminution in importance, as a +consequence of centralization and the accumulation of written laws; +nowadays it need not be reckoned with, save in cases where local customs +are involved. The common law is that which is intended to regulate the +whole body; special or local law is that which is concerned with certain +districts or certain categories of persons, by derogation from or +addition to the common law. + + + Sources. + +By the _sources_ or authors of the canon law are meant the authorities +from which it is derived; they must obviously be of such a nature as to +be binding upon the whole religious body, or at least upon a specified +portion of it. In the highest rank must be placed Christ and the +Apostles, whose dispositions for the constitution and government of the +Church are contained in the New Testament, completed by tradition; for +the Church did not accept the disciplinary and ritual provisions of the +Old Testament as binding upon her (see Acts xi., xv.). To the apostles +succeeded the episcopal body, with its chief the bishop of Rome, the +successor of St. Peter, whose legislative and disciplinary power, by a +process of centralization, underwent a slow but uninterrupted +development. It is then to the episcopate, assembled in ecumenical +council, and to its chief, that the function of legislating for the +whole Church belongs; the inferior authorities, local councils or +isolated bishops and prelates, can only make special laws or statutes, +valid only for that part of the Church under their jurisdiction. Most of +the canons, however, which constitute the ancient law, and notably those +which appear in the _Decretum_ of Gratian, emanate from local councils, +or even from individual bishops; they have found a place in the common +law because the collections of canons, of which they formed the most, +notable part, have been everywhere adopted. + +Having made these general observations, we must now consider the history +of those texts and collections of canons which to-day form the +ecclesiastical law of the Western Church: (1) up to the _Decretum_ of +Gratian, (2) up to the council of Trent, (3 and 4) up to the present +day, including the codification ordered by Pius X. + +1. _From the Beginning to the Decretum of Gratian._--At no time, and +least of all during the earliest centuries, was there any attempt to +draw up a uniform system of legislation for the whole of the Christian +Church. The various communities ruled themselves principally according +to their customs and traditions, which, however, possessed a certain +uniformity resulting from their close connexion with natural and divine +law. Strangely enough, those documents which bear the greatest +resemblance to a small collection of canonical regulations, such as the +Didache, the Didascalia and the Canons of Hippolytus, have not been +retained, and find no place in the collections of canons, doubtless for +the reason that they were not official documents. Even the Apostolical +Constitutions (q.v.), an expansion of the Didache and the Didascalia, +after exercising a certain amount of influence, were rejected by the +council in Trullo (692). Thus the only pseudo-epigraphic document +preserved in the law of the Greek Church is the small collection of the +eighty-five so-called "Apostolic Canons" (q.v.). The compilers, in their +several collections, gathered only occasional decisions, the outcome of +no pre-determined plan, given by councils or by certain great bishops. + + + Greek collection. + +These compilations began in the East. It appears that in several +different districts canons made by the local assemblies[1] were added to +those of the council of Nicaea which were everywhere accepted and +observed. The first example seems to be that of the province of Pontus, +where after the twenty canons of Nicaea were placed the twenty-five +canons of the council of Ancyra (314), and the fifteen of that of +Neocaesarea (315-320). These texts were adopted at Antioch, where there +were further added the twenty-five canons of the so-called council _in +encaeniis_ of that city (341). Soon afterwards, Paphlagonia contributed +twenty canons passed at the council of Gangra (held, according to the +_Synodicon orientale_, in 343),[2] and Phrygia fifty-nine canons of the +assembly of Laodicea (345-381?), or rather of the compilation known as +the work of this council.[3] The collection was so well and so widely +known that all these canons were numbered in sequence, and thus at the +council of Chalcedon (451) several of the canons of Antioch were read +out under the number assigned to them in the collection of the whole. It +was further increased by the twenty-eight (thirty) canons of Chalcedon; +about the same time were added the four canons of the council of +Constantinople of 381, under the name of which also appeared three (or +seven) other canons of a later date. Towards the same date, also, the +so-called "Apostolic Canons" were placed at the head of the group. Such +was the condition of the Greek collection when it was translated and +introduced into the West. + + + Its final form. + +In the course of the 6th century the collection was completed by the +addition of documents already in existence, but which had hitherto +remained isolated, notably the canonical letters of several great +bishops, Dionysius of Alexandria, St Basil and others. It was at this +time that the Latin collection of Dionysius Exiguus became known; and +just as he had given the Greek councils a place in his collection, so +from him were borrowed the canons of councils which did not appear in +the Greek collection--the twenty canons of Sardica (343), in the Greek +text, which differs considerably from the Latin; and the council of +Carthage of 410, which itself included, more or less completely, in 105 +canons, the decisions of the African councils. Soon after came the +council _in Trullo_ (692), also called the _Quinisextum_, because it was +considered as complementary to the two councils (5th and 6th ecumenical) +of Constantinople (553 and 680), which had not made any disciplinary +canons. This assembly elaborated 102 canons, which did not become part +of the Western law till much later, on the initiative of Pope John VIII. +(872-881). Now, in the second of its canons, the council in Trullo +recognized and sanctioned the Greek collection above mentioned; it +enumerates all its articles, insists on the recognition of these canons, +and at the same time prohibits the addition of others. As thus defined, +the collection contains the following documents: firstly, the +eighty-five Apostolic Canons, the Constitutions having been put aside as +having suffered heretical alterations; secondly, the canons of the +councils of Nicaea, Ancyra, Neocaesarea, Gangra, Antioch, Laodicea, +Constantinople (381), Ephesus (the disciplinary canons of this council +deal with the reception of the Nestorians, and were not communicated to +the West), Chalcedon, Sardica, Carthage (that of 419, according to +Dionysius), Constantinople (394); thirdly, the series of canonical +letters of the following great bishops--Dionysius of Alexandria, Peter +of Alexandria (the Martyr), Gregory Thaumaturgus, Athanasius, Basil, +Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzus, Amphilochus of Iconium, +Timotheus of Alexandria, Theophilus of Alexandria, Cyril of Alexandria, +Gennadius of Constantinople; the canon of Cyprian of Carthage (the +Martyr) is also mentioned, but with the note that it is only valid for +Africa. With the addition of the twenty-two canons of the ecumenical +council of Nicaea (787), this will give us the whole contents of the +official collection of the Greek Church; since then it has remained +unchanged. The law of the Greek Church was in reality rather the work of +the Byzantine emperors.[4] + + + Nomocanon. + +The collection has had several commentators; we need only mention the +commentaries of Photius (883), Zonaras (1120) and Balsamon (1170). A +collection in which the texts are simply reproduced in their +chronological order is obviously inconvenient; towards 550, Johannes +Scholasticus, patriarch of Constantinople, drew up a methodical +classification of them under fifty heads. Finally should be mentioned +yet another kind of compilation still in use in the Greek Church, +bearing the name of _nomocanon_, because in them are inserted, side by +side with the ecclesiastical canons, the imperial laws on each subject: +the chief of them are the one bearing the name of Johannes Scholasticus, +which belongs, however, to a later date, and that of Photius (883). + + + In the West. + +The canon law of the other Eastern Churches had no marked influence on +the collections of the Western Church, so we need not speak of it here. +While, from the 5th century onwards a certain unification in the +ecclesiastical law began to take place within the sphere of the see of +Constantinople, it was not till later that a similar result was arrived +at in the West. For several centuries there is no mention of any but +local collections of canons, and even these are not found till the 5th +century; we have to come down to the 8th or even the 9th century before +we find any trace of unification. This process was uniformly the result +of the passing on of the various collections from one region to another. + + + Africa. + +The most remarkable, and the most homogeneous, as well as without doubt +the most ancient of these local collections is that of the Church of +Africa. It was formed, so to speak, automatically, owing to the plenary +assemblies of the African episcopate held practically every year, at +which it was customary first of all to read out the canons of the +previous councils. This gave to the collection an official character. At +the time of the Vandal invasion this collection comprised the canons of +the council of Carthage under Gratus (about 348) and under Genethlius +(390), the whole series of the twenty or twenty-two plenary councils +held during the episcopate of Aurelius, and finally, those of the +councils held at Byzacene. Of the last-named we have only fragments, and +the series of the councils under Aurelius is very incomplete. The +African collection has not come to us directly: we have two incomplete +and confused arrangements of it, in two collections, that of the +_Hispana_ and that of Dionysius Exiguus. Dionysius knows only the +council of 419, in connexion with the affair of Apiarius; but in this +single text are reproduced, more or less fully, almost all the synods of +the collection; this was the celebrated _Concilium Africanum_, so often +quoted in the middle ages, which was also recognized by the Greeks. The +Spanish collection divides the African canons among seven councils of +Carthage and one of Mileve; but in many cases it ascribes them to the +wrong source; for example, it gives under the title of the fourth +council of Carthage, the _Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua_, an Arlesian +compilation of Saint Caesarius, which has led to a number of incorrect +references. Towards the middle of the 6th century a Carthaginian deacon, +Fulgentius Ferrandus, drew up a _Breviatio canonum_,[5] a methodical +arrangement of the African collection, in the order of the subjects. +From it we learn that the canons of Nicaea and the other Greek councils, +up to that of Chalcedon, were also known in Africa. + + + Rome. + + Dionysius Exiguus and his collection. + + Dionysio-Hadriana. + +The Roman Church, even more than the rest, governed itself according to +its own customs and traditions. Up to the end of the 5th century the +only canonical document of non-Roman origin which it officially +recognized was the group of canons of Nicaea, under which name were also +included those of Sardica. A Latin version of the other Greek councils +(the one referred to by Dionysius as _prisca_) was known, but no +canonical use was made of it. The local law was founded on usage and on +the papal letters called decretals. The latter were of two kinds: some +were addressed to the bishops of the ecclesiastical province immediately +subject to the pope; the others were issued in answer to questions +submitted from various quarters; but in both cases the doctrine is the +same. At the beginning of the 6th century the Roman Church adopted the +double collection, though of private origin, which was drawn up at that +time by the monk Dionysius, known by the name of Dionysius Exiguus, +which he himself had assumed as a sign of humility. He was a Scythian by +birth, and did not come to Rome till after 496, his learning was +considerable for his times, and to him we owe the employment of the +Christian era and a new way of reckoning Easter. At the desire of +Stephen, bishop of Salona, he undertook the task of making a new +translation, from the original Greek text, of the canons of the Greek +collection. The manuscript which he used contained only the first fifty +of the Apostolic Canons; these he translated, and they thus became part +of the law of the West. This part of the work of Dionysius was not added +to later; it was otherwise with the second part. This embodied the +documents containing the local law, namely 39 decretals of the popes +from Siricius (384-398) to Anastasius II. (496-498). As was natural this +collection received successive additions as further decretals appeared. +The collection formed by combining these two parts remained the only +official code of the Roman Church until the labours undertaken in +consequence of the reforming movement in the 11th century. In 774 Pope +Adrian I. gave the twofold collection of the Scythian monk to the future +emperor Charlemagne as the canonical book of the Roman Church; this is +what is called the _Dionysio-Hadriana_. This was an important stage in +the history of the centralization of canon law; the collection was +officially received by the Frankish Church, imposed by the council of +Aix-la-Chapelle of 802, and from that time on was recognized and quoted +as the _liber canonum_. If we consider that the Church of Africa, which +had already suffered considerably from the Vandal invasion, was at this +period almost entirely destroyed by the Arabs, while the fate of Spain +was but little better, it is easy to see why the collection of Dionysius +became the code of almost the whole of the Western Church, with the +exception of the Anglo-Saxon countries; though here too it was known. + +The other collections of canons, of Italian origin, compiled before the +10th century, are of importance on account of the documents which they +have preserved for us, but as they have not exercised any great +influence on the development of canon law, we may pass them over. + + + In Gaul. + + Quesnel collection. + +The Dionysio-Hadriana did not, when introduced into Gaul, take the place +of any other generally received collection of canons. In this country +the Church had not been centralized round a principal see which would +have produced unity in canon law as in other things; even the political +territorial divisions had been very unstable. The only canonical centre +of much activity was the Church of Arles, which exercised considerable +influence over the surrounding region in the 5th and 6th centuries. The +chief collection known throughout Gaul before the Dionysio-Hadriana was +the so-called collection of Quesnel, named after its first editor.[6] It +is a rich collection, though badly arranged, and contains 98 +documents--Eastern and African canons and papal letters, but no Gallic +councils; so that it is not a collection of local law. We might expect +to find such a collection, in view of the numerous and important +councils held in Gaul, but their decisions remained scattered among a +great number of collections none of which had ever a wide circulation or +an official character. + + + Councils. + +It would be impossible to enumerate here all the Gallic councils which +contributed towards the canon law of that country; we will mention only +the following:--Arles (314), of great importance; a number of councils +in the district of Arles, completed by the _Statuta Ecclesiae antiqua_ +of St Caesarius;[7] the councils of the province of Tours; the +assemblies of the episcopate of the three kingdoms of the Visigoths at +Agde (506), of the Franks at Orleans (511), and of the Burgundians at +Epaone (517); several councils of the kingdoms of the Franks, chiefly at +Orleans; and finally, the synods of the middle of the 8th century, under +the influence of St Boniface. Evidently the impulse towards unity had to +come from without; it began with the alliance between the Carolingians +and the Papacy, and was accentuated by the recognition of the _liber +canonum_. + + + In Spain. + + The Hispana. + +In Spain the case, on the contrary, is that of a strong centralization +round the see of Toledo. Thus we find Spanish canon law embodied in a +collection which, though perhaps not official, was circulated and +received everywhere; this was the Spanish collection, the _Hispana_.[8] +The collection is well put together and includes almost all the +important canonical documents. In the first part are contained the +councils, arranged according to the regions in which they were held: +Greek councils, following a translation of Italian origin, but known by +the name of _Hispana_; African councils, Gallican councils and Spanish +councils. The latter, which form the local section, are further divided +into several classes: firstly, the synods held under the Roman empire, +the chief being that of Elvira[9] (c. 300); next the texts belonging to +the kingdom of the Suevi, after the conversion of these barbarians by St +Martin of Braga: these are, the two councils of Braga (563 and 572), and +a sort of free translation or adaptation of the canons of the Greek +councils, made by Martin of Braga; this is the document frequently +quoted in later days under the name of _Capitula Martini papae_; +thirdly, the decisions of the councils of the Visigothic Church, after +its conversion to Catholicism. Nearly all these councils were held at +Toledo, beginning with the great council of 589. The series continued up +to 694 and was only interrupted by the Mussulman invasion. Finally, the +second part of the _Hispana_ contains the papal decretals, as in the +collection of Dionysius. + +From the middle of the 9th century this collection was to become even +more celebrated; for, as we know, it served as the basis for the famous +collection of the False Decretals. + + + Great Britain and Ireland. + +The Churches of Great Britain and Ireland remained still longer outside +the centralizing movement. Their contribution towards the later system +of canon law consisted in two things: the Penitentials and the influence +of the Irish collection, the other sources of local law not having been +known to the predecessors of Gratian nor to Gratian himself. + + + Penitentials. + +The Penitentials[10] are collections intended for the guidance of +confessors in estimating the penances to be imposed for various sins, +according to the discipline in force in the Anglo-Saxon countries. They +are all of Anglo-Saxon or Irish origin, and although certain of them +were compiled on the continent, under the influence of the island +missionaries, it seems quite certain that a Roman Penitential has never +existed.[11] They are, however, of difficult and uncertain ascription, +since the collections have been largely amended and remodelled as +practice required. Among the most important we may mention those bearing +the names of Vinnianus (d. 589), Gildas (d. 583), Theodore of Canterbury +(d. 690), the Venerable Bede (d. 735) and Egbert of York (732-767); the +Penitentials which are ascribed to St Columbanus, the founder of Luxeuil +and Bobbio (d. 615), and Cumean (Cumine Ailbha, abbot of Iona); in the +Prankish kingdom the most interesting work is the Penitential of +Halitgar, bishop of Cambrai[12] from 817 to 831. As penances had for a +long time been lightened, and the books used by confessors began to +consist more and more of instructions in the style of the later moral +theology (and this is already the case of the books of Halitgar and +Rhabanus Maurus), the canonical collections began to include a greater +or smaller number of the penitential canons. + + + Irish collection. + +The Irish collection,[13] though it introduced no important documents +into the law of the Western Church, at least set canonists the example +of quoting passages from the Scriptures and the writings of the Fathers. +This collection seems to date from the 8th century; besides the usual +sources, the author has included several documents of local origin, +beginning with the pretended synod of St Patrick. + + + The false decretals. + + Systematic collections. + +In the very middle of the 9th century a much enlarged edition of the +_Hispana_ began to be circulated in France. To this rich collection the +author, who assumes the name of Isidore, the saintly bishop of Seville, +added a good number of apocryphal documents already existing, as well as +a series of letters ascribed to the popes of the earliest centuries, +from Clement to Silvester and Damasus inclusive, thus filling up the gap +before the decretal of Siricius, which is the first genuine one in the +collection. The other papal letters only rarely show signs of alteration +or falsification, and the text of the councils is entirely +respected.[14] From the same source and at the same date came two other +forged documents--firstly, a collection of Capitularies, in three books, +ascribed to a certain Benedict (Benedictus Levita),[15] a deacon of the +church of Mainz; this collection, in which authentic documents find very +little place, stands with regard to civil legislation exactly in the +position of the False Decretals with regard to canon law. The other +document, of more limited scope, is a group of _Capitula_ given under +the name of Angilram, bishop of Metz. It is nowadays admitted by all +that these three collections come from the same source. For a study of +the historical questions connected with the famous False Decretals, see +the article DECRETALS (FALSE); here we have only to consider them with +reference to the place they occupy in the formation of ecclesiastical +law. In spite of some hesitation, with regard rather to the official +character than to the historical authenticity of the letters attributed +to the popes of the earlier centuries, the False Decretals were accepted +with confidence, together with the authentic texts which served as a +passport for them. All later collections availed themselves +indiscriminately of the contents of this vast collection, whether +authentic or forged, without the least suspicion. The False Decretals +did not greatly modify nor corrupt the Canon Law, but they contributed +much to accelerate its progress towards unity. For they were the last of +the chronological collections, i.e. those which give the texts in the +order in which they appeared. From this time on, canonists began to +exercise their individual judgment in arranging their collections +according to some systematic order, grouping their materials under +divisions more or less happy, according to the object they had in view. +This was the beginning of a codification of a common canon law, in which +the sources drawn upon lose, as it were, their local character. This is +made even more noticeable by the fact that, in a good number of the +works extant, the author is not content merely to set forth and classify +the texts; but he proceeds to discuss the point, drawing conclusions and +sometimes outlining some controversy on the subject, just as Gratian was +to do more fully later on. + + + Regino. + + Burchard. + + Anselm Deusdedit. + + Ivo of Chartres. + +During this period, which extended from the end of the 9th century to +the middle of the 12th, we can enumerate about forty systematic +collections, of varying value and circulation, which all played a +greater or lesser part in preparing the juridical renaissance of the +12th century, and most of which were utilized by Gratian. We need +mention only the chief of them--the _Collectio Anselmo dedicata_, by an +unknown author of the end of the 9th century; the _Libri duo de +synodalibus causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis_,[16] compiled about +906 by Regino, abbot of Prum, and dedicated to Hatto of Mainz, +relatively a very original treatise; the enormous compilation in twenty +books of Burchard, bishop of Worms (1112-1122), the _Decretum_ or +_Collectarium_,[17] very widely spread and known under the name of +_Brocardum_, of which the 19th book, dealing with the process of +confession, is specially noteworthy. Towards the end of the 11th +century, under the influence of Hildebrand, the reforming movement +makes itself felt in several collections of canons, intended to support +the rights of the Holy See and the Church against the pretensions of the +emperor. To this group belong an anonymous collection, described by M.P. +Fournier as the first manual of the Reform;[18] the collection of +Anselm, bishop of Lucca,[19] in 13 books (1080-1086); that of Cardinal +Deusdedit,[20] in 4 books, dedicated to Pope Victor III. (1086-1087); +and lastly that of Bonizo,[21] bishop of Sutri, in 10 books (1089). In +the 12th century, the canonical works of Ivo of Chartres[22] are of +great importance. His _Panormia_, compiled about 1095 or 1096, is a +handy and well-arranged collection in 8 books; as to the _Decretum_, a +weighty compilation in 17 books, there seems sufficient proof that it is +a collection of material made by Ivo in view of his _Panormia_. To the +12th century belong the collection in the MS. of Saragossa +(_Caesaraugustana_) to which attention was drawn by Antonio Agustin; +that of Cardinal Gregory, called by him the _Polycarpus_, in 8 books +(about 1115); and finally the _Liber de misericordia et justitia_ of +Algerus,[23] scholasticus of Liege, in 3 books, compiled at latest in +1123. + +But all these works were to be superseded by the _Decretum_ of Gratian. + + + The Decretum of Gratian. + +2. _The Decretum of Gratian and the Corpus Juris Canonici._--The work of +Gratian, though prepared and made possible by those of his predecessors, +greatly surpasses them in scientific value and in magnitude. It is +certainly the work which had the greatest influence on the formation of +canon law; it soon became the sole manual, both for teaching and for +practice, and even after the publication of the Decretals was the chief +authority in the universities. The work is not without its faults; +Gratian is lacking in historical and critical faculty; his theories are +often hesitating; but on the whole, his treatise is as complete and as +perfect as it could be; so much so that no other work of the same kind +has been compiled; just as there has never been made another Book of the +Sentences. These two works, which were almost contemporary (Gratian is +only about two years earlier),[24] were destined to have the same fate; +they were the manuals, one for theology, the other for canon law, in use +in all the universities, taught, glossed and commented on by the most +illustrious masters. From this period dates the more marked and +definitive separation between theology and ecclesiastical law. + + + Dicta Gratiani. + + Contents. + + Mode of citation. + +Of Gratian we know practically nothing. He was a Camaldulensian monk of +the convent of St Felix at Bologna, where he taught canon law, and +published, probably in 1148, his treatise called at first _Concordantia +discordantium canonum_, but soon known under the name of the _Decretum_. +Nowadays, and for some time past, the only part of the _Decretum_ +considered is the collection of texts; but it is actually a treatise, in +which the author endeavours to piece together a coherent juridical +system from the vast body of texts, of widely differing periods and +origin, which are furnished by the collections. These texts he inserts +bodily in the course of his dissertation; where they do not agree, he +divides them into opposite groups and endeavours to reconcile them; but +the really original part of his work are the _Dicta Gratiani_, inserted +between the texts, which are still read. Gratian drew his materials from +the existing collections, and especially from the richer of them; when +necessary, he has recourse to the Roman laws, and he made an extensive +use of the works of the Fathers and the ecclesiastical writers; he +further made use of the canons of the recent councils, and the recently +published decretals, up to and including the Lateran council of 1139. +His immense work consists of three parts (_partes_). The first, treating +of the sources of canon law and of ecclesiastical persons and offices, +is divided according to the method of Paucapalea, Gratian's pupil, into +101 _distinctiones_, which are subdivided into _canones_. The second +part consists of 36 _causae_ (cases proposed for solution), subdivided +into _quaestiones_ (the several questions raised by the case), under +each of which are arranged the various _canones_ (canons, decretals, +&c.) bearing on the question. But _causa_ xxxiii. _quaestio_ 3, headed +_Tractatus de Poenitentia_, is divided like the main part into seven +_distinctiones_, containing each several _canones_. The third part, +which is entitled _De Consecratione_, gives, in five _distinctiones_, +the law bearing on church ritual and the sacraments. The following is +the method of citation. A reference to the first part indicates the +initial words or number of the _canon_ and the number of the +_distinctio_, e.g. can. Propter ecclesiasticas, dist. xviii. or c. 15, +d. xviii. The second part is cited by the _canon, causa_ and _quaestio_, +e.g. can. Si quis suadente, C. 17, qu. 4, or c. 29, C. xvii., qu. 4. The +treatise _De Poenitentia_, forming the 3rd _quaestio_ of the 33rd +_causa_ of the second part, is referred to as if it were a separate +work, e.g. c. Principium, D. ii. de poenit. or c. 45, D. ii. de poenit. +In quoting a passage from the third part the _canon_ and _distinctio_ +are given, e.g. c. Missar. solenn. D.I. de consecrat., or c. 12, D.I. +de consecr. + + + Authority. + +Considered from the point of view of official authority, the _Decretum_ +occupies an intermediate position very difficult to define. It is not +and cannot be a really official code, in which every text has the force +of a law. It has never been recognized as such, and the pretended +endorsement of it by Pope Eugenius III. is entirely apocryphal. +Moreover, it could not have become an official code; it would be +impossible to transform into so many laws either the discordant texts +which Gratian endeavoured to reconcile or his own _Dicta_; a treatise on +canon Law is not a code. Further, there was as yet no idea of demanding +an official compilation. The _Decretum_ has thus remained a work of +private authority, and the texts embodied in it have only that legal +value which they possess in themselves. On the other hand, the +_Decretum_ actually enjoys a certain public authority which is unique; +for centuries it has been the text on which has been founded the +instruction in canon law in all the universities; it has been glossed +and commented on by the most illustrious canonists; it has become, +without being a body of laws, the first part of the _Corpus juris +canonici_, and as such it has been cited, corrected and edited by the +popes. It has thus, by usage, obtained an authority perfectly recognized +and accepted by the Church.[25] + + + After Gratian. + +Gratian's collection, for the very reason that it had for its aim the +creation of a systematic canon law, was a work of a transitional +character. Henceforth a significant differentiation began to appear; the +collections of texts, the number of which continued to increase, were +clearly separated from the commentaries in which the canonists continued +the formation and interpretation of the law. Thus the way was prepared +for official collections. The disciples of Gratian, in glossing or +commenting on the _Decretum_, turned to the papal decretals, as they +appeared, for information and the determination of doubtful points. +Their idea, then, was to make collections of these points, to support +their teaching; this is the origin of those _Compilationes_ which were +soon to be embodied in the collection of Gregory IX. But we must not +forget that these compilations were intended by their authors to +complete the _Decretum_ of Gratian; in them were included the decretals +called _extravagantes_, i.e. _quae vagabantur extra Decretum_. This is +why we find in them hardly any documents earlier than the time of +Gratian, and also why canonists have continued to refer to the +decretals of Gregory IX. by the abbreviation X (_Extra_, i.e. _extra +Decretum_). + + + "Quinque compilationes." + + Bernard of Pavia, "Breviarium." + + "Compilatio tertia." + + "Secunda." + + "Quarta." + + "Quinta." + +There were numerous collections of this kind towards the end of the 12th +and at the beginning of the 13th century. Passing over the first +_Additiones_ to the _Decretum_ and the _Appendix concilii Lateranensis_ +(council of 1179), we will speak only of the _Quinque compilationes_,[26] +which served as a basis for the works of Raymond of Pennaforte. The first +and most important is the work of Bernard, provost and afterwards bishop +of Pavia, namely, the _Breviarium extravagantium_, compiled about 1190; +it included the decretals from Alexander III. to Clement III., together +with certain "useful chapters" omitted by Gratian. The important feature +of the book is the arrangement of the decretals or sections of decretals +in five books, divided into titles (_tituli_) logically arranged. The +five books treat of (1) ecclesiastical persons and dignitaries or judges; +(2) procedure; (3) rights, duties and property of the clergy, i.e. +benefices, dues, sacraments, &c., with the exception of marriage, which +is the subject of book (4); (5) of penalties. There is a well-known +hexameter summing up this division: + + _Judex, judicium, clerus, connubia, crimen._ + +This is the division adopted in all the official collections of the +_Corpus juris_. By a bull of the 28th of December 1210 Innocent III. +sent to the university of Bologna an authentic collection of the +decretals issued during the first twelve years of his pontificate; this +collection he had caused to be drawn up by his notary, Petrus +Collivacinus of Benevento, his object being to supersede the collections +in circulation, which were incomplete and to a certain extent spurious. +This was the _Compilatio tertia_; for soon after, Joannes Galensis (John +of Wales) collected the decretals published between the collection of +Bernard of Pavia and the pontificate of Innocent III.; and this, though +of later date, became known as the _Compilatio secunda_. The _quarta_, +the author of which is unknown, contained the decretals of the last six +years of Innocent III., and the important decrees of the Lateran council +of 1215. Finally, in 1226, Honorius III. made an official presentation +to Bologna of his own decretals, this forming the _Compilatio quinta_. + + + Decretals of Gregory IX. + +The result of all these supplements to Gratian's work, apart from the +inconvenience caused by their being so scattered, was the accumulation +of a mass of material almost as considerable as the _Decretum_ itself, +from which they tended to split off and form an independent whole, +embodying as they did the latest state of the law. From 1230 Gregory IX. +wished to remedy this condition of affairs, and gave to his +penitentionary, the Dominican Raymond of Pennaforte, the task of +condensing the five compilations in use into a single collection, freed +from useless and redundant documents. The work was finished in 1234, and +was at once sent by the pope to Bologna with the bull _Rex pacificus_, +declaring it to be official. Raymond adopts Bernard of Pavia's division +into five books and into titles; in each title he arranges the decretals +in chronological order, cutting out those which merely repeat one +another and the less germane parts of those which he preserves; but +these _partes decisae_, indicated by the words "_et infra_" or "_et j,_" +are none the less very useful and have been printed in recent editions. +Raymond does not attempt any original work; to the texts already +included in the _Quinque compilationes_, he adds only nine decretals of +Innocent III. and 196 chapters of Gregory IX. This first official code +was the basis of the second part of the _Corpus juris canonici_. The +collection of Gregory IX. is cited as follows: the opening words of the +chapter are given, or else its order or number, then the title to which +it belongs; earlier scholars added X (_extra_); nowadays, this +indication is omitted, and the order or number of the title in the book +is given instead, e.g. _Quum olim, de Consuetudine_, X.; or cap. 6, _de +consuet._ (I. iv.); that is to say, book I., title iv., _de +consuetudine_, chapter 6, beginning with the words _Quum olim_. + + + Their relation to the general law. + + The "Liber Sextus." + +Though Gregory IX. wished to supersede the _compilationes_, he had no +idea of superseding the _Decretum_ of Gratian, still less of codifying +the whole of the canon law. Though his collection is still in theory the +chief monument of ecclesiastical law, it only marked a certain stage and +was before long to receive further additions. The reason for this is +that in most cases the decretals did not formulate any law, but were +merely solutions of particular cases, given as models; to arrive at the +abstract law it was necessary to examine the solution in each case with +regard to the circumstances and thus formulate a rule; this was the work +of the canonists. The "decretalists" commented on the new collection, as +the "decretists" had done for that of Gratian; but the canonists were +not legislators: even the summaries which they placed at the head of the +chapters could not be adduced as legislative texts. The abstract law was +to be found rather in the _Summae_ of the canonists than in the +decretals. Two important results, however, were achieved: on the one +hand, supplementary collections on private authority ceased to be made, +for this Gregory IX. had forbidden; on the other hand, the collections +were no longer indefinitely swelled by the addition of new decisions in +particular cases, those already existing being enough to form a basis +for the codification of the abstract law; and for this reason subsequent +collections contain as a rule only the "constitutions" of popes or +councils, i.e. rules laid down as of general application. Hence arose a +separation, which became more and more marked, between legislation and +jurisprudence. This change was not produced suddenly, the old method +being at first adhered to. In 1245 Innocent IV. sent to the universities +a collection of 45 decretals, with the order that they should be +inserted under their proper titles in the collection of Gregory IX. In +1253 he sent a further list of the first words (_principia_) of the +complementary constitutions and decretals; but the result was +practically _nil_ and the popes gave up this system of successive +additions. It was, however, found expedient to publish a new official +collection. At the instance of the university of Bologna, Boniface +VIII., himself an eminent canonist, had this prepared by a committee of +canonists and published it in 1298. As it came as an addition to the +five books of Gregory IX., it was called the sixth book, the _Liber +Sextus_. It includes the constitutions subsequent to 1234, and notably +the decrees of the two ecumenical councils of Lyons, and is arranged in +books and titles, as above described; the last title, _de regulis +juris_, contains no less than eighty-eight legal axioms, mostly borrowed +from Roman law. The _Liber Sextus_ is cited like the decretals of +Gregory IX., only with the addition of: _in sexto_ (in VI^o.). + + + The "Clementinae." + +The same observations apply to the next collection, the _Clementinae_. +It was prepared under the care of Clement V., and even promulgated by +him in consistory in March 1314; but in consequence of the death of the +pope, which took place almost immediately after, the publication and +despatch of the collection to the universities was postponed till 1317, +under John XXII. It includes the constitutions of Clement V., and above +all, the decrees of the council of Vienne of 1311, and is divided, like +preceding collections, into books and titles; it is cited in the same +way, with the additional indication _Clem-(entina)_. + + + "Extravagantes" of John XXII. + + And "communes." + +At this point the official collections stop. The two last, which have +found a place in the editions of the _Corpus_, are collections of +private authority, but in which all the documents are authentic. +Evidently the strict prohibition of the publishing of collections not +approved by the Holy See had been forgotten. The _Extravagantes_ (i.e. +_extra collectiones publicas_) of John XXII. number 20, and are +classified under fourteen titles. The _Extravagantes communes (i.e._ +coming from several popes) number 73, from Boniface VIII. to Sixtus IV. +(1484), and are classified in books and titles. These two collections +were included in the edition of Jean Chappuis in 1500; they passed into +the later editions, and are considered as forming part of the _Corpus +juris canonici_. As such, and without receiving any complementary +authority, they have been corrected and re-edited, like the others, by +the _Correctores romani_. They are cited, like the decretals, with a +further indication of the collection to which they belong: _Extrav. Jo. +XXII._, or _inter-comm-(unes)._ + + + The "Corpus juris canonici." + +Thus was closed, as the canonists say, the _Corpus juris canonici_; but +this expression, which is familiar to us nowadays, is only a +bibliographical term. Though we find in the 15th century, for example, +at the council of Basel the expression _corpus juris_, obviously +suggested by the _Corpus juris civilis_, not even the official edition +of Gregory XIII. has as its title the words _Corpus juris canonici_. and +we do not meet with this title till the Lyons edition of 1671. + + + The study of canon law. + + The glosses. + + The "Summae." + +The history of the canonical collections forming the _Corpus juris_ +would not be complete without an account of the labours of which they +were the object. We know that the universities of the middle ages +contained a Faculty of Decrees, with or without a Faculty of Laws, i.e. +civil law. The former made _doctores decretorum_, the latter _doctores +legum_. The teaching of the _magistri_ consisted in oral lessons +(_lecturae_) directly based on the text. The short remarks explanatory +of words in the text, originally written in the margin, became the gloss +which, formed thus by successive additions, took a permanent form and +was reproduced in the manuscripts of the _Corpus_, and later in the +various editions, especially in the official Roman edition of 1582; it +thus acquired by usage a kind of semi-official authority. The chief of +the _glossatores_ of the _Decretum_ of Gratian were Paucapalea, the +first disciple of the master, Rufinus (1160-1170), John of Faenza (about +1170), Joannes Teutonicus (about 1210), whose glossary, revised and +completed by Bartholomeus Brixensis (of Brescia) became the _glossa +ordinaria decreti_. For the decretals we may mention Vincent the +Spaniard and Bernard of Botone (Bernardus Parmensis, d. 1263), author of +the _Glossa ordinaria_. That on the _Liber Sextus_ is due to the famous +Joannes Andreae (c. 1340); and the one which he began for the +Clementines was finished later by Cardinal Zabarella (d. 1417). The +commentaries not so entirely concerned with the text were called +_Apparatus_; and _Summae_ was the name given to general treatises. The +first of these works are of capital importance in the formation of a +systematic canon law. Such were the _Summae_ of the first disciples of +Gratian: Paucapalea (1150),[27] Rolando Bandinelli[28] (afterwards +Alexander III., c. 1150), Rufinus[29] (c. 1165), Etienne of Tournai[30] +(Stephanus Tornacensis, c. 1168), John of Faenza (c. 1170), Sicard, +bishop of Cremona (c. 1180), and above all Huguccio (c. 1180). For the +Decretals we should mention: Bernard of Pavia[31] (c. 1195), Sinibaldo +Fieschi (Innocent IV., c. 1240), Henry of Susa (d. 1271), commonly +called (cardinalis) Hostiensis, whose _Summa Hostiensis_ or _Summa +aurea_ is a work of the very highest order; Wilhelmus Durantis or +Durandus, Joannes Andreae, Nicolas de Tudeschis (_abbas siculus_), &c. +The 15th century produced few original treatises; but after the council +of Trent the _Corpus juris_ was again commented on by distinguished +canonists, e.g. the Jesuit Paul Laymann (1575-1635), the Portuguese +Agostinho Barbosa (1590-1649), Manuel Gonzalez Tellez (d. 1649) and +Prospero Fagnani (1598-1687), who, although blind, was secretary to the +Congregation of the Council. But as time goes on, the works gradually +lose the character of commentaries on the text, and develop into +expositions of the law as a whole. + + + Editions. + + The "Correctores romani." + + "Institutiones Lancelotti." + +We can mention here only the chief editions of the _Corpus_. The council +of Trent, as we know, ordered that the official books of the Roman +Church--sacred books, liturgical books, &c.--should be issued in +official and more correct editions; the compilations of ecclesiastical +law were also revised. The commission of the _Correctores romani_,[32] +established about 1563 by Pius IV., ended its work under Gregory XIII +and the official edition, containing the text and the glosses, appeared +at Rome in 1582. Richter's edition (2 vols., Leipzig, 1839) remains +valuable, but has been greatly surpassed by that of E. Friedberg +(Leipzig, 1879-1881). Many editions contain also the _Institutiones_ +composed at the command of Paul IV. (1555-1559) by Giovanni Paolo +Lancelotti, a professor of Bologna, on the model of the Institutes of +Justinian. The work has merits, but has never been officially approved. + +Though the collections of canon law were to receive no more additions, +the source of the laws was not dried up; decisions of councils and popes +continued to appear; but there was no attempt made to collect them. +Canonists obtained the recent texts as they could. Moreover, it was an +epoch of trouble: the great Schism of the West, the profound divisions +which were its result, the abuses which were to issue in the +Reformation, were conditions little favourable for a reorganization of +the ecclesiastical laws. Thus we are brought to the third period. + +3. _After the Council of Trent._--The numerous important decrees made by +the council of Trent, in the second part of its sessions, called _de +reformatione_, are the starting-point of the canon law in its latest +stage, _jus novissimum_; it is this which is still in force in the Roman +Church. It has in no way undermined the official status of the _Corpus +juris_; but it has completed the legislation of the latter in many +important respects, and in some cases reformed it. + + + Final state of the law. + +The law during this period, as abstracted from the texts and +compilations, suggests the following remarks. The laws are formulated in +general terms, and the decisions in particular cases relegated to the +sphere of jurisprudence; and the canonists have definitely lost the +function which fell to them in the 12th and 13th centuries: they receive +the law on authority and no longer have to deduce it from the texts. The +legislative power is powerfully centralized in the hands of the pope: +since the reforming decrees of the council of Trent it is the pontifical +constitutions alone which have made the common law; the ecumenical +council, doubtless, has not lost its power, but none were held until +that of the Vatican (1870), and this latter was unable to occupy itself +with matters of discipline. Hence the separation, increasingly marked, +between the common law and the local laws, which cannot derogate from +the common law except by concession of the Holy See, or by right of a +lawfully authorized custom. This centralization, in its turn, has +greatly increased the tendency towards unity and uniformity, which have +reached in the present practice of the Roman Church a degree never known +before, and considered by some to be excessive. + + + Dispersion of the texts. + +If we now consider the laws in themselves, we shall find that the +dispersed condition of the legislative documents has not been modified +since the closure of the _Corpus juris_; on the contrary the enormous +number of pontifical constitutions, and of decrees emanating from the +Roman Congregations, has greatly aggravated the situation; moreover, the +attempts which have been made to resume the interrupted process of +codification have entirely failed. As regards the texts, the canon law +of to-day is in a very similar position to that of English law, which +gave rise to J.S. Mill's saying: "All ages of English history have given +one another rendezvous in English law; their several products may be +seen all together, not interfused, but heaped one upon another, as many +different ages of the earth may be read in some perpendicular section of +its surface."[33] Nothing has been abrogated, except in so far as this +has been implicitly demanded by subsequent laws. From this result +insoluble controversies and serious uncertainties, both in the study and +practice of the law; and, finally, it has become impossible for most +people to have a first-hand knowledge of the actual laws. + + + Decrees of the Council of Trent. + + Pontifical constitutions. + + Decrees of the Curia. + +For this third period, the most important and most considerable of the +canonical texts is the body of disciplinary decrees of the council of +Trent (1545-1563). In consequence of the prohibition issued by Pius IV., +they have not been published separately from the dogmatic texts and +other acts, and have not been glossed;[34] but their official +interpretation has been reserved by the popes to the "Congregation of +the cardinal interpreters of the Council of Trent," whose decisions form +a vast collection of jurisprudence. Next in importance come the +pontifical constitutions, which are collected together in the +_Bullarium_; but this is a collection of private authority, if we except +the _Bullarium_ of Benedict XIV., officially published by him in 1747; +further, the _Bullarium_ is a compilation arranged in chronological +order, and its dimensions make it rather unwieldy. In the third place +come the decrees of the Roman Congregations, which have the force of +law. Several of these organs of the papal authority have published +official collections, in which more place is devoted to jurisprudence +than to laws; several others have only private compilations, or even +none at all, among others the most important, viz. the Holy Office (see +CURIA ROMANA). The resulting confusion and uncertainty may be imagined. + + + "Liber septimus" of P. Mathieu. + + of Clement VIII. + +These drawbacks were felt a long time back, and to this feeling we owe +two attempts at a supplementary codification which were made in the 16th +century, both of which are known under the name of _Liber Septimus_. The +first was of private origin, and had as its author Pierre Mathieu, the +Lyons jurist (1563-1621); it appeared in 1590 at Lyons. It is a +continuation of the _Extravagantes communes_, and includes a selection +of papal constitutions, from Sixtus IV. (1471-1484) to Sixtus V. +(1585-1590) inclusive, with the addition of a few earlier documents. It +follows the order of the decretals. This collection has been of some +service, and appears as an appendix in many editions of the _Corpus +juris_; the chief reason for its failure is that it has no official +sanction. The second attempt was official, but it came to nothing. It +was connected with the movement of reform and revision which followed +the council of Trent. Immediately after the publication of the official +edition of the _Corpus juris_, Gregory XIII. appointed a committee of +cardinals charged with the task of drawing up a _Liber septimus_. Sixtus +V. hurried on its execution, which was rapidly proceeded with, mainly +owing to Cardinal Pinelli, who submitted the draft of it to Clement +VIII. The pope had this Liber VII. printed as a basis for further +researches; but after long deliberations the volume was suppressed, and +the idea of a fresh codification was abandoned. The collection included +the decrees of the council of Trent, and a number of pontifical +constitutions, arranged in the order of the titles of the decretals.[35] +But even had it been promulgated, it is doubtful whether it would have +improved the situation. It would merely have added another collection to +the previous ones, which were already too voluminous, without resulting +in any useful abrogations. + + + Demand for codification. + + Decision of Pius X. + + Method. + +4. _The Future Codification._--Neither Clement VIII. nor, at a later +date, Benedict XIV., could have dreamt of the radical reform at present +in course of execution. Instead of accumulating the texts of the laws in +successive collections, it is proposed entirely to recast the system of +editing them. This codification in a series of short articles was +suggested by the example of the French codes, the history of which +during the 19th century is well known. From all quarters the Catholic +episcopate had submitted to the Vatican council petitions in this sense. +"It is absolutely clear," said some French bishops, "and has for a long +time past been universally acknowledged and asserted, that a revision +and reform of the canon law is necessary and most urgent. As matters now +stand, in consequence of the many and grave changes in human affairs and +in society, many laws have become useless, others difficult or +impossible to obey. With regard to a great number of canons, it is a +matter of dispute whether they are still in force or are abrogated. +Finally, in the course of so many centuries, the number of +ecclesiastical laws has increased to such an extent, and these laws have +accumulated in such immense collections, that in a certain sense we can +well say: We are crushed beneath the laws, _obruimur legibus_. Hence +arise infinite and inextricable difficulties which obstruct the study of +canon law; an immense field for controversy and litigation; a thousand +perplexities of conscience; and finally contempt for the laws."[36] We +know how the Vatican council had to separate without approaching the +question of canonical reform; but this general desire for a recasting of +the ecclesiastical code was taken up again on the initiative of Rome. On +the 19th of March 1904, Pius X. published a _Motu proprio, "de ecclesiae +legibus in unum redigendis_." After briefly reviewing the present +condition of the canonical texts and collections, he pointed out its +inconvenience, referred to the many requests from the episcopate, and +decreed the preparation of a general code of canon law. This immense +undertaking involved the codification of the entire canon law, drawing +it up in a clear, short and precise form, and introducing any expedient +modifications and reforms. For this purpose the pope appointed a +commission of cardinals, of which he himself became president; also a +commission of "consultors" resident at Rome, which asked for a certain +amount of assistance from canonists at various universities and +seminaries. Further, the assembled bishops of each province were invited +to give their opinion as to the points in which they considered the +canon law might profitably be modified or abrogated. Two consultors had +the duty of separately drawing up a preliminary plan for each title, +these projects being twice submitted for the deliberation of the +commission (or sub-commission) of consultors, the version adopted by +them being next submitted to the commission of cardinals, and the whole +finally sent up for the papal sanction. These commissions started work +at the end of 1904. + + + Local law. + +_Local Law._--The common law of the Roman Church cannot by itself +uniformly regulate all the churches of the different nations; each of +them has its own local law, which we must briefly mention here. In +theory, this law has as its author the local ecclesiastical authorities, +councils or bishops; but this is true only for laws and regulations +which are in harmony with the common law, merely completing or defining +it. But if it is a question of derogating from the common law, the +authority of the Holy See must intervene to legalize these derogations. +This intervention takes the form either of "indults," i.e. graceful +concessions granted at the request of the episcopate, or of special +approbation of conciliary resolutions. It would, however, be impossible +to mention any compilations containing only local law. Whether in the +case of national or provincial councils, or of diocesan synods, the +chief object of the decrees is to reinforce, define or apply the law; +the measures which constitute a derogation have only a small place in +them. It is, then, only in a limited sense that we can see a local canon +law in the councils of the various regional churches. Having made this +remark, we must distinguish between the countries which are still +subject to the system of concordats and other countries. + + + Countries subject to concordats. + +In the case of the former, the local law is chiefly founded on the +concordat (q.v.), including the derogations and privileges resulting +from it. The chief thing to note is the existence, for these countries, +of a civil-ecclesiastical law, that is to say, a body of regulations +made by the civil authority, with the consent, more or less explicit, of +the Church, about ecclesiastical matters, other than spiritual; these +dispositions are chiefly concerned with the nomination or confirmation +by the state of ecclesiastics to the most important benefices, and with +the administration of the property of the Church; sometimes also with +questions of jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, concerning the +persons or property of the Church. It is plain that the agreements under +the concordats have a certain action upon a number of points in the +canonical laws; and all these points go to constitute the local +concordatory law. This is the case for Austria, Spain, Portugal, +Bavaria, the Prussian Rhine provinces, Alsace, Belgium, and, in America, +Peru. Up to 1905 it was also the case in France, where the ancient local +customs now continue, pending the reorganization of the Church without +the concordat. + +We do not imply that in other countries the Church can always find +exemption from legislative measures imposed upon her by the civil +authorities, for example, in Italy, Prussia and Russia; but here it is a +situation _de facto_ rather than _de jure_, which the Church tolerates +for the sake of convenience; and these regulations only form part of the +local canon law in a very irregular sense. + + + Other Countries. + +In other countries the episcopal assemblies lay down the local law. +England has its council of Westminster (1852), the United States their +plenary councils of Baltimore (1852, 1866, 1884), without mentioning the +diocesan synods; and the whole of Latin America is ruled by the special +law of its plenary council, held at Rome in 1899. The same is the case +with the Eastern Churches united to the Holy See; following the example +of the famous council of Lebanon for the Maronites, held in 1730, and +that of Zamosc for the Ruthenians, in 1720, these churches, at the +suggestion of Leo XIII., have drawn up in plenary assembly their own +local law: the Syrians at Sciarfa in 1888; the Ruthenians at Leopol in +1891; and a little later, the Copts. The framing of local law will +certainly be more clear and more easy when the general code of canon law +has been published. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the texts and collections: the dissertations of Dom + Coustant, _De antiquis canonum collectionibus, deque variis + epistolarum Rom. Pont, editionibus_ (Paris, 1721); P. de Marca, _De + veteribus collectionibus canonum_ (Paris, 1681); the brothers Peter + and Jerome Ballerini, _De antiquis tum editis tum ineditis + collectionibus et collectoribus canonum ad Gratianum usque_ (Venice, + 1757). This is the best of all these works; it is reproduced in Migne, + _P.L._, vol. 56; C. Seb. Berardi, _De variis sacrorum canonum + collectionibus ante Gratianum_ (Turin, 1752); P. Quesnel, _De codice + canonum Ecclesiae Romanae; de variis fidei libellis in antiquo Rom. + Eccl. codice contentis; de primo usu codicis canonum Dionysii Exigui + in Gallicanis regionibus_ (Paris, 1675; with the critical notes of the + brothers Ballerini, also in Migne, _loc. cit._); and finally, Florent, + _De methodo atque auctoritate collectionis Gratiani_ (Paris, 1679), + and Antonio Agustin, archbishop of Tarragona, _De emendatione + Gratiani_ (Tarragona, 1586); these have all been brought together in + Gallandi, _De vetustis canonum collectionibus dissertationum sylloge_ + (Venice, 1778). The most complete work on the texts up to the 9th + century is F. Maassen, _Geschichte der Quellen und der Literatur des + canonischen Rechts im Abendlande_, vol. i. (all that has yet appeared, + Gratz, 1870). For the period between the False Decretals and Gratian, + there is no work of this sort, but the materials have been put + together and published in part by M.P. Fournier. After Gratian, the + classic work is Schulte, _Geschichte der Quellen und Literatur des + canonischen Rechts von Gratian bis auf die Gegenwart_ (3 vols., + Stuttgart, 1875 et. seq.). Manuals for the study of the sources: Ph. + Schneider, _Die Lehre von den Kirchenrechtsquellen_ (Regensburg, + 1892); F. Laurin, _Introductio in Corpus juris canonici_ (Freiburg, + 1889); Tardif, _Histoire des sources du droit canonique_ (Paris, + 1887). Most of the German manuals on canon law devote considerable + space to the history of the sources: see Phillips, vol. ii (3rd ed., + 1857; French translation by the abbe Crouzet); Vering, 3rd ed. + (Freiburg, 1893); Schulte, _Das katholische Kirchenrecht_, pt. i. + (Giessen, 1860), &c. For the Greek Church: Pitra, _Juris ecclesiae + graecorum historia et monumenta_ (Rome, 1864); the later history of + the Greek law: Zachariae, _Historiae juris graecorum delineatio_ + (Heidelberg, 1839); Mortreuil, _Histoire du droit byzantin_ (Paris, + 1843-1846); the recent texts in the _Conciliorum Collectio lacensis_, + vol. ii.; _Acta et decreta s. conciliorum, quae ab episcopis rituum + orientalium ab a. 1682 usque ad a. 1789 indeque ad a. 1869 sunt + celebrata_ (Freiburg, 1876). Short manual of Institutions: Jos. + Papp-Szilagyi, _Enchiridion juris eccl. orientalis catholicae_ + (Magno-Varadini, 1862). For recent canonical texts: Richter's edition + of the council of Trent (Leipzig, 1863); the _Collectanea S.C. de + Propaganda Fide_ (Rome, 1893); the _Bullarium_, a collection of papal + acts and constitutions; the editions of Cocquelines (28 vols., Rome, + 1733-1756), and of Cherubini (19 vols., Luxemburg, 1727-1758), which + are better than the enlarged reprint of Turin, which was unfinished + (it goes up to 1730). The official edition of the _Bullarium_ of + Benedict XIV. (4 vols., Rome, 1754-1758) has been reprinted several + times and is of great importance; the continuation of the _Bullarium_ + since Benedict XIV. has been published by Barberi, _Bullarii romani + continuatio_, in 20 vols., going up to the fourth year of Gregory XVI. + Every year, since 1854, has been printed a collection of pontifical + acts, _Acta Pii IX., Acta Leonis XIII._, &c., which are the + equivalents of the _Bullarium_. Dictionaries: Durand de Maillane, + _Dictionnaire canonique_ (Paris, 1786), re-edited by Andre under the + title, _Cours alphabetique et methodique de droit canonique_, and by + Wagner (Paris, 1894), has Gallican tendencies; Ferraris, _Prompta + bibliotheca canonica_, &c., several new and enlarged editions; the + best is that of Migne (1866), completed by Father Bucceroni, _Ferraris + Supplementum_ (Rome, 1899). Articles on canon law in Wetzer und + Welte's _Kirchenlexicon_ (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1880 et seq.); Hauck, + _Realencyklopadie fur prot. Theologie und Kirche_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, + 1877-1888); Vacant-Mangenot's _Dictionnaire de theologie catholique_, + in course of publication (Paris, 1899 et seq.). Periodicals: _Analecta + juris pontificii_, ed. by Mgr. Chaillot (1863-1889); _Analecta + ecclesiastica_ (since 1893); _Acta Sanctae sedis_ (since 1865); + _Archiv fur kathol. Kirchenrecht_ (since 1857); _Le Canoniste + contemporain_ (since 1878). (A. Bo.*) + +_Canon Law in England and in the Anglican Communion_.--There were +matters in which the local English and Irish canon law, even before the +16th century, differed from that obtaining on the western part of the +European continent. Thus (1), it has been said that--whereas the +continental canon law recognized a quadripartite division of Church +revenue of common right between (a) the bishop, (b) the clergy, (c) the +poor, (d) the fabric--the English law maintained a tripartite +division--(a) clergy, (b) the poor, (c) the fabric. Lord Selborne +(_Ancient Facts and Fictions concerning Churches and Tithes_, 2nd ed., +1892) denies that there was any division of tithe in England. (2) By the +general canon law the burden of repairing the nave, as well as the +chancel of the church, was upon the parson or rector who collected the +whole tithe. But the custom of England transferred this burden to the +parishioners, and some particular local customs (as in the city of +London) placed even the burden of repair of the chancel on them. To meet +this burden church rates were levied. (3) A church polluted by the +shedding of blood, as by suicide or murder, was reconsecrated on the +continent. In England the custom was (and is) simply to "reconcile." (4) +A much more important difference, if the decision of the Irish court of +exchequer chamber upheld in the House of Lords, where the peers were +equally divided, correctly stated the English Canon law (_Reg._ v. +_Millis_, 10 Cl. & Fin., 534) was in regard to the essentials of +marriage. By the general Western canon law before the council of Trent, +the parties themselves were said to be the "ministers of the Sacrament" +in the case of holy matrimony. The declared consent of the parties to +take each other there and then constituted at once (although +irregularly) holy matrimony. The presence of priest or witnesses was not +necessary. In _Reg._ v. _Millis_, however, it was held that in England +it was always otherwise and that here the presence of a priest was +necessary. High authorities, however, have doubted the historical +accuracy of this decision. (5) The addition of houses of priests to the +provincial synods seems peculiar to England and Ireland. + +The historical position of the general canon law of the Catholic Church +in the English provinces has, since the separation from Rome, been the +subject of much consideration by English lawyers and ecclesiastics. The +view taken by the king's courts, and acquiesced in by the ecclesiastical +courts, since Henry VIII., is that the Church of England was always an +independent national church, subject indeed to the general principles of +the _jus commune ecclesiasticum_ (Whitlock J. in _Ever_ v. _Owen_, +Godbolt's Reports, 432), but unbound by any particular constitutions of +council or pope; unless those constitutions had been "received" here by +English councils, or so recognized by English courts (secular or +spiritual) as to become part of the ecclesiastical custom of the realm. +Foreign canon law never bound (so it has been taught) _proprio vigore_. + +The sources of English ecclesiastical law (purely ecclesiastical) were +therefore (1) the principles of the _jus commune ecclesiasticum_; (2) +foreign particular constitutions received here, as just explained; (3) +the constitutions and canons of English synods (cf. _Phill. Ecc. Law_, +part i. ch. iv., and authorities there cited). + +1. On the existence of this _jus commune ecclesiasticum_ and that the +Church of England, in whatever sense independent, takes it over until +she repeals it, see _Escott_ v. _Mastin_, 4 Moo. _P.C.C._ 119. Lord +Brougham, in delivering the judgment, speaks of the "common law +prevailing for 1400 years over Christian Europe," and (p. 137) says that +"nothing but express enactment can abrogate the common law of all +Christendom before the Reformation of the Anglican Church." + +2. As to foreign particular constitutions in England, there are a great +number of them, of which it has been and is admitted, that they have +currency in England. However papal in their origin, post-Reformation +lawyers have regarded them as valid, unless they can be shown to be +contrary to the king's prerogative, or to the common or statute law of +the realm. To this doctrine express statutory authority (as the events +have happened) has been given by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, sect. 7. A +striking example of the doctrine is furnished by the decree of Innocent +III. in the Fourth Lateran Council against pluralities. This decree was +enforced in the court of Arches against a pluralist clerk in 1848 +(_Burder_ v. _Mavor_, I Roberts, 614). The courts of common law from +Lord Coke's time downwards have recognized this "constitution of the +pope" (as the queen's bench called it in 1598). The exchequer chamber, +in 1837, declared it to have "become part of the common law of the land" +(_Alstan_ v. _Atlay, 7 A._ and _E._ 289). + +3. The particular constitutions of English synods are numerous and cover +a large field. At least in legal theory, the only distinction between +pre-Reformation and post-Reformation constitutions is in favour of the +former--so long as they do not contravene the royal prerogative or the +law of the land (see 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19). The most important are +collected together and digested (so far as regards England) in +Lyndwood's _Provinciale_, a work which remains of great authority in +English courts. These constitutions are again divided into two classes: +(a) provincial constitutions promulgated by provincial synods, usually +in the name of the presiding archbishop or bishop; and (b) decrees of +papal legates, Otho in 1236 and Othobon (Ottobuono de' Fieschi, +afterwards Pope Adrian V.) in 1269. Canons passed since 25 Hen. VIII. c. +19 have not the parliamentary confirmation which that act has been held +to give to previous canons, and do not necessarily bind the laity, +although made under the king's licence and ratified by him. This +doctrine laid down by Lord Hardwicke in _Middleton_ v. _Croft_ (2 +_Stra_. 1056) was approved in 1860 in _Marshall_ v. _Bp. of Exeter_ +(L.R. 3 H.L. 17). Nevertheless, there are many provisions in these +post-Reformation canons which are declaratory of the ancient usage and +law of the Church, and the law which they thus record is binding on the +laity. The chief body of English post-Reformation canon law is to be +found in the canons of 1603, amended in 1865 and 1888. The canons of +1640 are apparently upon the same footing as those of 1603; +notwithstanding objections made at the time that they were void because +convocation continued to sit after the dissolution of parliament. The +opinion of all the judges taken at the time was in favour of the +legality of this procedure. 13 Car. ii. c. 12 simply provided that these +canons should not be given statutory force by the operation of that act. + +In addition to the enactment of canons (strictly so-called) the English +provincial synods since the Henrician changes have legislated--in 1570 +by the enactment of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in 1661 by approving the +present Book of Common Prayer, and in 1873 by approving shorter forms of +matins and evensong. + +The distinction between pre-Henrician and post-Henrician procedure lies +in the requirement, since 25 Hen. VIII., of the royal licence and +confirmation. Apparently diocesan synods may still enact valid canons +without the king's authority; but these bodies are not now called. + +The prevailing legal view of the position of the Church of England in +regard to canon law has been just stated, and that is the view taken by +judicial authority for the past three centuries. On the other hand, it +is suggested by, e.g., the late Professor Maitland, that it was not, in +fact, the view taken here in the later middle ages--that in those ages +there was no theory that "reception" here was necessary to validate +papal decrees. It is said by this school of legal historians that, from +the Conquest down to Henry VIII., the Church of England was regarded by +churchmen not as in any sense as separate entity, but as two provinces +of the extra-territorial, super-national Catholic Church, and that the +pope at this period was contemplated as the _princeps_ of this Catholic +Church, whose edicts bound everywhere, as those of Augustus had bound in +the Roman empire. + +It is right that this view should be stated, but it is not that of the +writer of this article. + +As to _Ireland_, in a national synod of the four Irish provinces held at +Dublin before the four archbishops, in 1634, a hundred canons were +promulgated with the royal licence, containing much matter not dealt +with by similar constitutions in England. In 1711, some further canons +were promulgated (with royal licence) by another national synod. Some +forms of special prayer were appended to these canons. + +In 1869 the Irish Church Act (32 and 33 Vict. c. 42) "disestablished" +the Irish Church, sect. 19 repealed any act of parliament, law or custom +whereby the bishops, clergy or laity of the said church were prohibited +from holding synods or electing representatives thereto for the purpose +of making rules for the well-being and ordering of the said church, and +enacted that no such law, &c., should hinder the said bishops, clergy +and laity, by such representatives, lay and clerical, and so elected as +they shall appoint, from meeting in general synod or convention and in +such general synod or convention forming constitutions and providing for +future representation of the members of the church in diocesan synods, +general convention or otherwise. The Church of Ireland, so set free, +created for herself new legislative authorities, unknown to the old +canon law, viz. mixed synods of clergy and laity, and a system of +representation by election, unknown to primitive or medieval times. +Similar changes had, however, been introduced during the preceding +century in some parts of the Anglican communion outside the British +Isles (see _infra_). Sect. 20 of the same statute kept alive the old +ecclesiastical law of Ireland by way of assumed contract (cf. +ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION). + +Under the provisions of this statute, the "archbishops and bishops of +the ancient Apostolic and Catholic Church of Ireland" (so they describe +themselves), together with representatives of the clergy and laity, +assembled in 1870, in "General Convention," to "provide for the +regulation" of that church. This Convention declared that a General +Synod of the archbishops and bishops, with representatives of the clergy +and laity, should have chief legislative power in the Irish Church, with +such administrative power as might be necessary and consistent with the +church's episcopal constitution. This General Synod was to consist of +two Houses--the House of Bishops and the House of Lay and Clerical +Representatives. No question was to be carried unless there were in its +favour a majority of the clerical and lay representatives, voting either +conjointly or by orders, and also a majority of the bishops, should they +desire to vote. This General Synod was given full power to alter or +amend canons, or to repeal them, or to enact new ones. For any +alteration or amendment of "articles, doctrines, rites or rubrics," a +two-thirds majority of each order of the representative house was +required and a year's delay for consultation of the diocesan synods. +Provisions were made as to lay representation in the diocesan synods. +The Convention also enacted some canons and a statute in regard to +ecclesiastical tribunals (see ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION). It expressly +provided that its own legislation might be repealed or amended by future +general synods. + +In 1871 the General Synod attempted to codify its canon law in +forty-eight canons which, "and none other," were to have force and +effect as the canons of the Church of Ireland. Since 1871 the General +Synod has, from time to time, put forth other canons. + +The post-Reformation history of canon law in the Anglican communion in +_Scotland_ has differed from the story of that law in the last four +centuries in Ireland. After the legislation under William and Mary +disestablishing episcopacy in Scotland and subjecting its professors to +civil penalties, little attention was given to canon law for many years. +Synods of bishops at Edinburgh in 1724 and 1731 dealt with some disputed +questions of ritual and ceremonial. In 1743 an assembly of five bishops +enacted sixteen canons. A "primus" was to be chosen indifferently from +the bishops, but to have no other powers than those of convoking and +presiding over synods. He was to hold office only during pleasure of the +other bishops. Bishops were to be elected by the presbyters of the +district. Such election was subject to the confirmation of the majority +of the bishops. In 1811, a "Code of Canons" was enacted by a "General +Ecclesiastical Synod," consisting of the bishops, the deans (viz. +presbyters appointed by the bishops in each diocese to defend the +interests of the presbyters and now for the first time given "decisive" +voice in synods) and certain clerical representatives from the +"districts" or dioceses. Future synods, called for the purpose of +altering the code, were to consist of two chambers. The first was to be +composed of the bishops; the second to consist of the "deans" and +clerical representatives. No law or canon was to be enacted or +abrogated, save by the consent of both chambers. These canons were +revised in 1828, 1829 and 1838. The code of this last year created +diocesan synods, to be held annually and to consist of the bishop, dean +and all instituted clergy of the diocese. It also provided for the +annual meeting of a purely episcopal synod, which was to receive appeals +from either clergy or laity. In 1862-1863, another General Synod further +revised and amended the Code of Canons. This revised code enabled the +bishop to appoint a learned and discreet layman to act as his +chancellor, to advise him in legal matters and be his assessor at +diocesan synods. Assistant curates and mission priests were, under +certain restrictions, given seats in diocesan synods. Male communicants +were also permitted to be present at such synods, with a deliberative +but not "decisive" voice; unless in special circumstances the bishop +excluded them. Canon 46 provides that "if any question shall arise as to +the interpretation of this Code of Canons or of any part thereof, the +general principles of canon law shall be alone deemed applicable +thereto." This provision was reenacted in Canon 47 of 1876. Canon 51 of +1890, however, weakens this provision. It enacts that: "The preceding +canons shall in all cases be construed in accordance with the principles +of the civil law of Scotland. Nevertheless, it shall be lawful, in cases +of dispute or difficulty concerning the interpretation of these canons, +to appeal to any generally recognized principles of canon law." The +canons of 1862-1863 also provided for a lay share in the election of +bishops. In 1890 the 32nd canon enacted that the "General Synod" should +thereafter be called the Provincial Synod. + +The canon law in Scotland before the 16th century was generally that of +the continent of Europe. The usages of the church were similar to those +in France, and had not the insular character of those in England and +Ireland. The canon law regulating marriage, legitimacy and succession +was taken over by the Scottish secular courts (see ECCLESIASTICAL +JURISDICTION) and survived as part of the common law of the land almost +unimpaired. Thus, the courts recognize marriages by _verba de +praesenti_ or by _verba de futuro cum copula_--in this last matter +following a decree of Gregory IX.--and also legitimation _per subsequens +matrimonium_. But though one of the _fontes juris Scotiae_, canon law +never was of itself authoritative in Scotland. In the canons of her +national provincial councils (at whose yearly meetings representatives +attended on behalf of the king) that country possessed a canon law of +her own, which was recognized by the parliament and the popes, and +enforced in the courts of law. Much of it, no doubt, was borrowed from +the _Corpus juris canonici_ and the English provincial canons. But the +portions so adopted derived their authority from the Scottish Church. +The general canon law, unless where it has been acknowledged by act of +parliament, or a decision of the courts, or sanctioned by the canons of +a provincial council, is only received in Scotland according to equity +and expediency. + +The "Protestant Episcopal Church _in the United States_" is the +organization of the Anglican Communion in the American colonies before +the separation. This communion was subject to "all the laws of the +Church of England applicable to its situation" (Murray Hoffman, _A +Treatise on the Law of the Protestant Episcopal Church_, New York, 1850, +p. 17). This body of law the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United +States took over (_op. cit._ p. 41 et seq.; F. Vinton, _A Manual +Commentary on the General Canon Law and the Constitution of the +Protestant Episcopal Church_, New York, 1870, p. 16 et seq.). Much, +however, of the English post-Reformation canonical legislation was not +applicable to the United States, because of different circumstances, as +e.g. a very large portion of the canons of 1603 (Vinton, p. 32). In +1789, a General Convention, consisting of clerical and lay deputies as +well as of bishops, assumed for itself and provided for its successors +supreme legislative power. The concurrence of both "orders," clerical +and lay, was required for the validity of any vote. Since 1853 a lay +deputy to the Convention has been required to be a communicant (_ib._ p. +102). Upon the American bishops numbering more than three, they became a +separate "House" from the "Convention." The House of Bishops was given a +right to propose measures to the "House of Deputies," and to negative +acts of the House of Deputies, provided they complied with certain +forms. Similar "constitutions" providing for representation of the laity +have been adopted by the different dioceses (Hoffman, _op. cit._ p. 184 +et seq.). Deacons are also admitted to a deciding voice in every diocese +but New Jersey, where they may speak but not vote. A great body of +legislation has been put forth by these bodies during the past century. + +Since 1870, at least, the "Church of the Province of _South Africa_" has +secured autonomy while yet remaining a part of the Anglican Communion. +By its constitution of that year the English Church in South Africa +adopts the laws and usages of the Church of England, as far as they are +applicable to an unestablished church, accepts the three creeds, the +Thirty-Nine Articles, the Book of Common Prayer, the decisions of the +undisputed general councils, the Authorized English Version of the +Scriptures, disclaims the right of altering any of these standards of +faith and doctrine, except in agreement with such alterations as may be +adopted by a general synod of the Anglican Communion. But in +interpreting these standards of faith and doctrine, the Church of the +Province of South Africa is not bound by decisions other than those of +its own Church courts, or such court as the Provincial Synod may +recognize as a tribunal of appeal. The Provincial Synod is the +legislative authority subject to a general synod of the Anglican +Communion, provided such latter synod include representatives from the +Church of South Africa. The Provincial Synod consists of (1) the House +of Bishops, (2) the House of the Clergy, (3) the House of the Laity. No +resolution can be passed which is not accepted by all three orders. +Bishops are elected by the clergy with the assent of lay +representatives, subject to the confirmation of the metropolitan and +comprovincial bishops. The metropolitan is to be consecrated in England +by the archbishop of Canterbury. He now bears the title of archbishop. +All bishops are to enter into a contract to obey and maintain the +constitution and canons of the province. Canon 18 of the Code of 1870 +recognizes the offices of catechist, reader and sub-deacon (Wirgman, +_The English Church and People in South Africa_, p. 223 et seq.). + +In the West Indies, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, provincial and +diocesan synods or conventions have been formed on one or other of the +types above mentioned and have enacted canons. (W. G. F. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The councils which we are about to mention, up to the 9th + century, have been published several times, notably in the great + collections of Hardouin, Mansi, &c.; they will be found brought + together in one small volume in Bruns, _Canones apostolorum et + conciliorum_ (Berlin, 1839). + + [2] The date of this council was formerly unknown; it is ascribed to + 343 by the Syriac Nestorian collection recently published by M. + Chabot, _Synodicon Orientale_, p. 278, note 4. + + [3] See Boudinhon, "Note sur le concile de Laodicee," in the _Compte + rendu du premier congres des savants catholiques a Paris_, 1888 + (Paris, 1889), vol. ii. p. 420. + + [4] For the further history of the law of the Greek Church and that + of the Eastern Churches, see Vering, _Kirchenrecht_, SS 14-183 (ed. + 1893). The Russian Church, as we know, adopted the Greek + ecclesiastical law. + + [5] Edited by Pierre Pithou (Paris, 1588), and later by Chifflet, + _Fulg. Ferrandi opera_ (Dijon, 1694); reproduced in Migne, _Patr. + Lat._ vol. 67, col. 949. + + [6] Published by Quesnel in his edition of the works of St Leo, vol. + ii. (Paris, 1675); reproduced by the brothers Ballerini, with learned + dissertations, _Opera S. Leonis_, vol. iii., Migne, _P.L. 56._ + + [7] Malnory, _Saint Cesaire d'Arles_ (Paris, 1894). + + [8] _Collectio canonum Ecclesiae Hispanae_ (Madrid, 1808); reproduced + in Migne, _P.L. 84._ + + [9] L. Duchesne, "Le Concile d'Elvire" in the _Melanges Renier_. + + [10] For the Penitentials, see Wasserschleben, _Die Bussordnungen der + abendlandischen Kirche_ (Halle, 1851); Mgr. H.J. Schmitz, _Die + Bussbucher und die Bussdisciplin der Kirche_ (2 vols., Mainz, 1883, + 1898). + + [11] This is proved, in spite of the contrary opinions of + Wasserschleben and Schmitz, by M. Paul Fournier, "Etude sur les + Penitentiels," in the _Revue d'histoire et de litterature + religieuses_, vol. vi. (1901), pp. 289-317, and vol. vii., 1902, pp. + 59-70 and 121-127. + + [12] In Migne, _P.L._ 105, col. 651. + + [13] Edited by Wasserschleben (Giessen, 1874). See also P. Fournier, + "De l'influence de la collection irlandaise sur la formation des + collections canoniques," in _Nouvelle Revue historique de droit + francais et etranger_, vol. xxiii, note I. + + [14] The collection of the False Decretals has been published with a + long critical introduction by P. Hinschius, _Decretales + Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (Leipzig, 1863). For the + rest of the bibliography, see DECRETALS (FALSE). + + [15] The latest edition is in Pertz, _Monumenta Germaniae_, vol. ii. + part ii. + + [16] Edited by Wasserschleben (Leipzig, 1840); reproduced by Migne, + _P.L. 132._ + + [17] Edited several times; in Migne, _P.L. 140._ + + [18] P. Fournier, "Le Premier Manuel canonique de la reforme du XIe + siecle," in _Melanges de l'Ecole francaise de Rome_, xiv. (1894). + + [19] Unpublished. + + [20] Edited by Mgr. Pio Martinucci (Venice, 1869). On this collection + see Wolf von Glanvell, _Die Kanonessammlung des Kardinals Deusdedit_ + (Paderborn, 1905). + + [21] Unpublished. + + [22] Several times edited; in Migne, _P.L._ 161. See P. Fournier, + "Les Collections canoniques attribuees a Yves de Chartres," + _Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartres_ (1896 and 1897). + + [23] Printed in Martene, _Nov. Thesaur. anecdot._ vol. v. col. 1019. + + [24] See P. Fournier, "Deux Controverses sur les origines du Decret + de Gratien," in the _Revue d'histoire et de litterature religieuses_, + vol. iii. (1898), pp. n. 2 and 3. + + [25] See Laurin, _Introductio in corpus juris canonici_, c. vii. p. + 73. + + [26] By referring to the decretals of Gregory IX. for the texts + inserted there, E. Friedberg has succeeded in giving a much abridged + edition of the _Quinque compilationes_ (Leipzig, 1882). + + [27] Edited by Schulte, _Die Summa des Paucapaiea_ (Giessen, 1890). + + [28] Edited by Thaner, _Die Summa Magistri Rolandi_ (Innsbruck, + 1874); later by Gietl, _Die Sentenzen Rolands_ (Freiburg im B., + 1891). + + [29] Edited by H. Singer, _Die Summa Decretorum des Magister Rufinus_ + (Paderborn, 1902). + + [30] Edited by Schulte, _Die Summe des Stephanus Tornacensis_ + (Giessen, 1891). + + [31] He made a Summa of his own collection, ed. E. Laspeyres, + _Bernardi Papiensis Summa Decretalium_ (Mainz, 1860). The + commentaries of Innocent IV. and Henry of Susa have been frequently + published. + + [32] The history of this commission and the rules which it followed + for editing the _Decretum_, will be found in Laurin, _Introductio in + corpus juris canonici_, p. 63, or in the Prolegomena to Friedberg's + edition of the _Decretum_. + + [33] Quoted by Hogan, _Clerical Studies_, p. 235. + + [34] There are innumerable editions of the council of Trent. That + which is favoured by canonists is Richter's edition (Leipzig, 1863), + in which each chapter _de reformatione_ is followed by a selection of + decisions of the S.C. of the council. + + [35] Republished by F. Sentis, from one of the few copies which have + escaped destruction: _Clementis Papae VIII. Decretales, quae vulgo + nunenpantur Liber septimus Decretalium Clementis VIII._ (Freiburg im + B., 1870). + + [36] _Omnium concilii Vaticani ... documentorum collectio_, per + Conradum Martin (Paderborn, 1873), p. 152. + + + + +CANOPUS, or CANOBUS, an ancient coast town of Lower Egypt, a hundred and +twenty stadia, or 15 m. east of Alexandria, the principal port in Egypt +for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria, situated at the +mouth of the westernmost (Canopic or Heracleotic) branch of the Nile, on +the western bank. The channel, which entered the Mediterranean at the +western end of the Bay of Aboukir, is entirely silted up, but on the +shore at Aboukir there are extensive traces of the city with its quays, +&c. Excavation has disclosed granite monuments with the name of Rameses +II., but they may have been brought at a late period for the adornment +of the place. It is not certain that Canopus was an old Egyptian town, +but it appears in Herodotus as an ancient port. In the 9th year of +Ptolemy Euergetes (239 B.C.) a great assembly of priests at Canopus +passed an honorific degree, _inter alia_, conferring the title [Greek: +Euergetaes] "Benefactor" on the king. Two examples of this decree are +known, inscribed in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek. From it we learn +that the native form of the name of Canopus was Karob. A temple of +Osiris was built by Euergetes, but very near to Canopus was an older +shrine, a temple of Heracles mentioned by Herodotus as an asylum for +fugitive slaves. The decree shows that Heracles here stands for Ammon. +Osiris was worshipped at Canopus under a peculiar form, a vase with a +human head, and was identified with Canopus, the pilot of Menelaus, who +was said to have been buried here: the name canopic has been applied, +through an old misunderstanding, to the vases with human and animal +heads in which the internal organs were placed by the Egyptians after +embalming. In the Roman epoch the town was notorious for its +dissoluteness. Aboukir means "father Cyrus," referring to a Coptic saint +of that name. (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +CANOPY (through Fr. _canape_, from Med. Lat. _canapeum_, classical +_conopeum_, a mosquito curtain, Gr. [Greek: konops], a gnat), the upper +part or cover of a niche, or the projecting ornament over an altar or +scat or tomb. Early English canopies are generally simple, with +trefoiled or cinquefoiled heads; but in the later styles they are very +rich, and divided into compartments with pendants, knots, pinnacles, &c. +The triangular arrangement over an Early English and Decorated doorway +is often called a canopy. The triangular canopies in the north of Italy +are peculiar. Those in England are generally part of the arrangement of +the arch mouldings of the door, and form, as it were, the hood-moulds to +them, as at York. The former are above and independent of the door +mouldings, and frequently support an arch with a tympanum, above which +is a triangular canopy, as in the Duomo at Florence. Sometimes the +canopy and arch project from the wall, and are carried on small jamb +shafts, as at San Pietro Martire, at Verona. There is an extremely +curious canopy, being a sort of horseshoe arch, surmounting and breaking +into a circular arch, at Tournai. Similar canopies are often over +windows, as at York, over the great west window, and lower tiers in the +towers. These are triangular, while the upper windows in the towers have +ogee canopies. + + + + +CANOSA (anc. _Canusium_), a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of +Bari, situated on the right bank of the Ofanto (anc. _Aufidus_), 505 ft. +above sea-level, 15 m. S.W. of Barletta by rail. Pop. (1901) 24,230. It +was rebuilt in 963 below the Roman city, which had been abandoned after +its devastation by the Saracens in the 9th century. The former cathedral +of S. Sabino (the bishopric passed in 1818 to Andria), in the southern +Romanesque style, was consecrated in 1101: it has five domes (resembling +St Mark's at Venice, except that it is a Latin cross, instead of a Greek +cross, in plan) and many ancient columns. The archiepiscopal throne and +pulpit of the end of the 11th century are also fine. On the south side +of the building is the detached mausoleum of Bohemund, son of Robert +Guiscard, who died in 1111, constructed partly in Byzantine, partly in +the local style. It has fine bronze doors with long inscriptions; the +exterior is entirely faced with _cipollino_ (Carystian) marble. The +conception of this mortuary chapel, which is unique at this period, was +undoubtedly derived from the _turbeh_ before a mosque; these turbehs are +square, domed-roofed tombs in which the sultans and distinguished +Mahommedans are buried (E. Bertaux, _L'Art dans l'Italie meridionale_, +Paris, 1904, i. 312). A medieval castle crowns the hill on the side of +which the city stands. (See CANUSIUM.) (T. As.) + + + + +CANOSSA, a ruined castle, 1890 ft. above sea-level, in Emilia, Italy, 12 +m. S.W. of Reggio Emilia, commanding a fine view of the Apennines. It +belonged to the countess Matilda of Tuscany (d. 1115), and is famous as +the scene of the penance performed by the emperor Henry IV. before Pope +Gregory VII. in 1077. The castle was destroyed by the inhabitants of +Reggio in 1255. + + + + +CANOVA, ANTONIO (1757-1822), Italian sculptor, was born on the 1st of +November 1757, at Passagno, an obscure village situated amid the +recesses of the hills of Asolo, where these form the last undulations of +the Venetian Alps, as they subside into the plains of Treviso. At three +years of age Canova was deprived of both parents, his father dying and +his mother remarrying. Their loss, however, was compensated by the +tender solicitude and care of his paternal grandfather and grandmother, +the latter of whom lived to experience in her turn the kindest personal +attention from her grandson, who, when he had the means, gave her an +asylum in his house at Rome. His father and grandfather followed the +occupation of stone-cutters or minor statuaries; and it is said that +their family had for several ages supplied Passagno with members of that +calling. As soon as Canova's hand could hold a pencil, he was initiated +into the principles of drawing by his grandfather Pasino. The latter +possessed some knowledge both of drawing and of architecture, designed +well, and showed considerable taste in the execution of ornamental +works. He was greatly attached to his art; and upon his young charge he +looked as one who was to perpetuate, not only the family name, but also +the family profession. + +The early years of Canova were passed in study. The bias of his mind was +to sculpture, and the facilities afforded for the gratification of this +predilection in the workshop of his grandfather were eagerly improved. +In his ninth year he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble, which +are still extant. Soon after this period he appears to have been +constantly employed under his grandfather. Amongst those who patronized +the old man was the patrician family Falier of Venice, and by this means +young Canova was first introduced to the senator of that name, who +afterwards became his most zealous patron. Between the younger son, +Giuseppe Falier, and the artist a friendship commenced which terminated +only with life. The senator Falier was induced to receive him under his +immediate protection. It has been related by an Italian writer and since +repeated by several biographers, that Canova was indebted to a trivial +circumstance--the moulding of a lion in butter--for the warm interest +which Falier took in his welfare. The anecdote may or may not be true. +By his patron Canova was placed under Bernardi, or, as he is generally +called by filiation, Torretto, a sculptor of considerable eminence, who +had taken up a temporary residence at Pagnano, a village in the vicinity +of the senator's mansion. This took place whilst Canova was in his +thirteenth year; and with Torretto he continued about two years, making +in many respects considerable progress. This master returned to Venice, +where he soon afterwards died; but by the high terms in which he spoke +of his pupil to Falier, the latter was induced to bring the young artist +to Venice, whither he accordingly went, and was placed under a nephew of +Torretto. With this instructor he continued about a year, studying with +the utmost assiduity. After the termination of this engagement he began +to work on his own account, and received from his patron an order for a +group, "Orpheus and Eurydice." The first figure, which represents +Eurydice in flames and smoke, in the act of leaving Hades, was completed +towards the close of his sixteenth year. It was highly esteemed by his +patron and friends, and the artist was now considered qualified to +appear before a public tribunal. The kindness of some monks supplied him +with his first workshop, which was the vacant cell of a monastery. Here +for nearly four years he laboured with the greatest perseverance and +industry. He was also regular in his attendance at the academy, where he +carried off several prizes. But he relied far more on the study and +imitation of nature. From his contemporaries he could learn nothing, for +their style was vicious. From their works, therefore, he reverted to +living models, as exhibited in every variety of situation. A large +portion of his time was also devoted to anatomy, which science was +regarded by him as "the secret of the art." He likewise frequented +places of public amusement, where he carefully studied the expressions +and attitudes of the performers. He formed a resolution, which was +faithfully adhered to for several years, never to close his eyes at +night without having produced some design. Whatever was likely to +forward his advancement in sculpture he studied with ardour. On +archaeological pursuits he bestowed considerable attention. With ancient +and modern history he rendered himself well acquainted and he also began +to acquire some of the continental languages. + +Three years had now elapsed without any production coming from his +chisel. He began, however, to complete the group for his patron, and the +Orpheus which followed evinced the great advance he had made. The work +was universally applauded, and laid the foundation of his fame. Several +groups succeeded this performance, amongst which was that of "Daedalus +and Icarus," the most celebrated work of his noviciate. The simplicity +of style and the faithful imitation of nature which characterized them +called forth the warmest admiration. His merits and reputation being now +generally recognized, his thoughts began to turn from the shores of the +Adriatic to the banks of the Tiber, for which he set out at the +commencement of his twenty-fourth year. + +Before his departure for Rome, his friends had applied to the Venetian +senate for a pension, to enable him to pursue his studies without +embarrassment. The application was ultimately successful. The stipend +amounted to three hundred ducats (about L60 per annum), and was limited +to three years. Canova had obtained letters of introduction to the +Venetian ambassador, the Cavaliere Zulian, and enlightened and generous +protector of the arts, and was received in the most hospitable manner. +His arrival in Rome, on the 28th of December 1780, marks a new era in +his life. It was here he was to perfect himself by a study of the most +splendid relics of antiquity, and to put his talents to the severest +test by a competition with the living masters of the art. The result was +equal to the highest hopes cherished either by himself or by his +friends. The work which first established his fame at Rome was "Theseus +vanquishing the Minotaur." The figures are of the heroic size. The +victorious Theseus is represented as seated on the lifeless body of the +monster. The exhaustion which visibly pervades his whole frame proves +the terrible nature of the conflict in which he has been engaged. +Simplicity and natural expression had hitherto characterized Canova's +style; with these were now united more exalted conceptions of grandeur +and of truth. The Theseus was regarded with fervent admiration. + +Canova's next undertaking was a monument in honour of Clement XIV.; but +before he proceeded with it he deemed it necessary to request permission +from the Venetian senate, whose servant he considered himself to be, in +consideration of the pension. This he solicited in person, and it was +granted. He returned immediately to Rome, and opened his celebrated +studio close to the Via del Babuino. He spent about two years of +unremitting toil in arranging the design and composing the models for +the tomb of the pontiff. After these were completed, other two years +were employed in finishing the monument, and it was finally opened to +public inspection in 1787 The work, in the opinion of enthusiastic +_dilettanti_, stamped the author as the first artist of modern times. +After five years of incessant labour, he completed another cenotaph to +the memory of Clement XIII., which raised his fame still higher. Works +now came rapidly from his chisel. Amongst these is Psyche, with a +butterfly, which is placed on the left hand, and held by the wings with +the right. This figure, which is intended as a personification of man's +immaterial part, is considered as in almost every respect the most +faultless and classical of Canova's works. In two different groups, and +with opposite expression, the sculptor has represented Cupid with his +bride; in the one they are standing, in the other recumbent. These and +other works raised his reputation so high that the most flattering +offers were sent him from the Russian court to induce him to remove to +St Petersburg, but these were declined. "Italy," says he, in writing of +the occurrence to a friend, "Italy is my country--is the country and +native soil of the arts. I cannot leave her; my infancy was nurtured +here. If my poor talents can be useful in any other land, they must be +of some utility to Italy; and ought not her claim to be preferred to all +others?" + +Numerous works were produced in the years 1795-1797, of which several +were repetitions of previous productions. One was the celebrated group +representing the "Parting of Venus and Adonis." This famous production +was sent to Naples. The French Revolution was now extending its shocks +over Italy; and Canova sought obscurity and repose in his native +Passagno. Thither he retired in 1798, and there he continued for about a +year, principally employed in painting, of which art also he had some +knowledge. He executed upwards of twenty paintings about this time. One +of his productions is a picture representing the dead body of the +Saviour just removed from the cross, surrounded by the three Marys, S. +John, Joseph of Arimathea, and, somewhat in the background, Nicodemus. +Above appears the Father, with the mystic dove in the centre of a glory, +and surrounded by a circle of cherubs. This composition, which was +greatly applauded, he presented to the parochial church of his native +place. Events in the political world having come to a temporary lull, he +returned to Rome; but his health being impaired from arduous +application, he took a journey through a part of Germany, in company +with his friend Prince Rezzonico. He returned from his travels much +improved, and again commenced his labours with vigour and enthusiasm. + +Canova's sculptures have been distributed under three heads:--(1) Heroic +compositions; (2) Compositions of grace and elegance; and (3) Sepulchral +monuments and relievos. In noticing the works which fall under each of +these divisions, it will be impossible to maintain a strict +chronological order, but perhaps a better idea of his productions may +thus be obtained. Their vast number, however, prevents their being all +enumerated. + +(1) His "Perseus with the Head of Medusa" appeared soon after his +return. The moment of representation is when the hero, flushed with +conquest, displays the head of the "snaky Gorgon," whilst the right hand +grasps a sword of singular device. By a public decree, this fine work +was placed in one of the _stanze_ of the Vatican hitherto reserved for +the most precious works of antiquity; but it would be a mistake to say +that it wholly sustains this comparison, or that it rivals the earlier +realization of the same subject in Italian art, that by Cellini. In +1802, at the personal request of Napoleon, Canova repaired to Paris to +model a bust of the first consul. The artist was entertained with +munificence, and various honours were conferred upon him. The statue, +which is colossal, was not finished till six years after. On the fall of +the great Napoleon, Louis XVIII. presented this statue to the British +government, by whom it was afterwards given to the duke of Wellington. +"Palamedes," "Creugas and Damoxenus," the "Combat of Theseus and the +Centaur," and "Hercules and Lichas" may close the class of heroic +compositions, although the catalogue might be swelled by the enumeration +of various others, such as "Hector and Ajax," and the statues of +Washington, King Ferdinand of Naples, and others. The group of "Hercules +and Lichas" is considered as the most terrible conception of Canova's +mind, and in its peculiar style as scarcely to be excelled. + +(2) Under the head of compositions of grace and elegance, the statue of +Hebe takes the first place in point of date. Four times has the artist +embodied in stone the goddess of youth, and each time with some +variation. The only material improvement, however, is the substitution +of a support more suitable to the simplicity of the art. Each of the +statues is, in all its details, in expression, attitude and delicacy of +finish, strikingly elegant. The "Dancing Nymphs" maintain a character +similar to that of the Hebe. The "Graces" and the "Venus" are more +elevated. The "Awakened Nymph" is another work of uncommon beauty. The +mother of Napoleon, his consort Maria Louisa (as Concord), to model whom +the author made a further journey to Paris in 1810, the princess +Esterhazy and the muse Polymnia (Elisa Bonaparte) take their place in +this class, as do the ideal heads, comprising Corinna, Sappho, Laura, +Beatrice and Helen of Troy. + +(3) Of the cenotaphs and funeral monuments the most splendid is the +monument to the archduchess Maria Christina of Austria, consisting of +nine figures. Besides the two for the Roman pontiffs already mentioned, +there is one for Alfieri, another for Emo, a Venetian admiral, and a +small model of a cenotaph for Nelson, besides a great variety of +monumental relievos. + +The events which marked the life of the artist during the first fifteen +years of the period in which he was engaged on the above-mentioned works +scarcely merit notice. His mind was entirely absorbed in the labours of +his studio, and, with the exception of his journeys to Paris, one to +Vienna, and a few short intervals of absence in Florence and other parts +of Italy, he never quitted Rome. In his own words, "his statues were the +sole proofs of his civil existence." There was, however, another proof, +which modesty forbade him to mention, an ever-active benevolence, +especially towards artists. In 1815 he was commissioned by the Pope to +superintend the transmission from Paris of those works of art which had +formerly been conveyed thither under the direction of Napoleon. By his +zeal and exertions, for there were many conflicting interests to +reconcile, he adjusted the affair in a manner at once creditable to his +judgment and fortunate for his country. In the autumn of this year he +gratified a wish he had long entertained of visiting London, where he +received the highest tokens of esteem. The artist for whom he showed +particular sympathy and regard in London was Haydon, who might at the +time be counted the sole representative of historical painting there, +and whom he especially honoured for his championship of the Elgin +marbles, then recently transported to England, and ignorantly +depreciated by polite connoisseurs. Canova returned to Rome in the +beginning of 1816, with the ransomed spoils of his country's genius. +Immediately after, he received several marks of distinction,--by the +hand of the Pope himself his name was inscribed in "the Golden Volume of +the Capitol," and he received the title of marquis of Ischia, with an +annual pension of 3000 crowns, about L625. + +He now contemplated a great work, a colossal statue of Religion. The +model filled Italy with admiration; the marble was procured, and the +chisel of the sculptor ready to be applied to it, when the jealousy of +churchmen as to the site, or some other cause, deprived the country of +the projected work. The mind of Canova was inspired with the warmest +sense of devotion, and though foiled in this instance he resolved to +consecrate a shrine to the cause. In his native village he began to make +preparations for erecting a temple which was to contain, not only the +above statue, but other works of his own; within its precincts were to +repose also the ashes of the founder. Accordingly he repaired to +Passagno in 1810. At a sumptuous entertainment which he gave to his +workmen, there occurred an incident which marks the kindliness of his +character. When the festivities of the day had terminated, he requested +the shepherdesses and peasantgirls of the adjacent hamlets to pass in +review before him, and to each he made a present, expending on the +occasion about L400. We need not, therefore, be surprised that a few +years afterwards, when the remains of the donor came to be deposited in +their last asylum, the grief which the surrounding peasantry evinced was +in natural expression so intense as to eclipse the studied solemnity of +more pompous mourning. + +After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, Canova +returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he continued to visit +Passagno, in order to direct the workmen, and encourage them with +pecuniary rewards and medals. In the meantime the vast expenditure +exhausted his resources, and compelled him to labour with unceasing +assiduity notwithstanding age and disease. During the period which +intervened between commencing operations at Passagno and his decease, he +executed or finished some of his most striking works. Amongst these were +the group "Mars and Venus," the colossal figure of Pius VI., the +"Pieta," the "St John," the "recumbent Magdalen." The last performance +which issued from his hand was a colossal bust of his friend, the Count +Cicognara. In May 1822 he paid a visit to Naples, to superintend the +construction of wax moulds for an equestrian statue of the perjured +Bourbon king Ferdinand. This journey materially injured his health, but +he rallied again on his return to Rome. Towards the latter end of the +year he paid his annual visit to the place of his birth, when he +experienced a relapse. He proceeded to Venice, and expired there on the +13th of October 1822, at the age of nearly sixty-five. His disease was +one which had affected him from an early age, caused by the continual +use of carving-tools, producing a depression of the ribs. The most +distinguished funeral honours were paid to his remains, which were +deposited in the temple at Passagno on the 25th of the same month. + +Canova, in a certain sense, renovated the art of sculpture in Italy, and +brought it back to that standard from which it had declined when the +sense both of classical beauty and moderation, and of Titanic invention +and human or superhuman energy as embodied by the unexampled genius of +Michelangelo, had succumbed to the overloaded and flabby mannerisms of +the 17th and 18th centuries. His finishing was refined, and he had a +special method of giving a mellow and soft appearance to the marble. He +formed his models of the same size as the work was intended to be. The +prominent defect of Canova's attractive and highly trained art is that +which may be summed up in the word artificiality,--that quality, so +characteristic of the modern mind, which seizes upon certain properties +of conception and execution in the art of the past, and upon certain +types of beauty or emotion in life, and makes a compound of the +two--regulating both by the standard of taste prevalent in contemporary +"high society," a standard which, referring to cultivation and +refinement as its higher term, declines towards fashion as the lower. Of +his moral character a generous and unwearied benevolence formed the most +prominent feature. The greater part of the vast fortune realized by his +works was distributed in acts of this description. He established prizes +for artists and endowed all the academies of Rome. The aged and +unfortunate were also the objects of his peculiar solicitude. His titles +were numerous. He was enrolled amongst the nobility of several states, +decorated with various orders of knighthood, and associated in the +highest professional honours. + + See the _Life of Canova_ by Memes; that by Missirini; the _Biografia_ + by the Count Cicognara; _Canova et ses ouvrages_, by Quatremere de + Quincy (1834); _Opere scelte di Antonio Canova_, by Anzelmi (Naples, + 1842); _Canova_, by A.G. Meyer (1898); and _La Relazione del Canova + con Napoli ... memorie con documenti inediti_, by Angelo Borzelli + (1901). (W. M. R.) + + + + +CANOVAS DEL CASTILLO, ANTONIO (1828-1897), Spanish statesman, was born +in Malaga on the 8th of February 1828. Educated in his native town, he +went to Madrid in 1845, bent upon finding means to complete his literary +and philosophical studies. His uncle, Don Serafin Estebanez Calderon, +found him a situation as clerk in the Madrid-Aranjuez railway, but +Canovas soon took to journalism and literature, earning enough to +support himself and pay for his law studies at the Madrid University. +During this period he published his two best works--an historical novel, +_Las Campanas de Huesca_, and the history of the decay of Spain from +Philip III. to Charles II. under the house of Austria. He became a +politician through his Junius-like letters to the "Murcielago"--_The +Bat_, a satirical political journal--and by drawing up the manifesto of +Manzanares in 1854 for Marshal O'Donnell, of whom he always remained a +loyal adherent. Canovas entered the Cortes in 1854; he was made governor +of Cadiz in 1857, sub-director of the state department in 1858, +under-secretary at the home office in 1860, minister of the interior in +1864, minister of the colonies in 1865, minister of finance in 1866, and +was exiled by Marshal Narvaez in the same year, afterwards becoming a +bitter opponent of all the reactionary cabinets until the revolution of +1868. He took no part in preparing that event. He sat in the Cortes +Constituyentes of 1869 as a doctrinaire Conservative, combating all +Radical and democratic reforms, and defending the exiled Bourbons; but +he abstained from voting when the Cortes elected Amadeus king on the +16th of November 1870. He did not object to some of his political +friends, like Silvela and Elduayen, entering the cabinets of King +Amadeus, and in 1872 declared that his attitude would depend on the +concessions which government would make to Conservative principles. +After the abdication of Amadeus and the proclamation of the federal +republic, Canovas took the lead of the propaganda in favour of the +restoration of the Bourbons, and was their principal agent and adviser. +He drew up the manifesto issued in 1874 by the young king Alphonso XII., +at that time a cadet at Sandhurst; but he dissented from the military +men who were actively conspiring to organize an Alphonsist +_pronunciamiento_. Like Marshal Concha, marquis del Duero, he would have +preferred to let events develop enough to allow of the dynasty being +restored without force of arms, and he severely blamed the conduct of +the generals when he first heard of the _pronunciamiento_ of Marshal +Campos at Sagunto. Sagasta thereupon caused Canovas to be arrested (30th +of December 1874); but the next day the Madrid garrison also proclaimed +Alphonso XII. king, and Canovas showed the full powers he had received +from the king to assume the direction of affairs. He formed a regency +ministry pending the arrival of his majesty, who confirmed his +appointment, and for six years Canovas was premier except during the +short-lived cabinets of Marshal Jovellar in 1875 and Marshal Campos for +a few months in 1879. Canovas was, in fact, the soul of the Restoration. +He had to reconstruct a Conservative party out of the least reactionary +parties of the days of Queen Isabella and out of the more moderate +elements of the revolution. With such followers he made the constitution +of 1876 and all the laws of the monarchy, putting a limited franchise in +the place of universal suffrage, curtailing liberty of conscience, +rights of association and of meeting, liberty of the press, checking +democracy, obliging the military to abstain from politics, conciliating +the Carlists and Catholics by his advances to the Vatican, the Church +and the religious orders, pandering to the protectionists by his tariff +policy, and courting abroad the friendship of Germany and Austria after +contributing to the marriage of his king to an Austrian princess. +Canovas crowned his policy by countenancing the formation of a Liberal +party under Sagasta, flanked by Marshal Serrano and other Liberal +generals, which took office in 1881. He again became premier in 1883, +and remained in office until November 1885; but he grew very unpopular, +and nearly endangered the monarchy in 1885 by his violent repression of +popular and press demonstrations, and of student riots in Madrid and the +provinces. At the death of Alphonso XII. he at once advised the queen +regent to send for Sagasta and the Liberals, and during five years he +looked on quietly whilst Sagasta re-established universal suffrage and +most of the liberties curtailed in 1876, and carried out a policy of +free trade on moderate lines. In 1890 Canovas took office under the +queen regent, and one of his first acts was to reverse the tariff policy +of the Liberals, denouncing all the treaties of commerce, and passing in +1892 a highly protectionist tariff. This was the starting-point of the +decline in foreign trade, the advance of foreign exchanges, the decay of +railway traffic, and the monetary and financial crisis which continued +from 1892 to 1898. Splits in the Conservative ranks forced Canovas to +resign at the end of 1893, and Sagasta came in for eighteen months, +Canovas resumed office in March 1895 immediately after the outbreak of +the Cuban insurrection, and devoted most of his time and efforts, with +characteristic determination, to the preparation of ways and means for +sending 200,000 men to the West Indies to carry out his stern and +unflinching policy of no surrender, no concessions and no reforms. He +was making up his mind for another effort to enable General Weyler to +enforce the reforms that had been wrung from the Madrid government, more +by American diplomacy than from a sense of the inevitable, when the +bullet of an anarchist, in August 1897, at the baths of Santa Agueda, +cut short his career. On the whole, Canovas must be regarded as the +greatest Spanish statesman of the close of the 19th century. He was not +only a politician but also a man of the world, a writer of considerable +merit, a scholar well versed in social, economic and philosophical +questions, a great debater, a clever lecturer, a member of all the +Madrid academies and a patron of art and letters. (A. E. H.) + + + + +CANROBERT, FRANCOIS CERTAIN (1809-1895), marshal of France, was born at +St Cere (Lot) on the 27th of June 1809 and educated at St Cyr; he +received a commission as sub-lieutenant in 1828, becoming lieutenant in +1833. He went to Algeria in 1835, served in the expedition to Mascara, +at the capture of Tlemcen, and in 1837 became captain. In the same year +he was wounded in the storm of Constantine, receiving the Legion of +Honour for his conduct. In 1839 he was employed in organizing a +battalion of the Foreign Legion for the Carlist Wars. In 1841 he was +again serving in Africa. Promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1846 and colonel +of the 3rd regiment in 1847, he commanded the expedition against Ahmed +Sghir in 1848, and defeated the Arabs at the Djerma Pass. Transferred to +the Zouaves, he defeated the Kabyles, and in 1849 displayed both courage +and energy in reinforcing the blockaded garrison of Bou Sada, and in +command of one of the attacking columns at Zaatcha (December 1849). For +his valour on the latter occasion he received the rank of general of +brigade and the commandership of the Legion of Honour. He led the +expedition against Narah in 1850 and destroyed the Arab stronghold. +Summoned to Paris, he was made aide-de-camp to the president, Louis +Napoleon, and took part in the _coup d'etat_ of the 2nd of December +1851. In the Crimean War he commanded a division at the Alma, where he +was twice wounded. He held a dormant commission entitling him to command +in case of St Arnaud's death, and he thus succeeded to the chief command +of the French army a few days after the battle. He was slightly wounded +and had a horse killed under him at Inkerman, when leading a charge of +Zouaves. Disagreements with the English commander-in-chief and, in +general, the disappointments due to the prolongation of the siege of +Sevastopol led to his resignation of the command, but he did not return +to France, preferring to serve as chief of his old division almost up to +the fall of Sevastopol. After his return to France he was sent on +diplomatic missions to Denmark and Sweden, and made a marshal and +senator of France (grand cross Legion of Honour, and honorary G.C.B.). +He commanded the III. army corps in Lombardy in 1859, distinguishing +himself at Magenta and Solferino. He successively commanded the camp at +Chalons, the IV. army corps at Lyons and the army of Paris. In the +Franco-German War he commanded the VI. army corps, which won the +greatest distinction in the battle of Gravelotte, where Canrobert +commanded on the St Privat position. The VI. corps was amongst those +shut up in Metz and included in the surrender of that fortress. After +the war Canrobert was appointed a member of the superior council of war, +and was also active in political life, being elected senator for Lot in +1876 and for Charente in 1879 and again in 1885. He died at Paris on the +28th of January 1895 and his remains received a public funeral. His +_Souvenirs_ were published in 1898 at Paris. + + + + +CANT, ANDREW (1590?-1663), a leader of the Scottish Covenanters. About +1623 the people of Edinburgh called him to be their minister, but he was +rejected by James I. Ten years later he was minister of Pitsligo in +Aberdeenshire, a charge which he left in 1638 for that of Newbattle in +Mid-Lothian. In July of that year he went with other commissioners to +Aberdeen in the vain attempt to induce the university and the presbytery +of that city to subscribe the National Covenant, and in the following +November sat in the general assembly at Glasgow which abolished +episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was chaplain to the Scottish army and +then settled as minister at Aberdeen. Though a stanch Covenanter, he was +a zealous Royalist, preaching before Charles I. in Edinburgh, and +stoutly advocating the restoration of the monarchy in the time of the +Commonwealth. Cant's frequent and bitter attacks on various members of +his congregation led in 1660 to complaints laid before the magistrates, +in consequence of which he resigned his charge. His son Andrew was +principal of Edinburgh University (1675-1685). + + + + +CANT, (1) (Possibly through the Fr. from Lat. _cantos_, corner), in +architecture, a term used where the corner of a square is cut off, +octagonally or otherwise. Thus a bay window, the sides of which are not +parallel, or at right angles to the spectator, is said to be canted. (2) +(From the Lat. _cantare_, to sing, very early in use, in a depreciatory +sense, of religious services), a word appearing in English in the 16th +century 'for the whining speech of beggars; hence it is applied to +thieves' or gipsies' jargon, to the peculiar language of any class or +sect, to any current phrase or turn of language, and particularly to the +hypocritical use of pious phraseology. + + + + +CANTABRI, an ancient tribe which inhabited the north coast of Spain near +Santander and Bilbao and the mountains behind--a district hence known as +Cantabria. Savage and untameable mountaineers, they long defied the +Roman arms and made themselves a name for wild freedom. They were first +attacked by the Romans about 150 B.C.; they were not subdued till +Agrippa and Augustus had carried out a series of campaigns (29-19 B.C.) +which ended in their partial annihilation. Thenceforward their land was +part of the province Hispania Tarraconensis with some measure of local +self-government. They became slowly Romanized, but developed little town +life and are rarely mentioned in history. They provided recruits for the +Roman _auxilia_, like their neighbours the Astures, and their land +contained lead mines, of which, however, little is known. + + + + +CANTABRIAN MOUNTAINS (Span. _Cordillera Cantabrica_), a mountain chain +which extends for more than 300 m. across northern Spain, from the +western limit of the Pyrenees to the borders of Galicia, and on or near +the coast of the Bay of Biscay. The Cantabrians stretch from east to +west, nearly parallel to the sea, as far as the pass of Leitariegos, +afterwards trending southward between Leon and Galicia. Their western +boundary is marked by the valley of the river Mino (Portuguese Minho), +by the lower Sil, which flows into the Mino, and by the Cabrera, a small +tributary of the Sil. Some geographers regard the mountains of Galicia +beyond the Mino as an integral part of the same system; others confine +the name to the eastern half of the highlands between Galicia and the +Pyrenees, and call their western half the Asturian Mountains. There are +also many local names for the subsidiary ranges within the chain. As a +whole, the Cantabrian Mountains are remarkable for their intricate +ramifications, but almost everywhere, and especially in the east, it is +possible to distinguish two principal ranges, from which the lesser +ridges and mountain masses radiate. One range, or series of ranges, +closely follows the outline of the coast; the other, which is loftier, +forms the northern limit of the great tableland of Castile and Leon, and +is sometimes regarded as a continuation of the Pyrenees. The coastal +range rises in some parts sheer above the sea, and everywhere has so +abrupt a declivity that the streams which flow seaward are all short and +swift. The descent from the southern range to the high plateaus of +Castile is more gradual, and several large rivers, notably the Ebro, +rise here and flow to the south or west. The breadth of the Cantabrian +chain, with all its ramifications, increases from about 60 m. in the +east to about 115 m. in the west. Many peaks are upwards of 6000 ft. +high, but the greatest altitudes are attained in the central ridges on +the borders of Leon, Oviedo, Palencia and Santander. Here are the Pena +Vieja (8743 ft.), Prieta (8304 ft.) and Espinguete (7898 ft.); an +unnamed summit in the Penas de Europa, to which range the Pena Vieja +also belongs, rises on the right bank of the Sella to a height of 8045 +ft.; farther west the peaks of Manipodre, Ubina, Rubia and Cuina all +exceed 7000 ft. A conspicuous feature of the chain, as of the adjacent +tableland, is the number of its _parameras_, isolated plateaus shut in +by lofty mountains or even by precipitous walls of rock. At the +south-western extremity of the chain is el Vierzo, once a lake-bed, now +a valley drained by the upper Sil and enclosed by mountains which +bifurcate from the main range south of the pass of Leitariegos--the +Sierra de Justredo and Montanas de Leon curving towards the east and +south-west, the Sierra de Picos, Sierra del Caurel and other ranges +curving towards the west and south-east. The Cantabrians are rich in +coal and iron; an account of their geological structure is given under +SPAIN. They are crossed at many points by good roads and in their +eastern half by several railways. In the west, near the pass of Pajares, +the railway from Leon to Gijon passes through the Perruca tunnel, which +is 2 m. long and 4200 ft. above sea-level; the railway descends +northward through fifty-eight smaller tunnels. The line from Leon to +Orense also traverses a remarkable series of tunnels, bridges and deep +cuttings. + + + + +CANTACUZINO, CANTACUZEN or CANTACUZENE, the name of a family which +traces its origin to the Byzantine emperors and writers of the same name +(see under JOHN V., Cantacuzene). The founder of the family, Andronik, +migrated to Rumania in 1633, and from his two sons Constantine and +Gheorge sprang the two principal lines which afterwards branched into +numerous families of nobles and high dignitaries, including hospodars +(rulers) of Walachia and Moldavia. The Cantacuzinos were represented in +every branch of administration and in the world of letters. Under their +influence the Rumanian language and literature in the 17th century +reached their highest development. Among the more prominent members of +the family the following may be mentioned, (1) SHERBAN CANTACUZINO +(1640-1688), appointed hospodar of Walachia in 1679. He served under the +Turks in the siege of Vienna, and when they were defeated it is alleged +that he conceived the plan of marching on Constantinople to drive the +Turks out of Europe, the western powers having promised him their moral +support. In the midst of his preparations he died suddenly, poisoned, it +is said, by the boyars who were afraid of his vast plans. Far more +important was his activity in economic and literary directions. He +introduced the maize into Rumania; it is now the staple food of the +country. He founded the first Rumanian school in Bucharest; he assisted +liberally in the establishment of various printing offices; and under +his auspices the famous Rumanian Bible appeared in Bucharest in 1688. +Through his influence also the Slavonic language was officially and +finally abolished from the liturgy and the Rumanian language substituted +for it. (2) STEFAN CANTACUZINO, son of Constantine, prince of Walachia, +1714-1716. (3) DEMETRIUS CANTACUZINO, prince of Moldavia, 1674-1676. He +left an unsatisfactory record. Descendants of Demetrius and Sherban have +emigrated to Russia, and held high positions there as governors of +Bessarabia and in other responsible posts. (4) Of the Moldavian +Cantacuzinos, THEODORE is well known as a chronicler of his times (c. +1740). (5) GHEORGE CANTACUZINO (b. 1837), son of GREGORI (1800-1849). He +was appointed in 1870 minister of public instruction in Rumania; in +1889, president of the chamber; in 1892, president of the senate; from +1899 he was head of the Conservative party, and from 1905 to 1907 prime +minister (see also RUMANIA: _History_). (M. G.) + + + + +CANTAGALLO, an inland town of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, about +100 m. by rail N.E. of the port of Rio de Janeiro, with which it is +connected by the Cantagallo railway. Pop. (1890) of the municipality, +26,067, of whom less than one-fourth live in the town. Cantagallo is +situated in the fertile Parahyba valley and is the commercial centre of +a rich coffee-producing district. There are exhausted gold placer mines +in its vicinity, but they were not rich enough to cause any considerable +development in mining. Coffee production is the principal industry, but +sugar-cane is grown to a limited extent, and some attention is given to +the raising of cattle and swine. The district is an excellent fruit +region. + + + + +CANTAL, a department of central France, formed from Haute-Auvergne, the +southern portion of the old province of Auvergne. It is bounded N. by +the department of Puy-de-Dome, E. by Haute-Loire, S.E. by Lozere, S. by +Aveyron and Lozere, and W. by Correze and Lot. Area 2231 sq. m. Pop. +(1906) 228,600. Cantal is situated in the middle of the central plateau +of France. It takes its name from the Monts du Cantal, a volcanic group +occupying its central region, and continued towards the north and east +by ranges of lower altitude. The Plomb du Cantal, the culminating summit +of the department, attains a height of 6096 ft.; and its neighbours, the +Puy Mary and the Puy Chavaroche, attain a height of 5863 and 5722 ft. +respectively. Immediately to the east of this central mass lies the +lofty but fertile plateau of Planeze, which merges into the Monts de la +Margeride on the eastern border. The valley of the Truyere skirts the +Planeze on the south and divides it from the Monts d'Aubrac, at the foot +of which lies Chaudesaigues, noted for its thermal springs, the most +important in the department. Northwards the Monts du Cantal are +connected with the Monts Dore by the volcanic range of Cezallier and the +arid plateaus of Artense. In the west of the department grassy plateaus +and beautiful river valleys slope gently down from the central heights. +Most of the streams of the department have their sources in this central +ridge and fall by a short and rapid course into the rivers which +traverse the extensive valleys on either side. The principal rivers are +the Alagnon, a tributary of the Allier; the Celle and Truyere, +tributaries of the Lot; and the Cere and Rue, tributaries of the +Dordogne. The climate of the department varies considerably in the +different localities. In the alluvial plain between Murat and St Flour, +and in the south-west in the arrondissement of Aurillac, it is generally +mild and dry; but in the northern and central portions the winters are +long and severe and the hurricanes peculiarly violent. The cold and damp +of the climate in these districts are great obstacles to the cultivation +of wheat, but rye and buckwheat are grown in considerable quantities, +and in natural pasture Cantal is extremely rich. Cattle are accordingly +reared with profit, especially around Salers and in the Monts d'Aubrac, +while butter and Roquefort cheese are made in large quantities. Large +flocks of sheep pasture in the Monts d'Aubrac and elsewhere in the +department; goats are also reared. The inhabitants are simple and +primitive and accustomed to live on the scantiest fare. Many of them +migrate for part of the year to Paris and the provinces, where they +engage in the humblest occupations. The principal articles of food are +rye, buckwheat and chestnuts. The internal resources of the department +are considerable; but the difficulty of land-carriage prevents them +being sufficiently developed. The hills and valleys abound with game and +the streams with fish. Cantal produces a vast variety of aromatic and +medicinal plants; and its mineral products include coal, antimony and +lime. The department has no prominent manufactures. Live-stock, cheese, +butter and coal are the principal exports; coal, wine, cereals, flour +and earthenware are imported. The department is served by the railways +of the Orleans and Southern companies, the construction of which at some +points demanded considerable engineering skill, notably in the case of +the viaduct of Garabit spanning the gorge of the Truyere. Cantal is +divided into four arrondissements--Aurillac, Mauriac, Murat and St +Flour--23 cantons and 267 communes. It belongs to the region of the +XIII. army corps and to the academie (educational division) of +Clermont-Ferrand. Its bishopric is at St Flour and depends on the +archbishopric of Bourges. Its court of appeal is at Riom. The capital is +Aurillac (q.v.), and St Flour (q.v.) is the other principal town. + + + + +CANTARINI, SIMONE (1612-1648), called SIMONE DA PESARO, painter and +etcher, was born at Oropezza near Pesaro in 1612. He was a disciple of +Guido Reni and a fellow-student of Domenichino and Albano. The +irritability of his temper and his vanity were extreme; and it is said +that his death, which took place at Verona in 1648, was occasioned by +chagrin at his failure in a portrait of the duke of Mantua. Others +relate that he was poisoned by a Mantuan painter whom he had injured. +His pictures, though masterly and spirited, are deficient in +originality. Some of his works have been mistaken for examples of Guido +Reni, to whom, indeed, he is by some considered superior in the +extremities of the figures. Among his principal paintings are "St +Anthony," at Cagli; the "Magdalene," at Pesaro; the "Transfiguration," +in the Brera Gallery, Milan; the "Portrait of Guido," in the Bologna +gallery; and "St Romuald," in the Casa Paolucci. His most celebrated +etching is "Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto, honouring the arms of Cardinal +Borghese." + + + + +CANTATA (Italian for a song or story set to music), a vocal composition +accompanied by instruments and generally containing more than one +movement. In the 16th century, when all serious music was vocal, the +term had no reason to exist, but with the rise of instrumental music in +the 17th century cantatas began to exist under that name as soon as the +instrumental art was definite enough to be embodied in sonatas. From the +middle of the 17th till late in the 18th century a favourite form of +Italian chamber music was the cantata for one or two solo voices, with +accompaniment of harpsichord and perhaps a few other solo instruments. +It consisted at first of a declamatory narrative or scene in recitative, +held together by a primitive aria repeated at intervals. Fine examples +may be found in the church music of Carissimi; and the English vocal +solos of Purcell (such as _Mad Tom_ and _Mad Bess_) show the utmost that +can be made of this archaic form. With the rise of the Da Capo aria the +cantata became a group of two or three arias joined by recitative. +Handel's numerous Italian duets and trios are examples on a rather large +scale. His Latin motet _Silete Venti_, for soprano solo, shows the use +of this form in church music. + +The Italian solo cantata naturally tended, when on a large scale, to +become indistinguishable from a scene in an opera. In the same way the +church cantata, solo or choral, is indistinguishable from a small +oratorio or portion of an oratorio. This is equally evident whether we +examine the unparalleled church cantatas of Bach, of which nearly 200 +are extant, or the _Chandos Anthems_ of Handel. In Bach's case many of +the larger cantatas are actually called oratorios; and the _Christmas +Oratorio_ is a collection of six church cantatas actually intended for +performance on six different days, though together forming as complete +an artistic whole as any classical oratorio. + +The essential point, however, in Bach's church cantatas is that they +formed part of a church service, and moreover of a service in which the +organization of the music was far more coherent than is possible in the +Anglican church. Many of Bach's greatest cantatas begin with an +elaborate chorus followed by a couple of arias and recitatives, and end +with a plain chorale. This has often been commented upon as an example +of Bach's indifference to artistic climax in the work as a whole. But no +one will maintain this who realizes the place which the church cantata +occupied in the Lutheran church service. The text was carefully based +upon the gospel or lessons for the day; unless the cantata was short the +sermon probably took place after the first chorus or one of the arias, +and the congregation joined in the final chorale. Thus the unity of the +service was the unity of the music; and, in the cases where all the +movements of the cantata were founded on one and the same chorale-tune, +this unity has never been equalled, except by those 16th-century masses +and motets which are founded upon the Gregorian tones of the festival +for which they are written. + +In modern times the term cantata is applied almost exclusively to +choral, as distinguished from solo vocal music. There has, perhaps, been +only one kind of cantata since Bach which can be recognized as an art +form and not as a mere title for works otherwise impossible to classify. +It is just possible to recognize as a distinct artistic type that kind +of early 19th-century cantata in which the chorus is the vehicle for +music more lyric and songlike than the oratorio style, though at the +same time not excludeing the possibility of a brilliant climax in the +shape of a light order of fugue. Beethoven's _Glorreiche Augenblick_ is +a brilliant "pot-boiler" in this style; Weber's _Jubel Cantata_ is a +typical specimen, and Mendelssohn's _Walpurgisnacht_ is the classic. +Mendelssohn's "Symphony Cantata," the _Lobgesang_, is a hybrid work, +partly in the oratorio style. It is preceded by three symphonic +movements, a device avowedly suggested by Beethoven's ninth symphony; +but the analogy is not accurate, as Beethoven's work is a symphony of +which the fourth movement is a choral finale of essentially single +design, whereas Mendelssohn's "Symphony Cantata" is a cantata with three +symphonic preludes. The full lyric possibilities of a string of choral +songs were realized at last by Brahms in his _Rinaldo_, set to a text +which Goethe wrote at the same time as he wrote that of the +_Walpurgisnacht_. The point of Brahms's work (his only experiment in +this _genre_) has naturally been lost by critics who expected in so +voluminous a composition the qualities of an elaborate choral music with +which it has nothing whatever to do. Brahms has probably said the last +word on this subject; and the remaining types of cantata (beginning with +Beethoven's _Meeres-stille_, and including most of Brahms's and many +notable English small choral works) are merely so many different ways of +setting to choral music a poem which is just too long to be comprised in +one movement. (D. F. T.) + + + + +CANTEEN (through the Fr. _cantine_, from Ital. _cantina_, a cellar), a +word chiefly used in a military sense for an official sutler's shop, +where provisions, &c., are sold to soldiers. The word was formerly +applied also to portable equipments for carrying liquors and food, or +for cooking in the field. Another sense of the word, which has survived +to the present day, is that of a soldier's water-bottle, or of a small +wooden or metal can for carying a workman's liquor, &c. + + + + +CANTEMIR, the name of a celebrated family of Tatar origin, which came +from the Crimea in the 17th century and settled in Moldavia. + +CONSTANTINE CANTEMIR became a prince of Moldavia, 1685-1693. He was a +good and conscientious ruler, who protected the people from the rapacity +of the tax-gatherers and introduced peace into his country. He was +succeeded on the throne by his son Antioch, who ruled twice, 1696-1700 +and 1705-1707. + +His youngest brother, DEMETRIUS or DEMETER CANTEMIR (b. October 26, +1673), was made prince of Moldavia in 1710; he ruled only one year, +1710-1711, when he joined Peter the Great in his campaign against the +Turks and placed Moldavia under Russian suzerainty. Beaten by the Turks, +Cantemir emigrated to Russia, where he and his family finally settled. +He died at Kharkov in 1723. He was known as one of the greatest +linguists of his time, speaking and writing eleven languages, and being +well versed in Oriental scholarship. He was a voluminous and original +writer of great sagacity and deep penetration, and his writings range +over many subjects. The best known is his _History of the Growth and +Decay of the Ottoman Empire_. He also wrote a history of oriental music, +which is no longer extant; the first critical history of Moldo-Walachia; +the first geographical, ethnographical and economic description of +Moldavia, _Descriptio Moldaviae_, under the name of _Historia +Hieroglyphica_, to which he furnished a key, and in which the principal +persons are represented by animals; also the history of the two ruling +houses of Brancovan and Cantacuzino; and a philosophical treatise on the +old theme of the disputation between soul and body, written in Greek and +Rumanian under the title _Divanul Lumii_. + +The latter's son, ANTIOCH CANTEMIR (born in Moldavia, 1700; died in +Paris, 1744), became in 1731 Russian minister in Great Britain, and in +1736 minister plenipotentiary in Paris. He brought to London the Latin +MS. from whence the English translation of his father's history of the +Turkish empire was made by N. Tindal, London, 1756, to which he added an +exhaustive biography and bibliography of the author (pp. 455-460). He +was a Russian poet and almost the first author of satires in modern +Russian literature. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Operele Principelui D. Cantemir_, ed. Academia Romana + (1872 foll.); A. Philippide, _Introducere in istoria limbei si + literat. romane_ (Iasi, 1888), pp. 192-202; O.G. Lecca, _Familiile + boeresti romane_ (Bukarest, 1898), pp. 144-148; M. Gaster, _Chrestom. + romana_, i. 322, 359 (in Cyrillic). (M. G.) + + + + +CANTERBURY, CHARLES MANNERS-SUTTON, 1ST VISCOUNT (1780-1845), speaker of +the House of Commons, was the elder son of Charles Manners-Sutton +(q.v.), afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, and was born on the 29th of +January 1780. Educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, he +graduated B.A. in 1802, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in +1806. At the general election of this year he was returned to parliament +in the Tory interest as member for Scarborough, and in 1809 became +judge-advocate-general in the ministry of Spencer Perceval. He retained +this position until June 1817, when he was elected speaker in succession +to Charles Abbot, created Baron Colchester, refusing to exchange this +office in 1827 for that of home secretary. In 1832 he abandoned +Scarborough and was returned to parliament as one of the members for the +university of Cambridge. Before the general election of 1832 +Manners-Sutton had intimated his desire to retire from the position of +speaker and had been voted an annuity of L4000 a year. The ministry of +Earl Grey, however, reluctant to meet the reformed House of Commons with +a new and inexperienced occupant of the chair, persuaded him to retain +his office, and in 1833 he was elected speaker for the seventh time. +Some feeling had been shown against him on this occasion owing to his +Tory proclivities, and the Whigs frequently complained that outside the +House he was a decided partisan. The result was that when a new +parliament met in February 1835 a sharp contest ensued for the +speakership, and Manners-Sutton was defeated by James Abercromby, +afterwards Lord Dunfermline. In March 1835 the retiring speaker was +raised to the peerage as Baron Bottesford and Viscount Canterbury. In +1835 he was appointed high commissioner for Canada, but owing to +domestic reasons he never undertook the appointment. He died in London +on the 21st of July 1845 and was buried at Addington. His first wife was +Lucy (d. 1815), daughter of John Denison of Ossington, by whom he had +two sons and a daughter. Both his sons, Charles John (1812-1869), and +John Henry Thomas (1814-1877), succeeded in turn to the viscounty. By +his second wife, Ellen (d. 1845), widow of John Home-Purves, he had a +daughter. + + + + +CANTERBURY, a city and county of a city, the metropolis of an +archdiocese of the Church of England, and a municipal, county and +parliamentary borough of Kent, England, 62 m. E.S.E, of London by the +South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 24,889. It lies on the +river Stour, which here debouches from a beautiful narrow valley of the +North Downs, the low but abrupt elevations of which command fine views +of the city from the west and south, while the river presently enters +upon the flat belt of land which separates the elevated Isle of Thanet +from the rest of Kent. This belt represents the existence, in early +historic times, of a sea-strait, and Fordwich, little more than 2 m. +north-east of Canterbury, was once accessible for shipping. The city +surrounds the precincts of the great cathedral. + +_The Cathedral_.--It was to Canterbury, as the capital of Aethelberht, +the fourth Saxon king of Kent, that in 597 Augustine and his +fellow-missionaries came from Rome, and their settlement by Aethelberht +in his capital became the origin of its position, held ever since, as +the metropolis of the Church of England. Aethelberht, whose queen, +Bertha, was already a Christian, gave the missionaries a church whose +mythical founder was King Lucius. Augustine was a Benedictine and +established the monastery of that order attached to the cathedral; this +foundation was set upon a firm basis after the Norman Conquest by +Archbishop Lanfranc, who placed its charge (as distinct from that of the +diocese) in the hands of a prior. + + + History of the building. + +Preparatory to the description of the cathedral, the principal epochs in +the history of its erection may be noted. The Romano-British church +occupied by St Augustine, of basilica form, remained long in use, though +it was largely rebuilt by Archbishop Odo, c. 950; after further +vicissitudes it was destroyed by fire in 1067. Archbishop Lanfranc, +taking up his office in 1070, undertook the building of an entirely new +church, but under Anselm (c. 1100) Prior Ernulf rebuilt the eastern +part, and his successor Conrad carried on the work. A fire destroyed +much of this part of the building in 1174, and from that year the +architect, William of Sens, took up the work of rebuilding until 1178, +when, on his suffering serious injury by falling from a scaffold, +another William, commonly distinguished as the Englishman, carried on +the work and completed it in 1184. In 1376 Archbishop Sudbury entered +upon the construction of a new nave, and Prior Chillenden continued this +under Archbishop Courtenay. The building of the central tower was +undertaken c. 1495 by Prior Goldstone, with the counsel of Selling, his +predecessor, and Archbishop Morton. + + + Exterior. + +This Perpendicular tower is the most notable feature of the exterior. It +rises in two storeys to a height of 235 ft. from the ground, and is +known variously as Bell Harry tower from the great bell it contains, or +as the Angel steeple from the gilded figure of an angel which formerly +adorned the summit. The Perpendicular nave is flanked at the west front +by towers, whose massive buttresses, rising in tiers, serve to enhance +by contrast the beautiful effect of the unbroken straight lines of Bell +Harry tower. The south-western of these towers is an original +Perpendicular structure by Prior Goldstone, while the north-western was +copied from it in 1834-1840, replacing a Norman tower which had carried +a spire until 1705 and had become unsafe. The north-west and south-west +transepts are included in Chillenden's Perpendicular reconstruction; but +east of these earlier work is met with. The south-east transept exhibits +Norman work; the projecting chapel east of this is known as Anselm's +tower. The cathedral terminates eastward in a graceful apsidal form, +with the final addition of the circular eastern chapel built by William +the Englishman, and known as the Corona or Becket's Crown. St Andrew's +tower or chapel on the north side, corresponding to Anselm's on the +south, is the work of Ernulf. From this point westward the various +monastic buildings adjoin the cathedral on the north side, so that the +south side is that from which the details of the exterior must be +examined. + + + Interior. + +When the nave of the cathedral is entered, the complete separation of +the interior into two main parts, not only owing to the distinction +between the two main periods of building; but by an actual structural +arrangement, is realized as an unusual and, as it happens, a most +impressive feature. In most English cathedrals the choir is separated +from the nave by a screen; at Canterbury not only is this the case, but +the separation is further marked by a broad flight of steps leading up +to the screen, the choir floor (but not its roof) being much higher than +that of the nave. Chillenden, in rebuilding the nave, retained only the +lower parts of some of the early Norman walls of Lanfranc and the piers +of the central tower arches. These piers were encased or altered on +Perpendicular lines. In the choir, the late 12th-century work of the two +Williams, the notable features are its great length, the fine +ornamentation and the use of arches both round and pointed, a remarkable +illustration of the transition between the Norman and Early English +styles; the prolific use of dark marble in the shafts and mouldings +strongly contrasting with the light stone which is the material +principally used; and, finally, the graceful incurve of the main arcades +and walls at the eastern end of the choir where it joins the chapel of +the Trinity, an arrangement necessitated by the preservation of the +earlier flanking chapels or towers of St Anselm and St Andrew. From the +altar eastward the floor of the church is raised again above that of the +choir. The choir screen was built by Prior de Estria, c. 1300. The +organ is not seen, being hidden in the triforium and played from the +choir. There are several tombs of archbishops in the choir. The +south-east transept serves as the chapel of the King's school and +exhibits the work of William of Sens in alteration of that of Ernulf. +Anselm's chapel or tower, already mentioned, may be noticed again as +containing a Decorated window (1336). This style is not common in the +cathedral. + + + Becket's shrine. Pilgrimages. + +Behind the altar is Trinity Chapel, in the centre of which stood the +celebrated shrine of St Thomas of Canterbury. The priory owed its chief +fame to the murder of Archbishop Becket (1170) in the church, his +canonization as St Thomas of Canterbury, and the resort of the Christian +world on pilgrimage to his shrine. Miracles were almost immediately said +to be worked at his grave in the crypt and at the well in which his +garments had been washed; and from the time when Henry II. did his +penance for the murder in the church, and the battle of Alnwick was +gained over the Scots a few days afterwards--it was supposed as a +result--the fame of the martyr's power and the popularity of his +worship became established in England. On the rebuilding of the +cathedral after the fire of 1174, a magnificent shrine was erected for +him in Trinity Chapel, which was built for the purpose, and became +thronged for three centuries by pilgrims and worshippers of all classes, +from kings and emperors downward. Henceforward the interests of the city +became bound up in those of the cathedral, and were shown in the large +number of hostels for the accommodation of pilgrims, and of shops +containing wares especially suited to their tastes. A pilgrimage to +Canterbury became not only a pious exercise, but a favourite summer +excursion; and the poet Chaucer, writing in the 14th century, gives an +admirable picture of such pilgrimages, with the manners and behaviour of +a party of pilgrims, leisurely enjoying the journey and telling stories +on the road. The English language even preserved two words originating +in these customs--a "canterbury," or a "canterbury tale," a phrase used +for a fiction, and a "canter," which is a short form for a "canterbury +gallop," an allusion to the easy pace at which these pilgrimages were +performed. The shrine with its vast collected wealth was destroyed, and +every reminiscence connected with it as far as possible effaced, by King +Henry VIII.'s commissioners in 1538. But some of the beautiful old +windows of stained glass, illustrating the miracles wrought in connexion +with the saint, are preserved. The north-west transept was the actual +scene of Becket's murder; the spot where he fell is shown on the floor, +but this part of the building is of later date than the tragedy. + +Close to the site of the shrine is the fine tomb of Edward the Black +Prince, with a remarkable portrait effigy, and above it his helmet, +shield and other equipment. There is also in this chapel the tomb of +King Henry IV. The Corona, at the extreme cast of the church, contains +the so-called St Augustine's chair in which the archbishops are +enthroned. It is of marble, but its name is not deserved, as it dates +probably from c. 1200. The western part of the crypt, beneath the choir, +is the work of Ernulf, and perhaps incorporates some of Lanfranc's work. +The chapel of St John or St Gabriel, beneath Anselm's tower, is still +used for service, in which the French language is used; it was devoted +to this purpose in 1561, on behalf of French Protestant refugees, who +were also permitted to carry on their trade as weavers in the crypt. The +eastern and loftier part of the crypt, with its apsidal termination, is +the work of William the Englishman. Here for some time lay the body of +Becket, and here the celebrated penance of Henry II. was performed. + + + Monastic buildings. + +The chief entrance to the precincts is through an ornate gateway at the +south-west, called Christchurch gateway, and built by Prior Goldstone in +1517. Among the remains of the monastic buildings there may be mentioned +the Norman ruins of the infirmary, the fine two-storeyed treasury and +the lavatory tower, Norman in the lower part and Perpendicular in the +upper. The cloisters are of various dates, containing a little rich +Norman work, but were very largely rebuilt by Prior Chillenden. The +upper part of the chapter-house is also his work, but the lower is by +Prior de Estria. The library is modern. The site of the New Hall of the +monastery is covered by modern buildings of King's school, but the +Norman entry-stair is preserved--a magnificent example of the style, +with highly ornate arcading. + +The principal dimensions of the cathedral arc: length (outside) 522 ft., +nave 178 ft., choir 180 ft. The nave is 71 ft. in breadth and 80 ft. in +height. + + + Province and diocese. + +The archbishop of Canterbury is primate of all England; the +ecclesiastical province of Canterbury covers England and Wales south of +Cheshire and Yorkshire; and the diocese covers a great part of Kent with +a small part of Sussex. The following is a list of archbishops of +Canterbury:-- + + 1. Augustine, 597 to 605. 55. Thomas Bradwardin, 1349. + 2. Lawrence (Laurentius), 605 56. Simon Islip, 1349 to 1366. + to 619. 57. Simon Langham, 1366 to + 3. Mellitus, 619 to 624. 1368. + 4. Justin. 624 to 627. 58. William Whittlesea, 1368 + 5. Honorius, 627 to 653. to 1374. + 6. Deusdedit (Frithona), 655 59. Simon Sudbury, 1375 to + to 664. 1381. + 7. Theodore, 668 to 690. 60. William Courtenay, 1381 to + 8. Brethwald (Berhtuald), 693 1396. + to 731. 61. Thomas Arundel, 1396 to + 9. Taetwine. 731 to 734. 1414. + 10. Nothelm, 734 to 740. 62. Henry Chicheley, 1414 to + 11. Cuthbert, 740 to 758. 1443. + 12. Breogwine, 759 to 762. 63. John Stafford, 1443 to 1452. + 13. Jaenberht, 763 to 790. 64. John Kemp, 1452 to 1454. + 14. Aethelhard, 790 to 803. 65. Thomas Bourchier, 1454 to + 15. Wulfred, 803 to 829. 1486. + 16. Fleogild, 829 to 830. 66. John Morton, 1486 to 1500. + 17. Ceolnoth, 830 to 870. 67. Henry Dean (Dene), 1501 to + 18. Aethelred, 870 to 889. 1503. + 19. Plegemund, 889 to 914. 68. William Warham, 1503 to + 20. Aethelm, 914 to 923. 1532. + 21. Wulfelm, 923 to 942. 69. Thomas Cranmer, 1533 to + 22. Odo, 942 to 959. 1556. + 23. Aelsine, 959. 70. Reginald Pole, 1556 to 1558. + 24. Dunstan, 960 to 988. 71. Matthew Parker, 1559 to + 25. Aethelgar, 988 to 989. 1575. + 26. Sigeric, 990 to 994. 72. Edmund Grindal, 1575 to + 27. Aelfric, 995 to 1005. 1583. + 28. Alphege (Aelfeah), 1005 to 73. John Whitgift, 1583 to 1604. + 1012. 74. Richard Bancroft, 1604 to + 29. Lyfing, 1013 to 1020. 1610. + 30. Aethelnoth, 1020 to 1038. 75. George Abbot, 1610 to 1633. + 31. Eadsige, 1038 to 1050. 76. William Laud, 1633 to 1645. + 32. Robert of Jumieges, 1051 to 77. William Juxon, 1660 to 1663. + 1052. 78. Gilbert Sheldon, 1663 to + 33. Stigand, 1052 to 1070. 1677. + 34. Lanfranc, 1070 to 1089. 79. William Sancroft, 1678 to + 35. Anselm, 1093 to 1109. 1691. + 36. Ralph de Turbine, 1114 to 80. John Tillotson, 1691 to 1694. + 1122. 81. Thomas Tenison, 1694 to + 37. William de Corbeuil 1715. + (Curbellio), 1123 to 1136. 82. William Wake, 1716 to 1737. + 38. Theobald, 1139 to 1161. 83. John Potter, 1737 to 1747. + 39. Thomas Becket, 1162 to 1170. 84. Thomas Herring, 1747 to + 40. Richard, 1174 to 1184. 1757. + 41. Baldwin, 1185 to 1190. 85. Matthew Hutton, 1757 to + 42. Reginald Fitz-Jocelyn, 1191. 1758. + 43. Hubert Walter, 1193 to 1205. 86. Thomas Secker, 1758 to + 44. Stephen Langton, 1207 to 1768. + 1228. 87. Frederick Cornwallis, 1768 + 45. Richard Wethershed, 1229 to 1783. + to 1231. 88. John Moore, 1783 to 1805. + 46. Edmund Rich (de Abbendon) 89. Charles Manners-Sutton, + 1234 to 1240. 1805 to 1828. + 47. Boniface of Savoy, 1241 to 90. William Howley, 1828 to + 1270. 1848. + 48. Robert Kilwardby, 1273 to 91. John Bird Sumner, 1848 to + 1278. 1862. + 49. John Peckham, 1279 to 1292. 92. Charles Thomas Longley, + 50. Robert Winchelsea, 1293 to 1862 to 1868. + 1313. 93. Archibald Campbell Tait, + 51. Walter Reynolds, 1313 to 1868 to 1882. + 1327. 94. Edward White Benson, 1882 + 52. Simon de Meopham, 1328 to to 1896. + 1333. 95. Frederick Temple, 1896 to + 53. John Stratford, 1333 to 1348. 1903 + 54. John de Ufford, 1348 to 1349. 96. Randall Thomas Davidson. + +The archbishop has a seat at Lambeth Palace, London. There are fragments +in Palace Street of the old archbishop's palace which have been +incorporated with a modern palace. + +_Other Ecclesiastical Foundations._--Canterbury naturally abounded in +religious foundations. The most important, apart from the cathedral, was +the Benedictine abbey of St Augustine. This was erected on a site +granted by King Aethelberht outside his capital, in a tract called +Longport. Augustine dedicated it to St Peter and St Paul, but Archbishop +Dunstan added the sainted name of the founder to the dedication, and in +common use it came to exclude those of the apostles. The site is now +occupied by St Augustine's Missionary College, founded in 1844 when the +property was acquired by A.J.B. Beresford Hope. Some ancient remnants +are preserved, the principal being the entrance gateway (1300), with the +cemetery gate, dated a century later, and the guest hall, now the +refectory; but the scanty ruins of St Pancras' chapel are of high +interest, and embody Roman material. The chapel is said to have received +its dedication from St Augustine on account of the special association +of St Pancras with children, and in connexion with the famous story of +St Gregory, w hose attention was first attracted to Britain when he saw +the fair-faced children of the Angles who had been brought to Rome, and +termed them "not Angles but angels." + +There were lesser houses of many religious orders in Canterbury, but +only two, those of the Dominicans near St Peter's church in St Peter's +Street, and the Franciscans, also in St Peter's Street, have left +notable remains. The Dominican refectory is used as a chapel. Among the +many churches, St Martin's, Longport, is of the first interest. This was +the scene of the earliest work of Augustine in Canterbury, and had seen +Christian service before his arrival. Its walls contain Roman masonry, +but whether it is in part a genuine remnant of a Romano-British +Christian church is open to doubt. There are Norman, Early English and +later portions; and the font may be in part pre-Norman, and is indeed +associated by tradition with the baptism of Aethelberht himself. St +Mildred's church exhibits Early English and Perpendicular work, and the +use of Roman material is again visible here. St Paul's is of Early +English origin; St Dunstan's, St Peter's and Holy Cross are mainly +Decorated and Perpendicular. The village of Harbledown, on the hill west +of Canterbury on the London road, from the neighbourhood of which a +beautiful view over the city is obtained, has many associations with the +ecclesiastical life of Canterbury. It is mentioned by Chaucer in his +pilgrimage under the name, appropriate to its site, of "Bob up and +down." The almshouses, which occupy the site of Lanfranc's hospital for +lepers, include an ancient hall and a chapel in which the west door and +northern nave arcade are Norman, and are doubtless part of Lanfranc's +buildings. The neighbouring parish church is in great part rebuilt. +Among the numerous charitable institutions in Canterbury there are +several which may be called the descendants of medieval ecclesiastical +foundations. + +_City Buildings, &c._--The old city walls may be traced, and the public +walk called the Dane John (derived probably from _donjon_) follows the +summit of a high artificial mound within the lines. The cathedral is +finely seen from this point. Only the massive turreted west gate, of the +later part of the 14th century, remains out of the former six city +gates. The site of the castle is not far from the Dane John, and enough +remains of the Norman keep to show its strength and great size. Among +other buildings and institutions there may be mentioned the guildhall in +High Street, of the early part of the 18th century; the museum, which +includes a fine collection of local, including many Roman, relics; and +the school of art, under municipal management, but founded by the +painter T. Sidney Cooper (d. 1902), who was a resident at Harbledown. A +modern statue of a muse commemorates the poet Christopher Marlowe +(1564-1593), a native of the city; and a pillar indicates the place +where a number of persons were burnt at the stake in the reign of Mary. + +The King's school, occupying buildings adjacent to the cathedral, +developed out of the early teaching furnished by the monastery. It was +refounded by Henry VIII. in 1541 (whence its name), and is managed on +the lines of ordinary public schools. It has about 250 boys; and there +is besides a junior or preparatory school. The school is still connected +with the ecclesiastical foundation, the dean and chapter being its +governors. + +A noted occasion of festivity in Canterbury is the Canterbury +cricket-week, when the Kent county cricket eleven engages in matches +with other first-class teams, and many visitors are attracted to the +city. + +Canterbury has a considerable agriculture trade, breweries, tanneries, +brickworks and other manufactures. The parliamentary borough returns one +member. The city is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. +Area, 3955 acres. + +_History of the City._--The existence of a Romano-British town on the +site of Canterbury has already been indicated. It was named +_Durovernum_, and was a flourishing county town on the road from the +Kentish ports to London. Mosaic pavements and other remains have been +found in considerable abundance. The city, known by the Saxons as +_Cantwaraburh_, the town of the men of Kent, was the metropolis of +Aethelberht's kingdom. At the time of the Domesday survey Canterbury +formed part of the royal demesne and was governed by a portreeve as it +had been before the Conquest. In the 13th and 14th centuries, two +bailiffs presided over the burghmote, assisted by a larger and smaller +council. Henry II., by an undated charter, confirmed former privileges +and granted to the citizens that no one should implead them outside the +city walls and that the pleas of the crown should be decided according +to the customs of the city. In 1256 Henry III. granted them the city at +an annual fee farm of L60, also the right of electing their bailiffs. +Confirmations of former charters with additional liberties were granted +by later sovereigns, and Henry VI. incorporated Canterbury, which he +called "one of our most ancient cities," under the style of the mayor +and commonalty, the mayor to be elected by the burgesses. James I. in +1609 confirmed these privileges, giving the burgesses the right to be +called a body corporate and to elect twelve aldermen and a common +council of twenty-four. Charles II., after calling in the charters of +corporations, granted a confirmation in 1684. Canterbury was first +represented in parliament in 1283, and it continued to return two +members until 1885, when the number was reduced to one. A fair was +granted by Henry VI. to the citizens to be held in the city or suburbs +on the 4th of August and the two days following; other fairs were in the +hands of the monasteries; the corn and cattle markets and a general +market have been held by prescription from time immemorial. Canterbury +was a great centre of the silk-weaving trade in the 17th century, large +numbers of Walloons, driven by persecution to England, having settled +there in the reign of Elizabeth. In 1676 Charles II. granted a charter +of incorporation to the Walloon congregation under style of the master, +wardens and fellowship of weavers in the city of Canterbury. The market +for the sale of corn and hops was regulated by a local act in 1801. + + See A.P. Stanley, _Historical Memorials of Canterbury_ (London, 1855); + J. Brent, _Canterbury in the Olden Time_ (Canterbury, 1879); J.W. Legg + and W.H. St J. Hope, _Inventories of Christchurch, Canterbury_ + (London, 1902); _Victoria County History, Kent_. + + + + +CANTHARIDES, or SPANISH FLIES, the common blister-beetles (_Cantharis +vesicatoria_) of European pharmacy. They are bright, iridescent, +golden-green or bluish-coloured beetles (see COLEOPTERA), with the +breast finely punctured and pubescent, head and thorax with a +longitudinal channel, and elytra with two slightly elevated lines. The +insect is from half-an-inch to an inch in length, and from one to two +lines broad, the female being broader in the abdomen and altogether +larger than the male. It is a native of the south of Europe, being found +in Spain, France, Germany, Italy, Hungary and the south of Russia, and +it is also obtained in Siberia. The Spanish fly is also occasionally +found in the south of England. The insects feed upon ash, lilac, privet +and jasmine leaves, and are found more rarely on elder, rose, apple and +poplar trees. Their presence is made known by a powerful disagreeable +odour, which penetrates to a considerable distance. They are collected +for use at late evening or early morning, while in a dull bedewed +condition, by shaking them off the trees or shrubs into cloths spread on +the ground; and they are killed by dipping them into hot water or +vinegar, or by exposing them for some time over the vapour of vinegar. +They are then dried and put up for preservation in glass-stoppered +bottles; and they require to be very carefully guarded against mites and +various other minute insects, to the attacks of which they are +peculiarly liable. It has been shown by means of spectroscopic +observations that the green colour of the elytra, &c., is due to the +presence of chlorophyll; and that the variations of the spectral bands +are sufficient, after the lapse of many years, to indicate with some +certainty the kind of leaves on which the insects were feeding shortly +before they were killed. + +Cantharides owe their value to the presence of a peculiar chemical +principle, to which the name _cantharidin_ has been given. It is most +abundant in large full-grown insects, while in very young specimens no +cantharidin at all has been found. From about one-fourth to rather more +than one-half per cent, of cantharidin has been obtained from different +samples; and it has been ascertained that the elytra or wing-sheaths of +the insect, which alone are used in pharmacy, contain more of the active +principle than the soft parts taken together; but apparently +cantharidin is most abundant in the eggs and generative organs. + +Cantharidin constitutes from 1/2 to 1% of cantharides. It has the +formula C10H14O4, and on hydrolysis is converted into cantharinic acid, +C10H14O5. It crystallizes in colourless plates and is readily soluble in +alcohol, ether, &c., but not in water. The British Pharmacopeia contains +a large number of preparations of cantharides, but the only one needing +special mention is the tincture, which is meant for internal +administration; the small dose is noteworthy, five minims being probably +the maximum for safety. + +The external action of cantharides or cantharidin is extremely +characteristic. When it is applied to the skin there are no obvious +consequences for some hours. Thereafter the part becomes warm and +painful, owing to marked local vascular dilatation. This is the typical +_rubefacient_ action. Soon afterwards there is an accumulation under the +epidermis of a serum derived from the dilated blood-vessels. The +numerous small blisters or vesicles thus derived coalesce, forming a +large sac full of "blister-fluid." The drug is described as a +counter-irritant, though the explanation of this action is very +doubtful. Apparently there is an influence on the afferent nerves of the +part which causes a reflex contraction--some authors say dilatation--of +the vessels in the internal organs that are under the control of the +same segment of the nervous system as that supplying the area of skin +from which the exciting impulse comes. When applied in this fashion a +certain quantity of the cantharides is absorbed. + +Taken internally in any but minute doses, the drug causes the most +severe gastro-intestinal irritation, the vomited and evacuated matters +containing blood, and the patient suffering agonizing pain and extreme +depression. The further characteristic symptoms are displayed in the +genito-urinary tract. The drug circulates in the blood in the form of an +albuminate and is slowly excreted by the kidneys. The effect of large +doses is to cause great pain in the renal region and urgent wish to +micturate. The urine is nevertheless small in amount and contains +albumen and blood owing to the local inflammation produced in the kidney +by the passage of the poison through that organ. The drug often has a +marked aphrodisiac action, producing priapism, or in the female sex the +onset of the catamenia or abortion. + +Cantharides is used externally for its counter-irritant action. There +are certain definite contra-indications to its use. It must not be +employed in cases of renal disease, owing to the risks attendant upon +absorption. It must always be employed with caution in the case of +elderly persons and children; and it must not be applied to a paralysed +limb (in which the power of healing is deficient), nor to parts upon +which the patient lies, as otherwise a bed-sore is likely to follow its +use. The drug is administered internally in certain cases of impotence +and occasionally in other conditions. Its criminal employment is usually +intended to heighten sexual desire, and has frequently led to death. + +The toxic symptoms have already been detailed, the patient usually dying +from arrest of the renal functions. The treatment is far from +satisfactory, and consists in keeping up the strength and diluting the +poison in the blood and in the urine by the administration of bland +fluids, such as soda-water, milk and plain water, in quantities as large +as possible. External warmth should also be applied to the regions +specially affected by the drug. + +A very large number of other insects belonging to the same family +possess blistering properties, owing to their containing cantharidin. Of +these the most remarkable is the Telini "fly" of India (_Mylabris +cichorii_), the range of which extends from Italy and Greece through +Egypt and central Asia as far as China. It is very rich in cantharidin, +yielding fully twice as much as ordinary cantharides. Several +green-coloured beetles are, on account of their colour, used as +adulterants to cantharides, but they are very easily detected by +examination with the eye, or, if powdered, with the microscope. + + + + +CANTICLES. The Old Testament book of Canticles, or the Song of Solomon, +is called in Hebrew _The Song of Songs_ (that is, _the choicest of +songs_), or, according to the full title which stands as the first verse +of the book, _The choicest of the songs of Solomon_. In the Western +versions the book holds the third place among the so-called Solomonic +writings, following Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. In Hebrew Bibles it +stands among the _Megilloth_, the five books of the Hagiographa which +have a prominent place in the Synagogue service. In printed Bibles and +in German MSS. it is the first of these because it is read at the +Passover, which is the first great feast of the sacred year of the Jews. + +No part of the Bible has called forth a greater diversity of opinions +than the Song of Solomon, and this for two reasons. In the first place, +the book holds so unique a position in the Old Testament, that the +general analogy of Hebrew literature is a very inadequate key to the +verbal difficulties, the artistic structure, and the general conception +and purpose of the poem. In point of language the departures from +ordinary Hebrew are almost always in the direction of Aramaic. Many +forms unique in Biblical Hebrew are at once explained by the Aramaic +dialects, but not a few are still obscure. The philological difficulties +of the book are, however, less fundamental than those which lie in the +unique character of the Song of Solomon in point of artistic form, and +in the whole atmosphere of thought and feeling in which it moves. Even +in these respects it is not absolutely isolated. Parallels to the +peculiar imagery may be found in the book of Hosea, in Ezekiel xvi. and +xxiii. and above all in the 45th Psalm; but such links of union to the +general mass of the Old Testament literature are too slight to be of +material assistance in the solution of the literary problem of the book. +Here, again, as in the lexical difficulties already referred to, we are +tempted or compelled to argue from the distant and insecure analogy of +other Eastern literatures, or are thrown back upon traditions of +uncertain origin and ambiguous authority. + +The power of tradition has been the second great source of confusion of +opinion about the Song of Solomon. To tradition we owe the title, which +apparently indicates Solomon as the author and not merely as the subject +of the book. The authority of titles in the Old Testament is often +questionable, and in the present case it is certain on linguistic +grounds that the title is not from the hand that wrote the poem; while +to admit that it gives a correct account of the authorship is to cut +away at one stroke all the most certain threads of connexion between the +book and our historical knowledge of the Old Testament people and +literature. + +To tradition, again, we owe the prejudice in favour of an allegorical +interpretation, that is, of the view that from verse to verse the Song +sets forth the history of a spiritual and not merely of an earthly love. +To apply such an exegesis to Canticles is to violate one of the first +principles of reasonable interpretation. True allegories are never +without internal marks of their allegorical design. The language of +symbol is not so perfect that a long chain of spiritual ideas can be +developed without the use of a single spiritual word or phrase; and even +were this possible it would be false art in the allegorist to hide away +his sacred thoughts behind a screen of sensuous and erotic imagery, so +complete and beautiful in itself as to give no suggestion that it is +only the vehicle of a deeper sense. Apart from tradition, no one, in the +present state of exegesis, would dream of allegorizing poetry which in +its natural sense is so full of purpose and meaning, so apt in +sentiment, and so perfect in imagery as the lyrics of Canticles. We are +not at liberty to seek for allegory except where the natural sense is +incomplete. This is not the case in the Song of Solomon. On the +contrary, every form of the allegorical interpretation which has been +devised carries its own condemnation in the fact that it takes away from +the artistic unity of the poem and breaks natural sequences of +thought.[1] The allegorical interpretation of the Song of Solomon bad +its rise in the very same conditions which forced a deeper sense, now +universally discarded, upon so many other parts of scripture. Yet +strangely enough there is no evidence that the Jews of Alexandria +extended to the book their favourite methods of interpretation. The +arguments which have been adduced to prove that the Septuagint +translation implies an allegorical exegesis are inadequate;[2] and Philo +does not mention the book. Nor is there any allusion to Canticles in the +New Testament. The first trace of an allegorical view identifying Israel +with the "spouse" appears to be in the Fourth Book of Ezra, near the +close of the 1st Christian century (v. 24, 26; vii. 26). Up to this time +the canonicity of the Canticles was not unquestioned; and the final +decision as to the sanctity of the book, so energetically carried +through by R. Aqiba, when he declared that "the whole world is not worth +the day on which the Song of Songs was given to Israel; for all the +scriptures (or Hagiographa) are holy, but the Canticles most holy," must +be understood as being at the same time a victory of the allegorical +interpretation over the last remains of a view which regarded the poem +as simply erotic.[3] + +The form in which the allegorical theory became fixed in the synagogue +is contained in the Midrash _Chazita_ and in the Targum, which is a +commentary rather than a translation. The spouse is Israel, her royal +lover the divine king, and the poem is explained as tracing the great +events of the people's history from the Exodus to the Messianic glory +and final restoration.[4] + +The authority of Origen, who, according to Jerome, surpassed himself in +his commentary of ten volumes on this book, established the allegorical +theory in the Christian church in the two main forms in which it has +since prevailed. The bridegroom is Christ, the bride either the church +or the believing soul. The latter conception is, of course, that which +lends itself most readily to purposes of mystical edification, and which +has made Canticles the manual in all ages of a wide-spread type of +religious contemplation. But the other view, which identifies the bride +with the church, must be regarded as the standard of orthodox exegesis. +Of course the allegorical principle admitted of very various +modifications, and readily adapted itself to new religious developments, +such as the rise of Mariolatry. Within the limits of the orthodox +traditions the allegory took various colours, according as its mystical +or its prophetical aspect was insisted on. Among medieval commentators +of the former class S. Bernard holds a pre-eminent place; while the +second class is represented by Nicolaus de Lyra, who, himself a +converted Jew, modified the Jewish interpretation so as to find in the +book an account of the _processus ecclesiae_ under the Old and New +Testaments. The prophetic exegesis reached its culminating point in the +post-Reformation period, when Cocceius found in the Canticles a complete +conspectus of church history. But the relaxation of traditional +authority opened the door to still stranger vagaries of interpretation. +Luther was tempted to understand the book of the political relations of +Solomon and his people. Others detected the loves of Solomon and +Wisdom--a view which found a supporter in Rosenmuller. + +The history of the literal interpretation begins with the great +"commentator" of the Syrian Church, Theodorus of Mopsuestia (died 429), +who condemned equally the attempt to find in the book a prophecy of the +blessings given to the church, and the idea even at that time expressed +in some quarters that the book is immoral. Theodorus regarded the +Canticles as a poem written by Solomon in answer to the complaints of +his people about his Egyptian marriage; and this was one of the heresies +charged upon him after his death, which led to his condemnation at the +second council of Constantinople (553 A.D.). A literal interpretation +was not again attempted till in 1544 Chateillon (Castellio or Castalion) +lost his regency at Geneva for proposing to expel the book from the +canon as impure. Grotius (_Annot. in V.T._, 1644) took up a more +moderate position. Without denying the possibility of a secondary +reference designed by Solomon to give his poem a more permanent value, +he regards the Canticles as primarily an [Greek: oaristys] (conjugal +prattle) between Solomon and Pharaoh's daughter. The distinction of a +primary and secondary sense gradually became current not only among the +Remonstrants, but in England (Lightfoot, Lowth) and even in Catholic +circles (Bossuet, 1693). In the actual understanding of the book in its +literal sense no great progress was made. Solomon was still viewed as +the author, and for the most part the idea that the poem is a dramatic +epithalamium was borrowed from Origen and the allegorists, and applied +to the marriage of Pharaoh's daughter. + +From Grotius to Lowth the idea of a typical reference designed by +Solomon himself appears as a mere excrescence on the natural +interpretation, but as an excrescence which could not be removed without +perilling the place of Canticles in the canon, which, indeed, was again +assailed by Whiston in 1723. But in his notes on Lowth's lectures, J.D. +Michaelis, who regarded the poem as a description of the enduring +happiness of true wedded love long after marriage, proposed to drop the +allegory altogether, and to rest the canonicity of the book, as of those +parts of Proverbs which treat of conjugal affection, on the moral +picture it presents (1758). + +Then came Herder's exquisite little treatise on _Solomon's Songs of +Love, the Oldest and Sweetest of the East_ (1778). Herder, possessing +delicacy of taste and sympathetic poetical genius, delighted in the +Canticles as the transparently natural expression of innocent and tender +love. He expressed the idea that the poem is simply a sequence of +independent songs without inner unity, grouped so as to display various +phases and stages of love in a natural order, culminating in the placid +joys of wedded life. The theory of Herder, which refuses to acknowledge +any continuity in the book, was accepted by Eichhorn on the part of +scholars, and with some hesitation by Goethe on the part of the poets. +Commentaries based on this view are those of Dopke (1829), Magnus +(1842), Noyes (1846). + +The prevalent view of the 19th century, however, recognizes in the poem +a more or less pronounced dramatic character, and following Jacobi +(1771) distinguishes the shepherd, the true love of the Shulamite, from +King Solomon, who is made to play an ignominious part. Propounded by +Staudlin (1792) and Ammon (1795), this view was energetically carried +out by Umbreit (1820), and above all by Ewald, whose acuteness gave the +theory a new development, while his commanding influence among Hebrew +scholars acquired for it general recognition. Ewald assumed a very +simple dramatic structure, and did not in his first publication (1826) +venture to suppose that the poem had ever been acted on a stage. His +less cautious followers have been generally tempted to dispose of +difficulties by introducing more complicated action and additional +interlocutors (so, for example, Hitzig, 1855; Ginsburg, 1857; Renan, +1860); while Bottcher (1850) did his best to reduce the dramatic +exposition to absurdity by introducing the complexities and stage +effects of a modern operetta. Another view is that of Delitzsch (1851 +and 1875) and his followers, who also plead for a dramatic form--though +without supposing that the piece was ever acted--but adhere to the +traditional notion that Solomon is the author, who celebrates his love +to a peasant maiden, whom he made his wife, and in whose company the +proud monarch learned to appreciate the sweetness of a true affection +and a simple rustic life. + +In view of the prevalence of the "dramatic" theory of Canticles during +the 19th century, and its retention by some comparatively recent writers +(Oettli, Driver, Adeney, Harper), it seems desirable that this theory +should be presented in some detail. A convenient summary of the form it +assumed in the hands of Ewald (the shepherd-hypothesis) and of Delitzsch +(the king-hypothesis) is given by Driver (_Literature of the Old +Testament_, ch. x. S 1). The following presentation of the theory, on +the general lines of Ewald, gives that form of it which Robertson Smith +was able to accept in 1876. + +The centre of attraction is throughout a female figure, and the unity of +this figure is the chief test of the unity of the book. In the long +canto, i. 1-ii. 7, the heroine appears in a royal palace (i. 4) among the +daughters of Jerusalem, who are thus presumably ladies of the court of +Zion. At i. 9, an additional interlocutor is introduced, who is plainly a +king, and apparently Solomon (i. 9, 12). He has just risen from table, +and praises the charms of the heroine with the air of a judge of beauty, +but without warmth. He addresses her simply as "my friend" (not as +English version, "my love"). The heroine, on the contrary, is +passionately in love, but nothing can be plainer than that the object of +her affection is not the king. She is not at home in the palace, for she +explains (i. 6) that she has spent her life as a peasant girl in the care +of vineyards. Her beloved, whom she knows not where to find (i. 7), but +who lies constantly on her heart and is cherished in her bosom like a +spray of the sweet henna flowers which Oriental ladies delight to wear +(i. 13, 14), is like herself a peasant--a shepherd lad (i. 7)--with whom +she was wont to sit in the fresh greenwood under the mighty boughs of +the cedars (i. 16, 17). Even before the king's entrance the ladies of the +court are impatient at so silly an affection, and advise her, "if she is +really so witless," to begone and rejoin her plebeian lover (i. 8). To +them she appeals in ii. 5, 6, where her self-control, strung to the +highest pitch as she meets the compliments of the king with +reminiscences of her absent lover, breaks down in a fit of +half-delirious sickness. The only words directed to the king are those +of i. 12, which, if past tenses are substituted for the presents of the +English version, contain a pointed rebuff. Finally, ii. 7 is, on the +plainest translation, a charge not to arouse love till it please. The +moral of the scene is the spontaneity of true affection. + +Now, at viii. 5, a female figure advances leaning upon her beloved, with +whom she claims inseparable union,--"for love is strong as death, its +passion inflexible as the grave, its fire a divine flame which no waters +can quench or floods drown. Yea, if a man would give all his wealth for +love he would only be contemned." This is obviously the sentiment of ii. +7, and the suitor, whose wealth is despised, must almost of necessity be +identified with the king of chapter i., if, as seems reasonable, we +place viii. ii, 12 in the mouth of the same speaker--"King Solomon has +vineyards which bring him a princely revenue, and enrich even the +farmers. Let him and them keep their wealth; my vineyard is before me" +(i.e. I possess it in present fruition). The last expression is plainly +to be connected with i. 6. But this happiness has not been reached +without a struggle. The speaker has proved herself an impregnable +fortress (ver. 10), and, armed only with her own beauty and innocence, +has been in his eyes as one that found peace. The sense is that, like a +virgin fortress, she has compelled her assailant to leave her in peace. +To these marks of identity with the heroine of ch. i. are to be added +that she appears here as dwelling in gardens, there as a keeper of +vineyards (i. 6, and viii. 13), and that as there it was her brethren +that prescribed her duties, so here she apparently quotes words in which +her brothers, while she was still a child, speculated as to her future +conduct and its reward (viii. 8, 9). + +If this analysis of the commencement and close of the book is correct, +it is certain that the poem is in a sense dramatic, that is, that it +uses dialogue and monologue to develop a story. The heroine appears in +the opening scene in a difficult and painful situation, from which in +the last chapter she is happily extricated. But the dramatic progress +which the poem exhibits scarcely involves a plot in the usual sense of +that word. The words of viii. 9, 10 clearly indicate that the +deliverance of the heroine is due to no combination of favouring +circumstances, but to her own inflexible fidelity and virtue. + +The constant direction of the maiden's mind to her true love is partly +expressed in dialogue with the ladies of the court (the daughters of +Jerusalem), who have no dramatic individuality, and whose only function +in the economy of the piece is to give the heroine opportunity for a +more varied expression of her feelings. In i. 8 we found them +contemptuous. In chapter iii. they appear to be still indifferent; for +when the heroine relates a dream in which the dull pain of separation +and the uneasy consciousness of confinement and danger in the +unsympathetic city disappear for a moment in imagined reunion with her +lover, they are either altogether silent or reply only by taking up a +festal part song describing the marriage procession of King Solomon +(iii. 6-11), which stands in jarring contrast to the feelings of the +maiden.[5] A second dream (v. 2-8), more weird and melancholy, and +constructed with that singular psychological felicity which +characterizes the dreams of the Old Testament, gains more sympathy, and +the heroine is encouraged to describe her beloved at large (v. 10-vi. +3). The structure of these dialogues is so simple, and their purpose is +so strictly limited to the exhibition of the character and affection of +the maiden, that it is only natural to find them supplemented by a free +use of pure monologue, in which the heroine recalls the happiness of +past days, or expresses her rising hope of reunion with her shepherd, +and restoration to the simple joys of her rustic life. The vivid +reminiscence of ii. 8-17 takes the form of a dialogue within the main +dialogue of the poem, a picture within a picture--the picture of her +beloved as he stood at her window in the early spring time, and of her +own merry heart as she laughingly answered him in the song with which +watchers of the vineyards frighten away the foxes. It is, of course, a +fault of perspective that this reminiscence is as sharp in outline and +as strong in colour as the main action. But no one can expect +perspective in such early art, and recollection of the past is clearly +enough separated from present reality by ii. 16, 17. The last monologue +(vii. 10-viii. 3), in which the hope of immediate return with her lover +is tempered by maidenly shame, and a maiden's desire for her mother's +counsel, is of special value for a right appreciation of the psychology +of the love which the poem celebrates, and completes a picture of this +flower of the northern valleys which is not only firm in outline, but +delicate in touch. The subordinate action which supports the portraiture +of the maiden of Galilee is by no means easy to understand. + +We come next to chapter vi., which again sings the praises of the +heroine, and takes occasion in this connexion to introduce, with the +same want of perspective as we observed in ch. ii., a dialogue +descriptive of Solomon's first meeting with the maiden. We learn that +she was an inhabitant of Shulem or Shunem in Issachar, whom the king and +his train surprised in a garden on the occasion of a royal progress +through the north. Her beauty drew from the ladies of the court a cry of +admiration. The maiden shrinks back with the reply--"I was gone down +into my garden to see its growth.... I know not how my soul hath brought +me among the chariots of princes"; but she is commanded to turn and let +herself be seen in spite of her bashful protest--"Why do ye gaze on the +Shulamite as at a dance of Mahanaim (a spectacle)?" Now the person in +whose mouth this relation is placed must be an eye-witness of the scene, +and so none other than the king. But in spite of the verbal repetition +of several of the figures of ch. iv.... the tone in which the king now +addresses the Shulamite is quite changed. She is not only beautiful but +terrible, her eyes trouble him, and he cannot endure their gaze. She is +unique among women, the choice and only one of her mother. The unity of +action can only be maintained by ignoring vii. 1-9, and taking the words +of Solomon in chapter vi. in their obvious sense as implying that the +king at length recognizes in the maiden qualities of soul unknown in the +harem, a character which compels respect, as well as a beauty that +inflames desire. The change of feeling which was wrought in the +daughters of Jerusalem in the previous scene now extends to Solomon +himself, and thus the glad utterances of vii. 10, seq., have a +sufficient motive, and the _denouement_ is no longer violent and +unprepared. + +The _nodus_ of the action is fully given in chapter i., the final issue +in chapter viii. The solution lies entirely in the character and +constancy of the heroine, which prevail, in the simplest possible way, +first over the ladies of the court and then over the king. + +The attractiveness of the above theory cannot be denied; but it may be +asked whether the attraction does not lie in the appeal to modern taste +of a story which is largely the product of modern imagination. It +supposes a freedom of intercourse between lovers inconceivable for the +East. The initial situation of the maiden in the harem of Solomon is +left as a problem for the reader to discover, until he comes to its +supposed origin in vi. 11; the expedient might be granted in the case of +one of Browning's _Men and Women_, but seems very improbable in the +present case. The more elaborate dramatic theories can find no parallel +in Semitic literature to the "drama" of Canticles, the book of Job being +no exception to this statement; whilst even the simpler theories ask us +to believe that the essential parts of the story--the rape of the +Shulamite, the change in Solomon's disposition, her release from the +harem--are to be supplied by the reader from obscure and disputable +references. More serious still is the fact that any progress of action +from first to last is so difficult to prove. In the first chapter we +listen to a woman speaker desiring to be kissed by the man who has +brought her into his chambers, and speaking of "our bed"; in the last we +leave her "leaning upon her beloved." The difficulties of detail are +equally great. To suppose that all the male love-making, by hypothesis +unsuccessful, belongs to Solomon, whilst the heroine addresses her +passionate words to the continuously absent shepherd, is obviously +unconvincing; yet, if this shepherd speaks in iv. 8-v. 1, how are we to +explain his appearance in the royal harem? This and other difficulties +were acknowledged by Robertson Smith, notably the presence of vii. 1-9, +which he proposed to set aside as an interpolation, because of its +sensuality and of the difficulty of working it into the dramatic scheme. +The fact that this passage has subsequently become the central element +in the new interpretation of the book is, perhaps, a warning against +violent measures with difficulties. + +Attention has already been drawn to Herder's proposal, accepted by some +later writers, including Diestel and Reuss, to regard the book as a +collection of detached songs. This received new and striking +confirmation from the anthropological data supplied by J.G. Wetstein +(1873), Prussian consul at Damascus. His observations of the wedding +customs of Syrian peasants led him to believe that Canticles is +substantially a collection of songs originally sung at such festivities. +Wetstein's contribution was republished shortly afterwards by Delitzsch, +in an appendix to his _Commentary_; but it received little attention. +The first amongst Old Testament scholars to perceive its importance +seems to have been Stade, who accepted Wetstein's view in a footnote to +his _History of the Jewish People_ (ii. p. 197), published in 1888; to +Budde, however, belongs the distinction of the systematic and detailed +use of Wetstein's suggestions, especially in his _Commentary_ (1898). +This interpretation of the book is accepted by Kautzsch (1896), +Siegfried (1898), Cheyne (1899), and other eminent scholars. The +last-named states the theory tersely as follows: "The book is an +anthology of songs used at marriage festivals in or near Jerusalem, +revised and loosely connected by an editor without regard to temporal +sequence" (_Ency. Bibl._ 691). The character of the evidence which has +contributed to the acceptance of this view may be indicated in +Wetstein's own statements:-- + + "The finest time in the life of the Syrian peasant consists of the + first seven days after his wedding, in which he and his young wife + play the part of king (_melik_) and queen (_melika_), both being so + treated and served by their village and the invited communities of the + neighbourhood. The majority of the greater village weddings fall in + the month of March, the finest of the Syrian year. The winter rains + being over, and the sun still refreshing, not oppressive as in the + following months, the weddings are celebrated in the open air on the + village threshing-floor, which at this time of the year is with few + exceptions a flowery mead. ...We pass over the wedding-day itself with + its displays, the sword-dance of the bride, and the great feast. On + the morrow, bridegroom and bride awake as king and queen. Already + before sunrise they receive the leader of the bridesmen, as their + vizier, and the bridesmen themselves; the latter thereupon fetch the + threshing-board and bring it to the threshing-floor, singing a rousing + song of battle or love, generally both. There it is erected as a + throne, and after the royal couple have taken their seats and the + necessary formalities are gone through, a great dance in honour of the + young couple begins; the accompanying song is concerned only with + themselves, its principal element being the inevitable _wasf_, i.e. a + description of the physical perfections of both and their ornaments. + The eulogy of the queen is more moderate, and praises her visible, + rather than veiled, charms; this is due to the fact that she is to-day + a married woman, and that the _wasf_ sung on the previous day during + her sword-dance has left nothing to desire. This _wasf_ is the weak + element in Syrian wedding-songs according to our taste; its + comparisons are to us frequently too clumsy and reveal the stereotyped + pattern. It is the same with the little collection of charming + wedding-songs and fragments of them which has been received into the + canon of the Old Testament under the name of Canticles; the _wasf_ + (iv.--vii.) is considerably below the rest in poetical value. With + this dance begin the sports, lasting seven days, begun in the morning + on the first, shortly before midday on the other days, and continuing + far into the night by the light of the fires that are kindled; on the + last day alone all is over by sunset. During the whole week both + royalties are in marriage attire, must do no work and have no cares; + they have only to look down from the _merteba_ (throne) on the sports + carried on before them, in which they themselves take but a moderate + part; the queen, however, occasionally gives a short dance to attract + attention to her bridal attire."[6] + +For the general application of these and the related customs to the +interpretation of the book, reference should be made to Budde's +_Commentary_, which recognizes four _wasfs_, viz. iv. 1-7 (describing +the bride from head to breasts), v. 10-16 (the bridegroom), vi. 4-7 +(similar to and partly repeating iv. 1-7), and vii. 1-9, belonging to +the sword-dance of the bride, her physical charms being sung from feet +to head (cf. vii. 1; "Why look ye on the Shulamite as (on) a dance of +camps?" i.e. a war-dance). This dance receives its name from the fact +that she dances it with a sword in her hand in the firelight on the +evening of her wedding-day, and amid a circle of men and women, whilst +such a _wasf_ as this is sung by the leader of the choir. The passage +relating to the litter of Solomon (iii. 6-11)--an old difficulty with +the dramatizers--relates to the erection of the throne on the +threshing-floor.[7] The terms "Solomon" and "the Shulamite" are +explained as figurative references to the famous king, and to Abishag +the Shulamite, "fairest among women," on the lines of the use of "king" +and "queen" noted above. Other songs of Canticles are referred by Budde +to the seven days of festivities. It need hardly be said that +difficulties still remain in the analysis of this book of wedding-songs; +whilst Budde detects 23 songs, besides fragments, Siegfried divides the +book into 10.[8] Such differences are to be expected in the case of a +collection of songs, some admittedly in dialogue form, all concerned +with the common theme of the love of man and woman, and without any +external indication of the transition from one song to the next. + +Further, we must ask whether the task has been complicated by any +editorial rearrangement or interpolation; the collector of these songs +has certainly not reproduced them in the order of their use at Syrian +weddings. Can we trace any principle, or even any dominant thought in +this arrangement? In this connexion we touch the reason for the +reluctance of some scholars to accept the above interpretation, viz. the +alleged marks of literary unity which the book contains (e.g. Driver, +_loc. cit._). These are (1) general similarity of treatment, seen in the +use of imagery (the bride as a garden, iv. 12; vi. 2, 3), the frequent +references to nature and to particular places, and the recurrence of +descriptions of male and female beauty; (2) references to "Solomon" or +"the king," to "the Shulamite" and to "the daughters of Jerusalem" (from +which, indeed, the dramatic theory has found its chief inspiration); (3) +indications that the same person is speaking in different places (cf. +the two dreams of a woman, and the vineyard references, i. 6; viii. 12); +(4) repetitions of words and phrases especially of the refrains, +"disturb not love" (ii. 7; iii. 5; viii. 4), and "until the day break" +(ii. 17; iv. 6). But of these (1) is no more than should be expected, +since the songs all relate to the same subject, and spring from a common +world of life and thought of the same group of people; (2) finds at +least a partial parallel and explanation in the use of "king" and +"queen" noted above; whilst (3) and (4) alone seem to require something +more than the work of a mere collector of the songs. It is, of course, +true that, in recurrent ceremonies, the same thought inevitably tends to +find expression in the same words. But this hardly meets the case of the +refrains, whilst the reference to the vineyard at beginning and end does +suggest some literary connexion. It is to be noted that the three +refrains "disturb not love" severally follow passages relating to the +consummation of the sexual relation, whilst the two refrains "until the +day break" appear to form an invitation and an answer in the same +connexion, whilst the "Omnia vincit Amor" passage in the last chapter +forms a natural climax (cf. Haupt's translation). So far, then, as this +somewhat scanty evidence goes, it may point to some one hand which has +given its semblance of unity to the book by underlining the joy of +consummated love--to which the vineyard and garden figures throughout +allude--and by so arranging the collection that the descriptions of this +joy find their climax in viii. 6-7.[9] + +Whatever conclusion, however, may be reached as to the present +_arrangement_ of Canticles, the recognition of wedding-songs as forming +its nucleus marks an important stage in the interpretation of the book; +even Rothstein (1902), whilst attempting to resuscitate a dramatic +theory, "recognizes ... the possibility that older wedding-songs (as, +for instance, the _wasfs_) are worked up in the Song of Songs" +(Hastings' _D.B._ p. 594b). The drama he endeavours to construct might, +indeed, be called "The Tokens of Virginity," since he makes it culminate +in the procedure of Deut. xxii. 13 f., which still forms part of the +Syrian ceremonies. But his reconstruction is open to the same objection +as all similar attempts, in that the vital moments of the dramatic +action have to be supplied from without. Thus between v. 1 and v. 2, the +baffled king is supposed to have disappeared, and to have been replaced +by the happy lover; between viii. 7 and viii. 8, we are required to +imagine "the bridal night and its mysteries"; whilst between viii. 9 and +viii. 10, we must suppose the evidence that the bride has been found a +virgin is exhibited. He also attempts, with considerable ingenuity, to +trace the legend involved in the supposed drama to the fact that Abishag +remained a virgin in regard to David (1 Kings i. 4) whilst nothing is +said of her marriage to Solomon.[10] + +On the view accepted above, Canticles describes in a number of separate +poems the central passion of human life, and is wholly without didactic +tendencies. Of its earliest history as a book we have no information. It +is already included in the Hebrew canon (though its right to be there is +disputed) when the first explicit mention of the book occurs. We have no +evidence, therefore, of the theory of interpretation prevalent at the +time of its incorporation with the other books of the canon. It seems, +however, fair to infer that it would hardly have found acceptance but +for a Solomonic theory of authorship and a "religious" theory of +meaning. The problem raised by its present place in the canon occurs in +relation to mistaken Jewish theories about other books also; it +suggests, at least, that divine inspiration may belong to the life of a +people rather than to the letter of their literature. Of that life +Canticles portrays a central element--the passion of love--in striking +imagery and graceful language, however far its oriental standard of +taste differs from that of the modern West. + +From the nature of the book, it is impossible to assign a precise date +for its origin; the wedding-songs of which it chiefly consists must +belong to the folklore of more than one century. The only evidence we +possess as to date is drawn from the character of the Hebrew in which +the book is written, which shows frequent points of contact with new +Hebrew.[11] On this ground, we may suppose the present form of the work +to date from the Greek period, i.e. after 332 B.C. This is the date +accepted by most recent writers, e.g. Kautzsch, Cheyne, Budde, +Rothstein, Jacob, Haupt. This late date finds some confirmation in the +fact that Canticles belongs to the third and latest part of the Old +Testament canon, and that its canonicity was still in dispute at the end +of the 1st century A.D. The evidence offered for a north Israelite +origin, on the ground of linguistic parallels and topographical +familiarity (Driver, _loc. cit._), does not seem very convincing; Haupt, +however, places the compilation of the book in the neighbourhood of +Damascus. + + LITERATURE.--Most of the older books of importance are named above; + Ginsburg, _The Song of Songs_ (1857), gives much information as to the + history of the exegesis of Canticles; Diestel's article, "Hohes Lied," + in Schenkel's _Bibel Lexikon_ (1871), reviews well the history of + interpretation prior to Wetstein; cf. also Riedel, _Die Auslegung des + Hohenliedes in der judischen Gemeinde und der griechischen Kirche_ + (1898). The most important commentary is that by Budde, in Marti's + _Kurzer Hand-Commentar (Die funf Megilloth)_ (1898), where references + to the literature of the 19th century are given. To his list add + Siegfried, "Prediger und Hoheslied," in Nowack's _Handkommentar_ + (1898); Cheyne's article "Canticles," in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ + (1899); Dalman, _Palastinischer Diwan_ (1901), parallels to the songs; + Rothstein's article, "Song of Songs," in Hastings' _Dictionary of the + Bible_ (1902); G. Jacob, _Das Hohelied auf Grund arabischer und + anderer Parallelen von neuem Untersucht_ (1902); A. Harper, _The Song + of Songs_ (1902); Haupt, "The Book of Canticles," in _The American + Journal of Semitic Languages_ (July 1902); Scholz, _Kommentar uber das + Hohelied und Psalm 45_ (1904) (written from the Roman Catholic + dogmatic standpoint of allegorical interpretation, with a vigorous + criticism of other positions). No commentator in English, except + Haupt, in the article named above, has yet worked on the lines of the + above anthology theory. Haupt gives valuable notes, with a translation + and rearrangement of the separate songs. (W. R. S.; H. W. R.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] An argument for the allegorical interpretation has been often + drawn from Mahommedan mysticism--from the poems of Hafiz, and the + songs still sung by dervishes. See Jones, _Poeseos Asiaticae Com._ + pt. in. cap. 9; Rosenmuller's remarks on Lowth's _Praelectio_, xxxi., + and Lane's _Modern Egyptians_, ch. xxiv. But there is no true analogy + between the Old Testament and the pantheistic mysticism of Islam, and + there is every reason to believe that, where the allegory takes a + form really analogous to Canticles, the original sense of these songs + was purely erotic. + + [2] Repeated recently by Scholz, _Kommentar_, pp. iii. and iv. + + [3] The chief passages of Jewish writings referring to this dispute + are Mishna _Jadaim_, iii. 5 and Tosifta _Sanhedrin_, xii. For other + passages see Gratz's _Commentary_, p. 115, and in control of his + criticism the introduction to the commentary of Delitzsch. + + [4] The text of the Targum in the Polyglots and in Buxtorf's Rabbinic + Bible is not complete. The complete text is given in the Venice + editions, and in Lagarde's _Hagiographa Chaldaice_ (Lipsiae, 1873). + The Polyglots add a Latin version. A German version is given by + Riedel in his very useful book, _Die Auslegung des Hohenliedes_ + (1898), which also reviews the interpretation of Canticles by + Hippolytus, Origen and later Greek writers. + + [5] Ewald and others make this song a distinct scene in the action of + the poem, supposing that the author here exhibits the honourable form + of espousal by which Solomon thought to vanquish the scruples of the + damsel. This view, however, seems to introduce a complication foreign + to the plan of the book. + + [6] Wetstein, _Zeitschrift f. Ethn._, 1873, pp. 270-302; quoted and + condensed by Budde as above in _Comm_. p. xvii.; for a fuller + reproduction of Wetstein in English see Harper, _The Song of Songs_, + pp. 74-76. + + [7] For the connexion of the threshing-floor with marriage through + the idea of sexual fertility, we may compare many primitive ideas and + customs, such as those described by Frazer (_The Golden Bough_, ii. + p. 181 f., 186). + + [8] Castelli (_Il Cantico dei Cantici_, 1892) has written a very + attractive little book on Canticles (quite apart from the Wetstein + development) regarded as "a poem formed by a number of dialogues + mutually related by a certain succession"; they require for their + understanding nothing but some indication of the speaker at each + transition (such as we find in codex A of the Septuagint). + + [9] On the erotic meaning of many of the figures employed see the + notes of Haupt in _The American Journal of Semitic Languages_ (July + 1902); also G. Jacob, _Das Hohelied_ (1902), who rightly protests + against the limitation in the _Comm_. of Budde and Siegfried (p. 10) + of all the songs to the marriage relation. Haupt thinks that the + songs were not originally composed for weddings, though used there + (p. 207, _op. cit._). Diestel had pointed out, in another connexion + (_B.L._ 125), that nothing is said in the book of the blessing of + children, the chief end of _marriage_ from a Hebrew standpoint. + + [10] Rothstein's criticism of Budde turns chiefly on the latter's + admission of redactional elements, introducing "movement and action," + and may be summed up in the statement that "Budde himself by the + characteristics he assigns to the redactor points the way again past + his own hypothesis to the dramatical view of the Song" (_loc cit._ + 594b). A. Harper, "The Song of Songs" (_Cambridge Bible_) also + criticizes Budde at length in favour of the conventional dramatical + theory (Appendix). + + [11] _E.g._ the late form of the relative pronoun used throughout + except in title; foreign words, Persian and Greek; Aramaic words and + usages (details in the _Comm_. or in _E.B._ 693). + + + + +CANTILEVER (a word of doubtful origin, probably derived from "lever," in +its ordinary meaning, and "cant," an angle or edge, or else from modern +Lat. _quanta libra_, of what weight), a building term for a stone, iron +or wooden bracket, considerably greater in length than depth, used to +support a gallery, &c.; and for a system of bridge-building (see +BRIDGES). + + + + +CANTILUPE, THOMAS DE (c. 1218-1282), English saint and prelate, was a +son of William de Cantilupe, the 2nd baron (d. 1251), one of King John's +ministers, and a nephew of Walter de Cantilupe, bishop of Worcester. He +was educated at Paris and Orleans, afterwards becoming a teacher of +canon law at Oxford and chancellor of the university in 1262. During the +Barons' War Thomas favoured Simon de Montfort and the baronial party. He +represented the barons before St Louis of France at Amiens in 1264; he +was made chancellor of England in February 1265, but was deprived of +this office after Montfort's death at Evesham, and lived out of England +for some time. Returning to England, he was again chancellor of Oxford +University, lectured on theology, and held several ecclesiastical +appointments. In 1274 he attended the second council of Lyons, and in +1275 he was appointed bishop of Hereford. Cantilupe was now a trusted +adviser of Edward I.; he attended the royal councils, and even when +differing from the king did not forfeit his favour. The archbishop of +Canterbury, Robert Kilwardby, was also his friend; but after Kilwardby's +death in 1279 a series of disputes arose between the bishop and the new +archbishop, John Peckham, and this was probably the cause which drove +Cantilupe to visit Italy. He died at Orvieto, on the 25th of August +1282, and he was canonized in 1330. Cantilupe appears to have been an +exemplary bishop both in spiritual and secular affairs. His charities +were large and his private life blameless; he was constantly visiting +his diocese, correcting offenders and discharging other episcopal +duties; and he compelled neighbouring landholders to restore estates +which rightly belonged to the see of Hereford. In 1905 the Cantilupe +Society was founded to publish the episcopal registers of Hereford, of +which Cantilupe's is the first in existence. + + See the _Ada Sanctorum, Boll._, 1st October; and the _Register of + Thomas de Cantilupe_, with introduction by W.W. Capes (1906). + + + + +CANTILUPE, WALTER DE (d. 1265), bishop of Worcester, came of a family +which had risen by devoted service to the crown. His father and his +elder brother are named by Roger of Wendover among the "evil +counsellors" of John, apparently for no better reason than that they +were consistently loyal to an unpopular master. Walter at first followed +in his father's footsteps, entering the service of the Exchequer and +acting as an itinerant justice in the early years of Henry III. But he +also took minor orders, and, in 1236, although not yet a deacon, +received the see of Worcester. As bishop, he identified himself with the +party of ecclesiastical reform, which was then led by Edmund Rich and +Robert Grosseteste. Like his leaders he was sorely divided between his +theoretical belief in the papacy as a divine institution and his +instinctive condemnation of the policy which Gregory IX. and Innocent +IV. pursued in their dealings with the English church. At first a court +favourite, the bishop came at length to the belief that the evils of the +time arose from the unprincipled alliance of crown and papacy. He raised +his voice against papal demands for money, and after the death of +Grosseteste (1253) was the chief spokesman of the nationalist clergy. At +the parliament of Oxford (1258) he was elected by the popular party as +one of their representatives on the committee of twenty-four which +undertook to reform the administration; from that time till the outbreak +of civil war he was a man of mark in the councils of the baronial party. +During the war he sided with Montfort and, through his nephew, Thomas, +who was then chancellor of Oxford, brought over the university to the +popular side. He was present at Lewes and blessed the Montfortians +before they joined battle with the army of the king; he entertained +Simon de Montfort on the night before the final rout of Evesham. During +Simon's dictatorship, the bishop appeared only as a mediating influence; +in the triumvirate of "Electors" who controlled the administration, the +clergy were represented by the bishop of Chichester. Walter de Cantilupe +died in the year after Evesham (1266). He was respected by all parties, +and, though far inferior in versatility and force of will to +Grosseteste, fully merits the admiration which his moral character +inspired. He is one of the few constitutionalists of his day whom it is +impossible to accuse of interested motives. + + See the _Chronica Maiora_ of Matthew Paris ("Rolls" series, ed. + Luard); the _Chronicon de Bellis_ (ed. Halliwell, Camden Society); and + the _Annales Monastici_ ("Rolls" series, ed. Luard); also T.F. Tout + in the _Political History of England_, vol. iii. (1905). + + + + +CANTO (from the Lat. _cantus_, a song), one of the divisions of a long +poem, a convenient division when poetry was more usually sung by the +minstrel to his own accompaniment than read. In music, the _canto_, in a +concerted piece, is that part to which the air is given. In modern +music this is nearly always the soprano. The old masters, however, more +frequently allotted it to the tenor. _Canto fermo_, or _cantus firmus_, +is that part of the melody which remains true to the original motive, +while the other parts vary with the counterpoint; also in Church music +the simple straightforward melody of the old chants as opposed to _canto +figurato_, which is full of embellishments of a florid character (see +PLAIN SONG). + + + + +CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772), English natural philosopher, was born at +Stroud, Gloucestershire, on the 31st of July 1718. At the age of +nineteen, he was articled for five years as clerk to the master of a +school in Spital Square, London, with whom at the end of that time he +entered into partnership. In 1750 he read a paper before the Royal +Society on a method of making artificial magnets, which procured him +election as a fellow of the society and the award of the Copley medal. +He was the first in England to verify Benjamin Franklin's hypothesis of +the identity of lightning and electricity, and he made several important +electrical discoveries. In 1762 and 1764 he published experiments in +refutation of the decision of the Florentine Academy, at that time +generally accepted, that water is incompressible; and in 1768 he +described the preparation, by calcining oyster-shell with sulphur, of +the phosphorescent material known as Canton's phosphorus. His +investigations were carried on without any intermission of his work as a +schoolmaster. He died in London on the 22nd of March 1772. + + + + +CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW FU), a large and populous commercial +city of China, in the province of Kwangtung, situated on the eastern +bank of the Pearl river, which at Canton is somewhat broader than the +Thames at London Bridge, and is navigable 300 m. into the interior. The +Pearl river has an additional course of 80 m. to the sea, the first part +of which lies through a rich alluvial plain. Beyond this rises a range +of hills terminating in abrupt escarpments along the course of the +river. The bold shore thus formed compresses the stream at this point +into a narrow pass, to which the Chinese have given the name of Hu-mun, +or Tiger's Gate. This the Portuguese translated into Boca Tigre, whence +the designation of "the Bogue," by which it is commonly known among +Europeans. When viewed from the hills on the north, Canton appears to be +little more than an expanse of reddish roofs relieved by a few large +trees,--two pagodas shooting up within the walls, and a five-storeyed +tower near the northern gate, being the most conspicuous objects. These +hills rise 1200 ft. above the river. Little or no vegetation is seen on +them; and their acclivities, covered for miles with graves and tombs, +serve as the necropolis of this vast city. Three or four forts are built +on the points nearest the northern walls. Facing the city on the +opposite side of the river is the suburb and island of Honan. The part +of Canton enclosed by walls is about 6 m. in circumference, and has a +partition wall, running east and west, and dividing the city into two +unequal parts. The northern and larger division is called the old, and +the southern the new city. Including the suburbs, the city has a circuit +of nearly 10 m. The houses stretch along the river for 4 m., and the +banks are almost entirely concealed by boats and rafts. The walls of the +city are of brick, on a foundation of sandstone and granite, are 20 ft. +thick, and rise to an average height of 25 ft. On the north side the +wall rises to include a hill which it there meets with, and on the other +three sides the city is surrounded by a ditch, which is filled by the +rising tide, when, for a time, the revolting mass of filth that lies in +its bed is concealed from view. There are twelve outer gates--four of +which are in the partition wall, and two water gates, through which +boats pass from east to west across the new city. The gates are all shut +at night, and in the daytime a guard is stationed at them to preserve +order. The streets, amounting in all to upwards of 600, are long, +straight, and very narrow. They are mostly paved and are not as dirty as +those of some of the other cities in the empire; in fact, considering +the habits of the people and the inattention of the government to these +matters, Canton may be said to be a well-governed and comparatively +cleanly city. The houses are in general small, seldom consisting of more +than two storeys, the ground floor serving as a shop, and the rest of +the house, with the court behind, being used as a warehouse. Here are to +be found the productions of every quarter of the globe; and the +merchants are in general attentive, civil, expert men of business, and +generally assiduous. + +The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous, but none of +them presents features worthy of special remark. There are two pagodas +near the west gate of the old city, and 124 temples, pavilions, halls +and other religious edifices within the city. One of the pagodas called +the _Kwangtah_, or Plain Pagoda, is a Mahommedan mosque, which was +erected by the Arabian voyagers who were in the habit of visiting Canton +about ten centuries ago. It rises in an angular tapering tower to the +height of 160 ft. The other is an octagonal pagoda of nine storeys, 170 +ft. in height, and was first erected more than thirteen centuries ago. A +Buddhist temple at Honan, opposite the foreign factories, and named in +Chinese _Hai-ch'wang-sze_, or the Temple of the Ocean Banner, is one of +the largest in Canton. Its grounds, which cover about seven acres, are +surrounded by a wall, and are divided into courts, gardens and a +burial-ground, where are deposited the ashes of priests, whose bodies +are burned. There are about 175 priests connected with this +establishment. Besides the _Hai-ch'wang-sze_ the most noteworthy temples +in and about the city are those of the Five Hundred Gods and of +Longevity, both in the western suburbs; the Tatar City Temple and the +Temple of the Five Genii. The number of priests and nuns in Canton is +not exactly known, but they probably exceed 2000, nine-tenths of whom +are Buddhists. The temples are gloomy-looking edifices. The areas in +front of them are usually occupied by hucksters, beggars and idlers, who +are occasionally driven off to make room for the mat-sheds in which the +theatrical performances got up by the wealthy inhabitants are acted. The +principal hall, where the idol sits enshrined, is lighted only in front, +and the inner apartments are inhabited by a class of men almost as +senseless as the idols they serve. + +The residences of the high officers of government are all within the +walls of the old city. The residence of the governor-general used to be +in the south-west corner of the new city, but it was utterly destroyed by +the bombardment in 1856. The site remained desolate until 1860, when it +was taken possession of by the French authorities, who erected a Roman +Catholic cathedral upon it. The residence of the commander-in-chief is in +the old city, and is said to be one of the best houses in Canton. There +are four prisons in the city, all large edifices. For the space of 4 or 5 +m. opposite Canton boats and vessels are ranged parallel to each other in +such close order as to resemble a floating city; and these marine +dwellings are occupied by numerous families, who reside almost constantly +on the water. In the middle of the river lie the Chinese junks, some of +them of from 600 to 1000 tons burden, which trade to the north and to the +Strait Settlements. The various gilds and associations among the people +and the merchants from other provinces have public halls each for its own +particular use. The number of these buildings is not less than 150. +Canton was long the only seat of British trade with China, and was no +doubt fixed upon by the Chinese government for the European trade, as +being the most distant from the capital Peking. + +Formerly only a limited number of merchants, called the _hong_ or +security merchants, were allowed to trade with foreigners. They were +commonly men of large property and were famed for integrity in their +transactions. All foreign cargoes passed through the hands of these +merchants, and by them also the return cargoes were furnished. They +became security for the payment of customs duties, and it was criminal +for any other merchant to engage in the trade with foreigners. + +Although it is in the same parallel of latitude as Calcutta, the climate +of Canton is much cooler, and is considered superior to that of most +places situated between the tropics. The extreme range of the +thermometer is from 38 deg. to 100 deg. F., though these extremes are +rarely reached. In ordinary years the winter minimum is about 42 deg. +and the maximum in summer 96 deg.. The hot season is considered to last +from May to October; during the rest of the year the weather is cool. +In shallow vessels ice sometimes forms at Canton; but so rarely is snow +seen that when in February 1835 a fall to the depth of 2 in. occurred, +the citizens hardly knew its proper name. Most of the rain falls during +May and June, but the amount is nothing in comparison with that which +falls during a rainy season in Calcutta. July, August and September are +the regular monsoon months, the wind coming from the south-west with +frequent showers, which allay the heat. In the succeeding months the +northerly winds begin, with some interruptions at first, but from +October to January the temperature is agreeable, the sky clear and the +air invigorating. Few large cities are more generally healthy than +Canton, and epidemics rarely prevail there. + +Provisions and refreshments of all sorts are abundant, and in general +are excellent in quality and moderate in price. It is a singular fact +that the Chinese make no use of milk, either in its natural state or in +the form of butter or cheese. Among the delicacies of a Chinese market +are to be seen horse-flesh, dogs, cats, hawks, owls and edible +birds'-nests. The business between foreigners and natives at Canton is +generally transacted in a jargon known as "pidgin English," the Chinese +being extremely ready in acquiring a sufficient smattering of English +words to render themselves intelligible. + +The intercourse between China and Europe by the way of the Cape of Good +Hope began in 1517, when Emanuel, king of Portugal, sent an ambassador, +accompanied by a fleet of eight ships, to Peking, on which occasion the +sanction of the emperor to establish a trade at Canton was obtained. It +was in 1596, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, that the English first +attempted to open an intercourse with China, but ineffectually, for the +two ships which were despatched on this mission were lost on the outward +voyage, and it was not till about 1634 that English ships visited +Canton. Unfortunately at this time a misunderstanding having occurred +with the Chinese authorities owing to the treachery of the Portuguese, a +rupture and a battle took place, and it was with difficulty that peace +was again restored. In 1673 China was again visited by an English ship +which was subsequently refused admission into Japan, and in 1677 a +factory was established at Amoy. But during an irruption of the Tatars +three years later this building was destroyed, and it was not till 1685 +that the emperor permitted any trade with Europeans at that port. Upon +the union of the two East India Companies in London, an imperial edict +was issued, restricting the foreign commerce to the port of Canton. + +Tea was first imported into England about the year 1667, and in 1689 a +customs duty of 5s. per lb was for the first time imposed. From this +date to 1834 the East India Company held a monopolv of the trade at +Canton, and during this period the prosperity of the port increased and +multiplied, notwithstanding the obstructions which were constantly +thrown in the way of the "barbarians" by the Chinese government. The +termination of the Company's monopoly brought no alteration in the +conduct of the native authorities, whose oppressions became before long +so unbearable that in 1839 war was declared on the part of Great +Britain. In 1841, while the forces under Sir Hugh (afterwards Lord) +Gough were preparing to capture Canton, Captain Elliott entered into +negotiations with the Chinese, and consented to receive a pecuniary +ransom in lieu of occupying the city. Meanwhile the war was carried on +in central China, and finally resulted in the conclusion of the Nanking +treaty in August 1842, under the terms of which four additional ports, +viz. Shanghai, Ningpo, Fu-chow and Amoy, were thrown open to foreign +trade, and foreigners were granted permission to enter the city of +Canton, from which they had hitherto been excluded. This latter +provision of the treaty, however, the Chinese refused to carry out; and +after endless disputes about this and other improper acts of the Chinese +government, war was again declared in 1856, the immediate cause of which +was an insult offered to the British flag by the capture of certain +Chinese on board the "Arrow," a small craft trading under English +colours. The outbreak of hostilities was followed by the pillage and +destruction of the foreign "factories" in December 1856 by a Chinese +mob, and twelve months later Canton was taken by assault by a force +under Sir Charles Straubenzee, which had been sent out from England for +the purpose. From this time until October 1861 the city was occupied by +an English and French garrison, and the administration of affairs was +entrusted to an allied commission, consisting of two English officers +and one French officer, acting under the English general. Since the +withdrawal of this garrison, the city of Canton has been freely open to +foreigners of all nationalities, and the English consul has his +residence in the Yamun formerly occupied by the allied commissioners, +within the city walls. + +On the conclusion of peace it became necessary to provide a foreign +settlement for the merchants whose "factories" had been destroyed, and +after some consultation it was determined to fill in and appropriate as +the British settlement an extensive mud flat lying to the westward of +the old factory site, and known as Sha-mien or "The Sand Flats." This +site having been leased, it was converted into an artificial island by +building a massive embankment of granite in an irregular oval form. +Between the northern face of the site and the Chinese suburb a canal of +100 ft. in width was constructed, thus forming an island of about 2850 +ft. in length and 950 ft. in greatest breadth. The expense of making +this settlement was 325,000 Mexican dollars, four-fifths of which were +defrayed by the British government and one-fifth by the French +government. The British portion of the new settlement was laid out in +eighty-two lots; and so bright appeared the prospect of trade at the +time of their sale that 9000 dollars and upwards was paid in more than +one instance for a lot with a river frontage, measuring 12,645 sq. ft. +The depression in trade, however, which soon followed acted as a bar to +building, and it was not until the British consulate was erected in 1865 +that the merchants began to occupy the settlement in any numbers. The +British consulate occupies six lots, with an area of 75,870 sq. ft. in +the centre of the site, overlooking the river, and is enclosed with a +substantial wall. A ground-rent of 15,000 cash (about L3) per _mow_ (a +third of an acre) is annually paid by the owners of lots to the Chinese +government. + +The Sha-mien settlement possesses many advantages. It is close to the +western suburb of Canton, where reside all the wholesale dealers as well +as the principal merchants and brokers; it faces the broad channel known +as the Macao Passage, up which the cool breezes in summer are wafted +almost uninterruptedly, and the river opposite to it affords a safe and +commodious anchorage for steamers up to 1000 tons burden. Steamers only +are allowed to come up to Canton, sailing vessels being restricted to +the anchorage at Whampoa. There is daily communication by steamer with +Hong-Kong, and with the Portuguese colony of Macao which lies near the +mouth of the river. Inland communication by steam is now open by the +west river route to the cities of Wuchow and Nanking. The opening of +these inland towns to foreign trade, which has been effected, cannot but +add considerably to the volume of Canton traffic. The native population +is variously estimated at from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000, the former being +probably nearer the truth. The foreign residents number about 400. +Canton is the headquarters of the provincial government of Kwangtung and +Kwangsi, generally termed the two Kwang, at the head of which is a +governor-general or viceroy, an office which next to that of Nanking is +the most important in the empire. It possesses a mint built in 1889 by +the then viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and equipped with a very complete +plant supplied from England. It turns out silver subsidiary coinage and +copper cash. Contracts have been entered into to connect Canton by +railway with Hong-Kong (Kowlun), and by a grand trunk line with Hankow +on the Yangtsze. It is connected by telegraph with all parts. The value +of the trade of Canton for the year 1904 was L13,749,582, L7,555,090 of +which represented imports and L6,194,490 exports. (R. K. D.) + + + + +CANTON, a city of Fulton county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of the +state, 12 m. N. of the Illinois river, and 28 m. S.W. of Peoria. Pop. +(1890) 5604; (1900) 6564 (424 foreign-born); (1910) 10,453. Canton is +served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Toledo, Peoria & +Western, and the Illinois Central Electric Interurban railways. About 1 +m. from the centre of the city are the Canton Chautauqua grounds. The +city has a public library. Canton is situated in a rich agricultural +region, for which it is a supply point, and there are large coal-mines +in the vicinity. Among the manufactures are agricultural implements +(particularly ploughs), machine-shop and foundry products (particularly +mining-cars and equipment), flour, cigars, cigar-boxes, brooms, and +bricks and tile. The municipal water-works are supplied from a deep +artesian well. Canton was laid out in 1825; it was incorporated as a +town in 1837 and as a village in 1849, and was chartered as a city in +1854. + + + + +CANTON, a village and the county-seat of St Lawrence county, New York, +U.S.A., 17 m. S.E. of Ogdensburg, on the Grasse river. Pop. (1890) 2580; +(1900) 2757; (1905) 3083; (1910) 2701. The village is served by the +Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg division of the New York Central & Hudson +River railway. Canton is the seat of St Lawrence University +(co-educational; chartered in 1856; at first Universalist, afterwards +unsectarian), having a college of letters and science, which developed +from an academy, opened in 1859; a theological school (Universalist), +opened in 1858; a law school, established in 1869, discontinued in 1872 +and re-established in Brooklyn, New York, in 1903 as the Brooklyn Law +School of St Lawrence University; and a state school of agriculture, +established in 1906 by the state legislature and opened in 1907. In +1907-1908 the university had 52 instructors, 168 students in the college +of letters and science, 14 students in the theological school, 287 in +the law school and 13 in the agricultural school. The Clinton Liberal +Institute (Universalist, 1832), which was removed in 1879 from Clinton +to Fort Plain, New York, was established in Canton in 1901. The Grasse +river furnishes water-power, and the village has saw-, planing- and +flour-mills, and plant for the building of small boats and launches. The +village corporation owns a fine water-supply system. Canton was first +settled in 1800 by Daniel Harrington of Connecticut and was incorporated +in 1845. It was for many years the home of Silas Wright, who was buried +here. + + + + +CANTON, a city and the county-seat of Stark county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +Nimisillen Creek, 60 m. S. by E. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 26,189; +(1900) 30,667, of whom 4018 were foreign-born; and (1910) 50,217. It is +served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Wheeling & +Lake Erie railways, and is connected by an interurban electric system +with all the important cities and towns within a radius of 50 m. It lies +at an elevation of about 1030 ft. above sea-level, in a wheat-growing +region, in which bituminous coal, limestone, and brick and potter's clay +abound. Meyer's Lake in the vicinity is a summer attraction. The +principal buildings are the post-office, court-house, city hall, an +auditorium with a seating capacity of 5000, a Masonic building, an +Oddfellows' temple, a Y.M.C.A. building and several handsome churches. +On Monument Hill, in West Lawn Cemetery, in a park of 26 acres--a site +which President McKinley had suggested for a monument to the soldiers +and sailors of Stark county--there is a beautiful monument to the memory +of McKinley, who lived in Canton. This memorial is built principally of +Milford (Mass.) granite, with a bronze statue of the president, and with +sarcophagi containing the bodies of the president and Mrs McKinley, and +has a total height, from the first step of the approaches to its top, of +163 ft. 6 in., the mausoleum itself being 98 ft. 6 in. high and 78 ft. 9 +in. in diameter; it was dedicated on the 30th of September 1907, when an +address was delivered by President Roosevelt. Another monument +commemorates the American soldiers of the Spanish-American War. Among +the city's manufactures are agricultural implements, iron bridges and +other structural iron work, watches and watch-cases, steel, engines, +safes, locks, cutlery, hardware, wagons, carriages, paving-bricks, +furniture, dental and surgical chairs, paint and varnish, clay-working +machinery and saw-mill machinery. The value of the factory product in +1905 was $10,591,143, being 10.6% more than the product value of 1900. +Canton was laid out as a town in 1805, became the county-seat in 1808, +was incorporated as a village in 1822 and in 1854 was chartered as a +city. + + + + +CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. _cantone_, a corner or angle), a word +used for certain divisions of some European countries. In France, the +canton, which is a subdivision of the arrondissement, is a territorial, +rather than an administrative, unit. The canton, of which there are +2908, generally comprises, on an average, about twelve communes, though +very large communes are sometimes divided into several cantons. It is +the seat of a justice of the peace, and returns a member to the _conseil +d'arrondissement_ (see FRANCE). In Switzerland, canton is the name given +to each of the twenty-two states comprising the Swiss confederation (see +SWITZERLAND). + +In heraldry, a "canton" is a corner or square division on a shield, +occupying the upper corner (usually the dexter). It is in area +two-thirds of the quarter (see HERALDRY). + + + + +CANTONMENT (Fr. _cantonnement_, from _cantonner_, to quarter; Ger. +_Ortsunterkunft_ or _Quartier_). When troops are distributed in small +parties amongst the houses of a town or village, they are said to be in +cantonments, which are also called quarters or billets. Formerly this +method of providing soldiers with shelter was rarely employed on active +service, though the normal method in "winter quarters," or at seasons +when active military operations were not in progress. In the field, +armies lived as a rule in camp (q.v.), and when the provision of canvas +shelter was impossible in bivouac. At the present time, however, it is +unusual, in Europe at any rate, for troops on active service to hamper +themselves with the enormous trains of tent wagons that would be +required, and cantonments or bivouacs, or a combination of the two have +therefore taken the place, in modern warfare, of the old long +rectilinear lines of tents that marked the resting-place and generally, +too, the order of battle of an 18th-century army. The greater part of an +army operating in Europe at the present day is accommodated in +widespread cantonments, an army corps occupying the villages and farms +found within an area of 4 m. by 5 or 6. This allowance of space has been +ascertained by experience to be sufficient, not only for comfort, but +also for subsistence for one day, provided that the density of the +ordinary civil population is not less than 200 persons to the square +mile. Under modern conditions there is little danger from such a +dissemination of the forces, as each fraction of each army corps is +within less than two hours' march of its concentration post. If the +troops halt for several days, of course they require either a more +densely populated country from which to requisition supplies, or a wider +area of cantonments. The difficulty of controlling the troops, when +scattered in private houses in parties of six or seven, is the principal +objection to this system of cantonments. But since Napoleon introduced +the "war of masses" the only alternative to cantoning the troops is +bivouacking, which if prolonged for several nights is more injurious to +the well-being of the troops than the slight relaxation of discipline +necessitated by the cantonment system, when the latter is well arranged +and policed. The troops nearest the enemy, however, which have to be +maintained in a state of constant readiness for battle, cannot as a rule +afford the time either for dispersing into quarters or for rallying on +an alarm, and in western Europe at any rate they are required to +bivouac. In India, the term "cantonment" means more generally a military +station or standing camp. The troops live, not in private houses, but in +barracks, huts, forts or occasionally camps. The large cantonments are +situated in the neighbourhood of the North-Western frontier, of the +large cities and of the capitals of important native states. Under Lord +Kitchener's redistribution of the Indian army in 1903, the chief +cantonments are Rawalpindi, Quetta, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu, Nowshera, +Sialkot, Mian Mir, Umballa, Muttra, Ferozepore, Meerut, Lucknow, Mhow, +Jubbulpore, Bolarum, Poona, Secunderabad and Bangalore. + + + + +CANTU, CESARE (1804-1895), Italian historian, was born at Brivio in +Lombardy and began his career as a teacher. His first literary essay +(1828) was a romantic poem entitled _Algiso, o la Lega Lombarda_ (new +ed., Milan, 1876), and in the following year he produced a _Storia di +Como_ in two volumes (Como, 1829). The death of his father then left +him in charge of a large family, and he worked very hard both as a +teacher and a writer to provide for them. His prodigious literary +activity led to his falling under the suspicions of the Austrian police, +and he was mixed up in a political trial and arrested in 1833. While in +prison writing materials were denied him, but he managed to write on +rags with a tooth-pick and candle smoke, and thus composed the novel +_Margherita Pusterla_ (Milan, 1838). On his release a year later, as he +was interdicted from teaching, literature became his only resource. In +1836 the Turinese publisher, Giuseppe Pomba, commissioned him to write a +universal history, which his vast reading enabled him to do. In six +years the work was completed in seventy-two volumes, and immediately +achieved a general popularity; the publisher made a fortune out of it, +and Cantu's royalties amounted, it is said, to 300,000 lire (L12.000). +Just before the revolution of 1848, being warned that he would be +arrested, he fled to Turin, but after the "Five Days" he returned to +Milan and edited a paper called _La Guardia Nazionale_. Between 1849 and +1850 he published his _Storia degli Italiani_ (Turin, 1855) and many +other works. In 1857 the archduke Maximilian tried to conciliate the +Milanese by the promise of a constitution, and Cantu was one of the few +Liberals who accepted the olive branch, and went about in company with +the archduke. This act was regarded as treason and caused Cantu much +annoyance in after years. He continued his literary activity after the +formation of the Italian kingdom, producing volume after volume until +his death. For a short time he was member of the Italian parliament; he +founded the Lombard historical society, and was appointed superintendent +of the Lombard archives. He died in March 1895. His views are coloured +by strong religious and political prejudice, and by a moralizing +tendency, and his historical work has little critical value and is for +the most part pure book-making, although he collected a vast amount of +material which has been of use to other writers. In dealing with modern +Italian history he is reactionary and often wilfully inaccurate. Besides +the above-mentioned works he wrote _Gli Eretici in Italia_ (Milan, +1873); _Cronistoria dell' Indipendenza italiana_ (Naples, 1872-1877); +_II Conciliatore e i Carbonari_ (Milan, 1878), &c. (L. V.*) + + + + +CANUSIUM (Gr. [Greek: Kanusion], mod. _Canosa_), an ancient city of +Apulia, on the right bank of the Aufidus (Ofanto), about 12 m. from its +mouth, and situated upon the Via Traiana, 85 m. E.N.E. of Beneventum. It +was said to have been founded by Diomede, and even at the time of Horace +(_Sat._ i. 10. 30) both Greek and Latin were spoken there. The legends +on the coins are Greek, and a very large number of Greek vases have been +found in the necropolis. The town came voluntarily under Roman +sovereignty in 318 B.C., afforded a refuge to the Roman fugitives after +Cannae, and remained faithful for the rest of the war. It revolted in +the Social War, in which it would appear to have suffered, inasmuch as +Strabo (vi. 283) speaks of Canusium and Arpi as having been, to judge +from the extent of their walls, the greatest towns in the plain of +Apulia, but as having shrunk considerably in his day. Its importance was +maintained, however, by its trade in agricultural products and in +Apulian wool (which was there dyed and cleaned), by its port (probably +Cannae) at the mouth of the Aufidus, and by its position on the +high-road. It was a _municipium_ under the early empire, but was +converted into a _colonia_ under Antoninus Pius by Herodes Atticus, who +provided it with a water-supply. In the 6th century it was still the +most important city of Apulia. Among the ancient buildings which are +still preserved, an amphitheatre, an aqueduct and a city gate may be +mentioned. + + See N. Jacobone, _Ricerche sulla storia e la topografia di Canosa + Antica_ (Canosa di Puglia, 1905). (T. As.) + + + + +CANUTE (CNUT), known as "the Great" (c. 995-1035), king of Denmark and +England, second son of King Sweyn Forkbeard and his first wife, the +daughter of the Polish prince, Mieszko, was born c. 995. On the death +of his father he was compelled to quit England by a general rising of +the Anglo-Saxons, on which occasion in a fit of rage, for he was not +naturally cruel, he abandoned his hostages after cutting off their +hands, ears and noses. In the following year, 1015, he returned with a +great fleet manned by a picked host, "not a thrall or a freedman among +them." He speedily succeeded in subduing all England except London, now +the last refuge of King Aethelred and his heroic son, Edmund Ironside. +On the death of Aethelred (23rd of April 1016) Canute was elected king +by an assembly of notables at Southampton; but London clung loyally to +Edmund, who more than once succeeded in raising the western shires +against Canute. Edmund indeed approved himself the better general of the +two, and would doubtless have prevailed, but for the treachery of his +own ealdormen. This was notably the case at the great battle of +Assandun, in which by the desertion of Eadric an incipient Anglo-Saxon +victory was converted into a crushing defeat. Nevertheless, the +antagonists were so evenly matched that the great men on both sides, +fearing that the interminable war would utterly ruin the land, arranged +a conference between Canute and Edmund on an island in the Severn, when +they agreed to divide England between them, Canute retaining Mercia and +the north, while Edmund's territory comprised East Anglia and Wessex +with London. On the death of Edmund, a few months later (November 1016), +Canute was unanimously elected king of all England at the beginning of +1017. The young monarch at once showed himself equal to his +responsibilities. He did his utmost to deserve the confidence of his +Anglo-Saxon subjects, and the eighteen years of his reign were of +unspeakable benefit to his adopted country. He identified himself with +the past history of England and its native dynasty by wedding Emma, or +Aelgifu, to give her her Saxon name (the Northmen called her Alfifa), +who came over from Normandy at his bidding, Canute previously +repudiating his first wife, another Aelgifu, the daughter of the +ealdorman Aelfhem of Deira, who, with her sons, was banished to Denmark. +In 1018 Canute inherited the Danish throne, his elder brother Harold +having died without issue. He now withdrew most of his army from +England, so as to spare as much as possible the susceptibilities of the +Anglo-Saxons. For the same reason he had previously dispersed all his +warships but forty. On his return from Denmark he went a step farther. +In a remarkable letter, addressed to the prelates, ealdormen and people, +he declared his intention of ruling England by the English, and of +upholding the laws of King Edgar, at the same time threatening with his +vengeance all those who did not judge righteous judgment or who let +malefactors go free. The tone of this document, which is not merely +Christian but sacerdotal, shows that he had wisely resolved, in the +interests of law and order, to form a close alliance with the native +clergy. Those of his own fellow-countrymen who refused to co-operate +with him were summarily dismissed. Thus, in 1021, the stiffnecked jarl +Thorkil was banished the land, and his place taken by an Anglo-Saxon, +the subsequently famous Godwin, who became one of Canute's chief +counsellors. The humane and conciliatory character of his government is +also shown in his earnest efforts to atone for Danish barbarities in the +past. Thus he rebuilt the church of St Edmundsbury in memory of the +saintly king who had perished there at the hands of the earlier Vikings, +and with great ceremony transferred the relics of St Alphege from St +Paul's church at London to a worthier resting-place at Canterbury. His +work of reform and reconciliation was interrupted in 1026 by the attempt +of Olaf Haraldson, king of Norway, in conjunction with Anund Jakob, king +of Sweden, to conquer Denmark. Canute defeated the Swedish fleet at +Stangebjerg, and so seriously injured the combined squadrons at the +mouth of the Helgeaa in East Scania, that in 1028 he was able to subdue +the greater part of Norway "without hurling a dart or swinging a sword." +But the conquest was not permanent, the Norwegians ultimately rising +successfully against the tyranny of Alfifa, who misruled the country in +the name of her infant son Sweyn. Canute also succeeded in establishing +the dominion of Denmark over the southern shores of the Baltic, in +Witland and Samland, now forming part of the coast of Prussia. Of the +details of Canute's government in Denmark proper we know but little. His +most remarkable institution was the _Tinglid_, a military brotherhood, +originally 3000 in number, composed of members of the richest and +noblest families, who not only formed the royal bodyguard, but did +garrison duty and defended the marches or borders. They were subject to +strict discipline, embodied in written rules called the _Viderlog_ or +_Vederlag_, and were the nucleus not only of a standing army but of a +royal council. Canute is also said to have endeavoured to found +monasteries in Denmark, with but indifferent success, and he was +certainly the first Danish king who coined money, with the assistance of +Anglo-Saxon mint-masters. Of his alliance with the clergy we have +already spoken. Like the other great contemporary kingdom-builder, +Stephen of Hungary, he clearly recognized that the church was the one +civilizing element in a world of anarchic barbarism, and his submission +to her guidance is a striking proof of his perspicacity. But it was no +slavish submission. When, in 1027, he went to Rome, with Rudolf III. of +Burgundy, to be present at the coronation of the emperor Conrad II., it +was quite as much to benefit his subjects as to receive absolution for +the sins of his youth. He persuaded the pope to remit the excessive fees +for granting the _pallium_, which the English and Danish bishops had +found such a grievous burden, substituting therefor a moderate amount of +Peter's pence. He also induced the emperor and other German princes to +grant safe-conducts to those of his subjects who desired to make the +pilgrimage to Rome. + +Canute died at Shaftesbury on the 12th of November 1035 in his 40th +year, and was buried at Winchester. He was cut off before he had had the +opportunity of developing most of his great plans; yet he lived long +enough to obtain the title of "Canute the Wealthy" (i.e. "Mighty"), and +posterity, still more appreciative, has well surnamed him "the Great." A +violent, irritable temper was his most salient defect, and more than one +homicide must be laid to his charge. But the fierce Viking nature was +gradually and completely subdued; for Canute was a Christian by +conviction and sincerely religious. His humility is finely illustrated +by the old Norman poem which describes how he commanded the rising tide +of the Thames at Westminster to go back. The homily he preached to his +courtiers on that occasion was to prepare them for his subsequent +journey to Rome and his submission to the Holy See. Like his father +Sweyn, Canute loved poetry, and the great Icelandic skalder, Thorar +Lovtunge and Thormod Kolbrunarskjold, were as welcome visitors at his +court as the learned bishops. As an administrator Canute was excelled +only by Alfred. He possessed in an eminent degree the royal gift of +recognizing greatness, and the still more useful faculty of conciliating +enemies. No English king before him had levied such heavy taxes, yet +never were taxes more cheerfully paid; because the people felt that +every penny of the money was used for the benefit of the country. +According to the _Knytlinga Saga_ King Canute was huge of limb, of great +strength, and a very goodly man to look upon, save for his nose, which +was narrow, lofty and hooked; he had also long fair hair, and eyes +brighter and keener than those of any man living. + + See _Danmarks Riges Historie. Old Tiden og den aeldre Middelalder_, + pp. 382-406 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905); Freeman, _Norman Conquest_ + (Oxford, 1870-1875); Steenstrup, _Normannerne_ (Copenhagen, + 1876-1882). (R. N. B.) + + + + +CANUTE VI. (1163-1202), king of Denmark, eldest son of Valdemar I., was +crowned in his seventh year (1170), as his father's co-regent, so as to +secure the succession. In 1182 he succeeded to the throne. During his +twenty years' reign Denmark advanced steadily along the path of +greatness and prosperity marked out for her by Valdemar I., +consolidating and extending her dominion over the North Baltic coast and +adopting a more and more independent attitude towards Germany. The +emperor Frederick I.'s claim of overlordship was haughtily rejected at +the very outset, and his attempt to stir up Duke Bogislav of Pomerania +against Denmark's vassal, Jaromir of Rugen, was defeated by Archbishop +Absalon, who destroyed 465 of Bogislav's 500 ships in a naval action off +Strela (Stralsund) in 1184. In the following year Bogislav did homage to +Canute on the deck of his long-ship, off Jomsborg in Pomerania, Canute +henceforth styling himself king of the Danes and Wends. This victory +led two years later to the voluntary submission of the two Abodrite +princes Niklot and Borwin to the Danish crown, whereupon the bulk of the +Abodrite dominions, which extended from the Trave to the Warnow, +including modern Mecklenburg, were divided between them. The concluding +years of Canute's reign were peaceful, as became a prince who, though by +no means a coward, was not of an overwhelmingly martial temperament. In +1197, however, German jealousy of Denmark's ambitions, especially when +Canute led a fleet against the pirates of Esthonia, induced Otto, +margrave of Brandenburg, to invade Pomerania, while in the following +year Otto, in conjunction with Duke Adolf of Holstein, wasted the +dominions of the Danophil Abodrites. The war continued intermittently +till 1201, when Duke Valdemar, Canute's younger brother, conquered the +whole of Holstein, and Duke Adolf was subsequently captured at Hamburg +and sent in chains to Denmark. North Albingia, as the district between +the Eider and the Elbe was then called, now became Danish territory. +Canute died on the 12th of November 1202. Undoubtedly he owed the +triumphs of his reign very largely to the statesmanship of Absalon and +the valour of Valdemar. But he was certainly a prudent and circumspect +ruler of blameless life, possessing, as Arnold of Lubeck (c. 1160-1212) +expresses it, "the sober wisdom of old age even in his tender youth." + + See _Danmarks Riges Historic. Oldtiden og den aeldre Middelalder_ + (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), pp. 721-735. (R. N. B.) + + + + +CANVAS, a stout cloth which probably derives its name from _cannabis_, +the Latin word for hemp. This would appear to indicate that canvas was +originally made from yarns of the hemp fibre, and there is some ground +for the assumption. This fibre and that of flax have certainly been used +for ages for the production of cloth for furnishing sails, and for +certain classes of cloth used for this purpose the terms "sailcloth" and +"canvas" are synonymous. Warden, in his _Linen Trade_, states that the +manufacture of sailcloth was established in England in 1590, as appears +by the preamble of James I., cap. 23:--"Whereas the cloths called +_Mildernix_ and _Powel Davies_, whereof sails and other furniture for +the navy and shipping are made, were heretofore altogether brought out +of France and other parts beyond sea, and the skill and art of making +and weaving of the said sailcloths never known or used in England until +about the thirty-second year of the late Queen Elizabeth, about what +time and not before the perfect art or skill of making or weaving of the +said cloths was attained to, and since practised and continued in this +realm, to the great benefit and commodity thereof." But this, or a +similar cloth of the same name had been used for centuries before this +time by the Egyptians and Phoenicians. Since the introduction of the +power loom the cloth has undergone several modifications, and it is now +made both from flax, hemp, tow, jute and cotton, or a mixture of these, +but the quality of sailcloth for the British government is kept up to +the original standard. All flax canvas is essentially of double warp, +for it is invariably intended to withstand some pressure or rough usage. + +In structure it is similar to jute tarpaulin; indeed, if it were not for +the difference in the fibre, it would be difficult to say where one type +stopped and the other began. "Bagging," "tarpaulin" and "canvas" form an +ascending series of cloths so far as fineness is concerned, although the +finest tarpaulins are finer than some of the lower canvases. The cloth +may be natural colour, bleached or dyed, a very common colour being tan. +It has an enormous number of different uses other than naval. + +Amongst other articles made from it are:--receptacles for photographic +and other apparatus; bags for fishing, shooting, golf and other sporting +implements; shoes for cricket and other games, and for yachting; +travelling cases and hold-alls, letter-bags, school-bags and nose-bags +for horses. Large quantities of the various makes of flax and cotton +canvases are tarred, and then used for covering goods on railways, +wharves, docks, etc. + +Sail canvas is, naturally, of a strong build, and is quite different +from the canvas cloth used for embroidery purposes, often called "art +canvas." The latter is similar in structure to cheese cloths and +strainers, the chief difference being that the yarns for art canvas are, +in general, of a superior nature. All kinds of vegetable fibres are used +in their production, chief among which are cotton, flax and jute. The +yarns are almost invariably two or more ply, an arrangement which tends +to obtain a uniform thickness--a very desirable element in these +open-built fabrics. + +[Illustration.] + +The plain weave A in the figure is extensively used for these fabrics, +but in many cases special weaves are used which leave the open spaces +well defined. Thus weave B is often employed, while the "imitation +gauze" weaves, C and D, are also largely utilized in the production of +these embroidery cloths. Weave B is known as the hopsack, and probably +owes its name to being originally used for the making of bags for hops. +The cloth for this purpose is now called "hop pocketing," and is of a +structure between bagging and tarpaulin. Another class of canvas, single +warp termed "artists' canvas," is used, as its name implies, for +paintings in oils. It is also much lighter than sail canvas, but must, +of necessity, be made of level yarns. The best qualities are made of +cream or bleached flax line, although it is not unusual to find an +admixture of tow, and even of cotton in the commoner kinds. When the +cloth comes from the loom, it undergoes a special treatment to prepare +the surface for the paint. + + + + +CANVASS (an older spelling of "canvas"), to sift by shaking in a sheet +of canvas, hence to discuss thoroughly; as a political term it means to +examine carefully the chances of the votes in a prospective election, +and to solicit the support of the electors. + + + + +CANYNGES, Canynge, WILLIAM (c. 1399-1474), English merchant, was born +at Bristol in 1399 or 1400, a member of a wealthy family of merchants +and cloth-manufacturers in that city. He entered, and in due course +greatly extended, the family business, becoming one of the richest +Englishmen of his day. Canynges was five times mayor of, and twice +member of parliament for, Bristol. He owned a fleet of ten ships, the +largest hitherto known in England, and employed, it is said, 800 seamen. +By special license from the king of Denmark he enjoyed for some time a +monopoly of the fish trade between Iceland, Finland and England, and he +also competed successfully with the Flemish merchants in the Baltic, +obtaining a large share of their business. In 1456 he entertained +Margaret of Anjou at Bristol, and in 1461 Edward IV. Canynges undertook +at his own expense the great work of rebuilding the famous Bristol +church of St Mary, Redcliffe, and for a long time had a hundred workmen +in his regular service for this purpose. In 1467 he himself took holy +orders, and in 1469 was made dean of Westbury. He died in 1474. The +statesman George Canning and the first viscount Stratford de Redcliffe +were descendants of his family. + + See Pryce, _Memorials of the Canynges Family and their Times_ + (Bristol, 1854). + + + + +CANYON (Anglicized form of Span. _canon_, a tube, pipe or cannon; the +Spanish form being also frequently written), a type of valley with huge +precipitous sides, such as the Grand Canyons of the Colorado and the +Yellowstone livers, and the gorge of the Niagara river below the falls, +due to rapid stream erosion in a "young" land. A river saws its channel +vertically downwards, and a swift stream erodes chiefly at the bottom. +In rainy regions the valleys thus formed are widened out by slope-wash +and the resultant valley-slopes are gentle, but in arid regions there is +very little side-extension of the valleys and the river cuts its way +downwards, leaving almost vertical cliffs above the stream. If the +stream be swift as in the western plateau of North America, the cutting +action will be rapid. The ideal conditions for developing a canyon are: +great altitude and slope causing swift streams, arid conditions with +absence of side-wash, and hard rock horizontally bedded which will hold +the walls up. + + + + +CANZONE, a form of verse which has reached us from Italian literature, +where from the earliest times it has been assiduously cultivated. The +word is derived from the Provencal _canso_, a song, but it was in +Italian first that the form became a literary one, and was dedicated to +the highest uses of poetry. The canzone-strophe consists of two parts, +the opening one being distinguished by Dante as the _fronte_, the +closing one as the _sirma_. These parts are connected by rhyme, it being +usual to make the rhyme of the last line of the _fronte_ identical with +that of the first line of the _sirma_. In other respects the canzone has +great liberty, as regards number and length of lines, arrangement of +rhymes and conduct of structure. An examination of the best Italian +models, however, shows that the tendency of the canzone-strophe is to +possess 9, 10, 11, 13, 14 or 16 verses, and that of these the strophe of +14 verses is so far the most frequent that it may almost be taken as the +type. In this form it resembles an irregular sonnet. The _Vita Nuova_ +contains many examples of the canzone, and these are accompanied by so +many explanations of their form as to lead us to believe that the +canzone was originally invented or adopted by Dante. The following is +the _proemio_ or _fronte_ of one of the most celebrated canzoni in the +_Vita Nuova_ (which may be studied in English in Dante Gabriel +Rossetti's translation):-- + + "Donna pietosa e di novella etate, + Adorna assai di gentilezza umane, + Era la ov' io chiamava spesso Morte. + Veggendo gli occhi miei pien di pietate, + Ed ascoltando le parole vane, + Si mosse con paura a pianger forte; + Ed altro donne, che si furo accorte + Di me per quella che meco piangia, + Fecer lei partir via + Ed apprissarsi per farmi sentire. + Quel dicea: 'Non dormire'; + E qual dicea: 'Perche si te sconforte?' + Allor lasciai la nuova fantasia, + Chiamando il nome della donna mia." + +The _Canzoniere_ of Petrarch is of great authority as to the form of +this species of verse. In England the canzone was introduced at the end +of the sixteenth century by William Drummond of Hawthornden, who has +left some very beautiful examples. In German poetry it was cultivated by +A.W. von Schlegel and other poets of the Romantic period. It is +doubtful, however, whether it is in agreement with the genius of any +language but Italian, and whether the genuine "Canzone toscana" is a +form which can be reproduced elsewhere than in Italy. (E. G.) + + + + +CAPE BRETON, the north-east portion of Nova Scotia, Canada, separated +from the mainland by a narrow strait, known as the Gut of Canceau or +Canso. Its extreme length from north to south is about 110 m., greatest +breadth about 87 m., and area 3120 sq. m. It juts out so far into the +Atlantic that it has been called "the long wharf of Canada," the +distance to the west coast of Ireland being less by a thousand miles +than from New York. A headland on the east coast is also known as Cape +Breton, and is said by some to be the first land made by Cabot on his +voyage in 1497-1498. The large, irregularly-shaped, salt-water lakes of +Bras d'Or communicate with the sea by two channels on the north-east; a +short ship canal connects them with St Peter's bay on the south, thus +dividing the island into two parts. Except on the north-west, the +coast-line is very irregular, and indented with numerous bays, several +of which form excellent harbours. The most important are Aspy, St Ann's, +Sydney, Mira, Louisburg, Gabarus, St Peter's and Mabou; of these, Sydney +Harbour, on which are situated the towns of Sydney and North Sydney, is +one of the finest in North America. There are numerous rivers, chiefly +rapid hill streams not navigable for any distance; the largest are the +Denys, the Margaree, the Baddeck and the Mira. Lake Ainslie in the west +is the most extensive of several fresh-water lakes. The surface of the +island is broken in several places by ranges of hills of moderate +elevation, well wooded, and containing numerous picturesque glens and +gorges; the northern promontory consists of a plateau, rising at Cape +North to a height of 1800 ft. This northern projection is formed of +Laurentian gneiss, the only instance in Nova Scotia of this formation, +and is fringed by a narrow border of carboniferous rocks. South of this +extends a Cambrian belt, a continuation of the same formation on the +Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia. On various portions of the west coast, +and on the south side of the island at Seacoal Bay and Little River +(Richmond county), valuable seams of coal are worked. Still more +important is the Sydney coal-field, which occupies the east coast from +Mira Bay to St Ann's. The outcrop is plainly visible at various points +along the coast, and coal has been mined in the neighbourhood from a +very early period. Since 1893 the operations have been greatly extended, +and over 3,000,000 tons a year are now shipped, chiefly to Montreal and +Boston. The coal is bituminous, of good quality and easily worked, most +of the seams dipping at a low angle. Several have been mined for some +distance beneath the ocean. Slate, marble, gypsum and limestone are +quarried, the latter, which is found in unlimited quantities, being of +great value as a flux in the blast-furnaces of Sydney. Copper and iron +are also found, though not in large quantities. + +Its lumber, agricultural products and fisheries are also important. +Nearly covered with forest at the time of its discovery, it still +exports pine, oak, beech, maple and ash. Oats, wheat, turnips and +potatoes are cultivated, chiefly for home consumption; horses, cattle +and sheep are reared in considerable numbers; butter and cheese are +exported. The Bras d'Or lakes and the neighbouring seas supply an +abundance of cod, mackerel, herring and whitefish, and the fisheries +employ over 7000 men. Salmon are caught in several of the rivers, and +trout in almost every stream, so that it is visited by large numbers of +tourists and sportsmen from the other provinces and from the United +States. The Intercolonial railway has been extended to Sydney, and +crosses the Gut of Canso on a powerful ferry. From the same strait a +railway runs up the west coast, and several shorter lines are controlled +by the mining companies. Of these the most important is that connecting +Sydney and Louisburg. Numerous steamers, with Sydney as their +headquarters, ply upon the Bras d'Or lakes. The inhabitants are mainly +of Highland Scottish descent, and Gaelic is largely spoken in the +country districts. On the south and west coasts are found a number of +descendants of the original French settlers and of the Acadian exiles +(see NOVA SCOTIA), and in the mining towns numbers of Irish are +employed. Several hundred Mic Mac Indians, for the most part of mixed +blood, are principally employed in making baskets, fish-barrels and +butter-firkins. Nearly the whole population is divided between the Roman +and Presbyterian creeds, and the utmost cordiality marks the relations +between the two faiths. The population is steadily increasing, having +risen from 27,580 in 1851 to over 100,000 in 1906. + +There is some evidence in favour of early Norse and Icelandic voyages to +Cape Breton, but they left no trace. It was probably visited by the +Cabots in 1497-1498, and its name may either have been bestowed in +remembrance of Cap Breton near Bayonne, by the Basque sailors who early +frequented the coast, or may commemorate the hardy mariners of Brittany +and Normandy. + +In 1629 James Stewart, fourth Lord Ochiltree, settled a small colony at +Baleine, on the east side of the island; but he was soon after taken +prisoner with all his party by Captain Daniell of the French Company, +who caused a fort to be erected at Great Cibou (now St Ann's Harbour). +By the peace of St Germain in 1632, Cape Breton was formally assigned to +France; and in 1654 it formed part of the territory granted by patent to +Nicholas Denys, Sieur de Fronsac, who made several small settlements on +the island, which, however, had only a very temporary success. When by +the treaty of Utrecht (1713) the French were deprived of Nova Scotia and +Newfoundland, they were still left in possession of Cape Breton, and +their right to erect fortifications for its defence was formally +acknowledged. They accordingly transferred the inhabitants of Plaisance +in Newfoundland to the settlement of Havre a l'Anglois, which soon +after, under the name of Louisburg, became the capital of Cape Breton +(or Ile Royale, as it was then called), and an important military post. + +Cod-fishing formed the staple industry, and a large contraband trade in +French wines, brandy and sugar, was carried on with the English colonies +to the south. In 1745 it was captured by a force of volunteers from New +England, under Sir William Pepperell (1696-1759) aided by a British +fleet under Commodore Warren (1703-1752). By the treaty of +Aix-la-Chapelle, the town was restored to France; but in 1758 was again +captured by a British force under General Sir Jeffrey Amherst and +Admiral Boscawen. On the conclusion of hostilities the island was ceded +to England by the treaty of Paris; and on the 7th of October 1763 it was +united by royal proclamation to the government of Nova Scotia. In 1784 +it was separated from Nova Scotia, and a new capital founded at the +mouth of the Spanish river by Governor Desbarres, which received the +name of Sydney in honour of Lord Sydney (Sir Thomas Townshend), then +secretary of state for the colonies. There was immediately a +considerable influx of settlers to the island, which received another +important accession by the immigration of Scottish Highlanders from 1800 +to 1828. In 1820, in spite of strong opposition, it was again annexed to +Nova Scotia. Since then, its history has been uneventful, chiefly +centring in the development of the mining industry. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Historical: Richard Brown, _A History of the Island of + Cape Breton_ (1869), and Sir John Bourinot, _Historical and + Descriptive Account of Cape Breton_ (1892), are both excellent. See + also Denys, _Description geogr. et hist, des cotes de l'Amerique + septentrionale_ (1672); Pichon, _Lettres et memoires du Cap + Breton_ (1760). General: _Reports_ of Geological Survey, 1872 to + 1882-1886, and 1895 to 1899 (by Robb, H. Fletcher and Faribault); H. + Fletcher, _The Sydney Coal Fields, Cape Breton, N.S._ (1900); Richard + Brown, _The Coal Fields of Cape Breton_ (1871; reprinted, 1899). + + + + +CAPE COAST, a port on the Gold Coast, British West Africa, in 5 deg. 5' +N., 1 deg. 13' W., about 80 m. W. of Accra. Pop. (1901) 28,948, mostly +Fantis. There are about 100 Europeans and a colony of Krumen. The town +is built on a low bank of gneiss and micaceous slate which runs out into +the sea and affords some protection at the landing-place against the +violence of the surf. (This bank was the _Cabo Corso_ of the Portuguese, +whence the English corruption of Cape Coast.) The castle faces the sea +and is of considerable size and has a somewhat imposing appearance. Next +to the castle, used as quarters for military officers and as a prison, +the principal buildings are the residence of the district commissioner, +the churches and schools of various denominations, the government +schools and the colonial hospital. Many of the wealthy natives live in +brick-built residences. The streets are hilly, and the town is +surrounded on the east and north by high ground, whilst on the west is a +lagoon. Fort Victoria lies west of the town, and Fort William (used as a +lighthouse) on the east. + +The first European settlement on the spot was that of the Portuguese in +1610. In 1652 the Swedes established themselves here and built the +castle, which they named Carolusburg. In 1659 the Dutch obtained +possession, but the castle was seized in 1664 by the English under +Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir) Robert Holmes, and it has not since +been captured in spite of an attack by De Ruyter in 1665, a French +attack in 1757, and various assaults by the native tribes. Next to +Elmina it was considered the strongest fort on the Guinea Coast. Up to +1876 the town was the capital of the British settlements on the coast, +the administration being then removed to Accra. It is still one of the +chief ports of the Gold Coast Colony, and from it starts the direct road +to Kumasi. In 1905 it was granted municipal government. In the courtyard +of the castle are buried George Maclean (governor of the colony +1830-1843) and his wife (Laetitia Elizabeth Landon). The graves are +marked by two stones bearing respectively the initials "L.E.L." and +"G.M." The land on the east side of the town is studded with disused +gold-diggers' pits. The natives are divided into seven clans called +companies, each under the rule of recognized captains and possessing +distinct customs and fetish. + + See A. Ffoulkes, "The Company System in Cape Coast Castle," in _Jnl. + African Soc._ vol. vii., 1908; and GOLD COAST. + + + + +CAPE COLONY (officially, "PROVINCE OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE"), the most +southern part of Africa, a British possession since 1806. It was named +from the promontory on its south-west coast discovered in 1488 by the +Portuguese navigator Diaz, and near which the first settlement of +Europeans (Dutch) was made in 1652. From 1872 to 1910 a self-governing +colony, in the last-named year it entered the Union of South Africa as +an original province. Cape Colony as such then ceased to exist. In the +present article, however, the word "colony" is retained. The "provinces" +referred to are the colonial divisions existing before the passing of +the South Africa Act 1909, except in the sections _Constitution and +Government_ and _Law and Justice_, where the changes made by the +establishment of the Union are set forth. (See also SOUTH AFRICA.) + +_Boundaries and Area._--The coast-line extends from the mouth of the +Orange (28 deg. 38' S. 16 deg. 27' E.) on the W. to the mouth of the +Umtamvuna river (31 deg. 4' S. 30 deg. 12' E.) on the E., a distance of +over 1300 m. Inland the Cape is bounded E. and N.E. by Natal, +Basutoland, Orange Free State and the Transvaal; N. by the Bechuanaland +Protectorate and N.W. by Great Namaqualand (German S.W. Africa). From +N.W. to S.E. the colony has a breadth of 800 m., from S.W. to N.E. 750 +m. Its area is 276,995 sq. m.--more than five times the size of England. +Walfish Bay (q.v.) on the west coast north of the Orange river is a +detached part of Cape Colony. + +_Physical Features._--The outstanding orographic feature of the country +is the terrace-formation of the land, which rises from sea-level by +well-marked steps to the immense plateau which forms seven-eighths of +South Africa. The coast region varies in width from a few miles to as +many as fifty, being narrowest on the south-east side. The western coast +line, from the mouth of the Orange to the Cape peninsula, runs in a +general south-east direction with no deep indentations save just south +of 33 deg. S. where, in Saldanha Bay, is spacious and sheltered +anchorage. The shore is barren, consisting largely of stretches of white +sand or thin soil sparsely covered with scrub. The Cape peninsula, which +forms Table Bay on the north and False Bay on the south, juts pendant +beyond the normal coast line and consists of an isolated range of hills. +The scenery here becomes bold and picturesque. Dominating Table Bay is +the well-known Table Mountain (3549 ft.), flat-topped and often covered +with a "tablecloth" of cloud. On its lower slopes and around Table Bay +is built Cape Town, capital of the colony. Rounding the storm-vexed Cape +of Good Hope the shore trends south-east in a series of curves, forming +shallow bays, until at the saw-edged reefs of Cape Agulhas (Portuguese, +Needles) in 34 deg. 51' 15" S. 20 deg. E. the southernmost point of the +African continent is reached. Hence the coast, now very slightly +indented, runs north by east until at Algoa Bay (25 deg. 45' E.) it +takes a distinct north-east bend, and so continues beyond the confines +of the colony. Along the southern and eastern shore the country is +better watered, more fertile and more picturesque than along the western +seaboard. Cape Point (Cape of Good Hope) stands 840 ft. above the sea; +Cape Agulhas 455 ft. Farther on the green-clad sides of the Uiteniquas +Mountains are plainly visible from the sea, and as the traveller by boat +proceeds eastward, stretches of forest are seen and numbers of mountain +streams carrying their waters to the ocean. In this part of the coast +the only good natural harbour is the spacious estuary of the Knysna +river in 23 deg. 5' E. The entrance, which is over a bar with 14 ft. +minimum depth of water, is between two bold sandstone cliffs, called the +Heads. + +Off the coast are a few small islands, mainly mere rocks within the bay. +None is far from the mainland. The largest are Dassen Island, 20 m. S. +of Saldanha Bay, and Robben Island, at the entrance to Table Bay. St +Croix is a rock in Algoa Bay, upon which Diaz is stated to have erected +a cross. A number of small islands off the coast of German South-West +Africa, chiefly valuable for their guano deposits, also belong to Cape +Colony (see ANGRA PEQUENA). + +_Ocean Currents._--Off the east and south shores of the colony the +Mozambique or Agulhas current sweeps south-westward with force +sufficient to set up a back drift. This back drift or counter current +flowing north-east is close in shore and is taken advantage of by +vessels going from Cape Town to Natal. On the west coast the current +runs northwards. It is a deflected stream from the west drift of the +"roaring forties" and coming from Antarctic regions is much colder than +the Agulhas current. Off the southern point of the continent the Agulhas +current meets the west drift, giving rise to alternate streams of warm +and cold water. This part of the coast, subject alike to strong westerly +and southeasterly winds, is often tempestuous, as is witnessed by the +name, Cabo Tormentoso, given to the Cape of Good Hope, and to the many +wrecks off the coast. The most famous was that of the British troopship +"Birkenhead," on the 26th of February 1852, off Danger Point, midway +between Cape of Good Hope and Cape Agulhas. + +[Illustration: CAPE COLONY MAP.] + +_Mountains and Tablelands._--It has been stated that the land rises by +well-marked steps to a vast central plateau. Beyond the coast plain, +which here and there attains a height of 600 ft., are mountain ranges +running parallel to the shore. These mountains are the supporting walls +of successive terraces. When the steep southern sides of the ranges +nearest the sea are ascended the hills are often found to be flat-topped +with a gentle slope northward giving on to a plateau rarely more than 40 +m. wide. This plateau is called the Southern or Little Karroo, Karroo +being a corruption of a Hottentot word meaning dry, arid. Having crossed +the Little Karroo, from which rise minor mountain chains, a second high +range has to be climbed. This done the traveller finds himself on +another tableland--the Great Karroo. It has an average width of 80 m. +and is about 350 m. long. Northwards the Karroo (q.v.) is bounded by the +ramparts of the great inner tableland, of which only a comparatively +small portion is in Cape Colony. This sequence of hill and plain--namely +(1) the coast plain, (2) first range of hills, (3) first plateau (Little +Karroo), (4) second range of hills, (5) second plateau (the Great +Karroo), (6) main chain of mountains guarding, (7) the vast interior +tableland--is characteristic of the greater part of the colony but is +not clearly marked in the south-east and north-west borders. The +innermost, and most lofty, chain of mountains follows a curve almost +identical with that of the coast at a general distance of 120 m. from +the ocean. It is known in different places under different names, and +the same name being also often given to one or more of the coast ranges +the nomenclature of the mountains is confusing (see the map). The most +elevated portion of the innermost range, the Drakensberg (q.v.) follows +the curve of the coast from south to north-east. Only the southern +slopes of the range are in Cape Colony, the highest peaks--over 10,000 +ft.--being in Basutoland and Natal. Going westward from the Drakensberg +the rampart is known successively as the Stormberg, Zuurberg, +Sneeuwberg and Nieuwveld mountains. These four ranges face directly +south. In the Sneeuwberg range is Compass Berg, 8500 ft. above the sea, +the highest point in the colony. In the Nieuwveld are heights of over +6000 ft. The Komsberg range, which joins the Nieuwveld on the east, +sweeps from the south to the north-west and is followed by the Roggeveld +mountains, which face the western seaboard. North of the Roggeveld the +interior plateau approaches closer to the sea than in southern Cape +Colony. The slope of the plateau being also westward, the mountain +rampart is less elevated, and north of 32 deg. S. few points attain 5000 +ft. The coast ranges are here, in Namaqualand and the district of Van +Rhyns Dorp, but the outer edges of the inner range. They attain their +highest point in the Kamies Berg, 5511 ft. above the sea. Northward the +Orange river, marking the frontier of the colony, cuts its way through +the hills to the Atlantic. + +From the Olifants river on the west to the Kei river on the east the +series of parallel ranges, which are the walls of the terraces between +the inner tableland and the sea, are clearly traceable. Their general +direction is always that of the coast, and they are cut across by rugged +gorges or _kloofs_, through which the mountain streams make their way +towards the sea. The two chief chains, to distinguish them from the +inner chain already described, may be called the coast and central +chains. Each has many local names. West to east the central chain is +known as the Cedarberg, Groote Zwarteberg (highest point 6988 ft.), +Groote river, Winterhoek (with Cockscomb mountain 5773 ft. high) and +Zuurberg ranges. The Zuurberg, owing to the north-east trend of the +shore, becomes, east of Port Elizabeth, a coast range, and the central +chain is represented by a more northerly line of hills, with a dozen +different names, which are a south-easterly spur of the Sneeuwberg. In +this range the Great Winter Berg attains a height of 7800 ft. + +The coast chain is represented west to east by the Olifants mountains +(with Great Winterhoek, 6618 ft. high), Drakenstein, Zonder Einde, +Langeberg (highest point 5614 ft.), Attaquas, Uiteniquas and various +other ranges. In consequence of the north-east trend of the coast, +already noted, several of these ranges end in the sea in bold bluffs. +From the coast plain rise many short ranges of considerable elevation, +and on the east side of False Bay parallel to Table Bay range is a +mountain chain with heights of 4000 and 5000 ft. East of the Kei river +the whole of the country within Cape Colony, save the narrow seaboard, +is mountainous. The southern part is largely occupied with spurs of the +Stormberg; the northern portion, Griqualand East and Pondoland, with the +flanks of the Drakensberg. Several peaks exceed 7000 ft. in height. +Zwart Berg, near the Basuto-Natal frontier, rises 7615 ft. above the +sea. Mount Currie, farther south, is 7296 ft. high. The Witte Bergen +(over 5000 ft. high) are an inner spur of the Drakensberg running +through the Herschel district. + +That part of the inner tableland of South Africa which is in the colony +has an average elevation of 3000 ft., being higher in the eastern than +in the western districts. It consists of wide rolling treeless plains +scarred by the beds of many rivers, often dry for a great part of the +year. The tableland is broken by the Orange river, which traverses its +whole length. North of the river the plateau slopes northward to a level +sometimes as low as 2000 ft. The country is of an even more desolate +character than south of the Orange (see BECHUANALAND). Rising from the +plains are chains of isolated flat-topped hills such as the Karree +Bergen, the Asbestos mountains and Kuruman hills, comparatively +unimportant ranges. + +Although the mountains present bold and picturesque outlines on their +outward faces, the general aspect of the country north of the +coast-lands, except in its south-eastern corner, is bare and monotonous. +The flat and round-topped hills (_kopjes_), which are very numerous on +the various plateaus, scarcely afford relief to the eye, which searches +the sun-scorched landscape, usually in vain, for running water. The +absence of water and of large trees is one of the most abiding +impressions of the traveller. Yet the vast arid plains are covered with +shallow beds of the richest soil, which only require the fertilizing +power of water to render them available for pasture or agriculture. +After the periodical rains, the Karroo and the great plains of +Bushmanland are converted into vast fields of grass and flowering +shrubs, but the summer sun reduces them again to a barren and burnt-up +aspect. The pastoral lands or _velds_ are distinguished according to the +nature of their herbage as "sweet" or "sour." Shallow sheets of water +termed _vleis_, usually brackish, accumulate after heavy rain at many +places in the plateaus; in the dry seasons these spots, where the soil +is not excessively saline, are covered with rich grass and afford +favourite grazing land for cattle. Only in the southern coast-land of +the colony is there a soil and moisture supply suited to forest growth. + +_Rivers_.--The inner chain of mountains forms the watershed of the +colony. North of this great rampart the country drains to the Orange +(q.v.), which flows from east to west nearly across the continent. For a +considerable distance, both in its upper and lower courses, the river +forms the northern frontier of Cape Colony. In the middle section, where +both banks are in the colony, the Orange receives from the north-east +its greatest tributary, the Vaal (q.v.). The Vaal, within the boundaries +of the colony, is increased by the Harts river from the north-east and +the Riet river from the south-east, whilst just within the colony the +Riet is joined by the Modder. All these tributaries of the Orange flow, +in their lower courses, through the eastern part of Griqualand West, the +only well-watered portion of the colony north of the mountains. From the +north, below the Vaal confluence, the Nosob, Molopo and Kuruman, +intermittent streams which traverse Bechuanaland, send their occasional +surplus waters to the Orange. In general these rivers lose themselves in +some _vlei_ in the desert land. The Molopo and Nosob mark the frontier +between the Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Cape; the Kuruman lies +wholly within the colony. From the south a number of streams, the Brak +and Ongers, the Zak and Olifants Vlei (the two last uniting to form the +Hartebeest), flow north towards the Orange in its middle course. Dry for +a great part of the year, these streams rarely add anything to the +volume of the Orange. + +South of the inner chain the drainage is direct to the Atlantic or +Indian Oceans. Rising at considerable elevations, the coast rivers fall +thousands of feet in comparatively short courses, and many are little +else than mountain torrents. They make their way down the mountain sides +through great gorges, and are noted in the eastern part of the country +for their extremely sinuous course. Impetuous and magnificent streams +after heavy rain, they become in the summer mere rivulets, or even dry +up altogether. In almost every instance the mouths of the rivers are +obstructed by sand bars. Thus, as is the case of the Orange river also, +they are, with rare exceptions, unnavigable. + +Omitting small streams, the coast rivers running to the Atlantic are the +Buffalo, Olifants and Berg. It may be pointed out here that the same +name is repeatedly applied throughout South Africa to different streams, +Buffalo, Olifants (elephants') and Groote (great) being favourite +designations. They all occur more than once in Cape Colony. Of the west +coast rivers, the Buffalo, about 125 m. long, the most northern and +least important, flows through Little Namaqualand. The Olifants (150 +m.), which generally contains a fair depth of water, rises in the +Winterhoek mountains and flows north between the Cedarberg and Olifants +ranges. The Doorn, a stream with a somewhat parallel but more easterly +course, joins the Olifants about 50 m. above its mouth, the Atlantic +being reached by a semicircular sweep to the south-west. The Berg river +(125 m.) rises in the district of French Hoek and flows through fertile +country, in a north-westerly direction, to the sea at St Helena Bay. It +is navigable for a few miles from its mouth. + +On the south coast the most westerly stream of any size is the Breede +(about 165 m. long), so named from its low banks and broad channel. +Rising in the Warm Bokkeveld, it pierces the mountains by Mitchell's +Pass, flows by the picturesque towns of Ceres and Worcester, and +receives, beyond the last-named place, the waters which descend from +the famous Hex River Pass. The Breede thence follows the line of the +Langeberg mountains as far as Swellendam, where it turns south, and +traversing the coast plain, reaches the sea in St Sebastian Bay. From +its mouth the river is navigable by small vessels for from 30 to 40 m. +East of the Breede the following rivers, all having their rise on the +inner mountain chain, are passed in the order named:--Gouritz (200 +m.),[1] Gamtoos (290 m.), Sunday (190 m.), Great Salt (230 m.), Kei (150 +m.), Bashee (90 m.) and Umzimvuba or St John's (140 m.). + +The Gouritz is formed by the junction of two streams, the Gamka and the +Olifants. The Gamka rises in the Nieuwveld not far from Beaufort West, +traverses the Great Karroo from north to south, and forces a passage +through the Zwarteberg. Crossing the Little Karroo, it is joined from +the east by the Olifants (115 m.), a stream which rises in the Great +Karroo, being known in its upper course as the Traka, and pierces the +Zwarteberg near its eastern end. Thence it flows west across the Little +Karroo past Oudtshoorn to its junction with the Gamka. The united +stream, which takes the name of Gouritz, flows south, and receives from +the west, a few miles above the point where it breaks through the coast +range, a tributary (125 m.) bearing the common name Groote, but known in +its upper course as the Buffels. Its headwaters are in the Komsberg. The +Touws (90 m.), which rises in the Great Karroo not far from the sources +of the Hex river, is a tributary of the Groote river. Below the Groote +the Gouritz receives no important tributaries and enters the Indian +Ocean at a point 20 m. south-west of Mossel Bay. + +The Gamtoos is also formed by the junction of two streams, the Kouga, an +unimportant river which rises in the coast hills, and the Groote river. +This, _the_ Groote river of Cape Colony, has its rise in the Nieuwveld +near Nels Poort, being known in its upper course as the Salt river. +Flowing south-east, it is joined by the Kariega on the left, and +breaking through the escarpment of the Great Karroo, on the lower level +changes its name to the Groote, the hills which overhang it to the +north-east being known as Groote River Heights. Bending south, the +Groote river passes through the coast chain by Cockscomb mountain, and +being joined by the Kouga, flows on as the Gamtoos to the sea at St +Francis Bay. + +Sunday river does not, like so many of the Cape streams, change its name +on passing from the Great to the Little Karroo and again on reaching the +coast plain. It rises in the Sneeuwberg north-west of Graaff Reinet, +flows south-east through one of the most fertile districts of the Great +Karroo, which it pierces at the western end of the Zuurberg (of the +coast chain), and reaches the ocean in Algoa Bay. + +Great Salt river is formed by the junction of the Kat with the Great +Fish river, which is the main stream. Several small streams rising in +the Zuurberg (of the inner chain) unite to form the Great Fish river +which passes through Cradock, and crossing the Karroo, changes its +general direction from south to east, and is joined by the Kooner (or +Koonap) and Kat, both of which rise in the Winterberg. Thence, as the +Great Salt river, it winds south to the sea. Great Fish river is +distinguished for the sudden and great rise of its waters after heavy +rain and for its exceedingly sinuous course. Thus near Cookhouse railway +station it makes an almost circular bend of 20 m., the ends being +scarcely 2 m. apart, in which distance it falls 200 ft. Although, like +the other streams which cross the Karroo, the river is sometimes dry in +its upper course, it has an estimated annual discharge of 51,724,000,000 +cubic ft. + +The head-streams of the Kei, often called the Great Kei, rise in the +Stormberg, and the river, which resembles the Great Fish in its many +twists, flows in a general south-east direction through mountainous +country until it reaches the coast plain. Its mouth is 40 m. in a direct +line north-east of East London. In the history of the Cape the Kei +plays an important part as long marking the boundary between the colony +and the independent Kaffir tribes. (For the Umzimvuba and other Transkei +rivers see KAFFRARIA.) + +Of the rivers rising in the coast chain the Knysna (30 m.), Kowie (40 +m.), Keiskama (75 m.) and Buffalo (45 m.) may be mentioned. The Knysna +rises in the Uiteniquas hills and is of importance as a feeder of the +lagoon or estuary of the same name, one of the few good harbours on the +coast. The banks of the Knysna are very picturesque. Kowie river, which +rises in the Zuurberg mountains near Graham's Town, is also noted for +the beauty of its banks. At its mouth is Port Alfred. The water over the +bar permits the entrance of vessels of 10 to 12 ft. draught. The Buffalo +river rises in the hilly country north of King William's Town, past +which it flows. At the mouth of the river, where the scenery is very +fine, is East London, third in importance of the ports of Cape Colony. + +The frequency of "fontein" among the place names of the colony bears +evidence of the number of springs in the country. They are often found +on the flat-topped hills which dot the Karroo. Besides the ordinary +springs, mineral and thermal springs are found in several places. + +_Lakes and Caves._--Cape Colony does not possess any lakes properly so +called. There are, however, numerous natural basins which, filled after +heavy rain, rapidly dry up, leaving an incrustation of salt on the +ground, whence their name of salt pans. The largest, Commissioner's Salt +Pan, in the arid north-west district, is 18 to 20 m. in circumference. +Besides these pans there are in the interior plateaus many shallow pools +or _vleis_ whose extent varies according to the dryness or moisture of +the climate. West of Knysna, and separated from the seashore by a +sandbank only, are a series of five _vleis_, turned in flood times into +one sheet of water and sending occasional spills to the ocean. These +_vleis_ are known collectively as "the lakes." In the Zwarteberg of the +central chain are the Cango Caves, a remarkable series of caverns +containing many thousand of stalactites and stalagmites. These caves, +distant 20 m. from Oudtshoorn, have been formed in a dolomite limestone +bed about 800 ft. thick. There are over 120 separate chambers, the +caverns extending nearly a mile in a straight line. + +_Climate_.--The climate of Cape Colony is noted for its healthiness. Its +chief characteristics are the dryness and clearness of the atmosphere +and the considerable daily range in temperature; whilst nevertheless the +extremes of heat and cold are rarely encountered. The mean annual +temperature over the greater part of the country is under 65 deg. F. The +chief agents in determining the climate are the vast masses of water in +the southern hemisphere and the elevation of the land. The large extent +of ocean is primarily responsible for the lower temperature of the air +in places south of the tropics compared with that experienced in +countries in the same latitude north of the equator. Thus Cape Town, +about 34 deg. S., has a mean temperature, 63 deg. F., which corresponds +with that of the French and Italian Riviera, in 41 deg. to 43 deg. N. +For the dryness of the atmosphere the elevation of the country is +responsible. The east and south-east winds, which contain most moisture, +dissipate their strength against the Drakensberg and other mountain +ranges which guard the interior. Thus while the coast-lands, especially +in the south-east, enjoy an ample rainfall, the winds as they advance +west and north contain less and less moisture, so that over the larger +part of the country drought is common and severe. Along the valley of +the lower Orange rain does not fall for years together. The drought is +increased in intensity by the occasional hot dry wind from the desert +region in the north, though this wind is usually followed by violent +thunderstorms. + +Whilst the general characteristics of the climate are as here outlined, +in a country of so large an area as Cape Colony there are many +variations in different districts. In the coast-lands the daily range of +the thermometer is less marked than in the interior and the humidity of +the atmosphere is much greater. Nevertheless, the west coast north of +the Olifants river is practically rainless and there is great difference +between day and night temperatures, this part of the coast sharing the +characteristics of the interior plateau. The division of the year into +four seasons is not clearly marked save in the Cape peninsula, where +exceptional conditions prevail. In general the seasons are but +two--summer and winter, summer lasting from September to April and +winter filling up the rest of the year. The greatest heat is experienced +in December, January and February, whilst June and July are the coldest +months. In the western part of the colony the winter is the rainy +season, in the eastern part the chief rains come in summer. A line drawn +from Port Elizabeth north-west across the Karroo in the direction of +Walfish Bay roughly divides the regions of the winter and summer rains. +All the country north of the central mountain chain and west of 23 deg. +E., including the western part of the Great Karroo, has a mean annual +rainfall of under 12 in. East of the 23 deg. E. the plateaus have a mean +annual rainfall ranging from 12 to 25 in. The western coast-lands and +the Little Karroo have a rainfall of from 10 to 20 in.; the Cape +peninsula by exception having an average yearly rainfall of 40 in. (see +CAPE TOWN). Along the south coast and in the south-east the mean annual +rainfall exceeds 25 in., and is over 50 in. at some stations. The rain +falls, generally, in heavy and sudden storms, and frequently washes away +the surface soil. The mean annual temperature of the coast region, +which, as stated, is 63 deg. F. at Cape Town, increases to the east, the +coast not only trending north towards the equator but feeling the effect +of the warm Mozambique or Agulhas current. + +On the Karroo the mean maximum temperature is 77 deg. F., the mean +minimum 49 deg., the mean daily range about 27 deg.. In summer the +drought is severe, the heat during the day great, the nights cool and +clear. In winter frost at night is not uncommon. The climate of the +northern plains is similar to that of the Karroo, but the extremes of +cold and heat are greater. In the summer the shade temperature reaches +110 deg. F., whilst in winter nights 12 deg. of frost have been +registered. The hot westerly winds of summer make the air oppressive, +though violent thunderstorms, in which form the northern districts +receive most of their scanty rainfall, occasionally clear the +atmosphere. Mirages are occasionally seen. The keen air, accompanied by +the brilliant sunshine, renders the winter climate very enjoyable. Snow +seldom falls in the coast region, but it lies on the higher mountains +for three or four months in the year, and for as many days on the +Karroo. Violent hailstorms, which do great damage, sometimes follow +periods of drought. The most disagreeable feature of the climate of the +colony is the abundance of dust, which seems to be blown by every wind, +and is especially prevalent in the rainy season. + +That white men can thrive and work in Cape Colony the history of South +Africa amply demonstrates. Ten generations of settlers, from northern +Europe have been born, lived and died there, and the race is as strong +and vigorous as that from which it sprang. Malarial fever is practically +non-existent in Cape Colony, and diseases of the chest are rare. + (F. R. C.) + +_Geology_.--The colony affords the typical development of the geological +succession south of the Zambezi. The following general arrangement has +been determined:-- + + TABLE OF FORMATIONS. + _Post-Cretaceous and Recent._ + + Cretaceous / Pondoland Cretaceous Series \ Cretaceous + System \ Uitenhage Series / + + / Stormberg Series \ + Karroo System < Beaufort Series > Carboniferous + | Ecca Series | to Jurassic + \ Dwyka Series / + + / Witteberg Series \ + Cape System < Bokkeveld Series > Devonian + | Table Mountain Sandstone | + \ Series / + + / Includes several independent \ + Pre-Cape Rocks < unfossiliferous formations > Archaean to + \ of pre-Devonian age / Silurian(?) + +The general structure of the colony is simple. It may be regarded as a +shallow basin occupied by the almost horizontal rocks of the Karroo. +These form the plains and plateaus of the interior. Rocks of pre-Cape +age rise from beneath them on the north and west; on the south and east +the Lower Karroo and Cape systems are bent up into sharp folds, beneath +which, but in quite limited areas, the pre-Cape rocks emerge. In the +folded regions the strike conforms to the coastal outline on the south +and east. + +Pre-Cape rocks occur in three regions, presenting a different +development in each:-- + + +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+ + | North. | West. | South. | + +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+ + | Matsap Series | Nieuwerust Beds | Cango Beds | + | Ongeluk Volcanic Series | | | + | Griquatown Series | Ibiquas Beds | | + | Campbell Rand Series | | | + | Black Reef Series | | | + | Pniel Volcanic Series | | | + | Keis Series | | | + | Namaqualand Schists | Namaqualand Schists and | Malmesbury | + | | Malmesbury Beds | Beds | + +-------------------------+-------------------------+-------------+ + +The pre-Cape rocks are but little understood. They no doubt represent +formations of widely different ages, but all that can be said is that +they are greatly older than the Cape System. The hope that they will +yield fossils has been held out but not yet fulfilled. Their total +thickness amounts to several thousand feet. The rocks have been greatly +changed by pressure in most cases and by the intrusion of great masses +of igneous material, the Namaqualand schists and Malmesbury beds being +most altered. + +The most prominent member of the Cango series is a coarse conglomerate; +the other rocks include slates, limestone and porphyroids. The Ibiquas +beds consist of conglomerates and grits. Both the Cango and Ibiquas +series have been invaded by granite of older date than the Table +Mountain series. The Nieuwerust beds contain quartzite, arkose and +shales. They rest indifferently on the Ibiquas series or Malmesbury +beds. + +The pre-Cape rocks of the northern region occur in the Campbell Rand, +Asbestos mountains, Matsap and Langebergen, and in the Schuftebergen. +They contain a great variety of sediments and igneous rocks. The oldest, +or Keis, series consists of quartzites, quartz-schists, phyllites and +conglomerates. These are overlain, perhaps unconformably, by a great +thickness of lavas and volcanic breccias (Pniel volcanic series, Beer +Vley and Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids), and these in turn by the quartzites, +grits and shales of the Black Reef series. The chief rocks of the +Campbell Rand series are limestones and dolomites, with some interbedded +quartzites. Among the Griquatown series of quartzites, limestones and +shales are numerous bands of jasper and large quantities of crocidolite +(a fibrous amphibole); while at Blink Klip a curious breccia, over 200 +ft. thick, is locally developed. Evidences of one of the oldest known +glaciations have been found near the summit in the district of Hay. The +Ongeluk volcanic series, consisting of lavas and breccias, conformably +overlies the Griquatown series; while the grits, quartzites and +conglomerates of the Matsap series rest on them with a great +discordance. + +Rocks of the Cape System have only been met with in the southern and +eastern parts of South Africa. The lowest member (Table Mountain +Sandstone) consists of sandstones with subordinate bands of shale. It +forms the upper part of Table Mountain and enters largely into the +formation of the southern mountainous folded belt. It is unfossiliferous +except for a few obscure sheils obtained near the base. A bed of +conglomerate is regarded as of glacial origin. + +The Table Mountain Sandstone passes up conformably into a sequence of +sandstones and shales (Bokkeveld Beds), well exposed in the Cold and +Warm Bokkevelds. The lowest beds contain many fossils, including +_Phacops, Homalonotus, Leptocoelia, Spirifer, Chonetes, Orthothetes, +Orthoceras, Bellerophon_. Many of the species are common to the Devonian +rocks of the Falkland Islands, North and South America and Europe, with +perhaps a closer resemblance to the Devonian fauna of South America than +to that of any other country. + +The Bokkeveld beds are conformably succeeded by the sandstones, +quartzites and shales of the Witteberg series. So far imperfect remains +of plants (_Spirophyton_) are the only fossils, and these are not +sufficient to determine if the beds belong to the Devonian or +Carboniferous System. + +The thickness of the rocks of the Cape System exceeds 5000 ft. + +The Karroo System is _par excellence_ the geological formation of South +Africa. The greater part of the colony belongs to it, as do large tracts +in the Orange Free State and Transvaal. It includes the following +well-defined subdivisions:-- + + Feet. + / Volcanic Beds . . . . 4000 \ + Stormberg < Cave Sandstone . . . . 800 > Jurassic + Series | Red Beds . . . . . . 1400 / + \ Molteno Beds . . . . 2000 \ + Beaufort / Burghersdorp Beds \ > Trias + Series < Dicynodon Beds > . . 5000 / + \ Pareiasaurus Beds / \ Permian + Ecca / Shales and Sandstones \ / + Series < Laingsburg Beds >. 2600 \ + \ Shales / | + Dwyka / Upper Shales . . . . 600 > Carboniferus + Series < Conglomerates . . . . 1000 | + \ Lower Shales . . . . 700 / + +In the southern areas the Karroo formation follows the Cape System +conformably; in the north it rests unconformably on very much older +rocks. The most remarkable deposits are the conglomerates of the Dwyka +series. These afford the clearest evidences of glaciation on a great +scale in early Carboniferous times. The deposit strictly resembles a +consolidated modern boulder clay. It is full of huge glaciated blocks, +and in different regions (Prieska chiefly) the underlying pavement is +remarkably striated and shows that the ice was moving southward. The +upper shales contain the small reptile _Mesosaurus tenuidens_. + +Plants constitute the chief fossils of the Ecca series; among others +they include _Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Phyllotheca_. The Beaufort +series is noted for the numerous remains of remarkable and often +gigantic reptiles it contains. The genera and species are numerous, +_Dicynodon, Oudenodon, Pareiasaurus_ being the best known. Among plants +_Glossopteris_ occurs for the last time. The Stormberg series occurs in +the mountainous regions of the Stormberg and Drakensberg. The Molteno +beds contain several workable seams of coal. The most remarkable feature +of the series is the evidence of volcanic activity on an extensive +scale. The greater part of the volcanic series is formed by lava streams +of great thickness. Dykes and intrusive sheets, most of which end at the +folded belt, are also numerous. The age of the intrusive sheets met with +in the Beaufort series is usually attributed to the Stormberg period. +They form the kopjes, or characteristic flat-topped hills of the Great +Karroo. The Stormberg series contains the remains of numerous reptiles. +A true crocodile, _Notochampsa_, has been discovered in the Red Beds and +Cave Sandstone. Among the plants, _Thinnfeldia_ and _Taeniopteris_ are +common. Three genera of fossil fishes, _Cleithrolepis, Semionotus_ and +_Ceratodus_, ascend from the Beaufort series into the Cave Sandstone. + +Cretaceous rocks occur only near the coast. The plants of the Uitenhage +beds bear a close resemblance to those of the Wealden. The marine fauna +of Sunday river indicates a Neocomian age. The chief genera are +_Hamites, Baculites, Crioceras, Olcostephanus_ and certain _Trigoniae_. + +The superficial post-Cretaceous and Recent deposits are widely spread. +High-level gravels occur from 600 to 2000 ft. above the sea. The remains +of a gigantic ox, _Bubalus Baini_, have been obtained from the alluvium +near the Modder river. The recent deposits indicate that the land has +risen for a long period. (W. G.*) + +_Fauna._--The fauna is very varied, but some of the wild animals common +in the early days of the colony have been exterminated (e.g. quagga and +blaauwbok), and others (e.g. the lion, rhinoceros, giraffe) driven +beyond the confines of the Cape. Other game have been so reduced in +numbers as to require special protection. This class includes the +elephant (now found only in the Knysna and neighbouring forest regions), +buffalo and zebra (strictly preserved, and confined to much the same +regions as the elephant), eland, oribi, koodoo, haartebeest and other +kinds of antelope and gnu. The leopard is not protected, but lingers in +the mountainous districts. Cheetahs are also found, including a rare +woolly variety peculiar to the Karroo. Both the leopards and cheetahs +are commonly spoken of in South Africa as tigers. Other carnivora more +or less common to the colony are the spotted hyena, aard-wolf (or +_Proteles_), silver jackal, the _Otocyon_ or Cape wild dog, and various +kinds of wild cats. Of ungulata, besides a few hundreds of rare +varieties, there are the springbuck, of which great herds still wander +on the open veld, the steinbok, a small and beautiful animal which is +sometimes coursed like a hare, the klipspringer or "chamois of South +Africa," common in the mountains, the wart-hog and the dassie or rock +rabbit. There are two or three varieties of hares, and a species of +jerboa and several genera of mongooses. The English rabbit has been +introduced into Robben Island, but is excluded from the mainland. The +ant-bear, with very long snout, tongue and ears, is found on the Karroo, +where it makes inroads on the ant-heaps which dot the plain. There is +also a scaly ant-eater and various species of pangolins, of arboreal +habit, which live on ants. Baboons are found in the mountains and +forests, otters in the rivers. Of reptiles there are the crocodile, +confined to the Transkei rivers, several kinds of snakes, including the +cobra di capello and puff adder, numerous lizards and various tortoises, +including the leopard tortoise, the largest of the continental land +forms. Of birds the ostrich may still be found wild in some regions. The +great kori bustard is sometimes as much as 5 ft. high. Other game birds +include the francolin, quail, guinea-fowl, sand-grouse, snipe, wild +duck, wild goose, widgeon, teal, plover and rail. Birds of prey include +the bearded vulture, aasvogel and several varieties of eagles, hawks, +falcons and owls. Cranes, storks, flamingoes and pelicans are found in +large variety. + +Parrots are rarely seen. The greater number of birds belong to the order +Passeres; starlings, weavers and larks are very common, the Cape canary, +long-tailed sugar bird, pipits and wagtails are fairly numerous. The +English starling is stated to be the only European bird to have +thoroughly established itself in the colony. The Cape sparrow has +completely acclimatized itself to town life and prevented the English +sparrow obtaining a footing. + +Large toads and frogs are common, as are scorpions, tarantula spiders, +butterflies, hornets and stinging ants. In some districts the tsetse fly +causes great havoc. The most interesting of the endemic insectivora is +the _Chrysochloris_ or "golden mole," so called from the brilliant +yellow lustre of its fur. There are not many varieties of freshwater +fish, the commonest being the baba or cat-fish and the yellow fish. Both +are of large size, the baba weighing as much as 70 lb. The smallest +variety is the culper or burrowing perch. In some of the _vleis_ and +streams in which the water is intermittent the fish preserve life by +burrowing into the ooze. Trout have been introduced into several rivers +and have become acclimatized. Of sea fish there are more than forty +edible varieties. The snock, the steenbrass and geelbeck are common in +the estuaries and bays. Seals and sharks are also common in the waters +of the Cape. Whales visit the coast for the purpose of calving. + +Of the domestic animals, sheep, cattle and dogs were possessed by the +natives when the country was discovered by Europeans. The various farm +animals introduced by the whites have thriven well (see below, +_Agriculture_). + +_Flora_.--The flora is rich and remarkably varied in the coast +districts. On the Karroo and the interior plateau there is less variety. +In all, some 10,000 different species have been noted in the colony, +about 450 genera being peculiar to the Cape. The bush of the coast +districts and lower hills consists largely of heaths, of which there are +over 400 species. The heaths and the rhenoster or rhinoceros wood, a +plant 1 to 2 ft. high resembling heather, form the characteristic +features of the flora of the districts indicated. The prevailing bloom +is pink coloured. The deciduous plants lose their foliage in the dry +season but revive with the winter rains. Notable among the flowers are +the arum lily and the iris. The pelargonium group, including many +varieties of geranium, is widely represented. In the eastern +coast-lands the vegetation becomes distinctly sub-tropical. Of +pod-bearing plants there are upwards of eighty genera: Cape +"everlasting" flowers (generally species of _Helichrysum_) are in great +numbers. Several species of aloe are indigenous to the Cape. The +so-called American aloe has also been naturalized. The castor-oil plant +and many other plants of great value in medicine are indigenous in great +abundance. Among plants remarkable in their appearance and structure may +be noted the cactus-like Euphorbiae or spurge plants, the _Stapelia_ or +carrion flower, and the elephant's foot or Hottentots' bread, a plant of +the same order as the yam. Hooks, thorns and prickles are characteristic +of many South African plants. + +Forests are confined to the seaward slopes of the coast ranges facing +south. They cover between 500 and 600 sq. m. The forests contain a great +variety of useful woods, affording excellent timber; among the commonest +trees are the yellow wood, which is also one of the largest, belonging +to the yew species; black iron wood; heavy, close-grained and durable +stinkhout; melkhout, a white wood used for wheel work; nieshout; and the +assegai or Cape lancewood. Forest trees rarely exceed 30 ft. in height +and scarcely any attain a greater height than 60 ft. A characteristic +Cape tree is _Leucadendron argenteum_ or silver tree, so named from the +silver-like lustre of stem and leaves. The so-called cedars, whence the +Cedarberg got its name, exist no longer. Among trees introduced by the +Dutch or British colonists the oak, poplar, various pines, the +Australian blue-gum (eucalyptus) and wattle flourish. The silver wattle +grows freely in shifting sands and by its means waste lands, e.g. the +Cape Flats, have been reclaimed. The oak grows more rapidly and more +luxuriantly than in Europe. There are few indigenous fruits; the kei +apple is the fruit of a small tree or shrub found in Kaffraria and the +eastern districts, where also the wild and Kaffir plums are common; hard +pears, gourds, water melons and species of almond, chestnut and lemon +are also native. Almost all the fruits of other countries have been +introduced and flourish. On the Karroo the bush consists of dwarf +mimosas, wax-heaths and other shrubs, which after the spring rains are +gorgeous in blossom (see KARROO). The grass of the interior plains is of +a coarse character and yellowish colour, very different from the meadow +grasses of England. The "Indian" doab grass is also indigenous. + +With regard to mountain flora arborescent shrubs do not reach beyond +about 4000 ft. Higher up the slopes are covered with small heath, +_Bruniaceae, Rutaceae_, &c. All plants with permanent foliage are +thickly covered with hair. Above 6000 ft. over seventy species of plants +of Alpine character have been found. + +_Races and Population_.--The first inhabitants of Cape Colony of whom +there is any record were Bushmen and Hottentots (q.v.). The last-named +were originally called Quaequaes, and received the name Hottentots from +the Dutch. They dwelt chiefly in the south-west and north-west parts of +the country; elsewhere the inhabitants were of Bantu negroid stock, and +to them was applied the name Kaffir. When the Cape was discovered by +Europeans, the population, except along the coast, was very scanty and +it is so still. The advent of Dutch settlers and a few Huguenot families +in the 17th century was followed in the 19th century by that of English +and German immigrants. The Bushmen retreated before the white races and +now few are to be found in the colony. These live chiefly in the +districts bordering the Orange river. The tribal organization of the +Hottentots has been broken up, and probably no _pure bred_ +representatives of the race survive in the colony. + +Half-breeds of mixed Hottentot, Dutch and Kaffir blood now form the bulk +of the native population west of the Great Fish river. Of Kaffir tribes +the most important living north of the Orange river are the Bechuanas, +whilst in the eastern province and Kaffraria live the Fingoes, Tembus +and Pondos. The Amaxosa are the principal Kaffir tribe in Cape Colony +proper. The Griquas (or Bastaards) are descendants of Dutch-Hottentot +half-castes. They give their name to two tracts of country. During the +slavery period many thousands of negroes were imported, chiefly from +the Guinea coast. The negroes have been largely assimilated by the +Kaffir tribes. (For particulars of the native races see their separate +articles.) Of the white races in the Colony the French element has been +completely absorbed in the Dutch. They and the German settlers are +mainly pastoral people. The Dutch, who have retained in a debased form +their own language, also engage largely in agriculture and viticulture. +Of fine physique and hardy constitution, they are of strongly +independent character; patriarchal in their family life; shrewd, _slim_ +and courageous; in religion Protestants of a somewhat austere type. +Education is somewhat neglected by them, and the percentage of +illiteracy among adults is high. They are firm believers in the +inferiority of the black races and regard servitude as their natural +lot. The British settlers have developed few characteristics differing +from the home type. The British element of the community is largely +resident in the towns, and is generally engaged in trade or in +professional pursuits; but in the eastern provinces the bulk of the +farmers are English or German; the German farmers being found in the +district between King William's Town and East London, and on the Cape +Peninsula. Numbers of them retain their own language. The term +"Africander" is sometimes applied to all white residents in Cape Colony +and throughout British South Africa, but is often restricted to the +Dutch-speaking colonists. "Boer," i.e. farmer, as a synonym for "Dutch," +is not in general use in Cape Colony. + +Besides the black and white races there is a large colony of Malays in +Cape Town and district, originally introduced by the Dutch as slaves. +These people are largely leavened with foreign elements and, professing +Mahommedanism, religion rather than race is their bond of union. They +add greatly by their picturesque dress to the gaiety of the street +scenes. They are generally small traders, but many are wealthy. There +are also a number of Indians in the colony. English is the language of +the towns; elsewhere, except in the eastern provinces, the _taal_ or +vernacular Dutch is the tongue of the majority of the whites, as it is +of the natives in the western provinces. + +The first census was taken in 1865 when the population of the colony, +which then had an area of 195,000 sq. m., and did not include the +comparatively densely-populated Native Territories, was 566,158. Of +these the Europeans numbered 187,400 or about 33% of the whole. Of the +coloured races the Hottentots and Bushmen were estimated at 82,000, +whilst the Kaffirs formed about 50% of the population. Since 1865 +censuses have been taken--in 1875, 1891 and 1904. In 1875 Basutoland +formed part of the colony; in 1891 Transkei, Tembuland, Griqualand East, +Griqualand West and Walfish Bay had been incorporated, and Basutoland +had been disannexed; and in 1904 Pondoland and British Bechuanaland had +been added. The following table gives the area and population at each of +the three periods. + + +-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+ + | 1875. | 1891. | 1904. | + +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | Area. | Pop. | Area. | Pop. | Area. | Pop. | + | sq. m. | | sq. m. | | sq. m. | | + +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + | 201,136 | 849,160 | 260,918 |1,527,224| 276,995 |2,409,804| + +---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ + +The 1875 census gave the population of the colony proper at 720,984, and +that of Basutoland at 128,176. The colony is officially divided into +nine provinces, but is more conveniently treated as consisting of three +regions, to which may be added the detached area of Walfish Bay and the +islands along the coast of Namaqualand. The table on the next page shows +the distribution of population in the various areas. + +The white population, which as stated was 187,400 in 1865 and 579,741 in +1904, was at the intermediate censuses 236,783 in 1875 and 376,987 in +1891. The proportion of Dutch descended whites to those of British +origin is about 3 to 2. No exact comparison can be made showing the +increase in the native population owing to the varying areas of the +colony, but the natives have multiplied more rapidly than the whites; +the increase in the numbers of the last-named being due, in considerable +measure, to immigration. The whites who form about 25% of the total +population are in the proportion of 4 to 6 in the colony proper. The +great bulk of the people inhabit the coast region. The population is +densest in the south-west corner (which includes Cape Town, the capital) +where the white outnumbers the coloured population. Here in an area of +1711 sq. m. the inhabitants exceed 264,000, being 154 to the sq. m. The +urban population, reckoning as such dwellers in the nine largest towns +and their suburbs, exceeds 331,000, being nearly 25% of the total +population of the colony proper. Of the coloured inhabitants at the 1904 +census 15,682 were returned as Malay, 8489 as Indians, 85,892 as +Hottentots,[2] 4168 as Bushmen and 6289 as Griquas. The Kaffir and +Bechuana tribes numbered 1,114,067 individuals, besides 310,720 Fingoes +separately classified, while 279,662 persons were described as of mixed +race. Divided by sex (including white and black) the males numbered +(1904) 1,218,940, the females 1,190,864, females being in the proportion +of 97.70 to 100 males. By race the proportion is:--whites, 82.16 females +to every 100 males (a decrease of 10% compared with 1891); coloured, +103.22 females to every 100 males. Of the total population over 14 years +old--1,409,975--the number married was 738,563 or over 50%. Among the +white population this percentage was only reached in adults over 17. + + +-------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+ + | | Population (1904). | + +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+ + | | Area in | White. | Coloured. | Total. | Per | + | | sq. m. | | | | sq. m.| + +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+ + | Cape Colony Proper | 206,613 | 553,452 | 936,239 | 1,489,691 | 7.21 | + | British Bechuanaland | 51,424 | 9,368 | 75,104 | 84,472 | 1.64 | + | Native Territories | 18,310 | 16,777 | 817,867 | 834,644 | 45.50 | + | Walfish Bay and Islands | 648 | 144 | 853 | 977 | 1.50 | + +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+ + | Total | 276,995 | 579,741 | 1,830,063 | 2,409,804 | 8.70 | + +-------------------------+---------+---------+-----------+-----------+-------+ + +The professional, commercial and industrial occupations employ about 1/4th +of the white population. In 1904 whites engaged in such pursuits +numbered respectively only 32,202, 46,750 and 67,278, whereas 99,319 +were engaged in domestic employment, and 111,175 in agricultural +employment, while 214,982 (mostly children) were dependants. The natives +follow domestic and agricultural pursuits almost exclusively. + +Registration of births and deaths did not become compulsory till 1895. +Among the European population the birth-rate is about 33.00 per +thousand, and the death-rate 14.00 per thousand. The birth-rate among +the coloured inhabitants is about the same as with the whites, but the +death-rate is higher--about 25.00 per thousand. + +_Immigration and Emigration_.--From 1873 to 1884 only 23,337 persons +availed themselves of the government aid to immigrants from England to +the Cape, and in 1886 this aid was stopped. The total number of adult +immigrants by sea, however, steadily increased from 11,559 in 1891 to +38,669 in 1896, while during the same period the number of departures by +sea only increased from 8415 to 17,695, and most of this increase took +place in the last year. But from 1896 onwards the uncertainty of the +political position caused a falling off in the number of immigrants, +while the emigration figures still continued to grow; thus in 1900 there +were 29,848 adult arrivals by sea, as compared with 21,163 departures. +Following the close of the Anglo-Boer War the immigration figures rose +in 1903 to 61,870, whereas the departures numbered 29,615. This great +increase proved transitory; in 1904 and 1905 the immigrants numbered +32,282 and 33,775 respectively, while in the same years the emigrants +numbered 33,651 and 34,533. At the census of 1904, 21.68% of the +European population was born outside Africa, persons of Russian +extraction constituting the strongest foreign element. + +_Provinces_.--The first division of the colony for the purposes of +administration and election of members for the legislative council was +into two provinces, a western and an eastern, the western being largely +Dutch in sentiment, the eastern chiefly British. With the growth of the +colony these provinces were found to be inconveniently large, and by an +act of government, which became law in 1874, the country was portioned +out into seven provinces; about the same time new fiscal divisions were +formed within them by the reduction of those already existing. The seven +provinces are named from their geographical position: western, +north-western, south-western, eastern, north-eastern, south-eastern and +midland. In general usage the distinction made is into western and +eastern provinces, according to the area of the primary division. +Griqualand West on its incorporation with the colony in 1880 became a +separate province, and when the crown colony of British Bechuanaland was +taken over by the Cape in 1895 it also became a separate province (see +GRIQUALAND and BECHUANALAND). For electoral purposes the Native +Territories (see KAFFRARIA) are included in the eastern province. + +_Chief Towns_.--With the exception of Kimberley the principal towns (see +separate notices) are on the coast. The capital, Cape Town, had a +population (1904) of 77,668, or including the suburbs, 169,641. The most +important of these suburbs, which form separate municipalities, are +Woodstock (28,990), Wynberg (18,477), and Claremont (14,972). Kimberley, +the centre of the diamond mining industry, 647 m. up country from Cape +Town, had a pop. of 34,331, exclusive of the adjoining municipality of +Beaconsfield (9378). Port Elizabeth, in Algoa Bay, had 32,959 +inhabitants, East London, at the mouth of the Buffalo river, 25,220. +Cambridge (pop. 3480) is a suburb of East London. Uitenhage (pop. +12,193) is 21 m. N.N.W. of Port Elizabeth. Of the other towns Somerset +West (2613), Somerset West Strand (3059), Stellenbosch (4969), Paarl +(11,293), Wellington (4881), Ceres (2410), Malmesbury (3811), Caledon +(3508), Worcester (7885), Robertson (3244) and Swellendam (2406) are +named in the order of proximity to Cape Town, from which Swellendam is +distant 134 m. Other towns in the western half of the colony are +Riversdale (2643), Oudtshoorn (8849), Beaufort West (5478), Victoria +West (2762), De Aar (3271), and the ports of Mossel Bay (4206) and +George (3506). Graaff Reinet (10,083), Middleburg (6137), Cradock +(7762), Aberdeen (2553), Steynsburg (2250) and Colesberg (2668) are more +centrally situated, while in the east are Graham's Town (13,887), King +William's Town (9506), Queenstown (9616), Molteno (2725), Burghersdorp +(2894), Tarkastad (2270), Dordrecht (2052), Aliwal North (5566), the +largest town on the banks of the Orange, and Somerset East (5216). +Simon's Town (6643) in False Bay is a station of the British navy. +Mafeking (2713), in the extreme north of the colony near the Transvaal +frontier, Taungs (2715) and Vryburg (2985) are in Bechuanaland. Kokstad +(2903) is the capital of Griqualand East, Umtata (2342) the capital of +Tembuland. + +Port Nolloth is the seaport for the Namaqualand copper mines, whose +headquarters are at O'okiep (2106). Knysna, Port Alfred and Port St +Johns are minor seaports. Barkly East and Barkly West are two widely +separated towns, the first being E.S.E. of Aliwal North and Barkly West +in Griqualand West. Hopetown and Prieska are on the south side of the +middle course of the Orange river. Upington (2508) lies further west on +the north bank of the Orange and is the largest town in the western part +of Bechuanaland. Indwe (2608) is the centre of the coal-mining region in +the east of the colony. The general plan of the small country towns is +that of streets laid out at right angles, and a large central market +square near which are the chief church, town hall and other public +buildings. In several of the towns, notably those founded by the early +Dutch settlers, the streets are tree-lined. Those towns for which no +population figures are given had at the 1904 census fewer than 2000 +inhabitants. + +_Agriculture and Allied Industries._--Owing to the scarcity of water +over a large part of the country the area of land under cultivation is +restricted. The farmers, in many instances, are pastoralists, whose +wealth consists in their stock of cattle, sheep and goats, horses, and, +in some cases, ostriches. In the lack of adequate irrigation much +fertile soil is left untouched. + +The principal cereal crops are wheat, with a yield of 1,701,000 bushels +in 1904, oats, barley, rye, mealies (Indian corn) and Kaffir corn (a +kind of millet). The principal wheat-growing districts are in the +south-western and eastern provinces. The yield per acre is fully up to +the average of the world's yield, computed at twelve bushels to the +acre. The quality of Cape wheat is stated to be unsurpassed. Rye gives +its name to the Roggeveld, and is chiefly grown there and in the lower +hills of Namaqualand. Mealies (extensively used as food for cattle and +horses) are very largely grown by the coloured population and Kaffir +corn almost exclusively so. Oats are grown over a wider area than any +other crop, and next to mealies are the heaviest crop grown. They are +often cut whilst still tender, dried and used as forage being known as +oat hay (67,742,000 bundles of about 5-1/2 lb each were produced in +1904). The principal vegetables cultivated are potatoes, onions, mangold +and beet, beans and peas. Farms in tillage are comparatively small, +whilst those devoted to the rearing of sheep are very large, ranging +from 3000 acres to 15,000 acres and more. For the most part the graziers +own the farms they occupy. + +The rearing of sheep and other live-stock is one of the chief +occupations followed. At the census of 1904 over 8,465,000 woolled and +3,353,000 other sheep were enumerated. There were 2,775,000 angora and +4,386,000 other goats, some 2,000,000 cattle, 250,000 horses and 100,000 +asses. These figures showed in most cases a large decrease compared with +those obtained in 1891, the cause being largely the ravages of +rinderpest. Lucerne and clover are extensively grown for fodder. Ostrich +farms are maintained in the Karroo and in other parts of the country, +young birds having been first enclosed in 1857. A farm of 6000 acres +supports about 300 ostriches. The number of domesticated ostriches in +1904 was 357,000, showing an increase of over 200,000 since 1891. There +are large mule-breeding establishments on the veld. + +Viticulture plays an important part in the life of the colony. It is +doubtful whether or not a species of vine is indigenous to the Cape. The +first Dutch settlers planted small vineyards, while the cuttings of +French vines introduced by the Huguenots about 1688 have given rise to +an extensive culture in the south-western districts of the colony. The +grapes are among the finest in the world, whilst the fruit is produced +in almost unrivalled abundance. It is computed that over 600 gallons of +wine are produced from 1000 vines. The vines number about 80,000,000, +and the annual output of wine is about 6,000,000 gallons, besides +1,500,000 gallons of brandy. The Cape wines are chiefly those known as +Hermitage, Muscadel, Pontac, Stein and Hanepoot. The high reputation +which they had in the first half of the 19th century was afterwards lost +to a large extent. Owing to greater care on the part of growers, and the +introduction of French-American resistant stocks to replace vines +attacked by the phylloxera, the wines in the early years of the 20th +century again acquired a limited sale in England. By far the greater +part of the vintage has been, however, always consumed in the colony. +The chief wine-producing districts are those of the Paarl, Worcester, +Robertson, Malmesbury, Stellenbosch and the Cape, all in the +south-western regions. Beyond the colony proper there are promising vine +stocks in the Gordonia division of Bechuanaland and in the Umtata +district of Tembuland. + +Fruit culture has become an important industry with the facilities +afforded by rapid steamers for the sale of produce in Europe. The trees +whose fruit reaches the greatest perfection and yield the largest +harvest are the apricot, peach, orange and apple. Large quantities of +table grapes are also grown. Many millions of each of the fruits named +are produced annually. The pear, lemon, plum, fig and other trees +likewise flourish. Cherry trees are scarce. The cultivation of the olive +was begun in the western provinces, c. 1900. In the Oudtshoorn, +Stockenstroom, Uniondale, Piquetberg and other districts tobacco is +grown. The output for 1904 was 5,309,000 lb. + +Flour-milling is an industry second only in importance to that of +diamond mining (see below). The chief milling centres are Port Elizabeth +and the Cape district. In 1904 the output of the mills was valued at +over L2,200,000, more than 7,000,000 bushels of wheat being ground. + +Forestry is a growing industry. Most of the forests are crown property +and are under the care of conservators. Fisheries were little developed +before 1897 when government experiments were begun, which proved that +large quantities of fish were easily procurable by trawling. Large +quantities of soles are obtained from a trawling ground near Cape +Agulhas. The collection of guano from the islands near Walfish Bay is +under government control. + +_Mining_.--The mineral wealth of the country is very great. The most +valuable of the minerals is the diamond, found in Griqualand West and +also at Hopetown, and other districts along the Orange river. The +diamond-mining industry is almost entirely under the control of the De +Beers Mining Company. From the De Beers mines at Kimberley have come +larger numbers of diamonds than from all the other diamond mines of the +world combined. Basing the calculation on the figures for the ten years +1896-1905, the average annual production is slightly over two and a half +million carats, of the average annual value of L4,250,000, the average +price per carat being L1:13:3. From the other districts alluvial +diamonds are obtained of the average annual value of L250,000-L400,000. +They are finer stones than the Kimberley diamonds, having an average +value of L3:2:7 per carat. + +Next in importance among mineral products are coal and copper. The +collieries are in the Stormberg district and are of considerable extent. +The Indwe mines are the most productive. The colonial output increased +from 23,000 tons in 1891 to 188,000 tons in 1904. The copper mines are +in Namaqualand, an average of 50,000 to 70,000 tons of ore being mined +yearly. Copper was the first metal worked by white men in the colony, +operations beginning in 1852. + +Gold is obtained from mines on the Madibi Reserve, near Mafeking--the +outcrop extending about 30 m.---and, in small quantities, from mines in +the Knysna district. In the Cape and Paarl districts are valuable stone +and granite quarries. Asbestos is mined near Prieska, in which +neighbourhood there are also nitrate beds. Salt is produced in several +districts, there being large pans in the Prieska, Hopetown and Uitenhage +divisions. Tin is obtained from Kuils river, near Cape Town. Many other +minerals exist but are not put to industrial purposes. + +_Trade_.--The colony has not only a large trade in its own commodities, +but owes much of its commerce to the transit of goods to and from the +Transvaal, Orange River Colony and Rhodesia. The staple exports are +diamonds, gold (from the Witwatersrand mines), wool, copper ore, ostrich +feathers, mohair, hides and skins. The export of wool, over 23,000,000 +lb in 1860, had doubled by 1871, and was over 63,473,000 lb in 1905 when +the export was valued at L1,887,459. In the same year (1905) 471,024 lb +of ostrich feathers were exported valued at L1,081,187. The chief +imports are textiles, food stuffs, wines and whisky, timber, hardware +and machinery. The value of the total imports rose from L13,612,405 in +1895 to L33,761,831 in 1903, but dropped to L20,000,913 in 1905. The +exports in 1895 were valued at L16,798,137 and rose to L23,247,258 in +1899. The dislocation of trade caused by the war with the Boer Republics +brought down the exports in 1900 to L7,646,682 (in which year the value +of the gold exported was only L336,795). They rose to L10,000,000 and +L16,000,000 in 1901 and 1902 respectively, and in 1905 had reached +L33,812,210. (This figure included raw gold valued at L20,731,159.) +About 75% of the imports come from the United Kingdom or British +colonies, and nearly the whole of the exports go to the United Kingdom. +The tonnage of ships entered and cleared at colonial ports rose from +10,175,903 in 1895 to 22,518,286 in 1905. In that year 9/11ths of the +tonnage was British. It is interesting to compare the figures already +given with those of earlier days, as they illustrate the growth of the +colony over a longer period. In 1836 the total trade of the country was +under L1,000,000, in 1860 it had risen to over L4,500,000, in 1874 it +exceeded L10,500,000. It remained at about this figure until the +development of the Witwatersrand gold mines. The consequent great +increase in the carrying trade with the Transvaal led to some neglect of +the internal resources of the colony. Trade depression following the war +of 1899-1902 turned attention to these resources, with satisfactory +results. The value of imports for local consumption in 1906 was +L12,847,188, the value of exports, the produce of the colony being +L15,302,854. A "trade balance-sheet" for 1906 drawn up for the Cape Town +chamber of commerce by its president showed, however, a debtor account +of L18,751,000 compared with a credit account of L17,931,000, figures +representing with fair accuracy the then economic condition of the +country. + +Cape Colony is a member of the South African Customs Union. The tariff, +revised in 1906, is protective with a general _ad valorem_ rate of 15% +on goods not specifically enumerated. On machinery generally there is a +3% _ad valorem_ duty. Books, engravings, paintings, sculptures, &c., are +on the free list. There is a rebate of 3% on most goods from the United +Kingdom, machinery from Great Britain thus entering free. + +_Communications_.--There is regular communication between Europe and the +colony by several lines of steamships. The British mails are carried +under contract with the colonial government by packets of the +Union-Castle Steamship Co., which leave Southampton every Saturday and +Cape Town every Wednesday. The distance varies from 5866 m. to 6146 m., +according to the route followed, and the mail boats cover the distance +in seventeen days. From Cape Town mail steamers sail once a week, or +oftener, to Port Elizabeth (436 m., two days) East London (543 m., three +days) and Durban (823 m., four or five days); Mossel Bay being called at +once a fortnight. Steamers also leave Cape Town at frequent and stated +intervals for Port Nolloth. + +Steamers of the D.O.A.L. (_Deutsche Ost Afrika Linie_), starting from +Hamburg circumnavigate Africa, touching at the three chief Cape ports. +The western route is via Dover to Cape Town, the eastern route is via +the Suez Canal and Natal. Several lines of steamers ply between Cape +Town and Australian ports, and others between Cape Colony and India. + +There are over 8000 m. of roads in the colony proper and rivers crossing +main routes are bridged. The finest bridge in the colony is that which +spans the Orange at Hopetown. It is 1480 ft. long and cost L114,000. Of +the roads in general it may be said that they are merely tracks across +the veld made at the pleasure of the traveller. The ox is very generally +used as a draught animal in country districts remote from railways; +sixteen or eighteen oxen being harnessed to a wagon carrying 3 to 4 +tons. Traction-engines have in some places supplanted the ox-wagon for +bringing agricultural produce to market. The "Scotch cart," a light +two-wheeled vehicle is also much used. + +_Railways_.--Railway construction began in 1859 when a private company +built a line from Cape Town to Wellington. This line, 64 m. long, was +the only railway in the colony for nearly fifteen years. In 1871 +parliament resolved to build railways at the public expense, and in 1873 +(the year following the conferment of responsible government on the +colony) a beginning was made with the work, L5,000,000 having been voted +for the purpose. In the same year the Cape Town-Wellington line was +bought by the state. Subsequently powers were again given to private +companies to construct lines, these companies usually receiving +subsidies from the government, which owns and works the greater part of +the railways in the colony. + +The plan adopted in 1873 was to build independent lines from the +seaports into the interior, and the great trunk lines then begun +determined the development of the whole system. The standard gauge in +South Africa is 3 ft., 6 in. and all railways mentioned are of that +gauge unless otherwise stated. + +The railways, which have a mileage exceeding 4000, are classified under +three great systems:--the Western, the Midland and the Eastern. + +The Western system--the southern section of the Cape to Cairo +route--starts from Cape Town and runs by Kimberley (647 m.) to Vryburg +(774 m.), whence it is continued by the Rhodesia Railway Co. to Mafeking +(870 m.), Bulawayo (1360 m.), the Victoria Falls on the Zambezi (1623 +m.) and the Belgian Congo frontier, whilst a branch from Bulawayo runs +via Salisbury to Beira, 2037 m. from Cape Town. From Fourteen Streams, a +station 47 m. north of Kimberley, a line goes via Klerksdorp to +Johannesburg and Pretoria, this being the most direct route between Cape +Town and the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg, 955 +m.) + +The Midland system starts from Port Elizabeth, and the main line runs by +Cradock and Naauwpoort to Norval's Pont on the Orange river, whence it +is continued through the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal by +Bloemfontein to Johannesburg (714 m. from Port Elizabeth) and Pretoria +(741 m.). From Kroonstad, a station midway between Bloemfontein and +Johannesburg, a railway, opened in 1906, goes via Ladysmith to Durban, +and provides the shortest railway route between Cape Town and Port +Elizabeth and Natal. From Port Elizabeth a second line (186 m.) runs by +Uitenhage and Graaff Reinet, rejoining the main line at Rosmead, from +which a junction line (83 m.) runs eastwards, connecting with the +Eastern system at Stormberg. From Naauwpoort another junction line (69 +m.) runs north-west, connecting the Midland with the Western system at +De Aar, and affords an alternative route to that via Kimberley from Cape +Town to the Transvaal. (Distance from Cape Town to Johannesburg via +Naauwpoort, 1012 m.) + +The Eastern system starts from East London, and the principal line runs +to Springfontein (314 m.) in the Orange River Colony, where it joins the +line to Bloemfontein and the Transvaal. (Distance from East London to +Johannesburg, 665 m.) From Albert junction (246 m. from East London) a +branch, originally the main line, goes east to Aliwal North (280 m.). + +The west to east connexion is made by a series of railways running for +the most part parallel with the coast. Starting from Worcester, 109 m. +from Cape Town on the western main line a railway runs to Mossel Bay via +Swellendair and Riversdale. From Mossel Bay another line runs by George, +Oudtshoorn and Willowmore to Klipplaat, a station on the line from +Graaff Reinet to Port Elizabeth. (Distance from Cape Town 666 m.) From +Somerset East a line (164 m.) goes via King William's Town to Blaney +junction on the eastern main line and 31 m. from East London. The +Somerset East line crosses, at Cookhouse station, the Midland main line +from Port Elizabeth to the north, and by this route the distance between +Port Elizabeth and East London is 307 m. Before the completion in 1905 +of the Somerset East-King William's Town line, the nearest railway +connexion between the two seaports was via Rosmead and Stormberg +junction--a distance of 547 m. From Sterkstroom junction on the eastern +main line a branch railway goes through the Transkei to connect at +Riverside, the frontier station, with the Natal railways. It runs via +the Indwe coal-mines (66 m. from Sterkstroom), Maclear (173 m.) and +Kokstad. From Kokstad to Durban is 232 m. The eastern system is also +connected with the Transkei by another railway. From Amabele, a station +51 m. from East London, a line goes east to Umtata (180 m. distant). +Thence the line is continued to Port St Johns (307 m. from East London), +whence another line 142 m. long goes to Kokstad. + +Besides the main lines there are many smaller lines. Thus all the towns +within a 50 m. radius of Cape Town are linked to it by railway. Longer +branches run from the capital S.E. to Caledon (87 m.) and N.W. via +Malmesbury (47 m.), and Piquetberg (107 m.) to Graaf Water (176 m.). A +line runs N.W. across the veld from Hutchinson on the western main line +via Victoria West to Carnarvon (86 m.). From De Aar junction, a line +(111 m.) goes N.W. via Britstown to Prieska on the Orange river. From +Port Elizabeth a line (35 m.) runs east to Grahamstown, whence another +line (43 m.) goes south-east to Port Alfred at the mouth of the Kowie +river. Another line (179 m.) on a two-foot gauge runs N.W. from Port +Elizabeth via Humansdorp to Avontuur. + +A line, unconnected with any other in the colony, runs from Port +Nolloth on the west coast to the O'okiep copper mines (92 m.). It has a +gauge of 2 ft. 6 in. + +The railways going north have to cross, within a comparatively short +distance of the coast, the mountains which lead to the Karroo. The +steepest gradient is on the western main line. Having entered the hilly +district at Tulbagh Road, where the railway ascends 500 ft. in 9 m., the +Hex River Pass is reached soon after leaving Worcester, 794 ft. above +the sea. In the next 36 m. the line rises 2400 ft., over 20 m. of that +distance being at gradients of 1 in 40 to 1 in 45. The eastern line is +the most continuously steep in the colony. In the first 18 m. from East +London the railway rises 1000 ft.; at Kei Road, 46 m. from its +starting-point, it has reached an altitude of 2332 ft., at Cathcart (109 +m.) it is 3906 ft. above the sea, and at Cyphergat, where it pierces the +Stormberg, 204 m. from East London, the rails are 5450 ft. above the +sea. From Sterkstroom to Cyphergat, 15 m., the line rises 1044 ft. The +highest railway station in the colony is Krom Hooghte, 5543 ft., in the +Zuurberg, on the branch line connecting the Eastern and Western systems. +The capital expended on government railways to the end of 1905 was +L29,973,024, showing a cost per mile of L10,034. The gross earnings in +1905 were L4,047,065 (as compared with L3,390,093 in 1895); the expenses +L3,076,920 (as compared with L1,596,013 in 1895). Passengers conveyed in +1905 numbered 20,611,384, and the tonnage of goods 1,836,946 (of 2000 +lb). + +_Posts and Telegraphs_.--Direct telegraphic communication between London +and Cape Town was established on Christmas day 1879. Cables connect the +colony with Europe (1) via Loanda and Bathurst, (2) via St Helena, +Ascension and St Vincent; with Europe and Asia (3) via Natal, Zanzibar +and Aden, and with Australia (4) via Natal, Mauritius and Cocos. + +An overland telegraph wire connects Cape Town and Ujiji, on Lake +Tanganyika, via Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Other lines connect Cape Town +with all other South African states, while within the colony there is a +complete system of telegraphic communication, over 8000 m. of lines +being open in 1906. The telephone service is largely developed in the +chief towns. The telegraph lines are owned and have been almost entirely +built, at a cost up to 1906 of L865,670, by the government, which in +1873 took over the then existing lines (781 m.). + +The postal service is well organized, and to places beyond the reach of +the railway there is a service of mail carts, and in parts of Gordonia +(Bechuanaland) camels are used to carry the mails. Since 1890 a yearly +average of over 50,000,000 has passed through the post. Of these about +four-fifths are letters. + +_Constitution and Government_.--Under the constitution established in +1872 Cape Colony enjoyed self-government. The legislature consisted of +two chambers, a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly. Members of +the Legislative Council or Upper House represented the provinces into +which the colony was divided and were elected for seven years; members +of the House of Assembly, a much more numerous body, elected for five +years, represented the towns and divisions of the provinces. At the head +of the executive was a governor appointed by the crown. By the South +Africa Act 1909 this constitution was abolished as from the +establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Cape Colony entered +the Union as an original province, being represented in the Union +parliament by eight members in the Senate and fifty-one in the House of +Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the election of members of +the House of Assembly are the same as those existing in Cape Colony at +the establishment of the Union, and are as follows:--Voters must be born +or naturalized British subjects residing in the Cape province at least +twelve months, must be males aged 21 (no distinction being made as to +race or colour), must be in possession of property worth L75, or in +receipt of salary or wages of not less than L50 a year. No one not an +elector in 1892 can be registered as a voter unless he can sign his name +and write his address and occupation. A share in tribal occupancy does +not qualify for a vote. A voter of non-European descent is not qualified +for election to parliament (see further SOUTH AFRICA). The number of +registered electors in 1907 was 152,135, of whom over 20,000 were +non-Europeans. + +For provincial purposes there is a provincial council consisting of the +same number of members as are elected by the province to the House of +Assembly. The qualifications of voters for the council are the same as +for the House of Assembly. All voters, European and non-European, are +eligible for seats on the council, but any councillor who becomes a +member of parliament thereupon ceases to be a member of the provincial +council. The council passes ordinances dealing with direct taxation +within the province for purely local purposes, and generally controls +all matters of a merely local or private nature in the province. The +council was also given, for five years following the establishment of +the Union, control of elementary education. All ordinances passed by the +council must have the sanction of the Union government before coming +into force. The council is elected for three years and is not subject to +dissolution save by effluxion of time. The chief executive officer is an +official appointed by the Union government and styled administrator of +the province. The administrator holds his post for a period of five +years. He is assisted by an executive committee consisting of four +persons elected by the provincial council but not necessarily members of +that body. + +To the provincial council is entrusted the oversight of the divisional +and municipal councils of the province, but the powers of such +subordinate bodies can also be varied or withdrawn by the Union +parliament acting directly. Divisional councils, which are elected +triennially, were established in 1855. In 1908 they numbered eighty-one. +The councils are presided over by a civil commissioner who is also +usually resident magistrate. They have to maintain all roads in the +division; can nominate field cornets (magistrates); may borrow money on +the security of the rates for public works; and return three members +yearly to the district licensing court. Their receipts in 1908 were +L269,000; their expenditure in the same period was L283,000. The +electors to the divisional councils are the owners or occupiers of +immovable property. Members of the councils must be registered voters +and owners of immovable property in the division valued at not less than +L500. + +Municipalities at the Cape date from 1836, and are now, for the most +part, subject to the provisions of the General Municipal Act of 1882. +Certain municipalities have, however, obtained special acts for their +governance. In 1907 there were 110 municipalities in the province. Under +the act of 1882 the municipalities were given power to levy annually an +owner's rate assessed upon the capital value of rateable property, and a +tenant's rate assessed upon the annual value of such property. No rate +may exceed 2d. in the L on the capital value or 8d. in the L on the +annual value. The receipts of the municipalities in 1907 amounted to +L1,430,000. During the same period the expenditure amounted to +L1,539,000. + +_Law and Justice_.--The basis of the judicial system is the Roman-Dutch +law, which has been, however, modified by legislation of the Cape +parliament. In each division of the province there is a resident +magistrate with primary jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. The +South Africa Act 1909 created a Supreme Court of South Africa, the +supreme court of the Cape of Good Hope, which sits at Cape Town, +becoming a provincial division of the new supreme court, presided over +by a judge-president. The two other superior courts of Cape Colony, +namely the eastern districts court which sits at Graham's Town, and the +high court of Griqualand which sits at Kimberley, became local divisions +of the Supreme Court of South Africa. Each of these courts consists of a +judge-president and two puisne judges. The provincial and local courts, +besides their original powers, have jurisdiction in all matters in which +the government of the Union is a party and in all matters in which the +validity of any provincial ordinance shall come into question. From the +decisions of these courts appeals may be made to the appellate division +of the Supreme Court. The judges of the divisional courts go on circuit +twice a year. In addition, since 1888 a special court has been held at +Kimberley for trying cases relating to illicit diamond buying +("I.D.B."). This court consists of two judges of the supreme court and +one other member, hitherto the civil commissioner or the resident +magistrate of Kimberley. The Transkeian territories, which fall under +the jurisdiction of the eastern district court, are subject to a Native +Territories Penal Code, which came into force in 1887. Besides the usual +magistrates in these territories, there is a chief magistrate, resident +at Cape Town, with two assistants in the territories. + +_Religion_.--Up to the year 1876 government provided an annual grant for +ecclesiastical purposes which was divided among the various churches, +Congregationalists alone declining to receive state aid. From that date, +in accordance with the provisions of the Voluntary Act of 1875, grants +were only continued to the then holders of office. The Dutch Reformed +Church, as might be anticipated from the early history of the country, +is by far the most numerous community. Next in number of adherents among +the white community come the Anglicans--Cape Colony forming part of the +Province of South Africa. In 1847 a bishop of Cape Town was appointed to +preside over this church, whose diocese extended not only over Cape +Colony and Natal, but also over the island of St Helena. Later, however, +separate bishops were appointed for the eastern province (with the seat +at Graham's Town) and for Natal. Subsequently another bishopric, St +John's, Kaffraria, was created and the Cape Town diocesan raised to the +rank of archbishop. Of other Protestant bodies the Methodists outnumber +the Anglicans, eight-ninths of their members being coloured people. The +Roman Catholics have bishops in Cape Town and Graham's Town, but are +comparatively few. There are, besides, several foreign missions in the +colony, the most important being the Moravian, London and Rhenish +missionary societies. The Moravians have been established since 1732. + +The following figures are extracted from the census returns of +1904:--Protestants, 1,305,453; Roman Catholics, 38,118; Jews, 19,537; +Mahommedans, 22,623; other sects, 4297; "no religion," 1,016,255. In +this last category are placed the pagan natives. The figures for the +chief Protestant sects were:--Dutch Reformed Church, 399,487; +Gereformeerde Kerk, 6209; Lutherans, 80,902; Anglicans, 281,433; +Presbyterians, 88,660; Congregationalists, 112,202; Wesleyan and other +Methodists, 290,264; Baptists, 14,105. Of the Hottentots 77%, of the +Fingoes 50%, of the mixed races 89%, and of the Kaffirs and Bechuanas +26% were returned as Christians. + +_Education_.--There is a state system of primary education controlled by +a superintendent-general of education and the education department which +administers the parliamentary grants. As early as 1839 a scheme of +public schools, drawn up by Sir John Herschel, the astronomer, came into +operation, and was continued until 1865, when a more comprehensive +scheme was adopted. In 1905 an act was passed dividing the colony into +school districts under the control of popularly elected school boards, +which were established during 1905-1906. These boards levy, through +municipal or divisional councils, a rate for school purposes and +supervise all public and poor schools. The schools are divided into +public undenominational elementary schools; day schools and industrial +institutions for the natives; mission schools to which government aid +for secular instruction is granted; private farm schools, district +boarding schools, training schools for teachers, industrial schools for +poor whites, &c. In 1905 2930 primary schools of various classes were +open. Education is not compulsory, but at the 1904 census 95% of the +white population over fourteen years old could read and write. In the +same year 186,000 natives could read and write, and 53,000 could read +but not write. There are also numbers of private schools receiving no +government aid. These include schools maintained by the German +community, in which the medium of instruction is German. + +The university of the Cape of Good Hope, modelled on that of London, +stands at the head of the educational system of the colony. It arose out +of and superseded the board of public examiners (which had been +constituted in 1858), was established in 1874 and was granted a royal +charter in 1877. It is governed by a chancellor, a vice-chancellor (who +is chairman of the university council) and a council consisting (1909) +of 38 members, including representatives of Natal. The university is +empowered to grant degrees ranking equally with those of any university +in Great Britain. Originally only B.A., M.A., LL.B., LL.D., M.B., and +M.D. degrees were conferred, but degrees in literature, science and +music and (in 1908) in divinity were added. The number of students who +matriculated rose from 34 in 1875 to 118 in 1885, 242 in 1895 and 539 in +1905. The examinations are open to candidates irrespective of where they +have studied, but under the Higher Education Act grants are paid to +seven colleges that specially devote themselves to preparing students +for the graduation courses. These are the South African College at Cape +Town (founded in 1829), the Victoria College at Stellenbosch, the +Diocesan College at Rondebosch, Rhodes University College, Graham's +Town, Gill College at Somerset East, the School of Mines at Kimberley +and the Huguenot Ladies' College at Wellington. Several denominational +colleges, receiving no government aid, do the same work in a greater or +less degree, the best known being St Aidan's (Roman Catholic) College +and Kingswood (Wesleyan) College, both at Graham's Town. Graaff Reinet +College, Dale College, King William's Town, and the Grey Institute, Port +Elizabeth, occupy the place of high schools under the education +department. The Theological Seminary at Stellenbosch prepares +theological students for the ministry of the Dutch Church. At Cape Town +is a Royal Observatory, founded in 1829, one of the most important +institutions of its kind in the world. It is under the control of a +royal astronomer and its expenses are defrayed by the British admiralty. + +_Defence_.--The Cape peninsula is fortified with a view to repelling +attacks from the sea. Simon's Town, which is on the east side of the +peninsula, is the headquarters of the Cape and West Coast naval +squadron. It is strongly fortified, as is also Table Bay. Port Elizabeth +is likewise fortified against naval attack. A strong garrison of the +British army is stationed in the colony, with headquarters at Cape Town. +The cost of this garrison is borne by the imperial government. For +purposes of local defence a force named the Frontier Armed and Mounted +Police was organized in 1853, and a permanent colonial force has been +maintained since that date. It is now known as the Cape Mounted Riflemen +and is about 700 strong. Its ordinary duty is to preserve order in the +Transkeian territories. The Cape Mounted Police, over 1600 strong, are +also available for the defence of the colony and are fully armed. There +are numerous volunteer corps, which receive a capitation grant from the +government. By a law passed in 1878 every able-bodied man between +eighteen and fifty is liable to military service without as well as +within the limits of the state. There is also a volunteer naval force. + +_Revenue, Debt, &c._--The following table shows the total receipts +(including loans) and payments (including that under Loan Acts) of the +colony in various financial years, from 1880 to 1905:-- + + +-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+ + | | Receipts. | | + | Year ending +----------------+--------------------+ Payments. | + | 30th June. | Total. | Loans | | + | | |(included in total).| | + +-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+ + | 1880 | L3,556,601 | L3,742,665 | + | 1885 | L3,814,947 | L496,795 | 4,211,832 | + | 1890 | 5,571,907 | 1,141,857 | 5,327,496 | + | 1895 | 5,416,611 | 26,441 | 5,388,157 | + | 1900 | 6,565,752 | 128,376 | 7,773,230 | + | 1905 | 13,856,247 | 5,214,290 | 10,914,784 | + +-------------+----------------+--------------------+------------+ + +The colony had a public debt of L42,109,561 on the 31st of December +1905, including sums raised for corporate bodies, harbour boards, &c., +but guaranteed in the general revenue. The greater part of the loans +were issued at 3-1/2 or 4% interest. Nearly the whole of the loans raised +have been spent on railways, harbours, irrigation and other public +works. The value of assessed property for divisional council purposes +was returned in 1905 at L87,078,268. The total revenue of the divisional +councils increased from L160,558 in 1901 to L273,543 in 1905, and the +expenditure from L170,892 in 1901 to L243,241 in 1905. The receipts +from municipal rates and taxes rose from L520,587 in 1901 to L700,103 in +1905; the total municipal receipts in the same period from L978,867 to +L1,752,105. At the end of 1905 the total indebtedness of the +municipalities was L5,775,420, and the value of assessed property within +the municipal bounds L53,948,224. + +_Banks._--The following table gives statistics of the banks under trust +laws:-- + + +----------+------------------------------------+--------------+------------+ + | | Including Head Offices. | | Assets and | + | 31st +------------+-----------+-----------+ Circulation, |Liabilities | + | December.| Capital | Capital | Reserve | Colony only. |Colony only.| + | | Subscribed.| Paid up. | | | | + +----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------+ + | 1890 | L5,780,610 |L1,558,612 | L850,489 | L740,210 | L9,221,661 | + | 1895 | 7,189,090 | 2,382,003 | 1,008,837 | 612,266 | 11,864,152 | + | 1900 | 12,166,800 | 6,508,308 | 1,810,621 | 1,361,637 | 20,537,343 | + | 1905 | 11,510,900 | 4,456,925 | 2,948,428 | 1,065,251 | 20,749,988 | + +----------+------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+------------+ + +_Standard Time, Money, Weights and Measures_.--Since 1903 a standard +time has been adopted throughout South Africa, being that of 30 deg. or +two hours east of Greenwich. In other words noon in South Africa +corresponds to 10.0 A.M. in London. The actual difference between the +meridians of Greenwich and Cape Town is one hour fourteen minutes. The +monetary system is that of Great Britain and the coins in circulation +are exclusively British. Though all the standard weights and measures +are British, the following old Dutch measures are still used:--_Liquid +Measure_: Leaguer = about 128 imperial gallons; half aum = 15-1/2 +imperial gallons; anker = 7-1/2 imperial gallons. _Capacity_: Muid = 3 +bushels. The general surface measure is the old Amsterdam _Morgen_, +reckoned equal to 2.11654 acres; 1000 Cape lineal feet are equal to 1033 +British imperial feet. The Cape ton is 2000 lb. + +_The Press_.--The first newspaper of the colony, written in Dutch and +English, was published in 1824, and its appearance marked an era not +only in the literary but in the political history of the colony, since +it drew to a crisis the disputes which had arisen between the colonists +and the governor, Lord Charles Somerset, who had issued a decree +prohibiting all persons from convening or attending public meetings. Its +criticisms on public affairs soon led to its suppression by the +governor, and a memorial from the colonists to the king petitioning for +a free press was the result. This boon was secured to the colony in +1828, and the press soon became a powerful agent, characterized by +public spirit and literary ability. In politics the newspapers are +divided, principally on racial lines, appealing either to the British or +the Dutch section of the community, rarely to both sides. There are +about one hundred newspapers in English or Dutch published in the +colony. + +The chief papers are the _Cape Times, Cape Argus, South African News_ +(Bond), both daily and weekly; the _Diamond Fields Advertiser_ +(Kimberley) and the _Eastern Province Herald_ (Port Elizabeth). _Ons +Land_ and _Het Dagblad_ are Dutch papers published at Cape Town. + (F. R. C.) + + +HISTORY + +_Discovery and Settlement_.--Bartholomew Diaz, the Portuguese navigator, +discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, and Vasco da Gama in 1497 +sailed along the whole coast of South Africa on his way to India. The +Portuguese, attracted by the riches of the East, made no permanent +settlement at the Cape. But the Dutch, who, on the decline of the +Portuguese power, established themselves in the East, early saw the +importance of the place as a station where their vessels might take in +water and provisions. They did not, however, establish any post at the +Cape until 1652, when a small garrison under Jan van Riebeek were sent +there by the Dutch East India Company. Riebeek landed at Table Bay and +founded Cape Town. In 1671 the first purchase of land from the +Hottentots beyond the limits of the fort built by Riebeek marked the +beginning of the Colony proper. The earliest colonists were for the most +part people of low station or indifferent character, but as the result +of the investigations of a commissioner sent out in 1685 a better class +of immigrants was introduced. About 1686 the European population was +increased by a number of the French refugees who left their country on +the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The influence of this small body +of immigrants on the character of the Dutch settlers was marked. The +Huguenots, however, owing to the policy of the Company, which in 1701 +directed that Dutch only should be taught in the schools, ceased by the +middle of the 18th century to be a distinct body, and the knowledge of +French disappeared. Advancing north and east from their base at Cape +Town the colonists gradually acquired--partly by so-called contracts, +partly by force--all the land of the Hottentots, large numbers of whom +they slew. Besides those who died in warfare, whole tribes of Hottentots +were destroyed by epidemics of smallpox in 1713 and in 1755. Straggling +remnants still maintained their independence, but the mass of the +Hottentots took service with the colonists as herdsmen, while others +became hangers-on about the company's posts and grazing-farms or roamed +about the country. In 1787 the Dutch government passed a law subjecting +these wanderers to certain restrictions. The effect of this law was to +place the Hottentots in more immediate dependence upon the farmers, or +to compel them to migrate northward beyond the colonial border. Those +who chose the latter alternative had to encounter the hostility of their +old foes, the Bushmen, who were widely spread over the plains from the +Nieuwveld and Sneeuwberg mountains to the Orange river. The colonists +also, pressing forward to those territories, came in contact with these +Ishmaelites--the farmers' cattle and sheep, guarded only by a Hottentot +herdsman, offering the strongest temptation to the Bushman. Reprisals +followed; and the position became so desperate that the extermination of +the Bushmen appeared to the government the only safe alternative. +"Commandoes" or war-bands were sent out against them, and they were +hunted down like wild beasts. Within a period of six years, it is said, +upwards of 3000 were either killed or captured. Out of the organization +of these commandoes, with their field-commandants and field-cornets, has +grown the common system of local government in the Dutch-settled +districts of South Africa. + +It was not to the hostility of the natives, nor to the hard struggle +with nature necessary to make agriculture profitable on Karroo or veld, +that the slow progress made by the colonists was due, so much as to the +narrow and tyrannical policy adopted by the East India Company, which +closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade +in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial +powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops +they were to grow, demanded from them a large part of their produce, and +harassed them with other exactions tending to discourage industry and +enterprise. (See further SOUTH AFRICA, where the methods and results of +Dutch colonial government are considered in their broader aspects.) To +this mischievous policy is ascribed that dislike to orderly government, +and that desire to escape from its control, which characterized for many +generations the "boer" or farmer class of Dutch settlers--qualities +utterly at variance with the character of the Dutch in their native +country. It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked +farther and farther from the seat of government. The company, to control +the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and +another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. The Gamtoos river had been declared, +c. 1740, the eastern frontier of the colony, but it was soon passed. In +1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the warlike Kaffir +tribes advancing south and west from east central Africa, agreed with +them to make the Great Fish river the common boundary. In 1795 the +heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no +protection against the Kaffirs, expelled the officials of the East India +Company, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff +Reinet. In the same year, Holland having fallen under the revolutionary +government of France, a British force under General Sir James Craig was +sent to Cape Town to secure the colony for the prince of Orange--a +refugee in England--against the French. The governor of Cape Town at +first refused to obey the instructions from the prince, but on the +British proceeding to take forcible possession he capitulated.[3] His +action was hastened by the fact that the Hottentots, deserting their +former masters, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff +Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them, while +in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a +result of the peace of Amiens, the colony was handed over to the +Batavian Republic, which introduced many needful reforms, as had the +British during their eight years' rule. (One of the first acts of +General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of +justice.) War having again broken out, a British force was once more +sent to the Cape. After an engagement (Jan. 1806) on the shores of Table +Bay the Dutch garrison of Cape Castle surrendered to the British under +Sir David Baird, and in 1814 the colony was ceded outright by Holland to +the British crown. At that time the colony extended to the line of +mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland, +and had an area of about 120,000 sq. m. and a population of some 60,000, +of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Hottentots and the rest slaves. +These slaves were mostly imported negroes and Malays. Their introduction +was the chief cause leading the white settlers to despise manual labour. + +_The First and Second Kaffir Wars_.--At the time of the cession to Great +Britain the first of several wars with the Kaffirs had been fought. (The +numerous minor conflicts which since 1789 had taken place between the +colonists and the Kaffirs--the latter sometimes aided by Hottentot +allies--are not reckoned in the usual enumeration of the Kaffir wars.) +The Kaffirs, who had crossed the colonial frontier, had been expelled +from the district between the Sunday and Great Fish rivers known as the +Zuurveld, which became a sort of neutral ground. For some time previous +to 1811 the Kaffirs, however, had taken possession of the neutral ground +and committed depredations on the colonists. In order to expel them from +the Zuurveld, Colonel John Graham took the field with a mixed force in +December 1811, and in the end the Kaffirs were driven beyond the Fish +river. On the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters arose the town which +bears his name. In 1817 further trouble arose with the Kaffirs, the +immediate cause of quarrel being an attempt by the colonial authorities +to enforce the restitution of some stolen cattle. Routed in 1818 the +Kaffirs rallied, and in the early part of 1819 poured into the colony in +vast hordes. Led by a prophet-chief named Makana, they attacked Graham's +Town on the 22nd of April, then held by a handful of white troops. Help +arrived in time and the enemy were beaten back. It was then arranged +that the land between the Fish and Keiskamma rivers should be neutral +territory. + +_The British Settlers of 1820_.--The war of 1817-19 led to the first +introduction of English settlers on a considerable scale, an event +fraught with far-reaching consequences. The then governor, Lord Charles +Somerset, whose treaty arrangements with the Kaffir chiefs had proved +unfortunate, desired to erect a barrier against the Kaffirs by settling +white colonists in the border district. In 1820, on the advice of Lord +Charles, parliament voted L50,000 to promote emigration to the Cape, and +4000 British were sent out. These people formed what was known as the +Albany settlement, founding Port Elizabeth and making Graham's Town +their headquarters. Intended primarily as a measure to secure the safety +of the frontier, and regarded by the British government chiefly as a +better means of affording a livelihood to a few thousands of the surplus +population, this emigration scheme accomplished a far greater work than +its authors contemplated. The new settlers, drawn from every part of the +British Isles and from almost every grade of society, retained, and +their descendants retain, strong sympathy with their native land. In +course of time they formed a valuable counterpoise to the Dutch +colonists, and they now constitute the most progressive element in the +colony. The advent of these immigrants was also the means of introducing +the English language at the Cape. In 1825, for the first time, +ordinances were issued in English, and in 1827 its use was extended to +the conduct of judicial proceedings. Dutch was not, however, ousted, the +colonists becoming to a large extent bilingual. + +_Dislike of British Rule_.--Although the colony was fairly prosperous, +many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they +had been with that of the Dutch East India Company, though their ground +of complaint was not the same. In 1792 Moravian missions had been +established for the benefit of the Hottentots,[4] and in 1799 the London +Missionary Society began work among both Hottentots and Kaffirs. The +championship of Hottentot grievances by the missionaries caused much +dissatisfaction among the majority of the colonists, whose views, it may +be noted, temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued +which empowered magistrates to bind Hottentot children as apprentices +under conditions differing little from that of slavery. Meantime, +however, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength +in England, and the missionaries at length appealed from the colonists +to the mother country. An incident which occurred in 1815-1816 did much +to make permanent the hostility of the frontiersmen to the British. A +farmer named Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the +complaint of a Hottentot, and firing on the party sent to arrest him, +was himself killed by the return fire. This caused a miniature +rebellion, and on its suppression five ringleaders were publicly hanged +at the spot--Slachters Nek--where they had sworn to expel "the English +tyrants." The feeling caused by the hanging of these men was deepened by +the circumstances of the execution--for the scaffold on which the rebels +were simultaneously swung, broke down from their united weight and the +men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance passed in 1827, +abolishing the old Dutch courts of _landroost_ and _heemraden_ (resident +magistrates being substituted) and decreeing that henceforth all legal +proceedings should be conducted in English; the granting in 1828, as a +result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with +whites to the Hottentots and other free coloured people; the imposition +(1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of slaves, and finally the +emancipation of the slaves in 1834,[5]--all these things increased the +dislike of the farmers to the government. Moreover, the inadequate +compensation awarded to slave-owners, and the suspicions engendered by +the method of payment, caused much resentment, and in 1835 the trekking +of farmers into unknown country in order to escape from an unloved +government, which had characterized the 18th century, recommenced. +Emigration beyond the colonial border had in fact been continuous for +150 years, but it now took on larger proportions. + +_The Third Kaffir War_.--On the eastern border further trouble arose +with the Kaffirs, towards whom the policy of the Cape government was +marked by much vacillation. On the 11th of December 1834 a chief of high +rank was killed while resisting a commando party. This set the whole of +the Kaffir tribes in a blaze. A force of 10,000 fighting men, led by +Macomo, a brother of the chief who was killed, swept across the +frontier, pillaged and burned the homesteads and murdered all who dared +to resist. Among the worst sufferers were a colony of freed Hottentots +who, in 1829, had been settled in the Kat river valley by the British +authorities. The fighting power of the colony was scanty, but the +governor, Sir Benjamin D'Urban (q.v.), acted with promptitude, and all +available forces were mustered under Colonel (afterwards Sir Harry) +Smith, who reached Graham's Town on the 6th of January 1835, six days +after news of the rising reached Cape Town. The enemy's territory was +invaded, and after nine months' fighting the Kaffirs were completely +subdued, and a new treaty of peace concluded (on the 17th of September). +By this treaty all the country as far as the river Kei was acknowledged +to be British, and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for +the seat of government was selected and named King Wiliam's Town. + +_The Great Trek_.--The action of Sir Benjamin D'Urban was not approved +by the home government, and on the instruction of Lord Glenelg, +secretary for the colonies, who declared that "the great evil of the +Cape Colony consists in its magnitude," the colonial boundary was moved +back to the Great Fish river, and eventually (in 1837) Sir Benjamin was +dismissed from office. "The Kaffirs," in the opinion of Lord Glenelg, +"had an ample justification for war; they had to resent, and endeavoured +justly, though impotently, to avenge a series of encroachments" +(despatch of the 26th of December 1835). This attitude towards the +Kaffirs was one of the many reasons given by the Trek Boers for leaving +Cape Colony. The Great Trek, as it is called, lasted from 1836 to 1840, +the trekkers, who numbered about 7000, founding communities with a +republican form of government beyond the Orange and Vaal rivers, and in +Natal, where they had been preceded, however, by British emigrants. From +this time Cape Colony ceased to be the only civilized community in South +Africa, though for long it maintained its predominance. Up to 1856 Natal +was, in fact, a dependency of the Cape (see SOUTH AFRICA). Considerable +trouble was caused by the emigrant Boers on either side of the Orange +river, where the new comers, the Basutos and other Kaffir tribes, +Bushmen and Griquas contended for mastery. The Cape government +endeavoured to protect the rights of the natives. On the advice of the +missionaries, who exercised great influence with all the non-Dutch +races, a number of native states were recognized and subsidized by the +Cape government, with the object--not realized--of obtaining peace on +this northern frontier. The first of these "Treaty States" recognized +was that of the Griquas of Griqualand West. Others were recognized in +1843 and 1844--in the last-named year a treaty was made with the Pondoes +on the eastern border. During this period the condition of affairs on +the eastern frontier was deplorable, the government being unable or +unwilling to afford protection to the farmers from the depredations of +the Kaffirs. Elsewhere, however, the colony was making progress. The +change from slave to free labour proved to be advantageous to the +farmers in the western provinces; an efficient educational system, which +owed its initiation to Sir John Herschel, the astronomer (who lived in +Cape Colony from 1834 to 1838), was adopted; Road Boards were +established and did much good work; to the staple industries--the +growing of wheat, the rearing of cattle and the making of wine--was +added sheep-raising; and by 1846 wool became the most valuable export +from the country. The creation, in 1835, of a legislative council, on +which unofficial members had seats, was the first step in giving the +colonists a share in the government. + +_The War of the Axe_.--Another war with the Kaffirs broke out in 1846 +and was known as the War of the Axe, from the murder of a Hottentot, to +whom an old Kaffir thief was manacled, while being conveyed to Graham's +Town for trial for stealing an axe. The escort was attacked by a party +of Kaffirs and the Hottentot killed. The surrender of the murderer was +refused, and war was declared in March 1846. The Gaikas were the chief +tribe engaged in the war, assisted during the course of it by the +Tambukies. After some reverses the Kaffirs were signally defeated on the +7th of June by General Somerset on the Gwangu, a few miles from Fort +Peddie. Still the war went on, till at length Sandili, the chief of the +Gaikas, surrendered, followed gradually by the other chiefs; and by the +beginning of 1848 the Kaffirs were again subdued, after twenty-one +months' fighting. + +_Extension of British Sovereignty_.--In the last month of the war +(December 1847) Sir Harry Smith reached Cape Town as governor of the +colony, and with his arrival the Glenelg policy was reversed. By +proclamation, on the 17th of December, he extended the frontier of the +colony northward to the Orange river and eastward to the Keiskamma +river, and on the 23rd, at a meeting of the Kaffir chiefs, announced the +annexation of the country between the Keiskamma and the Kei rivers to +the British crown, thus reabsorbing the territory abandoned by order of +Lord Glenelg. It was not, however, incorporated with the Cape, but made +a crown dependency under the name of British Kaffraria. For a time the +Kaffirs accepted quietly the new order of things. The governor had other +serious matters to contend with, including the assertion of British +authority over the Boers beyond the Orange river, and the establishment +of amicable relations with the Transvaal Boers. In the colony itself a +crisis arose out of the proposal to make it a convict station. + +_The Convict Agitation and Granting of a Constitution_.--In 1848 a +circular was sent by the 3rd Earl Grey, then colonial secretary, to the +governor of the Cape (and to other colonial governors), asking him to +ascertain the feelings of the colonists regarding the reception of a +certain class of convicts, the intention being to send to South Africa +Irish peasants who had been driven into crime by the famine of 1845. +Owing to some misunderstanding, a vessel, the "Neptune," was despatched +to the Cape before the opinion of the colonists had been received, +having on board 289 convicts, among whom were John Mitchell, the Irish +rebel, and his colleagues. When the news reached the Cape that this +vessel was on her way, the people of the colony became violently +excited; and they established an anti-convict association, by which they +bound themselves to cease from all intercourse of every kind with +persons in any way connected "with the landing, supplying or employing +convicts." On the 19th of September 1849 the "Neptune" arrived in +Simon's Bay. Sir Harry Smith, confronted by a violent public agitation, +agreed not to land the convicts, but to keep them on board ship in +Simon's Bay till he received orders to send them elsewhere. When the +home government became aware of the state of affairs orders were sent +directing the "Neptune" to proceed to Tasmania, and it did so after +having been in Simon's Bay for five months. The agitation did not, +however, pass away without other important results, since it led to +another movement, the object of which was to obtain a free +representative government for the colony. This concession, which had +been previously promised by Lord Grey, was granted by the British +government, and, in 1854, a constitution was established of almost +unprecedented liberality. + +_The Kaffir War of 1850-1853_.--The anti-convict agitation had scarcely +ceased when the colony was once again involved in war. The Kaffirs +bitterly resented their loss of independence, and ever since the last +war had been secretly preparing to renew the struggle. Sir Harry Smith, +informed of the threatening attitude of the natives, proceeded to the +frontier, and summoned Sandili and the other chiefs to an interview. +Sandili refused obedience; upon which, at an assembly of other chiefs +(October 1850), the governor declared him deposed from his chiefship, +and appointed an Englishman, Mr Brownlee, a magistrate, to be temporary +chief of the Gaika tribe. The governor appears to have believed that the +measures he took would prevent a war and that Sandili could be arrested +without armed resistance. On the 24th of December Col. Geo. Mackinnon, +being sent with a small force with the object of securing the chief, was +attacked in a narrow defile by a large body of Kaffirs, and compelled to +retreat with some loss. This was the signal for a general rising of the +Gaika tribe. The settlers in the military villages, which had been +established along the frontier, assembled in fancied security to +celebrate Christmas Day, were surprised, many of them murdered, and +their houses given to the flames. Other disasters followed in quick +succession. A small patrol of military was cut off to a man. The greater +part of the Kaffir police deserted, many of them carrying off their arms +and accoutrements. Emboldened by success, the enemy in immense force +surrounded and attacked Fort Cox, where the governor was stationed with +an inconsiderable force. More than one unsuccessful attempt was made to +relieve Sir Harry; but his dauntless spirit was equal to the occasion. +At the head of 150 mounted riflemen, accompanied by Colonel Mackinnon, +he dashed out of the fort, and, through a heavy fire of the enemy, rode +to King William's Town--a distance of 12 m. Meantime, a new enemy +appeared. Some 900 of the Kat river Hottentots, who had in former wars +been firm allies of the British, threw in their lot with their +hereditary enemies--the Kaffirs. They were not without excuses. They +complained that while doing burgher duty in former wars--the Cape +Mounted Rifles consisted largely of Hottentot levies--they had not +received the same treatment as others serving in defence of the colony, +that they got no compensation for the losses they had sustained, and +that they were in various ways made to feel they were a wronged and +injured race. A secret combination was formed with the Kaffirs to take +up arms to sweep the Europeans away and establish a Hottentot republic. +Within a fortnight of the attack on Colonel Mackinnon the Kat river +Hottentots were also in arms. Their revolt was followed by that of the +Hottentots at other missionary stations; and part of the Hottentots of +the Cape Mounted Rifles followed their example, including the very men +who had escorted the governor from Fort Cox. But numbers of Hottentots +remained loyal and the Fingo Kaffirs likewise sided with the British. + +After the confusion caused by the sudden outbreak had subsided, and +preparations had been made, Sir Harry Smith and his gallant force turned +the tide of war against the Kaffirs. The Amatola mountains were stormed; +and the paramount chief Kreli, who all along covertly assisted the +Gaikas, was severely punished. In April 1852 Sir Harry Smith was +recalled by Earl Grey, who accused him--unjustly, in the opinion of the +duke of Wellington--of a want of energy and judgment in conducting the +war, and he was succeeded by Lieutenant-General Cathcart. Kreli was +again attacked and reduced to submission. The Amatolas were finally +cleared of the Kaffirs, and small forts erected among them to prevent +their reoccupation. The British commanders were hampered throughout by +the insufficiency of their forces, and it was not till March 1853 that +this most sanguinary of Kaffir wars was brought to a conclusion, after a +loss of many hundred British soldiers. Shortly afterwards, British +Kaffraria was made a crown colony. The Hottentot settlement at Kat river +remained, but the Hottentot power within the colony was now finally +crushed. + +_The Great Amaxosa Delusion._--From 1853 the Kaffir tribes on the east +gave little trouble to the colony. This was due, in large measure, to an +extraordinary delusion which arose among the Amaxosa in 1856, and led in +1857 to the death of some 50,000 persons. This incident is one of the +most remarkable instances of misplaced faith recorded in history. The +Amaxosa had not accepted their defeat in 1853 as decisive and were +preparing to renew the struggle with the white men. At this juncture, +May 1856, a girl named Nongkwase told her father that on going to draw +water from a stream she had met strangers of commanding aspect. The +father, Mhlakza, went to see the men, who told him that they were +spirits of the dead, who had come, if their behests were obeyed, to aid +the Kaffirs with their invincible power to drive the white man from the +land. Mhlakza repeated the message to his chief, Sarili, one of the most +powerful Kaffir rulers. Sarili ordered the commands of the spirits to be +obeyed. These orders were, at first, that the Amaxosa were to destroy +their fat cattle. The girl Nongkwase, standing in the river where the +spirits had first appeared, heard unearthly noises, interpreted by her +father as orders to kill more and more cattle. At length the spirits +commanded that not an animal of all their herds was to be left alive, +and every grain of corn was to be destroyed. If that were done, on a +given date myriads of cattle more beautiful than those destroyed would +issue from the earth, while great fields of corn, ripe and ready for +harvest, would instantly appear. The dead would rise, trouble and +sickness vanish, and youth and beauty come to all alike. Unbelievers and +the hated white man would on that day utterly perish. The people heard +and obeyed. Sarili is believed by many persons to have been the +instigator of the prophecies. Certainly some of the principal chiefs +regarded all that was done simply as the preparation for a last struggle +with the whites, their plan being to throw the whole Amaxosa nation +fully armed and in a famishing condition upon the colony. There were +those who neither believed the predictions nor looked for success in +war, but destroyed their last particle of food in unquestioning +obedience to their chief's command. Either in faith that reached the +sublime, or in obedience equally great, vast numbers of the people +acted. Great kraals were also prepared for the promised cattle, and huge +skin sacks to hold the milk that was soon to be more plentiful than +water. At length the day dawned which, according to the prophecies, was +to usher in the terrestrial paradise. The sun rose and sank, bat the +expected miracle did not come to pass. The chiefs who had planned to +hurl the famished warrior host upon the colony had committed an +incredible blunder in neglecting to call the nation together under +pretext of witnessing the resurrection. This error they realized too +late, and endeavoured by fixing the resurrection for another day to +gather the clans, but blank despair had taken the place of hope and +faith, and it was only as starving suppliants that the Amaxosa sought +the British. The colonists did what they could to save life, but +thousands perished miserably. In their extremity many of the Kaffirs +turned cannibals, and one instance of parents eating their own child is +authenticated. Among the survivors was the girl Nongkwase; her father +perished. A vivid narrative of the whole incident will be found in G.M. +Theal's _History and Geography of South Africa_ (3rd ed., London, 1878), +from which this account is condensed. The country depopulated as the +result of this delusion was afterwards peopled by European settlers, +among whom were members of the German legion which had served with the +British army in the Crimea, and some 2000 industrious North German +emigrants, who proved a valuable acquisition to the colony. + +_Sir George Grey's Governorship._--In 1854 Sir George Grey became +governor of the Cape, and the colony owed much to his wise +administration. The policy, imposed by the home government, of +abandoning responsibility beyond the Orange river, was, he perceived, a +mistaken one, and the scheme he prepared in 1858 for a confederation of +all South Africa (q.v.) was rejected by Great Britain. By his energetic +action, however, in support of the missionaries Moffat and Livingstone, +Sir George kept open for the British the road through Bechuanaland to +the far interior. To Sir George was also due the first attempt, +missionary effort apart, to educate the Kaffirs and to establish British +authority firmly among them, a result which the self-destruction of the +Amaxosa rendered easy. Beyond the Kei the natives were left to their own +devices. Sir George Grey left the Cape in 1861. During his governorship +the resources of the colony had been increased by the opening up of the +copper mines in Little Namaqualand, the mohair wool industry had been +established and Natal made a separate colony. The opening, in November +1863, of the railway from Cape Town to Wellington, begun in 1859, and +the construction in 1860 of the great breakwater in Table Bay, long +needed on that perilous coast, marked the beginning in the colony of +public works on a large scale. They were the more or less direct result +of the granting to the colony of a large share in its own government. In +1865 the province of British Kaffraria was incorporated with the colony, +under the title of the Electoral Divisions of King William's Town and +East London. The transfer was marked by the removal of the prohibition +of the sale of alcoholic liquors to the natives, and the free trade in +intoxicants which followed had most deplorable results among the Kaffir +tribes. A severe drought, affecting almost the entire colony for several +years, caused great depression of trade, and many farmers suffered +severely. It was at this period (1869) that ostrich-farming was +successfully established as a separate industry. + +Whether by or against the wish of the home government, the limits of +British authority continued to extend. The Basutos, who dwelt in the +upper valleys of the Orange river, had subsisted under a +semi-protectorate of the British government from 1843 to 1854; but +having been left to their own resources on the abandonment of the Orange +sovereignty, they fell into a long exhaustive warfare with the Boers of +the Free State. On the urgent petition of their chief Moshesh, they were +proclaimed British subjects in 1868, and their territory became part of +the colony in 1871 (see BASUTOLAND). In the same year the south-eastern +part of Bechuanaland was annexed to Great Britain under the title of +Griqualand West. This annexation was a consequence of the discovery +there of rich diamond mines, an event which was destined to have +far-reaching results. (F. R. C.) + +_Development of Modern Conditions._--The year 1870 marks the dawn of a +new era in South Africa. From that date the development of modern South +Africa may be said to have fairly started, and in spite of political +complications, arising from time to time, the progress of Cape Colony +down to the outbreak of the Transvaal War of 1899 was steadily forward. +The discovery of diamonds on the Orange river in 1867, followed +immediately afterwards by the discovery of diamonds on the Vaal river, +led to the rapid occupation and development of a tract of country which +had hitherto been but sparsely inhabited. In 1870 Dutoitspan and +Bultfontein diamond mines were discovered, and in 1871 the still richer +mines of Kimberley and De Beers. These four great deposits of mineral +wealth are still richly productive, and constitute the greatest +industrial asset which the colony possesses. At the time of the +beginning of the diamond industry, not only the territory of Cape Colony +and the Boer Republics, but all South Africa, was in a very depressed +condition. Ostrich-farming was in its infancy, and agriculture but +little developed. The Boers, except in the immediate vicinity of Cape +Town, were a primitive people. Their wants were few, they lacked +enterprise, and the trade of the colony was restricted. Even the British +colonists at that time were far from rich. The diamond industry +therefore offered considerable attractions, especially to colonists of +British origin. It was also the means at length of demonstrating the +fact that South Africa, barren and poor on the surface, was rich below +the surface. It takes ten acres of Karroo to feed a sheep, but it was +now seen that a few square yards of diamondiferous blue ground would +feed a dozen families. By the end of 1871 a large population had already +gathered at the diamond fields, and immigration continued steadily, +bringing new-comers to the rich fields. Among the first to seek a +fortune at the diamond fields was Cecil Rhodes. + +In 1858 the scheme of Sir George Grey for the federation of the various +colonies and states of South Africa had been rejected, as has been +stated, by the home authorities. In 1874 the 4th earl of Carnarvon, +secretary of state for the colonies, who had been successful in aiding +to bring about the federation of Canada, turned his attention to a +similar scheme for the confederation of South Africa. The representative +government in Cape Colony had been replaced in 1872 by responsible, i.e. +self-government, and the new parliament at Cape Town resented the manner +in which Lord Carnarvon propounded his suggestions. A resolution was +passed (June 11, 1875) stating that any scheme in favour of +confederation must in its opinion originate within South Africa itself. +James Anthony Froude, the distinguished historian, was sent out by Lord +Carnarvon to further his policy in South Africa. As a diplomatist and a +representative of the British government, the general opinion in South +Africa was that Froude was not a success, and he entirely failed to +induce the colonists to adopt Lord Carnarvon's views. In 1876, +Fingoland, the Idutywa reserve, and Noman's-land, tracts of country on +the Kaffir frontier, were annexed by Great Britain, on the understanding +that the Cape government should provide for their government. Lord +Carnarvon, still bent on confederation, now appointed Sir Bartle Frere +governor of Cape Colony and high commissioner of South Africa. + +Frere had no sooner taken office as high commissioner than he found +himself confronted with serious native troubles in Zululand and on the +Kaffir frontier of Cape Colony. In 1877 there occurred an outbreak on +the part of the Galekas and the Gaikas. A considerable force of imperial +and colonial troops was employed to put down this rising, and the war +was subsequently known as the Ninth Kaffir war. It was in this war that +the famous Kaffir chief, Sandili, lost his life. At its conclusion the +Transkei, the territory of the Galeka tribe, under Kreli, was annexed by +the British. In the meantime Lord Carnarvon had resigned his position in +the British cabinet, and the scheme for confederation which he had been +pushing forward was abandoned. As a matter of fact, at that time Cape +Colony was too fully occupied with native troubles to take into +consideration very seriously so great a question as confederation. A +wave of feeling spread amongst the different Kaffir tribes on the +colonial frontier, and after the Gaika-Galeka War there followed in 1879 +a rising in Basutoland under Moirosi, whose cattle-raiding had for some +time past caused considerable trouble. His stronghold was taken after +very severe fighting by a colonial force, but, their defeat +notwithstanding, the Basutos remained in a restless and aggressive +condition for several years. In 1880 the colonial authorities +endeavoured to extend to Basutoland the Peace Preservation Act of 1878, +under which a general disarmament of the Basutos was attempted. Further +fighting followed on this proclamation, which was by no means +successful, and although peace was declared in the country in December +1882, the colonial authorities were very glad in 1884 to be relieved of +the administration of a country which had already cost them L3,000,000. +The imperial government then took over Basutoland as a crown colony, on +the understanding that Cape Colony should contribute for administrative +purposes L18,000 annually. In 1880, Sir Bartle Frere, who by his +energetic and statesmanlike attitude on the relations with the native +states, as well as on all other questions, had won the esteem and regard +of loyal South African colonists, was recalled by the 1st earl of +Kimberley, the liberal secretary of state for the colonies, and was +succeeded by Sir Hercules Robinson. Griqualand West, which included the +diamond fields, was now incorporated as a portion of Cape Colony. + +_Origin of the Afrikander Bond._--The Boer War of 1881, with its +disastrous termination, naturally reacted throughout South Africa; and +as one of the most important results, in the year 1882 the first +Afrikander Bond congress was held at Graaff Reinet. The organization of +the Bond developed into one embracing the Transvaal, the Orange Free +State and Cape Colony. Each country had a provincial committee with +district committees, and branches were distributed throughout the whole +of South Africa. At a later date the Bond in the Cape Colony dissociated +itself from its Republican branches. The general lines of policy which +this organization endeavoured to promote may best be gathered from _De +Patriot_, a paper published in the colony, and an avowed supporter of +the organization. The following extracts from articles published in 1882 +will illustrate, better than anything else, the ambition entertained by +some of the promoters of this remarkable organization. + + "The Afrikander Bond has for its object the establishment of a South + African nationality by spreading a true love for what is really our + fatherland. No better time could be found for establishing the Bond + than the present, when the consciousness of nationality has been + thoroughly aroused by the Transvaal war." ... "The British government + keep on talking about a confederation under the British flag, but that + will never be brought about. They can be quite certain of that. There + is just one obstacle in the way of confederation, and that is the + British flag. Let them remove that, and in less than a year the + confederation would be established under the Free Afrikander flag." + "After a time the English will realize that the advice given them by + Froude was the best--they must just have Simon's Bay as a naval and + military station on the way to India, and give over all the rest of + South Africa to the Afrikanders." ... "Our principal weapon in the + social war must be the destruction of English trade by our + establishing trading companies for ourselves." ... "It is the duty of + each true Afrikander not to spend anything with the English that he + can avoid." + +_De Patriot_ afterwards became imperialist, but _Ons Land_, another Bond +organ, continued in much the same strain. + +In addition to having its press organs, the Bond from time to time +published official utterances less frank in their tone than the +statements of its press. Some of the Articles of the Bond's original +manifesto are entirely praiseworthy, e.g. those referring to the +administration of justice, the honour of the people, &c.; such clauses as +these, however, were meaningless in view of the enlightened government +which obtained in Cape Colony, and for the true "inwardness" of this +document it is necessary to note Article 3, which distinctly speaks of +the promotion of South Africa's independence (_Zelfstandigheid_). If the +Bond aroused disloyalty and mistaken aspirations in one section of the +Cape inhabitants, it is equally certain that it caused a great wave of +loyal and patriotic enthusiasm to pass through another and more +enlightened section. A pamphlet written in 1885 for an association called +the Empire League by Mr Charles Leonard, who afterwards consistently +championed the cause of civil equality and impartial justice in South +Africa, maintained as follows:-- + + "(1) That the establishment of the English government here was + beneficial to all classes; and (2) that the withdrawal of that + government would be disastrous to every one having vested interests in + the colony.... England never can, never will, give up this colony, and + we colonists will never give up England.... Let us, the inhabitants of + the Cape Colony, be swift to recognize that we are one people, cast + together under a glorious flag of liberty, with heads clear enough to + appreciate the freedom we enjoy, and hearts resolute to maintain our + true privileges; let us desist from reproaching and insulting one + another, and, rejoicing that we have this goodly land as a common + heritage, remember that by united action only can we realize its grand + possibilities. We belong both of us to a home-loving stock, and the + peace and prosperity of every home in the land is at stake. On our + action now depends the question whether our children shall curse or + bless us; whether we shall live in their memory as promoters of civil + strife, with all its miserable consequences, or as joint architects of + a happy, prosperous and united state. Each of us looks back to a noble + past. United, we may ensure to our descendants a not unworthy future. + Disunited, we can hope for nothing but stagnation, misery and ruin. Is + this a light thing?" + +It is probable that many Englishmen reading Mr Leonard's manifesto at +the time regarded it as unduly alarming, but subsequent events proved +the soundness of the views it expressed. The fact is that, from 1881 +onwards, two great rival ideas came into being, each strongly opposed to +the other. One was that of Imperialism--full civil rights for every +civilized man, whatever his race might be, under the supremacy and +protection of Great Britain. The other was nominally republican, but in +fact exclusively oligarchical and Dutch. The policy of the extremists of +this last party was summed up in the appeal which President Kruger made +to the Free State in February 1881, when he bade them "Come and help us. +God is with us. It is his will to unite us as a people"--"to make a +united South Africa free from British authority." The two actual +founders of the Bond party were Mr Borckenhagen, a German who was +residing in Bloemfontein, and Mr Reitz, afterwards state secretary of +the Transvaal. Two interviews have been recorded which show the true +aims of these two promoters of the Bond at the outset. One occurred +between Mr Borckenhagen and Cecil Rhodes, the other between Mr Reitz and +Mr T. Schreiner, whose brother became, at a later date, prime minister +of Cape Colony. In the first interview Mr Borckenhagen remarked to +Rhodes: "We want a united Africa," and Rhodes replied: "So do I." Mr +Borckenhagen then continued: "There is nothing in the way; we will take +you as our leader. There is only one small thing: we must, of caurse, be +independent of the rest of the world." Rhodes replied: "You take me +either for a rogue or a fool. I should be a rogue to forfeit all my +history and my traditions; and I should be a fool, because I should be +hated by my own countrymen and mistrusted by yours." But as Rhodes truly +said at Cape Town in 1898, "The only chance of a true union is the +overshadowing protection of a supreme power, and any German, Frenchman, +or Russian would tell you that the best and most liberal power is that +over which Her Majesty reigns." The other interview took place at the +beginning of the Bond's existence. Being approached by Mr Reitz, Mr T. +Schreiner objected that the Bond aimed ultimately at the overthrow of +British rule and the expulsion of the British flag from South Africa. To +this Mr Reitz replied: "Well, what if it is so?" Mr Schreiner +expostulated in the following terms: "You do not suppose that that flag +is going to disappear without a tremendous struggle and hard fighting?" +"Well, I suppose not, but even so, what of that?" rejoined Mr Reitz. In +the face of this testimony with reference to two of the most prominent +of the Bond's promoters, it is impossible to deny that from its +beginning the great underlying idea of the Bond was an independent South +Africa. + +_Mr Hofmeyr's Policy_.--In 1882 an act was passed in the Cape +legislative assembly, empowering members to speak in the Dutch language +on the floor of the House, if they so desired. The intention of this act +was a liberal one, but the moment of its introduction was inopportune, +and its effect was to give an additional stimulus to the policy of the +Bond. It was probably also the means of bringing into the House a number +of Dutchmen, by no means well educated, who would not have been returned +had they been obliged to speak English. By this act an increase of +influence was given to the Dutch leaders. The head of the Afrikander +Bond at this time in Cape Colony, and the leader of Dutch opinion, was +Mr J.H. Hofmeyr, a man of undoubted ability and astuteness. Although he +was recognized leader of the Dutch party in Cape Colony, he consistently +refused to take office, preferring to direct the policy and the action +of others from an independent position. Mr Hofmeyr sat in the house of +assembly as member for Stellenbosch, a strong Dutch constituency. His +influence over the Dutch members was supreme, and in addition to +directing the policy of the Bond within the Cape Colony, he supported +and defended the aggressive expansion policy of President Kruger and the +Transvaal Boers. In 1883, during a debate on the Basutoland +Dis-annexation Bill, Rhodes openly charged Mr Hofmeyr in the House with +a desire to see a "United States of South Africa under its own flag." In +1884 Mr Hofmeyr led the Bond in strongly supporting the Transvaal Boers +who had invaded Bechuanaland (q.v.), proclaiming that if the +Bechuanaland freebooters were not permitted to retain the territories +they had seized, in total disregard of the terms of the conventions of +1881 and 1884, there would be rebellion among the Dutch of Cape Colony. +Fortunately, however, for the peace of Cape Colony at that time, Sir +Charles Warren, sent by the imperial government to maintain British +rights, removed the invading Boers from Stellaland and Goshen--two +so-called republics set up by the Boer freebooters--in March 1885 and no +rebellion occurred. Nevertheless the Bond party was so strong in the +House that they compelled the ministry under Sir Thomas Scanlen to +resign in 1884. The logical and constitutional course for Mr Hofmeyr to +have followed in these circumstances would have been to accept office +and himself form a government. This he refused to do. He preferred to +put in a nominee of his own who should be entirely dependent on him. Mr +Upington, a clever Irish barrister, was the man he selected, and under +him was formed in 1884 what will always be known in Cape history as the +"Warming-pan" ministry. This action was denounced by many British +colonists, who were sufficiently loyal, not only to Great Britain, but +also to that constitution which had been conferred by Great Britain upon +Cape Colony, to desire to see the man who really wielded political power +also acting as the responsible head of the party. It was Mr Hofmeyr's +refusal to accept this responsibility, as well as the nature of his Bond +policy, which won for him the political sobriquet of the "Mole." Open +and responsible exercise of a power conferred under the constitution of +the country, Englishmen and English colonists would have accepted and +even welcomed. But that subterranean method of Dutch policy which found +its strongest expression in Pretoria, and which operated from Pretoria +to Cape Town, could not but be resented by loyal colonists. From 1881 +down to 1898, Mr Hofmeyr practically determined how Dutch members should +vote, and also what policy the Bond should adopt at every juncture in +its history. In 1895 he resigned his seat in parliament--an action which +made his political dictatorship still more remarkable. This influence on +Cape politics was a demoralizing one. Other well-known politicians at +the Cape subsequently found it convenient to adapt their views a good +deal too readily to those held by the Bond. In justice to Mr Hofmeyr, +however, it is only fair to say that after the Warren expedition in +1885, which was at least evidence that Great Britain did not intend to +renounce her supremacy in South Africa altogether, he adopted a less +hostile or anti-British attitude. The views and attitude of Mr Hofmeyr +between 1881 and 1884--when even loyal British colonists, looking to the +events which followed Majuba, had almost come to believe that Great +Britain had little desire to maintain her supremacy--can scarcely be +wondered at. + +_Rhodes and Dutch Sentiment._--Recognizing the difficulties of the +position, Cecil Rhodes from the outset of his political career showed +his desire to conciliate Dutch sentiment by considerate treatment and +regard for Dutch prejudices. Rhodes was first returned as member of the +House of Assembly for Barkly West in 1880, and in spite of all +vicissitudes this constituency remained loyal to him. He supported the +bill permitting Dutch to be used in the House of Assembly in 1882, and +early in 1884 he first took office, as treasurer-general, under Sir +Thomas Scanlen. Rhodes had only held this position for six weeks when +Sir Thomas Scanlen resigned, and in August of the same year he was sent +by Sir Hercules Robinson to British Bechuanaland as deputy-commissioner +in succession to the Rev. John Mackenzie, the London Missionary +Society's representative at Kuruman, who in the previous May had +proclaimed the queen's authority over the district. Rhodes's efforts to +conciliate the Boers failed--hence the necessity for the Warren mission. +In 1885 the territories of Cape Colony were farther extended, and +Tembuland, Bomvanaland and Galekaland were formally added to the colony. +In 1886 Sir Gordon Sprigg succeeded Sir Thomas Upington as prime +minister. + +_South Affican Customs Union._--The period from 1878 to 1885 in Cape +Colony had been one of considerable unrest. In this short time, in +addition to the chronic troubles with the Basutos--which led the Cape to +hand them over to the imperial authorities--there occurred a series of +native disturbances which were followed by the Boer War of 1881, and the +Bechuanaland disturbances of 1884. In spite, however, of these +drawbacks, the development of the country proceeded. The diamond +industry was flourishing. In 1887 a conference was held in London for +"promoting a closer union between the various parts of the British +empire by means of an imperial tariff of customs." At this conference it +is worthy of note that Mr Hofmeyr propounded a sort of "Zollverein" +scheme, in which imperial customs were to be levied independently of the +duties payable on all goods entering the empire from abroad. In making +the proposition he stated that his objects were "to promote the union of +the empire, and at the same time to obtain revenue for the purposes of +general defence." The scheme was not at the time found practicable. But +its authorship, as well as the sentiments accompanying it, created a +favourable view of Mr Hofmeyr's attitude. In the year 1888, in spite of +the failure of statesmen and high commissioners to bring about political +confederation, the members of the Cape parliament set about the +establishment of a South African Customs Union. A Customs Union Bill was +passed, and this in itself constituted a considerable development of the +idea of federation. Shortly after the passing of the bill the Orange +Free State entered the union. An endeavour was also made then, and for +many years afterwards, to get the Transvaal to join. But President +Kruger, consistently pursuing his own policy, hoped through the Delagoa +Bay railway to make the South African Republic entirely independent of +Cape Colony. The endeavour to bring about a customs union which would +embrace the Transvaal was also little to the taste of President Kruger's +Hollander advisers, interested as they were in the schemes of the +Netherlands Railway Company, who owned the railways of the Transvaal. + +_Diamonds and Railways._--Another event of considerable commercial +importance to the Cape Colony, and indeed to South Africa, was the +amalgamation of the diamond-mining companies, chiefly brought about by +Cecil Rhodes, Alfred Beit and "Barney" Barnato, in 1889. One of the +principal and most beneficent results of the discovery and development +of the diamond mines was the great impetus which it gave to railway +extension. Lines were opened up to Worcester and Beaufort West, to +Graham's Town, Graaff Reinet and Queenstown. Kimberley was reached in +1885. In 1890 the line was extended northwards on the western frontier +of the Transvaal as far as Vryburg in Bechuanaland. In 1889 the Free +State entered into an arrangement with the Cape Colony whereby the main +trunk railway was extended to Bloemfontein, the Free State receiving +half the profits. Subsequently the Free State bought at cost price the +portion of the railway in its own territory. In 1891 the Free State +railway was still farther extended to Viljoen's Drift on the Vaal river, +and in 1892 it reached Pretoria and Johannesburg. + +_Rhodes as Prime Minister: Native Policy_.--In 1889 Sir Henry Loch was +appointed high commissioner and governor of Cape Colony in succession to +Sir Hercules Robinson. In 1890 Sir Gordon Sprigg, the premier of the +colony, resigned, and a Rhodes government was formed. Prior to the +formation of this ministry (see table at end of article), and while Sir +Gordon Sprigg was still in office, Mr Hofmeyr approached Rhodes and +offered to put him in office as a Bond nominee. This offer was declined. +When, however, Rhodes was invited to take office after the downfall of +the Sprigg ministry, he asked the Bond leaders to meet him and discuss +the situation. His policy of customs and railway unions between the +various states, added to the personal esteem in which he was at this +time held by many of the Dutchmen, enabled him to undertake and to carry +on successfully the business of government. + +The colonies of British Bechuanaland and Basutoland were now taken into +the customs union existing between the Orange Free State and Cape +Colony. Pondoland, another native territory, was added to the colony in +1894, and the year was marked by the Glen Grey Act, a departure in +native policy for which Rhodes was chiefly responsible. It dealt with +the natives residing in certain native reserves, and in addition to +providing for their interests and holdings, and in other ways protecting +the privileges accorded to them, the principle of the duty of some +degree of labour devolving upon every able-bodied native enjoying these +privileges was asserted, and a small labour tax was levied.[6] This is +in many respects the most statesmanlike act dealing with natives on the +statute-book; and in the session of 1895 Rhodes was able to report to +the Cape parliament that the act then applied to 160,000 natives. In +1905 the labour clauses of this act, which had fallen into desuetude, +were repealed. The clauses had, however, achieved success, in that they +had caused many thousands of natives to fulfil the conditions requisite +to claim exemption. + +In other respects Rhodes's native policy was marked by combined +consideration and firmness. Ever since the granting of self-government +the natives had enjoyed the franchise. An act passed in 1892, at the +instance of Rhodes, imposed an educational test on applicants for +registration, and made other provisions, all tending to restrict the +acquisition of the franchise by "tribal" natives, the possible danger +arising from a large native vote being already obvious (see section +_Constitution_). + +Rhodes opposed the native liquor traffic, and at the risk of offending +some of his supporters among the brandy-farmers of the western +provinces, he suppressed it entirely on the diamond mines, and +restricted it as far as he was able in the native reserves and +territories. Nevertheless the continuance of this traffic on colonial +farms, as well as to some extent in the native territories and reserves, +is a black spot in the annals of the Cape Colony. The Hottentots have +been terribly demoralized, and even partially destroyed by it in the +western province. + +Another and little-known instance of Rhodes's keen insight in dealing +with native affairs--an action which had lasting results on the history +of the colony--may be given. After the native territories east of the +Kei had been added to Cape Colony, a case of claim to inheritance came +up for trial, and in accordance with the law of the colony, the court +held that the eldest son of a native was his heir. This decision created +the strongest resentment among the people of the territory, as it was in +distinct contradiction to native tribal law, which recognized the great +son, or son of the chief wife, as heir. The government were threatened +with a native disturbance, when Rhodes telegraphed his assurance that +compensation should be granted, and that such a decision should never be +given again. This assurance was accepted and tranquillity restored. At +the close of the next session (that of 1894), after this incident had +occurred, Rhodes laid on the table a bill drafted by himself, the +shortest the House had ever seen. It provided that all civil cases were +to be tried by magistrates, an appeal to lie only to the chief +magistrate of the territory with an assessor. Criminal cases were to be +tried before the judges of supreme court on circuit. The bill was +passed, and the effect of it was, inasmuch as the magistrates +administered according to native law, that native marriage customs and +laws (including polygamy) were legalized in these territories. Rhodes +had retrieved his promise, and no one who has studied and lived amongst +the Bantu will question that the action taken was both beneficent and +wise. + +During 1895 Sir Hercules Robinson was reappointed governor and high +commissioner of South Africa in succession to Sir Henry Loch, and in the +same year Mr Chamberlain became secretary of state for the colonies. + +_Movement for Commercial Federation_.--With the development of railways, +and the extension of trade between Cape Colony and the Transvaal, there +had grown up a closer relationship on political questions. Whilst +premier of Cape Colony, by means of the customs union and in every other +way, Rhodes endeavoured to bring about a friendly measure of at least +commercial federation among the states and colonies of South Africa. He +hoped to establish both a commercial and a railway union, and a speech +which he made in 1894 at Cape Town admirably describes this policy:-- + + "With full affection for the flag which I have been born under, and + the flag I represent, I can understand the sentiment and feeling of a + republican who has created his independence, and values that before + all; but I can say fairly that I believe in the future that I can + assimilate the system, which I have been connected with, with the Cape + Colony, and it is not an impossible idea that the neighbouring + republics, retaining their independence, should share with us as to + certain general principles. If I might put it to you, I would say the + principles of tariffs, the principle of railway connexion, the + principle of appeal in law, the principle of coinage, and in fact all + those principles which exist at the present moment in the United + States, irrespective of the local assemblies which exist in each + separate state in that country." + +To this policy President Kruger and the Transvaal government offered +every possible opposition. Their action in what is known as the Vaal +River Drift question will best illustrate the line of action which the +Transvaal government believed it expedient to adopt. A difficulty arose +at the termination of the agreement in 1894 between the Cape government +railway and the Netherlands railway. The Cape government, for the +purposes of carrying the railway from the Vaal river to Johannesburg, +had advanced the sum of L600,000 to the Netherlands railway and the +Transvaal government conjointly; at the same time it was stipulated that +the Cape government should have the right to fix the traffic rate until +the end of 1894, or until such time as the Delagoa Bay-Pretoria line was +completed. These rates were fixed by the Cape government at 2d. per ton +per mile, but at the beginning of 1895 the rate for the 52 m. of railway +from the Vaal river to Johannesburg was raised by the Netherlands +railway to no less a sum than 8d. per ton per mile. It is quite evident +from the action which President Kruger subsequently took in the matter +that this charge was put on with his approval, and with the object of +compelling traffic to be brought to the Transvaal by the Delagoa route, +instead of as heretofore by the colonial railway. In order to compete +against this very high rate, the merchants of Johannesburg began +removing their goods from the Vaal river by waggon. Thereupon President +Kruger arbitrarily closed the drifts (fords) on the Vaal river, and thus +prevented through waggon traffic, causing an enormous block of waggons +on the banks of the Vaal. A protest was then made by the Cape government +against the action of the Transvaal, on the ground that it was a breach +of the London Convention. President Kruger took no notice of this +remonstrance, and an appeal was made to the imperial government; +whereupon the latter entered into an agreement with the Cape government, +to the effect that if the Cape would bear half the cost of any +expedition which should be necessary, assist with troops, and give full +use of the Cape railway for military purposes if required, a protest +should be sent to President Kruger on the subject. These terms were +accepted by Rhodes and his colleagues, of whom Mr W.P. Schreiner was +one, and a protest was then sent by Mr Chamberlain stating that the +government would regard the closing of the drifts as a breach of the +London Convention, and as an unfriendly action calling for the gravest +remonstrance. President Kruger at once reopened the drifts, and +undertook that he would issue no further proclamation on the subject +except after consultation with the imperial government. + +On the 29th of December 1895 Dr Jameson (q.v.) made his famous raid into +the Transvaal, and Rhodes's complicity in this movement compelled him to +resign the premiership of Cape Colony in January 1896, the vacant post +being taken by Sir Gordon Sprigg. As Rhodes's complicity in the raid +became known, there naturally arose a strong feeling of resentment and +astonishment among his colleagues in the Cape ministry, who had been +kept in complete ignorance of his connexion with any such scheme. Mr +Hofmeyr and the Bond were loud in their denunciation of him, nor can it +be denied that the circumstances of the raid greatly embittered against +England the Dutch element in Cape Colony, and influenced their +subsequent attitude towards the Transvaal Boers. + +In 1897 a native rising occurred under Galeshwe, a Bantu chief, in +Griqualand West. Galeshwe was arrested and the rebellion repressed. On +cross-examination Galeshwe stated that Bosnian, a magistrate of the +Transvaal, had supplied ammunition to him, and urged him to rebel +against the government of Cape Colony. There is every reason to suppose +that this charge was true, and it is consistent with the intrigues which +the Boers from time to time practised among the natives. + +In 1897 Sir Alfred Milner was appointed high commissioner of South +Africa and governor of Cape Colony, in succession to Sir Hercules +Robinson, who had been created a peer under the title of Baron Rosmead +in August 1896. + +_Mr Schreiner's Policy_.--In 1898 commercial federation in South Africa +advanced another stage, Natal entering the customs union. A fresh +convention was drafted at this time, and under it "a uniform tariff on +all imported goods consumed within such union, and an equitable +distribution of the duties collected on such goods amongst the parties +to such union, and free trade between the colonies and state in respect +of all South African products," was arranged. In the same year, too, the +Cape parliamentary election occurred, and the result was the return to +power of a Bond ministry under Mr W.P. Schreiner. From this time, until +June 1900, Mr Schreiner remained in office as head of the Cape +government. During the negotiations (see TRANSVAAL) which preceded the +war in 1899, feeling at the Cape ran very high, and Mr Schreiner's +attitude was very freely discussed. As head of a party, dependent for +its position in power on the Bond's support, his position was +undoubtedly a trying one. At the same time, as prime minister of a +British colony, it was strongly felt by loyal colonists that he should +at least have refrained from openly interfering between the Transvaal +and the imperial government during the course of most difficult +negotiations. His public expressions of opinion were hostile in tone to +the policy pursued by Mr Chamberlain and Sir Alfred Milner. The effect +of them, it was believed, might conceivably be to encourage President +Kruger in persisting in his rejection of the British terms. Mr +Schreiner, it is true, used directly what influence he possessed to +induce President Kruger to adopt a reasonable course. But however +excellent his intentions, his publicly expressed disapproval of the +Chamberlain-Milner policy probably did more harm than his private +influence with Mr Kruger could possibly do good. On the 11th of June +1899, shortly after the Bloemfontein conference, from which Sir Alfred +Milner had just returned, Mr Schreiner asked the high commissioner to +inform Mr Chamberlain that he and his colleagues agreed in regarding +President Kruger's Bloemfontein proposals as "practical, reasonable and +a considerable step in the right direction." Early in June, however, the +Cape Dutch politicians began to realize that President Kruger's attitude +was not so reasonable as they had endeavoured to persuade themselves, +and Mr Hofmeyr, accompanied by Mr Herholdt, the Cape minister of +agriculture, visited Pretoria. On arrival, they found that the Transvaal +Volksraad, in a spirit of defiance and even levity, had just passed a +resolution offering four new seats in the Volksraad to the mining +districts, and fifteen to exclusively burgher districts. Mr Hofmeyr, on +meeting the executive, freely expressed indignation at these +proceedings. Unfortunately, Mr Hofmeyr's influence was more than +counterbalanced by an emissary from the Free State, Mr Abraham Fischer, +who, while purporting to be a peacemaker, practically encouraged the +Boer executive to take extreme measures. Mr Hofmeyr's established +reputation as an astute diplomatist, and as the trusted leader for years +of the Cape Dutch party, made him as powerful a delegate as it was +possible to find. If any emissary could accomplish anything in the way +of persuading Mr Kruger, it was assuredly Mr Hofmeyr. Much was looked +for from his mission by moderate men of all parties, and by none more +so, it is fair to believe, than by Mr Schreiner. But Mr Hofmeyr's +mission, like every other mission to Mr Kruger to induce him to take a +reasonable and equitable course, proved entirely fruitless. He returned +to Cape Town disappointed, but probably not altogether surprised at the +failure of his mission. Meanwhile a new proposal was drafted by the Boer +executive, which, before it was received in its entirety, or at least +before it was clearly understood, elicited from Mr Schreiner a letter on +the 7th of July to the _South African News_, in which, referring to his +government, he said:-- + + "While anxious and continually active with good hope in the cause of + securing reasonable modifications of the existing representative + system of the South African Republic, this government is convinced + that no ground whatever exists for active interference in the internal + affairs of that republic." + +This letter was precipitate and unfortunate. On the 11th of July, after +seeing Mr Hofmeyr on his return, Mr Schreiner made a personal appeal to +President Kruger to approach the imperial government in a friendly +spirit. At this time an incident occurred which raised the feeling +against Mr Schreiner to a very high pitch. On the 7th of July 500 rifles +and 1,000,000 rounds of ammunition were landed at Port Elizabeth, +consigned to the Free State government, and forwarded to Bloemfontein. +Mr Schreiner's attention was called to this consignment at the time, but +he refused to stop it, alleging as his reason that, inasmuch as Great +Britain was at peace with the Free State, he had no right to interdict +the passage of arms through the Cape Colony. The British colonist is as +capable of a grim jest as the Transvaal Boer, and this action of Mr +Schreiner's won for him the nickname "Ammunition Bill." At a later date +he was accused of delay in forwarding artillery and rifles for the +defence of Kimberley, Mafeking and other towns of the colony. The reason +he gave for delay was that he did not anticipate war; and that he did +not wish to excite unwarrantable suspicions in the minds of the Free +State. His conduct in both instances was perhaps technically correct, +but it was much resented by loyal colonists. + +On the 28th of July Mr Chamberlain sent a conciliatory despatch to +President Kruger, suggesting a meeting of delegates to consider and +report on his last franchise proposals, which were complex to a degree. +Mr Schreiner, on the 3rd of August, telegraphed to Mr Fischer begging +the Transvaal to welcome Mr Chamberlain's proposal. At a later date, on +receiving an inquiry from the Free State as to the movements of British +troops, Mr Schreiner curtly refused any information, and referred the +Free State to the high commissioner. On the 28th of August Sir Gordon +Sprigg in the House of Assembly moved the adjournment of the debate, to +discuss the removal of arms to the Free State. Mr Schreiner, in reply, +used expressions which called down upon him the severest censure and +indignation, both in the colony and in Great Britain. He stated that, +should the storm burst, he would keep the colony aloof with regard both +to its forces and its people. In the course of the speech he also read a +telegram from President Steyn, in which the president repudiated all +contemplated aggressive action on the part of the Free State as absurd. +The speech created a great sensation in the British press. It was +probably forgotten at the time (though Lord Kimberley afterwards +publicly stated it) that one of the chief reasons why the Gladstone +government had granted the retrocession of the Transvaal after Majuba, +was the fear that the Cape Colonial Dutch would join their kinsmen if +the war continued. What was a danger in 1881, Mr Schreiner knew to be a +still greater danger in 1899. At the same time it is quite obvious, from +a review of Mr Schreiner's conduct through the latter half of 1899, that +he took an entirely mistaken view of the Transvaal situation. He +evinced, as premier of the Cape Colony, the same inability to understand +the Uitlanders' grievances, the same futile belief in the eventual +fairness of President Kruger, as he had shown when giving evidence +before the British South Africa Select Committee into the causes of the +Jameson Raid. Actual experience taught him that President Kruger was +beyond an appeal to reason, and that the protestations of President +Steyn were insincere. War had no sooner commenced with the ultimatum of +the Transvaal Republic on the 9th of October 1899, than Mr Schreiner +found himself called upon to deal with the conduct of Cape rebels. The +rebels joined the invading forces of President Steyn, whose false +assurances Mr Schreiner had offered to an indignant House of Assembly +only a few weeks before. The war on the part of the Republics was +evidently not to be merely one of self-defence. It was one of aggression +and aggrandisement. Mr Schreiner ultimately addressed, as prime +minister, a sharp remonstrance to President Steyn for allowing his +burghers to invade the colony. He also co-operated with Sir Alfred +Milner, and used his influence to restrain the Bond. + +_The War of 1899-1902._[7]--The first shot actually fired in the war +was at Kraipan, a small railway station within the colony, 40 m. south +of Mafeking, a train being derailed, and ammunition intended for Colonel +Baden-Powell seized. The effect of this was entirely to cut off +Mafeking, the northernmost town in Cape Colony, and it remained in a +state of siege for over seven months. On the 16th of October Kimberley +was also isolated. Proclamations by the Transvaal and Free State +annexing portions of Cape Colony were actually issued on the 18th of +October, and included British Bechuanaland and Griqualand West, with the +diamond fields. On the 28th of October Mr Schreiner signed a +proclamation issued by Sir Alfred Milner as high commissioner, declaring +the Boer annexations of territory within Cape Colony to be null and +void. + +Then came the British reverses at Magersfontein (on the 11th of +December) and Stormberg (on the 10th of December). The effect of these +engagements at the very outset of the war, occurring as they did within +Cape Colony, was to offer every inducement to a number of the frontier +colonial Boers to join their kinsmen of the republics. The Boers were +prolific, and their families large. Many younger sons from the colony, +with nothing to lose, left their homes with horse and rifle to join the +republican forces. + +Meanwhile the loyal Cape colonists were chafing at the tardy manner in +which they were enrolled by the imperial authorities. It was not until +after the arrival of Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener at Cape Town on the +10th of January 1900 that these invaluable, and many of them +experienced, men were freely invited to come forward. So strongly did +Lord Roberts feel on the subject, that he at once made Colonel Brabant, +a well-known and respected colonial veteran and member of the House of +Assembly, a brigadier-general, and started recruiting loyal colonists in +earnest. On the 15th of February Kimberley was relieved by General +French, and the Boer general, Cronje, evacuated Magersfontein, and +retreated towards Bloemfontein. Cecil Rhodes was shut up in Kimberley +during the whole of the siege, and his presence there undoubtedly +offered an additional incentive to the Boers to endeavour to capture the +town, but his unique position and influence with the De Beers workmen +enabled him to render yeoman service, and infused enthusiasm and courage +into the inhabitants. The manufacture of a big gun, which was able to +compete with the Boer "Long Tom," at the De Beers workshops, under +Rhodes's orders, and by the ingenuity of an American, Mr. Labram, who +was killed a few days after its completion, forms one of the most +striking incidents of the period. + +With the relief of Mafeking on the 17th of May, the Cape rebellion +ended, and the colony was, at least for a time, delivered of the +presence of hostile forces. + +On the 20th of March Mr (afterwards Sir James) Rose-Innes, a prominent +member of the House of Assembly, who for several years had held aloof +from either party, and who also had defended Mr Schreiner's action with +regard to the passage of arms to the Free State, addressed his +constituents at Claremont in support of the annexation of both +republics; and in the course of an eloquent speech he stated that in +Canada, in spite of rebellions, loyalty had been secured from the French +Canadians by free institutions. In South Africa they might hope that a +similar policy would attain a similar result with the Boers. In June, Mr +Schreiner, whose recent support of Sir Alfred Milner had incensed many +of his Bond followers, resigned in consequence of the refusal of some of +his colleagues to support the disfranchisement bill which he was +prepared, in accordance with the views of the home government, to +introduce for the punishment of Cape rebels. The bill certainly did not +err on the side of severity, but disfranchisement for their supporters +in large numbers was more distasteful to the Bond extremists than any +stringency towards individuals. Sir Gordon Sprigg, who after a political +crisis of considerable delicacy, succeeded Mr Schreiner and for the +fourth time became prime minister, was able to pass the Bill with the +co-operation of Mr Schreiner and his section. Towards the end of the +year 1900 the war entered on a new phase, and took the form of guerilla +skirmishes with scattered forces of marauding Boers. In December some of +these bands entered the Cape Colony and endeavoured to induce colonial +Boers to join them. In this endeavour they met at first with little or +no success; but as the year 1901 progressed and the Boers still managed +to keep the various districts in a ferment, it was deemed necessary by +the authorities to proclaim martial law over the whole colony, and this +was done on the 9th of October 1901. + +On the 4th of January 1901 Sir Alfred Milner was gazetted governor of +the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, being shortly afterwards created +a peer as Lord Milner, and Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson, governor of +Natal, was appointed his successor as governor of the Cape Colony. The +office of high commissioner in South Africa was now separated from the +governorship of the Cape and associated with that of the Transvaal--an +indication of the changed conditions in South Africa. The division of +the colonists into those who favoured the Boer states and those firmly +attached to the British connexion was reflected, to the detriment of the +public weal, in the parties in the Cape parliament. Proposals were made +to suspend the constitution, but this drastic course was not adopted. +The Progressive party, the name taken by those who sought a permanent +settlement under the British flag, lost their leader, and South Africa +its foremost statesman by the death, in May 1902, of Cecil Rhodes, a few +weeks before the end of the war. + +_After the War_.--The acknowledgment of defeat by the Boers in the +field, and the surrender of some 10,000 rebels, did not weaken the +endeavours of the Dutch to obtain political supremacy in the colony. +Moreover, in the autumn of 1902 Sir Gordon Sprigg, the prime minister, +nominally the leader of the Progressives, sought to maintain his +position by securing the support of the Bond party in parliament. In the +early part of 1903 Mr Chamberlain included Cape Town in his visit to +South Africa, and had conferences with the political leaders of all +parties. Reconciliation between the Bond and British elements in the +colony was, however, still impossible, and the two parties concentrated +their efforts in a struggle for victory at the coming election. Mr +Hofmeyr, who had chosen to spend the greater part of the war period in +Europe, returned to the Cape to reorganize the Bond. On the other side +Dr Jameson came forward as the leader of the Progressives. Parliament +was dissolved in September 1903. It had passed, since the war, two +measures of importance--one (1902) restricting alien immigration, the +other (1903) ratifying the first customs convention between all the +South African colonies. This convention was notable for its grant of +preferential treatment (in general, a rebate of 25% on the customs +already levied) to imports from the United Kingdom. + +The election turned on the issue of British or Bond supremacy. It was +fought on a register purged of the rebel voters, many of whom, besides +being disfranchised, were in prison. The issue was doubtful, and each +side sought to secure the support of the native voters, who in several +constituencies held the balance of power. The Bondsmen were more lavish +than their opponents in their promises to the natives and even invited a +Kaffir journalist (who declined) to stand for a seat in the Assembly. In +view of the agitation then proceeding for the introduction of Chinese +coolies to work the mines on the Rand, the Progressives declared their +intention, if returned, to exclude them from the colony, and this +declaration gained them some native votes. The polling (in January and +February 1904) resulted in a Progressive majority of five in a house of +95 members. The rejected candidates included prominent Bond supporters +like Mr Merriman and Mr Sauer, and also Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr A. +Douglass, another member of the cabinet. Mr W.P. Schreiner, the +ex-premier, who stood as an Independent, was also rejected. + +_The Jameson Ministry_.--On the 18th of February Sir Gordon Sprigg +resigned and was succeeded by Dr L.S. Jameson, who formed a ministry +wholly British in character. The first task of the new government was to +introduce (on the 4th of March) an Additional Representation Bill, to +rectify--in part--the disparity in electoral power of the rural and +urban districts. Twelve new seats in the House of Assembly were divided +among the larger towns, and three members were added to the legislative +council. The town voter being mainly British, the bill met with the +bitter opposition of the Bond members, who declared that its object was +the extinction of their parliamentary power. In fact, the bill was +called for by the glaring anomalies in the distribution of seats by +which a minority of voters in the country districts returned a majority +of members, and it left the towns still inadequately represented. The +bill was supported by two or three Dutch members, who were the object of +violent attack by the Bondsmen. It became law, and the elections for the +additional seats were held in July, after the close of the session. They +resulted in strengthening the Progressive majority both in the House of +Assembly and in the legislative council--where the Progressives +previously had a majority of one only. + +At the outset of its career the Jameson ministry had to face a serious +financial situation. During the war the supplying of the army in the +field had caused an artificial inflation of trade, and the Sprigg +ministry had pursued a policy of extravagant expenditure not warranted +by the finances of the colony. The slow recovery of the gold-mining and +other industries in the Transvaal after the war was reflected in a great +decline in trade in Cape Colony during the last half of 1903, the +distress being aggravated by severe drought. When Dr Jameson assumed +office he found an empty treasury, and considerable temporary loans had +to be raised. Throughout 1904, moreover, revenue continued to +shrink--compared with 1903 receipts dropped from L11,701,000 to +L9,913,000. The government, besides cutting down official salaries and +exercising strict economy, contracted (July 1904) a loan for L3,000,000. +It also passed a bill imposing a graduated tax (6d. to 1s. in the L) on +all incomes over L1000. A substantial excise duty was placed on spirits +and beer, measures of relief for the brandy-farmers being taken at the +same time. The result was that while there was a deficit on the budget +of 1904-1905 of L731,000, the budget of 1905-1906 showed a surplus of +L5161. This small surplus was obtained notwithstanding a further +shrinkage in revenue. + +Dr Jameson's programme was largely one of material development. In the +words of the speech opening the 1905 session of parliament, "without a +considerable development of our agricultural and pastoral resources our +position as a self-sustaining colony cannot be assured." This reliance +on its own resources was the more necessary for the Cape because of the +keen rivalry of Natal and Delagoa Bay for the carrying trade of the +Transvaal. The opening up of backward districts by railways was +vigorously pursued, and in other ways great efforts were made to assist +agriculture. These efforts to help the country districts met with +cordial recognition from the Dutch farmers, and the release, in May +1904, of all rebel prisoners was another step towards reconciliation. On +the exclusion of Chinese from the colony the Bond party were also in +agreement with the ministry. An education act passed in 1905 established +school boards on a popular franchise and provided for the gradual +introduction of compulsory education. The cultivation of friendly +relations with the neighbouring colonies was also one of the leading +objects of Dr Jameson's policy. The Bond, on its side, sought to draw +closer to Het Volk, the Boer organization in the Transvaal, and similar +bodies, and at its 1906 congress, held in March that year at Ceres, a +resolution with that aim was passed, the design being to unify, in +accordance with the original conception of the Bond, Dutch sentiment and +action throughout South Africa. + +Native affairs proved a source of considerable anxiety. In January 1905 +an inter-colonial native affairs commission reported on the native +question as it affected South Africa as a whole, proposals being made +for an alteration of the laws in Cape Colony respecting the franchise +exercised by natives. In the opinion of the commission the possession of +the franchise by the Cape natives under existing conditions was sure to +create in time an intolerable situation, and was an unwise and dangerous +thing. (The registration of 1905 showed that there were over 23,000 +coloured voters in the colony.) The commission proposed separate voting +by natives only for a fixed number of members of the legislature--the +plan adopted in New Zealand with the Maori voters. The privileged +position of the Cape native was seen to be an obstacle to the federation +of South Africa. The discussion which followed, based partly on the +reports that the ministry contemplated disfranchising the natives, led, +however, to no immediate results. + +Another disturbing factor in connexion with native affairs was the +revolt of the Hottentots and Hereros in German South-West Africa (q.v.). +In 1904 and the following years large numbers of refugees, including +some of the most important chiefs, fled into British territory, and +charges were made in Germany that sufficient control over these refugees +was not exercised by the Cape government. This trouble, however, came to +an end in September 1907. In that month Morenga, a chief who had been +interned by the colonial authorities, but had escaped and recommenced +hostilities against the Germans, was once more on the British side of +the frontier and, refusing to surrender, was pursued by the Cape Mounted +Police and killed after a smart action. The revolt in the German +protectorate had been, nearly a year before the death of Morenga, the +indirect occasion of a "Boer raid" into Cape Colony. In November 1906 a +small party of Transvaal Boers, who had been employed by the Germans +against the Hottentots, entered the colony under the leadership of a man +named Ferreira, and began raiding farms and forcibly enrolling recruits. +Within a week the filibusters were all captured. Ferreira and four +companions were tried for murder and convicted, February 1907, the death +sentences being commuted to terms of penal servitude. + +As the result of an inter-colonial conference held in Pietermaritzburg +in the early months of 1906, a new customs convention of a strongly +protective character came into force on the 1st of June of that year. At +the same time the rebate on goods from Great Britain and reciprocating +colonies was increased. The session of parliament which sanctioned this +change was notable for the attention devoted to irrigation and railway +schemes. But one important measure of a political character was passed +in 1906, namely an amnesty act. Under its provisions over 7000 +ex-rebels, who would otherwise have had no vote at the ensuing general +election, were readmitted to the franchise in 1907. + +While the efforts made to develop the agricultural and mineral resources +of the country proved successful, the towns continued to suffer from the +inflation--over-buying, over-building and over-speculation--which marked +the war period. As a consequence, imports further declined during +1906-1907, and receipts being largely dependent on customs the result +was a considerably diminished revenue. The accounts for the year ending +30th of June 1907 showed a deficit of L640,455. The decline in revenue, +L4,000,000 in four years, while not a true reflection of the economic +condition of the country--yearly becoming more self-supporting by the +increase in home produce--caused general disquietude and injuriously +affected the position of the ministry. In the session of 1907 the +Opposition in the legislative council brought on a crisis by refusing to +grant supplies voted by the lower chamber. Dr Jameson contested the +constitutional right of the council so to act, and on his advice the +governor dissolved parliament in September. Before its dissolution +parliament passed an act imposing a profit tax of 10% on diamond- and +copper-mining companies earning over L50,000 per annum, and another act +establishing an agricultural credit bank. + +_Mr Merriman, Premier_.--The elections for the legislative council were +held in January 1908 and resulted in a Bond victory. Its supporters, who +called themselves the South African party, the Progressives being +renamed Unionists, obtained 17 seats out of a total of 26. Dr Jameson +thereupon resigned (31st of January), and a ministry was formed with Mr +J.X. Merriman as premier and treasurer, and Mr J.W. Sauer as minister of +public works. Neither of these politicians was a member of the Bond, and +both had held office under Cecil Rhodes and W.P. Schreiner. They had, +however, been the leading parliamentary exponents of Bond policy for a +considerable time. The elections for the legislative assembly followed +in April and, partly in consequence of the reinfranchisement of the +ex-rebels, resulted in a decisive majority for the Merriman ministry. +There were returned 69 members of the South African party, 33 Unionists +and 5 Independents, among them the ex-premiers Sir Gordon Sprigg and Mr +Schreiner. The change of ministry was not accompanied by any relief in +the financial situation. While the country districts remained fairly +prosperous (agricultural and pastoral products increasing), the transit +trade and the urban industries continued to decline. The depression was +accentuated by the financial crisis in America, which affected adversely +the wool trade, and in a more marked degree the diamond trade, leading +to the partial stoppage of the Kimberley mines. (The "slump" in the +diamond trade is shown by a comparison of the value of diamonds exported +from the Cape in the years 1907 and 1908; in 1907 they were valued at +L8,973,148, in 1908 at L4,796,655.) This seriously diminished the +revenue returns, and the public accounts for the year 1907-1908 showed a +deficit of L996,000, and a prospective deficit for the ensuing year of +an almost equal amount. To balance the budget, Mr Merriman proposed +drastic remedies, including the suspension of the sinking fund, the +reduction of salaries of all civil servants, and taxes on incomes of L50 +per annum. Partly in consequence of the serious economic situation the +renewed movement for the closer union of the various South African +colonies, formally initiated by Dr Jameson in 1907, received the support +of the Cape parliament. During 1907-1908 a national convention decided +upon unification, and in 1910 the Union of South Africa was established +(see SOUTH AFRICA: _History_). + +_Leading Personalities_.--The public life of Cape Colony has produced +many men of singular ability and accomplishments. The careers of Cecil +Rhodes, of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr, and of Dr L.S. Jameson have been +sufficiently indicated (see also their separate biographies). Sir Gordon +Sprigg, four times premier, was associated with the Cape parliament from +1873 to 1904, and was once more elected to that assembly in 1908. In and +out of office his zeal was unflagging, and if he lacked those qualities +which inspire enthusiasm and are requisite in a great leader, he was at +least a model of industry. Among other prominent politicians were Sir +James Rose-Innes, Mr J.X. Merriman and Mr W.P. Schreiner. The two last +named both held the premiership; their attitude and views have been +indicated in the historical sketch. Sir James Rose-Innes, a lawyer whose +intellectual gifts and patriotism have never been impugned, was not a +"party man," and this made him, on more than one occasion, a somewhat +difficult political ally. On the native question he held a consistently +strong attitude, defending their rights, and uncompromisingly opposing +the native liquor traffic. In 1901 he went to the Transvaal as chief +justice of that colony. Sir Thomas Fuller, a Cape Town representative, +though he remained outside office, gave staunch support to every +enlightened liberal and progressive measure which was brought forward. A +man of exceptional culture and eloquence, he made his influence felt, +not only in politics, but in journalism and the best social life of the +Cape peninsula. From 1902 to 1908 he held the office of agent-general of +the colony in London. + +In literature, the colony has produced at least two authors whose works +have taken their place among those of the best English writers of their +day. The _History of South Africa_, by Mr G. McCall Theal, will remain a +classic work of reference. The careful industry and the lucidity which +characterize Mr Theal's work stamp him as a historian of whom South +Africa may well be proud. In fiction, Olive Schreiner (Mrs +Cronwright-Schreiner) produced, while still in her teens, the _Story of +an African Farm_, a work which gave great promise of original literary +genius. Unfortunately, she, in common with the rest of South Africa, was +subsequently swept into the seething vortex of contemporary politics and +controversy. In music and painting there have been artists of talent in +the Cape Colony, but the country is still too young, and the conditions +of life too disturbed, to allow such a development as has already +occurred in Australia. + + GOVERNORS AT THE CAPE SINCE INTRODUCTION OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT + + 1870. Sir Henry Barkly. + 1877. Sir Bartle Frere. + 1880. Sir Hercules Robinson. + 1889. Sir Henry Loch. + 1895. Sir Hercules Robinson (Lord Rosmead). + 1897. Sir Alfred Milner. + 1901. Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson. + + PRIME MINISTERS. + + 1872. Mr J.C. Molteno. 1890. Mr C.J. Rhodes. + 1878. Mr J. Gordon Sprigg. 1896. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg. + 1881. Mr T.C. Scanlen. 1898. Mr W.P. Schreiner. + 1884. Mr Upington. 1900. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg. + 1886. Sir J. Gordon Sprigg. 1904. Dr L.S. Jameson. + 1908. Mr J.X. Merriman. + (A. P. H.; F. R. C.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY--The majority of the books concerning Cape Colony deal + also with South Africa as a whole (see SOUTH AFRICA: _Bibliography_). + The following list gives books specially relating to the Cape. For + ethnography see the works mentioned under BUSHMEN, HOTTENTOTS, KAFFIRS + and BECHUANA. + + (a) Descriptive accounts, geography, commerce and economics:--The best + early accounts of the colony are found in de la Caille's _Journal + historique du voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Esperance_ (Paris, 1763), + the _Nouvelle Description du Cap de Bonne Esperance_ (Amsterdam, + 1778); F. le Vaillant's _Voyage dans l'interieur de l'Afrique_ (Paris, + 1790), and _Second Voyage_ (Paris, _an_ III. [1794-1795]); C.P. + Thunberg's "Account of the Cape of Good Hope" in vol. xvi. of + Pinkerton's _Travels_ (London, 1814); A. Sparman's _Voyage to the Cape + of Good Hope ... 1772-1776_ (translated into English from the Swedish, + London, 1785)--an excellent work; and W. Paterson's _A Narrative of + Four Journeys ... 1777-1779_ (London, 1789). P. Kolbe or Kolben's + _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_ (English translation from the + German, London, 1731) is less trustworthy. Sir J. Barrow's _Account of + Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa in 1797-1798_ (2 vols., + London, 1801-1804); H. Lichtenstein's _Travels in Southern Africa in + 1803-1806_ (translated from the German, 2 vols., London, 1812-1815), + and W.J. Burchell's _Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa_ (2 + vols., London, 1822-1824) are standard works. Burchell's book contains + the best map of the Cape published up to that time. W.P. Greswell's + _Geography of Africa south of the Zambesi_ (Oxford, 1892) deals + specially with Cape Colony; the _Illustrated Official Handbook of the + Cape and South Africa_ (Cape Town, 1893) includes chapters on the + zoology, flora, productions and resources of the colony. A.R.E. + Burton, _Cape Colony To-day_ (Cape Town, 1907), a useful guide to the + country and its resources. A _Statistical Register_ is issued yearly + by the Cape government. The _Census of the Colony, 1904: General + Report_ (Cape Town, 1905) and previous census reports contain much + valuable matter. + + (b) Special subjects:--For detailed information on special subjects + consult _The Natives of South Africa_ (London, 1901); R. Wallace, + _Farming Industries of Cape Colony_ (London, 1896); A.R.E. Burton, + _Cape Colony for the Settler_ (London, 1903); _The Agricultural + Journal of the Cape of Good Hope_; Gardner F. Williams, _The Diamond + Mines of South Africa_, revised ed. (New York, 1905), an authoritative + work by a former manager of the De Beers mine; A.W. Rogers, _An + Introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony_ (London, 1905) and "The + Campbell Rand and Griquatown Series in Hay," _Trans. Geol. Soc S. + Africa_, vol. ix. (1906); _Reports_, Geological Commission of the Cape + of Good Hope (1896 et seq.); _Science in South Africa_ (Cape Town, + 1905); H.A. Bryden, _Kloof and Karoo_; sport, legend and natural + history in Cape Colony (London, 1889); _South African Education + Yearbook_ (Cape Colony edition, Cape Town, 1906 et seq.). For books + dealing with Roman-Dutch law, see SOUTH AFRICA. + + (c) History:--H.C.V. Leibbrandt, _Precis of the Archives of the Cape + of Good Hope_ (15 vols., vols. v.-vii. contain van Riebeek's + _Journal_, Cape Town, 1896--1902); _The Rebellion of 1815, generally + known as Slachter's Nek_ (Cape Town, 1902); G.M. Theal, _Chronicles of + Cape Commanders ... 1651-1691_ ... (Cape Town, 1882), and _Records of + the Cape Colony from February 1793 to April 1831_, from MS. in the + Record Office, London (36 vols., Cape Town, 1897-1905); _History of + South Africa under the Administration of the Dutch East India Company, + 1652 to 1795_ (2 vols., London, 1897); _History of South Africa from + 1795 to 1834_ (London, 1891); E.B. Watermeyer, _Three Lectures on the + Cape ... under the ... Dutch East India Company_ (Cape Town, 1857); A. + Wilmot and J.C. Chase, _History of the ... Cape ... from its Discovery + to ... 1868_ (Cape Town, 1869); Lady Anne Barnard, _South Africa a + Hundred Years Ago: Letters-written from the Cape, 1797-1801_ (London, + 1901), a vivid picture of social life, &c.; Mrs A.F. Trotter, _Old + Cape Colony ... Her Men and Houses from 1652 to 1806_ (London, 1903); + C.T. Campbell, _British South Africa, 1795-1825_ (London, 1897), the + story of the British settlers of 1820. Consult also J. Martineau's + _Life of Sir Bartle Frere_; the _Autobiography_ of Sir Harry Smith; + P.A. Molteno's _Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno_ (first + premier of Cape Colony) (2 vols., London, 1900); A. Wilmot's _Life of + Sir Richard Southey_ (London, 1904), and G.C. Henderson's _Sir George + Grey_ (London, 1907). B. Worsfold's _Lord Milner's Work in South + Africa, 1897-1902_ (London, 1906), is largely concerned with Cape + politics. For Blue-books, &c., relating to the colony published by the + British parliament, see the _Colonial Office List_ (London, yearly) + (F. R. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The distances given after the names of rivers indicate the length + of the river valleys, including those of the main upper branch. In + nearly all instances the rivers, owing to their sinuous course, are + much longer. + + [2] This is an overstatement. The director of the census estimated + the true number of Hottentots at about 56,000. + + [3] It is stated that Colonel R.J. Gordon (the explorer of the Orange + river), who commanded the Dutch forces at the Cape, chagrined by the + occupation of the country by the British, committed suicide. + + [4] From 1737 to 1744 George Schmidt, "The apostle to the + Hottentots," had a mission at Genadendal--"The Vale of Grace." + + [5] Masters were allowed to keep their ex-slaves as "apprentices" + until the 1st of December 1838. + + [6] The act enjoined that "every male native residing in the + district, exclusive of natives in possession of lands under ordinary + quit-rent titles, or in freehold, who, in the judgment of the + resident magistrate, is fit for and capable of labour, shall pay to + the public revenue a tax of ten shillings per annum unless he can + show to the satisfaction of the magistrate that he has been in + service beyond the borders of the district for at least three months + out of the previous twelve, when he will be exempt from the tax for + that year, or unless he can show that he has been employed for a + total period of three years, when he will be exempt altogether." + + [7] See also TRANSVAAL. + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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