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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in
+the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer-Harvey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in the Danbury Region Connecticut
+       State of Connecticut State Geological and Natural History
+       Survey Bulletin No. 30
+
+Author: Ruth Sawyer-Harvey
+
+Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33050]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAINAGE MODIFICATIONS AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cos and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                         State of Connecticut
+              State Geological and Natural History Survey
+                           Bulletin No. 30
+
+
+
+
+                 Drainage Modifications and Glaciation
+                         in the Danbury Region
+                             Connecticut
+
+
+                                 By
+                      RUTH SAWYER HARVEY, Ph. D.
+
+
+                              HARTFORD
+                        ~Published by the State~
+                                1920
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                             BULLETINS
+
+                              OF THE
+
+                State Geological and Natural History Survey
+                            of Connecticut.
+
+
+1. First Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1903-1904.
+
+2. A Preliminary Report on the Protozoa of the Fresh Waters of
+Connecticut: by Herbert William Conn. (Out of print. To be obtained
+only in Vol. I, containing Bulletins 1-5. Price $1.50, postpaid.)
+
+3. A Preliminary Report on the Hymeniales of Connecticut:
+by Edward Albert White.
+
+4. The Clays and Clay Industries of Connecticut: by Gerald
+Francis Loughlin.
+
+5. The Ustilagineć, or Smuts, of Connecticut: by George
+Perkins Clinton.
+
+6. Manual of the Geology of Connecticut: by William North Rice and
+Herbert Ernest Gregory. (Out of print. To be obtained only in Vol. II,
+containing Bulletins 6-12. Price $2.45, postpaid.)
+
+7. Preliminary Geological Map of Connecticut: by Herbert Ernest
+Gregory and Henry Hollister Robinson.
+
+8. Bibliography of Connecticut Geology: by Herbert Ernest Gregory.
+
+9. Second Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
+and Natural History Survey, 1905-1906.
+
+10. A Preliminary Report on the Algć of the Fresh Waters of
+Connecticut: by Herbert William Conn and Lucia Washburn (Hazen)
+Webster.
+
+11. The Bryophytes of Connecticut: by Alexander William Evans and
+George Elwood Nichols.
+
+12. Third Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
+and Natural History Survey, 1907-1908.
+
+13. The Lithology of Connecticut: by Joseph Barrell and Gerald Francis
+Loughlin.
+
+
+14. Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut growing
+without cultivation: by a Committee of the Connecticut Botanical
+Society.
+
+15. Second Report on the Hymeniales of Connecticut: by Edward Albert
+White.
+
+16. Guide to the Insects of Connecticut: prepared under the direction
+of Wilton Everett Britton. Part I. General Introduction: by Wilton
+Everett Britton. Part II. The Euplexoptera and Orthoptera of
+Connecticut: by Benjamin Hovey Walden.
+
+17. Fourth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1909-1910.
+
+18. Triassic Fishes of Connecticut: by Charles Rochester Eastman.
+
+19. Echinoderms of Connecticut: by Wesley Roscoe Coe.
+
+20. The Birds of Connecticut: by John Hall Sage and Louis Bennett
+Bishop, assisted by Walter Parks Bliss.
+
+21. Fifth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
+and Natural History Survey, 1911-1912.
+
+22. Guide to the Insects of Connecticut: prepared under the direction
+of Wilton Everett Britton. Part III. The Hymenoptera, or Wasp-like
+Insects, of Connecticut: by Henry Lorenz Viereck, with the
+collaboration of Alexander Dyer MacGillivray, Charles Thomas Brues,
+William Morton Wheeler, and Sievert Allen Rohwer.
+
+23. Central Connecticut in the Geologic Past: by Joseph Barrell.
+
+24. Triassic Life of the Connecticut Valley: by Richard Swann Lull.
+
+25. Sixth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
+and Natural History Survey, 1913-1914.
+
+26. The Arthrostraca of Connecticut: by Beverly Waugh Kunkel.
+
+27. Seventh Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1915-1916.
+
+28. Eighth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1917-1918.
+
+29. The Quaternary Geology of the New Haven Region, Connecticut: by
+Freeman Ward, Ph.D.
+
+30. Drainage, Modification and Glaciation in the Danbury Region,
+Connecticut: by Ruth Sawyer Harvey, Ph.D.
+
+31. Check List of the Insects of Connecticut: by Wilton Everett
+Britton, Ph.D. (In press.)
+
+
+Bulletins 1, 9, 12, 17, 21, 25, 27, and 28 are merely administrative
+reports containing no scientific matter. The other bulletins may be
+classified as follows:
+
+Geology: Bulletins 4, 6, 7, 8, 13, 18, 23, 24, 29, 36.
+
+Botany: Bulletins 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15.
+
+Zoölogy: Bulletins 2, 16, 19, 20, 22, 26, 31.
+
+These bulletins are sold and otherwise distributed by the State
+Librarian. Postage, when bulletins are sent by mail, is as follows:
+
+No. 1 $0.01   No.  13 $0.08    No.  23 $0.03
+    3   .08        14   .16         24   .10
+    4   .06        15   .06         25   .02
+    5   .03        16   .07         26   .06
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+    8   .05        18   .07         28   .02
+    9   .02        19   .08         29   .03
+   10   .08        20   .14         30   .03
+   11   .07        21   .02         31
+   12   .02        22   .08
+
+
+The prices when the bulletins are sold are as follows, postpaid:
+
+No. 1 $0.05   No.  13 $0.40    No.  23 $0.15
+    3   .40        14   .75         24   .65
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+    5   .15        16   .35         26   .80
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+   11   .30        21   .05         31
+   12   .05        22  2.00
+
+
+A part of the edition of these Bulletins have been assembled in
+volumes substantially bound in cloth, plainly lettered, and sell for
+the following prices, postpaid:
+
+Volume   I,  containing Bulletins 1-5      $1.50
+Volume  II,  containing Bulletins 6-12      2.45
+Volume III,  containing Bulletins 13-15     2.50
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+
+
+It is intended to follow a liberal policy in gratuitously distributing
+these publications to public libraries, colleges, and scientific
+institutions, and to scientific men, teachers, and others who require
+particular bulletins for their work, especially to those who are
+citizens of Connecticut.
+
+Applications or inquiries should be addressed to
+
+                                 ~George S. Godard~,
+                                        _State Librarian_,
+                                             Hartford, Conn.
+
+In addition to the bulletins above named, published by the State
+survey, attention is called to three publications of the United States
+Geological Survey prepared in co-operation with the Geological and
+Natural Survey of Connecticut. These are the following:
+
+Bulletin 484. The Granites of Connecticut: by T. Nelson Dale and
+Herbert E. Gregory.
+
+Water-Supply Paper 374. Ground Water in the Hartford, Stamford,
+Salisbury, Willimantic and Saybrook Areas, Connecticut: by Herbert E.
+Gregory and Arthur J. Ellis.
+
+Water-Supply Paper 397. Ground Water in the Waterbury Area,
+Connecticut: by Arthur J. Ellis, under the direction of Herbert E.
+Gregory.
+
+These papers may be obtained from the Director of the United States
+Geological Survey at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+
+CATALOGUE SLIPS.
+
+
+_=Connecticut.= State geological and natural history survey._
+
+Bulletin no. 30. Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in the Danbury
+Region, Connecticut. By Ruth S. Harvey, Ph.D. Hartford, 1920.
+
+59 pp., 5 pls., 10 fig., 25cm.
+
+
+=_Harvey, Ruth Sawyer, Ph.D._=
+
+Drainage Modification and Glaciation in the Danbury Region,
+Connecticut. By Ruth S. Harvey, Ph.D. Hartford, 1920.
+
+59 pp., 5 pls., 10 figs., 25cm.
+
+
+=_Geology._=
+
+Harvey, Ruth S. Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in
+the Danbury Region, Connecticut. Hartford, 1920.
+
+59 pp., 5 pls., 10 figs., 25^cm.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                        State of Connecticut
+
+                       PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 47
+
+                     State Geological and Natural
+                           History Survey
+
+                  HERBERT E. GREGORY, SUPERINTENDENT
+
+                          BULLETIN No. 30
+
+                             ~Hartford~
+
+       Printed by the State Geological and Natural History Survey
+                                1920
+
+
+
+
+
+
+              State Geological and Natural History Survey
+
+
+       COMMISSIONERS
+~Marcus H. Holcomb~, Governor of Connecticut
+~Arthur Twining Hadley~, President of Yale University
+~William Arnold Shanklin~, President of Wesleyan University
+~Remsen Brickerhoff Ogilby~, President of Trinity College
+~Charles Lewis Beach~, President of Connecticut Agricultural College
+~Benjamin Tinkham Marshall~, President of Connecticut College
+   for Women
+
+
+       SUPERINTENDENT
+      ~Herbert E. Gregory~
+
+
+_Publication Approved by the Board of Control_
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                Drainage Modifications and Glaciation
+                       in the Danbury Region
+                           Connecticut
+
+                                 By
+                        RUTH SAWYER HARVEY, Ph. D.
+
+
+
+                              HARTFORD
+    Printed by the State Geological and Natural History Survey
+                                1920
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                       CONTENTS.
+                        ------
+
+                                                 Page
+
+Introduction                                                       9
+
+Regional relations                                                11
+
+Rocky River                                                       15
+  Description of the river and its valley                         15
+  Relation of the valley to geologic structure                    16
+  Junction of Rocky and Housatonic Rivers                         18
+  Abnormal profile                                                18
+  Preglacial course                                               20
+  The buried channel                                              23
+  Effect of glaciation                                            25
+
+The Neversink-Danbury valley                                      27
+
+Still River                                                       30
+  Statement of the problem                                        30
+  Evidence to be expected if Still River has been reversed        31
+    A valley wide throughout or broadening toward the south       32
+    Tributary valleys pointing upstream                           34
+    The regional slope not in accord with the course of the Still 35
+    Evidence of glacial filling and degrading of the river bed    36
+    Glacial scouring                                              36
+  The Still-Saugatuck divide                                      38
+    Features of the Umpog valley                                  38
+    The preglacial divide                                         42
+  The Still-Croton divide                                         43
+    Introduction                                                  43
+    Features of Still River valley west of Danbury                43
+    The Still-Croton valley                                       44
+    Glacial Lake Kanosha                                          45
+  Divides in the highlands south of Danbury                       46
+  The ancient Still River                                         47
+  Departures of Still River from its preglacial channel           48
+
+Suggested courses of Housatonic River                             50
+
+Glacial deposits                                                  53
+    Beaver Brook Swamp                                            53
+    Deposits northeast of Danbury                                 54
+    Deposits between Beaver Brook Mountain and mouth of Still
+       River                                                      54
+    Lakes                                                         55
+    History of the glacial deposits                               56
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                       ILLUSTRATIONS.
+                        -----------
+
+                                                               To Face
+                                                                  Page
+
+PLATE  I    View south on the Highland northeast of Neversink Pond  14
+
+      II A. View up the valley of Umpog Creek                       40
+         B. View down the valley of Umpog Creek                     40
+
+     III    Limestone plain southwest of Danbury, in which are
+              situated Lake Kanosha and the Danbury Fair Grounds    44
+
+      IV A. View down the Housatonic Valley from a point one-half
+              mile below Stillriver Station                         52
+         B. Part of the morainal ridge north of Danbury             52
+
+       V A. Kames in Still River valley west of Brookfield Junction 54
+         B. Till ridges on the western border of Still River
+              valley, south of Brookfield                           56
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+
+FIGURE   1. Present drainage of the Danbury region                  13
+         2. Geological map of Still River valley                    17
+         3. Profiles of present and preglacial Rocky River          19
+         4. Preglacial course of Rocky-Still River                  21
+         5. Diagram showing lowest rock levels in Rocky River
+               valley                                               24
+         6. Course of Still River                                   29
+         7. Map of Umpog Swamp and vicinity                         39
+         8. Profiles of rivers                                      41
+         9. Early Stage of Rocky-Still River                        49
+        10. Five suggested outlets of Housatonic River              51
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                          INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The Danbury region of Connecticut presents many features of geographic
+and geologic interest. It may be regarded as a type area, for the
+history of its streams and the effects of glaciation are
+representative of those of the entire State. With this idea in mind,
+the field work on which this study is based included a traverse of
+each stream valley and an examination of minor features, as well as a
+consideration of the broader regional problems. Much detailed and
+local description, therefore, is included in the text.
+
+The matter in the present bulletin formed the main theme of a thesis
+on "Drainage and Glaciation in the Central Housatonic Basin" which was
+submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
+doctor of philosophy at Yale University.
+
+The field work was done in 1907 and 1908 under the direction of
+Professor Herbert E. Gregory. I am also indebted to the late Professor
+Joseph Barrell and to Dr. Isaiah Bowman for helpful cooperation in the
+preparation of the original thesis, and to Dr. H. H. Robinson for
+assistance in preparing this paper for publication.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+              DRAINAGE MODIFICATIONS AND GLACIATION IN
+                   THE DANBURY REGION, CONNECTICUT
+                              --------
+                          By Ruth S. Harvey
+
+
+
+
+REGIONAL RELATIONS
+
+
+The region discussed in this bulletin is situated in western
+Connecticut and is approximately 8 miles wide and 18 miles long in a
+north-south direction, as shown on fig. 1.[1] Throughout, the rocks
+are crystalline and include gneiss, schist, and marble--the
+metamorphosed equivalents of a large variety of ancient sedimentary
+and igneous rocks.
+
+For the purposes of this report, the geologic history may be said to
+begin with the regional uplift which marked the close of the Mesozoic.
+By that time the mountains formed by Triassic and Jurassic folding and
+faulting had been worn down to a peneplain, now much dissected but
+still recognizable in the accordant level of the mountain tops.
+
+Erosion during Cretaceous time resulted in the construction of a
+piedmont plain extending from an undetermined line 30 to 55 miles
+north of the present Connecticut shore to a point south of Long
+Island.[2] This plain is thought to have been built up of
+unconsolidated sands, clays, and gravels, the débris of the Jurassic
+mountains. Inland the material consisted of river-made or land
+deposits; outwardly it merged into coastal plain deposits. When the
+plain was uplifted, these loose gravels were swept away. In New York,
+Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, however, portions of the Cretaceous
+deposits are still to be found. Such deposits are present, also, on
+the north shore of Long Island, and a well drilled at Barren Island on
+the south shore revealed not less than 500 feet of Cretaceous
+strata.[3] The existence of such thick deposits within 30 miles of the
+Connecticut shore and certain peculiarities in the drainage have led
+to the inference that the Cretaceous cover extended over the southern
+part of Connecticut.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: The streams and other topographic features of the Danbury
+   region are shown in detail on the Danbury and the New Milford
+   sheets of the United States Topographic Atlas. These sheets may be
+   obtained from the Director of the United States Geological Survey,
+   Washington, D. C.]
+
+[Footnote 2: It was probably not less than 30 miles, for that is the
+   distance from the mouth of Still River, where the Housatonic enters
+   a gorge in the crystallines, to the sea. Fifty-five miles is the
+   distance to the sea from the probable old head of Housatonic River
+   on Wassaic Creek, near Amenia, New York.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Veatch, A. C., Slichter, C. S., Bowman, Isaiah, Crosby,
+   W. O., and Horton. R. E., Underground water resources of Long
+   Island: U. S. G. S., PP. 44, p. 188 and fig. 24, 1906.]
+
+
+A general uplift of the region brought this period of deposition to a
+close. As the peneplain, probably with a mantle of Cretaceous
+deposits, was raised to its present elevation, the larger streams kept
+pace with the uplift by incising their valleys. The position of the
+smaller streams, however, was greatly modified in the development of
+the new drainage system stimulated by the uplift. The modern drainage
+system may be assumed to have been at first consequent, that is,
+dependent for its direction on the slope of the uplifted plain, but it
+was not long before the effect of geologic structure began to make
+itself felt. In the time when all the region was near baselevel, the
+harder rocks had no advantage over the softer ones, and streams
+wandered where they pleased. But after uplift, the streams began to
+cut into the plain, and those flowing over limestone or schist
+deepened, then widened their valleys much faster than could the
+streams which flowed over the resistant granite and gneiss. By a
+system of stream piracy and shifting, similar to that which has taken
+place throughout the Newer Appalachians, the smaller streams in time
+became well adjusted to the structure. They are of the class called
+subsequents; on the other hand, the Housatonic, which dates at least
+from the beginning of the uplift if not from the earlier period of
+peneplanation, is an antecedent stream.
+
+The complex rock surface of western Connecticut had reached a stage of
+mature dissection when the region was invaded by glaciers.[4] The ice
+sheet scraped off and redistributed the mantle of decayed rock which
+covered the surface and in places gouged out the bedrock. The
+resulting changes were of a minor order, for the main features of the
+landscape and the principal drainage lines were the same in preglacial
+time as they are today. It is thus seen that the history of the
+smaller streams like those considered in this report involves three
+factors: (1) the normal tendencies of stream development, (2) the
+influence of geologic structure, and (3) the effect of glaciation.
+
+The cover of glacial deposits is generally thin, but marked
+variations exist. The fields are overspread with coarse till
+containing pebbles 6 inches in diameter to huge boulders of 12 feet or
+more. The abundance, size, and composition of the boulders in the till
+of a given locality is well represented by the stone fences which
+border fields.
+
+
+[Footnote 4: This stage of glaciation is presumably Wisconsin. No
+   definite indication of any older glacial deposits was found.]
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 1.~ Present drainage of the Danbury region.]
+
+
+The regional depression which marked the close of the glacial period
+slackened the speed of many rivers and caused them to deposit great
+quantities of modified or assorted drift. Since glacial time, these
+deposits have been dissected and formed into the terraces which are
+characteristic of the rivers of the region. A form of terrace even
+more common than the river-made terrace is the kame terrace found
+along borders of the lowlands. Eskers in the Danbury region have not
+the elongated snake-like form by which they are distinguished in some
+parts of the country, notably Maine; on the contrary, they are
+characteristically short and broad, many having numerous branches at
+the southern end like the distributaries of an aggrading river. The
+material of the eskers ranges from coarse sand to pebbles four inches
+in diameter, the average size being from one to two inches. No
+exposures were observed which showed a regular diminution in the
+coarseness of the material toward their southern end. The clean-washed
+esker gravels afford little encouragement to plant growth, and the
+rain water drains away rapidly through the porous gravel.
+Consequently, accumulations of stratified drift are commonly barren
+places. A desert vegetation of coarse grasses, a kind of wiry moss,
+and "everlastings" (_Gnaphalius decurrens_) are the principal growth.
+Rattlebox (_Crotolaria sagittalis_), steeplebush (_Spiraea tomentosa_),
+sweet fern (_Comptonia asplenifolia_), and on the more fertile
+eskers--especially on the lower, wetter part of the slope--golden rod,
+ox-eyed daisy, birch, and poplar are also present. All the eskers
+observed were found to be similar: they ranged in breadth across the
+top from 100 to 150 feet and the side slopes were about 20 degrees.
+Only a single heavily wooded esker was found, and this ran through a
+forest region.
+
+The accumulations of stratified drift are distinguished from other
+features in the landscape by their smoother and rounder outlines, by
+their habit of lying unconformably on the bedrock without reference to
+old erosion lines, and by a slightly different tone in the color of
+the vegetation covering the water-laid material. The difference in
+color, which is due to the unique elements in the flora of these
+areas, may cause a hill of stratified drift in summer to present a
+lighter green color than that of surrounding hills of boulder clay or
+of the original rock slopes; in winter the piles of stratified drift
+stand out because of the uniform light tawny red of the dried grass.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate I.~
+   View south on the highland northeast of Neversink Pond. The base
+   of a ridge in which rock is exposed is seen at the left; a
+   crescent-shaped lateral moraine bordering the valley lies at the
+   right.]
+
+
+
+
+ROCKY RIVER
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE RIVER AND ITS VALLEY
+
+Rocky River begins its course as a rapid mountain brook in a rough
+highland, where the mantle of till in many places is insufficient to
+conceal the rock ledges (fig. 1). Near Sherman, about four miles from
+its source, it enters a broad flood plain and meanders over a flat,
+swampy floor which is somewhat encumbered with deposits of stratified
+drift and till. Rocky hills border the valley and rise abruptly from
+the lowland. The few tributaries of the river in this part of its
+course are normal in direction.
+
+About six miles below Sherman, Rocky River enters Wood Creek Swamp,
+which is 5-1/2 miles long by about one mile wide and completely covers
+the valley floor, extending even into tributary valleys. Within the
+swamp the river is joined by Squantz Pond Brook and Wood Creek.
+Tributaries to Wood Creek include Mountain Brook and the stream
+passing through Barses Pond and Neversink Pond. The head of Barses
+Pond is separated from the swamp only by a low ridge of till.
+Neversink Pond with its inlet gorge and its long southern tributary
+record significant drainage modifications, as described in the section
+entitled "The Neversink-Danbury Valley."
+
+Within and along the margin of Wood Creek Swamp, also east of Wood
+Creek and at Barses Pond, are rounded, elongated ridges of till, some
+of which might be called drumlins. East of Neversink Pond is the
+lateral moraine shown in Pl. I. From the mouth of Wood Creek to
+Jerusalem, Rocky River is a quiet stream wandering between low banks
+through flat meadows, which are generally swampy almost to the foot of
+the bordering hills.
+
+Near Jerusalem bridge two small branches enter Rocky River.
+Immediately north of the bridge is a level swampy area about one-half
+mile in length. Where the valley closes in again, bedrock is exposed
+near the stream, and beginning at a point one-half mile below (north
+of) Jerusalem, Rocky River--a swift torrent choked by boulders of
+great size--deserves its name.
+
+In spite of its rapid current, however, the river is unable to move
+these boulders, and for nearly three miles one can walk dry-shod on
+those that lie in midstream.
+
+At two or three places below Jerusalem, in quiet reaches above rapids,
+the river has taken its first step toward making a flood plain by
+building tiny beaches. One-half mile above the mouth of the river the
+valley widens and on the gently rising south bank there are several
+well-marked terraces about three feet in height and shaped out of
+glacial material. A delta and group of small islands at the mouth of
+Rocky River indicate the transporting power of the stream and the
+relative weakness of the slow-moving Housatonic.
+
+
+RELATIONS OF THE VALLEY TO GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE
+
+Rocky River is classed with streams which are comformable to the rock
+structure. This conclusion rests largely on the analogy between Rocky
+River and other rivers of this region. The latter very commonly are
+located on belts of limestone, or limestone and schist, and their
+extension is along the strike. The interfluvial ridges are generally
+composed of the harder rocks. The valleys of the East Aspetuck and
+Womenshenuck Brook on the north side of the Housatonic, and of the
+Still, the Umpog, Beaver Brook, the upper Saugatuck, and part of Rocky
+River are on limestone beds (fig. 2). In the valleys between Town Hill
+and Spruce Mountain (south of Danbury), two ravines northwest of
+Grassy Plain (near Bethel), and the Saugatuck valley north of Umpawaug
+Pond, the limestone bed is largely buried under drift, talus, and
+organic deposits, but remnants which reveal the character of the
+valley floors have been found. The parallelism between the courses of
+these streams and that of Rocky River and the general resemblance in
+the form of their valleys, flat-floored with steep-sided walls, as
+well as the scattered outcrops of limestone in the valley, have led to
+the inference that Rocky River, like the others, is a subsequent
+stream developed on beds of weaker rock along lines of foliation.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 2.~ Geological map of Still River Valley.]
+
+
+The Geological Map of Connecticut[5] shows that the valleys of Still
+River, Womenshenuck Brook, Aspetuck River, and upper Rocky River are
+developed on Stockbridge limestone. The lower valley of Rocky River
+is, however, mapped as Becket gneiss and Thomaston granite gneiss.
+Although the only outcrops along lower Rocky River are of granite, it
+is believed that a belt of limestone or schist, now entirely removed,
+initially determined the course of the river. The assumption of an
+irregular belt of limestone in this position would account for the
+series of gorges and flood plains in the vicinity of Jerusalem bridge
+and for the broad drift-filled valley at the mouth of Rocky River.
+These features are difficult to explain on any other basis.
+
+[Footnote 5: Gregory, H. E., Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geological
+   map of Connecticut; Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 7, 1907.]
+
+
+
+JUNCTION OF ROCKY AND HOUSATONIC RIVERS
+
+One of the distinguishing features of Rocky River is the angle at
+which it joins the Housatonic (fig. 1). The tributaries of a normal
+drainage system enter their master stream at acute angles, an
+arrangement which involves the least expenditure of energy. Rocky
+River, however, enters the Housatonic against the course of the
+latter, that is, the tributary points upstream. Still River and other
+southern tributaries of the Housatonic exhibit the same feature, thus
+producing a barbed drainage, which indicates that some factor
+interfered with the normal development of tributary streams. Barbed
+drainage generally results from the reversal of direction of the
+master stream[6], but it is impossible to suppose that the Housatonic
+was ever reversed. As will appear, it is an antecedent master stream
+crossing the crystalline rocks of western Connecticut regardless of
+structure, and its course obliquely across the strike accounts for
+the peculiar orientation of its southern tributaries, which are
+subsequent streams whose position is determined by the nature of the
+rock. For the same reason, the northern tributaries of the Housatonic
+present the usual relations.
+
+[Footnote 6: Leverett, Frank, Glacial formations and drainage features
+   of the Erie and Ohio basins: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 41, pp. 88-91,
+   figs. 1 and 2, 1902. See, also, the Genoa, Watkins, Penn Yan, and
+   Naples (New York) topographic atlas sheets.]
+
+
+
+ABNORMAL PROFILE
+
+The airline distance from the bend in Rocky River at Sherman to its
+mouth at the Housatonic is 2-3/4 miles, but the course of the river
+between these two points is 15 miles, or 5.4 times the airline
+distance. This is a more extraordinary digression than that of
+Tennessee River, which deserts its ancestral course to the Gulf and
+flows northwest into the Ohio, multiplying the length of its course
+3-1/3 times. The fall of Rocky River between Sherman and its mouth is
+240 feet or 16 feet to the mile, and were the river able to take a
+direct course the fall would be 87 feet to the mile. The possibility
+of capture would seem to be imminent from these figures, but in
+reality there is no chance of it, for an unbroken mountain ridge of
+resistant rock lies between the two forks of the river. This barrier
+is not likely to be crossed by any stream until the whole region has
+been reduced to a peneplain.
+
+Measured from the head of its longest branch, Rocky River is about 19
+miles long and falls 950 feet. Of this fall, 710 feet occurs in the
+first 4 miles and 173 feet in the last 2-1/2 miles of its course. For
+the remaining distance of 12-1/2 miles, in which the river after
+flowing south doubles back on itself, the fall is 67 feet, or slightly
+less than 5-1/2 feet to the mile (fig. 3, A).
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 3.~ Profiles of present and preglacial Rocky River.
+   Elevations at a, b, c and i are from U. S. G. S. map.
+   Elevation at d is estimated from R. E. Dakin's records.
+   Elevations at e, f, g and h are from R. E. Dakin's records.
+   The U. S. G. S. figures for the same are enclosed in parenthesis.]
+
+
+In tabular form the figures, taken from the Danbury and
+New Milford atlas sheets and from reports of R. E. Dakin, are
+as follows:
+
+
+                           Miles      Fall in feet per mile
+Source to Sherman            4              177.5
+Sherman to Wood Creek        8                6.25
+Wood Creek to Jerusalem      4.5              3.8
+Jerusalem to mouth           2.5             69.2
+
+
+Near Jerusalem, where Rocky River makes its sudden change
+in grade, there is an abrupt change in the form of the valley
+from broad and flat-bottomed to narrow and V-shaped. The
+profile of Rocky River is thus seen to be sharply contrasted with
+that of a normal stream, which is characterised throughout its
+course by a decreasing slope.
+
+
+PREGLACIAL COURSE
+
+The present profile of Rocky River and the singular manner in which
+the lower course of the river is doubled back on the upper course are
+believed to represent changes wrought by glaciation. Before the advent
+of the glacier, Rocky River probably flowed southward through the
+"Neversink-Danbury Valley," to be described later, and joined the
+Still at Danbury, as shown in fig. 4. The profile of the stream at
+this stage in its history is shown in fig. 3, B.
+
+At Sherman a low col separates Rocky River basin from that of the
+small northward flowing stream which enters the Housatonic about a
+mile below Gaylordsville. Streams by headward erosion at both ends of
+the belt of limestone and schist on which they are situated have
+reduced this divide to an almost imperceptible swell. The rock
+outcrops in the channel show that the glacier did not produce any
+change in the divide by damming, though it may have lowered it by
+scouring. Assume that at one time a divide also existed on the eastern
+fork of Rocky River, for example near Jerusalem. According to this
+hypothesis there was, north of this latter divide, a short northward
+flowing branch of the Housatonic located on a belt of weak rock,
+similar to the small stream which now flows northward from Sherman, and
+very like any of the half-dozen parallel streams in the rock mass
+south and southwest of Danbury, all of which are subsequent streams
+flowing along the strike. While these stream valleys were growing, the
+southern ends of the same weak belts of rock were held by
+southward-flowing streams which united in the broad limestone area now
+occupied by the city of Danbury.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 4.~ Preglacial course of Rocky-Still River.
+   Dotted lines show present courses of the two rivers.]
+
+
+The southward-flowing streams whose heads were, respectively, above
+Sherman and near Jerusalem joined at the southern end of the long
+ridge which includes Towner Hill and Green Mountain. Thence the stream
+flowed southward along the valley now occupied by Wood Creek and
+reached Still River by way of the valley which extends southward from
+Neversink Pond (fig. 4).
+
+The preglacial course of Rocky River, as above outlined, is subject to
+possible modification in one minor feature, namely, the point where
+the east and west forks joined. The junction may have been where
+Neversink Pond is now situated, or three miles farther south than the
+indicated junction near the mouth of Wood Creek. A low ridge of till
+is the only barrier that at present prevents the western branch from
+flowing into the head of Barses Pond and thence into Neversink Pond
+(fig. 1).
+
+As thus reconstructed the greater part of Rocky River formerly
+belonged to the Still-Umpog system and formed a normal tributary in
+that distant period when the Still joined the Saugatuck on its way to
+the Sound (fig. 9). However, the normal condition was not lasting, for
+the reversal of Still River, as later described, brought about a
+complex arrangement of barbed streams (fig. 4) which remained until
+modified by glacial action.
+
+In a large stream system which has been reversed, considerable
+evidence may be gathered from the angle at which tributary streams
+enter. As the original direction of Rocky River in its last 2-1/2
+miles is unchanged, normal tributaries should be expected; whereas
+between Jerusalem and the head of the stream entering Neversink Pond
+from the south, in accordance with the hypothesis that this portion of
+the stream was reversed, tributaries pointing upstream might be
+expected. Such little gullies as join Rocky River near its mouth are
+normal in direction; between Jerusalem and the mouth of Wood Creek, a
+distance of 4-1/2 miles, there are no distinct tributaries. South of
+the mouth of Wood Creek are four tributaries: (1) the brook which
+enters the valley from the west about one mile south of Neversink
+Pond, (2) Balls Brook, which empties into Neversink Pond, and (3) two
+streams on the east side--Mountain Brook and one other unnamed (fig.
+1). All these, except Mountain Brook, are normal to the reconstructed
+drainage. The evidence of the tributaries, though not decisive, is
+thus favorable to the hypothesis of reversal.
+
+
+THE BURIED CHANNEL
+
+Figures 3 and 5 show what is known of the buried channel of Rocky
+River. The only definite information as to rock levels is that derived
+from the drill holes made by R. E. Dakin for the J. A. P. Crisfield
+Contracting Company in connection with work on a reservoir for the
+Connecticut Light and Power Company. Numerous holes were drilled at
+the points indicated on fig. 5 as No. 8, D, J, No. 7+1000, and No. 7,
+but only those showing the lowest rock levels need be considered. In
+the following account the elevations quoted are those determined by R.
+E. Dakin which differ, as shown in fig. 3, A, from those of the New
+Milford atlas sheet.
+
+Between the mouth of Wood Creek and Jerusalem bridge holes made near
+the river show that the depth of the drift--chiefly sand, gravel, and
+clay--varies from 45 to 140 feet. The greatest thickness of drift,
+consisting of humus, quicksand and clay, is 140 feet at a point 20
+feet from the east bank of Rocky River and about 1-3/4 miles north of
+the mouth of Wood Creek (fig. 5, D). Although some allowance should be
+made for glacial scouring, the rock level at this point, 244 feet, is
+so much lower than any other record obtained between this point and
+Danbury that one is obliged to assume a buried channel with a level at
+Danbury at least 75 feet below the rock level found in the lowest well
+record.[7] It is probable that this well is not situated where the
+rock is lowest, that is, it may be on one side of the old Still River
+channel.
+
+[Footnote 7: Well of J. Hornig, rear of Bottling Works, near foot of
+   Tower Place, 35 ft. to rock, indicated at _a_, fig. 5. The well of
+   Bartley & Clancey, 94 White Street, 70 ft. to rock, is also
+   indicated at _b_, fig. 5.]
+
+
+The level obtained at No. 8 is from a hole drilled within 50 feet of
+the river. The drill struck rock at an elevation of 316 feet after
+passing through 69 feet of quicksand, gravel, and till. This is
+clearly not within the channel as it is quite impossible to reconcile
+the figure with that at D, less than a mile distant.
+
+South of Jerusalem bridge at J, 150 feet from the river, a hole was
+bored through 95 feet of clay, sand, and gravel before striking rock
+at an elevation of 298 feet.
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 5.~ Rocky River Valley. Diagram indicating lowest
+   rock levels which have been discovered by drilling.]
+
+
+At the point marked No. 7+1000, about 1-1/4 miles from the mouth of
+Rocky River, the evidence derived from 8 drill holes, bored at
+distances ranging from 200 to 550 feet from the right bank, shows the
+drift cover to be from 48 to 72 feet in thickness. At 200 feet from
+the river the drill passed through 72 feet of sand, clay, and gravel
+before striking rock at 303 feet above sea-level.
+
+At No. 7, about one mile from the mouth of Rocky River, a hole drilled
+415 feet from the right bank showed 58 feet of drift, consisting of
+clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. The drill reached rock at 342 feet,
+which is the figure given by R. E. Dakin for the elevation of the
+river at this point. Drill holes made, respectively, at 50 and 60 feet
+to the right of this one showed a drift cover of 61 feet, so that the
+underlying rock rises only 4 feet in a distance of 475 feet to the
+east of the river.
+
+The foregoing evidence, showing a rock level at D 98 feet lower than
+that at No. 7, leaves no doubt that the preglacial course of Rocky
+River was to the south from No. 7, and there is nothing in the
+topography between Jerusalem and Danbury to make improbable the
+existence of a buried channel.
+
+
+EFFECT OF GLACIATION
+
+The preglacial history of Rocky River as outlined assumes that before
+the glacier covered this part of Connecticut the present lower course
+of Rocky River was separated from the rest of the system by a divide
+situated somewhere between the present mouth of the river and the
+mouth of Wood Creek. It remains to be shown by what process Rocky
+River was cut off from its southern outlet into Still River and forced
+up its eastern branch and over the col into a tributary of the
+Housatonic. Though the preglacial course of Rocky River appears to be
+more natural than the present one, it is really a longer course to the
+Housatonic; the older route being 32 miles, whereas the present course
+is 19 miles. This fact explains, in part, why the glacier had little
+difficulty in altering the preglacial drainage, and how the change so
+effected became permanent. Eccentric as the resulting system of
+drainage is, it would have been still more so had Rocky River when
+ponded overflowed at the head of its western instead of its eastern
+fork, taken its way past Sherman into the Housatonic near
+Gaylordsville, and discharging at this point lost the advantage of the
+fall of the Housatonic between Gaylordsville and Boardman.
+
+In glaciated regions an area of swamp land may be taken as an
+indication of interference by the glacier with the natural run-off.
+The swamp in which Wood Creek joins the upper fork of Rocky River
+(fig. 1), was formerly a lake due to a dam built across the lower end
+of a river valley. Although the ponded water extended only a short
+distance up the steeper side valleys, it extended several miles up the
+main stream. The whole area of this glacial lake, except two small
+ponds and the narrow channels through which the river now flows, has
+been converted into a peat-filled bog having a depth of from 8 to 45
+feet.[8]
+
+At the termination of the swampy area on the eastern branch of Rocky
+River no indication is found of a dam such as would be required for so
+extensive a ponding of the waters. Here the valley is very narrow, and
+though the river bed is encumbered with heavy boulders, rock outcrops
+are so numerous as to preclude the idea of a drift cover raising the
+water level. This is just the condition to be expected if Rocky River
+reached its present outlet by overtopping a low col at the head of its
+former eastern branch.
+
+The southern end of the Neversink Pond valley is the only other place
+whose level is so low that drift deposits could have interfered with
+the Rocky River drainage. The moraine at the head of this valley,
+crossing the country some two miles north of the city of Danbury and
+binding together two prominent north-and-south ridges, was evidently
+the barrier which choked the Rocky River valley near its mouth and
+turned back the preglacial river.
+
+When Rocky River was thus ponded its lowest outlet was found to be at
+the head of its eastern fork. Here the waters spilled over the old
+divide and took possession of the channel of a small stream draining
+into the Housatonic. Accordingly Rocky River should be found cutting
+its bed where it crosses the former divide. It seems reasonable to
+regard the gorge half-way between Jerusalem bridge and Housatonic
+River as approximately the position of the preglacial divide and to
+consider the small flat area to the north of Jerusalem bridge as a
+flood plain on softer rock, worn down as low as the outcrops of more
+resistant rock occurring farther down the valley will permit. The
+reversal of the river may account for the sudden transition from a
+flat-bottomed valley to a rocky gorge; and for the abrupt change in
+the profile, bringing the steepest part of the river near its mouth.
+The increased volume of water flowing through the channel since
+glacial time has plainly cut down the bed of the ravine between
+Jerusalem and the river's mouth, but the channel is still far from
+being graded.
+
+[Footnote 8: Report of soundings made in 1907 by T. T. Giffen.]
+
+
+
+THE NEVERSINK-DANBURY VALLEY.
+
+Between Neversink Pond and Danbury extends a deep rock valley, in
+places filled with drift. As has been shown, this valley was probably
+occupied in preglacial time by Rocky River, which then flowed
+southward. At its southern end is Still River, which flows through
+Danbury from west to east.
+
+The most important tributary of the Still rises northwest of the city,
+just beyond the New York-Connecticut boundary line, and has two forks.
+The northern fork, which drains East Lake, Padanaram Reservoir, and
+Margerie Pond, flows along the northeast side of Clapboard Ridge. The
+southern fork has two branches; the northern one includes the
+reservoirs of Upper Kohanza and Lake Kohanza, while the upper waters
+of the southern branch have been recently dammed to form an extensive
+reservoir. On approaching the city, the northernmost fork (draining
+East Lake) turns sharply out of its southeast course and flows in a
+direction a little east of north. At the end of Clapboard Ridge, the
+stream makes a detour around a knoll of coarse stratified drift. From
+this turn until it joins Still River, a distance of about a mile, the
+stream occupies a broad and partly swampy valley.
+
+
+At the cemetery in this valley (fig. 1, C) are two eskers of symmetric
+form, each a few hundred yards in length and trending nearly parallel
+with the valley axis. East of the valley, and about 1-1/2 miles north
+of the cemetery, is a broad, flat-topped ridge of till with rock
+exposed at the ends, forming a barrier which doubtless existed in
+preglacial time. West of the valley is a hill with rock foundation
+rounded out on the northeast side by a mass of drift. The preglacial
+course of Rocky River was between the outcrops at these two
+localities.
+
+Northwest of the cemetery for one and a half miles the uneven surface
+is formed of till and small patches of stratified drift. In a swamp
+near the north end of the cemetery is a curved esker with lobes
+extending south and southwest. One mile north of this swamp is an area
+of excessively coarse till containing boulders which range in diameter
+from 6 to 10 feet and forming a low ridge separating two ravines, in
+which head streams flowing in opposite directions. The area of coarse
+till is bounded on the north by a long sinuous esker of coarse gravel
+terminating in a flat fan, which is superposed on a field of fine
+till. Associated with the esker is an interesting group of kames and
+kettleholes, the largest kettlehole being distinguished by distinct
+plant zones banding the sides of the depression.
+
+North of the area of boulders, eskers, and kames just described lies a
+swamp whose surface is 30 to 40 feet below the upper level of the kame
+gravels. Soundings made by T. T. Giffen revealed the presence of 36
+feet of peat and 2 feet of silt overlying firm sand, so that 70 feet
+is the minimum estimate for the difference in level between the
+surface of the gravels and the floor of the swamp.
+
+Below the rocky cliffs which line the valley sides are boulders
+brought by the ice from near-by ledges, and about one-half mile above
+the head of the swamp are remnants of a terrace standing 20 to 30 feet
+above the level of the stream. Although the terrace appears to consist
+of till, it may conceal a rock floor which was cut by a former stream.
+As the valley is followed toward Neversink Pond, the various features
+of a till-coated, rock-floored valley are seen.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 6.~ Course of Still River. Dotted lines show the
+   preglacial channels.]
+
+
+
+
+
+STILL RIVER
+
+STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
+
+
+Still River presents several unusual features, as shown in fig. 6.
+Tributaries from the west and south unite at Danbury to form a stream
+flowing northward opposite to the regional land slope. Near its
+junction with the Housatonic, the river flows northward, whereas its
+master stream half a mile distant flows southward. The lower valley of
+the river is broad and flat and apparently much out of proportion to
+the present stream; it is, indeed, comformable in size and direction
+with the valley of the Housatonic above the mouth of the Still. The
+Housatonic, however, instead of choosing the broad lowland in the
+limestone formation, spread invitingly before it, turns aside and
+flows through a narrow gorge cut in resistant gneiss, schist, and
+igneous intrusives. The headwaters of the Still mingle with those of
+the Croton system, and its chief southern branch, the Umpog, is
+interlaced with the sources of the Saugatuck on a divide marked by
+glacial drift and swamps. The explanation of these features involves
+not only the history of the Still River system, but also that of the
+Housatonic.
+
+In explanation of the present unusual arrangement of streams in
+the Still River system, four hypotheses may be considered:
+
+I. Still River valley is the ancient bed of the Housatonic from which
+that river has been diverted through reversal caused by a glacial dam.
+
+
+II. The Housatonic has always had its present southeasterly course,
+but the Still, heading at some point in its valley north of Danbury,
+flowed initially southward through one of four possible outlets. The
+latter stream was later reversed by a glacial dam at the southern end,
+or by glacial scouring at the northern end of its valley which removed
+the divide between its headwaters and the Housatonic.
+
+III. The Housatonic has always held its present southeasterly course,
+and the Still initially flowed southward, as stated above. Reversal in
+this case, however, occurred in a very early stage in the development
+of the drainage, as the result of the capture of the headwaters of the
+Still by a small tributary of the Housatonic.
+
+IV. The Housatonic has always held its present southeasterly course,
+but the Still has developed from the beginning as a subsequent stream
+in the direction in which it now flows.
+
+The first hypothesis, that the Still is the ancient channel of the
+Housatonic, has been advocated by Professor Hobbs, who has stated:
+
+   "That the valley of the Still was formerly occupied by a large
+   stream is probable from its wide valley area.... The former
+   discharge of the waters of the Housatonic through the Still into
+   the Croton system, on the one hand, or into the Saugatuck on the
+   other, would require the assumption of extremely slight changes
+   only in the rock channels which now connect them.... To turn the
+   river (the Housatonic) from its course along the limestone
+   valley some obstruction or differential uplift within the river
+   basin may have been responsible. The former seems to be the more
+   probable explanation in view of the large accumulations of drift
+   material in the area south and west of Bethel and Danbury."
+
+   "The structural valleys believed to be present in the
+   crystalline rocks of the uplands due to post-Newark deformation
+   may well have directed the course of the Housatonic after it had
+   once deserted the limestone ... The deep gorge of the Housatonic
+   through which the river enters the uplands not only crosses the
+   first high ridge of gneiss in the rectilinear direction of one
+   of the fault series, but its precipitous walls show the presence
+   of minor planes of dislocation, along which the bottom of the
+   valley appears to have been depressed."[9]
+
+
+The hypothesis proposed by Professor Hobbs and also the second and
+third hypotheses here given involve the supposition of reversal of
+drainage, and their validity rests on the probability that the stream
+now occupying Still River valley formerly flowed southward. The first
+and second hypotheses will be considered in the following section.
+
+[Footnote 9: Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull.
+   Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, pp. 17-26, 1901.]
+
+
+
+EVIDENCE TO BE EXPECTED IF STILL RIVER HAS BEEN REVERSED
+
+If Still River occupies the valley of a reversed stream, the following
+physiographic features should be expected:
+
+1. A valley with a continuous width corresponding to the size of the
+ancient stream, or a valley comparatively narrow at the north and
+broadening toward the south.
+
+2. Tributary valleys pointing upstream with respect to the present
+river.
+
+3. The regional slope not in accord with the present course of the
+river.
+
+4. Extensive glacial filling and ponded waters in the region of the
+present sources of Still River.
+
+5. Strong glacial scouring at the northern end in default of a glacial
+dam at the southern end of the valley, or to assist a dam in its work
+of reversing the river. The evidence of glacial erosion would be a
+U-shaped valley, overdeepening of the main valley, and tributaries
+ungraded with respect to the main stream.
+
+
+1. A VALLEY WIDE THROUGHOUT OR BROADENING TOWARD THE SOUTH
+
+At the mouth of Still River and for several miles north and south of
+it there is a plain more than a mile broad. This plain continues
+southward with a width of about one-half mile until, at Brookfield, it
+is interrupted by ledges of bare rock. A little distance south of
+Brookfield the valley broadens again to one-half mile, and this width
+is retained with some variation as far as Danbury. Drift deposits
+along the border of the valley make it appear narrower in some places
+than is indicated by rock outcrops. Between Brookfield and Danbury the
+narrowest place in the valley is southwest of Beaver Brook Mountain,
+where the distance between the hills of rock bounding the valley is
+one-fifth of a mile (fig. 6). Opposite Beaver Brook Mountain, which
+presents vertical faces of granite-gneiss toward the valley, is a hill
+of limestone. Ice, crowding through this narrow place in the valley,
+must have torn masses of rock from the side walls, so that the valley
+is now broader than in preglacial time. The constrictions in the
+valley near Shelter Rock are due to the fact that the preglacial
+valley, now partly buried in till, lies to the north. There are
+stretches of broad floor in the valley of Beaver Brook, in the lower
+valley of Umpog Creek, in the fields at the south end of Main Street
+in Danbury, about Lake Kanosha, and where the Danbury Fair Grounds are
+situated. In the western part of Danbury, however, and at Mill Plain
+the valley is very narrow, and at the head of Sugar Hollow, the valley
+lying east of Spruce Mountain, is a narrow col.
+
+The broadest continuous area in the Still-Umpog Valley is, therefore,
+in the lower six miles between Brookfield and New Milford; south of
+that portion are several places where the valley is sharply
+constricted; and beyond the head of the Umpog, about one and a half
+miles below West Redding station (fig. 7), the Saugatuck Valley is a
+very narrow gorge. On the whole, the valleys south and southwest of
+Danbury are much narrower than the valley of the Still farther north.
+It is evident from these observations that Still River Valley is
+neither uniformly broad, nor does it increase in width toward the
+south.
+
+But if a broad valley is to be accepted as evidence of the work of a
+large river, then there is too much evidence in the Still River
+valley. The broad areas named above are more or less isolated
+lowlands, some of them quite out of the main line of drainage, and can
+not be grouped to form a continuous valley. They can not be attributed
+to the Housatonic nor wholly to the work of the insignificant streams
+now draining them. These broad expanses are, in fact, local peneplains
+developed on areas of soluble limestone. The rock has dissolved and
+the plain so produced has been made more nearly level by a coating of
+peat and glacial sand. In a region of level and undisturbed strata,
+such as the Ohio or Mississippi Valley, a constant relation may exist
+between the size of a stream and the valley made by it; but in a
+region of complicated geologic structure, such as western Connecticut,
+where rocks differ widely in their resistance to erosion, the same
+result is not to be expected. In this region the valleys are commonly
+developed on limestone and their width is closely controlled by the
+width of the belt of limestone. Even the narrow valleys in the upland
+southwest of Danbury are to be accounted for by the presence of thin
+lenses of limestone embedded in gneiss and schist.
+
+The opinion of Hobbs that Still River valley is too wide to be the
+work of the present stream takes into consideration only the broad
+places, but when the narrow places are considered it may be said as
+well that the valley is too narrow to be the work of a stream larger
+than the one now occupying it. Valley width has only negative value in
+interpreting the history of Still River.
+
+
+
+2. TRIBUTARY VALLEYS POINTING UPSTREAM
+
+The dominant topographic feature of western Connecticut, as may be
+seen on the atlas sheets, is elongated oval hills trending north by
+west to south by east, which is the direction of the axes of the folds
+into which the strata were thrown at the time their metamorphism took
+place. Furthermore, the direction of glacial movement in this part of
+New England was almost precisely that of foliation, and scouring by
+ice merely accentuated the dominant north-south trend of the valleys
+and ridges. As a result, the smaller streams developed on the softer
+rocks are generally parallel to each other and to the strike of the
+rocks. These streams commonly bend around the ends of the hills but do
+not cross them. The narrowness of the belts of soft rock makes it easy
+for the drainage of the valleys to be gathered by a single lengthwise
+stream. The Still and its larger tributaries conform in this way to
+the structure.
+
+On the east side of the Still-Umpog every branch, except two rivulets
+1-1/4 miles south of Bethel, points in the normal direction, that is,
+to the north, or downstream as the river now flows (fig. 6). The
+largest eastern tributary, Beaver Brook, is in a preglacial valley now
+converted into a swamp the location and size of which are due entirely
+to a belt of limestone. It is not impossible that Beaver Brook may
+have once flowed southward toward Bethel, but the limestone at its
+mouth, which lies at least 60 feet lower than that at its head, shows
+that if such were ever the case it must have been before the
+north-flowing Still River had removed the limestone north of Beaver
+Brook Swamp.
+
+On the flanks of Beaver Brook Mountain are three tributaries which
+enter the river against its present course. Examination of the
+structure reveals, however, that these streams like those on the east
+side of the river are controlled in their direction by the orientation
+of the harder rock masses. The southward flowing stream four miles in
+length which drains the upland west of Beaver Brook Mountain has an
+abnormal direction in the upper part of its course, but on reaching
+the flood plain it takes a sharp turn to the north. Above the latter
+point it is in line with the streams near Beaver Brook Mountain and is
+abnormal in consequence of a line of weakness in the rock.
+
+The lowland lying west of Umpog valley, extending from Main Street in
+Danbury to a point one mile beyond Bethel, affords no definite
+evidence in regard to the direction of tributaries. In reconstructing
+the history of this valley the chief difficulty arises from the
+old-age condition of the flood plain. Drainage channels which must
+once have existed have been obliterated, leaving a swampy plain which
+from end to end varies less than 20 feet in elevation. It is likely
+that in preglacial times the part of the valley north of Grassy Plain,
+if not the entire valley, drained northward into Still River, as now
+do Umpog Creek and Beaver Brook. From this outlet heavy drift deposits
+near the river later cut it off. The lowland is now drained by a
+stream which enters the Umpog north of Grassy Plain. Several small
+streams tributary to the Umpog south of Bethel also furnish no
+evidence in favor of the reversal of Still River.
+
+West of Danbury the tributaries of Still River point upstream on one
+side and downstream on the other side of the valley, in conformity
+with the rock structure which is here diagonal to the limestone belt
+on which the river is located. Their direction in harmony with the
+trend of the rocks has, therefore, no significance in the earlier
+history of the river.
+
+From the foregoing discussion, it appears that no definite conclusions
+in regard to the history of Still River can be drawn from the angle at
+which tributaries enter it. The direction of the branches which enter
+at an abnormal angle can be explained without assuming a reversal of
+the main stream, and likewise many of the tributaries with normal
+trends seem to have adopted their courses without regard to the
+direction of Still River.
+
+
+3. REGIONAL SLOPE NOT IN ACCORD WITH COURSE OF THE STILL
+
+Although the regional slope of western Connecticut as a whole is
+contrary to that of Still River, there is no marked lowering of the
+hill summits between the source of the river and its mouth. As
+branches on the south side of the Housatonic are naturally to be
+expected, there is nothing unusual in the Still flowing in opposition
+to the regional slope, except that it flows toward the north instead
+of the northeast.
+
+
+4. EVIDENCE OF GLACIAL FILLING AND DEGRADING OF THE RIVER BED
+
+Hobbs has suggested that the waters of the Housatonic may have been
+ponded at a point near West Redding until they rose high enough to
+overflow into the "fault gorge" below Still River Station, thus giving
+the streams of the Danbury region an outlet to the Sound by this
+route. This hypothesis calls for a glacial dam which has not been
+found. It is true there are glacial deposits in the Umpog valley south
+of Bethel. The Umpog flows as it does, however, not because of a
+glacial "dam" but in spite of it. The river heads on rock beyond and
+above the glacial deposits and picks its way through them (fig. 7).
+Drift forms the divide at the western end of Still River valley beyond
+Mill Plain, but the ponded water which it caused did not extend as far
+as Danbury (see discussion of Still-Croton valley). The Sugar Hollow
+pass is also filled with a heavy mantle of drift, but the valley is
+both too high and too narrow at the col to have been the outlet of the
+Housatonic.
+
+It might be assumed that just previous to the advent of the ice sheet
+Still River headed south of its present mouth and flowed southward. In
+this case the Still, when reversed, should have overflowed at the
+lowest point on the divide between it and the Housatonic. It should
+have deepened its channel over the former divide, and the result would
+have been a gorge if the divide were high, or at least some evidence
+of river cutting even if the divide were low. On the contrary, Still
+River joins the Housatonic in a low, broad, and poorly drained plain.
+
+The existing relief is due to the uneven distribution of drift. The
+river is now cutting a gorge at Lanesville, but the appearance of the
+valley to the west indicates that glacial deposits forced the river
+out of its former bed (fig. 6) and that no barrier lay between the
+preglacial Still River valley and the Housatonic Valley.
+
+5. GLACIAL SCOURING
+
+A reversal of Still River may be explained by glacial scouring which
+caused the northern end of the valley to become lower than the present
+divides at West Redding and Mill Plain. The evidence of such scour
+should be an overdeepened, U-shaped main valley and ungraded
+tributaries.
+
+The northern part of Still River valley has not the typical U form
+which results from glacial erosion. As contrasted with the U-shaped
+glacial valley and the V-shaped valley of normal stream erosion, it
+might be called rectangular so sharply does the flat valley floor
+terminate against the steep hillsides. The floor is too smooth and
+flat and the tributary valleys too closely adjusted to the variant
+hardness of the rocks to be the work of such a rough instrument as the
+glacier. A level so nearly perfect as that of the flood plain is the
+natural result of erosion of soft rock down to a baselevel, whereas
+glacial scouring tends to produce a surface with low rounded hills and
+hollows.
+
+Overdeepening would be expected, because glaciers erode without
+reference to existing baselevels. That a river valley should be cut
+out by ice just enough to leave it graded with respect to the main
+valley would be an unusual coincidence. This is what is found where
+the Still River valley joins the Housatonic, and it indicates normal
+stream erosion. Also, if the limestone of the northern Still River
+valley were gouged out by the glacier, the action would in all
+probability have been continuous in the limestone belt to the north
+of the Housatonic, and where the belt of soft rock crosses the
+Housatonic the river bed would be overdeepened. Although the valley of
+the Housatonic near New Milford is very flat, as is natural where a
+river crosses a belt of weak rock, the outcrops are sufficiently
+numerous to show that it has not been overdeepened. The limestone area
+along the East Aspetuck is largely overlain by till, but here again
+the presence of rock in place shows that the valley has not been
+overdeepened. Moreover, limestone boulders in the southern part of
+Still River valley are not as abundant as they should be under the
+hypothesis that the northern part had been gouged out extensively.
+
+That the northern part of the Still River valley was not deeply
+carved by ice is shown also by the character of the tributary streams.
+The three small brooks on the west side of the valley, near Beaver
+Brook Mountain, were examined to see if their grades indicated an
+over-deepening of the main valley. These streams, however, and others
+so far as could be determined, were found to have normal profiles;
+that is, their grades become increasingly flatter toward their mouths.
+The streams are cutting through the till cover and are not building
+alluvial cones where they join the lowland. All their features, in
+fact, are characteristic of normal stream development.
+
+Throughout the length of the valley, rock outcrops are found near the
+surface, showing that the changes produced by the glacier were due to
+scouring rather than to the accumulation of glacial material. Except
+where stratified drift is collected locally in considerable quantity,
+the glacial mantle is thin. On the other hand, it has been shown that
+glacial gouging was not sufficient in amount to affect the course of
+the stream. The glacier simply cleaned off the soil and rotten rock
+from the surface, slackening the stream here and hastening it there,
+and by blocking the course with drift it forced the river at several
+places to depart slightly from its preglacial course.
+
+The evidence shows, therefore, that if Still River has suffered
+reversal, glaciation is not responsible for the change, and thus the
+first two hypotheses for explaining the history of the valley are
+eliminated. There remain for discussion the third and fourth
+hypotheses; the former being that reversal was effected in a very
+early stage in the development of the drainage, the latter that no
+reversal has occurred. The choice between these two hypotheses rests
+on evidence obtained in the Umpog, Croton, and other valleys of the
+Danbury region. This evidence is presented in the three following
+sections, after which the former courses of Still River will be
+discussed.
+
+
+THE STILL-SAUGATUCK DIVIDE
+
+FEATURES OF THE UMPOG VALLEY
+
+The valley of the Umpog, which extends from Still River to the source
+of the Saugatuck near West Redding (fig. 7), is a critical area in the
+study of the Still River system. It is possible that this valley once
+afforded an outlet for Still River, and it has been suggested that the
+Housatonic formerly followed this route to Long Island Sound. The
+relation of this valley to the former drainage system of the Danbury
+region demands, therefore, a careful examination of the features of
+the valleys occupied by Umpog Creek and the upper waters of the
+Saugatuck, and of the divide between those streams.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 7.~ Map of Umpog Swamp and vicinity.]
+
+
+North of Bethel the Umpog occupies an open valley developed in
+limestone. Knolls of limestone rise to heights of about 40 feet above
+the floor of the valley and their upper surfaces are cut across the
+highly, tilted beds. This truncation, together with a general
+correspondence in height, suggests that these knolls, as well as the
+rock terraces found between Bethel and West Redding, and the limestone
+ridge which forms the divide itself, are portions of what was once a
+more continuous terrace produced by stream erosion and that they
+determine a former river level. The absence of accurate elevations and
+the probability of glacial scour make conclusions regarding the
+direction of slope of this dissected rock terrace somewhat uncertain.
+As will be indicated later, however, it seems likely that these
+terrace remnants mark the course of a southward flowing river that
+existed in a very early stage in the development of the drainage.
+
+South of Bethel the old Umpog valley, has lost from one-third to
+one-half its width through deposits of stratified drift (Pl. II, A and
+B). On the west, gravel beds lie against rock and till; on the east,
+deposits of sand and coarse gravel form a bench or terrace from 500 to
+700 feet broad, which after following the side of the valley for
+one-half mile, crosses it diagonally and joins the western slope as a
+row of rounded hills. Through this drift the present stream has cut a
+narrow channel.
+
+The narrowest part of the Umpog valley is about one mile south of
+Bethel. Farther upstream the valley expands into the flat occupied by
+Umpog Swamp, which presents several interesting features. The eastern,
+southern, and western sides of the swamp are formed of irregular
+masses of limestone and granite-gneiss 20 to 60 feet high. Near the
+northwestern edge of the swamp is a terrace-like surface cut on
+limestone. Its elevation is about the same as that of the beveled rock
+remnants lying in Umpog valley north of Bethel.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 30. Plate II.~
+   A. View up the valley of Umpog Creek. The valley dwindles in the
+      distance to the "railroad divide." In the middle distance is
+      Umpog Swamp; in the foreground the edge of the southern end of
+      row of Kames which points down the valley.
+
+   B. View down the valley of Umpog Creek. To the left is the edge of
+      limestone terrace; in the middle distance is the Catholic
+      cemetery situated on a terrace of stratified drift; on the right
+      are mounds of stratified drift; in the distance is the granite
+      ridge bounding the valley on the east.]
+
+
+[Illustration:
+~Fig. 8.~ Profiles of rivers.
+          A. Profile of present Still River and buried channel of
+	       Umpog-Still River.
+          B. Profile of preglacial Croton-Still River.
+          C. Profile of preglacial Umpog-Still River.
+          Solid lines show the present levels.
+          Dotted lines show preglacial levels.]
+
+Umpog Swamp was formerly a lake but is now nearly filled with organic
+matter so that only a small remnant of the old water body remains.
+Soundings have revealed no bottom at 43 feet[10] and the depth to rock
+bottom is not less than 45 feet. The swamp situated one-half mile
+southwest of Bethel has a depth to rock of 35 feet. In their relation
+to the Still River system these two swamps may be regarded simply as
+extensions of the Umpog Creek channel, but when the elevations of
+their bottoms are compared with that of points to the north and south,
+where the river flows on rock, it will be seen that a profile results
+which is entirely out of harmony with the present profile of the
+river. Thus Umpog Creek falls 40 feet at the point where it spills
+over the rock ledge into the swamp, and if the 45 feet which measures
+the depth of Umpog Swamp be added, the difference in level is seen to
+be at least 85 feet. A similar calculation locates the bottom of the
+smaller swamp near Bethel at an elevation of 340 feet above sea-level
+or on the same level as the bottom of Umpog Swamp. In a straight line
+2-1/4 miles north of Bethel, Still River crosses rock at a level of
+350 feet, or 10 feet higher than the bottom of Umpog Swamp. At
+Brookfield, 6-1/2 miles north of the mouth of the Umpog, the Still
+crosses rock at 260 feet, and 4-1/2 miles farther north, it joins the
+Housatonic on a rock floor 200 feet above sea-level (fig. 8, A). Such
+a profile can be explained in either of two ways: glaciers gouged out
+rock basins in the weak limestone, or the river in its lower part has
+been forced out of its graded bed onto rock at a higher level.
+Probably both causes have operated, but the latter has produced more
+marked effects.
+
+Umpog Creek has its source in a small forked stream which rises in the
+granite hills east of the south end of Umpog Swamp. After passing
+westward through a flat swampy area, where it is joined by the waters
+from Todd Pond, the stream turns north and follows a shallow rock
+gorge until Umpog Swamp is reached. The divide which separates the
+present headwaters of the Umpog from those of the Saugatuck is a
+till-covered swampy flat about one-quarter mile east of Todd Pond.
+This arrangement of tributary streams is correctly shown in fig. 7 and
+differs essentially from that shown on the Danbury atlas sheet. This
+divide owes its position to the effects of glaciation. Deposits of
+till and the scouring of the bed rock so modified the preglacial
+surface that the upper part of the Saugatuck was cut off and made
+tributary to the Umpog.
+
+[Footnote 10: Report by T. T. Giffen, 1907.]
+
+
+
+THE PREGLACIAL DIVIDE
+
+In order to determine whether Still River flowed southward through the
+Saugatuck Valley just before the advent of the ice sheet, the borders
+of Umpog Swamp and the region to the south and east were examined. It
+was found that Umpog Swamp is walled in on the south by ledges of firm
+crystalline limestone and that the rock-floored ravine leading
+southward from the swamp, and occupied by the railroad, lies at too
+high an elevation to have been the channel of a through-flowing
+stream. A south-flowing Still River, and much less an ancient
+Housatonic, could not have had its course through this ravine just
+previous to glaciation. A course for these rivers through the short
+valley which extends southeastward from Umpog Swamp is also ruled out,
+because the bedrock floor of this hypothetical passageway is 20 feet
+higher than the floor of the ravine through which the railroad passes.
+
+The eastern border of Umpog Swamp is determined by a ridge of
+limestone which separates the swamp from lowlying land beyond. This
+ridge is continuous, except for the postglacial gorge cut by the
+tributary entering from the east, and must have been in existence in
+preglacial times. The entire lowland east of this limestone ridge
+possesses a unity that is not in harmony with the present division of
+the drainage. The streams from this hillside and those from the west
+may have joined in the flat-floored valley at the head of the
+Saugatuck and from there flowed into the Saugatuck system. The former
+divide then lay in a line connecting the limestone rim of the swamp
+with the tongue of highland which the highway crosses south of Todd
+Pond (fig. 7).
+
+
+THE STILL-CROTON DIVIDE
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+The deep valley extending from the Danbury Fair Grounds to the East
+Branch Reservoir in the Croton River system, has given rise to the
+suggestion that the course of the Housatonic formerly may have been
+along the line of Still and Croton rivers and thence to the
+Hudson.[11] From the evidence of the topographic map alone, this
+hypothesis appears improbable. The trend of the larger streams in
+western Connecticut is to the south and southeast; a southwesterly
+course, therefore, would be out of harmony with the prevailing
+direction of drainage. Also, the distance from the present mouth of
+Still River to tidewater by the Still-Croton route is longer than
+the present route by way of the Housatonic.
+
+[Footnote 11: Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull.
+   Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, p. 25, 1901.]
+
+
+
+FEATURES OF STILL RIVER VALLEY WEST OF DANBURY
+
+From Danbury to its source Still River occupies a valley whose
+features are significant in the history of the drainage. Between
+Danbury and the Fair Grounds (fig. 1) the valley is a V-shaped ravine
+1-1/2 miles long, well proportioned to the small stream now occupying
+it but entirely too narrow for the channel of a large river. Along the
+valley are outcrops of schist, and granite rock is present on both
+sides of the valley for a distance of about one-quarter mile. Part of
+the valley is a mere cleft cut in the rock and is unglaciated. At the
+Danbury Fair Grounds the valley opens out into a marshy plain, through
+which the river meanders and receives two tributaries from the south.
+The plain, which extends beyond Lake Kanosha on the west, has a
+generally level surface but is diversified in places by mounds of
+stratified drift.
+
+Near the railroad a rock outcrop was found which gives a clue to the
+nature of the broad lowland. The rock consists mainly of schist, but
+on the side next the valley there is a facing of rotten limestone.
+This plain, like all the others in this region, is a local peneplain
+developed on soluble limestone. A better example could not be found to
+prove the fallacy of the saying that "a broad valley proves the
+existence of a large river." The plain is simply a local expansion of
+a valley which on each side is much narrower. No other river than the
+one flowing through it can have been responsible for the erosion, for
+the plain is enclosed by hills of gneiss and schist (Pl. III).
+
+At Mill Plain the valley is crowded by ragged rock outcrops which jut
+into the lowland. Here the river occupies a ravine cut in till near
+the north side of the valley. West of Mill Plain station the valley is
+encumbered with ridges of stratified drift, interspersed with heavy
+accumulations of till. Near Andrew Pond the true width of the
+valley--one-eighth mile--is shown by rock outcrops on both the north
+and south slopes. The valley at this point gives no indication of
+narrowing toward the headwaters; in fact, it becomes broader toward
+the west.
+
+Between Andrew Pond and Haines' Pond is the divide which separates the
+waters of the Still system from those of the Croton. It consists of a
+jumbled mass of morainal hills, seemingly of boulder clay, that rise
+from 50 to 60 feet above the level of the ponds. The divide is thus
+merely a local obstruction in what was formerly a through drainage
+channel.
+
+
+THE STILL-CROTON VALLEY
+
+It is evident that before the advent of the glacier a stream must have
+flowed through the Still-Croton valley past the present divide in
+order to have excavated the rock valley there found. The Housatonic
+could not have flowed west through this valley if it was as narrow and
+shallow as is indicated by known rock outcrops; the river could have
+flowed through it only in a deep narrow gorge which was later buried
+under drift, but the evidence at hand does not support this view.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate III.~
+   Limestone Plain southwest of Danbury, in which are situated the
+   Danbury Fair Grounds and Lake Kanosha.]
+
+
+
+It is most probable that this valley was made by the preglacial
+Croton River. This explanation demands no change in the direction of
+Still and Croton Rivers but calls for a divide at some point east of
+the present one. From a divide between the Fair Grounds and Danbury, a
+small stream may be supposed to have flowed toward the east, joining
+the larger northern branch of the Still at a point near the middle of
+the city of Danbury. The stream flowing westward from this divide
+formed the headwaters of one branch of the Croton system.
+
+The presence of till in a ravine can be used as a criterion for
+locating the site of a former divide, for where till is present in
+the bed of a stream the channel is of preglacial date. Where the river
+crosses a divide it should be cutting through rock, though till may be
+present on the valley slopes. Judged by this test, the old divide was
+situated either just east of the Fair Grounds plain or at the east end
+of the ravine described in the preceding topic. Of these two positions
+the one near the Fair Grounds seems the more likely (fig. 1), for at
+this place the river has excavated a recent channel with steep sides
+in gneissoid rock. The absence of the limestone at this point may be
+sufficient in itself to explain the location of the divide.
+
+Exact measurements of the drift in the upper Still valley are needed
+in order to establish this hypothesis completely and to plot the old
+channel, but the position of the rock floor of the former channel
+extending westward from the Fair Grounds may be fixed approximately.
+The rock at the assumed divide now stands at 420 feet above sea-level
+and it is reasonable to assume that ten feet has been removed by
+glacial scouring and postglacial erosion, making the original
+elevation 430 feet. The present divide between Andrew Pond and Haines'
+Pond has an elevation of 460, but the bedrock at this place is buried
+under 60 feet of drift, so that the valley floor lies at 400 feet.
+According to these estimates the stream which headed east of the Fair
+Grounds had a fall of 30 feet before reaching the site of the present
+Haines' Pond (fig. 8, B).
+
+
+GLACIAL LAKE KANOSHA
+
+When the Croton Branch was beheaded by drift choking up its valley
+west of Andrew Pond, the ponded waters rose to a height of from 20 to
+30 feet and then overflowed the basin on the side toward Danbury. The
+outlet was established across the old divide, and as the gorge by
+which the water escaped was cut down, the level of the ponded waters
+was lowered. At the same time, also, the lake was filled by debris
+washed into it from the surrounding slopes. Thus the present flat
+plain was formed and the old valley floor, a local peneplain developed
+on the limestone, was hidden.
+
+
+DIVIDES IN THE HIGHLANDS SOUTH OF DANBURY
+
+The mountain mass to the south and southwest of Danbury, including
+Town Hill and Spruce, Moses, and Thomas mountains, is traversed by a
+series of parallel gorges trending nearly north and south (fig. 2).
+About midway in each valley is a col, separating north and
+south-flowing streams. Two of the valleys, those between Spruce and
+Moses mountains, and Thomas Mountain and Town Hill, form fairly low
+and broad passes. They were examined to see whether either could have
+afforded a southerly outlet for Still River.
+
+The rock composing the mountains is granite-gneiss and schist with an
+average strike of N 30° W, or very nearly in line with the trend of
+the valleys. The gneiss was found to be characteristic of the high
+ridges and schist to be more common in the valleys. No outcrops of
+limestone were found on the ridges, but at two or three localities
+limestone in place was found on low ground. From the facts observed
+it is evident that the stronger features of the relief are due to the
+presence of bodies of resistant rock, whereas the valleys are due to
+the presence of softer rock. The series of deep parallel valleys is
+attributed to the presence of limestone rather than schist.
+
+The gorge between Spruce and Moses mountains, locally called "Sugar
+Hollow," narrows southward as it rises to the col, and the rock floor
+is buried under till and stratified drift to depths of 25 to 50 feet.
+Nevertheless it is probable that the valley was no deeper in
+preglacial time than it is now. The plan of the valley with its broad
+mouth to the north favored glacial scour so that the ice widened and
+deepened the valley and gave it a U form. Scouring and filling are
+believed to have been about equal in amount, and the present height
+of the divide, about 470 feet, may be taken as the preglacial
+elevation. This is 70 feet higher than the rock floor of the divide at
+West Redding. The pass could not, therefore, have served as an outlet
+for Still River.
+
+The valley west of Town Hill is similar in form and origin to Sugar
+Hollow. The water parting occurs in a swamp, from each end of which a
+small brook flows. The height of the pass in this valley--590 feet--
+precludes its use as an ancient outlet for Still River. Likewise the
+valley east of Town Hill affords no evidence of occupation by a
+southward through-flowing stream.
+
+
+THE ANCIENT STILL RIVER
+
+The conclusion that the Still-Umpog was not reversed by a glacial dam
+does not preclude the possibility that this valley has been occupied
+by a south-flowing stream. It is probable that in an early stage in
+the development of the drainage, the streams of the Danbury region
+reached Long Island Sound by way of the Still-Umpog-Saugatuck valley.
+Along this route, as described under the heading "The Still-Saugatuck
+Divide," is a fairly broad continuous valley at a higher level than
+the beds of the present rivers. A south-flowing river, as shown in
+fig. 9, brings all the drainage between Danbury and the Housatonic
+into normal relations.
+
+This early relationship of the streams was disturbed by the reversal
+of the waters of the ancient Still in the natural development of a
+subsequent drainage. The Housatonic lowered the northern end of the
+limestone belt, in the region between New Milford and Stillriver
+village, faster than the smaller south-flowing stream was able to
+erode its bed. Eventually a small tributary of the Housatonic captured
+the headwaters of the south-flowing river, and by the time the latter
+had been reversed as far south as the present divide at Umpog Swamp,
+it is probable that the advantage gained by the more rapid erosion of
+the Housatonic was offset by the Saugatuck's shorter course to the
+sea. As a result the divide between Still and Saugatuck Rivers at
+Umpog Swamp had become practically stationary before the advent of the
+glacier.
+
+The complex history of Still River is not fully shown in the stream
+profile, for the latter is nearly normal, except in the rock basins in
+the valley of the Umpog. This is due to the fact that changes in the
+course of the Still, caused by the development of a subsequent
+drainage through differential erosion, were made so long ago that
+evidence of them has been largely destroyed.
+
+The foregoing conclusion practically eliminates hypothesis IV--that
+the Still developed from the beginning as a subsequent stream in the
+direction in which it now flows. This hypothesis holds good only for
+the short portion of the lower course of the present river, that is,
+the part representing the short tributary of the Housatonic which
+captured and reversed the original Still.
+
+
+DEPARTURES OF STILL RIVER FROM ITS PREGLACIAL CHANNEL
+
+Between Danbury and Beaver Brook Mountain the Still departs widely
+from its former channel, as shown in fig. 6. At the foot of Liberty
+Street in Danbury the river makes a sharp turn to the southeast, flows
+through a flat plain, and for some distance follows the limestone
+valley of the Umpog, meeting the latter stream in a swampy meadow. It
+then cuts across the western end of Shelter Rock in a gorge-like
+valley not over 200 feet wide. Outcrops of a gneissoid schist on the
+valley sides and rapids in the stream bear witness to the youthfulness
+of this portion of the river channel.
+
+An open valley which extends from the foot of Liberty Street in a
+northeasterly direction (the railroad follows it) marks the former
+course of Still River, but after the stream was forced out of this
+course and superimposed across the end of Shelter Rock by the
+accumulation of drift in the central and northern parts of the valley,
+it was unable to regain its old channel until near Beaver Brook
+Mountain. The deposits of drift not only have kept the Still confined
+to the eastern side of its valley but have forced a tributary from the
+west to flow along the edge of the valley for a mile before it joins
+its master stream.
+
+About a mile north of Brookfield Junction, Still River valley begins
+to narrow, and at Brookfield the river, here crowded to the extreme
+eastern side, is cutting a gorge through limestone. The preglacial
+course of the Still in the Brookfield region seems to have been near
+the center of the valley where it was joined by Long Brook and other
+short, direct streams draining the hillsides. The glacier, however,
+left a thick blanket of drift in the middle of the valley which turned
+the Still to the east over rock and forced Long Brook to flow for more
+than a mile along the extreme western side of the valley.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 9.~ Early stage of the Rocky-Still River,
+   antedating preglacial course shown in figure 4.]
+
+
+The broad valley through which the Still flows in the lower part of
+its course extends northward beyond it for over two miles, bordering
+the Housatonic River. At Lanesville near the mouth of the Still, the
+river has cut a gorge 30 feet deep and one-quarter mile long in the
+limestone. Upstream from this gorge the river meanders widely in a
+flat valley, whereas on the downstream side it has cut a deep channel
+in the drift in order to reach the level of the Housatonic. There is
+room in the drift-covered plain to the west for a buried channel of
+Still River which could join the Housatonic at any point between New
+Milford and Stillriver station. If the depth of the drift be taken at
+25 feet, there would seem to be no objection to the supposition that
+the Still initially joined its master stream opposite New Milford, as
+shown in fig 6. After the limestone had been worn down to approximate
+baselevel, the tendency of the Still would have been to seek an outlet
+farther south in order to shorten its course and reach a lower level
+on the Housatonic. This stage in the evolution of the river may not
+have been reached before the ice age, and it is thus possible that
+glacial deposits may have pushed the river to the extreme southern
+side of its valley, superimposed it over rock, and forced it to cut
+its way down to grade.
+
+
+SUGGESTED COURSES OF HOUSATONIC RIVER
+
+
+As possible former outlets for the Housatonic, Hobbs has suggested the
+Still-Umpog-Saugatuck valley or the Still-Croton valley (by way of the
+East Branch Reservoir)[12], whereas Crosby has suggested the Ten
+Mile-Swamp River-Muddy Brook-Croton River valley (by way of Webatuck,
+Wing's Station, and Pawling), or the Fall's Village-Limerock-Sharon-
+Webatuck Creek-Ten Mile valley.[13] The sketch map, fig. 10, indicates
+the courses just outlined and one other by way of the Norwalk. The
+latter is the route followed by the Danbury and Norwalk Division of the
+Housatonic Railroad. It is natural to assume that the Housatonic might
+have occupied anyone of these lines of valleys, particularly where they
+are developed on limestone and seem too broad for the streams now
+occupying them. Nevertheless, although each of these routes is on soft
+rock and some give shorter distances to the sea than the present course,
+it is highly improbable that the Housatonic ever occupied any of these
+valleys. For had the river once become located in a path of least
+resistance, such as is furnished by any of these suggested routes, it
+could not have been dislodged and forced to cut its way for 25 miles
+through a massive granitic formation, as it does between Still River
+and Derby, without great difficulty (Pl. IV, A).
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 10.~ Five suggested outlets of Housatonic River.]
+
+
+An inspection of the larger river systems of Connecticut shows that
+the streams composing them exhibit two main trends. Likewise, the
+courses, of the larger rivers themselves, whether trunk streams or
+tributaries, combine these two trends, one of which is
+northwest-southeast and the other nearly north-south.
+
+The north-south drainage lines are the result of geologic structure,
+and many broad, flat-floored valleys, often apparently out of
+proportion to the streams occupying them, have this direction. On the
+other hand, the northwest-southeast drainage lines across the strike
+of formations, coincide with the slope toward the sea of the uplifted
+peneplain whose dissected surface is represented by the crests of the
+uplands. The valleys of streams with this trend are generally narrow,
+and some are gorges where resistant rock masses are crossed. The
+northwest-southeast trends of master streams thus were determined
+initially by the slope of the peneplain, whereas the north-south
+trends represent later adjustments to structure.
+
+It is concluded, therefore, that the Housatonic between Bulls' Bridge
+and Derby (fig. 10), had its course determined by the slope of the
+uplifted peneplain and is antecedent in origin. The old headwaters
+extended northwest from the turn in the river near Bull's Bridge,
+whereas that part of the river above Bull's Bridge was initially a
+minor tributary. This tributary, because of its favorable situation,
+in time captured all the drainage of the extensive limestone belt to
+the north and then became part of the main stream. The lower
+Housatonic, therefore, has always maintained its ancient course
+diagonal to the strike of formations, and differential erosion, which
+reaches its maximum expression in limestone areas, is responsible for
+the impression that the Still River lowland and other valleys west of
+the Housatonic may once have been occupied by the latter stream.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey  Bull. 30. Plate IV.~
+   A. View down the Housatonic Valley from a point one-half mile
+      below Still River station. Pumpkin Hill, a ridge of resistant
+      schist and quartzite, stands on right. A small island lies in
+      the river.
+   B. Part of the morainal ridge north of Danbury. Till capped by
+      stratified drift one mile north of Shelter Rock.]
+
+
+[Footnote 12: Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull.
+   Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, p. 25, 1901.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Crosby, W. O., Notes on the geology of the sites of the
+   proposed dams in the valleys of the Housatonic and Ten Mile rivers:
+   Tech. Quart., vol. 13, p. 120, 1900.]
+
+
+
+
+
+GLACIAL DEPOSITS
+
+
+BEAVER BROOK SWAMP
+
+A broad belt of limestone extends along the eastern side of the
+granite ridge of Shelter Rock and in preglacial time formed a
+broad-bottomed valley whose master stream had reached old age. When
+the glacier came it hampered the drainage by scooping out the rock
+bottom of the valley in places and by dropping deposits at the mouth
+of Beaver Brook valley, thus forming Beaver Brook Swamp or "The Flat,"
+as it is called (fig. 6).
+
+Among the deposits at the southern end of Beaver Brook Swamp is
+considerable stratified drift in the form of smoothly rounded hills or
+kames, which are situated both on the border of the valley and in the
+swamp. Till containing medium-sized boulders of granodiorite-gneiss
+occurs along the road which borders the east side of the densely
+wooded swamp.
+
+Along the northeastern border of the swamp is a flat-topped terrace of
+till, perhaps a lateral moraine, through which a small stream heading
+to the north has cut a V-shaped ravine. A lobe of fine till extends
+into the valley from the northeast and narrows the outlet.
+
+Between the railroad and highway, which cross the northern end of the
+swamp, is an irregular wooded eminence of rock, partly concealed by a
+veneer of drift. Between this knoll and Shelter Rock are heavy
+deposits of sand in the form of a short, broad terrace with lobes
+which point into the Still River valley. A similar terrace is found to
+the northwest on the opposite side of the valley.
+
+At the northern end of Shelter Rock along the blind road leading to
+the summit is a peninsula-like body of drift which contains huge
+granite boulders mixed here and there with pockets of sand and gravel.
+Stratified drift was found at the foot of the hill, and till overlying
+it higher up. The more usual arrangement is boulder clay overlain by
+modified drift, the first being laid down by the ice itself, the
+second being deposited by streams from the melting glacier in its
+retreat. Huge boulders, many ten feet or more in diameter, are strewn
+over the northern slope of Shelter Rock.
+
+
+DEPOSITS NORTHEAST OF DANBURY
+
+North of the railroad, opposite Shelter Rock (fig. 6), is a most
+interesting flat-topped ridge of drift which topographically is an
+extension of the higher rock mass to the northwest. In this drift mass
+are to be found in miniature a number of the forms characteristic of
+glacial topography. The broad-topped gravel ridge slopes sharply on
+the north into a flat-bottomed ravine which is evidently part of the
+Still River lowland. This portion of the valley has been shut off by
+drift deposits. The drainage has been so obstructed that the stream in
+the ravine turns northeast away from its natural outlet. In the valley
+of "X" brook (fig. 1) are terraces, esker-like lobes, and detached
+mounds of stratified drift resting on a foundation of till.
+
+Along the eastern border of the hill is to be seen the contact between
+two forms of glacial deposits (Pl. IV, B). A mass of stratified drift
+overlies a hummocky deposit of coarse till, but large boulders
+occurring here and there on top of the stratified drift show that the
+ice-laid and water-laid materials were not completely sorted. Boulders
+seem to have been dropping out of the ice at the same time that gravel
+was being deposited. Boulders of granite-gneiss eight feet or more in
+diameter, carried by the ice from the hills to the north and
+northeast, are strewn at the foot of the hill.
+
+
+DEPOSITS BETWEEN BEAVER BROOK MOUNTAIN AND MOUTH OF STILL RIVER
+
+About a mile beyond Beaver Brook Mountain, the railroad cuts through
+the edge of a hill 80 feet in height exposing a section consisting of
+distinctly stratified layers of fine white quartz sand, coarser
+yellowish sand, and small round pebbles. The quartz sand was used at
+one time in making glass. Farther east where the two tracks of the New
+York and New England railroads converge, a cut shows a section of at
+least 40 feet of boulder clay. Near the river, limestone boulders are
+common, indicating that the valley to the north was degraded to some
+extent by the glacier.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate V.~
+   A. Kames in Still River Valley west of Brookfield Junction.
+   B. Till ridges on the western border of Still River Valley, south
+      of Brookfield.]
+
+
+In the valley at Brookfield Junction and on its western side, are
+thick deposits of clean sand. One mile north of Brookfield Junction,
+along the western border of the valley, an esker follows an irregular
+course for several hundred yards approximately parallel to the river
+and terminates at its southern end in a group of kames (Pl. V, A and
+B). Opposite the point where these accumulations occur, is a
+terrace-like deposit of till. Between the gorge at Brookfield and the
+mouth of Still River, swampy areas, flat meadows, and small hills of
+drift occur.
+
+In comparison with the Still River lowland, the flat land east of
+Green Mountain may be called a plateau. The step between the two is
+made by an east-facing rocky slope, the outline of which has been
+softened by a lateral moraine separated from the plateau edge by a
+small ravine. On the lowland below the moraine is a group of kames.
+Near Lanesville (fig. 6), are thick deposits of water-laid material,
+including a hill of gravel near the river having a large bowl-shaped
+depression on one side formed by the melting of an ice block. Two and
+a half miles south of Lanesville on the west side of the lowland, a
+wooded esker extends for about one-quarter mile parallel to the valley
+axis and then merges into the rocky hillside.
+
+
+LAKES
+
+The lakes of this region are of two kinds: (1) those due to the
+damming of river valleys by glacial deposits and (2) rock basins
+gouged out by the ice.
+
+Among the lakes which owe their origin to drift accumulations in the
+valleys are Andrew and Haines' ponds at the head of Still River. These
+are properly parts of the Croton River system, but Andrew Pond has
+been held back by the deep filling of boulder clay in the valley. Lake
+Kanosha, in the same valley, is a shallow lake formed in the drift.
+The lake south of Spruce Mountain at the head of the Saugatuck seems
+to be enclosed by drift alone.
+
+Neversink Pond, Barses Pond, Creek Pond, and Leonard Pond are the
+remnants of larger water bodies now converted into swamps. Squantz
+Pond and Hatch Pond have dams of drift. Eureka Lake and East Lake
+appear to be rock basins whose levels have been raised somewhat by
+dams of till. Great Mountain Pond and Green's Pond, between Great
+Mountain and Green Mountain, are surrounded by rock and their level
+has been raised several feet by artificial dams. Great Mountain Pond
+is at least 50 feet above the level of Green Pond and separated from
+it by a rock ridge (fig. 2).
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE GLACIAL DEPOSITS
+
+A tongue of the glacier is supposed to have lain in the valley of the
+Umpog and gradually retreated northward after the ice had disappeared
+from the uplands on either side. The ridge of intermediate height
+built of limestone and schist, which extends down the middle of the
+valley, was probably covered by ice for some time after the glacier
+had left the highlands.
+
+When the mountain mass extending from Pine Mountain to Town Hill west
+of the Umpog Basin and the granite hills to the east terminating in
+Shelter Rock are considered in their relation to the movement of the
+ice, it is apparent that the valley of the Umpog must have been the
+most direct and lowest outlet for glacial streams south of Danbury.
+These streams built up the terraces and other deposits of stratified
+drift which occupy the valley between Bethel and West Redding.
+
+The heavy deposits of till near West Redding mark a halt in the
+retreating glacier. The boulders at this point are large and numerous,
+and kames and gravel ridges were formed. The deposits at the divide,
+supposed to have formed a glacial dam which reversed the Umpog,[14]
+are much less heavy than at points short distances north and south of
+the water parting.
+
+As the ice retreated, sand and gravel in the form of terraces
+accumulated along the margin of the Umpog valley, where the drainage
+was concentrated in the spaces left by the melting of the ice lobe
+from the hillside. Among these deposits are the bodies of sand and
+gravel which lie against the rocky hillslopes most of the way from the
+Umpog-Saugatuck divide to Bethel. North of Bethel, the drainage seems
+to have been gathered chiefly in streams flowing on each side of the
+low ridge occupying the center of the valley; consequently the gravel
+was deposited along the sides and southern end of the ridge and in the
+sag which cuts across its northern end. The row of kames at the north
+end of Umpog Swamp, several knolls of drift in Bethel, and the
+kame-like deposits and esker north of Grassy Plain were laid down
+successively as the ice retreated down the valley. During this period,
+the drainage was ponded between the ice front and the Umpog-Saugatuck
+divide.
+
+Uncovering the Still-Croton valley did not give the glacial drainage
+any lower outlet than the Umpog-Saugatuck divide afforded (fig. 8, B
+and C.)
+
+The heavy deposits of boulder clay forming the moraine which blocks
+the Rocky River valley indicate the next halting place of the glacier.
+In this period the ice margin formed an irregular northeast-southwest
+line about a mile north of Danbury. The country west and south of
+Danbury was thus uncovered, but the lower part of Still River valley
+was either covered by the ice sheet or occupied by an ice lobe. The
+drainage was, therefore, up the river valley, and being concentrated
+along the valley sides resulted in the accumulation of sand and gravel
+at the foot of rocky slopes. It is possible that an ice lobe extended
+down the old Rocky River valley, perhaps occupying much of the country
+between Beaver Brook Mountain and the high ridge west of the valley.
+The streams issuing from this part of the ice front would have laid
+down the eskers and kame gravels north of Danbury and the thick mantle
+of drift over which Still River flows through the city. As would be
+expected, this accumulation of material ponded all the north-flowing
+streams--Umpog Creek, Beaver Brook, and smaller nameless ones--and at
+the same time pushed Still River, at its mouth, to the southern side
+of its valley. Beaver Brook valley, Umpog valley, and all the Danbury
+basin must have been flooded during this period up to the height of
+the "railroad divide." Within the area covered by the city, the valley
+was filled up to at least 70 feet and probably much more than that
+above its former level. Flowing at this higher level, the river was
+thrown out of its course and here and there superimposed on hard
+rock--as, for example, at Shelter Rock.
+
+That part of the drainage coming down the valley opposite Beaver Brook
+met the drainage from Still River ice lobe in the valley north of
+Shelter Rock, and as a result heavy deposits of stratified drift were
+laid down. The peninsula-like mass of drift beyond the river north of
+Shelter Rock appears from its form to have been built up as the delta
+of southward and eastward-flowing streams; probably the drainage from
+the hilltops united with streams coming down the two valleys. The
+lobes of stratified drift extending from the ridge may have been built
+first, and later the connecting ridge of gravel which forms the top of
+the hill may have accumulated as additional material was washed in,
+tying together the ridges of gravel along their western ends. The
+mingling in this region of stratified drift of all grades of
+coarseness indicates the union in the same basin of debris gathered
+from several sources.
+
+Between Danbury and New Milford no moraine crosses either the Rocky or
+the Still valley, but the abundance of till which overspreads the
+whole country indicates a slowly retreating glacier well loaded with
+rock debris. The mounds of stratified drift scattered along the valley
+doubtless represent the deltas of streams issuing from the ice front.
+The waters of Rocky River were ponded until the outlet near Jerusalem
+was uncovered and the disappearance of ice from the ravine below
+allowed an escape to the Housatonic. Stratified drift is present in
+greatest amount along the valleys of Still River and the west fork of
+Rocky River, indicating that these were the two chief lines of
+drainage. The uplands are practically without stratified drift.
+
+Along the valley of the Housatonic, glacial material is chiefly in the
+form of gravel terraces; they extend from Gaylordsville to New
+Milford, in some places on one side only, in others on both sides of
+the river. Part of these gravel benches are kame terraces, as shown by
+their rolling tops and the ravine which separates the terrace from the
+hillside; others may have been made by the river cutting through the
+mantle of drift which was laid down in the period of land depression
+at the time of glacial retreat,[15] or they may be a combination of the
+two forms. In many places by swinging in its flood plain, the river
+has cut into the terraces and left steep bluffs of gravel. The valley
+of Womenshenuck Brook above Merwinsville contains heavy deposits of
+stratified drift, indicating that this broad valley which extends from
+Kent on the Housatonic to Merwinsville was an important channel for
+the water which flowed from the melting ice.
+
+
+[Footnote 14: Rice, W. N. and Gregory, H. E., Manual of the Geology of
+   Connecticut: Conn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, pp. 34-35,
+   1906.]
+
+
+[Footnote 15: Hobbs, W. H., op. cit.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+With the following exceptions, the text presented here is that
+obtained through scanned images from an original copy of the
+manuscript.
+
+Possible Typographic Errors Corrected
+     occuying => occupying
+     PLATE II A. "of" repeated
+
+Emphasis Notation:
+     _text_ - italicized
+     =text= - bold
+     ~text~ - small caps
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Drainage Modifications and Glaciation
+in the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer-Harvey
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Drainage Modifications and Glaciation
+        in the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer Harvey, Ph. D.</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in
+the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer-Harvey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in the Danbury Region Connecticut
+       State of Connecticut State Geological and Natural History
+              Survey Bulletin No. 30
+
+Author: Ruth Sawyer-Harvey
+
+Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33050]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAINAGE MODIFICATIONS AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cos and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="trnt">
+Transcriber's Notes:<br />
+
+<p>With the following exceptions, the text presented here is that
+obtained through scanned images from an original copy of the
+manuscript.</p>
+
+<a name="typos"></a>Possible Typographic Errors Corrected<br />
+<p>Pg. 32 occuying => <a href="#occupying">occupying</a></p>
+<p>PLATE II A. <a href="#ofof">"of" was repeated</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+	<img src="images/drainage_cvr.png" width="334" height="528" alt="Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer Harvey">
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span>
+<h2>State of Connecticut<br />
+State Geological and Natural History Survey<br />
+Bulletin No. 30</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h2>Drainage Modifications and Glaciation<br />
+in the Danbury Region<br />
+Connecticut</h2>
+
+
+<h3>By</h3>
+<h2>RUTH SAWYER HARVEY, Ph. D.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>HARTFORD</h3>
+<h3>Published by the State</h3>
+<h3>1920</h3>
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>BULLETINS</h3>
+
+<h3>OF THE</h3>
+
+<h3>State Geological and Natural History Survey<br />
+of Connecticut.</h3>
+
+<ol>
+<li> First Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1903-1904.</li>
+
+<li> A Preliminary Report on the Protozoa of the Fresh
+Waters of Connecticut: by Herbert William Conn. (Out of
+print. To be obtained only in Vol. I, containing Bulletins 1-5.
+Price $1.50, postpaid.)</li>
+
+<li> A Preliminary Report on the Hymeniales of Connecticut:
+by Edward Albert White.</li>
+
+<li> The Clays and Clay Industries of Connecticut: by Gerald
+Francis Loughlin.</li>
+
+<li> The Ustilagine? or Smuts, of Connecticut: by George
+Perkins Clinton.</li>
+
+<li> Manual of the Geology of Connecticut: by William North
+Rice and Herbert Ernest Gregory. (Out of print. To be
+obtained only in Vol. II, containing Bulletins 6-12. Price $2.45,
+postpaid.)</li>
+
+<li> Preliminary Geological Map of Connecticut: by Herbert
+Ernest Gregory and Henry Hollister Robinson.</li>
+
+<li> Bibliography of Connecticut Geology: by Herbert Ernest
+Gregory.</li>
+
+<li> Second Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the
+State Geological and Natural History Survey, 1905-1906.</li>
+
+<li> A Preliminary Report on the Alg?of the Fresh Waters
+of Connecticut: by Herbert William Conn and Lucia Washburn
+(Hazen) Webster.</li>
+
+<li> The Bryophytes of Connecticut: by Alexander William
+Evans and George Elwood Nichols.</li>
+
+<li> Third Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1907-1908.</li>
+
+<li> The Lithology of Connecticut: by Joseph Barrell and
+Gerald Francis Loughlin.</li>
+
+<li> <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span>
+Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut
+growing without cultivation: by a Committee of the Connecticut
+Botanical Society.</li>
+
+<li> Second Report on the Hymeniales of Connecticut: by
+Edward Albert White.</li>
+
+<li> Guide to the Insects of Connecticut: prepared under the
+direction of Wilton Everett Britton. Part I. General Introduction:
+by Wilton Everett Britton. Part II. The Euplexoptera
+and Orthoptera of Connecticut: by Benjamin Hovey Walden.</li>
+
+<li> Fourth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the
+State Geological and Natural History Survey, 1909-1910.</li>
+
+<li> Triassic Fishes of Connecticut: by Charles Rochester
+Eastman.</li>
+
+<li> Echinoderms of Connecticut: by Wesley Roscoe Coe.</li>
+
+<li> The Birds of Connecticut: by John Hall Sage and Louis
+Bennett Bishop, assisted by Walter Parks Bliss.</li>
+
+<li> Fifth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1911-1912.</li>
+
+<li> Guide to the Insects of Connecticut: prepared under the
+direction of Wilton Everett Britton. Part III. The Hymenoptera,
+or Wasp-like Insects, of Connecticut: by Henry Lorenz
+Viereck, with the collaboration of Alexander Dyer MacGillivray,
+Charles Thomas Brues, William Morton Wheeler, and Sievert
+Allen Rohwer.</li>
+
+<li> Central Connecticut in the Geologic Past: by Joseph
+Barrell.</li>
+
+<li> Triassic Life of the Connecticut Valley: by Richard
+Swann Lull.</li>
+
+<li> Sixth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1913-1914.</li>
+
+<li> The Arthrostraca of Connecticut: by Beverly Waugh
+Kunkel.</li>
+
+<li> Seventh Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the
+State Geological and Natural History Survey, 1915-1916.</li>
+
+<li> Eighth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the
+State Geological and Natural History Survey, 1917-1918.</li>
+
+<li> The Quaternary Geology of the New Haven Region,
+Connecticut: by Freeman Ward, Ph.D.</li>
+
+<li> Drainage, Modification and Glaciation in the Danbury
+Region, Connecticut: by Ruth Sawyer Harvey, Ph.D.</li>
+
+<li> Check List of the Insects of Connecticut: by Wilton
+Everett Britton, Ph.D. (In press.)</li>
+</ol>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span>
+
+<p>Bulletins 1, 9, 12, 17, 21, 25, 27, and 28 are merely administrative
+reports containing no scientific matter. The other bulletins
+may be classified as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Geology: Bulletins 4, 6, 7, 8, 13, 18, 23, 24, 29, 36.</p>
+
+<p>Botany: Bulletins 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15.</p>
+
+<p>Zo&ouml;logy: Bulletins 2, 16, 19, 20, 22, 26, 31.</p>
+
+<p>These bulletins are sold and otherwise distributed by the
+State Librarian. Postage, when bulletins are sent by mail, is
+as follows:</p>
+
+<table width="75%" style="text-align:right" summary="Postage, when bulletins are sent by mail">
+<tr><td>No.</td><td>&nbsp;1</td><td>$0.01</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>No.</td><td>13</td><td>$0.08</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>No.</td><td>23</td><td>$0.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;3</td><td>.08</td><td></td><td></td><td>14</td><td>.16</td><td></td><td></td><td>24</td><td>.10</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;4</td><td>.06</td><td></td><td></td><td>15</td><td>.06</td><td></td><td></td><td>25</td><td>.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;5</td><td>.03</td><td></td><td></td><td>16</td><td>.07</td><td></td><td></td><td>26</td><td>.06</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;7</td><td>.06</td><td></td><td></td><td>17</td><td>.02</td><td></td><td></td><td>27</td><td>.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;8</td><td>.05</td><td></td><td></td><td>18</td><td>.07</td><td></td><td></td><td>28</td><td>.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;9</td><td>.02</td><td></td><td></td><td>19</td><td>.08</td><td></td><td></td><td>29</td><td>.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>.08</td><td></td><td></td><td>20</td><td>.14</td><td></td><td></td><td>30</td><td>.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>11</td><td>.07</td><td></td><td></td><td>21</td><td>.02</td><td></td><td></td><td>31</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>12</td><td>.02</td><td></td><td></td><td>22</td><td>.08</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The prices when the bulletins are sold are as follows, postpaid:</p>
+
+<table width="75%" style="text-align:right" summary="prices when the bulletins are sold are as follows">
+<tr><td>No.</td><td>&nbsp;1</td><td>$0.05</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>No.</td><td>13</td><td>$0.40</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>No.</td><td>23</td><td>$0.13</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;3</td><td>.10</td><td></td><td></td><td>14</td><td>.75</td><td></td><td></td><td>24</td><td>.65</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;4</td><td>.30</td><td></td><td></td><td>15</td><td>.35</td><td></td><td></td><td>25</td><td>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;5</td><td>.15</td><td></td><td></td><td>16</td><td>.35</td><td></td><td></td><td>26</td><td>.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;7</td><td>.60</td><td></td><td></td><td>17</td><td>.05</td><td></td><td></td><td>27</td><td>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;8</td><td>.20</td><td></td><td></td><td>18</td><td>.25</td><td></td><td></td><td>28</td><td>.05</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>&nbsp;9</td><td>.05</td><td></td><td></td><td>19</td><td>.45</td><td></td><td></td><td>29</td><td>.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>10</td><td>.35</td><td></td><td></td><td>20</td><td>.50</td><td></td><td></td><td>30</td><td>.45</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>11</td><td>.30</td><td></td><td></td><td>21</td><td>.05</td><td></td><td></td><td>31</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>12</td><td>.05</td><td></td><td></td><td>22</td><td>2.00</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A part of the edition of these Bulletins have been assembled
+in volumes substantially bound in cloth, plainly lettered, and sell
+for the following prices, postpaid:</p>
+
+<table summary="sell
+for the following prices">
+<tr><td>Volume&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align=right>I,</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;containing Bulletins&nbsp;&nbsp;1-5</td><td align=right>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.50
+<tr><td>Volume&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align=right>II,</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;containing Bulletins&nbsp;&nbsp;6-12</td><td align=right>2.45
+<tr><td>Volume&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align=right>III,</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;containing Bulletins&nbsp;&nbsp;13-15</td><td align=right>2.50
+<tr><td>Volume&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align=right>IV,</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;containing Bulletins&nbsp;&nbsp;16-21</td><td align=right>2.15
+<tr><td>Volume&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align=right>V,</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;containing Bulletin&nbsp;&nbsp;22</td><td align=right>2.50
+</table>
+
+<p>It is intended to follow a liberal policy in gratuitously distributing
+these publications to public libraries, colleges, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span>
+scientific institutions, and to scientific men, teachers, and others
+who require particular bulletins for their work, especially to those
+who are citizens of Connecticut.</p>
+
+<p>Applications or inquiries should be addressed to</p>
+
+<span class="smcap signature1" >George S. Godard,<br /></span>
+<span class="signature2"><i>State Librarian</i>,<br /></span>
+<span class="signature3">Hartford, Conn.<br /></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the bulletins above named, published by the
+State survey, attention is called to three publications of the
+United States Geological Survey prepared in co-operation with
+the Geological and Natural Survey of Connecticut. These are
+the following:</p>
+
+<div class="outdent">
+Bulletin 484. The Granites of Connecticut: by T. Nelson
+Dale and Herbert E. Gregory.
+</div>
+
+<div class="outdent">
+Water-Supply Paper 374. Ground Water in the Hartford,
+Stamford, Salisbury, Willimantic and Saybrook Areas,
+Connecticut: by Herbert E. Gregory and Arthur J.
+Ellis.
+</div>
+
+<div class="outdent">
+Water-Supply Paper 397. Ground Water in the Waterbury
+Area, Connecticut: by Arthur J. Ellis, under the direction
+of Herbert E. Gregory.
+</div>
+
+<p>These papers may be obtained from the Director of the United
+States Geological Survey at Washington.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<h3>CATALOGUE SLIPS.</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<i><span class="bold">Connecticut.</span> State geological and natural history survey.</i><br />
+
+<p>Bulletin no. 30. Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in
+the Danbury Region, Connecticut. By Ruth S. Harvey, Ph.D.
+Hartford, 1920.</p>
+
+<p>59 pp., 5 pls., 10 fig., 25<sup>cm</sup>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class="bold"><i>Harvey, Ruth Sawyer, Ph.D.</i></span><br />
+
+<p>Drainage Modification and Glaciation in the Danbury Region,
+Connecticut. By Ruth S. Harvey, Ph.D. Hartford, 1920.</p>
+
+<p>59 pp., 5 pls., 10 figs., 25<sup>cm</sup>.</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>
+
+<span class="bold"><i>Geology.</i></span>
+
+<p>Harvey, Ruth S. Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in
+the Danbury Region, Connecticut. Hartford, 1920.</p>
+
+59 pp., 5 pls., 10 figs., 25<sup>cm</sup>.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_001" id="Page_001">[001]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<img src="images/st_of_conn.png" width="350" height="35" alt="State of Connecticut" />
+
+<h3>PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 47</h3>
+
+<h1>State Geological and Natural<br />
+History Survey</h1>
+
+<h4>HERBERT E. GREGORY, SUPERINTENDENT</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>BULLETIN No. 30</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<img src="images/insignia.png" width="127" height="151" alt="" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center smcap">Hartford</div>
+
+<h3>Printed by the State Geological and Natural History Survey</h3>
+<h3>1920</h3>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_002" id="Page_002">[002]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<h3>State Geological and Natural History Survey</h3>
+
+
+<h3>COMMISSIONERS</h3>
+
+<span class="smcap">Marcus H. Holcomb</span>, Governor of Connecticut<br />
+<span class="smcap">Arthur Twining Hadley</span>, President of Yale University<br />
+<span class="smcap">William Arnold Shanklin</span>, President of Wesleyan University<br />
+<span class="smcap">Remsen Brickerhoff Ogilby</span>, President of Trinity College<br />
+<span class="smcap">Charles Lewis Beach</span>, President of Connecticut Agricultural College<br />
+<span class="smcap">Benjamin Tinkham Marshall</span>, President of Connecticut College for Women<br />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>SUPERINTENDENT</h3>
+
+<span class="smcap center">Herbert E. Gregory</span><br />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Publication Approved by the Board of Control</i></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_003" id="Page_003">[003]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<h2>Drainage Modifications and Glaciation<br />
+in the Danbury Region<br />
+Connecticut</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4>By<br />
+RUTH SAWYER HARVEY, Ph. D.</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<img src="images/insignia.png" width="127" height="151" alt="" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center smcap">Hartford</div>
+
+<h3>Printed by the State Geological and Natural History Survey</h3>
+<h3>1920</h3>
+</div>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_004" id="Page_004">[004]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_005" id="Page_005">[005]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="TOC">&nbsp;</a>
+<h3>CONTENTS.</h3>
+
+<hr class="hr3" />
+
+<table width="100%" summary="CONTENTS">
+<tr><td colspan=2 style="text-align:right">Page</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#intro">Introduction</a></td><td style="text-align:right">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#reg_rels">Regional relations</a></td><td style="text-align:right">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#rocky_rv">Rocky River</a></td><td style="text-align:right">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#rocky_rv">Description of the river and its valley</a></td><td style="text-align:right">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#rel2geo">Relation of the valley to geologic structure</a></td><td style="text-align:right">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#junc_rvs">Junction of Rocky and Housatonic Rivers</a></td><td style="text-align:right">18</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#abn_prof">Abnormal profile</a></td><td style="text-align:right">18</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#preg_crs">Preglacial course</a></td><td style="text-align:right">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#burr_chnl">The buried channel</a></td><td style="text-align:right">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#eff_glac">Effect of glaciation</a></td><td style="text-align:right">25</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#nvrsink">The Neversink-Danbury valley</a></td><td style="text-align:right">27</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#prob_stm">Still River</a></td><td style="text-align:right">30
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#prob_stm">Statement of the problem</a></td><td style="text-align:right">30</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#ev_still_rev">Evidence to be expected if Still River has been reversed</a></td><td style="text-align:right">31</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#valley">A valley wide throughout or broadening toward the south</a></td><td style="text-align:right">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#trib_val">Tributary valleys pointing upstream</a></td><td style="text-align:right">34</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#reg_slope">The regional slope not in accord with the course of the Still</a></td><td style="text-align:right">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#evid_fill">Evidence of glacial filling and degrading of the river bed</a></td><td style="text-align:right">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#glac_scour">Glacial scouring</a></td><td style="text-align:right">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#stsaug_div">The Still-Saugatuck divide</a></td><td style="text-align:right">38</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#stsaug_div">Features of the Umpog valley</a></td><td style="text-align:right">38</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#preg_div">The preglacial divide</a></td><td style="text-align:right">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#stcr_intro">The Still-Croton divide</a></td><td style="text-align:right">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#stcr_intro">Introduction</a></td><td style="text-align:right">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#features">Features of Still River valley west of Danbury</a></td><td style="text-align:right">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#stcrval">The Still-Croton valley</a></td><td style="text-align:right">44</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#glac_lkkan">Glacial Lake Kanosha</a></td><td style="text-align:right">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#div_hglnd">Divides in the highlands south of Danbury</a></td><td style="text-align:right">46</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#anc_striv">The ancient Still River</a></td><td style="text-align:right">47</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#dprt_chnl">Departures of Still River from its preglacial channel</a></td><td style="text-align:right">48</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#sug_crse">Suggested courses of Housatonic River</a></td><td style="text-align:right">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#glac_dep">Glacial deposits</a></td><td style="text-align:right">53</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#glac_dep">Beaver Brook Swamp</a></td><td style="text-align:right">53</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#dep_ne">Deposits northeast of Danbury</a></td><td style="text-align:right">54</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#dep_bbm">Deposits between Beaver Brook Mountain and mouth of Still River</a></td><td style="text-align:right">54</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#lakes">Lakes</a></td><td style="text-align:right">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#hist_glac">History of the glacial deposits</a></td><td style="text-align:right">56</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_006" id="Page_006">[006]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_007" id="Page_007">[007]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3>
+<hr class="hr3" />
+
+<table width="100%" summary="List of Plates">
+<tr><td colspan=5 class="textrt">Page</td></tr>
+<tr><td>PLATE</td><td class="textrt">I</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Plate_I">View south on the Highland northeast of Neversink Pond</a></td><td class="textrt">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">II</td><td class="textrt">A.</td><td><a href="#Plate_IIA">View up the valley of Umpog Creek</a></td><td class="textrt">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">B.</td><td><a href="#Plate_IIB">View down the valley of Umpog Creek</a></td><td class="textrt">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">III</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#Plate_III">Limestone plain southwest of Danbury, in which are situated Lake Kanosha and the Danbury Fair Grounds</a></td><td class="textrt">44</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">IV</td><td class="textrt">A.</td><td><a href="#Plate_IVA">View down the Housatonic Valley from a point one-half mile below Stillriver Station</a></td><td class="textrt">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">B.</td><td><a href="#Plate_IVB">Part of the morainal ridge north of Danbury</a></td><td class="textrt">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">V</td><td class="textrt">A.</td><td><a href="#Plate_VA">Kames in Still River valley west of Brookfield Junction</a></td><td class="textrt">54</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">B.</td><td><a href="#Plate_VB">Till ridges on the western border of Still River valley, south of Brookfield</a></td><td class="textrt">56</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="List of Figures">
+<tr><td colspan=5 class="textrt">Page</td></tr>
+<tr><td>FIGURE</td><td class="textrt">1.</td><td><a href="#fig1">Present drainage of the Danbury region</a></td><td class="textrt">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">2.</td><td><a href="#fig2">Geological map of Still River valley</a></td><td class="textrt">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">3.</td><td><a href="#fig3">Profiles of present and preglacial Rocky River</a></td><td class="textrt">19</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">4.</td><td><a href="#fig4">Preglacial course of Rocky-Still River</a></td><td class="textrt">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">5.</td><td><a href="#fig5">Diagram showing lowest rock levels in Rocky River valley</a></td><td class="textrt">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">6.</td><td><a href="#fig6">Course of Still River</a></td><td class="textrt">29
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">7.</td><td><a href="#fig7">Map of Umpog Swamp and vicinity</a></td><td class="textrt">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">8.</td><td><a href="#fig8">Profiles of rivers</a></td><td class="textrt">41</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">9.</td><td><a href="#fig9">Early Stage of Rocky-Still River</a></td><td class="textrt">49</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="textrt">10.</td><td><a href="#fig10">Five suggested outlets of Housatonic River</a></td><td class="textrt">51</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_008" id="Page_008">[008]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="hr1" />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_009" id="Page_009">[009]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="intro">&nbsp;</a>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The Danbury region of Connecticut presents many features of
+geographic and geologic interest. It may be regarded as a type
+area, for the history of its streams and the effects of glaciation
+are representative of those of the entire State. With this idea
+in mind, the field work on which this study is based included a
+traverse of each stream valley and an examination of minor
+features, as well as a consideration of the broader regional
+problems. Much detailed and local description, therefore, is included
+in the text.</p>
+
+<p>The matter in the present bulletin formed the main theme of
+a thesis on "Drainage and Glaciation in the Central Housatonic
+Basin" which was submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
+for the degree of doctor of philosophy at Yale University.</p>
+
+<p>The field work was done in 1907 and 1908 under the direction
+of Professor Herbert E. Gregory. I am also indebted to the
+late Professor Joseph Barrell and to Dr. Isaiah Bowman for
+helpful cooperation in the preparation of the original thesis,
+and to Dr. H. H. Robinson for assistance in preparing this
+paper for publication.</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_010" id="Page_010">[010]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_011" id="Page_011">[011]</a></span>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="reg_rels">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h1>DRAINAGE MODIFICATIONS AND GLACIATION IN
+THE DANBURY REGION, CONNECTICUT</h1>
+
+<h2>By Ruth S. Harvey</h2>
+
+
+
+<h2>REGIONAL RELATIONS</h2>
+
+
+<p>The region discussed in this bulletin is situated in western
+Connecticut and is approximately 8 miles wide and 18 miles long
+in a north-south direction, as shown on <a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> Throughout, the
+rocks are crystalline and include gneiss, schist, and marble--the
+metamorphosed equivalents of a large variety of ancient
+sedimentary and igneous rocks.</p>
+
+<p>For the purposes of this report, the geologic history may be
+said to begin with the regional uplift which marked the close of
+the Mesozoic. By that time the mountains formed by Triassic
+and Jurassic folding and faulting had been worn down to a
+peneplain, now much dissected but still recognizable in the
+accordant level of the mountain tops.</p>
+
+<p>Erosion during Cretaceous time resulted in the construction
+of a piedmont plain extending from an undetermined line 30 to
+55 miles north of the present Connecticut shore to a point south
+of Long Island.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> This plain is thought to have been built up of
+unconsolidated sands, clays, and gravels, the débris of the Jurassic
+mountains. Inland the material consisted of river-made or land
+deposits; outwardly it merged into coastal plain deposits. When
+the plain was uplifted, these loose gravels were swept away. In
+New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, however, portions
+of the Cretaceous deposits are still to be found. Such deposits
+are present, also, on the north shore of Long Island, and a well
+drilled at Barren Island on the south shore revealed not less
+than 500 feet of Cretaceous strata.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The existence of such thick
+deposits within 30 miles of the Connecticut shore and certain
+peculiarities in the drainage have led to the inference that the
+Cretaceous cover extended over the southern part of Connecticut.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_012" id="Page_012">[012]</a></span>
+<p>A general uplift of the region brought this period of deposition
+to a close. As the peneplain, probably with a mantle of Cretaceous
+deposits, was raised to its present elevation, the larger
+streams kept pace with the uplift by incising their valleys. The
+position of the smaller streams, however, was greatly modified
+in the development of the new drainage system stimulated by
+the uplift. The modern drainage system may be assumed to
+have been at first consequent, that is, dependent for its direction
+on the slope of the uplifted plain, but it was not long before the
+effect of geologic structure began to make itself felt. In the
+time when all the region was near baselevel, the harder rocks
+had no advantage over the softer ones, and streams wandered
+where they pleased. But after uplift, the streams began to cut
+into the plain, and those flowing over limestone or schist deepened,
+then widened their valleys much faster than could the
+streams which flowed over the resistant granite and gneiss.
+By a system of stream piracy and shifting, similar to that which
+has taken place throughout the Newer Appalachians, the smaller
+streams in time became well adjusted to the structure. They
+are of the class called subsequents; on the other hand, the
+Housatonic, which dates at least from the beginning of the uplift
+if not from the earlier period of peneplanation, is an antecedent
+stream.</p>
+
+<p>The complex rock surface of western Connecticut had reached
+a stage of mature dissection when the region was invaded by
+glaciers.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> The ice sheet scraped off and redistributed the mantle
+of decayed rock which covered the surface and in places gouged
+out the bedrock. The resulting changes were of a minor order,
+for the main features of the landscape and the principal drainage
+lines were the same in preglacial time as they are today. It is
+thus seen that the history of the smaller streams like those
+considered in this report involves three factors: (1) the normal
+tendencies of stream development, (2) the influence of geologic
+structure, and (3) the effect of glaciation.</p>
+
+<p>The cover of glacial deposits is generally thin, but marked
+variations exist. The fields are overspread with coarse till containing
+pebbles 6 inches in diameter to huge boulders of 12
+feet or more. The abundance, size, and composition of the
+boulders in the till of a given locality is well represented by the
+stone fences which border fields.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_013" id="Page_013">[013]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig1"></a>
+<img src="images/fig1_sm.png" width="446" height="700" border=0 alt="Present drainage of the Danbury region."><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> Present drainage of the Danbury region.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_014" id="Page_014">[014]</a></span>
+The regional depression which marked the close of the glacial
+period slackened the speed of many rivers and caused them to
+deposit great quantities of modified or assorted drift. Since
+glacial time, these deposits have been dissected and formed into
+the terraces which are characteristic of the rivers of the region.
+A form of terrace even more common than the river-made terrace
+is the kame terrace found along borders of the lowlands. Eskers
+in the Danbury region have not the elongated snake-like form
+by which they are distinguished in some parts of the country,
+notably Maine; on the contrary, they are characteristically short
+and broad, many having numerous branches at the southern end
+like the distributaries of an aggrading river. The material of
+the eskers ranges from coarse sand to pebbles four inches in
+diameter, the average size being from one to two inches. No
+exposures were observed which showed a regular diminution in
+the coarseness of the material toward their southern end. The
+clean-washed esker gravels afford little encouragement to plant
+growth, and the rain water drains away rapidly through the porous
+gravel. Consequently, accumulations of stratified drift are commonly
+barren places. A desert vegetation of coarse grasses,
+a kind of wiry moss, and "everlastings" (<i>Gnaphalius decurrens</i>)
+are the principal growth. Rattlebox (<i>Crotolaria sagittalis</i>),
+steeplebush (<i>Spiraea tomentosa</i>), sweet fern (<i>Comptonia
+asplenifolia</i>), and on the more fertile eskers--especially on the
+lower, wetter part of the slope--golden rod, ox-eyed daisy,
+birch, and poplar are also present. All the eskers observed were
+found to be similar: they ranged in breadth across the top from
+100 to 150 feet and the side slopes were about 20 degrees. Only
+a single heavily wooded esker was found, and this ran through
+a forest region.</p>
+
+<p>The accumulations of stratified drift are distinguished from
+other features in the landscape by their smoother and rounder
+outlines, by their habit of lying unconformably on the bedrock
+without reference to old erosion lines, and by a slightly different
+tone in the color of the vegetation covering the water-laid
+material. The difference in color, which is due to the unique
+elements in the flora of these areas, may cause a hill of stratified
+drift in summer to present a lighter green color than that of
+surrounding hills of boulder clay or of the original rock slopes;
+in winter the piles of stratified drift stand out because of the
+uniform light tawny red of the dried grass.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The streams and other topographic features of the Danbury region are shown in
+detail on the Danbury and the New Milford sheets of the United States Topographic
+Atlas. These sheets may be obtained from the Director of the United States
+Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> It was probably not less than 30 miles, for that is the distance from the mouth
+of Still River, where the Housatonic enters a gorge in the crystallines, to the sea.
+Fifty-five miles is the distance to the sea from the probable old head of Housatonic
+River on Wassaic Creek, near Amenia, New York.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Veatch, A. C., Slichter, C. S., Bowman, Isaiah, Crosby, W. O., and Horton. R.
+E., Underground water resources of Long Island: U. S. G. S., PP. 44, p. 188 and
+fig. 24, 1906.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> This stage of glaciation is presumably Wisconsin. No definite indication of
+any older glacial deposits was found.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Plate_I" id="Plate_I">[Plate&nbsp;I]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table width="100%" summary="Plate Block">
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">State&nbsp;Geol.&nbsp;Nat.&nbsp;Hist.&nbsp;Survey</span></td><td style="text-align:right"><span class="smcap">Bull.&nbsp;30.&nbsp;&nbsp;Plate&nbsp;I.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=3><img src="images/plate_i_sm.png" width="642" height="424" border="0" alt="Plate I. View south on the highland northeast of Neversink Pond."></td></tr>
+</table><br />
+<p>View south on the highland northeast of Neversink Pond. The
+base of a ridge in which rock is exposed is seen at the left;
+a crescent-shaped lateral moraine bordering the valley lies at the right.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_015" id="Page_015">[015]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="rocky_rv">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h2>ROCKY RIVER</h2>
+
+
+<h3>DESCRIPTION OF THE RIVER AND ITS VALLEY</h3>
+
+<p>Rocky River begins its course as a rapid mountain brook in
+a rough highland, where the mantle of till in many places is
+insufficient to conceal the rock ledges (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>). Near Sherman,
+about four miles from its source, it enters a broad flood plain
+and meanders over a flat, swampy floor which is somewhat
+encumbered with deposits of stratified drift and till. Rocky
+hills border the valley and rise abruptly from the lowland. The
+few tributaries of the river in this part of its course are normal
+in direction.</p>
+
+<p>About six miles below Sherman, Rocky River enters Wood
+Creek Swamp, which is 5&frac12; miles long by about one mile wide
+and completely covers the valley floor, extending even into
+tributary valleys. Within the swamp the river is joined by
+Squantz Pond Brook and Wood Creek. Tributaries to Wood
+Creek include Mountain Brook and the stream passing through
+Barses Pond and Neversink Pond. The head of Barses Pond is
+separated from the swamp only by a low ridge of till. Neversink
+Pond with its inlet gorge and its long southern tributary
+record significant drainage modifications, as described in the
+section entitled "The Neversink-Danbury Valley."</p>
+
+<p>Within and along the margin of Wood Creek Swamp, also
+east of Wood Creek and at Barses Pond, are rounded, elongated
+ridges of till, some of which might be called drumlins. East of
+Neversink Pond is the lateral moraine shown in <a href="#Plate_I">Pl. I</a>. From
+the mouth of Wood Creek to Jerusalem, Rocky River is a quiet
+stream wandering between low banks through flat meadows,
+which are generally swampy almost to the foot of the bordering
+hills.</p>
+
+<p>Near Jerusalem bridge two small branches enter Rocky River.
+Immediately north of the bridge is a level swampy area about
+one-half mile in length. Where the valley closes in again, bedrock
+is exposed near the stream, and beginning at a point one-half
+mile below (north of) Jerusalem, Rocky River--a swift
+torrent choked by boulders of great size--deserves its name.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_016" id="Page_016">[016]</a></span>
+In spite of its rapid current, however, the river is unable to move
+these boulders, and for nearly three miles one can walk dry-shod
+on those that lie in midstream.</p>
+
+<p>At two or three places below Jerusalem, in quiet reaches
+above rapids, the river has taken its first step toward making a
+flood plain by building tiny beaches. One-half mile above the
+mouth of the river the valley widens and on the gently rising
+south bank there are several well-marked terraces about three
+feet in height and shaped out of glacial material. A delta and
+group of small islands at the mouth of Rocky River indicate the
+transporting power of the stream and the relative weakness of
+the slow-moving Housatonic.</p>
+
+
+<a name="rel2geo">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>RELATIONS OF THE VALLEY TO GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE</h3>
+
+<p>Rocky River is classed with streams which are comformable
+to the rock structure. This conclusion rests largely on the
+analogy between Rocky River and other rivers of this region.
+The latter very commonly are located on belts of limestone, or
+limestone and schist, and their extension is along the strike.
+The interfluvial ridges are generally composed of the harder
+rocks. The valleys of the East Aspetuck and Womenshenuck
+Brook on the north side of the Housatonic, and of the Still, the
+Umpog, Beaver Brook, the upper Saugatuck, and part of Rocky
+River are on limestone beds (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>). In the valleys between
+Town Hill and Spruce Mountain (south of Danbury), two
+ravines northwest of Grassy Plain (near Bethel), and the
+Saugatuck valley north of Umpawaug Pond, the limestone bed
+is largely buried under drift, talus, and organic deposits, but
+remnants which reveal the character of the valley floors have been
+found. The parallelism between the courses of these streams
+and that of Rocky River and the general resemblance in the
+form of their valleys, flat-floored with steep-sided walls, as well
+as the scattered outcrops of limestone in the valley, have led to
+the inference that Rocky River, like the others, is a subsequent
+stream developed on beds of weaker rock along lines of foliation.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_017" id="Page_017">[017]</a></span>
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig2"></a>
+<img src="images/fig2_sm.png" width="441" height="700" border=0 alt="Present drainage of the Danbury region."><br /><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Geological map of Still River Valley.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_018" id="Page_018">[018]</a></span>
+<p>The Geological Map of Connecticut<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> shows that the valleys
+of Still River, Womenshenuck Brook, Aspetuck River, and upper
+Rocky River are developed on Stockbridge limestone. The lower
+valley of Rocky River is, however, mapped as Becket gneiss and
+Thomaston granite gneiss. Although the only outcrops along
+lower Rocky River are of granite, it is believed that a belt of limestone
+or schist, now entirely removed, initially determined the
+course of the river. The assumption of an irregular belt of
+limestone in this position would account for the series of gorges
+and flood plains in the vicinity of Jerusalem bridge and for the
+broad drift-filled valley at the mouth of Rocky River. These
+features are difficult to explain on any other basis.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Gregory, H. E., Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geological map of Connecticut;
+Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 7, 1907.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="junc_rvs">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>JUNCTION OF ROCKY AND HOUSATONIC RIVERS</h3>
+
+<p>One of the distinguishing features of Rocky River is the
+angle at which it joins the Housatonic (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>). The tributaries
+of a normal drainage system enter their master stream at acute
+angles, an arrangement which involves the least expenditure of
+energy. Rocky River, however, enters the Housatonic against
+the course of the latter, that is, the tributary points upstream.
+Still River and other southern tributaries of the Housatonic
+exhibit the same feature, thus producing a barbed drainage,
+which indicates that some factor interfered with the normal
+development of tributary streams. Barbed drainage generally
+results from the reversal of direction of the master stream<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>, but
+it is impossible to suppose that the Housatonic was ever reversed.
+As will appear, it is an antecedent master stream crossing the
+crystalline rocks of western Connecticut regardless of structure,
+and its course obliquely across the strike accounts for the peculiar
+orientation of its southern tributaries, which are subsequent
+streams whose position is determined by the nature of the rock.
+For the same reason, the northern tributaries of the Housatonic
+present the usual relations.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Leverett, Frank, Glacial formations and drainage features of the Erie and Ohio
+basins: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 41, pp. 88-91, figs. 1 and 2, 1902. See, also, the
+Genoa, Watkins, Penn Yan, and Naples (New York) topographic atlas sheets.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="abn_prof">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>ABNORMAL PROFILE</h3>
+
+<p>The airline distance from the bend in Rocky River at Sherman
+to its mouth at the Housatonic is 2&frac34; miles, but the course of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_019" id="Page_019">[019]</a></span>
+river between these two points is 15 miles, or 5.4 times the airline
+distance. This is a more extraordinary digression than that
+of Tennessee River, which deserts its ancestral course to the Gulf
+and flows northwest into the Ohio, multiplying the length of its
+course 3&#8531; times. The fall of Rocky River between Sherman
+and its mouth is 240 feet or 16 feet to the mile, and were the
+river able to take a direct course the fall would be 87 feet to the
+mile. The possibility of capture would seem to be imminent
+from these figures, but in reality there is no chance of it, for an
+unbroken mountain ridge of resistant rock lies between the two
+forks of the river. This barrier is not likely to be crossed by any
+stream until the whole region has been reduced to a peneplain.</p>
+
+<p>Measured from the head of its longest branch, Rocky River
+is about 19 miles long and falls 950 feet. Of this fall, 710 feet
+occurs in the first 4 miles and 173 feet in the last 2&frac12; miles of its
+course. For the remaining distance of 12&frac12; miles, in which the
+river after flowing south doubles back on itself, the fall is 67
+feet, or slightly less than 5&frac12; feet to the mile (<a href="#fig3">fig. 3, A</a>).</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig3"></a>
+<img src="images/fig3_sm.png" width="600" height="441" border=0 alt="Present drainage of the Danbury region."><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> Profiles of present and preglacial Rocky River.<br /><br />
+
+Elevations at a, b, c and i are from U. S. G. S. map. Elevation<br />
+at d is estimated from R. E. Dakin's records. Elevations<br />
+at e, f, g and h are from R. E. Dakin's records. The<br />
+U. S. G. S. figures for the same are enclosed in parenthesis.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_020" id="Page_020">[020]</a></span>
+
+<p>In tabular form the figures, taken from the Danbury and
+New Milford atlas sheets and from reports of R. E. Dakin, are
+as follows:</p>
+
+
+<table cellpadding="4px" class="tb1" summary="In tabular form the figures">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="center">Miles</td><td class="center">Fall in feet per mile</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Source to Sherman</td><td class="center">4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="center">177.5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Sherman to Wood Creek</td><td class="center">8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td class="center">6.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Wood Creek to Jerusalem</td><td class="center">4.5</td><td class="center">3.8&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Jerusalem to mouth</td><td class="center">2.5</td><td class="center">69.2&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Near Jerusalem, where Rocky River makes its sudden change
+in grade, there is an abrupt change in the form of the valley
+from broad and flat-bottomed to narrow and V-shaped. The
+profile of Rocky River is thus seen to be sharply contrasted with
+that of a normal stream, which is characterised throughout its
+course by a decreasing slope.</p>
+
+
+<a name="preg_crs">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>PREGLACIAL COURSE</h3>
+
+<p>The present profile of Rocky River and the singular manner
+in which the lower course of the river is doubled back on the
+upper course are believed to represent changes wrought by
+glaciation. Before the advent of the glacier, Rocky River probably
+flowed southward through the "Neversink-Danbury Valley,"
+to be described later, and joined the Still at Danbury, as shown
+in <a href="#fig4">fig. 4</a>. The profile of the stream at this stage in its history
+is shown in <a href="#fig3">fig. 3, B</a>.</p>
+
+<p>At Sherman a low col separates Rocky River basin from that
+of the small northward flowing stream which enters the Housatonic
+about a mile below Gaylordsville. Streams by headward
+erosion at both ends of the belt of limestone and schist on which
+they are situated have reduced this divide to an almost imperceptible
+swell. The rock outcrops in the channel show that the
+glacier did not produce any change in the divide by damming,
+though it may have lowered it by scouring. Assume that at one
+time a divide also existed on the eastern fork of Rocky River, for
+example near Jerusalem. According to this hypothesis there
+was, north of this latter divide, a short northward flowing branch
+of the Housatonic located on a belt of weak rock, similar to the</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_021" id="Page_021">[021]</a></span>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig4"></a>
+<img src="images/fig4_sm.png" width="442" height="700" border=0 alt="Present drainage of the Danbury region."><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Preglacial course of Rocky-Still River. Dotted lines show present courses of the two rivers.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_022" id="Page_022">[022]</a></span>
+small stream which now flows northward from Sherman, and
+very like any of the half-dozen parallel streams in the rock mass
+south and southwest of Danbury, all of which are subsequent
+streams flowing along the strike. While these stream valleys
+were growing, the southern ends of the same weak belts of rock
+were held by southward-flowing streams which united in the
+broad limestone area now occupied by the city of Danbury.</p>
+
+<p>The southward-flowing streams whose heads were, respectively,
+above Sherman and near Jerusalem joined at the southern
+end of the long ridge which includes Towner Hill and Green
+Mountain. Thence the stream flowed southward along the
+valley now occupied by Wood Creek and reached Still River by
+way of the valley which extends southward from Neversink
+Pond (<a href="#fig4">fig. 4</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The preglacial course of Rocky River, as above outlined, is
+subject to possible modification in one minor feature, namely,
+the point where the east and west forks joined. The junction
+may have been where Neversink Pond is now situated, or three
+miles farther south than the indicated junction near the mouth
+of Wood Creek. A low ridge of till is the only barrier that at
+present prevents the western branch from flowing into the head
+of Barses Pond and thence into Neversink Pond (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>).</p>
+
+<p>As thus reconstructed the greater part of Rocky River formerly
+belonged to the Still-Umpog system and formed a normal
+tributary in that distant period when the Still joined the Saugatuck
+on its way to the Sound (<a href="#fig9">fig. 9</a>). However, the normal
+condition was not lasting, for the reversal of Still River, as later
+described, brought about a complex arrangement of barbed
+streams (<a href="#fig4">fig. 4</a>) which remained until modified by glacial action.</p>
+
+<p>In a large stream system which has been reversed, considerable
+evidence may be gathered from the angle at which tributary
+streams enter. As the original direction of Rocky River in its
+last 2&frac12; miles is unchanged, normal tributaries should be expected;
+whereas between Jerusalem and the head of the stream
+entering Neversink Pond from the south, in accordance with the
+hypothesis that this portion of the stream was reversed, tributaries
+pointing upstream might be expected. Such little gullies as
+join Rocky River near its mouth are normal in direction; between
+Jerusalem and the mouth of Wood Creek, a distance of 4&frac12;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_023" id="Page_023">[023]</a></span>
+miles, there are no distinct tributaries. South of the mouth
+of Wood Creek are four tributaries: (1) the brook which enters
+the valley from the west about one mile south of Neversink
+Pond, (2) Balls Brook, which empties into Neversink Pond, and
+(3) two streams on the east side--Mountain Brook and one
+other unnamed (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>). All these, except Mountain Brook, are
+normal to the reconstructed drainage. The evidence of the
+tributaries, though not decisive, is thus favorable to the hypothesis
+of reversal.</p>
+
+
+<a name="burr_chnl">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>THE BURIED CHANNEL</h3>
+
+<p>Figures 3 and 5 show what is known of the buried channel of
+Rocky River. The only definite information as to rock levels is
+that derived from the drill holes made by R. E. Dakin for the J.
+A. P. Crisfield Contracting Company in connection with work on
+a reservoir for the Connecticut Light and Power Company.
+Numerous holes were drilled at the points indicated on <a href="#fig5">fig. 5</a> as
+No. 8, D, J, No. 7+1000, and No. 7, but only those showing the
+lowest rock levels need be considered. In the following account
+the elevations quoted are those determined by R. E. Dakin which
+differ, as shown in <a href="#fig3">fig. 3, A</a>, from those of the New Milford atlas
+sheet.</p>
+
+<p>Between the mouth of Wood Creek and Jerusalem bridge
+holes made near the river show that the depth of the drift--chiefly
+sand, gravel, and clay--varies from 45 to 140 feet. The
+greatest thickness of drift, consisting of humus, quicksand and
+clay, is 140 feet at a point 20 feet from the east bank of Rocky
+River and about 1&frac34; miles north of the mouth of Wood Creek
+(<a href="#fig5">fig. 5, D</a>). Although some allowance should be made for glacial
+scouring, the rock level at this point, 244 feet, is so much lower
+than any other record obtained between this point and Danbury
+that one is obliged to assume a buried channel with a level at
+Danbury at least 75 feet below the rock level found in the lowest
+well record.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> It is probable that this well is not situated where
+the rock is lowest, that is, it may be on one side of the old Still
+River channel.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Well of J. Hornig, rear of Bottling Works, near foot of Tower Place, 35 ft. to
+rock, indicated at <i>a</i>, <a href="#fig5">fig. 5</a>. The well of Bartley & Clancey, 94 White Street, 70 ft.
+to rock, is also indicated at <i>b</i>, <a href="#fig5">fig. 5</a>.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_024" id="Page_024">[024]</a></span>
+<p>The level obtained at No. 8 is from a hole drilled within 50
+feet of the river. The drill struck rock at an elevation of 316
+feet after passing through 69 feet of quicksand, gravel, and till.
+This is clearly not within the channel as it is quite impossible to
+reconcile the figure with that at D, less than a mile distant.</p>
+
+<p>South of Jerusalem bridge at J, 150 feet from the river, a hole
+was bored through 95 feet of clay, sand, and gravel before striking
+rock at an elevation of 298 feet.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig5"></a>
+<img src="images/fig5_sm.png" width="146" height="500" border=0 alt="Present drainage of the Danbury region."><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> Rocky River Valley. Diagram indicating lowest rock levels which have been discovered by drilling.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_025" id="Page_025">[025]</a></span>
+
+<p>At the point marked No. 7+1000, about 1&frac14; miles from the
+mouth of Rocky River, the evidence derived from 8 drill holes,
+bored at distances ranging from 200 to 550 feet from the right
+bank, shows the drift cover to be from 48 to 72 feet in thickness.
+At 200 feet from the river the drill passed through 72 feet of
+sand, clay, and gravel before striking rock at 303 feet above
+sea-level.</p>
+
+<p>At No. 7, about one mile from the mouth of Rocky River, a
+hole drilled 415 feet from the right bank showed 58 feet of drift,
+consisting of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. The drill reached
+rock at 342 feet, which is the figure given by R. E. Dakin for the
+elevation of the river at this point. Drill holes made, respectively,
+at 50 and 60 feet to the right of this one showed a drift
+cover of 61 feet, so that the underlying rock rises only 4 feet in a
+distance of 475 feet to the east of the river.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing evidence, showing a rock level at D 98 feet
+lower than that at No. 7, leaves no doubt that the preglacial
+course of Rocky River was to the south from No. 7, and there is
+nothing in the topography between Jerusalem and Danbury to
+make improbable the existence of a buried channel.</p>
+
+
+<a name="eff_glac">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>EFFECT OF GLACIATION</h3>
+
+<p>The preglacial history of Rocky River as outlined assumes
+that before the glacier covered this part of Connecticut the
+present lower course of Rocky River was separated from the
+rest of the system by a divide situated somewhere between the
+present mouth of the river and the mouth of Wood Creek. It
+remains to be shown by what process Rocky River was cut off
+from its southern outlet into Still River and forced up its
+eastern branch and over the col into a tributary of the Housatonic.
+Though the preglacial course of Rocky River appears
+to be more natural than the present one, it is really a longer
+course to the Housatonic; the older route being 32 miles, whereas
+the present course is 19 miles. This fact explains, in part, why
+the glacier had little difficulty in altering the preglacial drainage,
+and how the change so effected became permanent. Eccentric as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_026" id="Page_026">[026]</a></span>
+the resulting system of drainage is, it would have been still more
+so had Rocky River when ponded overflowed at the head of its
+western instead of its eastern fork, taken its way past Sherman
+into the Housatonic near Gaylordsville, and discharging at this
+point lost the advantage of the fall of the Housatonic between
+Gaylordsville and Boardman.</p>
+
+<p>In glaciated regions an area of swamp land may be taken as
+an indication of interference by the glacier with the natural runoff.
+The swamp in which Wood Creek joins the upper fork of
+Rocky River (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>), was formerly a lake due to a dam built
+across the lower end of a river valley. Although the ponded
+water extended only a short distance up the steeper side valleys,
+it extended several miles up the main stream. The whole area of
+this glacial lake, except two small ponds and the narrow channels
+through which the river now flows, has been converted into a
+peat-filled bog having a depth of from 8 to 45 feet.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>At the termination of the swampy area on the eastern branch
+of Rocky River no indication is found of a dam such as would
+be required for so extensive a ponding of the waters. Here the
+valley is very narrow, and though the river bed is encumbered
+with heavy boulders, rock outcrops are so numerous as to preclude
+the idea of a drift cover raising the water level. This is
+just the condition to be expected if Rocky River reached its
+present outlet by overtopping a low col at the head of its former
+eastern branch.</p>
+
+<p>The southern end of the Neversink Pond valley is the only
+other place whose level is so low that drift deposits could have
+interfered with the Rocky River drainage. The moraine at the
+head of this valley, crossing the country some two miles north of
+the city of Danbury and binding together two prominent north-and-south
+ridges, was evidently the barrier which choked the
+Rocky River valley near its mouth and turned back the preglacial
+river.</p>
+
+<p>When Rocky River was thus ponded its lowest outlet was
+found to be at the head of its eastern fork. Here the waters
+spilled over the old divide and took possession of the channel of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_027" id="Page_027">[027]</a></span>
+a small stream draining into the Housatonic. Accordingly Rocky
+River should be found cutting its bed where it crosses the former
+divide. It seems reasonable to regard the gorge half-way
+between Jerusalem bridge and Housatonic River as approximately
+the position of the preglacial divide and to consider the
+small flat area to the north of Jerusalem bridge as a flood plain
+on softer rock, worn down as low as the outcrops of more
+resistant rock occurring farther down the valley will permit.
+The reversal of the river may account for the sudden transition
+from a flat-bottomed valley to a rocky gorge; and for the abrupt
+change in the profile, bringing the steepest part of the river near
+its mouth. The increased volume of water flowing through the
+channel since glacial time has plainly cut down the bed of the
+ravine between Jerusalem and the river's mouth, but the channel
+is still far from being graded.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Report of soundings made in 1907 by T. T. Giffen.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+
+<a name="nvrsink">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>THE NEVERSINK-DANBURY VALLEY.</h3>
+
+<p>Between Neversink Pond and Danbury extends a deep rock
+valley, in places filled with drift. As has been shown, this valley
+was probably occupied in preglacial time by Rocky River, which
+then flowed southward. At its southern end is Still River, which
+flows through Danbury from west to east.</p>
+
+<p>The most important tributary of the Still rises northwest of
+the city, just beyond the New York-Connecticut boundary line,
+and has two forks. The northern fork, which drains East Lake,
+Padanaram Reservoir, and Margerie Pond, flows along the northeast
+side of Clapboard Ridge. The southern fork has two
+branches; the northern one includes the reservoirs of Upper
+Kohanza and Lake Kohanza, while the upper waters of the southern
+branch have been recently dammed to form an extensive
+reservoir. On approaching the city, the northernmost fork
+(draining East Lake) turns sharply out of its southeast course
+and flows in a direction a little east of north. At the end of
+Clapboard Ridge, the stream makes a detour around a knoll of
+coarse stratified drift. From this turn until it joins Still River, a
+distance of about a mile, the stream occupies a broad and partly
+swampy valley.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_028" id="Page_028">[028]</a></span>
+<p>At the cemetery in this valley (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1, C</a>) are two eskers of
+symmetric form, each a few hundred yards in length and trending
+nearly parallel with the valley axis. East of the valley, and
+about 1&frac12; miles north of the cemetery, is a broad, flat-topped
+ridge of till with rock exposed at the ends, forming a barrier
+which doubtless existed in preglacial time. West of the valley is
+a hill with rock foundation rounded out on the northeast side by
+a mass of drift. The preglacial course of Rocky River was
+between the outcrops at these two localities.</p>
+
+<p>Northwest of the cemetery for one and a half miles the uneven
+surface is formed of till and small patches of stratified drift.
+In a swamp near the north end of the cemetery is a curved esker
+with lobes extending south and southwest. One mile north of
+this swamp is an area of excessively coarse till containing
+boulders which range in diameter from 6 to 10 feet and forming a
+low ridge separating two ravines, in which head streams flowing
+in opposite directions. The area of coarse till is bounded on the
+north by a long sinuous esker of coarse gravel terminating in a
+flat fan, which is superposed on a field of fine till. Associated
+with the esker is an interesting group of kames and kettleholes,
+the largest kettlehole being distinguished by distinct plant zones
+banding the sides of the depression.</p>
+
+<p>North of the area of boulders, eskers, and kames just described
+lies a swamp whose surface is 30 to 40 feet below the
+upper level of the kame gravels. Soundings made by T. T.
+Giffen revealed the presence of 36 feet of peat and 2 feet of silt
+overlying firm sand, so that 70 feet is the minimum estimate for
+the difference in level between the surface of the gravels and the
+floor of the swamp.</p>
+
+<p>Below the rocky cliffs which line the valley sides are boulders
+brought by the ice from near-by ledges, and about one-half mile
+above the head of the swamp are remnants of a terrace standing
+20 to 30 feet above the level of the stream. Although the terrace
+appears to consist of till, it may conceal a rock floor which was
+cut by a former stream. As the valley is followed toward Neversink
+Pond, the various features of a till-coated, rock-floored
+valley are seen.</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_029" id="Page_029">[029]</a></span>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig6"></a>
+<img src="images/fig6_sm.png" width="444" height="700" border=0 alt="Present drainage of the Danbury region."><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> Course of Still River. Dotted lines show the preglacial channels.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_030" id="Page_030">[030]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="prob_stm">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h2>STILL RIVER</h2>
+
+<h3>STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM</h3>
+
+
+<p>Still River presents several unusual features, as shown in fig.
+6. Tributaries from the west and south unite at Danbury to
+form a stream flowing northward opposite to the regional land
+slope. Near its junction with the Housatonic, the river flows
+northward, whereas its master stream half a mile distant flows
+southward. The lower valley of the river is broad and flat and
+apparently much out of proportion to the present stream; it is,
+indeed, comformable in size and direction with the valley of the
+Housatonic above the mouth of the Still. The Housatonic,
+however, instead of choosing the broad lowland in the limestone
+formation, spread invitingly before it, turns aside and flows
+through a narrow gorge cut in resistant gneiss, schist, and
+igneous intrusives. The headwaters of the Still mingle with
+those of the Croton system, and its chief southern branch, the
+Umpog, is interlaced with the sources of the Saugatuck on a
+divide marked by glacial drift and swamps. The explanation of
+these features involves not only the history of the Still River
+system, but also that of the Housatonic.</p>
+
+<p>In explanation of the present unusual arrangement of streams
+in the Still River system, four hypotheses may be considered:</p>
+
+<div class="blkqt1">
+<p>I. Still River valley is the ancient bed of the Housatonic
+from which that river has been diverted through reversal caused
+by a glacial dam.</p>
+
+<p>II. The Housatonic has always had its present southeasterly
+course, but the Still, heading at some point in its valley north
+of Danbury, flowed initially southward through one of four
+possible outlets. The latter stream was later reversed by a
+glacial dam at the southern end, or by glacial scouring at the
+northern end of its valley which removed the divide between its
+headwaters and the Housatonic.</p>
+
+<p>III. The Housatonic has always held its present southeasterly
+course, and the Still initially flowed southward, as stated above.
+Reversal in this case, however, occurred in a very early stage
+in the development of the drainage, as the result of the capture
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_031" id="Page_031">[031]</a></span>
+of the headwaters of the Still by a small tributary of the Housatonic.</p>
+
+<p>IV. The Housatonic has always held its present southeasterly
+course, but the Still has developed from the beginning as a subsequent
+stream in the direction in which it now flows.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first hypothesis, that the Still is the ancient channel of
+the Housatonic, has been advocated by Professor Hobbs, who
+has stated:</p>
+
+<div class="blkqt">
+<p>"That the valley of the Still was formerly occupied by a large stream
+is probable from its wide valley area.... The former discharge of the
+waters of the Housatonic through the Still into the Croton system, on
+the one hand, or into the Saugatuck on the other, would require the
+assumption of extremely slight changes only in the rock channels which
+now connect them.... To turn the river (the Housatonic) from its
+course along the limestone valley some obstruction or differential uplift
+within the river basin may have been responsible. The former seems
+to be the more probable explanation in view of the large accumulations
+of drift material in the area south and west of Bethel and Danbury."</p>
+
+<p>"The structural valleys believed to be present in the crystalline rocks
+of the uplands due to post-Newark deformation may well have directed
+the course of the Housatonic after it had once deserted the limestone
+... The deep gorge of the Housatonic through which the river enters
+the uplands not only crosses the first high ridge of gneiss in the rectilinear
+direction of one of the fault series, but its precipitous walls
+show the presence of minor planes of dislocation, along which the
+bottom of the valley appears to have been depressed."<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hypothesis proposed by Professor Hobbs and also the
+second and third hypotheses here given involve the supposition of
+reversal of drainage, and their validity rests on the probability
+that the stream now <a name="occupying"></a><a href="#typos">occupying</a> Still River valley formerly flowed
+southward. The first and second hypotheses will be considered
+in the following section.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol.
+13, pp. 17-26, 1901.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="ev_still_rev"></a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>EVIDENCE TO BE EXPECTED IF STILL RIVER HAS BEEN
+REVERSED</h3>
+
+<p>If Still River occupies the valley of a reversed stream, the following
+physiographic features should be expected:</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_032" id="Page_032">[032]</a></span>
+
+<OL>
+<LI> A valley with a continuous width corresponding to the
+size of the ancient stream, or a valley comparatively narrow at
+the north and broadening toward the south.</LI>
+
+<LI> Tributary valleys pointing upstream with respect to the
+present river.</LI>
+
+<LI> The regional slope not in accord with the present course
+of the river.</LI>
+
+<LI> Extensive glacial filling and ponded waters in the region
+of the present sources of Still River.</LI>
+
+<LI> Strong glacial scouring at the northern end in default of
+a glacial dam at the southern end of the valley, or to assist a dam
+in its work of reversing the river. The evidence of glacial
+erosion would be a U-shaped valley, overdeepening of the main
+valley, and tributaries ungraded with respect to the main stream.</LI>
+</OL>
+
+
+<a name="valley">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>1. A VALLEY WIDE THROUGHOUT OR BROADENING<br />
+TOWARD THE SOUTH</h3>
+
+<p>At the mouth of Still River and for several miles north and
+south of it there is a plain more than a mile broad. This plain
+continues southward with a width of about one-half mile until,
+at Brookfield, it is interrupted by ledges of bare rock. A little
+distance south of Brookfield the valley broadens again to one-half
+mile, and this width is retained with some variation as far as
+Danbury. Drift deposits along the border of the valley make it
+appear narrower in some places than is indicated by rock outcrops.
+Between Brookfield and Danbury the narrowest place in
+the valley is southwest of Beaver Brook Mountain, where the
+distance between the hills of rock bounding the valley is one-fifth
+of a mile (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>). Opposite Beaver Brook Mountain, which presents
+vertical faces of granite-gneiss toward the valley, is a hill of
+limestone. Ice, crowding through this narrow place in the valley,
+must have torn masses of rock from the side walls, so that the
+valley is now broader than in preglacial time. The constrictions
+in the valley near Shelter Rock are due to the fact that the pre-glacial
+valley, now partly buried in till, lies to the north. There
+are stretches of broad floor in the valley of Beaver Brook, in the
+lower valley of Umpog Creek, in the fields at the south end of
+Main Street in Danbury, about Lake Kanosha, and where the
+Danbury Fair Grounds are situated. In the western part of
+Danbury, however, and at Mill Plain the valley is very narrow,
+and at the head of Sugar Hollow, the valley lying east of Spruce
+Mountain, is a narrow col.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_033" id="Page_033">[033]</a></span>
+<p>The broadest continuous area in the Still-Umpog Valley is,
+therefore, in the lower six miles between Brookfield and New
+Milford; south of that portion are several places where the
+valley is sharply constricted; and beyond the head of the Umpog,
+about one and a half miles below West Redding station (<a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a>),
+the Saugatuck Valley is a very narrow gorge. On the whole,
+the valleys south and southwest of Danbury are much narrower
+than the valley of the Still farther north. It is evident from
+these observations that Still River Valley is neither uniformly
+broad, nor does it increase in width toward the south.</p>
+
+<p>But if a broad valley is to be accepted as evidence of the work
+of a large river, then there is too much evidence in the Still
+River valley. The broad areas named above are more or less
+isolated lowlands, some of them quite out of the main line of
+drainage, and can not be grouped to form a continuous valley.
+They can not be attributed to the Housatonic nor wholly to the
+work of the insignificant streams now draining them. These
+broad expanses are, in fact, local peneplains developed on areas
+of soluble limestone. The rock has dissolved and the plain so
+produced has been made more nearly level by a coating of peat
+and glacial sand. In a region of level and undisturbed strata,
+such as the Ohio or Mississippi Valley, a constant relation
+may exist between the size of a stream and the valley made by
+it; but in a region of complicated geologic structure, such as
+western Connecticut, where rocks differ widely in their resistance
+to erosion, the same result is not to be expected. In this
+region the valleys are commonly developed on limestone and their
+width is closely controlled by the width of the belt of limestone.
+Even the narrow valleys in the upland southwest of Danbury are
+to be accounted for by the presence of thin lenses of limestone
+embedded in gneiss and schist.</p>
+
+<p>The opinion of Hobbs that Still River valley is too wide to be
+the work of the present stream takes into consideration only the
+broad places, but when the narrow places are considered it may
+be said as well that the valley is too narrow to be the work of a
+stream larger than the one now occupying it. Valley width has
+only negative value in interpreting the history of Still River.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_034" id="Page_034">[034]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<a name="trib_val"></a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>2. TRIBUTARY VALLEYS POINTING UPSTREAM</h3>
+
+<p>The dominant topographic feature of western Connecticut,
+as may be seen on the atlas sheets, is elongated oval hills trending
+north by west to south by east, which is the direction of the
+axes of the folds into which the strata were thrown at the time
+their metamorphism took place. Furthermore, the direction of
+glacial movement in this part of New England was almost
+precisely that of foliation, and scouring by ice merely accentuated
+the dominant north-south trend of the valleys and ridges. As a
+result, the smaller streams developed on the softer rocks are
+generally parallel to each other and to the strike of the rocks.
+These streams commonly bend around the ends of the hills but do
+not cross them. The narrowness of the belts of soft rock makes
+it easy for the drainage of the valleys to be gathered by a single
+lengthwise stream. The Still and its larger tributaries conform
+in this way to the structure.</p>
+
+<p>On the east side of the Still-Umpog every branch, except two
+rivulets 1&frac14; miles south of Bethel, points in the normal direction,
+that is, to the north, or downstream as the river now flows (fig.
+6). The largest eastern tributary, Beaver Brook, is in a preglacial
+valley now converted into a swamp the location and size of which
+are due entirely to a belt of limestone. It is not impossible that
+Beaver Brook may have once flowed southward toward Bethel,
+but the limestone at its mouth, which lies at least 60 feet lower
+than that at its head, shows that if such were ever the case it must
+have been before the north-flowing Still River had removed the
+limestone north of Beaver Brook Swamp.</p>
+
+<p>On the flanks of Beaver Brook Mountain are three tributaries
+which enter the river against its present course. Examination
+of the structure reveals, however, that these streams like those on
+the east side of the river are controlled in their direction by the
+orientation of the harder rock masses. The southward flowing
+stream four miles in length which drains the upland west of
+Beaver Brook Mountain has an abnormal direction in the upper
+part of its course, but on reaching the flood plain it takes a
+sharp turn to the north. Above the latter point it is in line with
+the streams near Beaver Brook Mountain and is abnormal in
+consequence of a line of weakness in the rock.</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_035" id="Page_035">[035]</a></span>
+<p>The lowland lying west of Umpog valley, extending from
+Main Street in Danbury to a point one mile beyond Bethel, affords
+no definite evidence in regard to the direction of tributaries. In
+reconstructing the history of this valley the chief difficulty arises
+from the old-age condition of the flood plain. Drainage channels
+which must once have existed have been obliterated, leaving a
+swampy plain which from end to end varies less than 20 feet in
+elevation. It is likely that in preglacial times the part of the
+valley north of Grassy Plain, if not the entire valley, drained
+northward into Still River, as now do Umpog Creek and Beaver
+Brook. From this outlet heavy drift deposits near the river
+later cut it off. The lowland is now drained by a stream which
+enters the Umpog north of Grassy Plain. Several small streams
+tributary to the Umpog south of Bethel also furnish no evidence
+in favor of the reversal of Still River.</p>
+
+<p>West of Danbury the tributaries of Still River point upstream
+on one side and downstream on the other side of the valley, in
+conformity with the rock structure which is here diagonal to the
+limestone belt on which the river is located. Their direction in
+harmony with the trend of the rocks has, therefore, no significance
+in the earlier history of the river.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing discussion, it appears that no definite
+conclusions in regard to the history of Still River can be drawn
+from the angle at which tributaries enter it. The direction of the
+branches which enter at an abnormal angle can be explained without
+assuming a reversal of the main stream, and likewise many
+of the tributaries with normal trends seem to have adopted their
+courses without regard to the direction of Still River.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="reg_slope">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>3. REGIONAL SLOPE NOT IN ACCORD WITH COURSE OF THE STILL</h3>
+
+<p>Although the regional slope of western Connecticut as a whole
+is contrary to that of Still River, there is no marked lowering of
+the hill summits between the source of the river and its mouth.
+As branches on the south side of the Housatonic are naturally to
+be expected, there is nothing unusual in the Still flowing in
+opposition to the regional slope, except that it flows toward the
+north instead of the northeast.</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_036" id="Page_036">[036]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="evid_fill">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>4. EVIDENCE OF GLACIAL FILLING AND DEGRADING OF THE RIVER BED</h3>
+
+<p>Hobbs has suggested that the waters of the Housatonic may
+have been ponded at a point near West Redding until they rose
+high enough to overflow into the "fault gorge" below Still River
+Station, thus giving the streams of the Danbury region an outlet
+to the Sound by this route. This hypothesis calls for a glacial
+dam which has not been found. It is true there are glacial deposits
+in the Umpog valley south of Bethel. The Umpog flows
+as it does, however, not because of a glacial "dam" but in spite
+of it. The river heads on rock beyond and above the glacial
+deposits and picks its way through them (<a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a>). Drift forms
+the divide at the western end of Still River valley beyond Mill
+Plain, but the ponded water which it caused did not extend as far
+as Danbury (see discussion of Still-Croton valley). The Sugar
+Hollow pass is also filled with a heavy mantle of drift, but the
+valley is both too high and too narrow at the col to have been
+the outlet of the Housatonic.</p>
+
+<p>It might be assumed that just previous to the advent of the
+ice sheet Still River headed south of its present mouth and flowed
+southward. In this case the Still, when reversed, should have
+overflowed at the lowest point on the divide between it and the
+Housatonic. It should have deepened its channel over the
+former divide, and the result would have been a gorge if the
+divide were high, or at least some evidence of river cutting even
+if the divide were low. On the contrary, Still River joins the
+Housatonic in a low, broad, and poorly drained plain.</p>
+
+<p>The existing relief is due to the uneven distribution of drift.
+The river is now cutting a gorge at Lanesville, but the appearance
+of the valley to the west indicates that glacial deposits forced the
+river out of its former bed (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>) and that no barrier lay
+between the preglacial Still River valley and the Housatonic
+Valley.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="glac_scour">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>5. GLACIAL SCOURING</h3>
+
+<p>A reversal of Still River may be explained by glacial scouring
+which caused the northern end of the valley to become lower than
+the present divides at West Redding and Mill Plain. The
+evidence of such scour should be an overdeepened, U-shaped
+main valley and ungraded tributaries.</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_037" id="Page_037">[037]</a></span>
+
+<p>The northern part of Still River valley has not the typical
+U form which results from glacial erosion. As contrasted with
+the U-shaped glacial valley and the V-shaped valley of normal
+stream erosion, it might be called rectangular so sharply does the
+flat valley floor terminate against the steep hillsides. The floor
+is too smooth and flat and the tributary valleys too closely adjusted
+to the variant hardness of the rocks to be the work of such a
+rough instrument as the glacier. A level so nearly perfect as
+that of the flood plain is the natural result of erosion of soft
+rock down to a baselevel, whereas glacial scouring tends to produce
+a surface with low rounded hills and hollows.</p>
+
+<p>Overdeepening would be expected, because glaciers erode
+without reference to existing baselevels. That a river valley
+should be cut out by ice just enough to leave it graded with
+respect to the main valley would be an unusual coincidence.
+This is what is found where the Still River valley joins the
+Housatonic, and it indicates normal stream erosion. Also, if
+the limestone of the northern Still River valley were gouged out
+by the glacier, the action would in all probability have been
+continuous in the limestone belt to the north of the Housatonic,
+and where the belt of soft rock crosses the Housatonic the river
+bed would be overdeepened. Although the valley of the Housatonic
+near New Milford is very flat, as is natural where a river
+crosses a belt of weak rock, the outcrops are sufficiently numerous
+to show that it has not been overdeepened. The limestone area
+along the East Aspetuck is largely overlain by till, but here again
+the presence of rock in place shows that the valley has not been
+overdeepened. Moreover, limestone boulders in the southern
+part of Still River valley are not as abundant as they should be
+under the hypothesis that the northern part had been gouged out
+extensively.</p>
+
+<p>That the northern part of the Still River valley was not deeply
+carved by ice is shown also by the character of the tributary
+streams. The three small brooks on the west side of the valley,
+near Beaver Brook Mountain, were examined to see if their
+grades indicated an over-deepening of the main valley. These
+streams, however, and others so far as could be determined,
+were found to have normal profiles; that is, their grades become
+increasingly flatter toward their mouths. The streams are cutting
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_038" id="Page_038">[038]</a></span>
+through the till cover and are not building alluvial cones
+where they join the lowland. All their features, in fact, are
+characteristic of normal stream development.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the length of the valley, rock outcrops are found
+near the surface, showing that the changes produced by the
+glacier were due to scouring rather than to the accumulation of
+glacial material. Except where stratified drift is collected locally
+in considerable quantity, the glacial mantle is thin. On the other
+hand, it has been shown that glacial gouging was not sufficient
+in amount to affect the course of the stream. The glacier simply
+cleaned off the soil and rotten rock from the surface, slackening
+the stream here and hastening it there, and by blocking the course
+with drift it forced the river at several places to depart slightly
+from its preglacial course.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence shows, therefore, that if Still River has suffered
+reversal, glaciation is not responsible for the change, and thus
+the first two hypotheses for explaining the history of the valley
+are eliminated. There remain for discussion the third and
+fourth hypotheses; the former being that reversal was effected
+in a very early stage in the development of the drainage, the
+latter that no reversal has occurred. The choice between these
+two hypotheses rests on evidence obtained in the Umpog, Croton,
+and other valleys of the Danbury region. This evidence is
+presented in the three following sections, after which the former
+courses of Still River will be discussed.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="stsaug_div">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h2>THE STILL-SAUGATUCK DIVIDE</h2>
+
+<h3>FEATURES OF THE UMPOG VALLEY</h3>
+
+<p>The valley of the Umpog, which extends from Still River to
+the source of the Saugatuck near West Redding (<a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a>), is a
+critical area in the study of the Still River system. It is possible
+that this valley once afforded an outlet for Still River, and it
+has been suggested that the Housatonic formerly followed this
+route to Long Island Sound. The relation of this valley to the
+former drainage system of the Danbury region demands, therefore,
+a careful examination of the features of the valleys occupied
+by Umpog Creek and the upper waters of the Saugatuck, and of
+the divide between those streams.</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_039" id="Page_039">[039]</a></span>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig7"></a>
+<img src="images/fig7_sm.png" width="446" height="692" border=0 alt="Present drainage of the Danbury region."><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> Map of Umpog Swamp and vicinity.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_040" id="Page_040">[040]</a></span>
+<p>North of Bethel the Umpog occupies an open valley developed
+in limestone. Knolls of limestone rise to heights of about 40
+feet above the floor of the valley and their upper surfaces are
+cut across the highly, tilted beds. This truncation, together with
+a general correspondence in height, suggests that these knolls,
+as well as the rock terraces found between Bethel and West
+Redding, and the limestone ridge which forms the divide itself,
+are portions of what was once a more continuous terrace produced
+by stream erosion and that they determine a former river
+level. The absence of accurate elevations and the probability of
+glacial scour make conclusions regarding the direction of slope
+of this dissected rock terrace somewhat uncertain. As will be
+indicated later, however, it seems likely that these terrace
+remnants mark the course of a southward flowing river that
+existed in a very early stage in the development of the drainage.</p>
+
+<p>South of Bethel the old Umpog valley, has lost from one-third
+to one-half its width through deposits of stratified drift (<a href="#Plate_IIA">Pl. II,
+A and B</a>). On the west, gravel beds lie against rock and till;
+on the east, deposits of sand and coarse gravel form a bench or
+terrace from 500 to 700 feet broad, which after following the side
+of the valley for one-half mile, crosses it diagonally and joins the
+western slope as a row of rounded hills. Through this drift
+the present stream has cut a narrow channel.</p>
+
+<p>The narrowest part of the Umpog valley is about one mile
+south of Bethel. Farther upstream the valley expands into the
+flat occupied by Umpog Swamp, which presents several interesting
+features. The eastern, southern, and western sides of the
+swamp are formed of irregular masses of limestone and granite-gneiss
+20 to 60 feet high. Near the northwestern edge of the
+swamp is a terrace-like surface cut on limestone. Its elevation
+is about the same as that of the beveled rock remnants lying in
+Umpog valley north of Bethel.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Plate_IIA" id="Plate_IIA">[Plate&nbsp;II]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table width="100%" summary="Plate Block">
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">State&nbsp;Geol.&nbsp;Nat.&nbsp;Hist.&nbsp;Survey</span></td><td style="text-align:right"><span class="smcap">Bull.&nbsp;30.&nbsp;&nbsp;Plate&nbsp;II.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=3><img src="images/plate_ii_a_sm.png" width="642" height="447" border="0" alt="Plate IIA. View up the valley of Umpog Creek."></td></tr>
+</table><br />
+<p>A. View up the valley of Umpog Creek. The valley dwindles in the
+distance to the "railroad divide." In the middle distance is Umpog Swamp;
+in the foreground the edge <a name="ofof"></a><a href="#typos">of</a> the
+southern end of row of Kames which points down the valley.<br />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="Plate_IIB"></a><table width="100%" summary="Plate Block">
+<tr><td colspan=3><img src="images/plate_ii_b_sm.png" width="642" height="447" border="0" alt="Plate IIB. View down the valley of Umpog Creek."></td></tr>
+</table><br />
+<p>B. View down the valley of Umpog Creek. To the left is the edge of limestone
+terrace; in the middle distance is the Catholic cemetery situated on a terrace
+of stratified drift; on the right are mounds of stratified drift; in the distance
+is the granite ridge bounding the valley on the east.<br />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_041" id="Page_041">[041]</a></span>
+<p>Umpog Swamp was formerly a lake but is now nearly filled
+with organic matter so that only a small remnant of the old
+water body remains. Soundings have revealed no bottom at
+43 feet<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> and the depth to rock bottom is not less than 45 feet.
+The swamp situated one-half mile southwest of Bethel has a depth
+to rock of 35 feet. In their relation to the Still River system
+these two swamps may be regarded simply as extensions of the
+Umpog Creek channel, but when the elevations of their bottoms
+are compared with that of points to the north and south, where
+the river flows on rock, it will be seen that a profile results which
+is entirely out of harmony with the present profile of the river.
+Thus Umpog Creek falls 40 feet at the point where it spills over
+the rock ledge into the swamp, and if the 45 feet which measures
+the depth of Umpog Swamp be added, the difference in level is
+seen to be at least 85 feet. A similar calculation locates the
+bottom of the smaller swamp near Bethel at an elevation of 340
+feet above sea-level or on the same level as the bottom of Umpog
+Swamp. In a straight line 2&frac14; miles north of Bethel, Still
+River crosses rock at a level of 350 feet, or 10 feet higher than
+the bottom of Umpog Swamp. At Brookfield, 6&frac12; miles north
+of the mouth of the Umpog, the Still crosses rock at 260 feet, and
+4&frac12; miles farther north, it joins the Housatonic on a rock floor
+200 feet above sea-level (<a href="#fig8">fig. 8, A</a>). Such a profile can be explained
+in either of two ways: glaciers gouged out rock basins
+in the weak limestone, or the river in its lower part has been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_042" id="Page_042">[042]</a></span>
+forced out of its graded bed onto rock at a higher level. Probably
+both causes have operated, but the latter has produced more
+marked effects.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig8"></a>
+<img src="images/fig8_sm.png" width="652" height="400" border=0 alt="Present drainage of the Danbury region."><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Profiles of rivers. A. Profile of present Still River
+and buried channel of Umpog-Still River. B. Profile of preglacial Croton-Still River.
+C. Profile of preglacial Umpog-Still River. Solid lines show the present levels. Dotted
+lines show preglacial levels.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Umpog Creek has its source in a small forked stream which
+rises in the granite hills east of the south end of Umpog Swamp.
+After passing westward through a flat swampy area, where it is
+joined by the waters from Todd Pond, the stream turns north
+and follows a shallow rock gorge until Umpog Swamp is reached.
+The divide which separates the present headwaters of the Umpog
+from those of the Saugatuck is a till-covered swampy flat about
+one-quarter mile east of Todd Pond. This arrangement of tributary
+streams is correctly shown in <a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a> and differs essentially
+from that shown on the Danbury atlas sheet. This divide owes
+its position to the effects of glaciation. Deposits of till and the
+scouring of the bed rock so modified the preglacial surface that
+the upper part of the Saugatuck was cut off and made tributary
+to the Umpog.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Report by T. T. Giffen, 1907.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="preg_div">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>THE PREGLACIAL DIVIDE</h3>
+
+<p>In order to determine whether Still River flowed southward
+through the Saugatuck Valley just before the advent of the ice
+sheet, the borders of Umpog Swamp and the region to the south
+and east were examined. It was found that Umpog Swamp is
+walled in on the south by ledges of firm crystalline limestone
+and that the rock-floored ravine leading southward from the
+swamp, and occupied by the railroad, lies at too high an elevation
+to have been the channel of a through-flowing stream. A south-flowing
+Still River, and much less an ancient Housatonic, could
+not have had its course through this ravine just previous to
+glaciation. A course for these rivers through the short valley
+which extends southeastward from Umpog Swamp is also ruled
+out, because the bedrock floor of this hypothetical passageway is
+20 feet higher than the floor of the ravine through which the
+railroad passes.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern border of Umpog Swamp is determined by a
+ridge of limestone which separates the swamp from lowlying
+land beyond. This ridge is continuous, except for the postglacial
+gorge cut by the tributary entering from the east, and must have
+been in existence in preglacial times. The entire lowland east
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_043" id="Page_043">[043]</a></span>
+of this limestone ridge possesses a unity that is not in harmony
+with the present division of the drainage. The streams from this
+hillside and those from the west may have joined in the flat-floored
+valley at the head of the Saugatuck and from there flowed
+into the Saugatuck system. The former divide then lay in a line
+connecting the limestone rim of the swamp with the tongue of
+highland which the highway crosses south of Todd Pond (<a href="#fig7">fig. 7</a>).</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="stcr_intro">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h2>THE STILL-CROTON DIVIDE</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>INTRODUCTION</h3>
+
+<p>The deep valley extending from the Danbury Fair Grounds
+to the East Branch Reservoir in the Croton River system, has
+given rise to the suggestion that the course of the Housatonic
+formerly may have been along the line of Still and Croton
+rivers and thence to the Hudson.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> From the evidence of the
+topographic map alone, this hypothesis appears improbable.
+The trend of the larger streams in western Connecticut is to the
+south and southeast; a southwesterly course, therefore, would
+be out of harmony with the prevailing direction of drainage.
+Also, the distance from the present mouth of Still River to tide-water
+by the Still-Croton route is longer than the present route
+by way of the Housatonic.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol.
+13, p. 25, 1901.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_044" id="Page_044">[044]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="features">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>FEATURES OF STILL RIVER VALLEY WEST OF DANBURY</h3>
+
+<p>From Danbury to its source Still River occupies a valley
+whose features are significant in the history of the drainage.
+Between Danbury and the Fair Grounds (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>) the valley is a
+V-shaped ravine 1&frac12; miles long, well proportioned to the small
+stream now occupying it but entirely too narrow for the channel
+of a large river. Along the valley are outcrops of schist, and
+granite rock is present on both sides of the valley for a distance
+of about one-quarter mile. Part of the valley is a mere cleft
+cut in the rock and is unglaciated. At the Danbury Fair Grounds
+the valley opens out into a marshy plain, through which the
+river meanders and receives two tributaries from the south.
+The plain, which extends beyond Lake Kanosha on the west,
+has a generally level surface but is diversified in places by mounds
+of stratified drift.</p>
+
+<p>Near the railroad a rock outcrop was found which gives a
+clue to the nature of the broad lowland. The rock consists
+mainly of schist, but on the side next the valley there is a facing
+of rotten limestone. This plain, like all the others in this region,
+is a local peneplain developed on soluble limestone. A better
+example could not be found to prove the fallacy of the saying
+that "a broad valley proves the existence of a large river." The
+plain is simply a local expansion of a valley which on each side
+is much narrower. No other river than the one flowing through
+it can have been responsible for the erosion, for the plain is enclosed
+by hills of gneiss and schist (<a href="#Plate_III">Pl. III</a>).</p>
+
+<p>At Mill Plain the valley is crowded by ragged rock outcrops
+which jut into the lowland. Here the river occupies a ravine
+cut in till near the north side of the valley. West of Mill Plain
+station the valley is encumbered with ridges of stratified drift,
+interspersed with heavy accumulations of till. Near Andrew
+Pond the true width of the valley--one-eighth mile--is shown
+by rock outcrops on both the north and south slopes. The valley
+at this point gives no indication of narrowing toward the headwaters;
+in fact, it becomes broader toward the west.</p>
+
+<p>Between Andrew Pond and Haines' Pond is the divide which
+separates the waters of the Still system from those of the Croton.
+It consists of a jumbled mass of morainal hills, seemingly of
+boulder clay, that rise from 50 to 60 feet above the level of the
+ponds. The divide is thus merely a local obstruction in what
+was formerly a through drainage channel.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="stcrval">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>THE STILL-CROTON VALLEY</h3>
+
+<p>It is evident that before the advent of the glacier a stream
+must have flowed through the Still-Croton valley past the present
+divide in order to have excavated the rock valley there found.
+The Housatonic could not have flowed west through this valley
+if it was as narrow and shallow as is indicated by known rock
+outcrops; the river could have flowed through it only in a deep
+narrow gorge which was later buried under drift, but the evidence
+at hand does not support this view.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Plate_III" id="Plate_III">[Plate&nbsp;III]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table width="100%" summary="Plate Block">
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">State&nbsp;Geol.&nbsp;Nat.&nbsp;Hist.&nbsp;Survey</span></td><td style="text-align:right"><span class="smcap">Bull.&nbsp;30.&nbsp;&nbsp;Plate&nbsp;III.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=3><img src="images/plate_iii_sm.png" width="642" height="447" border="0" alt="Plate III. Limestone Plain southwest of Danbury."></td></tr>
+</table><br />
+Limestone Plain southwest of Danbury, in which are situated the
+Danbury Fair Grounds and Lake Kanosha.<br />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_045" id="Page_045">[045]</a></span>
+It is most probable that this valley was made by the preglacial
+Croton River. This explanation demands no change in the direction
+of Still and Croton Rivers but calls for a divide at some point
+east of the present one. From a divide between the Fair Grounds
+and Danbury, a small stream may be supposed to have flowed
+toward the east, joining the larger northern branch of the Still
+at a point near the middle of the city of Danbury. The stream
+flowing westward from this divide formed the headwaters of one
+branch of the Croton system.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of till in a ravine can be used as a criterion for
+locating the site of a former divide, for where till is present in
+the bed of a stream the channel is of preglacial date. Where
+the river crosses a divide it should be cutting through rock, though
+till may be present on the valley slopes. Judged by this test,
+the old divide was situated either just east of the Fair Grounds
+plain or at the east end of the ravine described in the preceding
+topic. Of these two positions the one near the Fair Grounds
+seems the more likely (<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>), for at this place the river has
+excavated a recent channel with steep sides in gneissoid rock.
+The absence of the limestone at this point may be sufficient in
+itself to explain the location of the divide.</p>
+
+<p>Exact measurements of the drift in the upper Still valley
+are needed in order to establish this hypothesis completely and to
+plot the old channel, but the position of the rock floor of the
+former channel extending westward from the Fair Grounds may
+be fixed approximately. The rock at the assumed divide now
+stands at 420 feet above sea-level and it is reasonable to assume
+that ten feet has been removed by glacial scouring and postglacial
+erosion, making the original elevation 430 feet. The
+present divide between Andrew Pond and Haines' Pond has an
+elevation of 460, but the bedrock at this place is buried under
+60 feet of drift, so that the valley floor lies at 400 feet. According
+to these estimates the stream which headed east of the Fair
+Grounds had a fall of 30 feet before reaching the site of the
+present Haines' Pond (<a href="#fig8">fig. 8, B</a>).</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="glac_lkkan">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>GLACIAL LAKE KANOSHA</h3>
+
+<p>When the Croton Branch was beheaded by drift choking up
+its valley west of Andrew Pond, the ponded waters rose to a
+height of from 20 to 30 feet and then overflowed the basin on
+the side toward Danbury. The outlet was established across the
+old divide, and as the gorge by which the water escaped was cut
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_046" id="Page_046">[046]</a></span>
+down, the level of the ponded waters was lowered. At the same
+time, also, the lake was filled by debris washed into it from the
+surrounding slopes. Thus the present flat plain was formed
+and the old valley floor, a local peneplain developed on the limestone,
+was hidden.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="div_hglnd">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>DIVIDES IN THE HIGHLANDS SOUTH OF DANBURY</h3>
+
+<p>The mountain mass to the south and southwest of Danbury,
+including Town Hill and Spruce, Moses, and Thomas mountains,
+is traversed by a series of parallel gorges trending nearly north
+and south (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>). About midway in each valley is a col,
+separating north and south-flowing streams. Two of the valleys,
+those between Spruce and Moses mountains, and Thomas Mountain
+and Town Hill, form fairly low and broad passes. They
+were examined to see whether either could have afforded a
+southerly outlet for Still River.</p>
+
+<p>The rock composing the mountains is granite-gneiss and schist
+with an average strike of N 30?W, or very nearly in line with
+the trend of the valleys. The gneiss was found to be characteristic
+of the high ridges and schist to be more common in the
+valleys. No outcrops of limestone were found on the ridges,
+but at two or three localities limestone in place was found on low
+ground. From the facts observed it is evident that the stronger
+features of the relief are due to the presence of bodies of resistant
+rock, whereas the valleys are due to the presence of
+softer rock. The series of deep parallel valleys is attributed to
+the presence of limestone rather than schist.</p>
+
+<p>The gorge between Spruce and Moses mountains, locally
+called "Sugar Hollow," narrows southward as it rises to the col,
+and the rock floor is buried under till and stratified drift to depths
+of 25 to 50 feet. Nevertheless it is probable that the valley was
+no deeper in preglacial time than it is now. The plan of the
+valley with its broad mouth to the north favored glacial scour
+so that the ice widened and deepened the valley and gave it a
+U form. Scouring and filling are believed to have been about
+equal in amount, and the present height of the divide, about 470
+feet, may be taken as the preglacial elevation. This is 70 feet
+higher than the rock floor of the divide at West Redding. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_047" id="Page_047">[047]</a></span>
+pass could not, therefore, have served as an outlet for Still River.</p>
+
+<p>The valley west of Town Hill is similar in form and origin
+to Sugar Hollow. The water parting occurs in a swamp, from
+each end of which a small brook flows. The height of the pass
+in this valley--590 feet--precludes its use as an ancient outlet
+for Still River. Likewise the valley east of Town Hill affords
+no evidence of occupation by a southward through-flowing stream.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="anc_striv">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>THE ANCIENT STILL RIVER</h3>
+
+<p>The conclusion that the Still-Umpog was not reversed by a
+glacial dam does not preclude the possibility that this valley has
+been occupied by a south-flowing stream. It is probable that in
+an early stage in the development of the drainage, the streams
+of the Danbury region reached Long Island Sound by way of
+the Still-Umpog-Saugatuck valley. Along this route, as described
+under the heading "The Still-Saugatuck Divide," is a fairly
+broad continuous valley at a higher level than the beds of the
+present rivers. A south-flowing river, as shown in <a href="#fig9">fig. 9</a>,
+brings all the drainage between Danbury and the Housatonic into
+normal relations.</p>
+
+<p>This early relationship of the streams was disturbed by the
+reversal of the waters of the ancient Still in the natural development
+of a subsequent drainage. The Housatonic lowered the
+northern end of the limestone belt, in the region between New
+Milford and Stillriver village, faster than the smaller south-flowing
+stream was able to erode its bed. Eventually a small
+tributary of the Housatonic captured the headwaters of the south-flowing
+river, and by the time the latter had been reversed as far
+south as the present divide at Umpog Swamp, it is probable that
+the advantage gained by the more rapid erosion of the Housatonic
+was offset by the Saugatuck's shorter course to the sea. As a
+result the divide between Still and Saugatuck Rivers at Umpog
+Swamp had become practically stationary before the advent of
+the glacier.</p>
+
+<p>The complex history of Still River is not fully shown in the
+stream profile, for the latter is nearly normal, except in the rock
+basins in the valley of the Umpog. This is due to the fact that
+changes in the course of the Still, caused by the development of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_048" id="Page_048">[048]</a></span>
+a subsequent drainage through differential erosion, were made
+so long ago that evidence of them has been largely destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing conclusion practically eliminates hypothesis IV--that
+the Still developed from the beginning as a subsequent
+stream in the direction in which it now flows. This hypothesis
+holds good only for the short portion of the lower course of the
+present river, that is, the part representing the short tributary
+of the Housatonic which captured and reversed the original Still.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="dprt_chnl">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>DEPARTURES OF STILL RIVER FROM ITS PREGLACIAL CHANNEL</h3>
+
+<p>Between Danbury and Beaver Brook Mountain the Still departs
+widely from its former channel, as shown in <a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>. At the
+foot of Liberty Street in Danbury the river makes a sharp turn
+to the southeast, flows through a flat plain, and for some distance
+follows the limestone valley of the Umpog, meeting the latter
+stream in a swampy meadow. It then cuts across the western
+end of Shelter Rock in a gorge-like valley not over 200 feet wide.
+Outcrops of a gneissoid schist on the valley sides and rapids in
+the stream bear witness to the youthfulness of this portion of the
+river channel.</p>
+
+<p>An open valley which extends from the foot of Liberty
+Street in a northeasterly direction (the railroad follows it) marks
+the former course of Still River, but after the stream was
+forced out of this course and superimposed across the end of
+Shelter Rock by the accumulation of drift in the central and
+northern parts of the valley, it was unable to regain its old channel
+until near Beaver Brook Mountain. The deposits of drift not
+only have kept the Still confined to the eastern side of its valley
+but have forced a tributary from the west to flow along the edge
+of the valley for a mile before it joins its master stream.</p>
+
+<p>About a mile north of Brookfield Junction, Still River valley
+begins to narrow, and at Brookfield the river, here crowded to the
+extreme eastern side, is cutting a gorge through limestone. The
+preglacial course of the Still in the Brookfield region seems to
+have been near the center of the valley where it was joined by
+Long Brook and other short, direct streams draining the hillsides.
+The glacier, however, left a thick blanket of drift in the middle
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_049" id="Page_049">[049]</a></span>
+of the valley which turned the Still to the east over rock and
+forced Long Brook to flow for more than a mile along the
+extreme western side of the valley.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig9"></a>
+<img src="images/fig9_sm.png" width="446" height="682" border=0 alt="Early stage of the Rocky-Still River."><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> Early stage of the Rocky-Still River, antedating
+preglacial course shown in <a href="#fig4">figure 4</a>.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_050" id="Page_050">[050]</a></span>
+<p>The broad valley through which the Still flows in the lower
+part of its course extends northward beyond it for over two
+miles, bordering the Housatonic River. At Lanesville near the
+mouth of the Still, the river has cut a gorge 30 feet deep and one-quarter
+mile long in the limestone. Upstream from this gorge
+the river meanders widely in a flat valley, whereas on the downstream
+side it has cut a deep channel in the drift in order to
+reach the level of the Housatonic. There is room in the drift-covered
+plain to the west for a buried channel of Still River which
+could join the Housatonic at any point between New Milford and
+Stillriver station. If the depth of the drift be taken at 25 feet,
+there would seem to be no objection to the supposition that the
+Still initially joined its master stream opposite New Milford,
+as shown in fig 6. After the limestone had been worn down to
+approximate baselevel, the tendency of the Still would have
+been to seek an outlet farther south in order to shorten its course
+and reach a lower level on the Housatonic. This stage in the
+evolution of the river may not have been reached before the ice
+age, and it is thus possible that glacial deposits may have pushed
+the river to the extreme southern side of its valley, superimposed
+it over rock, and forced it to cut its way down to grade.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="sug_crse">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>SUGGESTED COURSES OF HOUSATONIC RIVER</h3>
+
+<p>As possible former outlets for the Housatonic, Hobbs has
+suggested the Still-Umpog-Saugatuck valley or the Still-Croton
+valley (by way of the East Branch Reservoir)<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a>, whereas Crosby
+has suggested the Ten Mile-Swamp River-Muddy Brook-Croton
+River valley (by way of Webatuck, Wing's Station, and Pawling),
+or the Fall's Village-Limerock-Sharon-Webatuck Creek-Ten Mile
+valley.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> The sketch map, <a href="#fig10">fig. 10</a>, indicates the courses
+just outlined and one other by way of the Norwalk. The latter
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_051" id="Page_051">[051]</a></span>
+is the route followed by the Danbury and Norwalk Division of
+the Housatonic Railroad. It is natural to assume that the Housatonic
+might have occupied anyone of these lines of valleys,
+particularly where they are developed on limestone and seem too
+broad for the streams now occupying them. Nevertheless, although
+each of these routes is on soft rock and some give
+shorter distances to the sea than the present course, it is highly
+improbable that the Housatonic ever occupied any of these valleys.
+For had the river once become located in a path of least resistance,
+such as is furnished by any of these suggested routes, it
+could not have been dislodged and forced to cut its way for 25
+miles through a massive granitic formation, as it does between
+Still River and Derby, without great difficulty (<a href="#Plate_IVA">Pl. IV, A</a>).</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<a name="fig10"></a>
+<img src="images/fig10_sm.png" width="446" height="690" border=0 alt="Five suggested outlets of Housatonic River."><br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Five suggested outlets of Housatonic River.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_052" id="Page_052">[052]</a></span>
+
+<p>An inspection of the larger river systems of Connecticut
+shows that the streams composing them exhibit two main trends.
+Likewise, the courses, of the larger rivers themselves, whether
+trunk streams or tributaries, combine these two trends, one of
+which is northwest-southeast and the other nearly north-south.</p>
+
+<p>The north-south drainage lines are the result of geologic
+structure, and many broad, flat-floored valleys, often apparently
+out of proportion to the streams occupying them, have this direction.
+On the other hand, the northwest-southeast drainage lines
+across the strike of formations, coincide with the slope toward
+the sea of the uplifted peneplain whose dissected surface is represented
+by the crests of the uplands. The valleys of streams with
+this trend are generally narrow, and some are gorges where resistant
+rock masses are crossed. The northwest-southeast trends
+of master streams thus were determined initially by the slope of
+the peneplain, whereas the north-south trends represent later
+adjustments to structure.</p>
+
+<p>It is concluded, therefore, that the Housatonic between Bulls'
+Bridge and Derby (<a href="#fig10">fig. 10</a>), had its course determined by the
+slope of the uplifted peneplain and is antecedent in origin. The
+old headwaters extended northwest from the turn in the river
+near Bull's Bridge, whereas that part of the river above Bull's
+Bridge was initially a minor tributary. This tributary, because
+of its favorable situation, in time captured all the drainage of
+the extensive limestone belt to the north and then became part of
+the main stream. The lower Housatonic, therefore, has always
+maintained its ancient course diagonal to the strike of formations,
+and differential erosion, which reaches its maximum expression
+in limestone areas, is responsible for the impression that the Still
+River lowland and other valleys west of the Housatonic may once
+have been occupied by the latter stream.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13,
+p. 25, 1901.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Crosby, W. O., Notes on the geology of the sites
+of the proposed dams in the valleys of the Housatonic and Ten Mile rivers:
+Tech. Quart., vol. 13, p. 120, 1900.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Plate_IVA" id="Plate_IVA">[Plate&nbsp;IV]</a></span>
+<table width="100%" summary="Plate Block">
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">State&nbsp;Geol.&nbsp;Nat.&nbsp;Hist.&nbsp;Survey</span></td><td style="text-align:right"><span class="smcap">Bull.&nbsp;30.&nbsp;&nbsp;Plate&nbsp;IV.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=3><img src="images/plate_iv_a_sm.png" width="642" height="447" border="0" alt="Plate IV A."></td></tr>
+</table><br />
+<div class="center2">A. View down the Housatonic Valley from a point one-half mile
+below Still River station. Pumpkin Hill, a ridge of resistant schist and quartzite,
+stands on right. A small island lies in the river.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="Plate_IVB"></a><table width="100%" summary="Plate Block">
+<tr><td colspan=3><img src="images/plate_iv_b_sm.png" width="642" height="432" border="0" alt="Plate IV A."></td></tr>
+</table><br />
+<div class="center2">B. Part of the morainal ridge north of Danbury. Till capped by
+stratified drift one mile north of Shelter Rock.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_053" id="Page_053">[053]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="glac_dep">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h2>GLACIAL DEPOSITS</h2>
+
+
+<h3>BEAVER BROOK SWAMP</h3>
+
+<p>A broad belt of limestone extends along the eastern side of
+the granite ridge of Shelter Rock and in preglacial time formed
+a broad-bottomed valley whose master stream had reached old
+age. When the glacier came it hampered the drainage by scooping
+out the rock bottom of the valley in places and by dropping
+deposits at the mouth of Beaver Brook valley, thus forming
+Beaver Brook Swamp or "The Flat," as it is called (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Among the deposits at the southern end of Beaver Brook
+Swamp is considerable stratified drift in the form of smoothly
+rounded hills or kames, which are situated both on the border of
+the valley and in the swamp. Till containing medium-sized
+boulders of granodiorite-gneiss occurs along the road which
+borders the east side of the densely wooded swamp.</p>
+
+Along the northeastern border of the swamp is a flat-topped
+terrace of till, perhaps a lateral moraine, through which a small
+stream heading to the north has cut a V-shaped ravine. A lobe
+of fine till extends into the valley from the northeast and narrows
+the outlet.
+
+<p>Between the railroad and highway, which cross the northern
+end of the swamp, is an irregular wooded eminence of rock,
+partly concealed by a veneer of drift. Between this knoll and
+Shelter Rock are heavy deposits of sand in the form of a short,
+broad terrace with lobes which point into the Still River valley.
+A similar terrace is found to the northwest on the opposite side
+of the valley.</p>
+
+<p>At the northern end of Shelter Rock along the blind road leading
+to the summit is a peninsula-like body of drift which contains
+huge granite boulders mixed here and there with pockets of sand
+and gravel. Stratified drift was found at the foot of the hill, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_054" id="Page_054">[054]</a></span>
+till overlying it higher up. The more usual arrangement is
+boulder clay overlain by modified drift, the first being laid down
+by the ice itself, the second being deposited by streams from the
+melting glacier in its retreat. Huge boulders, many ten feet or
+more in diameter, are strewn over the northern slope of Shelter
+Rock.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="dep_ne">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>DEPOSITS NORTHEAST OF DANBURY</h3>
+
+<p>North of the railroad, opposite Shelter Rock (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>), is a
+most interesting flat-topped ridge of drift which topographically
+is an extension of the higher rock mass to the northwest. In this
+drift mass are to be found in miniature a number of the forms
+characteristic of glacial topography. The broad-topped gravel
+ridge slopes sharply on the north into a flat-bottomed ravine
+which is evidently part of the Still River lowland. This portion
+of the valley has been shut off by drift deposits. The drainage
+has been so obstructed that the stream in the ravine turns northeast
+away from its natural outlet. In the valley of "X" brook
+(<a href="#fig1">fig. 1</a>) are terraces, esker-like lobes, and detached mounds of
+stratified drift resting on a foundation of till.</p>
+
+<p>Along the eastern border of the hill is to be seen the contact
+between two forms of glacial deposits (<a href="#Plate_IVB">Pl. IV, B</a>). A mass of
+stratified drift overlies a hummocky deposit of coarse till, but
+large boulders occurring here and there on top of the stratified
+drift show that the ice-laid and water-laid materials were not
+completely sorted. Boulders seem to have been dropping out of
+the ice at the same time that gravel was being deposited. Boulders
+of granite-gneiss eight feet or more in diameter, carried by
+the ice from the hills to the north and northeast, are strewn at the
+foot of the hill.</p>
+
+
+<a name="dep_bbm">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>DEPOSITS BETWEEN BEAVER BROOK MOUNTAIN AND<br />
+MOUTH OF STILL RIVER</h3>
+
+<p>About a mile beyond Beaver Brook Mountain, the railroad
+cuts through the edge of a hill 80 feet in height exposing a section
+consisting of distinctly stratified layers of fine white quartz sand,
+coarser yellowish sand, and small round pebbles. The quartz
+sand was used at one time in making glass. Farther east where
+the two tracks of the New York and New England railroads converge,
+a cut shows a section of at least 40 feet of boulder clay.
+Near the river, limestone boulders are common, indicating that
+the valley to the north was degraded to some extent by the
+glacier.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Plate_VA" id="Plate_VA">[Plate&nbsp;V]</a></span>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="Plate Block">
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">State&nbsp;Geol.&nbsp;Nat.&nbsp;Hist.&nbsp;Survey</span></td><td style="text-align:right"><span class="smcap">Bull.&nbsp;30.&nbsp;&nbsp;Plate&nbsp;V.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=2><img src="images/plate_v_a_sm.png" width="642" height="447" border="0" alt="Plate V. A. Kames in Still River Valley west of Brookfield Junction."></td></tr>
+</table><br />
+<p>A. Kames in Still River Valley west of Brookfield Junction.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="Plate_VB"></a><table width="100%" summary="Plate Block">
+<tr><td colspan=3><img src="images/plate_v_b_sm.png" width="642" height="447" border="0" alt="Plate V. B. Till ridges on the western border of Still River Valley, south of Brookfield."></td></tr>
+</table><br />
+<p>B. Till ridges on the western border of Still River Valley, south of
+Brookfield.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_055" id="Page_055">[055]</a></span>
+In the valley at Brookfield Junction and on its western side,
+are thick deposits of clean sand. One mile north of Brookfield
+Junction, along the western border of the valley, an esker follows
+an irregular course for several hundred yards approximately
+parallel to the river and terminates at its southern end in a group
+of kames (<a href="#Plate_VA">Pl. V, A and B</a>). Opposite the point where these
+accumulations occur, is a terrace-like deposit of till. Between the
+gorge at Brookfield and the mouth of Still River, swampy areas,
+flat meadows, and small hills of drift occur.</p>
+
+<p>In comparison with the Still River lowland, the flat land east
+of Green Mountain may be called a plateau. The step between
+the two is made by an east-facing rocky slope, the outline of
+which has been softened by a lateral moraine separated from the
+plateau edge by a small ravine. On the lowland below the
+moraine is a group of kames. Near Lanesville (<a href="#fig6">fig. 6</a>), are thick
+deposits of water-laid material, including a hill of gravel near the
+river having a large bowl-shaped depression on one side formed
+by the melting of an ice block. Two and a half miles south of
+Lanesville on the west side of the lowland, a wooded esker extends
+for about one-quarter mile parallel to the valley axis and
+then merges into the rocky hillside.</p>
+
+
+<a name="lakes">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>LAKES</h3>
+
+<p>The lakes of this region are of two kinds: (1) those due to
+the damming of river valleys by glacial deposits and (2) rock
+basins gouged out by the ice.</p>
+
+<p>Among the lakes which owe their origin to drift accumulations
+in the valleys are Andrew and Haines' ponds at the head of Still
+River. These are properly parts of the Croton River system, but
+Andrew Pond has been held back by the deep filling of boulder
+clay in the valley. Lake Kanosha, in the same valley, is a shallow
+lake formed in the drift. The lake south of Spruce Mountain at
+the head of the Saugatuck seems to be enclosed by drift alone.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_056" id="Page_056">[056]</a></span>
+Neversink Pond, Barses Pond, Creek Pond, and Leonard Pond
+are the remnants of larger water bodies now converted into
+swamps. Squantz Pond and Hatch Pond have dams of drift.
+Eureka Lake and East Lake appear to be rock basins whose
+levels have been raised somewhat by dams of till. Great Mountain
+Pond and Green's Pond, between Great Mountain and Green
+Mountain, are surrounded by rock and their level has been raised
+several feet by artificial dams. Great Mountain Pond is at least
+50 feet above the level of Green Pond and separated from it by a
+rock ridge (<a href="#fig2">fig. 2</a>).</p>
+
+
+<a name="hist_glac">&nbsp;</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a href="#TOC">[^TOC]</a></span>
+<h3>HISTORY OF THE GLACIAL DEPOSITS</h3>
+
+<p>A tongue of the glacier is supposed to have lain in the valley
+of the Umpog and gradually retreated northward after the ice
+had disappeared from the uplands on either side. The ridge of
+intermediate height built of limestone and schist, which extends
+down the middle of the valley, was probably covered by ice for
+some time after the glacier had left the highlands.</p>
+
+<p>When the mountain mass extending from Pine Mountain to
+Town Hill west of the Umpog Basin and the granite hills to the
+east terminating in Shelter Rock are considered in their relation
+to the movement of the ice, it is apparent that the valley of the
+Umpog must have been the most direct and lowest outlet for
+glacial streams south of Danbury. These streams built up the
+terraces and other deposits of stratified drift which occupy the
+valley between Bethel and West Redding.</p>
+
+<p>The heavy deposits of till near West Redding mark a halt in
+the retreating glacier. The boulders at this point are large and
+numerous, and kames and gravel ridges were formed. The
+deposits at the divide, supposed to have formed a glacial dam
+which reversed the Umpog,<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
+are much less heavy than at points
+short distances north and south of the water parting.</p>
+
+<p>As the ice retreated, sand and gravel in the form of terraces
+accumulated along the margin of the Umpog valley, where the
+drainage was concentrated in the spaces left by the melting of the
+ice lobe from the hillside. Among these deposits are the bodies
+of sand and gravel which lie against the rocky hillslopes most of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_057" id="Page_057">[057]</a></span>
+the way from the Umpog-Saugatuck divide to Bethel. North
+of Bethel, the drainage seems to have been gathered chiefly in
+streams flowing on each side of the low ridge occupying the
+center of the valley; consequently the gravel was deposited along
+the sides and southern end of the ridge and in the sag which
+cuts across its northern end. The row of kames at the north end
+of Umpog Swamp, several knolls of drift in Bethel, and the
+kame-like deposits and esker north of Grassy Plain were laid
+down successively as the ice retreated down the valley. During
+this period, the drainage was ponded between the ice front and
+the Umpog-Saugatuck divide.</p>
+
+<p>Uncovering the Still-Croton valley did not give the glacial
+drainage any lower outlet than the Umpog-Saugatuck divide
+afforded (<a href="#fig8">fig. 8, B and C.</a>)</p>
+
+<p>The heavy deposits of boulder clay forming the moraine
+which blocks the Rocky River valley indicate the next halting
+place of the glacier. In this period the ice margin formed an
+irregular northeast-southwest line about a mile north of Danbury.
+The country west and south of Danbury was thus uncovered, but
+the lower part of Still River valley was either covered by the ice
+sheet or occupied by an ice lobe. The drainage was, therefore, up
+the river valley, and being concentrated along the valley sides
+resulted in the accumulation of sand and gravel at the foot of
+rocky slopes. It is possible that an ice lobe extended down the
+old Rocky River valley, perhaps occupying much of the country
+between Beaver Brook Mountain and the high ridge west of the
+valley. The streams issuing from this part of the ice front would
+have laid down the eskers and kame gravels north of Danbury
+and the thick mantle of drift over which Still River flows through
+the city. As would be expected, this accumulation of material
+ponded all the north-flowing streams--Umpog Creek, Beaver
+Brook, and smaller nameless ones--and at the same time
+pushed Still River, at its mouth, to the southern side of its
+valley. Beaver Brook valley, Umpog valley, and all the Danbury
+basin must have been flooded during this period up to the
+height of the "railroad divide." Within the area covered by the
+city, the valley was filled up to at least 70 feet and probably much
+more than that above its former level. Flowing at this higher
+level, the river was thrown out of its course and here and there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_058" id="Page_058">[058]</a></span>
+superimposed on hard rock--as, for example, at Shelter Rock.</p>
+
+<p>That part of the drainage coming down the valley opposite
+Beaver Brook met the drainage from Still River ice lobe in the
+valley north of Shelter Rock, and as a result heavy deposits of
+stratified drift were laid down. The peninsula-like mass of
+drift beyond the river north of Shelter Rock appears from its
+form to have been built up as the delta of southward and eastward-flowing
+streams; probably the drainage from the hilltops
+united with streams coming down the two valleys. The lobes of
+stratified drift extending from the ridge may have been built
+first, and later the connecting ridge of gravel which forms the
+top of the hill may have accumulated as additional material was
+washed in, tying together the ridges of gravel along their western
+ends. The mingling in this region of stratified drift of all grades
+of coarseness indicates the union in the same basin of debris
+gathered from several sources.</p>
+
+<p>Between Danbury and New Milford no moraine crosses either
+the Rocky or the Still valley, but the abundance of till which
+overspreads the whole country indicates a slowly retreating
+glacier well loaded with rock debris. The mounds of stratified
+drift scattered along the valley doubtless represent the deltas of
+streams issuing from the ice front. The waters of Rocky River
+were ponded until the outlet near Jerusalem was uncovered and
+the disappearance of ice from the ravine below allowed an escape
+to the Housatonic. Stratified drift is present in greatest amount
+along the valleys of Still River and the west fork of Rocky River,
+indicating that these were the two chief lines of drainage. The
+uplands are practically without stratified drift.</p>
+
+<p>Along the valley of the Housatonic, glacial material is chiefly
+in the form of gravel terraces; they extend from Gaylordsville
+to New Milford, in some places on one side only, in others on both
+sides of the river. Part of these gravel benches are kame terraces,
+as shown by their rolling tops and the ravine which separates
+the terrace from the hillside; others may have been made
+by the river cutting through the mantle of drift which was laid
+down in the period of land depression at the time of glacial
+retreat,<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> or they may be a combination of the two forms. In
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_059" id="Page_059">[059]</a></span>
+many places by swinging in its flood plain, the river has cut into
+the terraces and left steep bluffs of gravel. The valley of
+Womenshenuck Brook above Merwinsville contains heavy deposits
+of stratified drift, indicating that this broad valley which
+extends from Kent on the Housatonic to Merwinsville was an
+important channel for the water which flowed from the melting
+ice.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Hobbs, W. H., op. cit.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Rice, W. N. and Gregory, H. E., Manual of the Geology of Connecticut: Conn.
+Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, pp. 34-35, 1906.</p>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Drainage Modifications and Glaciation
+in the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer-Harvey
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in
+the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer-Harvey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in the Danbury Region Connecticut
+       State of Connecticut State Geological and Natural History
+       Survey Bulletin No. 30
+
+Author: Ruth Sawyer-Harvey
+
+Release Date: July 3, 2010 [EBook #33050]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DRAINAGE MODIFICATIONS AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charlene Taylor, Tom Cos and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                         State of Connecticut
+              State Geological and Natural History Survey
+                           Bulletin No. 30
+
+
+
+
+                 Drainage Modifications and Glaciation
+                         in the Danbury Region
+                             Connecticut
+
+
+                                 By
+                      RUTH SAWYER HARVEY, Ph. D.
+
+
+                              HARTFORD
+                        ~Published by the State~
+                                1920
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                             BULLETINS
+
+                              OF THE
+
+                State Geological and Natural History Survey
+                            of Connecticut.
+
+
+1. First Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1903-1904.
+
+2. A Preliminary Report on the Protozoa of the Fresh Waters of
+Connecticut: by Herbert William Conn. (Out of print. To be obtained
+only in Vol. I, containing Bulletins 1-5. Price $1.50, postpaid.)
+
+3. A Preliminary Report on the Hymeniales of Connecticut:
+by Edward Albert White.
+
+4. The Clays and Clay Industries of Connecticut: by Gerald
+Francis Loughlin.
+
+5. The Ustilagineae, or Smuts, of Connecticut: by George
+Perkins Clinton.
+
+6. Manual of the Geology of Connecticut: by William North Rice and
+Herbert Ernest Gregory. (Out of print. To be obtained only in Vol. II,
+containing Bulletins 6-12. Price $2.45, postpaid.)
+
+7. Preliminary Geological Map of Connecticut: by Herbert Ernest
+Gregory and Henry Hollister Robinson.
+
+8. Bibliography of Connecticut Geology: by Herbert Ernest Gregory.
+
+9. Second Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
+and Natural History Survey, 1905-1906.
+
+10. A Preliminary Report on the Algae of the Fresh Waters of
+Connecticut: by Herbert William Conn and Lucia Washburn (Hazen)
+Webster.
+
+11. The Bryophytes of Connecticut: by Alexander William Evans and
+George Elwood Nichols.
+
+12. Third Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
+and Natural History Survey, 1907-1908.
+
+13. The Lithology of Connecticut: by Joseph Barrell and Gerald Francis
+Loughlin.
+
+
+14. Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of Connecticut growing
+without cultivation: by a Committee of the Connecticut Botanical
+Society.
+
+15. Second Report on the Hymeniales of Connecticut: by Edward Albert
+White.
+
+16. Guide to the Insects of Connecticut: prepared under the direction
+of Wilton Everett Britton. Part I. General Introduction: by Wilton
+Everett Britton. Part II. The Euplexoptera and Orthoptera of
+Connecticut: by Benjamin Hovey Walden.
+
+17. Fourth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1909-1910.
+
+18. Triassic Fishes of Connecticut: by Charles Rochester Eastman.
+
+19. Echinoderms of Connecticut: by Wesley Roscoe Coe.
+
+20. The Birds of Connecticut: by John Hall Sage and Louis Bennett
+Bishop, assisted by Walter Parks Bliss.
+
+21. Fifth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
+and Natural History Survey, 1911-1912.
+
+22. Guide to the Insects of Connecticut: prepared under the direction
+of Wilton Everett Britton. Part III. The Hymenoptera, or Wasp-like
+Insects, of Connecticut: by Henry Lorenz Viereck, with the
+collaboration of Alexander Dyer MacGillivray, Charles Thomas Brues,
+William Morton Wheeler, and Sievert Allen Rohwer.
+
+23. Central Connecticut in the Geologic Past: by Joseph Barrell.
+
+24. Triassic Life of the Connecticut Valley: by Richard Swann Lull.
+
+25. Sixth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State Geological
+and Natural History Survey, 1913-1914.
+
+26. The Arthrostraca of Connecticut: by Beverly Waugh Kunkel.
+
+27. Seventh Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1915-1916.
+
+28. Eighth Biennial Report of the Commissioners of the State
+Geological and Natural History Survey, 1917-1918.
+
+29. The Quaternary Geology of the New Haven Region, Connecticut: by
+Freeman Ward, Ph.D.
+
+30. Drainage, Modification and Glaciation in the Danbury Region,
+Connecticut: by Ruth Sawyer Harvey, Ph.D.
+
+31. Check List of the Insects of Connecticut: by Wilton Everett
+Britton, Ph.D. (In press.)
+
+
+Bulletins 1, 9, 12, 17, 21, 25, 27, and 28 are merely administrative
+reports containing no scientific matter. The other bulletins may be
+classified as follows:
+
+Geology: Bulletins 4, 6, 7, 8, 13, 18, 23, 24, 29, 36.
+
+Botany: Bulletins 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15.
+
+Zooelogy: Bulletins 2, 16, 19, 20, 22, 26, 31.
+
+These bulletins are sold and otherwise distributed by the State
+Librarian. Postage, when bulletins are sent by mail, is as follows:
+
+No. 1 $0.01   No.  13 $0.08    No.  23 $0.03
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+   11   .07        21   .02         31
+   12   .02        22   .08
+
+
+The prices when the bulletins are sold are as follows, postpaid:
+
+No. 1 $0.05   No.  13 $0.40    No.  23 $0.15
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+   12   .05        22  2.00
+
+
+A part of the edition of these Bulletins have been assembled in
+volumes substantially bound in cloth, plainly lettered, and sell for
+the following prices, postpaid:
+
+Volume   I,  containing Bulletins 1-5      $1.50
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+Volume III,  containing Bulletins 13-15     2.50
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+
+
+It is intended to follow a liberal policy in gratuitously distributing
+these publications to public libraries, colleges, and scientific
+institutions, and to scientific men, teachers, and others who require
+particular bulletins for their work, especially to those who are
+citizens of Connecticut.
+
+Applications or inquiries should be addressed to
+
+                                 ~George S. Godard~,
+                                        _State Librarian_,
+                                             Hartford, Conn.
+
+In addition to the bulletins above named, published by the State
+survey, attention is called to three publications of the United States
+Geological Survey prepared in co-operation with the Geological and
+Natural Survey of Connecticut. These are the following:
+
+Bulletin 484. The Granites of Connecticut: by T. Nelson Dale and
+Herbert E. Gregory.
+
+Water-Supply Paper 374. Ground Water in the Hartford, Stamford,
+Salisbury, Willimantic and Saybrook Areas, Connecticut: by Herbert E.
+Gregory and Arthur J. Ellis.
+
+Water-Supply Paper 397. Ground Water in the Waterbury Area,
+Connecticut: by Arthur J. Ellis, under the direction of Herbert E.
+Gregory.
+
+These papers may be obtained from the Director of the United States
+Geological Survey at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+
+CATALOGUE SLIPS.
+
+
+_=Connecticut.= State geological and natural history survey._
+
+Bulletin no. 30. Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in the Danbury
+Region, Connecticut. By Ruth S. Harvey, Ph.D. Hartford, 1920.
+
+59 pp., 5 pls., 10 fig., 25cm.
+
+
+=_Harvey, Ruth Sawyer, Ph.D._=
+
+Drainage Modification and Glaciation in the Danbury Region,
+Connecticut. By Ruth S. Harvey, Ph.D. Hartford, 1920.
+
+59 pp., 5 pls., 10 figs., 25cm.
+
+
+=_Geology._=
+
+Harvey, Ruth S. Drainage Modifications and Glaciation in
+the Danbury Region, Connecticut. Hartford, 1920.
+
+59 pp., 5 pls., 10 figs., 25^cm.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                        State of Connecticut
+
+                       PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 47
+
+                     State Geological and Natural
+                           History Survey
+
+                  HERBERT E. GREGORY, SUPERINTENDENT
+
+                          BULLETIN No. 30
+
+                             ~Hartford~
+
+       Printed by the State Geological and Natural History Survey
+                                1920
+
+
+
+
+
+
+              State Geological and Natural History Survey
+
+
+       COMMISSIONERS
+~Marcus H. Holcomb~, Governor of Connecticut
+~Arthur Twining Hadley~, President of Yale University
+~William Arnold Shanklin~, President of Wesleyan University
+~Remsen Brickerhoff Ogilby~, President of Trinity College
+~Charles Lewis Beach~, President of Connecticut Agricultural College
+~Benjamin Tinkham Marshall~, President of Connecticut College
+   for Women
+
+
+       SUPERINTENDENT
+      ~Herbert E. Gregory~
+
+
+_Publication Approved by the Board of Control_
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                Drainage Modifications and Glaciation
+                       in the Danbury Region
+                           Connecticut
+
+                                 By
+                        RUTH SAWYER HARVEY, Ph. D.
+
+
+
+                              HARTFORD
+    Printed by the State Geological and Natural History Survey
+                                1920
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                       CONTENTS.
+                        ------
+
+                                                 Page
+
+Introduction                                                       9
+
+Regional relations                                                11
+
+Rocky River                                                       15
+  Description of the river and its valley                         15
+  Relation of the valley to geologic structure                    16
+  Junction of Rocky and Housatonic Rivers                         18
+  Abnormal profile                                                18
+  Preglacial course                                               20
+  The buried channel                                              23
+  Effect of glaciation                                            25
+
+The Neversink-Danbury valley                                      27
+
+Still River                                                       30
+  Statement of the problem                                        30
+  Evidence to be expected if Still River has been reversed        31
+    A valley wide throughout or broadening toward the south       32
+    Tributary valleys pointing upstream                           34
+    The regional slope not in accord with the course of the Still 35
+    Evidence of glacial filling and degrading of the river bed    36
+    Glacial scouring                                              36
+  The Still-Saugatuck divide                                      38
+    Features of the Umpog valley                                  38
+    The preglacial divide                                         42
+  The Still-Croton divide                                         43
+    Introduction                                                  43
+    Features of Still River valley west of Danbury                43
+    The Still-Croton valley                                       44
+    Glacial Lake Kanosha                                          45
+  Divides in the highlands south of Danbury                       46
+  The ancient Still River                                         47
+  Departures of Still River from its preglacial channel           48
+
+Suggested courses of Housatonic River                             50
+
+Glacial deposits                                                  53
+    Beaver Brook Swamp                                            53
+    Deposits northeast of Danbury                                 54
+    Deposits between Beaver Brook Mountain and mouth of Still
+       River                                                      54
+    Lakes                                                         55
+    History of the glacial deposits                               56
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                       ILLUSTRATIONS.
+                        -----------
+
+                                                               To Face
+                                                                  Page
+
+PLATE  I    View south on the Highland northeast of Neversink Pond  14
+
+      II A. View up the valley of Umpog Creek                       40
+         B. View down the valley of Umpog Creek                     40
+
+     III    Limestone plain southwest of Danbury, in which are
+              situated Lake Kanosha and the Danbury Fair Grounds    44
+
+      IV A. View down the Housatonic Valley from a point one-half
+              mile below Stillriver Station                         52
+         B. Part of the morainal ridge north of Danbury             52
+
+       V A. Kames in Still River valley west of Brookfield Junction 54
+         B. Till ridges on the western border of Still River
+              valley, south of Brookfield                           56
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+
+FIGURE   1. Present drainage of the Danbury region                  13
+         2. Geological map of Still River valley                    17
+         3. Profiles of present and preglacial Rocky River          19
+         4. Preglacial course of Rocky-Still River                  21
+         5. Diagram showing lowest rock levels in Rocky River
+               valley                                               24
+         6. Course of Still River                                   29
+         7. Map of Umpog Swamp and vicinity                         39
+         8. Profiles of rivers                                      41
+         9. Early Stage of Rocky-Still River                        49
+        10. Five suggested outlets of Housatonic River              51
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                          INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The Danbury region of Connecticut presents many features of geographic
+and geologic interest. It may be regarded as a type area, for the
+history of its streams and the effects of glaciation are
+representative of those of the entire State. With this idea in mind,
+the field work on which this study is based included a traverse of
+each stream valley and an examination of minor features, as well as a
+consideration of the broader regional problems. Much detailed and
+local description, therefore, is included in the text.
+
+The matter in the present bulletin formed the main theme of a thesis
+on "Drainage and Glaciation in the Central Housatonic Basin" which was
+submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
+doctor of philosophy at Yale University.
+
+The field work was done in 1907 and 1908 under the direction of
+Professor Herbert E. Gregory. I am also indebted to the late Professor
+Joseph Barrell and to Dr. Isaiah Bowman for helpful cooperation in the
+preparation of the original thesis, and to Dr. H. H. Robinson for
+assistance in preparing this paper for publication.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+              DRAINAGE MODIFICATIONS AND GLACIATION IN
+                   THE DANBURY REGION, CONNECTICUT
+                              --------
+                          By Ruth S. Harvey
+
+
+
+
+REGIONAL RELATIONS
+
+
+The region discussed in this bulletin is situated in western
+Connecticut and is approximately 8 miles wide and 18 miles long in a
+north-south direction, as shown on fig. 1.[1] Throughout, the rocks
+are crystalline and include gneiss, schist, and marble--the
+metamorphosed equivalents of a large variety of ancient sedimentary
+and igneous rocks.
+
+For the purposes of this report, the geologic history may be said to
+begin with the regional uplift which marked the close of the Mesozoic.
+By that time the mountains formed by Triassic and Jurassic folding and
+faulting had been worn down to a peneplain, now much dissected but
+still recognizable in the accordant level of the mountain tops.
+
+Erosion during Cretaceous time resulted in the construction of a
+piedmont plain extending from an undetermined line 30 to 55 miles
+north of the present Connecticut shore to a point south of Long
+Island.[2] This plain is thought to have been built up of
+unconsolidated sands, clays, and gravels, the debris of the Jurassic
+mountains. Inland the material consisted of river-made or land
+deposits; outwardly it merged into coastal plain deposits. When the
+plain was uplifted, these loose gravels were swept away. In New York,
+Pennsylvania, and New Jersey, however, portions of the Cretaceous
+deposits are still to be found. Such deposits are present, also, on
+the north shore of Long Island, and a well drilled at Barren Island on
+the south shore revealed not less than 500 feet of Cretaceous
+strata.[3] The existence of such thick deposits within 30 miles of the
+Connecticut shore and certain peculiarities in the drainage have led
+to the inference that the Cretaceous cover extended over the southern
+part of Connecticut.
+
+
+[Footnote 1: The streams and other topographic features of the Danbury
+   region are shown in detail on the Danbury and the New Milford
+   sheets of the United States Topographic Atlas. These sheets may be
+   obtained from the Director of the United States Geological Survey,
+   Washington, D. C.]
+
+[Footnote 2: It was probably not less than 30 miles, for that is the
+   distance from the mouth of Still River, where the Housatonic enters
+   a gorge in the crystallines, to the sea. Fifty-five miles is the
+   distance to the sea from the probable old head of Housatonic River
+   on Wassaic Creek, near Amenia, New York.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Veatch, A. C., Slichter, C. S., Bowman, Isaiah, Crosby,
+   W. O., and Horton. R. E., Underground water resources of Long
+   Island: U. S. G. S., PP. 44, p. 188 and fig. 24, 1906.]
+
+
+A general uplift of the region brought this period of deposition to a
+close. As the peneplain, probably with a mantle of Cretaceous
+deposits, was raised to its present elevation, the larger streams kept
+pace with the uplift by incising their valleys. The position of the
+smaller streams, however, was greatly modified in the development of
+the new drainage system stimulated by the uplift. The modern drainage
+system may be assumed to have been at first consequent, that is,
+dependent for its direction on the slope of the uplifted plain, but it
+was not long before the effect of geologic structure began to make
+itself felt. In the time when all the region was near baselevel, the
+harder rocks had no advantage over the softer ones, and streams
+wandered where they pleased. But after uplift, the streams began to
+cut into the plain, and those flowing over limestone or schist
+deepened, then widened their valleys much faster than could the
+streams which flowed over the resistant granite and gneiss. By a
+system of stream piracy and shifting, similar to that which has taken
+place throughout the Newer Appalachians, the smaller streams in time
+became well adjusted to the structure. They are of the class called
+subsequents; on the other hand, the Housatonic, which dates at least
+from the beginning of the uplift if not from the earlier period of
+peneplanation, is an antecedent stream.
+
+The complex rock surface of western Connecticut had reached a stage of
+mature dissection when the region was invaded by glaciers.[4] The ice
+sheet scraped off and redistributed the mantle of decayed rock which
+covered the surface and in places gouged out the bedrock. The
+resulting changes were of a minor order, for the main features of the
+landscape and the principal drainage lines were the same in preglacial
+time as they are today. It is thus seen that the history of the
+smaller streams like those considered in this report involves three
+factors: (1) the normal tendencies of stream development, (2) the
+influence of geologic structure, and (3) the effect of glaciation.
+
+The cover of glacial deposits is generally thin, but marked
+variations exist. The fields are overspread with coarse till
+containing pebbles 6 inches in diameter to huge boulders of 12 feet or
+more. The abundance, size, and composition of the boulders in the till
+of a given locality is well represented by the stone fences which
+border fields.
+
+
+[Footnote 4: This stage of glaciation is presumably Wisconsin. No
+   definite indication of any older glacial deposits was found.]
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 1.~ Present drainage of the Danbury region.]
+
+
+The regional depression which marked the close of the glacial period
+slackened the speed of many rivers and caused them to deposit great
+quantities of modified or assorted drift. Since glacial time, these
+deposits have been dissected and formed into the terraces which are
+characteristic of the rivers of the region. A form of terrace even
+more common than the river-made terrace is the kame terrace found
+along borders of the lowlands. Eskers in the Danbury region have not
+the elongated snake-like form by which they are distinguished in some
+parts of the country, notably Maine; on the contrary, they are
+characteristically short and broad, many having numerous branches at
+the southern end like the distributaries of an aggrading river. The
+material of the eskers ranges from coarse sand to pebbles four inches
+in diameter, the average size being from one to two inches. No
+exposures were observed which showed a regular diminution in the
+coarseness of the material toward their southern end. The clean-washed
+esker gravels afford little encouragement to plant growth, and the
+rain water drains away rapidly through the porous gravel.
+Consequently, accumulations of stratified drift are commonly barren
+places. A desert vegetation of coarse grasses, a kind of wiry moss,
+and "everlastings" (_Gnaphalius decurrens_) are the principal growth.
+Rattlebox (_Crotolaria sagittalis_), steeplebush (_Spiraea tomentosa_),
+sweet fern (_Comptonia asplenifolia_), and on the more fertile
+eskers--especially on the lower, wetter part of the slope--golden rod,
+ox-eyed daisy, birch, and poplar are also present. All the eskers
+observed were found to be similar: they ranged in breadth across the
+top from 100 to 150 feet and the side slopes were about 20 degrees.
+Only a single heavily wooded esker was found, and this ran through a
+forest region.
+
+The accumulations of stratified drift are distinguished from other
+features in the landscape by their smoother and rounder outlines, by
+their habit of lying unconformably on the bedrock without reference to
+old erosion lines, and by a slightly different tone in the color of
+the vegetation covering the water-laid material. The difference in
+color, which is due to the unique elements in the flora of these
+areas, may cause a hill of stratified drift in summer to present a
+lighter green color than that of surrounding hills of boulder clay or
+of the original rock slopes; in winter the piles of stratified drift
+stand out because of the uniform light tawny red of the dried grass.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate I.~
+   View south on the highland northeast of Neversink Pond. The base
+   of a ridge in which rock is exposed is seen at the left; a
+   crescent-shaped lateral moraine bordering the valley lies at the
+   right.]
+
+
+
+
+ROCKY RIVER
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE RIVER AND ITS VALLEY
+
+Rocky River begins its course as a rapid mountain brook in a rough
+highland, where the mantle of till in many places is insufficient to
+conceal the rock ledges (fig. 1). Near Sherman, about four miles from
+its source, it enters a broad flood plain and meanders over a flat,
+swampy floor which is somewhat encumbered with deposits of stratified
+drift and till. Rocky hills border the valley and rise abruptly from
+the lowland. The few tributaries of the river in this part of its
+course are normal in direction.
+
+About six miles below Sherman, Rocky River enters Wood Creek Swamp,
+which is 5-1/2 miles long by about one mile wide and completely covers
+the valley floor, extending even into tributary valleys. Within the
+swamp the river is joined by Squantz Pond Brook and Wood Creek.
+Tributaries to Wood Creek include Mountain Brook and the stream
+passing through Barses Pond and Neversink Pond. The head of Barses
+Pond is separated from the swamp only by a low ridge of till.
+Neversink Pond with its inlet gorge and its long southern tributary
+record significant drainage modifications, as described in the section
+entitled "The Neversink-Danbury Valley."
+
+Within and along the margin of Wood Creek Swamp, also east of Wood
+Creek and at Barses Pond, are rounded, elongated ridges of till, some
+of which might be called drumlins. East of Neversink Pond is the
+lateral moraine shown in Pl. I. From the mouth of Wood Creek to
+Jerusalem, Rocky River is a quiet stream wandering between low banks
+through flat meadows, which are generally swampy almost to the foot of
+the bordering hills.
+
+Near Jerusalem bridge two small branches enter Rocky River.
+Immediately north of the bridge is a level swampy area about one-half
+mile in length. Where the valley closes in again, bedrock is exposed
+near the stream, and beginning at a point one-half mile below (north
+of) Jerusalem, Rocky River--a swift torrent choked by boulders of
+great size--deserves its name.
+
+In spite of its rapid current, however, the river is unable to move
+these boulders, and for nearly three miles one can walk dry-shod on
+those that lie in midstream.
+
+At two or three places below Jerusalem, in quiet reaches above rapids,
+the river has taken its first step toward making a flood plain by
+building tiny beaches. One-half mile above the mouth of the river the
+valley widens and on the gently rising south bank there are several
+well-marked terraces about three feet in height and shaped out of
+glacial material. A delta and group of small islands at the mouth of
+Rocky River indicate the transporting power of the stream and the
+relative weakness of the slow-moving Housatonic.
+
+
+RELATIONS OF THE VALLEY TO GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE
+
+Rocky River is classed with streams which are comformable to the rock
+structure. This conclusion rests largely on the analogy between Rocky
+River and other rivers of this region. The latter very commonly are
+located on belts of limestone, or limestone and schist, and their
+extension is along the strike. The interfluvial ridges are generally
+composed of the harder rocks. The valleys of the East Aspetuck and
+Womenshenuck Brook on the north side of the Housatonic, and of the
+Still, the Umpog, Beaver Brook, the upper Saugatuck, and part of Rocky
+River are on limestone beds (fig. 2). In the valleys between Town Hill
+and Spruce Mountain (south of Danbury), two ravines northwest of
+Grassy Plain (near Bethel), and the Saugatuck valley north of Umpawaug
+Pond, the limestone bed is largely buried under drift, talus, and
+organic deposits, but remnants which reveal the character of the
+valley floors have been found. The parallelism between the courses of
+these streams and that of Rocky River and the general resemblance in
+the form of their valleys, flat-floored with steep-sided walls, as
+well as the scattered outcrops of limestone in the valley, have led to
+the inference that Rocky River, like the others, is a subsequent
+stream developed on beds of weaker rock along lines of foliation.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 2.~ Geological map of Still River Valley.]
+
+
+The Geological Map of Connecticut[5] shows that the valleys of Still
+River, Womenshenuck Brook, Aspetuck River, and upper Rocky River are
+developed on Stockbridge limestone. The lower valley of Rocky River
+is, however, mapped as Becket gneiss and Thomaston granite gneiss.
+Although the only outcrops along lower Rocky River are of granite, it
+is believed that a belt of limestone or schist, now entirely removed,
+initially determined the course of the river. The assumption of an
+irregular belt of limestone in this position would account for the
+series of gorges and flood plains in the vicinity of Jerusalem bridge
+and for the broad drift-filled valley at the mouth of Rocky River.
+These features are difficult to explain on any other basis.
+
+[Footnote 5: Gregory, H. E., Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geological
+   map of Connecticut; Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 7, 1907.]
+
+
+
+JUNCTION OF ROCKY AND HOUSATONIC RIVERS
+
+One of the distinguishing features of Rocky River is the angle at
+which it joins the Housatonic (fig. 1). The tributaries of a normal
+drainage system enter their master stream at acute angles, an
+arrangement which involves the least expenditure of energy. Rocky
+River, however, enters the Housatonic against the course of the
+latter, that is, the tributary points upstream. Still River and other
+southern tributaries of the Housatonic exhibit the same feature, thus
+producing a barbed drainage, which indicates that some factor
+interfered with the normal development of tributary streams. Barbed
+drainage generally results from the reversal of direction of the
+master stream[6], but it is impossible to suppose that the Housatonic
+was ever reversed. As will appear, it is an antecedent master stream
+crossing the crystalline rocks of western Connecticut regardless of
+structure, and its course obliquely across the strike accounts for
+the peculiar orientation of its southern tributaries, which are
+subsequent streams whose position is determined by the nature of the
+rock. For the same reason, the northern tributaries of the Housatonic
+present the usual relations.
+
+[Footnote 6: Leverett, Frank, Glacial formations and drainage features
+   of the Erie and Ohio basins: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 41, pp. 88-91,
+   figs. 1 and 2, 1902. See, also, the Genoa, Watkins, Penn Yan, and
+   Naples (New York) topographic atlas sheets.]
+
+
+
+ABNORMAL PROFILE
+
+The airline distance from the bend in Rocky River at Sherman to its
+mouth at the Housatonic is 2-3/4 miles, but the course of the river
+between these two points is 15 miles, or 5.4 times the airline
+distance. This is a more extraordinary digression than that of
+Tennessee River, which deserts its ancestral course to the Gulf and
+flows northwest into the Ohio, multiplying the length of its course
+3-1/3 times. The fall of Rocky River between Sherman and its mouth is
+240 feet or 16 feet to the mile, and were the river able to take a
+direct course the fall would be 87 feet to the mile. The possibility
+of capture would seem to be imminent from these figures, but in
+reality there is no chance of it, for an unbroken mountain ridge of
+resistant rock lies between the two forks of the river. This barrier
+is not likely to be crossed by any stream until the whole region has
+been reduced to a peneplain.
+
+Measured from the head of its longest branch, Rocky River is about 19
+miles long and falls 950 feet. Of this fall, 710 feet occurs in the
+first 4 miles and 173 feet in the last 2-1/2 miles of its course. For
+the remaining distance of 12-1/2 miles, in which the river after
+flowing south doubles back on itself, the fall is 67 feet, or slightly
+less than 5-1/2 feet to the mile (fig. 3, A).
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 3.~ Profiles of present and preglacial Rocky River.
+   Elevations at a, b, c and i are from U. S. G. S. map.
+   Elevation at d is estimated from R. E. Dakin's records.
+   Elevations at e, f, g and h are from R. E. Dakin's records.
+   The U. S. G. S. figures for the same are enclosed in parenthesis.]
+
+
+In tabular form the figures, taken from the Danbury and
+New Milford atlas sheets and from reports of R. E. Dakin, are
+as follows:
+
+
+                           Miles      Fall in feet per mile
+Source to Sherman            4              177.5
+Sherman to Wood Creek        8                6.25
+Wood Creek to Jerusalem      4.5              3.8
+Jerusalem to mouth           2.5             69.2
+
+
+Near Jerusalem, where Rocky River makes its sudden change
+in grade, there is an abrupt change in the form of the valley
+from broad and flat-bottomed to narrow and V-shaped. The
+profile of Rocky River is thus seen to be sharply contrasted with
+that of a normal stream, which is characterised throughout its
+course by a decreasing slope.
+
+
+PREGLACIAL COURSE
+
+The present profile of Rocky River and the singular manner in which
+the lower course of the river is doubled back on the upper course are
+believed to represent changes wrought by glaciation. Before the advent
+of the glacier, Rocky River probably flowed southward through the
+"Neversink-Danbury Valley," to be described later, and joined the
+Still at Danbury, as shown in fig. 4. The profile of the stream at
+this stage in its history is shown in fig. 3, B.
+
+At Sherman a low col separates Rocky River basin from that of the
+small northward flowing stream which enters the Housatonic about a
+mile below Gaylordsville. Streams by headward erosion at both ends of
+the belt of limestone and schist on which they are situated have
+reduced this divide to an almost imperceptible swell. The rock
+outcrops in the channel show that the glacier did not produce any
+change in the divide by damming, though it may have lowered it by
+scouring. Assume that at one time a divide also existed on the eastern
+fork of Rocky River, for example near Jerusalem. According to this
+hypothesis there was, north of this latter divide, a short northward
+flowing branch of the Housatonic located on a belt of weak rock,
+similar to the small stream which now flows northward from Sherman, and
+very like any of the half-dozen parallel streams in the rock mass
+south and southwest of Danbury, all of which are subsequent streams
+flowing along the strike. While these stream valleys were growing, the
+southern ends of the same weak belts of rock were held by
+southward-flowing streams which united in the broad limestone area now
+occupied by the city of Danbury.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 4.~ Preglacial course of Rocky-Still River.
+   Dotted lines show present courses of the two rivers.]
+
+
+The southward-flowing streams whose heads were, respectively, above
+Sherman and near Jerusalem joined at the southern end of the long
+ridge which includes Towner Hill and Green Mountain. Thence the stream
+flowed southward along the valley now occupied by Wood Creek and
+reached Still River by way of the valley which extends southward from
+Neversink Pond (fig. 4).
+
+The preglacial course of Rocky River, as above outlined, is subject to
+possible modification in one minor feature, namely, the point where
+the east and west forks joined. The junction may have been where
+Neversink Pond is now situated, or three miles farther south than the
+indicated junction near the mouth of Wood Creek. A low ridge of till
+is the only barrier that at present prevents the western branch from
+flowing into the head of Barses Pond and thence into Neversink Pond
+(fig. 1).
+
+As thus reconstructed the greater part of Rocky River formerly
+belonged to the Still-Umpog system and formed a normal tributary in
+that distant period when the Still joined the Saugatuck on its way to
+the Sound (fig. 9). However, the normal condition was not lasting, for
+the reversal of Still River, as later described, brought about a
+complex arrangement of barbed streams (fig. 4) which remained until
+modified by glacial action.
+
+In a large stream system which has been reversed, considerable
+evidence may be gathered from the angle at which tributary streams
+enter. As the original direction of Rocky River in its last 2-1/2
+miles is unchanged, normal tributaries should be expected; whereas
+between Jerusalem and the head of the stream entering Neversink Pond
+from the south, in accordance with the hypothesis that this portion of
+the stream was reversed, tributaries pointing upstream might be
+expected. Such little gullies as join Rocky River near its mouth are
+normal in direction; between Jerusalem and the mouth of Wood Creek, a
+distance of 4-1/2 miles, there are no distinct tributaries. South of
+the mouth of Wood Creek are four tributaries: (1) the brook which
+enters the valley from the west about one mile south of Neversink
+Pond, (2) Balls Brook, which empties into Neversink Pond, and (3) two
+streams on the east side--Mountain Brook and one other unnamed (fig.
+1). All these, except Mountain Brook, are normal to the reconstructed
+drainage. The evidence of the tributaries, though not decisive, is
+thus favorable to the hypothesis of reversal.
+
+
+THE BURIED CHANNEL
+
+Figures 3 and 5 show what is known of the buried channel of Rocky
+River. The only definite information as to rock levels is that derived
+from the drill holes made by R. E. Dakin for the J. A. P. Crisfield
+Contracting Company in connection with work on a reservoir for the
+Connecticut Light and Power Company. Numerous holes were drilled at
+the points indicated on fig. 5 as No. 8, D, J, No. 7+1000, and No. 7,
+but only those showing the lowest rock levels need be considered. In
+the following account the elevations quoted are those determined by R.
+E. Dakin which differ, as shown in fig. 3, A, from those of the New
+Milford atlas sheet.
+
+Between the mouth of Wood Creek and Jerusalem bridge holes made near
+the river show that the depth of the drift--chiefly sand, gravel, and
+clay--varies from 45 to 140 feet. The greatest thickness of drift,
+consisting of humus, quicksand and clay, is 140 feet at a point 20
+feet from the east bank of Rocky River and about 1-3/4 miles north of
+the mouth of Wood Creek (fig. 5, D). Although some allowance should be
+made for glacial scouring, the rock level at this point, 244 feet, is
+so much lower than any other record obtained between this point and
+Danbury that one is obliged to assume a buried channel with a level at
+Danbury at least 75 feet below the rock level found in the lowest well
+record.[7] It is probable that this well is not situated where the
+rock is lowest, that is, it may be on one side of the old Still River
+channel.
+
+[Footnote 7: Well of J. Hornig, rear of Bottling Works, near foot of
+   Tower Place, 35 ft. to rock, indicated at _a_, fig. 5. The well of
+   Bartley & Clancey, 94 White Street, 70 ft. to rock, is also
+   indicated at _b_, fig. 5.]
+
+
+The level obtained at No. 8 is from a hole drilled within 50 feet of
+the river. The drill struck rock at an elevation of 316 feet after
+passing through 69 feet of quicksand, gravel, and till. This is
+clearly not within the channel as it is quite impossible to reconcile
+the figure with that at D, less than a mile distant.
+
+South of Jerusalem bridge at J, 150 feet from the river, a hole was
+bored through 95 feet of clay, sand, and gravel before striking rock
+at an elevation of 298 feet.
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 5.~ Rocky River Valley. Diagram indicating lowest
+   rock levels which have been discovered by drilling.]
+
+
+At the point marked No. 7+1000, about 1-1/4 miles from the mouth of
+Rocky River, the evidence derived from 8 drill holes, bored at
+distances ranging from 200 to 550 feet from the right bank, shows the
+drift cover to be from 48 to 72 feet in thickness. At 200 feet from
+the river the drill passed through 72 feet of sand, clay, and gravel
+before striking rock at 303 feet above sea-level.
+
+At No. 7, about one mile from the mouth of Rocky River, a hole drilled
+415 feet from the right bank showed 58 feet of drift, consisting of
+clay, sand, gravel, and boulders. The drill reached rock at 342 feet,
+which is the figure given by R. E. Dakin for the elevation of the
+river at this point. Drill holes made, respectively, at 50 and 60 feet
+to the right of this one showed a drift cover of 61 feet, so that the
+underlying rock rises only 4 feet in a distance of 475 feet to the
+east of the river.
+
+The foregoing evidence, showing a rock level at D 98 feet lower than
+that at No. 7, leaves no doubt that the preglacial course of Rocky
+River was to the south from No. 7, and there is nothing in the
+topography between Jerusalem and Danbury to make improbable the
+existence of a buried channel.
+
+
+EFFECT OF GLACIATION
+
+The preglacial history of Rocky River as outlined assumes that before
+the glacier covered this part of Connecticut the present lower course
+of Rocky River was separated from the rest of the system by a divide
+situated somewhere between the present mouth of the river and the
+mouth of Wood Creek. It remains to be shown by what process Rocky
+River was cut off from its southern outlet into Still River and forced
+up its eastern branch and over the col into a tributary of the
+Housatonic. Though the preglacial course of Rocky River appears to be
+more natural than the present one, it is really a longer course to the
+Housatonic; the older route being 32 miles, whereas the present course
+is 19 miles. This fact explains, in part, why the glacier had little
+difficulty in altering the preglacial drainage, and how the change so
+effected became permanent. Eccentric as the resulting system of
+drainage is, it would have been still more so had Rocky River when
+ponded overflowed at the head of its western instead of its eastern
+fork, taken its way past Sherman into the Housatonic near
+Gaylordsville, and discharging at this point lost the advantage of the
+fall of the Housatonic between Gaylordsville and Boardman.
+
+In glaciated regions an area of swamp land may be taken as an
+indication of interference by the glacier with the natural run-off.
+The swamp in which Wood Creek joins the upper fork of Rocky River
+(fig. 1), was formerly a lake due to a dam built across the lower end
+of a river valley. Although the ponded water extended only a short
+distance up the steeper side valleys, it extended several miles up the
+main stream. The whole area of this glacial lake, except two small
+ponds and the narrow channels through which the river now flows, has
+been converted into a peat-filled bog having a depth of from 8 to 45
+feet.[8]
+
+At the termination of the swampy area on the eastern branch of Rocky
+River no indication is found of a dam such as would be required for so
+extensive a ponding of the waters. Here the valley is very narrow, and
+though the river bed is encumbered with heavy boulders, rock outcrops
+are so numerous as to preclude the idea of a drift cover raising the
+water level. This is just the condition to be expected if Rocky River
+reached its present outlet by overtopping a low col at the head of its
+former eastern branch.
+
+The southern end of the Neversink Pond valley is the only other place
+whose level is so low that drift deposits could have interfered with
+the Rocky River drainage. The moraine at the head of this valley,
+crossing the country some two miles north of the city of Danbury and
+binding together two prominent north-and-south ridges, was evidently
+the barrier which choked the Rocky River valley near its mouth and
+turned back the preglacial river.
+
+When Rocky River was thus ponded its lowest outlet was found to be at
+the head of its eastern fork. Here the waters spilled over the old
+divide and took possession of the channel of a small stream draining
+into the Housatonic. Accordingly Rocky River should be found cutting
+its bed where it crosses the former divide. It seems reasonable to
+regard the gorge half-way between Jerusalem bridge and Housatonic
+River as approximately the position of the preglacial divide and to
+consider the small flat area to the north of Jerusalem bridge as a
+flood plain on softer rock, worn down as low as the outcrops of more
+resistant rock occurring farther down the valley will permit. The
+reversal of the river may account for the sudden transition from a
+flat-bottomed valley to a rocky gorge; and for the abrupt change in
+the profile, bringing the steepest part of the river near its mouth.
+The increased volume of water flowing through the channel since
+glacial time has plainly cut down the bed of the ravine between
+Jerusalem and the river's mouth, but the channel is still far from
+being graded.
+
+[Footnote 8: Report of soundings made in 1907 by T. T. Giffen.]
+
+
+
+THE NEVERSINK-DANBURY VALLEY.
+
+Between Neversink Pond and Danbury extends a deep rock valley, in
+places filled with drift. As has been shown, this valley was probably
+occupied in preglacial time by Rocky River, which then flowed
+southward. At its southern end is Still River, which flows through
+Danbury from west to east.
+
+The most important tributary of the Still rises northwest of the city,
+just beyond the New York-Connecticut boundary line, and has two forks.
+The northern fork, which drains East Lake, Padanaram Reservoir, and
+Margerie Pond, flows along the northeast side of Clapboard Ridge. The
+southern fork has two branches; the northern one includes the
+reservoirs of Upper Kohanza and Lake Kohanza, while the upper waters
+of the southern branch have been recently dammed to form an extensive
+reservoir. On approaching the city, the northernmost fork (draining
+East Lake) turns sharply out of its southeast course and flows in a
+direction a little east of north. At the end of Clapboard Ridge, the
+stream makes a detour around a knoll of coarse stratified drift. From
+this turn until it joins Still River, a distance of about a mile, the
+stream occupies a broad and partly swampy valley.
+
+
+At the cemetery in this valley (fig. 1, C) are two eskers of symmetric
+form, each a few hundred yards in length and trending nearly parallel
+with the valley axis. East of the valley, and about 1-1/2 miles north
+of the cemetery, is a broad, flat-topped ridge of till with rock
+exposed at the ends, forming a barrier which doubtless existed in
+preglacial time. West of the valley is a hill with rock foundation
+rounded out on the northeast side by a mass of drift. The preglacial
+course of Rocky River was between the outcrops at these two
+localities.
+
+Northwest of the cemetery for one and a half miles the uneven surface
+is formed of till and small patches of stratified drift. In a swamp
+near the north end of the cemetery is a curved esker with lobes
+extending south and southwest. One mile north of this swamp is an area
+of excessively coarse till containing boulders which range in diameter
+from 6 to 10 feet and forming a low ridge separating two ravines, in
+which head streams flowing in opposite directions. The area of coarse
+till is bounded on the north by a long sinuous esker of coarse gravel
+terminating in a flat fan, which is superposed on a field of fine
+till. Associated with the esker is an interesting group of kames and
+kettleholes, the largest kettlehole being distinguished by distinct
+plant zones banding the sides of the depression.
+
+North of the area of boulders, eskers, and kames just described lies a
+swamp whose surface is 30 to 40 feet below the upper level of the kame
+gravels. Soundings made by T. T. Giffen revealed the presence of 36
+feet of peat and 2 feet of silt overlying firm sand, so that 70 feet
+is the minimum estimate for the difference in level between the
+surface of the gravels and the floor of the swamp.
+
+Below the rocky cliffs which line the valley sides are boulders
+brought by the ice from near-by ledges, and about one-half mile above
+the head of the swamp are remnants of a terrace standing 20 to 30 feet
+above the level of the stream. Although the terrace appears to consist
+of till, it may conceal a rock floor which was cut by a former stream.
+As the valley is followed toward Neversink Pond, the various features
+of a till-coated, rock-floored valley are seen.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 6.~ Course of Still River. Dotted lines show the
+   preglacial channels.]
+
+
+
+
+
+STILL RIVER
+
+STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
+
+
+Still River presents several unusual features, as shown in fig. 6.
+Tributaries from the west and south unite at Danbury to form a stream
+flowing northward opposite to the regional land slope. Near its
+junction with the Housatonic, the river flows northward, whereas its
+master stream half a mile distant flows southward. The lower valley of
+the river is broad and flat and apparently much out of proportion to
+the present stream; it is, indeed, comformable in size and direction
+with the valley of the Housatonic above the mouth of the Still. The
+Housatonic, however, instead of choosing the broad lowland in the
+limestone formation, spread invitingly before it, turns aside and
+flows through a narrow gorge cut in resistant gneiss, schist, and
+igneous intrusives. The headwaters of the Still mingle with those of
+the Croton system, and its chief southern branch, the Umpog, is
+interlaced with the sources of the Saugatuck on a divide marked by
+glacial drift and swamps. The explanation of these features involves
+not only the history of the Still River system, but also that of the
+Housatonic.
+
+In explanation of the present unusual arrangement of streams in
+the Still River system, four hypotheses may be considered:
+
+I. Still River valley is the ancient bed of the Housatonic from which
+that river has been diverted through reversal caused by a glacial dam.
+
+
+II. The Housatonic has always had its present southeasterly course,
+but the Still, heading at some point in its valley north of Danbury,
+flowed initially southward through one of four possible outlets. The
+latter stream was later reversed by a glacial dam at the southern end,
+or by glacial scouring at the northern end of its valley which removed
+the divide between its headwaters and the Housatonic.
+
+III. The Housatonic has always held its present southeasterly course,
+and the Still initially flowed southward, as stated above. Reversal in
+this case, however, occurred in a very early stage in the development
+of the drainage, as the result of the capture of the headwaters of the
+Still by a small tributary of the Housatonic.
+
+IV. The Housatonic has always held its present southeasterly course,
+but the Still has developed from the beginning as a subsequent stream
+in the direction in which it now flows.
+
+The first hypothesis, that the Still is the ancient channel of the
+Housatonic, has been advocated by Professor Hobbs, who has stated:
+
+   "That the valley of the Still was formerly occupied by a large
+   stream is probable from its wide valley area.... The former
+   discharge of the waters of the Housatonic through the Still into
+   the Croton system, on the one hand, or into the Saugatuck on the
+   other, would require the assumption of extremely slight changes
+   only in the rock channels which now connect them.... To turn the
+   river (the Housatonic) from its course along the limestone
+   valley some obstruction or differential uplift within the river
+   basin may have been responsible. The former seems to be the more
+   probable explanation in view of the large accumulations of drift
+   material in the area south and west of Bethel and Danbury."
+
+   "The structural valleys believed to be present in the
+   crystalline rocks of the uplands due to post-Newark deformation
+   may well have directed the course of the Housatonic after it had
+   once deserted the limestone ... The deep gorge of the Housatonic
+   through which the river enters the uplands not only crosses the
+   first high ridge of gneiss in the rectilinear direction of one
+   of the fault series, but its precipitous walls show the presence
+   of minor planes of dislocation, along which the bottom of the
+   valley appears to have been depressed."[9]
+
+
+The hypothesis proposed by Professor Hobbs and also the second and
+third hypotheses here given involve the supposition of reversal of
+drainage, and their validity rests on the probability that the stream
+now occupying Still River valley formerly flowed southward. The first
+and second hypotheses will be considered in the following section.
+
+[Footnote 9: Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull.
+   Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, pp. 17-26, 1901.]
+
+
+
+EVIDENCE TO BE EXPECTED IF STILL RIVER HAS BEEN REVERSED
+
+If Still River occupies the valley of a reversed stream, the following
+physiographic features should be expected:
+
+1. A valley with a continuous width corresponding to the size of the
+ancient stream, or a valley comparatively narrow at the north and
+broadening toward the south.
+
+2. Tributary valleys pointing upstream with respect to the present
+river.
+
+3. The regional slope not in accord with the present course of the
+river.
+
+4. Extensive glacial filling and ponded waters in the region of the
+present sources of Still River.
+
+5. Strong glacial scouring at the northern end in default of a glacial
+dam at the southern end of the valley, or to assist a dam in its work
+of reversing the river. The evidence of glacial erosion would be a
+U-shaped valley, overdeepening of the main valley, and tributaries
+ungraded with respect to the main stream.
+
+
+1. A VALLEY WIDE THROUGHOUT OR BROADENING TOWARD THE SOUTH
+
+At the mouth of Still River and for several miles north and south of
+it there is a plain more than a mile broad. This plain continues
+southward with a width of about one-half mile until, at Brookfield, it
+is interrupted by ledges of bare rock. A little distance south of
+Brookfield the valley broadens again to one-half mile, and this width
+is retained with some variation as far as Danbury. Drift deposits
+along the border of the valley make it appear narrower in some places
+than is indicated by rock outcrops. Between Brookfield and Danbury the
+narrowest place in the valley is southwest of Beaver Brook Mountain,
+where the distance between the hills of rock bounding the valley is
+one-fifth of a mile (fig. 6). Opposite Beaver Brook Mountain, which
+presents vertical faces of granite-gneiss toward the valley, is a hill
+of limestone. Ice, crowding through this narrow place in the valley,
+must have torn masses of rock from the side walls, so that the valley
+is now broader than in preglacial time. The constrictions in the
+valley near Shelter Rock are due to the fact that the preglacial
+valley, now partly buried in till, lies to the north. There are
+stretches of broad floor in the valley of Beaver Brook, in the lower
+valley of Umpog Creek, in the fields at the south end of Main Street
+in Danbury, about Lake Kanosha, and where the Danbury Fair Grounds are
+situated. In the western part of Danbury, however, and at Mill Plain
+the valley is very narrow, and at the head of Sugar Hollow, the valley
+lying east of Spruce Mountain, is a narrow col.
+
+The broadest continuous area in the Still-Umpog Valley is, therefore,
+in the lower six miles between Brookfield and New Milford; south of
+that portion are several places where the valley is sharply
+constricted; and beyond the head of the Umpog, about one and a half
+miles below West Redding station (fig. 7), the Saugatuck Valley is a
+very narrow gorge. On the whole, the valleys south and southwest of
+Danbury are much narrower than the valley of the Still farther north.
+It is evident from these observations that Still River Valley is
+neither uniformly broad, nor does it increase in width toward the
+south.
+
+But if a broad valley is to be accepted as evidence of the work of a
+large river, then there is too much evidence in the Still River
+valley. The broad areas named above are more or less isolated
+lowlands, some of them quite out of the main line of drainage, and can
+not be grouped to form a continuous valley. They can not be attributed
+to the Housatonic nor wholly to the work of the insignificant streams
+now draining them. These broad expanses are, in fact, local peneplains
+developed on areas of soluble limestone. The rock has dissolved and
+the plain so produced has been made more nearly level by a coating of
+peat and glacial sand. In a region of level and undisturbed strata,
+such as the Ohio or Mississippi Valley, a constant relation may exist
+between the size of a stream and the valley made by it; but in a
+region of complicated geologic structure, such as western Connecticut,
+where rocks differ widely in their resistance to erosion, the same
+result is not to be expected. In this region the valleys are commonly
+developed on limestone and their width is closely controlled by the
+width of the belt of limestone. Even the narrow valleys in the upland
+southwest of Danbury are to be accounted for by the presence of thin
+lenses of limestone embedded in gneiss and schist.
+
+The opinion of Hobbs that Still River valley is too wide to be the
+work of the present stream takes into consideration only the broad
+places, but when the narrow places are considered it may be said as
+well that the valley is too narrow to be the work of a stream larger
+than the one now occupying it. Valley width has only negative value in
+interpreting the history of Still River.
+
+
+
+2. TRIBUTARY VALLEYS POINTING UPSTREAM
+
+The dominant topographic feature of western Connecticut, as may be
+seen on the atlas sheets, is elongated oval hills trending north by
+west to south by east, which is the direction of the axes of the folds
+into which the strata were thrown at the time their metamorphism took
+place. Furthermore, the direction of glacial movement in this part of
+New England was almost precisely that of foliation, and scouring by
+ice merely accentuated the dominant north-south trend of the valleys
+and ridges. As a result, the smaller streams developed on the softer
+rocks are generally parallel to each other and to the strike of the
+rocks. These streams commonly bend around the ends of the hills but do
+not cross them. The narrowness of the belts of soft rock makes it easy
+for the drainage of the valleys to be gathered by a single lengthwise
+stream. The Still and its larger tributaries conform in this way to
+the structure.
+
+On the east side of the Still-Umpog every branch, except two rivulets
+1-1/4 miles south of Bethel, points in the normal direction, that is,
+to the north, or downstream as the river now flows (fig. 6). The
+largest eastern tributary, Beaver Brook, is in a preglacial valley now
+converted into a swamp the location and size of which are due entirely
+to a belt of limestone. It is not impossible that Beaver Brook may
+have once flowed southward toward Bethel, but the limestone at its
+mouth, which lies at least 60 feet lower than that at its head, shows
+that if such were ever the case it must have been before the
+north-flowing Still River had removed the limestone north of Beaver
+Brook Swamp.
+
+On the flanks of Beaver Brook Mountain are three tributaries which
+enter the river against its present course. Examination of the
+structure reveals, however, that these streams like those on the east
+side of the river are controlled in their direction by the orientation
+of the harder rock masses. The southward flowing stream four miles in
+length which drains the upland west of Beaver Brook Mountain has an
+abnormal direction in the upper part of its course, but on reaching
+the flood plain it takes a sharp turn to the north. Above the latter
+point it is in line with the streams near Beaver Brook Mountain and is
+abnormal in consequence of a line of weakness in the rock.
+
+The lowland lying west of Umpog valley, extending from Main Street in
+Danbury to a point one mile beyond Bethel, affords no definite
+evidence in regard to the direction of tributaries. In reconstructing
+the history of this valley the chief difficulty arises from the
+old-age condition of the flood plain. Drainage channels which must
+once have existed have been obliterated, leaving a swampy plain which
+from end to end varies less than 20 feet in elevation. It is likely
+that in preglacial times the part of the valley north of Grassy Plain,
+if not the entire valley, drained northward into Still River, as now
+do Umpog Creek and Beaver Brook. From this outlet heavy drift deposits
+near the river later cut it off. The lowland is now drained by a
+stream which enters the Umpog north of Grassy Plain. Several small
+streams tributary to the Umpog south of Bethel also furnish no
+evidence in favor of the reversal of Still River.
+
+West of Danbury the tributaries of Still River point upstream on one
+side and downstream on the other side of the valley, in conformity
+with the rock structure which is here diagonal to the limestone belt
+on which the river is located. Their direction in harmony with the
+trend of the rocks has, therefore, no significance in the earlier
+history of the river.
+
+From the foregoing discussion, it appears that no definite conclusions
+in regard to the history of Still River can be drawn from the angle at
+which tributaries enter it. The direction of the branches which enter
+at an abnormal angle can be explained without assuming a reversal of
+the main stream, and likewise many of the tributaries with normal
+trends seem to have adopted their courses without regard to the
+direction of Still River.
+
+
+3. REGIONAL SLOPE NOT IN ACCORD WITH COURSE OF THE STILL
+
+Although the regional slope of western Connecticut as a whole is
+contrary to that of Still River, there is no marked lowering of the
+hill summits between the source of the river and its mouth. As
+branches on the south side of the Housatonic are naturally to be
+expected, there is nothing unusual in the Still flowing in opposition
+to the regional slope, except that it flows toward the north instead
+of the northeast.
+
+
+4. EVIDENCE OF GLACIAL FILLING AND DEGRADING OF THE RIVER BED
+
+Hobbs has suggested that the waters of the Housatonic may have been
+ponded at a point near West Redding until they rose high enough to
+overflow into the "fault gorge" below Still River Station, thus giving
+the streams of the Danbury region an outlet to the Sound by this
+route. This hypothesis calls for a glacial dam which has not been
+found. It is true there are glacial deposits in the Umpog valley south
+of Bethel. The Umpog flows as it does, however, not because of a
+glacial "dam" but in spite of it. The river heads on rock beyond and
+above the glacial deposits and picks its way through them (fig. 7).
+Drift forms the divide at the western end of Still River valley beyond
+Mill Plain, but the ponded water which it caused did not extend as far
+as Danbury (see discussion of Still-Croton valley). The Sugar Hollow
+pass is also filled with a heavy mantle of drift, but the valley is
+both too high and too narrow at the col to have been the outlet of the
+Housatonic.
+
+It might be assumed that just previous to the advent of the ice sheet
+Still River headed south of its present mouth and flowed southward. In
+this case the Still, when reversed, should have overflowed at the
+lowest point on the divide between it and the Housatonic. It should
+have deepened its channel over the former divide, and the result would
+have been a gorge if the divide were high, or at least some evidence
+of river cutting even if the divide were low. On the contrary, Still
+River joins the Housatonic in a low, broad, and poorly drained plain.
+
+The existing relief is due to the uneven distribution of drift. The
+river is now cutting a gorge at Lanesville, but the appearance of the
+valley to the west indicates that glacial deposits forced the river
+out of its former bed (fig. 6) and that no barrier lay between the
+preglacial Still River valley and the Housatonic Valley.
+
+5. GLACIAL SCOURING
+
+A reversal of Still River may be explained by glacial scouring which
+caused the northern end of the valley to become lower than the present
+divides at West Redding and Mill Plain. The evidence of such scour
+should be an overdeepened, U-shaped main valley and ungraded
+tributaries.
+
+The northern part of Still River valley has not the typical U form
+which results from glacial erosion. As contrasted with the U-shaped
+glacial valley and the V-shaped valley of normal stream erosion, it
+might be called rectangular so sharply does the flat valley floor
+terminate against the steep hillsides. The floor is too smooth and
+flat and the tributary valleys too closely adjusted to the variant
+hardness of the rocks to be the work of such a rough instrument as the
+glacier. A level so nearly perfect as that of the flood plain is the
+natural result of erosion of soft rock down to a baselevel, whereas
+glacial scouring tends to produce a surface with low rounded hills and
+hollows.
+
+Overdeepening would be expected, because glaciers erode without
+reference to existing baselevels. That a river valley should be cut
+out by ice just enough to leave it graded with respect to the main
+valley would be an unusual coincidence. This is what is found where
+the Still River valley joins the Housatonic, and it indicates normal
+stream erosion. Also, if the limestone of the northern Still River
+valley were gouged out by the glacier, the action would in all
+probability have been continuous in the limestone belt to the north
+of the Housatonic, and where the belt of soft rock crosses the
+Housatonic the river bed would be overdeepened. Although the valley of
+the Housatonic near New Milford is very flat, as is natural where a
+river crosses a belt of weak rock, the outcrops are sufficiently
+numerous to show that it has not been overdeepened. The limestone area
+along the East Aspetuck is largely overlain by till, but here again
+the presence of rock in place shows that the valley has not been
+overdeepened. Moreover, limestone boulders in the southern part of
+Still River valley are not as abundant as they should be under the
+hypothesis that the northern part had been gouged out extensively.
+
+That the northern part of the Still River valley was not deeply
+carved by ice is shown also by the character of the tributary streams.
+The three small brooks on the west side of the valley, near Beaver
+Brook Mountain, were examined to see if their grades indicated an
+over-deepening of the main valley. These streams, however, and others
+so far as could be determined, were found to have normal profiles;
+that is, their grades become increasingly flatter toward their mouths.
+The streams are cutting through the till cover and are not building
+alluvial cones where they join the lowland. All their features, in
+fact, are characteristic of normal stream development.
+
+Throughout the length of the valley, rock outcrops are found near the
+surface, showing that the changes produced by the glacier were due to
+scouring rather than to the accumulation of glacial material. Except
+where stratified drift is collected locally in considerable quantity,
+the glacial mantle is thin. On the other hand, it has been shown that
+glacial gouging was not sufficient in amount to affect the course of
+the stream. The glacier simply cleaned off the soil and rotten rock
+from the surface, slackening the stream here and hastening it there,
+and by blocking the course with drift it forced the river at several
+places to depart slightly from its preglacial course.
+
+The evidence shows, therefore, that if Still River has suffered
+reversal, glaciation is not responsible for the change, and thus the
+first two hypotheses for explaining the history of the valley are
+eliminated. There remain for discussion the third and fourth
+hypotheses; the former being that reversal was effected in a very
+early stage in the development of the drainage, the latter that no
+reversal has occurred. The choice between these two hypotheses rests
+on evidence obtained in the Umpog, Croton, and other valleys of the
+Danbury region. This evidence is presented in the three following
+sections, after which the former courses of Still River will be
+discussed.
+
+
+THE STILL-SAUGATUCK DIVIDE
+
+FEATURES OF THE UMPOG VALLEY
+
+The valley of the Umpog, which extends from Still River to the source
+of the Saugatuck near West Redding (fig. 7), is a critical area in the
+study of the Still River system. It is possible that this valley once
+afforded an outlet for Still River, and it has been suggested that the
+Housatonic formerly followed this route to Long Island Sound. The
+relation of this valley to the former drainage system of the Danbury
+region demands, therefore, a careful examination of the features of
+the valleys occupied by Umpog Creek and the upper waters of the
+Saugatuck, and of the divide between those streams.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 7.~ Map of Umpog Swamp and vicinity.]
+
+
+North of Bethel the Umpog occupies an open valley developed in
+limestone. Knolls of limestone rise to heights of about 40 feet above
+the floor of the valley and their upper surfaces are cut across the
+highly, tilted beds. This truncation, together with a general
+correspondence in height, suggests that these knolls, as well as the
+rock terraces found between Bethel and West Redding, and the limestone
+ridge which forms the divide itself, are portions of what was once a
+more continuous terrace produced by stream erosion and that they
+determine a former river level. The absence of accurate elevations and
+the probability of glacial scour make conclusions regarding the
+direction of slope of this dissected rock terrace somewhat uncertain.
+As will be indicated later, however, it seems likely that these
+terrace remnants mark the course of a southward flowing river that
+existed in a very early stage in the development of the drainage.
+
+South of Bethel the old Umpog valley, has lost from one-third to
+one-half its width through deposits of stratified drift (Pl. II, A and
+B). On the west, gravel beds lie against rock and till; on the east,
+deposits of sand and coarse gravel form a bench or terrace from 500 to
+700 feet broad, which after following the side of the valley for
+one-half mile, crosses it diagonally and joins the western slope as a
+row of rounded hills. Through this drift the present stream has cut a
+narrow channel.
+
+The narrowest part of the Umpog valley is about one mile south of
+Bethel. Farther upstream the valley expands into the flat occupied by
+Umpog Swamp, which presents several interesting features. The eastern,
+southern, and western sides of the swamp are formed of irregular
+masses of limestone and granite-gneiss 20 to 60 feet high. Near the
+northwestern edge of the swamp is a terrace-like surface cut on
+limestone. Its elevation is about the same as that of the beveled rock
+remnants lying in Umpog valley north of Bethel.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey. Bull. 30. Plate II.~
+   A. View up the valley of Umpog Creek. The valley dwindles in the
+      distance to the "railroad divide." In the middle distance is
+      Umpog Swamp; in the foreground the edge of the southern end of
+      row of Kames which points down the valley.
+
+   B. View down the valley of Umpog Creek. To the left is the edge of
+      limestone terrace; in the middle distance is the Catholic
+      cemetery situated on a terrace of stratified drift; on the right
+      are mounds of stratified drift; in the distance is the granite
+      ridge bounding the valley on the east.]
+
+
+[Illustration:
+~Fig. 8.~ Profiles of rivers.
+          A. Profile of present Still River and buried channel of
+	       Umpog-Still River.
+          B. Profile of preglacial Croton-Still River.
+          C. Profile of preglacial Umpog-Still River.
+          Solid lines show the present levels.
+          Dotted lines show preglacial levels.]
+
+Umpog Swamp was formerly a lake but is now nearly filled with organic
+matter so that only a small remnant of the old water body remains.
+Soundings have revealed no bottom at 43 feet[10] and the depth to rock
+bottom is not less than 45 feet. The swamp situated one-half mile
+southwest of Bethel has a depth to rock of 35 feet. In their relation
+to the Still River system these two swamps may be regarded simply as
+extensions of the Umpog Creek channel, but when the elevations of
+their bottoms are compared with that of points to the north and south,
+where the river flows on rock, it will be seen that a profile results
+which is entirely out of harmony with the present profile of the
+river. Thus Umpog Creek falls 40 feet at the point where it spills
+over the rock ledge into the swamp, and if the 45 feet which measures
+the depth of Umpog Swamp be added, the difference in level is seen to
+be at least 85 feet. A similar calculation locates the bottom of the
+smaller swamp near Bethel at an elevation of 340 feet above sea-level
+or on the same level as the bottom of Umpog Swamp. In a straight line
+2-1/4 miles north of Bethel, Still River crosses rock at a level of
+350 feet, or 10 feet higher than the bottom of Umpog Swamp. At
+Brookfield, 6-1/2 miles north of the mouth of the Umpog, the Still
+crosses rock at 260 feet, and 4-1/2 miles farther north, it joins the
+Housatonic on a rock floor 200 feet above sea-level (fig. 8, A). Such
+a profile can be explained in either of two ways: glaciers gouged out
+rock basins in the weak limestone, or the river in its lower part has
+been forced out of its graded bed onto rock at a higher level.
+Probably both causes have operated, but the latter has produced more
+marked effects.
+
+Umpog Creek has its source in a small forked stream which rises in the
+granite hills east of the south end of Umpog Swamp. After passing
+westward through a flat swampy area, where it is joined by the waters
+from Todd Pond, the stream turns north and follows a shallow rock
+gorge until Umpog Swamp is reached. The divide which separates the
+present headwaters of the Umpog from those of the Saugatuck is a
+till-covered swampy flat about one-quarter mile east of Todd Pond.
+This arrangement of tributary streams is correctly shown in fig. 7 and
+differs essentially from that shown on the Danbury atlas sheet. This
+divide owes its position to the effects of glaciation. Deposits of
+till and the scouring of the bed rock so modified the preglacial
+surface that the upper part of the Saugatuck was cut off and made
+tributary to the Umpog.
+
+[Footnote 10: Report by T. T. Giffen, 1907.]
+
+
+
+THE PREGLACIAL DIVIDE
+
+In order to determine whether Still River flowed southward through the
+Saugatuck Valley just before the advent of the ice sheet, the borders
+of Umpog Swamp and the region to the south and east were examined. It
+was found that Umpog Swamp is walled in on the south by ledges of firm
+crystalline limestone and that the rock-floored ravine leading
+southward from the swamp, and occupied by the railroad, lies at too
+high an elevation to have been the channel of a through-flowing
+stream. A south-flowing Still River, and much less an ancient
+Housatonic, could not have had its course through this ravine just
+previous to glaciation. A course for these rivers through the short
+valley which extends southeastward from Umpog Swamp is also ruled out,
+because the bedrock floor of this hypothetical passageway is 20 feet
+higher than the floor of the ravine through which the railroad passes.
+
+The eastern border of Umpog Swamp is determined by a ridge of
+limestone which separates the swamp from lowlying land beyond. This
+ridge is continuous, except for the postglacial gorge cut by the
+tributary entering from the east, and must have been in existence in
+preglacial times. The entire lowland east of this limestone ridge
+possesses a unity that is not in harmony with the present division of
+the drainage. The streams from this hillside and those from the west
+may have joined in the flat-floored valley at the head of the
+Saugatuck and from there flowed into the Saugatuck system. The former
+divide then lay in a line connecting the limestone rim of the swamp
+with the tongue of highland which the highway crosses south of Todd
+Pond (fig. 7).
+
+
+THE STILL-CROTON DIVIDE
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+The deep valley extending from the Danbury Fair Grounds to the East
+Branch Reservoir in the Croton River system, has given rise to the
+suggestion that the course of the Housatonic formerly may have been
+along the line of Still and Croton rivers and thence to the
+Hudson.[11] From the evidence of the topographic map alone, this
+hypothesis appears improbable. The trend of the larger streams in
+western Connecticut is to the south and southeast; a southwesterly
+course, therefore, would be out of harmony with the prevailing
+direction of drainage. Also, the distance from the present mouth of
+Still River to tidewater by the Still-Croton route is longer than
+the present route by way of the Housatonic.
+
+[Footnote 11: Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull.
+   Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, p. 25, 1901.]
+
+
+
+FEATURES OF STILL RIVER VALLEY WEST OF DANBURY
+
+From Danbury to its source Still River occupies a valley whose
+features are significant in the history of the drainage. Between
+Danbury and the Fair Grounds (fig. 1) the valley is a V-shaped ravine
+1-1/2 miles long, well proportioned to the small stream now occupying
+it but entirely too narrow for the channel of a large river. Along the
+valley are outcrops of schist, and granite rock is present on both
+sides of the valley for a distance of about one-quarter mile. Part of
+the valley is a mere cleft cut in the rock and is unglaciated. At the
+Danbury Fair Grounds the valley opens out into a marshy plain, through
+which the river meanders and receives two tributaries from the south.
+The plain, which extends beyond Lake Kanosha on the west, has a
+generally level surface but is diversified in places by mounds of
+stratified drift.
+
+Near the railroad a rock outcrop was found which gives a clue to the
+nature of the broad lowland. The rock consists mainly of schist, but
+on the side next the valley there is a facing of rotten limestone.
+This plain, like all the others in this region, is a local peneplain
+developed on soluble limestone. A better example could not be found to
+prove the fallacy of the saying that "a broad valley proves the
+existence of a large river." The plain is simply a local expansion of
+a valley which on each side is much narrower. No other river than the
+one flowing through it can have been responsible for the erosion, for
+the plain is enclosed by hills of gneiss and schist (Pl. III).
+
+At Mill Plain the valley is crowded by ragged rock outcrops which jut
+into the lowland. Here the river occupies a ravine cut in till near
+the north side of the valley. West of Mill Plain station the valley is
+encumbered with ridges of stratified drift, interspersed with heavy
+accumulations of till. Near Andrew Pond the true width of the
+valley--one-eighth mile--is shown by rock outcrops on both the north
+and south slopes. The valley at this point gives no indication of
+narrowing toward the headwaters; in fact, it becomes broader toward
+the west.
+
+Between Andrew Pond and Haines' Pond is the divide which separates the
+waters of the Still system from those of the Croton. It consists of a
+jumbled mass of morainal hills, seemingly of boulder clay, that rise
+from 50 to 60 feet above the level of the ponds. The divide is thus
+merely a local obstruction in what was formerly a through drainage
+channel.
+
+
+THE STILL-CROTON VALLEY
+
+It is evident that before the advent of the glacier a stream must have
+flowed through the Still-Croton valley past the present divide in
+order to have excavated the rock valley there found. The Housatonic
+could not have flowed west through this valley if it was as narrow and
+shallow as is indicated by known rock outcrops; the river could have
+flowed through it only in a deep narrow gorge which was later buried
+under drift, but the evidence at hand does not support this view.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate III.~
+   Limestone Plain southwest of Danbury, in which are situated the
+   Danbury Fair Grounds and Lake Kanosha.]
+
+
+
+It is most probable that this valley was made by the preglacial
+Croton River. This explanation demands no change in the direction of
+Still and Croton Rivers but calls for a divide at some point east of
+the present one. From a divide between the Fair Grounds and Danbury, a
+small stream may be supposed to have flowed toward the east, joining
+the larger northern branch of the Still at a point near the middle of
+the city of Danbury. The stream flowing westward from this divide
+formed the headwaters of one branch of the Croton system.
+
+The presence of till in a ravine can be used as a criterion for
+locating the site of a former divide, for where till is present in
+the bed of a stream the channel is of preglacial date. Where the river
+crosses a divide it should be cutting through rock, though till may be
+present on the valley slopes. Judged by this test, the old divide was
+situated either just east of the Fair Grounds plain or at the east end
+of the ravine described in the preceding topic. Of these two positions
+the one near the Fair Grounds seems the more likely (fig. 1), for at
+this place the river has excavated a recent channel with steep sides
+in gneissoid rock. The absence of the limestone at this point may be
+sufficient in itself to explain the location of the divide.
+
+Exact measurements of the drift in the upper Still valley are needed
+in order to establish this hypothesis completely and to plot the old
+channel, but the position of the rock floor of the former channel
+extending westward from the Fair Grounds may be fixed approximately.
+The rock at the assumed divide now stands at 420 feet above sea-level
+and it is reasonable to assume that ten feet has been removed by
+glacial scouring and postglacial erosion, making the original
+elevation 430 feet. The present divide between Andrew Pond and Haines'
+Pond has an elevation of 460, but the bedrock at this place is buried
+under 60 feet of drift, so that the valley floor lies at 400 feet.
+According to these estimates the stream which headed east of the Fair
+Grounds had a fall of 30 feet before reaching the site of the present
+Haines' Pond (fig. 8, B).
+
+
+GLACIAL LAKE KANOSHA
+
+When the Croton Branch was beheaded by drift choking up its valley
+west of Andrew Pond, the ponded waters rose to a height of from 20 to
+30 feet and then overflowed the basin on the side toward Danbury. The
+outlet was established across the old divide, and as the gorge by
+which the water escaped was cut down, the level of the ponded waters
+was lowered. At the same time, also, the lake was filled by debris
+washed into it from the surrounding slopes. Thus the present flat
+plain was formed and the old valley floor, a local peneplain developed
+on the limestone, was hidden.
+
+
+DIVIDES IN THE HIGHLANDS SOUTH OF DANBURY
+
+The mountain mass to the south and southwest of Danbury, including
+Town Hill and Spruce, Moses, and Thomas mountains, is traversed by a
+series of parallel gorges trending nearly north and south (fig. 2).
+About midway in each valley is a col, separating north and
+south-flowing streams. Two of the valleys, those between Spruce and
+Moses mountains, and Thomas Mountain and Town Hill, form fairly low
+and broad passes. They were examined to see whether either could have
+afforded a southerly outlet for Still River.
+
+The rock composing the mountains is granite-gneiss and schist with an
+average strike of N 30 deg. W, or very nearly in line with the trend of
+the valleys. The gneiss was found to be characteristic of the high
+ridges and schist to be more common in the valleys. No outcrops of
+limestone were found on the ridges, but at two or three localities
+limestone in place was found on low ground. From the facts observed
+it is evident that the stronger features of the relief are due to the
+presence of bodies of resistant rock, whereas the valleys are due to
+the presence of softer rock. The series of deep parallel valleys is
+attributed to the presence of limestone rather than schist.
+
+The gorge between Spruce and Moses mountains, locally called "Sugar
+Hollow," narrows southward as it rises to the col, and the rock floor
+is buried under till and stratified drift to depths of 25 to 50 feet.
+Nevertheless it is probable that the valley was no deeper in
+preglacial time than it is now. The plan of the valley with its broad
+mouth to the north favored glacial scour so that the ice widened and
+deepened the valley and gave it a U form. Scouring and filling are
+believed to have been about equal in amount, and the present height
+of the divide, about 470 feet, may be taken as the preglacial
+elevation. This is 70 feet higher than the rock floor of the divide at
+West Redding. The pass could not, therefore, have served as an outlet
+for Still River.
+
+The valley west of Town Hill is similar in form and origin to Sugar
+Hollow. The water parting occurs in a swamp, from each end of which a
+small brook flows. The height of the pass in this valley--590 feet--
+precludes its use as an ancient outlet for Still River. Likewise the
+valley east of Town Hill affords no evidence of occupation by a
+southward through-flowing stream.
+
+
+THE ANCIENT STILL RIVER
+
+The conclusion that the Still-Umpog was not reversed by a glacial dam
+does not preclude the possibility that this valley has been occupied
+by a south-flowing stream. It is probable that in an early stage in
+the development of the drainage, the streams of the Danbury region
+reached Long Island Sound by way of the Still-Umpog-Saugatuck valley.
+Along this route, as described under the heading "The Still-Saugatuck
+Divide," is a fairly broad continuous valley at a higher level than
+the beds of the present rivers. A south-flowing river, as shown in
+fig. 9, brings all the drainage between Danbury and the Housatonic
+into normal relations.
+
+This early relationship of the streams was disturbed by the reversal
+of the waters of the ancient Still in the natural development of a
+subsequent drainage. The Housatonic lowered the northern end of the
+limestone belt, in the region between New Milford and Stillriver
+village, faster than the smaller south-flowing stream was able to
+erode its bed. Eventually a small tributary of the Housatonic captured
+the headwaters of the south-flowing river, and by the time the latter
+had been reversed as far south as the present divide at Umpog Swamp,
+it is probable that the advantage gained by the more rapid erosion of
+the Housatonic was offset by the Saugatuck's shorter course to the
+sea. As a result the divide between Still and Saugatuck Rivers at
+Umpog Swamp had become practically stationary before the advent of the
+glacier.
+
+The complex history of Still River is not fully shown in the stream
+profile, for the latter is nearly normal, except in the rock basins in
+the valley of the Umpog. This is due to the fact that changes in the
+course of the Still, caused by the development of a subsequent
+drainage through differential erosion, were made so long ago that
+evidence of them has been largely destroyed.
+
+The foregoing conclusion practically eliminates hypothesis IV--that
+the Still developed from the beginning as a subsequent stream in the
+direction in which it now flows. This hypothesis holds good only for
+the short portion of the lower course of the present river, that is,
+the part representing the short tributary of the Housatonic which
+captured and reversed the original Still.
+
+
+DEPARTURES OF STILL RIVER FROM ITS PREGLACIAL CHANNEL
+
+Between Danbury and Beaver Brook Mountain the Still departs widely
+from its former channel, as shown in fig. 6. At the foot of Liberty
+Street in Danbury the river makes a sharp turn to the southeast, flows
+through a flat plain, and for some distance follows the limestone
+valley of the Umpog, meeting the latter stream in a swampy meadow. It
+then cuts across the western end of Shelter Rock in a gorge-like
+valley not over 200 feet wide. Outcrops of a gneissoid schist on the
+valley sides and rapids in the stream bear witness to the youthfulness
+of this portion of the river channel.
+
+An open valley which extends from the foot of Liberty Street in a
+northeasterly direction (the railroad follows it) marks the former
+course of Still River, but after the stream was forced out of this
+course and superimposed across the end of Shelter Rock by the
+accumulation of drift in the central and northern parts of the valley,
+it was unable to regain its old channel until near Beaver Brook
+Mountain. The deposits of drift not only have kept the Still confined
+to the eastern side of its valley but have forced a tributary from the
+west to flow along the edge of the valley for a mile before it joins
+its master stream.
+
+About a mile north of Brookfield Junction, Still River valley begins
+to narrow, and at Brookfield the river, here crowded to the extreme
+eastern side, is cutting a gorge through limestone. The preglacial
+course of the Still in the Brookfield region seems to have been near
+the center of the valley where it was joined by Long Brook and other
+short, direct streams draining the hillsides. The glacier, however,
+left a thick blanket of drift in the middle of the valley which turned
+the Still to the east over rock and forced Long Brook to flow for more
+than a mile along the extreme western side of the valley.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 9.~ Early stage of the Rocky-Still River,
+   antedating preglacial course shown in figure 4.]
+
+
+The broad valley through which the Still flows in the lower part of
+its course extends northward beyond it for over two miles, bordering
+the Housatonic River. At Lanesville near the mouth of the Still, the
+river has cut a gorge 30 feet deep and one-quarter mile long in the
+limestone. Upstream from this gorge the river meanders widely in a
+flat valley, whereas on the downstream side it has cut a deep channel
+in the drift in order to reach the level of the Housatonic. There is
+room in the drift-covered plain to the west for a buried channel of
+Still River which could join the Housatonic at any point between New
+Milford and Stillriver station. If the depth of the drift be taken at
+25 feet, there would seem to be no objection to the supposition that
+the Still initially joined its master stream opposite New Milford, as
+shown in fig 6. After the limestone had been worn down to approximate
+baselevel, the tendency of the Still would have been to seek an outlet
+farther south in order to shorten its course and reach a lower level
+on the Housatonic. This stage in the evolution of the river may not
+have been reached before the ice age, and it is thus possible that
+glacial deposits may have pushed the river to the extreme southern
+side of its valley, superimposed it over rock, and forced it to cut
+its way down to grade.
+
+
+SUGGESTED COURSES OF HOUSATONIC RIVER
+
+
+As possible former outlets for the Housatonic, Hobbs has suggested the
+Still-Umpog-Saugatuck valley or the Still-Croton valley (by way of the
+East Branch Reservoir)[12], whereas Crosby has suggested the Ten
+Mile-Swamp River-Muddy Brook-Croton River valley (by way of Webatuck,
+Wing's Station, and Pawling), or the Fall's Village-Limerock-Sharon-
+Webatuck Creek-Ten Mile valley.[13] The sketch map, fig. 10, indicates
+the courses just outlined and one other by way of the Norwalk. The
+latter is the route followed by the Danbury and Norwalk Division of the
+Housatonic Railroad. It is natural to assume that the Housatonic might
+have occupied anyone of these lines of valleys, particularly where they
+are developed on limestone and seem too broad for the streams now
+occupying them. Nevertheless, although each of these routes is on soft
+rock and some give shorter distances to the sea than the present course,
+it is highly improbable that the Housatonic ever occupied any of these
+valleys. For had the river once become located in a path of least
+resistance, such as is furnished by any of these suggested routes, it
+could not have been dislodged and forced to cut its way for 25 miles
+through a massive granitic formation, as it does between Still River
+and Derby, without great difficulty (Pl. IV, A).
+
+
+[Illustration: ~Fig. 10.~ Five suggested outlets of Housatonic River.]
+
+
+An inspection of the larger river systems of Connecticut shows that
+the streams composing them exhibit two main trends. Likewise, the
+courses, of the larger rivers themselves, whether trunk streams or
+tributaries, combine these two trends, one of which is
+northwest-southeast and the other nearly north-south.
+
+The north-south drainage lines are the result of geologic structure,
+and many broad, flat-floored valleys, often apparently out of
+proportion to the streams occupying them, have this direction. On the
+other hand, the northwest-southeast drainage lines across the strike
+of formations, coincide with the slope toward the sea of the uplifted
+peneplain whose dissected surface is represented by the crests of the
+uplands. The valleys of streams with this trend are generally narrow,
+and some are gorges where resistant rock masses are crossed. The
+northwest-southeast trends of master streams thus were determined
+initially by the slope of the peneplain, whereas the north-south
+trends represent later adjustments to structure.
+
+It is concluded, therefore, that the Housatonic between Bulls' Bridge
+and Derby (fig. 10), had its course determined by the slope of the
+uplifted peneplain and is antecedent in origin. The old headwaters
+extended northwest from the turn in the river near Bull's Bridge,
+whereas that part of the river above Bull's Bridge was initially a
+minor tributary. This tributary, because of its favorable situation,
+in time captured all the drainage of the extensive limestone belt to
+the north and then became part of the main stream. The lower
+Housatonic, therefore, has always maintained its ancient course
+diagonal to the strike of formations, and differential erosion, which
+reaches its maximum expression in limestone areas, is responsible for
+the impression that the Still River lowland and other valleys west of
+the Housatonic may once have been occupied by the latter stream.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey  Bull. 30. Plate IV.~
+   A. View down the Housatonic Valley from a point one-half mile
+      below Still River station. Pumpkin Hill, a ridge of resistant
+      schist and quartzite, stands on right. A small island lies in
+      the river.
+   B. Part of the morainal ridge north of Danbury. Till capped by
+      stratified drift one mile north of Shelter Rock.]
+
+
+[Footnote 12: Hobbs, W. H., Still rivers of western Connecticut: Bull.
+   Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 13, p. 25, 1901.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Crosby, W. O., Notes on the geology of the sites of the
+   proposed dams in the valleys of the Housatonic and Ten Mile rivers:
+   Tech. Quart., vol. 13, p. 120, 1900.]
+
+
+
+
+
+GLACIAL DEPOSITS
+
+
+BEAVER BROOK SWAMP
+
+A broad belt of limestone extends along the eastern side of the
+granite ridge of Shelter Rock and in preglacial time formed a
+broad-bottomed valley whose master stream had reached old age. When
+the glacier came it hampered the drainage by scooping out the rock
+bottom of the valley in places and by dropping deposits at the mouth
+of Beaver Brook valley, thus forming Beaver Brook Swamp or "The Flat,"
+as it is called (fig. 6).
+
+Among the deposits at the southern end of Beaver Brook Swamp is
+considerable stratified drift in the form of smoothly rounded hills or
+kames, which are situated both on the border of the valley and in the
+swamp. Till containing medium-sized boulders of granodiorite-gneiss
+occurs along the road which borders the east side of the densely
+wooded swamp.
+
+Along the northeastern border of the swamp is a flat-topped terrace of
+till, perhaps a lateral moraine, through which a small stream heading
+to the north has cut a V-shaped ravine. A lobe of fine till extends
+into the valley from the northeast and narrows the outlet.
+
+Between the railroad and highway, which cross the northern end of the
+swamp, is an irregular wooded eminence of rock, partly concealed by a
+veneer of drift. Between this knoll and Shelter Rock are heavy
+deposits of sand in the form of a short, broad terrace with lobes
+which point into the Still River valley. A similar terrace is found to
+the northwest on the opposite side of the valley.
+
+At the northern end of Shelter Rock along the blind road leading to
+the summit is a peninsula-like body of drift which contains huge
+granite boulders mixed here and there with pockets of sand and gravel.
+Stratified drift was found at the foot of the hill, and till overlying
+it higher up. The more usual arrangement is boulder clay overlain by
+modified drift, the first being laid down by the ice itself, the
+second being deposited by streams from the melting glacier in its
+retreat. Huge boulders, many ten feet or more in diameter, are strewn
+over the northern slope of Shelter Rock.
+
+
+DEPOSITS NORTHEAST OF DANBURY
+
+North of the railroad, opposite Shelter Rock (fig. 6), is a most
+interesting flat-topped ridge of drift which topographically is an
+extension of the higher rock mass to the northwest. In this drift mass
+are to be found in miniature a number of the forms characteristic of
+glacial topography. The broad-topped gravel ridge slopes sharply on
+the north into a flat-bottomed ravine which is evidently part of the
+Still River lowland. This portion of the valley has been shut off by
+drift deposits. The drainage has been so obstructed that the stream in
+the ravine turns northeast away from its natural outlet. In the valley
+of "X" brook (fig. 1) are terraces, esker-like lobes, and detached
+mounds of stratified drift resting on a foundation of till.
+
+Along the eastern border of the hill is to be seen the contact between
+two forms of glacial deposits (Pl. IV, B). A mass of stratified drift
+overlies a hummocky deposit of coarse till, but large boulders
+occurring here and there on top of the stratified drift show that the
+ice-laid and water-laid materials were not completely sorted. Boulders
+seem to have been dropping out of the ice at the same time that gravel
+was being deposited. Boulders of granite-gneiss eight feet or more in
+diameter, carried by the ice from the hills to the north and
+northeast, are strewn at the foot of the hill.
+
+
+DEPOSITS BETWEEN BEAVER BROOK MOUNTAIN AND MOUTH OF STILL RIVER
+
+About a mile beyond Beaver Brook Mountain, the railroad cuts through
+the edge of a hill 80 feet in height exposing a section consisting of
+distinctly stratified layers of fine white quartz sand, coarser
+yellowish sand, and small round pebbles. The quartz sand was used at
+one time in making glass. Farther east where the two tracks of the New
+York and New England railroads converge, a cut shows a section of at
+least 40 feet of boulder clay. Near the river, limestone boulders are
+common, indicating that the valley to the north was degraded to some
+extent by the glacier.
+
+
+[Illustration: ~State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 30. Plate V.~
+   A. Kames in Still River Valley west of Brookfield Junction.
+   B. Till ridges on the western border of Still River Valley, south
+      of Brookfield.]
+
+
+In the valley at Brookfield Junction and on its western side, are
+thick deposits of clean sand. One mile north of Brookfield Junction,
+along the western border of the valley, an esker follows an irregular
+course for several hundred yards approximately parallel to the river
+and terminates at its southern end in a group of kames (Pl. V, A and
+B). Opposite the point where these accumulations occur, is a
+terrace-like deposit of till. Between the gorge at Brookfield and the
+mouth of Still River, swampy areas, flat meadows, and small hills of
+drift occur.
+
+In comparison with the Still River lowland, the flat land east of
+Green Mountain may be called a plateau. The step between the two is
+made by an east-facing rocky slope, the outline of which has been
+softened by a lateral moraine separated from the plateau edge by a
+small ravine. On the lowland below the moraine is a group of kames.
+Near Lanesville (fig. 6), are thick deposits of water-laid material,
+including a hill of gravel near the river having a large bowl-shaped
+depression on one side formed by the melting of an ice block. Two and
+a half miles south of Lanesville on the west side of the lowland, a
+wooded esker extends for about one-quarter mile parallel to the valley
+axis and then merges into the rocky hillside.
+
+
+LAKES
+
+The lakes of this region are of two kinds: (1) those due to the
+damming of river valleys by glacial deposits and (2) rock basins
+gouged out by the ice.
+
+Among the lakes which owe their origin to drift accumulations in the
+valleys are Andrew and Haines' ponds at the head of Still River. These
+are properly parts of the Croton River system, but Andrew Pond has
+been held back by the deep filling of boulder clay in the valley. Lake
+Kanosha, in the same valley, is a shallow lake formed in the drift.
+The lake south of Spruce Mountain at the head of the Saugatuck seems
+to be enclosed by drift alone.
+
+Neversink Pond, Barses Pond, Creek Pond, and Leonard Pond are the
+remnants of larger water bodies now converted into swamps. Squantz
+Pond and Hatch Pond have dams of drift. Eureka Lake and East Lake
+appear to be rock basins whose levels have been raised somewhat by
+dams of till. Great Mountain Pond and Green's Pond, between Great
+Mountain and Green Mountain, are surrounded by rock and their level
+has been raised several feet by artificial dams. Great Mountain Pond
+is at least 50 feet above the level of Green Pond and separated from
+it by a rock ridge (fig. 2).
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE GLACIAL DEPOSITS
+
+A tongue of the glacier is supposed to have lain in the valley of the
+Umpog and gradually retreated northward after the ice had disappeared
+from the uplands on either side. The ridge of intermediate height
+built of limestone and schist, which extends down the middle of the
+valley, was probably covered by ice for some time after the glacier
+had left the highlands.
+
+When the mountain mass extending from Pine Mountain to Town Hill west
+of the Umpog Basin and the granite hills to the east terminating in
+Shelter Rock are considered in their relation to the movement of the
+ice, it is apparent that the valley of the Umpog must have been the
+most direct and lowest outlet for glacial streams south of Danbury.
+These streams built up the terraces and other deposits of stratified
+drift which occupy the valley between Bethel and West Redding.
+
+The heavy deposits of till near West Redding mark a halt in the
+retreating glacier. The boulders at this point are large and numerous,
+and kames and gravel ridges were formed. The deposits at the divide,
+supposed to have formed a glacial dam which reversed the Umpog,[14]
+are much less heavy than at points short distances north and south of
+the water parting.
+
+As the ice retreated, sand and gravel in the form of terraces
+accumulated along the margin of the Umpog valley, where the drainage
+was concentrated in the spaces left by the melting of the ice lobe
+from the hillside. Among these deposits are the bodies of sand and
+gravel which lie against the rocky hillslopes most of the way from the
+Umpog-Saugatuck divide to Bethel. North of Bethel, the drainage seems
+to have been gathered chiefly in streams flowing on each side of the
+low ridge occupying the center of the valley; consequently the gravel
+was deposited along the sides and southern end of the ridge and in the
+sag which cuts across its northern end. The row of kames at the north
+end of Umpog Swamp, several knolls of drift in Bethel, and the
+kame-like deposits and esker north of Grassy Plain were laid down
+successively as the ice retreated down the valley. During this period,
+the drainage was ponded between the ice front and the Umpog-Saugatuck
+divide.
+
+Uncovering the Still-Croton valley did not give the glacial drainage
+any lower outlet than the Umpog-Saugatuck divide afforded (fig. 8, B
+and C.)
+
+The heavy deposits of boulder clay forming the moraine which blocks
+the Rocky River valley indicate the next halting place of the glacier.
+In this period the ice margin formed an irregular northeast-southwest
+line about a mile north of Danbury. The country west and south of
+Danbury was thus uncovered, but the lower part of Still River valley
+was either covered by the ice sheet or occupied by an ice lobe. The
+drainage was, therefore, up the river valley, and being concentrated
+along the valley sides resulted in the accumulation of sand and gravel
+at the foot of rocky slopes. It is possible that an ice lobe extended
+down the old Rocky River valley, perhaps occupying much of the country
+between Beaver Brook Mountain and the high ridge west of the valley.
+The streams issuing from this part of the ice front would have laid
+down the eskers and kame gravels north of Danbury and the thick mantle
+of drift over which Still River flows through the city. As would be
+expected, this accumulation of material ponded all the north-flowing
+streams--Umpog Creek, Beaver Brook, and smaller nameless ones--and at
+the same time pushed Still River, at its mouth, to the southern side
+of its valley. Beaver Brook valley, Umpog valley, and all the Danbury
+basin must have been flooded during this period up to the height of
+the "railroad divide." Within the area covered by the city, the valley
+was filled up to at least 70 feet and probably much more than that
+above its former level. Flowing at this higher level, the river was
+thrown out of its course and here and there superimposed on hard
+rock--as, for example, at Shelter Rock.
+
+That part of the drainage coming down the valley opposite Beaver Brook
+met the drainage from Still River ice lobe in the valley north of
+Shelter Rock, and as a result heavy deposits of stratified drift were
+laid down. The peninsula-like mass of drift beyond the river north of
+Shelter Rock appears from its form to have been built up as the delta
+of southward and eastward-flowing streams; probably the drainage from
+the hilltops united with streams coming down the two valleys. The
+lobes of stratified drift extending from the ridge may have been built
+first, and later the connecting ridge of gravel which forms the top of
+the hill may have accumulated as additional material was washed in,
+tying together the ridges of gravel along their western ends. The
+mingling in this region of stratified drift of all grades of
+coarseness indicates the union in the same basin of debris gathered
+from several sources.
+
+Between Danbury and New Milford no moraine crosses either the Rocky or
+the Still valley, but the abundance of till which overspreads the
+whole country indicates a slowly retreating glacier well loaded with
+rock debris. The mounds of stratified drift scattered along the valley
+doubtless represent the deltas of streams issuing from the ice front.
+The waters of Rocky River were ponded until the outlet near Jerusalem
+was uncovered and the disappearance of ice from the ravine below
+allowed an escape to the Housatonic. Stratified drift is present in
+greatest amount along the valleys of Still River and the west fork of
+Rocky River, indicating that these were the two chief lines of
+drainage. The uplands are practically without stratified drift.
+
+Along the valley of the Housatonic, glacial material is chiefly in the
+form of gravel terraces; they extend from Gaylordsville to New
+Milford, in some places on one side only, in others on both sides of
+the river. Part of these gravel benches are kame terraces, as shown by
+their rolling tops and the ravine which separates the terrace from the
+hillside; others may have been made by the river cutting through the
+mantle of drift which was laid down in the period of land depression
+at the time of glacial retreat,[15] or they may be a combination of the
+two forms. In many places by swinging in its flood plain, the river
+has cut into the terraces and left steep bluffs of gravel. The valley
+of Womenshenuck Brook above Merwinsville contains heavy deposits of
+stratified drift, indicating that this broad valley which extends from
+Kent on the Housatonic to Merwinsville was an important channel for
+the water which flowed from the melting ice.
+
+
+[Footnote 14: Rice, W. N. and Gregory, H. E., Manual of the Geology of
+   Connecticut: Conn. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, pp. 34-35,
+   1906.]
+
+
+[Footnote 15: Hobbs, W. H., op. cit.]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+With the following exceptions, the text presented here is that
+obtained through scanned images from an original copy of the
+manuscript.
+
+Possible Typographic Errors Corrected
+     occuying => occupying
+     PLATE II A. "of" repeated
+
+Emphasis Notation:
+     _text_ - italicized
+     =text= - bold
+     ~text~ - small caps
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Drainage Modifications and Glaciation
+in the Danbury Region Connecticut, by Ruth Sawyer-Harvey
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