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diff --git a/33050-8.txt b/33050-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f6076cc --- /dev/null +++ b/33050-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2612 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in +the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer-Harvey + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in the Danbury Region Connecticut + State of Connecticut State Geological and Natural History + Survey Bulletin No. 30 + +Author: Ruth Sawyer-Harvey + +Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33050] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAINAGE MODIFICATIONS AND *** + + + + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cos and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + State of Connecticut + State Geological and Natural History Survey + Bulletin No. 30 + + + + + Drainage Modifications and Glaciation + in the Danbury Region + Connecticut + + + By + RUTH SAWYER HARVEY, Ph. D. + + + HARTFORD + ~Published by the State~ + 1920 + + + + + + + + + BULLETINS + + OF THE + + State Geological and Natural History Survey + of Connecticut. + + +1. First Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State +Geological and Natural History Survey, 1903-1904. + +2. A Preliminary Report on the Protozoa of the Fresh Waters of +Connecticut: by Herbert William Conn. (Out of print. To be obtained +only in Vol. I, containing Bulletins 1-5. Price $1.50, postpaid.) + +3. A Preliminary Report on the Hymeniales of Connecticut: +by Edward Albert White. + +4. The Clays and Clay Industries of Connecticut: by Gerald +Francis Loughlin. + +5. The Ustilagineć, or Smuts, of Connecticut: by George +Perkins Clinton. + +6. Manual of the Geology of Connecticut: by William North Rice and +Herbert Ernest Gregory. (Out of print. To be obtained only in Vol. II, +containing Bulletins 6-12. Price $2.45, postpaid.) + +7. Preliminary Geological Map of Connecticut: by Herbert Ernest +Gregory and Henry Hollister Robinson. + +8. Bibliography of Connecticut Geology: by Herbert Ernest Gregory. + +9. Second Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological +and Natural History Survey, 1905-1906. + +10. A Preliminary Report on the Algć of the Fresh Waters of +Connecticut: by Herbert William Conn and Lucia Washburn (Hazen) +Webster. + +11. The Bryophytes of Connecticut: by Alexander William Evans and +George Elwood Nichols. + +12. Third Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological +and Natural History Survey, 1907-1908. + +13. The Lithology of Connecticut: by Joseph Barrell and Gerald Francis +Loughlin. + + +14. Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut growing +without cultivation: by a Committee of the Connecticut Botanical +Society. + +15. Second Report on the Hymeniales of Connecticut: by Edward Albert +White. + +16. Guide to the Insects of Connecticut: prepared under the direction +of Wilton Everett Britton. Part I. General Introduction: by Wilton +Everett Britton. Part II. The Euplexoptera and Orthoptera of +Connecticut: by Benjamin Hovey Walden. + +17. Fourth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State +Geological and Natural History Survey, 1909-1910. + +18. Triassic Fishes of Connecticut: by Charles Rochester Eastman. + +19. Echinoderms of Connecticut: by Wesley Roscoe Coe. + +20. The Birds of Connecticut: by John Hall Sage and Louis Bennett +Bishop, assisted by Walter Parks Bliss. + +21. Fifth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological +and Natural History Survey, 1911-1912. + +22. Guide to the Insects of Connecticut: prepared under the direction +of Wilton Everett Britton. Part III. The Hymenoptera, or Wasp-like +Insects, of Connecticut: by Henry Lorenz Viereck, with the +collaboration of Alexander Dyer MacGillivray, Charles Thomas Brues, +William Morton Wheeler, and Sievert Allen Rohwer. + +23. Central Connecticut in the Geologic Past: by Joseph Barrell. + +24. Triassic Life of the Connecticut Valley: by Richard Swann Lull. + +25. Sixth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological +and Natural History Survey, 1913-1914. + +26. The Arthrostraca of Connecticut: by Beverly Waugh Kunkel. + +27. Seventh Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State +Geological and Natural History Survey, 1915-1916. + +28. Eighth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State +Geological and Natural History Survey, 1917-1918. + +29. The Quaternary Geology of the New Haven Region, Connecticut: by +Freeman Ward, Ph.D. + +30. Drainage, Modification and Glaciation in the Danbury Region, +Connecticut: by Ruth Sawyer Harvey, Ph.D. + +31. Check List of the Insects of Connecticut: by Wilton Everett +Britton, Ph.D. (In press.) + + +Bulletins 1, 9, 12, 17, 21, 25, 27, and 28 are merely administrative +reports containing no scientific matter. The other bulletins may be +classified as follows: + +Geology: Bulletins 4, 6, 7, 8, 13, 18, 23, 24, 29, 36. + +Botany: Bulletins 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15. + +Zoölogy: Bulletins 2, 16, 19, 20, 22, 26, 31. + +These bulletins are sold and otherwise distributed by the State +Librarian. Postage, when bulletins are sent by mail, is as follows: + +No. 1 $0.01 No. 13 $0.08 No. 23 $0.03 + 3 .08 14 .16 24 .10 + 4 .06 15 .06 25 .02 + 5 .03 16 .07 26 .06 + 7 .06 17 .02 27 .02 + 8 .05 18 .07 28 .02 + 9 .02 19 .08 29 .03 + 10 .08 20 .14 30 .03 + 11 .07 21 .02 31 + 12 .02 22 .08 + + +The prices when the bulletins are sold are as follows, postpaid: + +No. 1 $0.05 No. 13 $0.40 No. 23 $0.15 + 3 .40 14 .75 24 .65 + 4 .30 15 .35 25 .05 + 5 .15 16 .35 26 .80 + 7 .60 17 .05 27 .05 + 8 .20 18 .25 28 .05 + 9 .05 19 .45 29 .50 + 10 .35 20 .50 30 .45 + 11 .30 21 .05 31 + 12 .05 22 2.00 + + +A part of the edition of these Bulletins have been assembled in +volumes substantially bound in cloth, plainly lettered, and sell for +the following prices, postpaid: + +Volume I, containing Bulletins 1-5 $1.50 +Volume II, containing Bulletins 6-12 2.45 +Volume III, containing Bulletins 13-15 2.50 +Volume IV, containing Bulletins 16-21 2.15 +Volume V, containing Bulletin 22 2.50 + + +It is intended to follow a liberal policy in gratuitously distributing +these publications to public libraries, colleges, and scientific +institutions, and to scientific men, teachers, and others who require +particular bulletins for their work, especially to those who are +citizens of Connecticut. + +Applications or inquiries should be addressed to + + ~George S. Godard~, + _State Librarian_, + Hartford, Conn. + +In addition to the bulletins above named, published by the State +survey, attention is called to three publications of the United States +Geological Survey prepared in co-operation with the Geological and +Natural Survey of Connecticut. These are the following: + +Bulletin 484. The Granites of Connecticut: by T. Nelson Dale and +Herbert E. Gregory. + +Water-Supply Paper 374. Ground Water in the Hartford, Stamford, +Salisbury, Willimantic and Saybrook Areas, Connecticut: by Herbert E. +Gregory and Arthur J. Ellis. + +Water-Supply Paper 397. Ground Water in the Waterbury Area, +Connecticut: by Arthur J. Ellis, under the direction of Herbert E. +Gregory. + +These papers may be obtained from the Director of the United States +Geological Survey at Washington. + + + + + +CATALOGUE SLIPS. + + +_=Connecticut.= State geological and natural history survey._ + +Bulletin no. 30. Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in the Danbury +Region, Connecticut. By Ruth S. Harvey, Ph.D. Hartford, 1920. + +59 pp., 5 pls., 10 fig., 25cm. + + +=_Harvey, Ruth Sawyer, Ph.D._= + +Drainage Modification and Glaciation in the Danbury Region, +Connecticut. By Ruth S. Harvey, Ph.D. Hartford, 1920. + +59 pp., 5 pls., 10 figs., 25cm. + + +=_Geology._= + +Harvey, Ruth S. Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in +the Danbury Region, Connecticut. Hartford, 1920. + +59 pp., 5 pls., 10 figs., 25^cm. + + + + + + + State of Connecticut + + PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 47 + + State Geological and Natural + History Survey + + HERBERT E. GREGORY, SUPERINTENDENT + + BULLETIN No. 30 + + ~Hartford~ + + Printed by the State Geological and Natural History Survey + 1920 + + + + + + + State Geological and Natural History Survey + + + COMMISSIONERS +~Marcus H. Holcomb~, Governor of Connecticut +~Arthur Twining Hadley~, President of Yale University +~William Arnold Shanklin~, President of Wesleyan University +~Remsen Brickerhoff Ogilby~, President of Trinity College +~Charles Lewis Beach~, President of Connecticut Agricultural College +~Benjamin Tinkham Marshall~, President of Connecticut College + for Women + + + SUPERINTENDENT + ~Herbert E. Gregory~ + + +_Publication Approved by the Board of Control_ + + + + + + + Drainage Modifications and Glaciation + in the Danbury Region + Connecticut + + By + RUTH SAWYER HARVEY, Ph. D. + + + + HARTFORD + Printed by the State Geological and Natural History Survey + 1920 + + + + + + + CONTENTS. + ------ + + Page + +Introduction 9 + +Regional relations 11 + +Rocky River 15 + Description of the river and its valley 15 + Relation of the valley to geologic structure 16 + Junction of Rocky and Housatonic Rivers 18 + Abnormal profile 18 + Preglacial course 20 + The buried channel 23 + Effect of glaciation 25 + +The Neversink-Danbury valley 27 + +Still River 30 + Statement of the problem 30 + Evidence to be expected if Still River has been reversed 31 + A valley wide throughout or broadening toward the south 32 + Tributary valleys pointing upstream 34 + The regional slope not in accord with the course of the Still 35 + Evidence of glacial filling and degrading of the river bed 36 + Glacial scouring 36 + The Still-Saugatuck divide 38 + Features of the Umpog valley 38 + The preglacial divide 42 + The Still-Croton divide 43 + Introduction 43 + Features of Still River valley west of Danbury 43 + The Still-Croton valley 44 + Glacial Lake Kanosha 45 + Divides in the highlands south of Danbury 46 + The ancient Still River 47 + Departures of Still River from its preglacial channel 48 + +Suggested courses of Housatonic River 50 + +Glacial deposits 53 + Beaver Brook Swamp 53 + Deposits northeast of Danbury 54 + Deposits between Beaver Brook Mountain and mouth of Still + River 54 + Lakes 55 + History of the glacial deposits 56 + + + + + + + + ILLUSTRATIONS. + ----------- + + To Face + Page + +PLATE I View south on the Highland northeast of Neversink Pond 14 + + II A. View up the valley of Umpog Creek 40 + B. View down the valley of Umpog Creek 40 + + III Limestone plain southwest of Danbury, in which are + situated Lake Kanosha and the Danbury Fair Grounds 44 + + IV A. View down the Housatonic Valley from a point one-half + mile below Stillriver Station 52 + B. Part of the morainal ridge north of Danbury 52 + + V A. Kames in Still River valley west of Brookfield Junction 54 + B. Till ridges on the western border of Still River + valley, south of Brookfield 56 + + + Page + +FIGURE 1. Present drainage of the Danbury region 13 + 2. Geological map of Still River valley 17 + 3. Profiles of present and preglacial Rocky River 19 + 4. Preglacial course of Rocky-Still River 21 + 5. Diagram showing lowest rock levels in Rocky River + valley 24 + 6. Course of Still River 29 + 7. Map of Umpog Swamp and vicinity 39 + 8. Profiles of rivers 41 + 9. Early Stage of Rocky-Still River 49 + 10. Five suggested outlets of Housatonic River 51 + + + + + + + INTRODUCTION + + +The Danbury region of Connecticut presents many features of geographic +and geologic interest. It may be regarded as a type area, for the +history of its streams and the effects of glaciation are +representative of those of the entire State. With this idea in mind, +the field work on which this study is based included a traverse of +each stream valley and an examination of minor features, as well as a +consideration of the broader regional problems. Much detailed and +local description, therefore, is included in the text. + +The matter in the present bulletin formed the main theme of a thesis +on "Drainage and Glaciation in the Central Housatonic Basin" which was +submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of +doctor of philosophy at Yale University. + +The field work was done in 1907 and 1908 under the direction of +Professor Herbert E. Gregory. I am also indebted to the late Professor +Joseph Barrell and to Dr. Isaiah Bowman for helpful cooperation in the +preparation of the original thesis, and to Dr. H. H. Robinson for +assistance in preparing this paper for publication. + + + + + + + DRAINAGE MODIFICATIONS AND GLACIATION IN + THE DANBURY REGION, CONNECTICUT + -------- + By Ruth S. Harvey + + + + +REGIONAL RELATIONS + + +The region discussed in this bulletin is situated in western +Connecticut and is approximately 8 miles wide and 18 miles long in a +north-south direction, as shown on fig. 1.[1] Throughout, the rocks +are crystalline and include gneiss, schist, and marble--the +metamorphosed equivalents of a large variety of ancient sedimentary +and igneous rocks. + +For the purposes of this report, the geologic history may be said to +begin with the regional uplift which marked the close of the Mesozoic. +By that time the mountains formed by Triassic and Jurassic folding and +faulting had been worn down to a peneplain, now much dissected but +still recognizable in the accordant level of the mountain tops. + +Erosion during Cretaceous time resulted in the construction of a +piedmont plain extending from an undetermined line 30 to 55 miles +north of the present Connecticut shore to a point south of Long +Island.[2] This plain is thought to have been built up of +unconsolidated sands, clays, and gravels, the débris of the Jurassic +mountains. Inland the material consisted of river-made or land +deposits; outwardly it merged into coastal plain deposits. When the +plain was uplifted, these loose gravels were swept away. In New York, +Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, however, portions of the Cretaceous +deposits are still to be found. Such deposits are present, also, on +the north shore of Long Island, and a well drilled at Barren Island on +the south shore revealed not less than 500 feet of Cretaceous +strata.[3] The existence of such thick deposits within 30 miles of the +Connecticut shore and certain peculiarities in the drainage have led +to the inference that the Cretaceous cover extended over the southern +part of Connecticut. + + +[Footnote 1: The streams and other topographic features of the Danbury + region are shown in detail on the Danbury and the New Milford + sheets of the United States Topographic Atlas. These sheets may be + obtained from the Director of the United States Geological Survey, + Washington, D. C.] + +[Footnote 2: It was probably not less than 30 miles, for that is the + distance from the mouth of Still River, where the Housatonic enters + a gorge in the crystallines, to the sea. Fifty-five miles is the + distance to the sea from the probable old head of Housatonic River + on Wassaic Creek, near Amenia, New York.] + +[Footnote 3: Veatch, A. C., Slichter, C. S., Bowman, Isaiah, Crosby, + W. O., and Horton. R. E., Underground water resources of Long + Island: U. S. G. S., PP. 44, p. 188 and fig. 24, 1906.] + + +A general uplift of the region brought this period of deposition to a +close. As the peneplain, probably with a mantle of Cretaceous +deposits, was raised to its present elevation, the larger streams kept +pace with the uplift by incising their valleys. The position of the +smaller streams, however, was greatly modified in the development of +the new drainage system stimulated by the uplift. The modern drainage +system may be assumed to have been at first consequent, that is, +dependent for its direction on the slope of the uplifted plain, but it +was not long before the effect of geologic structure began to make +itself felt. In the time when all the region was near baselevel, the +harder rocks had no advantage over the softer ones, and streams +wandered where they pleased. But after uplift, the streams began to +cut into the plain, and those flowing over limestone or schist +deepened, then widened their valleys much faster than could the +streams which flowed over the resistant granite and gneiss. By a +system of stream piracy and shifting, similar to that which has taken +place throughout the Newer Appalachians, the smaller streams in time +became well adjusted to the structure. They are of the class called +subsequents; on the other hand, the Housatonic, which dates at least +from the beginning of the uplift if not from the earlier period of +peneplanation, is an antecedent stream. + +The complex rock surface of western Connecticut had reached a stage of +mature dissection when the region was invaded by glaciers.[4] The ice +sheet scraped off and redistributed the mantle of decayed rock which +covered the surface and in places gouged out the bedrock. The +resulting changes were of a minor order, for the main features of the +landscape and the principal drainage lines were the same in preglacial +time as they are today. It is thus seen that the history of the +smaller streams like those considered in this report involves three +factors: (1) the normal tendencies of stream development, (2) the +influence of geologic structure, and (3) the effect of glaciation. + +The cover of glacial deposits is generally thin, but marked +variations exist. The fields are overspread with coarse till +containing pebbles 6 inches in diameter to huge boulders of 12 feet or +more. The abundance, size, and composition of the boulders in the till +of a given locality is well represented by the stone fences which +border fields. + + +[Footnote 4: This stage of glaciation is presumably Wisconsin. No + definite indication of any older glacial deposits was found.] + + +[Illustration: ~Fig. 1.~ Present drainage of the Danbury region.] + + +The regional depression which marked the close of the glacial period +slackened the speed of many rivers and caused them to deposit great +quantities of modified or assorted drift. Since glacial time, these +deposits have been dissected and formed into the terraces which are +characteristic of the rivers of the region. A form of terrace even +more common than the river-made terrace is the kame terrace found +along borders of the lowlands. Eskers in the Danbury region have not +the elongated snake-like form by which they are distinguished in some +parts of the country, notably Maine; on the contrary, they are +characteristically short and broad, many having numerous branches at +the southern end like the distributaries of an aggrading river. The +material of the eskers ranges from coarse sand to pebbles four inches +in diameter, the average size being from one to two inches. No +exposures were observed which showed a regular diminution in the +coarseness of the material toward their southern end. The clean-washed +esker gravels afford little encouragement to plant growth, and the +rain water drains away rapidly through the porous gravel. +Consequently, accumulations of stratified drift are commonly barren +places. A desert vegetation of coarse grasses, a kind of wiry moss, +and "everlastings" (_Gnaphalius decurrens_) are the principal growth. +Rattlebox (_Crotolaria sagittalis_), steeplebush (_Spiraea tomentosa_), +sweet fern (_Comptonia asplenifolia_), and on the more fertile +eskers--especially on the lower, wetter part of the slope--golden rod, +ox-eyed daisy, birch, and poplar are also present. All the eskers +observed were found to be similar: they ranged in breadth across the +top from 100 to 150 feet and the side slopes were about 20 degrees. +Only a single heavily wooded esker was found, and this ran through a +forest region. + +The accumulations of stratified drift are distinguished from other +features in the landscape by their smoother and rounder outlines, by +their habit of lying unconformably on the bedrock without reference to +old erosion lines, and by a slightly different tone in the color of +the vegetation covering the water-laid material. The difference in +color, which is due to the unique elements in the flora of these +areas, may cause a hill of stratified drift in summer to present a +lighter green color than that of surrounding hills of boulder clay or +of the original rock slopes; in winter the piles of stratified drift +stand out because of the uniform light tawny red of the dried grass. + + +[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate I.~ + View south on the highland northeast of Neversink Pond. The base + of a ridge in which rock is exposed is seen at the left; a + crescent-shaped lateral moraine bordering the valley lies at the + right.] + + + + +ROCKY RIVER + + +DESCRIPTION OF THE RIVER AND ITS VALLEY + +Rocky River begins its course as a rapid mountain brook in a rough +highland, where the mantle of till in many places is insufficient to +conceal the rock ledges (fig. 1). Near Sherman, about four miles from +its source, it enters a broad flood plain and meanders over a flat, +swampy floor which is somewhat encumbered with deposits of stratified +drift and till. Rocky hills border the valley and rise abruptly from +the lowland. The few tributaries of the river in this part of its +course are normal in direction. + +About six miles below Sherman, Rocky River enters Wood Creek Swamp, +which is 5-1/2 miles long by about one mile wide and completely covers +the valley floor, extending even into tributary valleys. Within the +swamp the river is joined by Squantz Pond Brook and Wood Creek. +Tributaries to Wood Creek include Mountain Brook and the stream +passing through Barses Pond and Neversink Pond. The head of Barses +Pond is separated from the swamp only by a low ridge of till. +Neversink Pond with its inlet gorge and its long southern tributary +record significant drainage modifications, as described in the section +entitled "The Neversink-Danbury Valley." + +Within and along the margin of Wood Creek Swamp, also east of Wood +Creek and at Barses Pond, are rounded, elongated ridges of till, some +of which might be called drumlins. East of Neversink Pond is the +lateral moraine shown in Pl. I. From the mouth of Wood Creek to +Jerusalem, Rocky River is a quiet stream wandering between low banks +through flat meadows, which are generally swampy almost to the foot of +the bordering hills. + +Near Jerusalem bridge two small branches enter Rocky River. +Immediately north of the bridge is a level swampy area about one-half +mile in length. Where the valley closes in again, bedrock is exposed +near the stream, and beginning at a point one-half mile below (north +of) Jerusalem, Rocky River--a swift torrent choked by boulders of +great size--deserves its name. + +In spite of its rapid current, however, the river is unable to move +these boulders, and for nearly three miles one can walk dry-shod on +those that lie in midstream. + +At two or three places below Jerusalem, in quiet reaches above rapids, +the river has taken its first step toward making a flood plain by +building tiny beaches. One-half mile above the mouth of the river the +valley widens and on the gently rising south bank there are several +well-marked terraces about three feet in height and shaped out of +glacial material. A delta and group of small islands at the mouth of +Rocky River indicate the transporting power of the stream and the +relative weakness of the slow-moving Housatonic. + + +RELATIONS OF THE VALLEY TO GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE + +Rocky River is classed with streams which are comformable to the rock +structure. This conclusion rests largely on the analogy between Rocky +River and other rivers of this region. The latter very commonly are +located on belts of limestone, or limestone and schist, and their +extension is along the strike. The interfluvial ridges are generally +composed of the harder rocks. The valleys of the East Aspetuck and +Womenshenuck Brook on the north side of the Housatonic, and of the +Still, the Umpog, Beaver Brook, the upper Saugatuck, and part of Rocky +River are on limestone beds (fig. 2). In the valleys between Town Hill +and Spruce Mountain (south of Danbury), two ravines northwest of +Grassy Plain (near Bethel), and the Saugatuck valley north of Umpawaug +Pond, the limestone bed is largely buried under drift, talus, and +organic deposits, but remnants which reveal the character of the +valley floors have been found. The parallelism between the courses of +these streams and that of Rocky River and the general resemblance in +the form of their valleys, flat-floored with steep-sided walls, as +well as the scattered outcrops of limestone in the valley, have led to +the inference that Rocky River, like the others, is a subsequent +stream developed on beds of weaker rock along lines of foliation. + + +[Illustration: ~Fig. 2.~ Geological map of Still River Valley.] + + +The Geological Map of Connecticut[5] shows that the valleys of Still +River, Womenshenuck Brook, Aspetuck River, and upper Rocky River are +developed on Stockbridge limestone. The lower valley of Rocky River +is, however, mapped as Becket gneiss and Thomaston granite gneiss. +Although the only outcrops along lower Rocky River are of granite, it +is believed that a belt of limestone or schist, now entirely removed, +initially determined the course of the river. The assumption of an +irregular belt of limestone in this position would account for the +series of gorges and flood plains in the vicinity of Jerusalem bridge +and for the broad drift-filled valley at the mouth of Rocky River. +These features are difficult to explain on any other basis. + +[Footnote 5: Gregory, H. E., Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geological + map of Connecticut; Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 7, 1907.] + + + +JUNCTION OF ROCKY AND HOUSATONIC RIVERS + +One of the distinguishing features of Rocky River is the angle at +which it joins the Housatonic (fig. 1). The tributaries of a normal +drainage system enter their master stream at acute angles, an +arrangement which involves the least expenditure of energy. Rocky +River, however, enters the Housatonic against the course of the +latter, that is, the tributary points upstream. Still River and other +southern tributaries of the Housatonic exhibit the same feature, thus +producing a barbed drainage, which indicates that some factor +interfered with the normal development of tributary streams. Barbed +drainage generally results from the reversal of direction of the +master stream[6], but it is impossible to suppose that the Housatonic +was ever reversed. As will appear, it is an antecedent master stream +crossing the crystalline rocks of western Connecticut regardless of +structure, and its course obliquely across the strike accounts for +the peculiar orientation of its southern tributaries, which are +subsequent streams whose position is determined by the nature of the +rock. For the same reason, the northern tributaries of the Housatonic +present the usual relations. + +[Footnote 6: Leverett, Frank, Glacial formations and drainage features + of the Erie and Ohio basins: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 41, pp. 88-91, + figs. 1 and 2, 1902. See, also, the Genoa, Watkins, Penn Yan, and + Naples (New York) topographic atlas sheets.] + + + +ABNORMAL PROFILE + +The airline distance from the bend in Rocky River at Sherman to its +mouth at the Housatonic is 2-3/4 miles, but the course of the river +between these two points is 15 miles, or 5.4 times the airline +distance. This is a more extraordinary digression than that of +Tennessee River, which deserts its ancestral course to the Gulf and +flows northwest into the Ohio, multiplying the length of its course +3-1/3 times. The fall of Rocky River between Sherman and its mouth is +240 feet or 16 feet to the mile, and were the river able to take a +direct course the fall would be 87 feet to the mile. The possibility +of capture would seem to be imminent from these figures, but in +reality there is no chance of it, for an unbroken mountain ridge of +resistant rock lies between the two forks of the river. This barrier +is not likely to be crossed by any stream until the whole region has +been reduced to a peneplain. + +Measured from the head of its longest branch, Rocky River is about 19 +miles long and falls 950 feet. Of this fall, 710 feet occurs in the +first 4 miles and 173 feet in the last 2-1/2 miles of its course. For +the remaining distance of 12-1/2 miles, in which the river after +flowing south doubles back on itself, the fall is 67 feet, or slightly +less than 5-1/2 feet to the mile (fig. 3, A). + + +[Illustration: ~Fig. 3.~ Profiles of present and preglacial Rocky River. + Elevations at a, b, c and i are from U. S. G. S. map. + Elevation at d is estimated from R. E. Dakin's records. + Elevations at e, f, g and h are from R. E. Dakin's records. + The U. S. G. S. figures for the same are enclosed in parenthesis.] + + +In tabular form the figures, taken from the Danbury and +New Milford atlas sheets and from reports of R. E. Dakin, are +as follows: + + + Miles Fall in feet per mile +Source to Sherman 4 177.5 +Sherman to Wood Creek 8 6.25 +Wood Creek to Jerusalem 4.5 3.8 +Jerusalem to mouth 2.5 69.2 + + +Near Jerusalem, where Rocky River makes its sudden change +in grade, there is an abrupt change in the form of the valley +from broad and flat-bottomed to narrow and V-shaped. The +profile of Rocky River is thus seen to be sharply contrasted with +that of a normal stream, which is characterised throughout its +course by a decreasing slope. + + +PREGLACIAL COURSE + +The present profile of Rocky River and the singular manner in which +the lower course of the river is doubled back on the upper course are +believed to represent changes wrought by glaciation. Before the advent +of the glacier, Rocky River probably flowed southward through the +"Neversink-Danbury Valley," to be described later, and joined the +Still at Danbury, as shown in fig. 4. The profile of the stream at +this stage in its history is shown in fig. 3, B. + +At Sherman a low col separates Rocky River basin from that of the +small northward flowing stream which enters the Housatonic about a +mile below Gaylordsville. Streams by headward erosion at both ends of +the belt of limestone and schist on which they are situated have +reduced this divide to an almost imperceptible swell. The rock +outcrops in the channel show that the glacier did not produce any +change in the divide by damming, though it may have lowered it by +scouring. Assume that at one time a divide also existed on the eastern +fork of Rocky River, for example near Jerusalem. According to this +hypothesis there was, north of this latter divide, a short northward +flowing branch of the Housatonic located on a belt of weak rock, +similar to the small stream which now flows northward from Sherman, and +very like any of the half-dozen parallel streams in the rock mass +south and southwest of Danbury, all of which are subsequent streams +flowing along the strike. While these stream valleys were growing, the +southern ends of the same weak belts of rock were held by +southward-flowing streams which united in the broad limestone area now +occupied by the city of Danbury. + + +[Illustration: ~Fig. 4.~ Preglacial course of Rocky-Still River. + Dotted lines show present courses of the two rivers.] + + +The southward-flowing streams whose heads were, respectively, above +Sherman and near Jerusalem joined at the southern end of the long +ridge which includes Towner Hill and Green Mountain. Thence the stream +flowed southward along the valley now occupied by Wood Creek and +reached Still River by way of the valley which extends southward from +Neversink Pond (fig. 4). + +The preglacial course of Rocky River, as above outlined, is subject to +possible modification in one minor feature, namely, the point where +the east and west forks joined. The junction may have been where +Neversink Pond is now situated, or three miles farther south than the +indicated junction near the mouth of Wood Creek. A low ridge of till +is the only barrier that at present prevents the western branch from +flowing into the head of Barses Pond and thence into Neversink Pond +(fig. 1). + +As thus reconstructed the greater part of Rocky River formerly +belonged to the Still-Umpog system and formed a normal tributary in +that distant period when the Still joined the Saugatuck on its way to +the Sound (fig. 9). However, the normal condition was not lasting, for +the reversal of Still River, as later described, brought about a +complex arrangement of barbed streams (fig. 4) which remained until +modified by glacial action. + +In a large stream system which has been reversed, considerable +evidence may be gathered from the angle at which tributary streams +enter. As the original direction of Rocky River in its last 2-1/2 +miles is unchanged, normal tributaries should be expected; whereas +between Jerusalem and the head of the stream entering Neversink Pond +from the south, in accordance with the hypothesis that this portion of +the stream was reversed, tributaries pointing upstream might be +expected. Such little gullies as join Rocky River near its mouth are +normal in direction; between Jerusalem and the mouth of Wood Creek, a +distance of 4-1/2 miles, there are no distinct tributaries. South of +the mouth of Wood Creek are four tributaries: (1) the brook which +enters the valley from the west about one mile south of Neversink +Pond, (2) Balls Brook, which empties into Neversink Pond, and (3) two +streams on the east side--Mountain Brook and one other unnamed (fig. +1). All these, except Mountain Brook, are normal to the reconstructed +drainage. The evidence of the tributaries, though not decisive, is +thus favorable to the hypothesis of reversal. + + +THE BURIED CHANNEL + +Figures 3 and 5 show what is known of the buried channel of Rocky +River. The only definite information as to rock levels is that derived +from the drill holes made by R. E. Dakin for the J. A. P. Crisfield +Contracting Company in connection with work on a reservoir for the +Connecticut Light and Power Company. Numerous holes were drilled at +the points indicated on fig. 5 as No. 8, D, J, No. 7+1000, and No. 7, +but only those showing the lowest rock levels need be considered. In +the following account the elevations quoted are those determined by R. +E. Dakin which differ, as shown in fig. 3, A, from those of the New +Milford atlas sheet. + +Between the mouth of Wood Creek and Jerusalem bridge holes made near +the river show that the depth of the drift--chiefly sand, gravel, and +clay--varies from 45 to 140 feet. The greatest thickness of drift, +consisting of humus, quicksand and clay, is 140 feet at a point 20 +feet from the east bank of Rocky River and about 1-3/4 miles north of +the mouth of Wood Creek (fig. 5, D). Although some allowance should be +made for glacial scouring, the rock level at this point, 244 feet, is +so much lower than any other record obtained between this point and +Danbury that one is obliged to assume a buried channel with a level at +Danbury at least 75 feet below the rock level found in the lowest well +record.[7] It is probable that this well is not situated where the +rock is lowest, that is, it may be on one side of the old Still River +channel. + +[Footnote 7: Well of J. Hornig, rear of Bottling Works, near foot of + Tower Place, 35 ft. to rock, indicated at _a_, fig. 5. The well of + Bartley & Clancey, 94 White Street, 70 ft. to rock, is also + indicated at _b_, fig. 5.] + + +The level obtained at No. 8 is from a hole drilled within 50 feet of +the river. The drill struck rock at an elevation of 316 feet after +passing through 69 feet of quicksand, gravel, and till. This is +clearly not within the channel as it is quite impossible to reconcile +the figure with that at D, less than a mile distant. + +South of Jerusalem bridge at J, 150 feet from the river, a hole was +bored through 95 feet of clay, sand, and gravel before striking rock +at an elevation of 298 feet. + +[Illustration: ~Fig. 5.~ Rocky River Valley. Diagram indicating lowest + rock levels which have been discovered by drilling.] + + +At the point marked No. 7+1000, about 1-1/4 miles from the mouth of +Rocky River, the evidence derived from 8 drill holes, bored at +distances ranging from 200 to 550 feet from the right bank, shows the +drift cover to be from 48 to 72 feet in thickness. At 200 feet from +the river the drill passed through 72 feet of sand, clay, and gravel +before striking rock at 303 feet above sea-level. + +At No. 7, about one mile from the mouth of Rocky River, a hole drilled +415 feet from the right bank showed 58 feet of drift, consisting of +clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. The drill reached rock at 342 feet, +which is the figure given by R. E. Dakin for the elevation of the +river at this point. Drill holes made, respectively, at 50 and 60 feet +to the right of this one showed a drift cover of 61 feet, so that the +underlying rock rises only 4 feet in a distance of 475 feet to the +east of the river. + +The foregoing evidence, showing a rock level at D 98 feet lower than +that at No. 7, leaves no doubt that the preglacial course of Rocky +River was to the south from No. 7, and there is nothing in the +topography between Jerusalem and Danbury to make improbable the +existence of a buried channel. + + +EFFECT OF GLACIATION + +The preglacial history of Rocky River as outlined assumes that before +the glacier covered this part of Connecticut the present lower course +of Rocky River was separated from the rest of the system by a divide +situated somewhere between the present mouth of the river and the +mouth of Wood Creek. It remains to be shown by what process Rocky +River was cut off from its southern outlet into Still River and forced +up its eastern branch and over the col into a tributary of the +Housatonic. Though the preglacial course of Rocky River appears to be +more natural than the present one, it is really a longer course to the +Housatonic; the older route being 32 miles, whereas the present course +is 19 miles. This fact explains, in part, why the glacier had little +difficulty in altering the preglacial drainage, and how the change so +effected became permanent. Eccentric as the resulting system of +drainage is, it would have been still more so had Rocky River when +ponded overflowed at the head of its western instead of its eastern +fork, taken its way past Sherman into the Housatonic near +Gaylordsville, and discharging at this point lost the advantage of the +fall of the Housatonic between Gaylordsville and Boardman. + +In glaciated regions an area of swamp land may be taken as an +indication of interference by the glacier with the natural run-off. +The swamp in which Wood Creek joins the upper fork of Rocky River +(fig. 1), was formerly a lake due to a dam built across the lower end +of a river valley. Although the ponded water extended only a short +distance up the steeper side valleys, it extended several miles up the +main stream. The whole area of this glacial lake, except two small +ponds and the narrow channels through which the river now flows, has +been converted into a peat-filled bog having a depth of from 8 to 45 +feet.[8] + +At the termination of the swampy area on the eastern branch of Rocky +River no indication is found of a dam such as would be required for so +extensive a ponding of the waters. Here the valley is very narrow, and +though the river bed is encumbered with heavy boulders, rock outcrops +are so numerous as to preclude the idea of a drift cover raising the +water level. This is just the condition to be expected if Rocky River +reached its present outlet by overtopping a low col at the head of its +former eastern branch. + +The southern end of the Neversink Pond valley is the only other place +whose level is so low that drift deposits could have interfered with +the Rocky River drainage. The moraine at the head of this valley, +crossing the country some two miles north of the city of Danbury and +binding together two prominent north-and-south ridges, was evidently +the barrier which choked the Rocky River valley near its mouth and +turned back the preglacial river. + +When Rocky River was thus ponded its lowest outlet was found to be at +the head of its eastern fork. Here the waters spilled over the old +divide and took possession of the channel of a small stream draining +into the Housatonic. Accordingly Rocky River should be found cutting +its bed where it crosses the former divide. It seems reasonable to +regard the gorge half-way between Jerusalem bridge and Housatonic +River as approximately the position of the preglacial divide and to +consider the small flat area to the north of Jerusalem bridge as a +flood plain on softer rock, worn down as low as the outcrops of more +resistant rock occurring farther down the valley will permit. The +reversal of the river may account for the sudden transition from a +flat-bottomed valley to a rocky gorge; and for the abrupt change in +the profile, bringing the steepest part of the river near its mouth. +The increased volume of water flowing through the channel since +glacial time has plainly cut down the bed of the ravine between +Jerusalem and the river's mouth, but the channel is still far from +being graded. + +[Footnote 8: Report of soundings made in 1907 by T. T. Giffen.] + + + +THE NEVERSINK-DANBURY VALLEY. + +Between Neversink Pond and Danbury extends a deep rock valley, in +places filled with drift. As has been shown, this valley was probably +occupied in preglacial time by Rocky River, which then flowed +southward. At its southern end is Still River, which flows through +Danbury from west to east. + +The most important tributary of the Still rises northwest of the city, +just beyond the New York-Connecticut boundary line, and has two forks. +The northern fork, which drains East Lake, Padanaram Reservoir, and +Margerie Pond, flows along the northeast side of Clapboard Ridge. The +southern fork has two branches; the northern one includes the +reservoirs of Upper Kohanza and Lake Kohanza, while the upper waters +of the southern branch have been recently dammed to form an extensive +reservoir. On approaching the city, the northernmost fork (draining +East Lake) turns sharply out of its southeast course and flows in a +direction a little east of north. At the end of Clapboard Ridge, the +stream makes a detour around a knoll of coarse stratified drift. From +this turn until it joins Still River, a distance of about a mile, the +stream occupies a broad and partly swampy valley. + + +At the cemetery in this valley (fig. 1, C) are two eskers of symmetric +form, each a few hundred yards in length and trending nearly parallel +with the valley axis. East of the valley, and about 1-1/2 miles north +of the cemetery, is a broad, flat-topped ridge of till with rock +exposed at the ends, forming a barrier which doubtless existed in +preglacial time. West of the valley is a hill with rock foundation +rounded out on the northeast side by a mass of drift. The preglacial +course of Rocky River was between the outcrops at these two +localities. + +Northwest of the cemetery for one and a half miles the uneven surface +is formed of till and small patches of stratified drift. In a swamp +near the north end of the cemetery is a curved esker with lobes +extending south and southwest. One mile north of this swamp is an area +of excessively coarse till containing boulders which range in diameter +from 6 to 10 feet and forming a low ridge separating two ravines, in +which head streams flowing in opposite directions. The area of coarse +till is bounded on the north by a long sinuous esker of coarse gravel +terminating in a flat fan, which is superposed on a field of fine +till. Associated with the esker is an interesting group of kames and +kettleholes, the largest kettlehole being distinguished by distinct +plant zones banding the sides of the depression. + +North of the area of boulders, eskers, and kames just described lies a +swamp whose surface is 30 to 40 feet below the upper level of the kame +gravels. Soundings made by T. T. Giffen revealed the presence of 36 +feet of peat and 2 feet of silt overlying firm sand, so that 70 feet +is the minimum estimate for the difference in level between the +surface of the gravels and the floor of the swamp. + +Below the rocky cliffs which line the valley sides are boulders +brought by the ice from near-by ledges, and about one-half mile above +the head of the swamp are remnants of a terrace standing 20 to 30 feet +above the level of the stream. Although the terrace appears to consist +of till, it may conceal a rock floor which was cut by a former stream. +As the valley is followed toward Neversink Pond, the various features +of a till-coated, rock-floored valley are seen. + + +[Illustration: ~Fig. 6.~ Course of Still River. Dotted lines show the + preglacial channels.] + + + + + +STILL RIVER + +STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM + + +Still River presents several unusual features, as shown in fig. 6. +Tributaries from the west and south unite at Danbury to form a stream +flowing northward opposite to the regional land slope. Near its +junction with the Housatonic, the river flows northward, whereas its +master stream half a mile distant flows southward. The lower valley of +the river is broad and flat and apparently much out of proportion to +the present stream; it is, indeed, comformable in size and direction +with the valley of the Housatonic above the mouth of the Still. The +Housatonic, however, instead of choosing the broad lowland in the +limestone formation, spread invitingly before it, turns aside and +flows through a narrow gorge cut in resistant gneiss, schist, and +igneous intrusives. The headwaters of the Still mingle with those of +the Croton system, and its chief southern branch, the Umpog, is +interlaced with the sources of the Saugatuck on a divide marked by +glacial drift and swamps. The explanation of these features involves +not only the history of the Still River system, but also that of the +Housatonic. + +In explanation of the present unusual arrangement of streams in +the Still River system, four hypotheses may be considered: + +I. Still River valley is the ancient bed of the Housatonic from which +that river has been diverted through reversal caused by a glacial dam. + + +II. The Housatonic has always had its present southeasterly course, +but the Still, heading at some point in its valley north of Danbury, +flowed initially southward through one of four possible outlets. The +latter stream was later reversed by a glacial dam at the southern end, +or by glacial scouring at the northern end of its valley which removed +the divide between its headwaters and the Housatonic. + +III. The Housatonic has always held its present southeasterly course, +and the Still initially flowed southward, as stated above. Reversal in +this case, however, occurred in a very early stage in the development +of the drainage, as the result of the capture of the headwaters of the +Still by a small tributary of the Housatonic. + +IV. The Housatonic has always held its present southeasterly course, +but the Still has developed from the beginning as a subsequent stream +in the direction in which it now flows. + +The first hypothesis, that the Still is the ancient channel of the +Housatonic, has been advocated by Professor Hobbs, who has stated: + + "That the valley of the Still was formerly occupied by a large + stream is probable from its wide valley area.... The former + discharge of the waters of the Housatonic through the Still into + the Croton system, on the one hand, or into the Saugatuck on the + other, would require the assumption of extremely slight changes + only in the rock channels which now connect them.... To turn the + river (the Housatonic) from its course along the limestone + valley some obstruction or differential uplift within the river + basin may have been responsible. The former seems to be the more + probable explanation in view of the large accumulations of drift + material in the area south and west of Bethel and Danbury." + + "The structural valleys believed to be present in the + crystalline rocks of the uplands due to post-Newark deformation + may well have directed the course of the Housatonic after it had + once deserted the limestone ... The deep gorge of the Housatonic + through which the river enters the uplands not only crosses the + first high ridge of gneiss in the rectilinear direction of one + of the fault series, but its precipitous walls show the presence + of minor planes of dislocation, along which the bottom of the + valley appears to have been depressed."[9] + + +The hypothesis proposed by Professor Hobbs and also the second and +third hypotheses here given involve the supposition of reversal of +drainage, and their validity rests on the probability that the stream +now occupying Still River valley formerly flowed southward. The first +and second hypotheses will be considered in the following section. + +[Footnote 9: Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull. + Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, pp. 17-26, 1901.] + + + +EVIDENCE TO BE EXPECTED IF STILL RIVER HAS BEEN REVERSED + +If Still River occupies the valley of a reversed stream, the following +physiographic features should be expected: + +1. A valley with a continuous width corresponding to the size of the +ancient stream, or a valley comparatively narrow at the north and +broadening toward the south. + +2. Tributary valleys pointing upstream with respect to the present +river. + +3. The regional slope not in accord with the present course of the +river. + +4. Extensive glacial filling and ponded waters in the region of the +present sources of Still River. + +5. Strong glacial scouring at the northern end in default of a glacial +dam at the southern end of the valley, or to assist a dam in its work +of reversing the river. The evidence of glacial erosion would be a +U-shaped valley, overdeepening of the main valley, and tributaries +ungraded with respect to the main stream. + + +1. A VALLEY WIDE THROUGHOUT OR BROADENING TOWARD THE SOUTH + +At the mouth of Still River and for several miles north and south of +it there is a plain more than a mile broad. This plain continues +southward with a width of about one-half mile until, at Brookfield, it +is interrupted by ledges of bare rock. A little distance south of +Brookfield the valley broadens again to one-half mile, and this width +is retained with some variation as far as Danbury. Drift deposits +along the border of the valley make it appear narrower in some places +than is indicated by rock outcrops. Between Brookfield and Danbury the +narrowest place in the valley is southwest of Beaver Brook Mountain, +where the distance between the hills of rock bounding the valley is +one-fifth of a mile (fig. 6). Opposite Beaver Brook Mountain, which +presents vertical faces of granite-gneiss toward the valley, is a hill +of limestone. Ice, crowding through this narrow place in the valley, +must have torn masses of rock from the side walls, so that the valley +is now broader than in preglacial time. The constrictions in the +valley near Shelter Rock are due to the fact that the preglacial +valley, now partly buried in till, lies to the north. There are +stretches of broad floor in the valley of Beaver Brook, in the lower +valley of Umpog Creek, in the fields at the south end of Main Street +in Danbury, about Lake Kanosha, and where the Danbury Fair Grounds are +situated. In the western part of Danbury, however, and at Mill Plain +the valley is very narrow, and at the head of Sugar Hollow, the valley +lying east of Spruce Mountain, is a narrow col. + +The broadest continuous area in the Still-Umpog Valley is, therefore, +in the lower six miles between Brookfield and New Milford; south of +that portion are several places where the valley is sharply +constricted; and beyond the head of the Umpog, about one and a half +miles below West Redding station (fig. 7), the Saugatuck Valley is a +very narrow gorge. On the whole, the valleys south and southwest of +Danbury are much narrower than the valley of the Still farther north. +It is evident from these observations that Still River Valley is +neither uniformly broad, nor does it increase in width toward the +south. + +But if a broad valley is to be accepted as evidence of the work of a +large river, then there is too much evidence in the Still River +valley. The broad areas named above are more or less isolated +lowlands, some of them quite out of the main line of drainage, and can +not be grouped to form a continuous valley. They can not be attributed +to the Housatonic nor wholly to the work of the insignificant streams +now draining them. These broad expanses are, in fact, local peneplains +developed on areas of soluble limestone. The rock has dissolved and +the plain so produced has been made more nearly level by a coating of +peat and glacial sand. In a region of level and undisturbed strata, +such as the Ohio or Mississippi Valley, a constant relation may exist +between the size of a stream and the valley made by it; but in a +region of complicated geologic structure, such as western Connecticut, +where rocks differ widely in their resistance to erosion, the same +result is not to be expected. In this region the valleys are commonly +developed on limestone and their width is closely controlled by the +width of the belt of limestone. Even the narrow valleys in the upland +southwest of Danbury are to be accounted for by the presence of thin +lenses of limestone embedded in gneiss and schist. + +The opinion of Hobbs that Still River valley is too wide to be the +work of the present stream takes into consideration only the broad +places, but when the narrow places are considered it may be said as +well that the valley is too narrow to be the work of a stream larger +than the one now occupying it. Valley width has only negative value in +interpreting the history of Still River. + + + +2. TRIBUTARY VALLEYS POINTING UPSTREAM + +The dominant topographic feature of western Connecticut, as may be +seen on the atlas sheets, is elongated oval hills trending north by +west to south by east, which is the direction of the axes of the folds +into which the strata were thrown at the time their metamorphism took +place. Furthermore, the direction of glacial movement in this part of +New England was almost precisely that of foliation, and scouring by +ice merely accentuated the dominant north-south trend of the valleys +and ridges. As a result, the smaller streams developed on the softer +rocks are generally parallel to each other and to the strike of the +rocks. These streams commonly bend around the ends of the hills but do +not cross them. The narrowness of the belts of soft rock makes it easy +for the drainage of the valleys to be gathered by a single lengthwise +stream. The Still and its larger tributaries conform in this way to +the structure. + +On the east side of the Still-Umpog every branch, except two rivulets +1-1/4 miles south of Bethel, points in the normal direction, that is, +to the north, or downstream as the river now flows (fig. 6). The +largest eastern tributary, Beaver Brook, is in a preglacial valley now +converted into a swamp the location and size of which are due entirely +to a belt of limestone. It is not impossible that Beaver Brook may +have once flowed southward toward Bethel, but the limestone at its +mouth, which lies at least 60 feet lower than that at its head, shows +that if such were ever the case it must have been before the +north-flowing Still River had removed the limestone north of Beaver +Brook Swamp. + +On the flanks of Beaver Brook Mountain are three tributaries which +enter the river against its present course. Examination of the +structure reveals, however, that these streams like those on the east +side of the river are controlled in their direction by the orientation +of the harder rock masses. The southward flowing stream four miles in +length which drains the upland west of Beaver Brook Mountain has an +abnormal direction in the upper part of its course, but on reaching +the flood plain it takes a sharp turn to the north. Above the latter +point it is in line with the streams near Beaver Brook Mountain and is +abnormal in consequence of a line of weakness in the rock. + +The lowland lying west of Umpog valley, extending from Main Street in +Danbury to a point one mile beyond Bethel, affords no definite +evidence in regard to the direction of tributaries. In reconstructing +the history of this valley the chief difficulty arises from the +old-age condition of the flood plain. Drainage channels which must +once have existed have been obliterated, leaving a swampy plain which +from end to end varies less than 20 feet in elevation. It is likely +that in preglacial times the part of the valley north of Grassy Plain, +if not the entire valley, drained northward into Still River, as now +do Umpog Creek and Beaver Brook. From this outlet heavy drift deposits +near the river later cut it off. The lowland is now drained by a +stream which enters the Umpog north of Grassy Plain. Several small +streams tributary to the Umpog south of Bethel also furnish no +evidence in favor of the reversal of Still River. + +West of Danbury the tributaries of Still River point upstream on one +side and downstream on the other side of the valley, in conformity +with the rock structure which is here diagonal to the limestone belt +on which the river is located. Their direction in harmony with the +trend of the rocks has, therefore, no significance in the earlier +history of the river. + +From the foregoing discussion, it appears that no definite conclusions +in regard to the history of Still River can be drawn from the angle at +which tributaries enter it. The direction of the branches which enter +at an abnormal angle can be explained without assuming a reversal of +the main stream, and likewise many of the tributaries with normal +trends seem to have adopted their courses without regard to the +direction of Still River. + + +3. REGIONAL SLOPE NOT IN ACCORD WITH COURSE OF THE STILL + +Although the regional slope of western Connecticut as a whole is +contrary to that of Still River, there is no marked lowering of the +hill summits between the source of the river and its mouth. As +branches on the south side of the Housatonic are naturally to be +expected, there is nothing unusual in the Still flowing in opposition +to the regional slope, except that it flows toward the north instead +of the northeast. + + +4. EVIDENCE OF GLACIAL FILLING AND DEGRADING OF THE RIVER BED + +Hobbs has suggested that the waters of the Housatonic may have been +ponded at a point near West Redding until they rose high enough to +overflow into the "fault gorge" below Still River Station, thus giving +the streams of the Danbury region an outlet to the Sound by this +route. This hypothesis calls for a glacial dam which has not been +found. It is true there are glacial deposits in the Umpog valley south +of Bethel. The Umpog flows as it does, however, not because of a +glacial "dam" but in spite of it. The river heads on rock beyond and +above the glacial deposits and picks its way through them (fig. 7). +Drift forms the divide at the western end of Still River valley beyond +Mill Plain, but the ponded water which it caused did not extend as far +as Danbury (see discussion of Still-Croton valley). The Sugar Hollow +pass is also filled with a heavy mantle of drift, but the valley is +both too high and too narrow at the col to have been the outlet of the +Housatonic. + +It might be assumed that just previous to the advent of the ice sheet +Still River headed south of its present mouth and flowed southward. In +this case the Still, when reversed, should have overflowed at the +lowest point on the divide between it and the Housatonic. It should +have deepened its channel over the former divide, and the result would +have been a gorge if the divide were high, or at least some evidence +of river cutting even if the divide were low. On the contrary, Still +River joins the Housatonic in a low, broad, and poorly drained plain. + +The existing relief is due to the uneven distribution of drift. The +river is now cutting a gorge at Lanesville, but the appearance of the +valley to the west indicates that glacial deposits forced the river +out of its former bed (fig. 6) and that no barrier lay between the +preglacial Still River valley and the Housatonic Valley. + +5. GLACIAL SCOURING + +A reversal of Still River may be explained by glacial scouring which +caused the northern end of the valley to become lower than the present +divides at West Redding and Mill Plain. The evidence of such scour +should be an overdeepened, U-shaped main valley and ungraded +tributaries. + +The northern part of Still River valley has not the typical U form +which results from glacial erosion. As contrasted with the U-shaped +glacial valley and the V-shaped valley of normal stream erosion, it +might be called rectangular so sharply does the flat valley floor +terminate against the steep hillsides. The floor is too smooth and +flat and the tributary valleys too closely adjusted to the variant +hardness of the rocks to be the work of such a rough instrument as the +glacier. A level so nearly perfect as that of the flood plain is the +natural result of erosion of soft rock down to a baselevel, whereas +glacial scouring tends to produce a surface with low rounded hills and +hollows. + +Overdeepening would be expected, because glaciers erode without +reference to existing baselevels. That a river valley should be cut +out by ice just enough to leave it graded with respect to the main +valley would be an unusual coincidence. This is what is found where +the Still River valley joins the Housatonic, and it indicates normal +stream erosion. Also, if the limestone of the northern Still River +valley were gouged out by the glacier, the action would in all +probability have been continuous in the limestone belt to the north +of the Housatonic, and where the belt of soft rock crosses the +Housatonic the river bed would be overdeepened. Although the valley of +the Housatonic near New Milford is very flat, as is natural where a +river crosses a belt of weak rock, the outcrops are sufficiently +numerous to show that it has not been overdeepened. The limestone area +along the East Aspetuck is largely overlain by till, but here again +the presence of rock in place shows that the valley has not been +overdeepened. Moreover, limestone boulders in the southern part of +Still River valley are not as abundant as they should be under the +hypothesis that the northern part had been gouged out extensively. + +That the northern part of the Still River valley was not deeply +carved by ice is shown also by the character of the tributary streams. +The three small brooks on the west side of the valley, near Beaver +Brook Mountain, were examined to see if their grades indicated an +over-deepening of the main valley. These streams, however, and others +so far as could be determined, were found to have normal profiles; +that is, their grades become increasingly flatter toward their mouths. +The streams are cutting through the till cover and are not building +alluvial cones where they join the lowland. All their features, in +fact, are characteristic of normal stream development. + +Throughout the length of the valley, rock outcrops are found near the +surface, showing that the changes produced by the glacier were due to +scouring rather than to the accumulation of glacial material. Except +where stratified drift is collected locally in considerable quantity, +the glacial mantle is thin. On the other hand, it has been shown that +glacial gouging was not sufficient in amount to affect the course of +the stream. The glacier simply cleaned off the soil and rotten rock +from the surface, slackening the stream here and hastening it there, +and by blocking the course with drift it forced the river at several +places to depart slightly from its preglacial course. + +The evidence shows, therefore, that if Still River has suffered +reversal, glaciation is not responsible for the change, and thus the +first two hypotheses for explaining the history of the valley are +eliminated. There remain for discussion the third and fourth +hypotheses; the former being that reversal was effected in a very +early stage in the development of the drainage, the latter that no +reversal has occurred. The choice between these two hypotheses rests +on evidence obtained in the Umpog, Croton, and other valleys of the +Danbury region. This evidence is presented in the three following +sections, after which the former courses of Still River will be +discussed. + + +THE STILL-SAUGATUCK DIVIDE + +FEATURES OF THE UMPOG VALLEY + +The valley of the Umpog, which extends from Still River to the source +of the Saugatuck near West Redding (fig. 7), is a critical area in the +study of the Still River system. It is possible that this valley once +afforded an outlet for Still River, and it has been suggested that the +Housatonic formerly followed this route to Long Island Sound. The +relation of this valley to the former drainage system of the Danbury +region demands, therefore, a careful examination of the features of +the valleys occupied by Umpog Creek and the upper waters of the +Saugatuck, and of the divide between those streams. + + +[Illustration: ~Fig. 7.~ Map of Umpog Swamp and vicinity.] + + +North of Bethel the Umpog occupies an open valley developed in +limestone. Knolls of limestone rise to heights of about 40 feet above +the floor of the valley and their upper surfaces are cut across the +highly, tilted beds. This truncation, together with a general +correspondence in height, suggests that these knolls, as well as the +rock terraces found between Bethel and West Redding, and the limestone +ridge which forms the divide itself, are portions of what was once a +more continuous terrace produced by stream erosion and that they +determine a former river level. The absence of accurate elevations and +the probability of glacial scour make conclusions regarding the +direction of slope of this dissected rock terrace somewhat uncertain. +As will be indicated later, however, it seems likely that these +terrace remnants mark the course of a southward flowing river that +existed in a very early stage in the development of the drainage. + +South of Bethel the old Umpog valley, has lost from one-third to +one-half its width through deposits of stratified drift (Pl. II, A and +B). On the west, gravel beds lie against rock and till; on the east, +deposits of sand and coarse gravel form a bench or terrace from 500 to +700 feet broad, which after following the side of the valley for +one-half mile, crosses it diagonally and joins the western slope as a +row of rounded hills. Through this drift the present stream has cut a +narrow channel. + +The narrowest part of the Umpog valley is about one mile south of +Bethel. Farther upstream the valley expands into the flat occupied by +Umpog Swamp, which presents several interesting features. The eastern, +southern, and western sides of the swamp are formed of irregular +masses of limestone and granite-gneiss 20 to 60 feet high. Near the +northwestern edge of the swamp is a terrace-like surface cut on +limestone. Its elevation is about the same as that of the beveled rock +remnants lying in Umpog valley north of Bethel. + + +[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 30. Plate II.~ + A. View up the valley of Umpog Creek. The valley dwindles in the + distance to the "railroad divide." In the middle distance is + Umpog Swamp; in the foreground the edge of the southern end of + row of Kames which points down the valley. + + B. View down the valley of Umpog Creek. To the left is the edge of + limestone terrace; in the middle distance is the Catholic + cemetery situated on a terrace of stratified drift; on the right + are mounds of stratified drift; in the distance is the granite + ridge bounding the valley on the east.] + + +[Illustration: +~Fig. 8.~ Profiles of rivers. + A. Profile of present Still River and buried channel of + Umpog-Still River. + B. Profile of preglacial Croton-Still River. + C. Profile of preglacial Umpog-Still River. + Solid lines show the present levels. + Dotted lines show preglacial levels.] + +Umpog Swamp was formerly a lake but is now nearly filled with organic +matter so that only a small remnant of the old water body remains. +Soundings have revealed no bottom at 43 feet[10] and the depth to rock +bottom is not less than 45 feet. The swamp situated one-half mile +southwest of Bethel has a depth to rock of 35 feet. In their relation +to the Still River system these two swamps may be regarded simply as +extensions of the Umpog Creek channel, but when the elevations of +their bottoms are compared with that of points to the north and south, +where the river flows on rock, it will be seen that a profile results +which is entirely out of harmony with the present profile of the +river. Thus Umpog Creek falls 40 feet at the point where it spills +over the rock ledge into the swamp, and if the 45 feet which measures +the depth of Umpog Swamp be added, the difference in level is seen to +be at least 85 feet. A similar calculation locates the bottom of the +smaller swamp near Bethel at an elevation of 340 feet above sea-level +or on the same level as the bottom of Umpog Swamp. In a straight line +2-1/4 miles north of Bethel, Still River crosses rock at a level of +350 feet, or 10 feet higher than the bottom of Umpog Swamp. At +Brookfield, 6-1/2 miles north of the mouth of the Umpog, the Still +crosses rock at 260 feet, and 4-1/2 miles farther north, it joins the +Housatonic on a rock floor 200 feet above sea-level (fig. 8, A). Such +a profile can be explained in either of two ways: glaciers gouged out +rock basins in the weak limestone, or the river in its lower part has +been forced out of its graded bed onto rock at a higher level. +Probably both causes have operated, but the latter has produced more +marked effects. + +Umpog Creek has its source in a small forked stream which rises in the +granite hills east of the south end of Umpog Swamp. After passing +westward through a flat swampy area, where it is joined by the waters +from Todd Pond, the stream turns north and follows a shallow rock +gorge until Umpog Swamp is reached. The divide which separates the +present headwaters of the Umpog from those of the Saugatuck is a +till-covered swampy flat about one-quarter mile east of Todd Pond. +This arrangement of tributary streams is correctly shown in fig. 7 and +differs essentially from that shown on the Danbury atlas sheet. This +divide owes its position to the effects of glaciation. Deposits of +till and the scouring of the bed rock so modified the preglacial +surface that the upper part of the Saugatuck was cut off and made +tributary to the Umpog. + +[Footnote 10: Report by T. T. Giffen, 1907.] + + + +THE PREGLACIAL DIVIDE + +In order to determine whether Still River flowed southward through the +Saugatuck Valley just before the advent of the ice sheet, the borders +of Umpog Swamp and the region to the south and east were examined. It +was found that Umpog Swamp is walled in on the south by ledges of firm +crystalline limestone and that the rock-floored ravine leading +southward from the swamp, and occupied by the railroad, lies at too +high an elevation to have been the channel of a through-flowing +stream. A south-flowing Still River, and much less an ancient +Housatonic, could not have had its course through this ravine just +previous to glaciation. A course for these rivers through the short +valley which extends southeastward from Umpog Swamp is also ruled out, +because the bedrock floor of this hypothetical passageway is 20 feet +higher than the floor of the ravine through which the railroad passes. + +The eastern border of Umpog Swamp is determined by a ridge of +limestone which separates the swamp from lowlying land beyond. This +ridge is continuous, except for the postglacial gorge cut by the +tributary entering from the east, and must have been in existence in +preglacial times. The entire lowland east of this limestone ridge +possesses a unity that is not in harmony with the present division of +the drainage. The streams from this hillside and those from the west +may have joined in the flat-floored valley at the head of the +Saugatuck and from there flowed into the Saugatuck system. The former +divide then lay in a line connecting the limestone rim of the swamp +with the tongue of highland which the highway crosses south of Todd +Pond (fig. 7). + + +THE STILL-CROTON DIVIDE + + +INTRODUCTION + +The deep valley extending from the Danbury Fair Grounds to the East +Branch Reservoir in the Croton River system, has given rise to the +suggestion that the course of the Housatonic formerly may have been +along the line of Still and Croton rivers and thence to the +Hudson.[11] From the evidence of the topographic map alone, this +hypothesis appears improbable. The trend of the larger streams in +western Connecticut is to the south and southeast; a southwesterly +course, therefore, would be out of harmony with the prevailing +direction of drainage. Also, the distance from the present mouth of +Still River to tidewater by the Still-Croton route is longer than +the present route by way of the Housatonic. + +[Footnote 11: Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull. + Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, p. 25, 1901.] + + + +FEATURES OF STILL RIVER VALLEY WEST OF DANBURY + +From Danbury to its source Still River occupies a valley whose +features are significant in the history of the drainage. Between +Danbury and the Fair Grounds (fig. 1) the valley is a V-shaped ravine +1-1/2 miles long, well proportioned to the small stream now occupying +it but entirely too narrow for the channel of a large river. Along the +valley are outcrops of schist, and granite rock is present on both +sides of the valley for a distance of about one-quarter mile. Part of +the valley is a mere cleft cut in the rock and is unglaciated. At the +Danbury Fair Grounds the valley opens out into a marshy plain, through +which the river meanders and receives two tributaries from the south. +The plain, which extends beyond Lake Kanosha on the west, has a +generally level surface but is diversified in places by mounds of +stratified drift. + +Near the railroad a rock outcrop was found which gives a clue to the +nature of the broad lowland. The rock consists mainly of schist, but +on the side next the valley there is a facing of rotten limestone. +This plain, like all the others in this region, is a local peneplain +developed on soluble limestone. A better example could not be found to +prove the fallacy of the saying that "a broad valley proves the +existence of a large river." The plain is simply a local expansion of +a valley which on each side is much narrower. No other river than the +one flowing through it can have been responsible for the erosion, for +the plain is enclosed by hills of gneiss and schist (Pl. III). + +At Mill Plain the valley is crowded by ragged rock outcrops which jut +into the lowland. Here the river occupies a ravine cut in till near +the north side of the valley. West of Mill Plain station the valley is +encumbered with ridges of stratified drift, interspersed with heavy +accumulations of till. Near Andrew Pond the true width of the +valley--one-eighth mile--is shown by rock outcrops on both the north +and south slopes. The valley at this point gives no indication of +narrowing toward the headwaters; in fact, it becomes broader toward +the west. + +Between Andrew Pond and Haines' Pond is the divide which separates the +waters of the Still system from those of the Croton. It consists of a +jumbled mass of morainal hills, seemingly of boulder clay, that rise +from 50 to 60 feet above the level of the ponds. The divide is thus +merely a local obstruction in what was formerly a through drainage +channel. + + +THE STILL-CROTON VALLEY + +It is evident that before the advent of the glacier a stream must have +flowed through the Still-Croton valley past the present divide in +order to have excavated the rock valley there found. The Housatonic +could not have flowed west through this valley if it was as narrow and +shallow as is indicated by known rock outcrops; the river could have +flowed through it only in a deep narrow gorge which was later buried +under drift, but the evidence at hand does not support this view. + + +[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate III.~ + Limestone Plain southwest of Danbury, in which are situated the + Danbury Fair Grounds and Lake Kanosha.] + + + +It is most probable that this valley was made by the preglacial +Croton River. This explanation demands no change in the direction of +Still and Croton Rivers but calls for a divide at some point east of +the present one. From a divide between the Fair Grounds and Danbury, a +small stream may be supposed to have flowed toward the east, joining +the larger northern branch of the Still at a point near the middle of +the city of Danbury. The stream flowing westward from this divide +formed the headwaters of one branch of the Croton system. + +The presence of till in a ravine can be used as a criterion for +locating the site of a former divide, for where till is present in +the bed of a stream the channel is of preglacial date. Where the river +crosses a divide it should be cutting through rock, though till may be +present on the valley slopes. Judged by this test, the old divide was +situated either just east of the Fair Grounds plain or at the east end +of the ravine described in the preceding topic. Of these two positions +the one near the Fair Grounds seems the more likely (fig. 1), for at +this place the river has excavated a recent channel with steep sides +in gneissoid rock. The absence of the limestone at this point may be +sufficient in itself to explain the location of the divide. + +Exact measurements of the drift in the upper Still valley are needed +in order to establish this hypothesis completely and to plot the old +channel, but the position of the rock floor of the former channel +extending westward from the Fair Grounds may be fixed approximately. +The rock at the assumed divide now stands at 420 feet above sea-level +and it is reasonable to assume that ten feet has been removed by +glacial scouring and postglacial erosion, making the original +elevation 430 feet. The present divide between Andrew Pond and Haines' +Pond has an elevation of 460, but the bedrock at this place is buried +under 60 feet of drift, so that the valley floor lies at 400 feet. +According to these estimates the stream which headed east of the Fair +Grounds had a fall of 30 feet before reaching the site of the present +Haines' Pond (fig. 8, B). + + +GLACIAL LAKE KANOSHA + +When the Croton Branch was beheaded by drift choking up its valley +west of Andrew Pond, the ponded waters rose to a height of from 20 to +30 feet and then overflowed the basin on the side toward Danbury. The +outlet was established across the old divide, and as the gorge by +which the water escaped was cut down, the level of the ponded waters +was lowered. At the same time, also, the lake was filled by debris +washed into it from the surrounding slopes. Thus the present flat +plain was formed and the old valley floor, a local peneplain developed +on the limestone, was hidden. + + +DIVIDES IN THE HIGHLANDS SOUTH OF DANBURY + +The mountain mass to the south and southwest of Danbury, including +Town Hill and Spruce, Moses, and Thomas mountains, is traversed by a +series of parallel gorges trending nearly north and south (fig. 2). +About midway in each valley is a col, separating north and +south-flowing streams. Two of the valleys, those between Spruce and +Moses mountains, and Thomas Mountain and Town Hill, form fairly low +and broad passes. They were examined to see whether either could have +afforded a southerly outlet for Still River. + +The rock composing the mountains is granite-gneiss and schist with an +average strike of N 30° W, or very nearly in line with the trend of +the valleys. The gneiss was found to be characteristic of the high +ridges and schist to be more common in the valleys. No outcrops of +limestone were found on the ridges, but at two or three localities +limestone in place was found on low ground. From the facts observed +it is evident that the stronger features of the relief are due to the +presence of bodies of resistant rock, whereas the valleys are due to +the presence of softer rock. The series of deep parallel valleys is +attributed to the presence of limestone rather than schist. + +The gorge between Spruce and Moses mountains, locally called "Sugar +Hollow," narrows southward as it rises to the col, and the rock floor +is buried under till and stratified drift to depths of 25 to 50 feet. +Nevertheless it is probable that the valley was no deeper in +preglacial time than it is now. The plan of the valley with its broad +mouth to the north favored glacial scour so that the ice widened and +deepened the valley and gave it a U form. Scouring and filling are +believed to have been about equal in amount, and the present height +of the divide, about 470 feet, may be taken as the preglacial +elevation. This is 70 feet higher than the rock floor of the divide at +West Redding. The pass could not, therefore, have served as an outlet +for Still River. + +The valley west of Town Hill is similar in form and origin to Sugar +Hollow. The water parting occurs in a swamp, from each end of which a +small brook flows. The height of the pass in this valley--590 feet-- +precludes its use as an ancient outlet for Still River. Likewise the +valley east of Town Hill affords no evidence of occupation by a +southward through-flowing stream. + + +THE ANCIENT STILL RIVER + +The conclusion that the Still-Umpog was not reversed by a glacial dam +does not preclude the possibility that this valley has been occupied +by a south-flowing stream. It is probable that in an early stage in +the development of the drainage, the streams of the Danbury region +reached Long Island Sound by way of the Still-Umpog-Saugatuck valley. +Along this route, as described under the heading "The Still-Saugatuck +Divide," is a fairly broad continuous valley at a higher level than +the beds of the present rivers. A south-flowing river, as shown in +fig. 9, brings all the drainage between Danbury and the Housatonic +into normal relations. + +This early relationship of the streams was disturbed by the reversal +of the waters of the ancient Still in the natural development of a +subsequent drainage. The Housatonic lowered the northern end of the +limestone belt, in the region between New Milford and Stillriver +village, faster than the smaller south-flowing stream was able to +erode its bed. Eventually a small tributary of the Housatonic captured +the headwaters of the south-flowing river, and by the time the latter +had been reversed as far south as the present divide at Umpog Swamp, +it is probable that the advantage gained by the more rapid erosion of +the Housatonic was offset by the Saugatuck's shorter course to the +sea. As a result the divide between Still and Saugatuck Rivers at +Umpog Swamp had become practically stationary before the advent of the +glacier. + +The complex history of Still River is not fully shown in the stream +profile, for the latter is nearly normal, except in the rock basins in +the valley of the Umpog. This is due to the fact that changes in the +course of the Still, caused by the development of a subsequent +drainage through differential erosion, were made so long ago that +evidence of them has been largely destroyed. + +The foregoing conclusion practically eliminates hypothesis IV--that +the Still developed from the beginning as a subsequent stream in the +direction in which it now flows. This hypothesis holds good only for +the short portion of the lower course of the present river, that is, +the part representing the short tributary of the Housatonic which +captured and reversed the original Still. + + +DEPARTURES OF STILL RIVER FROM ITS PREGLACIAL CHANNEL + +Between Danbury and Beaver Brook Mountain the Still departs widely +from its former channel, as shown in fig. 6. At the foot of Liberty +Street in Danbury the river makes a sharp turn to the southeast, flows +through a flat plain, and for some distance follows the limestone +valley of the Umpog, meeting the latter stream in a swampy meadow. It +then cuts across the western end of Shelter Rock in a gorge-like +valley not over 200 feet wide. Outcrops of a gneissoid schist on the +valley sides and rapids in the stream bear witness to the youthfulness +of this portion of the river channel. + +An open valley which extends from the foot of Liberty Street in a +northeasterly direction (the railroad follows it) marks the former +course of Still River, but after the stream was forced out of this +course and superimposed across the end of Shelter Rock by the +accumulation of drift in the central and northern parts of the valley, +it was unable to regain its old channel until near Beaver Brook +Mountain. The deposits of drift not only have kept the Still confined +to the eastern side of its valley but have forced a tributary from the +west to flow along the edge of the valley for a mile before it joins +its master stream. + +About a mile north of Brookfield Junction, Still River valley begins +to narrow, and at Brookfield the river, here crowded to the extreme +eastern side, is cutting a gorge through limestone. The preglacial +course of the Still in the Brookfield region seems to have been near +the center of the valley where it was joined by Long Brook and other +short, direct streams draining the hillsides. The glacier, however, +left a thick blanket of drift in the middle of the valley which turned +the Still to the east over rock and forced Long Brook to flow for more +than a mile along the extreme western side of the valley. + + +[Illustration: ~Fig. 9.~ Early stage of the Rocky-Still River, + antedating preglacial course shown in figure 4.] + + +The broad valley through which the Still flows in the lower part of +its course extends northward beyond it for over two miles, bordering +the Housatonic River. At Lanesville near the mouth of the Still, the +river has cut a gorge 30 feet deep and one-quarter mile long in the +limestone. Upstream from this gorge the river meanders widely in a +flat valley, whereas on the downstream side it has cut a deep channel +in the drift in order to reach the level of the Housatonic. There is +room in the drift-covered plain to the west for a buried channel of +Still River which could join the Housatonic at any point between New +Milford and Stillriver station. If the depth of the drift be taken at +25 feet, there would seem to be no objection to the supposition that +the Still initially joined its master stream opposite New Milford, as +shown in fig 6. After the limestone had been worn down to approximate +baselevel, the tendency of the Still would have been to seek an outlet +farther south in order to shorten its course and reach a lower level +on the Housatonic. This stage in the evolution of the river may not +have been reached before the ice age, and it is thus possible that +glacial deposits may have pushed the river to the extreme southern +side of its valley, superimposed it over rock, and forced it to cut +its way down to grade. + + +SUGGESTED COURSES OF HOUSATONIC RIVER + + +As possible former outlets for the Housatonic, Hobbs has suggested the +Still-Umpog-Saugatuck valley or the Still-Croton valley (by way of the +East Branch Reservoir)[12], whereas Crosby has suggested the Ten +Mile-Swamp River-Muddy Brook-Croton River valley (by way of Webatuck, +Wing's Station, and Pawling), or the Fall's Village-Limerock-Sharon- +Webatuck Creek-Ten Mile valley.[13] The sketch map, fig. 10, indicates +the courses just outlined and one other by way of the Norwalk. The +latter is the route followed by the Danbury and Norwalk Division of the +Housatonic Railroad. It is natural to assume that the Housatonic might +have occupied anyone of these lines of valleys, particularly where they +are developed on limestone and seem too broad for the streams now +occupying them. Nevertheless, although each of these routes is on soft +rock and some give shorter distances to the sea than the present course, +it is highly improbable that the Housatonic ever occupied any of these +valleys. For had the river once become located in a path of least +resistance, such as is furnished by any of these suggested routes, it +could not have been dislodged and forced to cut its way for 25 miles +through a massive granitic formation, as it does between Still River +and Derby, without great difficulty (Pl. IV, A). + + +[Illustration: ~Fig. 10.~ Five suggested outlets of Housatonic River.] + + +An inspection of the larger river systems of Connecticut shows that +the streams composing them exhibit two main trends. Likewise, the +courses, of the larger rivers themselves, whether trunk streams or +tributaries, combine these two trends, one of which is +northwest-southeast and the other nearly north-south. + +The north-south drainage lines are the result of geologic structure, +and many broad, flat-floored valleys, often apparently out of +proportion to the streams occupying them, have this direction. On the +other hand, the northwest-southeast drainage lines across the strike +of formations, coincide with the slope toward the sea of the uplifted +peneplain whose dissected surface is represented by the crests of the +uplands. The valleys of streams with this trend are generally narrow, +and some are gorges where resistant rock masses are crossed. The +northwest-southeast trends of master streams thus were determined +initially by the slope of the peneplain, whereas the north-south +trends represent later adjustments to structure. + +It is concluded, therefore, that the Housatonic between Bulls' Bridge +and Derby (fig. 10), had its course determined by the slope of the +uplifted peneplain and is antecedent in origin. The old headwaters +extended northwest from the turn in the river near Bull's Bridge, +whereas that part of the river above Bull's Bridge was initially a +minor tributary. This tributary, because of its favorable situation, +in time captured all the drainage of the extensive limestone belt to +the north and then became part of the main stream. The lower +Housatonic, therefore, has always maintained its ancient course +diagonal to the strike of formations, and differential erosion, which +reaches its maximum expression in limestone areas, is responsible for +the impression that the Still River lowland and other valleys west of +the Housatonic may once have been occupied by the latter stream. + + +[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate IV.~ + A. View down the Housatonic Valley from a point one-half mile + below Still River station. Pumpkin Hill, a ridge of resistant + schist and quartzite, stands on right. A small island lies in + the river. + B. Part of the morainal ridge north of Danbury. Till capped by + stratified drift one mile north of Shelter Rock.] + + +[Footnote 12: Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull. + Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, p. 25, 1901.] + +[Footnote 13: Crosby, W. O., Notes on the geology of the sites of the + proposed dams in the valleys of the Housatonic and Ten Mile rivers: + Tech. Quart., vol. 13, p. 120, 1900.] + + + + + +GLACIAL DEPOSITS + + +BEAVER BROOK SWAMP + +A broad belt of limestone extends along the eastern side of the +granite ridge of Shelter Rock and in preglacial time formed a +broad-bottomed valley whose master stream had reached old age. When +the glacier came it hampered the drainage by scooping out the rock +bottom of the valley in places and by dropping deposits at the mouth +of Beaver Brook valley, thus forming Beaver Brook Swamp or "The Flat," +as it is called (fig. 6). + +Among the deposits at the southern end of Beaver Brook Swamp is +considerable stratified drift in the form of smoothly rounded hills or +kames, which are situated both on the border of the valley and in the +swamp. Till containing medium-sized boulders of granodiorite-gneiss +occurs along the road which borders the east side of the densely +wooded swamp. + +Along the northeastern border of the swamp is a flat-topped terrace of +till, perhaps a lateral moraine, through which a small stream heading +to the north has cut a V-shaped ravine. A lobe of fine till extends +into the valley from the northeast and narrows the outlet. + +Between the railroad and highway, which cross the northern end of the +swamp, is an irregular wooded eminence of rock, partly concealed by a +veneer of drift. Between this knoll and Shelter Rock are heavy +deposits of sand in the form of a short, broad terrace with lobes +which point into the Still River valley. A similar terrace is found to +the northwest on the opposite side of the valley. + +At the northern end of Shelter Rock along the blind road leading to +the summit is a peninsula-like body of drift which contains huge +granite boulders mixed here and there with pockets of sand and gravel. +Stratified drift was found at the foot of the hill, and till overlying +it higher up. The more usual arrangement is boulder clay overlain by +modified drift, the first being laid down by the ice itself, the +second being deposited by streams from the melting glacier in its +retreat. Huge boulders, many ten feet or more in diameter, are strewn +over the northern slope of Shelter Rock. + + +DEPOSITS NORTHEAST OF DANBURY + +North of the railroad, opposite Shelter Rock (fig. 6), is a most +interesting flat-topped ridge of drift which topographically is an +extension of the higher rock mass to the northwest. In this drift mass +are to be found in miniature a number of the forms characteristic of +glacial topography. The broad-topped gravel ridge slopes sharply on +the north into a flat-bottomed ravine which is evidently part of the +Still River lowland. This portion of the valley has been shut off by +drift deposits. The drainage has been so obstructed that the stream in +the ravine turns northeast away from its natural outlet. In the valley +of "X" brook (fig. 1) are terraces, esker-like lobes, and detached +mounds of stratified drift resting on a foundation of till. + +Along the eastern border of the hill is to be seen the contact between +two forms of glacial deposits (Pl. IV, B). A mass of stratified drift +overlies a hummocky deposit of coarse till, but large boulders +occurring here and there on top of the stratified drift show that the +ice-laid and water-laid materials were not completely sorted. Boulders +seem to have been dropping out of the ice at the same time that gravel +was being deposited. Boulders of granite-gneiss eight feet or more in +diameter, carried by the ice from the hills to the north and +northeast, are strewn at the foot of the hill. + + +DEPOSITS BETWEEN BEAVER BROOK MOUNTAIN AND MOUTH OF STILL RIVER + +About a mile beyond Beaver Brook Mountain, the railroad cuts through +the edge of a hill 80 feet in height exposing a section consisting of +distinctly stratified layers of fine white quartz sand, coarser +yellowish sand, and small round pebbles. The quartz sand was used at +one time in making glass. Farther east where the two tracks of the New +York and New England railroads converge, a cut shows a section of at +least 40 feet of boulder clay. Near the river, limestone boulders are +common, indicating that the valley to the north was degraded to some +extent by the glacier. + + +[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate V.~ + A. Kames in Still River Valley west of Brookfield Junction. + B. Till ridges on the western border of Still River Valley, south + of Brookfield.] + + +In the valley at Brookfield Junction and on its western side, are +thick deposits of clean sand. One mile north of Brookfield Junction, +along the western border of the valley, an esker follows an irregular +course for several hundred yards approximately parallel to the river +and terminates at its southern end in a group of kames (Pl. V, A and +B). Opposite the point where these accumulations occur, is a +terrace-like deposit of till. Between the gorge at Brookfield and the +mouth of Still River, swampy areas, flat meadows, and small hills of +drift occur. + +In comparison with the Still River lowland, the flat land east of +Green Mountain may be called a plateau. The step between the two is +made by an east-facing rocky slope, the outline of which has been +softened by a lateral moraine separated from the plateau edge by a +small ravine. On the lowland below the moraine is a group of kames. +Near Lanesville (fig. 6), are thick deposits of water-laid material, +including a hill of gravel near the river having a large bowl-shaped +depression on one side formed by the melting of an ice block. Two and +a half miles south of Lanesville on the west side of the lowland, a +wooded esker extends for about one-quarter mile parallel to the valley +axis and then merges into the rocky hillside. + + +LAKES + +The lakes of this region are of two kinds: (1) those due to the +damming of river valleys by glacial deposits and (2) rock basins +gouged out by the ice. + +Among the lakes which owe their origin to drift accumulations in the +valleys are Andrew and Haines' ponds at the head of Still River. These +are properly parts of the Croton River system, but Andrew Pond has +been held back by the deep filling of boulder clay in the valley. Lake +Kanosha, in the same valley, is a shallow lake formed in the drift. +The lake south of Spruce Mountain at the head of the Saugatuck seems +to be enclosed by drift alone. + +Neversink Pond, Barses Pond, Creek Pond, and Leonard Pond are the +remnants of larger water bodies now converted into swamps. Squantz +Pond and Hatch Pond have dams of drift. Eureka Lake and East Lake +appear to be rock basins whose levels have been raised somewhat by +dams of till. Great Mountain Pond and Green's Pond, between Great +Mountain and Green Mountain, are surrounded by rock and their level +has been raised several feet by artificial dams. Great Mountain Pond +is at least 50 feet above the level of Green Pond and separated from +it by a rock ridge (fig. 2). + + +HISTORY OF THE GLACIAL DEPOSITS + +A tongue of the glacier is supposed to have lain in the valley of the +Umpog and gradually retreated northward after the ice had disappeared +from the uplands on either side. The ridge of intermediate height +built of limestone and schist, which extends down the middle of the +valley, was probably covered by ice for some time after the glacier +had left the highlands. + +When the mountain mass extending from Pine Mountain to Town Hill west +of the Umpog Basin and the granite hills to the east terminating in +Shelter Rock are considered in their relation to the movement of the +ice, it is apparent that the valley of the Umpog must have been the +most direct and lowest outlet for glacial streams south of Danbury. +These streams built up the terraces and other deposits of stratified +drift which occupy the valley between Bethel and West Redding. + +The heavy deposits of till near West Redding mark a halt in the +retreating glacier. The boulders at this point are large and numerous, +and kames and gravel ridges were formed. The deposits at the divide, +supposed to have formed a glacial dam which reversed the Umpog,[14] +are much less heavy than at points short distances north and south of +the water parting. + +As the ice retreated, sand and gravel in the form of terraces +accumulated along the margin of the Umpog valley, where the drainage +was concentrated in the spaces left by the melting of the ice lobe +from the hillside. Among these deposits are the bodies of sand and +gravel which lie against the rocky hillslopes most of the way from the +Umpog-Saugatuck divide to Bethel. North of Bethel, the drainage seems +to have been gathered chiefly in streams flowing on each side of the +low ridge occupying the center of the valley; consequently the gravel +was deposited along the sides and southern end of the ridge and in the +sag which cuts across its northern end. The row of kames at the north +end of Umpog Swamp, several knolls of drift in Bethel, and the +kame-like deposits and esker north of Grassy Plain were laid down +successively as the ice retreated down the valley. During this period, +the drainage was ponded between the ice front and the Umpog-Saugatuck +divide. + +Uncovering the Still-Croton valley did not give the glacial drainage +any lower outlet than the Umpog-Saugatuck divide afforded (fig. 8, B +and C.) + +The heavy deposits of boulder clay forming the moraine which blocks +the Rocky River valley indicate the next halting place of the glacier. +In this period the ice margin formed an irregular northeast-southwest +line about a mile north of Danbury. The country west and south of +Danbury was thus uncovered, but the lower part of Still River valley +was either covered by the ice sheet or occupied by an ice lobe. The +drainage was, therefore, up the river valley, and being concentrated +along the valley sides resulted in the accumulation of sand and gravel +at the foot of rocky slopes. It is possible that an ice lobe extended +down the old Rocky River valley, perhaps occupying much of the country +between Beaver Brook Mountain and the high ridge west of the valley. +The streams issuing from this part of the ice front would have laid +down the eskers and kame gravels north of Danbury and the thick mantle +of drift over which Still River flows through the city. As would be +expected, this accumulation of material ponded all the north-flowing +streams--Umpog Creek, Beaver Brook, and smaller nameless ones--and at +the same time pushed Still River, at its mouth, to the southern side +of its valley. Beaver Brook valley, Umpog valley, and all the Danbury +basin must have been flooded during this period up to the height of +the "railroad divide." Within the area covered by the city, the valley +was filled up to at least 70 feet and probably much more than that +above its former level. Flowing at this higher level, the river was +thrown out of its course and here and there superimposed on hard +rock--as, for example, at Shelter Rock. + +That part of the drainage coming down the valley opposite Beaver Brook +met the drainage from Still River ice lobe in the valley north of +Shelter Rock, and as a result heavy deposits of stratified drift were +laid down. The peninsula-like mass of drift beyond the river north of +Shelter Rock appears from its form to have been built up as the delta +of southward and eastward-flowing streams; probably the drainage from +the hilltops united with streams coming down the two valleys. The +lobes of stratified drift extending from the ridge may have been built +first, and later the connecting ridge of gravel which forms the top of +the hill may have accumulated as additional material was washed in, +tying together the ridges of gravel along their western ends. The +mingling in this region of stratified drift of all grades of +coarseness indicates the union in the same basin of debris gathered +from several sources. + +Between Danbury and New Milford no moraine crosses either the Rocky or +the Still valley, but the abundance of till which overspreads the +whole country indicates a slowly retreating glacier well loaded with +rock debris. The mounds of stratified drift scattered along the valley +doubtless represent the deltas of streams issuing from the ice front. +The waters of Rocky River were ponded until the outlet near Jerusalem +was uncovered and the disappearance of ice from the ravine below +allowed an escape to the Housatonic. Stratified drift is present in +greatest amount along the valleys of Still River and the west fork of +Rocky River, indicating that these were the two chief lines of +drainage. The uplands are practically without stratified drift. + +Along the valley of the Housatonic, glacial material is chiefly in the +form of gravel terraces; they extend from Gaylordsville to New +Milford, in some places on one side only, in others on both sides of +the river. Part of these gravel benches are kame terraces, as shown by +their rolling tops and the ravine which separates the terrace from the +hillside; others may have been made by the river cutting through the +mantle of drift which was laid down in the period of land depression +at the time of glacial retreat,[15] or they may be a combination of the +two forms. In many places by swinging in its flood plain, the river +has cut into the terraces and left steep bluffs of gravel. The valley +of Womenshenuck Brook above Merwinsville contains heavy deposits of +stratified drift, indicating that this broad valley which extends from +Kent on the Housatonic to Merwinsville was an important channel for +the water which flowed from the melting ice. + + +[Footnote 14: Rice, W. N. and Gregory, H. E., Manual of the Geology of + Connecticut: Conn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, pp. 34-35, + 1906.] + + +[Footnote 15: Hobbs, W. H., op. cit.] + + + * * * * * + +Transcriber's Notes: + +With the following exceptions, the text presented here is that +obtained through scanned images from an original copy of the +manuscript. + +Possible Typographic Errors Corrected + occuying => occupying + PLATE II A. "of" repeated + +Emphasis Notation: + _text_ - italicized + =text= - bold + ~text~ - small caps + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Drainage Modifications and Glaciation +in the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer-Harvey + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAINAGE MODIFICATIONS AND *** + +***** This file should be named 33050-8.txt or 33050-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/0/5/33050/ + +Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cos and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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