initial commit of ebook 33029HEADmain

1 files changed, 7538 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/33029.txt b/33029.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9564679
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7538 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Ducks and Geese, by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ducks and Geese
+
+Author: Harry M. Lamon
+        Rob R. Slocum
+
+Release Date: June 30, 2010 [EBook #33029]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND GEESE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner, La Monte
+H.P. Yarroll and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture
+(CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+This Plain Text version uses the Latin-1 character set.
+
+The figure captions have been retained in the same order of appearance
+as the plates in the original, but moved to follow the section which
+each illustrates.
+
+Minor inconsistencies in spelling have been retained as in the original.
+Where typographical errors have been corrected and missing references
+added, these are listed at the end of this book.
+
+Bold and small capital typeface in the original is represented in the
+Plain Text version by UPPER CASE. Italic typeface in the original is
+indicated in the Plain Text version by _underscores_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece._ General view of water yards and ducklings
+on a large Long Island duck farm. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+
+
+                      DUCKS AND GEESE
+
+                            BY
+
+                      HARRY M. LAMON
+
+SENIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES
+                DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+                           AND
+
+                      ROB R. SLOCUM
+
+    POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES
+                DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+                      _Authors of
+          "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry"
+                  and "Turkey Raising"_
+
+                      ILLUSTRATED
+
+                        NEW YORK
+              ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+                         LONDON
+        KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUeBNER & CO., LIMITED
+
+                          1922
+
+                  COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY
+            ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY
+                 _All Rights Reserved_
+
+                  PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Of all lines of poultry keeping, duck raising is unique in that it lends
+itself to the greatest degree of specialization and intensification
+along lines which are purely commercial. On a comparatively small area
+thousands of ducklings can be reared and marketed yearly. The call for
+information concerning the methods used by these commercial duck raisers
+has been considerable, and since such information is not available in
+complete concise form the present book has been prepared partly to
+furnish just this information.
+
+The methods used by successful Long Island duck raisers differ widely in
+some particulars and since in the space at command, it has been
+impossible to describe all the methods used, the plan has been adopted
+of detailing in the main the methods of one successful grower. This it
+is believed will prove to be more helpful and less confusing than to
+attempt to give the method of several different men.
+
+Much space has been given to the operations of the commercial duck
+raisers but the fact is recognized that the great bulk of the ducks
+entering into the trade of the country is the product of small flocks
+kept on general farms. For this reason a chapter has been added dealing
+with duck raising on the farm, and attention is here called to the fact
+that most of the information given under commercial duck raising can be
+readily adapted to use in connection with the farm flock.
+
+Detailed, complete information on goose raising is even more fragmentary
+than is the case with ducks. Yet there is a fine opportunity to rear a
+few geese at a profit on many farms, and the need and call for
+information is quite general. It is for this reason that a section of
+this book has been devoted to goose raising and in that section all the
+good reliable information available on the subject is given. The special
+attention of the women of the farm is directed to the opportunity which
+goose raising offers to make a good profit on a small side line with the
+minimum of initial investment and of labor.
+
+The greatest care has been taken to make the information on both duck
+and goose raising as complete and clear as possible. However, the
+authors appreciate the unlimited value of good illustrations in making
+clear methods and operations which are more difficult to grasp from a
+word description, and have therefore assembled a set of illustrations
+for this book, the completeness and excellence of which have never
+before been approached in any book on the subject. The illustrations
+alone are an education.
+
+In preparing and presenting this book to the public, the authors take
+pleasure in acknowledging their deep indebtedness to the following
+persons for help and information furnished:
+
+Roy E. Pardee
+John C. Kriner
+Charles McClave
+Stanley Mason
+Dr. Balliet
+William Minnich
+George W. Hackett
+Dawson Brothers
+
+Particular acknowledgment is due Robert A. Tuttle for the manner in
+which he threw open his duck plant to the authors and for the most
+generous amount of time which he gave in furnishing information.
+
+Special acknowledgment is likewise due Alfred R. Lee, Poultryman, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture, for information secured from his Farmers'
+Bulletins on duck raising and goose raising.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+Preface
+
+List of Illustrations.
+
+
+PART I--DUCKS
+
+Chapter.                                                         Page.
+
+I.    Extent of the Industry--Opportunities                          3
+
+        Present Extent of the Industry--Different Types of Duck
+        Raising--Opportunities for Duck Raising--Prices for
+        Breeding Stock--Ducks for Ornamental Purposes.
+
+II.   Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+      Specimens--Preparing Ducks for the Show--Catching and
+      Handling                                                       9
+
+        Breeds of Ducks--Classification of Breeds--Marking the
+        Ducks--Nomenclature--Distinguishing the
+        Sex--Size--Popularity of Breeds--Egg Production--Size of
+        Duck Eggs--Color of Eggs--Broodiness--General
+        Considerations in Making the Mating--Making the
+        Mating--The Pekin--The Aylesbury--The Rouen--The
+        Cayuga--The Call--The Gray Call--The White Call--The
+        Black East India--The Muscovy--The Colored Muscovy--The
+        White Muscovy--The Blue Swedish--The Crested White--The
+        Buff--The Runner--The Fawn and White Runner--The White
+        Runner--The Penciled Runner--Preparing Ducks for the
+        Show--Catching and Handling Ducks--Packing and Shipping
+        Hatching Eggs.
+
+III.  Commercial Duck Farming--Location--Estimate of Equipment
+      and Capital Necessary in Starting the Business                42
+
+        Distribution--Stock Used--Location of Plant--Making a
+        Start in Duck Farming--Equipment, Capital, etc.
+        Required--Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant--Land
+        Required--Number of Breeders required--Housing Required
+        for Breeders--Incubator Capacity--Brooder
+        Capacity--Fattening Houses or Sheds--Feed
+        Storage--Killing and Picking House--Resident--Horse
+        Power--Feeding Track--Electric Lights--Water
+        Supply--Fences--Labor--Invested Capital--Working
+        Capital--Profits.
+
+IV.   Commercial Duck Farming--Management of the Breeding Stock     55
+
+        Age of Breeders--Distinguishing Young from Old
+        Ducks--Selection of Breeding Ducks--Number of Females to
+        a Drake--Securing Breeding Drakes--Houses and Yards for
+        Breeders--Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding
+        Houses--Cleaning the Breeding Yards--Water Yards for
+        Breeders--Feeding the Breeders--Egg Production--Time of
+        Marketing Breeders--Disease--Insect Pests--Dogs.
+
+V.    Commercial Duck Farming--Incubation                           70
+
+        Kinds of incubators used--Incubator Cellar--Incubator
+        Capacity Required--Age of Hatching Eggs--Care of
+        Hatching Eggs--Selecting the Eggs for
+        Hatching--Temperature--Position of
+        Thermometer--Testing--Turning the Eggs--Cooling the
+        Eggs--Moisture--Fertility--Hatching--Selling Baby Ducks.
+
+VI.   Commercial Duck Farming--Brooding and Rearing the
+      Young Stock                                                   80
+
+        Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder
+        House--Brooder Houses Required--Brooder House No.
+        1--Construction of House--Heating
+        Apparatus--Pens--Equipment of the Pens--Grading and
+        Sorting the Ducklings--Cleaning and Bedding the
+        Pens--Ventilation--Other Types of Brooder Houses--Length
+        of Time in Brooder House No. 1--Brooder House No.
+        2--Brooder House No. 3--Yard Accommodations for
+        Ducklings--Shade--Feeding--Lights for Ducklings--Pounds
+        of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck--Water for
+        Young Ducks--Age and Weight when Ready for
+        Market--Cripples--Cleaning the Yards--Critical Period
+        with Young Ducks--Disease Prevention--Gapes or
+        Pneumonia--Fits--Diarrhoea--Lameness--Sore Eyes--Feather
+        Eating or Quilling--Rats--Cooperative Feed Association.
+
+VII.  Commercial Duck Farming--Marketing                           102
+
+        Proper Age to Market--Weights at Time of Marketing--The
+        Last Feed for Market Ducks--Sorting Market
+        Ducklings--Killing--Scalding--Picking--Dry
+        Picking--Cooling--Packing--Shipping--Cooperative
+        Marketing Association--Prices for Ducks--Shipping Ducks
+        Alive--Saving the Feathers--Prices and Uses of Duck
+        Feathers--Marketing Eggs.
+
+VIII. Duck Raising, on the Farm                                    120
+
+        Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising--Size of
+        Flock--Making a Start--Selecting the Breed--Age of
+        Breeding Stock--Size of Matings--Breeding and Laying
+        Season--Management of
+        Breeders--Housing--Feeding--Water--Yards--Care of Eggs
+        for Hatching--Hatching the Eggs--Brooding and
+        Rearing--Feeding the Ducklings--Water for
+        Ducklings--Distinguishing the Sexes--Marketing the
+        Ducks--Diseases and Insect Pests.
+
+
+PART II--GEESE
+
+IX.   Extent of the Industry--Opportunities                        141
+
+        Nature of the Industry--Opportunities for Goose
+        Raising--Goose Raising as a Business for Farm
+        Women--Geese as Weed Destroyers--Objections to Geese.
+
+X.    Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+      Specimens--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and
+      Handling                                                     147
+
+        Breeds of Geese--Nomenclature--Size--Popularity of the
+        Breeds--Egg Production--Size of Goose Eggs--Color of
+        Goose Eggs--Broodiness--Size of Mating--Age of
+        Breeders--Marking Young Geese--General Considerations in
+        Making the Mating--Making the Mating--The Toulouse--The
+        Embden--The African--The Chinese--The Brown Chinese--The
+        White Chinese--The Wild or Canadian--The
+        Egyptian--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and
+        Handling Geese--Packing and Shipping Hatching
+        Eggs--Prices for Breeding Stock.
+
+XI.   Management of Breeding Geese                                 164
+
+        Range for Breeders--Number of Geese to the Acre--Water
+        for Breeding Geese--Distinguishing the Sex--Purchase of
+        Breeding Stock--Time of Laying--Housing--Yards--Feeding
+        the Breeding Geese.
+
+XII.  Incubation                                                   172
+
+        Care of Eggs for Hatching--Methods of Incubation--Period
+        of Incubation--Hatching with Chicken Hens--Hatching with
+        Geese--Breaking Up Broody Geese--Hatching with an
+        Incubator--Moisture for Hatching Eggs--Hatching.
+
+XIII. Brooding and Rearing Goslings                                178
+
+        Methods of Brooding--Brooding with Hens or Geese--Length
+        of Time Brooding is Necessary--Artificial
+        Brooding--General Care of Growing Goslings--Feeding the
+        Goslings--Percentage of Goslings Raised--Rapidity of
+        Growth--Diseases.
+
+XIV.  Fattening and Marketing Geese                                187
+
+        Classes of Geese Marketed--Markets and Prices--Prejudice
+        Against Roast Goose--Methods of Fattening Geese for
+        Market--Pen Fattening--Noodling Geese--Methods Used on
+        Fattening Farms--Selling Geese
+        Alive--Killing--Picking--Packing for Shipment--Saving the
+        Feathers--Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers.
+
+Index                                                              215
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    Frontispiece. Water Yards and Ducklings.
+
+ 1. Mule Ducks and Blue Swedish Ducks                               10
+
+ 2. Mallard Ducks                                                   11
+
+ 3. Goose, Duck and Hen Eggs                                        18
+
+ 4. Young Pekins for Breeders and Aylesbury Drake                   19
+
+ 5. Rouen Drake and Black East India Ducks                          24
+
+ 6. Rouen Drake in Summer Plumage and Rouen Duck                    25
+
+ 7. Cayuga Ducks                                                    26
+
+ 8. Gray Call Ducks                                                 27
+
+ 9. White Call Ducks                                                28
+
+10. Colored Muscovy Drake and White Muscovy Drake                   29
+
+11. Crested White Drake and Young White Muscovy
+      Showing Black on Head                                         32
+
+12. Wing of Blue Swedish Duck                                       33
+
+13. Pair of Buff Ducks                                              36
+
+14. Penciled Runner Drake and White Runner Drake                    37
+
+15. Methods of Carrying Ducks                                       40
+
+16. Power Feed Mixer                                                41
+
+17. Duck Houses                                                     58
+
+18. House for Breeding Ducks                                        59
+
+19. Another Type of Breeding House                                  62
+
+20. Feeding the Breeders                                            63
+
+21. Interior of Breeding House                                      74
+
+22. Incubator Cellar                                                75
+
+23. Interior of No. 1 Brooder House                                 82
+
+24. Watering Arrangement in Brooder Pens                            83
+
+25. Another Type of No. 1 Brooder House                             86
+
+26. Brooder House No. 2                                             87
+
+27. Brooder House No. 3                                             88
+
+28. Long Brooder House and Yards                                    89
+
+29. Pekin Ducklings 3 Days and 2 Weeks Old                          90
+
+30. Pekin Ducklings 3 Weeks and 6 Weeks Old                         91
+
+31. Interior of Cold Brooder House                                  92
+
+32. Yard Ducks                                                      93
+
+33. Duck Sheds                                                      94
+
+34. Feeding and Watering Arrangements                               95
+
+35. Green Feed for Ducks                                            96
+
+36. Feeding from Track                                              97
+
+37. Yard Ducks at Rest                                              98
+
+38. Artificial Water Yards                                          99
+
+39. Catching Pens for Fattening Ducklings                          104
+
+40. Carrying Ducklings to Slaughter                                105
+
+41. Hanging Ducklings and Cutting Throat Veins                     106
+
+42. Bleeding Ducklings                                             107
+
+43. Washing Heads                                                  108
+
+44. Ducklings Ready for the Pickers                                109
+
+45. Scalding                                                       110
+
+46. Picking Ducks                                                  111
+
+47. Dressed Duckling                                               112
+
+48. Weighing Out Ducklings for Packing                             113
+
+49. Curing Duck Feathers                                           148
+
+50. Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose                           149
+
+51. Toulouse and Embden Ganders                                    154
+
+52. Canadian and African Ganders                                   155
+
+53. Brown and White Chinese Ganders                                158
+
+54. Methods of Handling Geese                                      159
+
+55. Geese Fattening in an Orchard                                  198
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DUCKS
+
+PART I
+
+
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+Present Extent of the Industry
+
+
+Duck raising while representing an industry of considerable value to the
+United States when considered from a national standpoint, is one of the
+minor branches of the poultry industry. According to the 1920 census
+there were 2,817,624 ducks in the United States with a valuation of
+$3,373,966. As compared with this the census for 1910 shows a slightly
+greater number of ducks, 2,906,525, but their value was considerably
+less being only $1,567,164. In the ten years between the census of 1900
+and that of 1910 there was a decrease in the number of ducks of nearly
+40%.
+
+According to the 1920 census the more important duck raising states
+arranged in their order of importance were Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania,
+New York, Missouri, Minnesota, Tennessee, Ohio, South Dakota, Indiana,
+Nebraska and Kentucky. The number reported for Iowa was 235,249 and for
+Kentucky 99,577. New England, the North Atlantic, the East North
+Central, the West North Central, the Mountain and the Pacific states
+showed an increase, while the South Atlantic, East South Central and
+West South Central states showed a decrease. In spite of the existence
+of quite a number of large commercial duck farms, the great bulk of
+ducks produced are those which come from the general farms where only
+small flocks are kept. Yet only a small proportion of farms have ducks
+on them. The comparatively small number of ducks is distributed over
+practically the entire United States, being more common in some sections
+than others, particularly along the Atlantic Coast and along the Pacific
+Coast, with fairly numerous flocks on the farms of the Middle West.
+
+_Different Types of Duck Raising._ The conditions under which ducks are
+kept and the purpose for which they are kept fall under four heads:
+First, commercial duck raising for the production of duck meat; second,
+duck raising as a by-product of the general farm; third, duck raising
+for egg production; fourth, duck breeding for pleasure, exhibition or
+the sale of breeding stock.
+
+_Opportunities for Duck Raising._ Undoubtedly the greatest opportunity
+for profitable duck growing lies under the first of these heads, namely,
+commercial duck raising. Where the conditions of climate, soil and land
+are favorable and where the location is good with respect to market
+there exists an excellent opportunity for one skilled in duck growing to
+engage in that business in an intensive manner for the purpose of
+putting on the market spring or green ducklings. Where these are in
+demand they bring a good price and since the output per farm is large
+they pay a good return even with a small margin of profit per pound.
+
+The second greatest opportunity undoubtedly consists of duck raising as
+a by-product of the general farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is
+to say, where there is a considerable amount of pasture land easily
+accessible, and particularly where there is a stream or pond to which
+the ducks can have access, a small flock of ducks, say 10 or 12 females,
+can be kept to excellent advantage on the farm. The cost of maintaining
+them will not be great and they will not only provide a most acceptable
+variety in the form of duck meat and duck eggs for the farmers' table
+but they will also produce a surplus which can be sold at a profit. It
+must be remembered, however, that where only a small flock is kept it is
+generally impracticable for the farmer to give his ducks the attention
+necessary to cater to the market for green ducklings. As a result he
+usually keeps them until fall and sells them on the market at a
+considerably lower price than is obtained by the commercial duck grower.
+
+There also exists an opportunity which has not been developed to any
+great extent to keep some one of the egg producing breeds of ducks such
+as the Indian Runner for the primary purpose of egg production. A few
+ventures of this sort seem to have been successful but it must be
+remembered that the market for duck eggs is not nearly so broad as that
+for hens' eggs and that in some quarters there exists considerable
+prejudice against duck eggs for table consumption. Before engaging in
+duck raising primarily for the production of market eggs it would
+therefore be necessary to investigate and consider carefully the market
+conditions in the neighborhood so as to know whether the eggs could be
+marketed to advantage. While the Runner ducks are prolific layers there
+is no advantage in keeping them in preference to fowls as egg producers.
+The eggs are larger in size but it takes more feed to produce them,
+while they cannot as a rule be disposed of at much if any higher price
+than can be secured for hens' eggs. For baking purposes duck eggs can be
+readily sold on account of their larger size.
+
+There is always an opportunity to produce fine stock of any kind,
+whether it be ducks, chickens, turkeys or geese. Ducks are not exhibited
+to the same extent as are chickens and the competition in the shows is
+not as a rule so keen. Nevertheless many persons are interested in
+producing and exhibiting good stock and there exists a very definite
+market for birds of quality.
+
+There is also a probability that a good business could be worked up by
+one who would pay special attention to producing a strain of ducks of
+early maturity, large size and good vigor in order to supply breeding
+drakes to many of the commercial duck farms. These farms usually secure
+drakes for breeding from sources outside their own flocks each year but
+the usual practice is to exchange drakes with some other commercial
+grower. While very good birds are to be found on these duck farms there
+is no greater opportunity to engage in any systematic breeding, the
+selection of the breeding stock being of rather a hurried nature during
+certain seasons of the year when the ducks are being marketed. Moreover,
+the long continued custom of exchanging drakes with the neighboring
+farmers has in most cases led to the blood being so largely confined
+within one circle that no great percentage of new blood is obtained by
+these exchanges. Of course, the opportunity along breeding lines for
+this purpose is limited to the Pekin duck as this is the breed which is
+kept upon all the large commercial duck farms in the United States.
+
+_Prices for Breeding Stock._ Duck breeders who make a specialty of
+selling breeding stock or eggs for hatching find a steady and quite a
+wide demand for their stock. The eggs are usually sold in sittings of 11
+and bring a price of from $3 to $5 per sitting depending on the quality
+of the stock. The prices received for the birds themselves depend of
+course upon their quality and may run anywhere from about $5 to $25 per
+bird.
+
+_Ducks for Ornamental Purposes._ On estates or in parks where natural or
+artificial ponds are included in the grounds, waterfowl are often kept
+for ornamental purposes. Any breeds may be used, and often the gay
+colored Wood Duck and Mandarin, or some one of the small breeds such as
+the Calls, Black East Indian or the Mallards are kept for this purpose.
+It is said that these small ducks will absolutely destroy the mosquito
+larvae in any such ponds or lakes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+Specimens--Preparing Ducks for the Show--Catching and Handling
+
+
+_Breeds of Ducks._ There are 11 standard breeds of ducks. All of these
+breeds with the exception of the Call, Muscovy and Runner consist of a
+single variety. The Call is divided into two varieties, the Gray and the
+White; the Muscovy consists of two varieties, the Colored and the White;
+and the Runner consists of three varieties, the Fawn and White, the
+White and the Penciled.
+
+Duck breeders, of course, whether raising the birds for fancy or for
+profit, keep one of the standard breads or varieties. Frequently, also,
+the farm flocks consist of standardbred ducks but on many farms,
+probably a great majority, the flock consists of the common or so-called
+"puddle" duck. In certain parts of the South there is a duck known as
+the "mule duck" which is a cross between the Muscovy and the common
+duck. This is a duck of good market quality but will not breed from
+which characteristic it gets its name. Most of the common or "puddle"
+ducks which are found on farms are of rather small size, are indifferent
+as layers, and do not make a desirable type of market duck. They have
+arisen simply from the crossing of standard breeds with resultant
+carelessness and indifference in breeding. Because of the care with
+which they have been selected and bred for definite purposes, the
+standard breeds are decidedly superior to the common "puddle" ducks and
+should by all means be kept in preference since they will yield better
+results and greater profits.
+
+In addition to the standard breeds and varieties flocks of Mallards are
+also kept to a limited extent. The Mallard is a common small wild duck
+which has lent itself readily to domestication and which thrives with
+proper care under confined conditions. In weight, the drakes will run
+from 2-1/2 pounds to 3 pounds or even a little larger. The ducks average
+about 21/4 pounds with a variation of from 1 pound 12 ounces to 2 pounds 8
+ounces. By selecting the large eggs for hatching and by liberal feeding,
+it is easy to increase the size of Mallards to such an extent that they
+resemble small Rouens rather than wild Mallards. The plumage of the
+Mallard is very similar to that of the Rouen but of a lighter shade.
+Another small wild duck known as the Wood or Carolina duck, which is a
+native of North America, has been domesticated and on account of the
+great beauty of its plumage is usually to be found wherever ornamental
+waterfowl are kept. The Mandarin duck is a small duck of about the same
+size as the Wood duck, is of beautiful plumage and like the Wood duck
+is generally kept for ornamental purposes. This duck is said to be a
+native of China.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. Upper--Pair of Mule Ducks. Lower--Pair of Blue
+Swedish Ducks. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Upper--Mallard Duck. Lower--Mallard Drake. The
+Mallard is a wild duck which is quite easily domesticated and which has
+a plumage color very similar to the Rouen. It is small in size.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+Classification of Breeds
+
+So far as the standard breeds and varieties are concerned they may be
+divided into three classes according to the purpose for which they are
+kept and for which they are best suited. First is the meat class which
+consists of the Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Buff, Cayuga and Blue
+Swedish. These breeds could well be termed general purpose ducks for
+they are quite good layers in addition to producing excellent table
+carcasses and are therefore well suited for general farm use. They are,
+however, kept more particularly for meat production.
+
+The second class is known as the egg class and consists of the three
+varieties of the Runner Duck, formerly known as the Indian Runner. The
+Runner Duck is much smaller in size than the birds of the meat class, is
+longer in leg and more active, and is not so well suited for the
+production of table ducks but is a very prolific layer. With proper
+feeding and management the Runner ducks will compare favorably with hens
+as egg producers.
+
+The third class is known as the ornamental class and is composed of the
+ducks which are kept and bred principally for ornamental purposes. This
+class consists of the Call duck with its two varieties, the Black East
+India duck and the Crested White duck. Both the Call and East India
+ducks are small in size being really the bantams of the duck family.
+While they make good table birds, their small size handicaps them as
+commercial meat fowl. The Crested White duck is of larger size,
+possesses a crest and is bred mainly as an ornamental fowl.
+
+_Marking the Ducks._ The duck raiser who is breeding his ducks for
+exhibition quality has need for knowledge of the breeding of the birds
+he may contemplate using in his matings. In order that this information
+may be available, the young ducks as they are hatched can be marked by
+toe punching them on the webs of their feet in the same manner that baby
+chicks are toe punched. A different set or combination of marks is used
+for each mating so that the breeding of the different ducks can be
+distinguished. Mature ducks can, if desired, be leg banded in order to
+furnish a distinguishing mark.
+
+
+Nomenclature
+
+Before taking up a description of the matings of the different standard
+breeds and varieties it is well to indicate the common nomenclature
+which is used in connection with these fowls and which differs from that
+used for chickens. The male duck is called drake, the female duck is
+termed duck, and the young duck of either sex is termed duckling. In
+giving the standard weights for the different breeds of ducks, weights
+are given for adult ducks and adult drakes, and for young ducks and
+young drakes. By adult duck or drake is meant a bird which is over one
+year old. By young duck or drake is meant a bird which is less than one
+year old. The horny mouth parts of the duck instead of being termed beak
+as in chickens are called bill, and the separate division of the upper
+bill at its extremity is termed the bean. Ducks do not show any comb or
+wattles as in chickens. In England use is made of the terms ducklet and
+drakerel. Ducklet is used to signify a female during her first laying
+season just as the word pullet is used in contrast to hen. Drakerel is
+used to signify a young drake as contrasted with an older drake just as
+the word cockerel is used in comparison to cock in chickens.
+
+_Distinguishing the Sex._ The sex of mature ducks can be readily told by
+their voices and also by a difference in the feathering. The duck gives
+voice to a coarse, harsh sound which is the characteristic "quack"
+usually thought of in connection with this class of fowl. The drake on
+the other hand utters a cry which is not nearly so loud or harsh but
+which is more of a hissing sound. Distinction of sex by this means can
+be made after the ducklings are from 4 to 6 weeks old. Before this age,
+both sexes make the same peeping noise.
+
+Mature drakes are also distinguished from the ducks by the presence of
+two sex feathers at the base of the tail. These are short feathers
+which curl or curve upward and forward toward the body of the bird. In
+ducks these feathers are absent.
+
+
+Size
+
+An idea of the size of the different standard breeds can best be
+obtained by giving the standard weights. They are as follows:--
+
+              Adult Drake.  Adult Duck.  Young Drake.  Young Duck.
+Pekin              9             8            8             7
+Aylesbury          9             8            8             7
+Rouen              9             8            8             7
+Cayuga             8             7            7             6
+Muscovy           10             7            8             6
+Blue Swedish       8             7            6-1/2         5-1/2
+Crested White      7             6            6             5
+Buff               8             7            7             6
+Runner             4-1/2         4            4             3-1/2
+
+There are no standard weights for the Call duck and for the Black East
+India duck but these are all small in size, being really bantam ducks.
+The drakes will weigh from 2-1/2 to 3 pounds and the ducks from 2 to 2-1/2
+pounds.
+
+
+Popularity of Breeds
+
+In the meat class by far the most popular duck in this country is the
+Pekin. It is the breed which is used exclusively on the large
+commercial duck farms. Next to the Pekin in this class probably comes
+the Muscovy which is quite commonly kept in some sections of the
+country, particularly in the South. The Aylesbury duck has never proved
+to be very popular in the United States perhaps due to its white bill
+and skin, although it is the popular market duck of England. The other
+breeds included in the meat class are kept more or less commonly but do
+not approach in popularity either the Pekin or the Muscovy. Any of the
+breeds in this class will prove to be satisfactory for a farm flock,
+although the Colored breeds and varieties are at a disadvantage when
+dressed due to their dark pin feathers.
+
+In the _egg_ class there is included only the Indian Runner and this of
+course is the breed which is kept wherever the production of duck eggs
+is the primary object. The Fawn and White is the most popular variety of
+this breed.
+
+In the ornamental class there is no particular outstanding breed, since
+the ducks belonging in this class are kept very largely to satisfy the
+pleasure of the owner and the selection of a breed is entirely a matter
+of personal preference.
+
+
+Egg Production
+
+While the conditions under which ducks are kept and the care they are
+given will affect their egg production greatly, there are certain
+rather definite comparisons that can be made between the different
+breeds. The Pekin is a good layer and will produce from 80 to 120 eggs.
+The Aylesbury and the Rouen are about alike in laying ability, neither
+being quite as good as the Pekin. The Cayuga is a good layer ranking
+with the Aylesbury and Rouen or between these and the Pekin. The Muscovy
+is an excellent layer being fully as prolific as the Pekin, especially
+if broken up when broody and not allowed to sit. The Blue Swedish is
+about equal to the Cayuga in laying ability. The Buff duck is an
+excellent layer comparing favorably with the Pekin or even with the
+Runner. The Runner ducks are the best layers of the duck family and if
+given proper care and good feed will compare favorably with hens in egg
+producing ability. The Crested White duck is not a particularly good
+layer. The Calls and the Black East India ducks will lay from 20 to 60
+eggs per year, approaching the latter number if the eggs are collected
+as laid and the ducks are not allowed to sit which will induce some of
+them to continue to lay for quite a portion of the year. Extremely large
+ducks of any breed do not lay as well as the more medium sized birds.
+
+_Size of Duck Eggs._ The eggs of the different meat breeds will run
+about the same in size with the exception of the Muscovy whose eggs run
+a little larger. Actual weights of eggs from representative flocks show
+Pekin, Rouen, Aylesbury and Cayuga eggs to average about 2-1/2 pounds per
+dozen although there is a tendency for the Rouen eggs to run somewhat
+larger and for Cayugas to run a little smaller. Muscovy eggs weigh about
+3 pounds per dozen with selected large eggs weighing as high as 3-1/4
+pounds. Eggs of the Runner duck are smaller but are considerably larger
+than average hens' eggs or about the size of large Minorca eggs. They
+weigh about 2 pounds per dozen. Eggs of the bantam breeds of ducks, the
+Calls and the Black East India, together with those of the Mandarin and
+Wood ducks will weigh from one pound to 1-1/2 pounds per dozen depending
+upon the size of the ducks themselves. Eggs of the Mallard duck will run
+from 26 to 32 ounces to the dozen. The size of eggs laid by ducks,
+especially the bantam breeds and the Mallard can be increased somewhat
+by liberal feeding. Average hens' eggs should weigh about 1-1/2 pounds per
+dozen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. Upper--Comparison of size of goose egg on the
+left a black egg of a Cayuga duck in the center and a hen egg on the
+right. Lower--Duck eggs--At the left is a Pekin duck egg, next a black
+egg laid by a Cayuga duck, third a Muscovy egg, fourth a duck egg of
+green color and on the extreme right the egg of a Runner duck.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Color of Eggs._ The color of duck eggs ranges from white to a polished
+black. Pekin eggs run mostly white although some show a decided blue or
+green tint. Aylesbury eggs run quite uniformly white. The color of Rouen
+eggs varies from white to a dark green. The Cayuga produces very few
+white eggs, most of them being green or black, some being as black as
+though polished. Muscovy eggs run from a white to a greenish cream in
+color. The eggs of the Blue Swedish and the Buff ducks usually run
+white. The Runner duck lays white eggs as a rule while the Crested White
+duck lays eggs which range in color from white to green. The eggs of
+the Call ducks run from white to green while the eggs of the Black East
+India, like the Cayuga, for the most part run from green to black.
+
+A peculiarity in regard to the egg color is that the same female may lay
+eggs which are widely different in color. It is likewise true that the
+color of the shell is influenced to some extent by the feed. Ducks on
+range will lay darker colored eggs than those which are yarded. There is
+also a tendency for the eggs to run darker in color when laying first
+begins and for the eggs to lighten as laying proceeds. A peculiarity in
+regard to duck eggs with a dark colored shell is that a thorough washing
+will lighten up the shell color decidedly.
+
+_Broodiness._ The Muscovy, the Call and the Black East India ducks are
+broody breeds. The ducks of these breeds will make their nests, hatch
+their eggs and are good mothers. All the other breeds are classed as
+non-broody breeds. Of course, a certain percentage of them will go
+broody and show a desire to sit but they do not make reliable sitters
+and mothers and are not as a rule used for this purpose.
+
+
+Considerations in Making the Mating[1]
+
+Since ducks are kept for different purposes there will of course be
+certain fundamental differences in the different classes in the
+selection of the individuals to make up the mating. Whatever the
+purpose, however, the first consideration in selecting the breeders must
+be to secure those which possess excellent vigor and general health and
+which meet insofar as possible the standard requirements for size. Where
+the Call duck and the Black East India are concerned the selection for
+size must be for smallness since that is a characteristic greatly
+desired. In the other breeds the selection for size must be to see that
+they come up to the standard weights for the particular breed in
+question. As in other classes of fowls the condition and cleanliness of
+the plumage and the general appearance and actions of the birds are good
+indications of their health and thriftiness. A bright eye is likewise a
+valuable indication of good health while a watery eye is usually a sign
+of weakness. It is necessary to guard against birds which show any
+tendency toward crooked or roach back, hump back, crooked tails, or
+twisted wings. Since all breeds of ducks should have clean or
+unfeathered legs it is likewise necessary to guard against any breeders
+which show down on the shanks or between the toes as this sometimes
+occurs.
+
+[Footnote 1: For a more detailed discussion of the principles of
+breeding as applied to chickens and which is equally applicable to
+ducks, the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by
+Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the Orange Judd
+Publishing Company, New York City.]
+
+In selecting the mating for any one of the meat breeds use birds which
+have good length, width and depth of body so that they will have plenty
+of meat carrying capacity. For breeders of market ducks, birds which
+are active, well matured and which are not extreme in size for the breed
+are preferable as the fertility is likely to run better than with the
+extremely large birds. Where birds are bred for exhibition purposes, it
+frequently happens that it is desirable to use large breeders and to
+hold them for breeding purposes as long as they are in good breeding
+condition. Where this is the case it becomes necessary to mate a smaller
+number of females to a drake than would be the case with smaller and
+younger breeders. Where old birds are used as breeders better results
+will be secured by mating old ducks to a young drake or vice versa than
+by mating together old birds of both sexes. While ducks of any of the
+meat breeds are kept primarily for meat production, it is essential that
+the egg production be good throughout the breeding season in order to
+raise as many ducklings and secure as great a profit as possible.
+Selection of the females as breeders should be made therefore on the
+basis of good egg production as well as good meat type if the conditions
+under which the ducks are kept are such as to make it possible to check
+this in any manner.
+
+In selecting the mating in the Runner breed it is necessary to keep in
+mind that the general type of body is quite different from that of the
+meat breeds, being much slimmer and much more upright in body carriage.
+For this mating select thrifty, healthy birds and those which are
+active. Some breeders trapnest their Runner ducks or have some other
+means of checking up the better layers. As in chickens, it is of course
+desirable to use these better layers as breeders since the purpose in
+keeping this kind of duck is primarily egg production.
+
+In selecting the mating in the Call and East India breeds it is
+necessary to use the smaller ducks since the object here is to keep the
+size small. In addition, with these breeds or with any other breeds kept
+and bred primarily for fancy or exhibition purposes, it is necessary to
+conform just as closely as possible to the standard requirements[2] both
+insofar as size and type are concerned, and also with respect to color.
+
+[Footnote 2: For a complete and official description and list of
+disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of ducks, the
+reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published by
+the American Poultry Association, and obtained by Orange Judd Publishing
+Company, New York, N. Y.]
+
+
+Breeds of Ducks
+
+_The Pekin._ While this variety wants to be of good size and to have
+length, breadth and depth of body it is somewhat more upstanding than
+some of the other meat breeds, showing a definite slope of body downward
+from shoulders to tail. The back line of the Pekin should show a slight
+concavity from the shoulders to the tail and the upper line of the bill
+is likewise slightly concave between the point where it joins the head
+and its extremity. The shoulders should be broad and any tendency
+toward narrowness at this point must be avoided. While a good depth of
+keel is desired, the standard does not call for so deep a keel as in the
+Aylesbury. As a matter of fact, however, the winning specimens as seen
+in the shows are not as a rule as erect in carriage as called for by the
+standard illustration, there being a tendency to get them almost if not
+quite as deep in keel as the Aylesbury. In fact, some breeders seem to
+strive for a low down keel approaching a condition where they are nearly
+as low in front as behind but this is not desirable Pekin type.
+
+Sometimes a drake will show a rough neck, that is, the feathers on the
+back of the neck will be crossed or folded over showing a tendency to
+curl. These birds should be avoided as breeders since there is a
+tendency for them to produce ducks having a crest. Sometimes a green or
+a greenish spotted bill will be encountered. Since the bill should be a
+clear yellow, breeders showing this defect should be avoided
+particularly as they are likely to produce birds having greenish or
+olive colored legs. The shanks and toes should be a clear deep orange.
+Black sometimes occurs in the bean. This may occur in birds of either
+sex but is more common in the ducks than in the drakes. In the drake
+black in the bean disqualifies but while it is undesirable and a serious
+defect in the duck it does not disqualify. The color of the plumage is
+white or creamy white throughout. Creaminess in this variety is not a
+serious defect as it is in white chickens. The use, however, of yellow
+corn and of foods very rich in oil tends to increase the creaminess of
+the plumage and should not be used to excess for birds which are to be
+exhibited.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. Upper--Young Pekins which on account of their
+size, thriftiness and rapid growth were selected out of a lot about to
+be killed for market and saved for breeders. Lower--Aylesbury
+Drake--Notice the depth and development of the breast. (_Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Aylesbury._ This breed is particularly noted for its deep keel. It
+differs from the Pekin in type in that it is more nearly level in body.
+There is a decided tendency for the Aylesbury to run too short in body
+which has probably come about by extreme selection for deep keel. It is
+well, therefore, in making the mating to select breeders with good
+length of body. Since the deep full breast and keel is characteristic of
+this breed it is necessary to avoid breeders which show any tendency
+toward a flat breast. As in the case of the Pekins avoid any birds which
+have green or olive colored bills. The back line of the Aylesbury should
+be straight, showing no tendency toward a slight concavity as in the
+Pekin. Birds showing this shape back should be avoided. As in the Pekin
+black on the bill or bean of the drake will disqualify and in the duck
+is a serious defect. The color of plumage should be white throughout and
+should show no tendency toward creaminess. The bill in this breed is
+flesh colored instead of yellow as in the Pekin. The Aylesbury is not
+quite as nervous a breed as the Pekin.
+
+_The Rouen._ The Rouen duck is a parti-colored breed and is therefore
+much more difficult to secure in perfection of color and marking than
+is the case with the white breeds. Moreover, the dark pin feathers make
+the ducks more difficult to dress than in white breeds. In type these
+birds are very level in body and are massive, carrying a great deal of
+meat. Avoid birds showing a lack of length of body or depth of keel or
+which are too flat in breast. The back of the Rouen should have a
+slightly convex or arched shape from neck to tail and it is necessary to
+guard against birds which have a flat or a concave back. The body of the
+Rouen should be carried practically horizontal. The upper line of the
+bill should be slightly dished or concave. The white ring about the neck
+of the drake is an important part of the marking. This should not be too
+wide but should run about a quarter of an inch in width. It should be as
+distinct and clean cut as possible but should not quite come together in
+the rear. Any approach to a ring in the female is a disqualification.
+White in the primary or secondary wing feathers is a serious defect
+since it constitutes a disqualification. It must therefore be carefully
+avoided. White feathers in the fluff of the drake is another color
+defect which must be guarded against.
+
+_Breast of Drake._ The farther the claret color on the breast of the
+drake extends down the better will be the females secured from the
+mating. Drakes which are deficient in the amount of claret on the breast
+should therefore be thrown out as breeders. A purple rump in drakes must
+be avoided as must black feathers over the rump as they tend to keep
+up too dark a body color in the female. On the other hand too bright or
+light a color in the male or exhibition female will produce females
+which are too light in color. Drakes with light olive colored bills must
+be avoided as these will have a tendency to produce offspring which show
+too much yellow in the females' bills, and clear yellow bills constitute
+a disqualification. In the females solid yellow bills, fawn colored
+breasts and absence of penciling must be avoided. Females which are dark
+or nearly black over the rump are good breeders as they tend to keep up
+the ground color of the body and tail.
+
+The Rouen shows some tendency to fade in color. This is evidenced first
+on the tips of the wings. The fading will also show in the fluff of
+drakes. The drakes of this breed and likewise of the Gray Call and the
+Mallard show a peculiar behavior with respect to the color of their
+plumage. About June 1 the drakes moult, losing their characteristic male
+adult plumage and the new plumage is practically that of the female.
+This female plumage is retained until about October when they gradually
+regain their normal winter male plumage. Young Rouens of both sexes have
+female plumage until the last moult which occurs at about four or five
+months of age, when the drakes assume the adult male plumage. The sex of
+the young Rouens can, however, be told by the difference in the color of
+the bills.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. Upper--Rouen Drake. Notice the low set, nearly
+horizontal body, the massive appearance and the arched back. Lower--Pair
+of Black East India Ducks. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. Upper--Rouen Drake showing summer plumage. At
+this season the Rouen drake assumes a plumage resembling quite closely
+that of the female. In the fall the drake again assumes the normal male
+plumage. Lower--Rouen Duck. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Cayuga._ The Cayuga is much like the other breeds of the meat
+class in general type or shape of body showing good length, breadth and
+depth. It is a very solid duck and weighs heavier than it looks. The
+body carriage is slightly more upright than the Rouen but not so much so
+as the Pekin. The back line should be straight and any tendency toward
+an arched back must be avoided. It is slightly smaller than the Pekin,
+Aylesbury and Rouen, averaging about a pound less.
+
+In making the mating, size is important and breeders should be selected
+which are up to standard weights if possible. While this breed is not
+kept very widely at the present time, nevertheless it is an excellent
+market duck, dressing out into a very plump yellow carcass in spite of
+its black plumage which is a disadvantage in dressing. The color should
+be a lustrous greenish black throughout, being somewhat brighter in the
+drake than in the duck. The duck is more likely to show a brownish cast
+of plumage, particularly as she grows older. It is hard to hold good
+black color with age. Moreover, white or gray is apt to occur in the
+breast of females. With age also a little white sometimes develops on
+the back of the neck, around the eyes and underneath the neck at the
+base of the bill. The white which occurs in breast is more likely to
+come in ducks and is not commonly found in the drakes. In the drakes on
+the other hand, there is a tendency for the white to come on the throat
+under the bill.
+
+Drakes as a rule run truer in color and hold their color better than
+do the ducks. Where the white mottling occurs in plumage with age one
+need not hesitate to breed from these birds if they were of good black
+color as young birds. The drakes of the best color do not as a rule fade
+or become mottled to any great extent with age. It is necessary to guard
+against birds as breeders which have a rusty brown lacing on the breast
+and under the wings, also those which have a wing-bow laced with brown.
+There is a tendency for the bill of drakes, which should be black, to be
+too light or olive in color and this tendency increases with age. Drakes
+with bills of this color should be avoided as breeders. When Cayugas are
+first hatched the baby ducks all show a white breast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. Upper--Cayuga Duck. Lower--Cayuga Drake.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Call._ The Call ducks are the bantams of the duck race. There is
+always a tendency for them to grow too large and this is especially true
+when they have an opportunity to eat all they want as for example when
+they are fed with the larger ducks. They should not be fed too liberally
+and should be given wheat or some other solid grain rather than any
+mash. If there is a good pond of water to which the Call ducks can have
+access they do not need to be fed much of anything.
+
+In breeding, the smallest individuals which are suitable in other
+respects for breeders, should be selected in order to keep down the size
+and offset the tendency to breed larger in successive generations. In
+type the Calls are practically miniature Pekins except that they should
+have a very short, rather broad head and bill. The broad flat and short
+bill and the round short head give the head an appearance which is often
+described by the term "button headed". In this breed avoid birds which
+show arched backs. The body should have what is known as a flatiron
+shape, that is, should be broad at the shoulders and taper toward the
+tail. Too deep keels and narrow shoulders should be avoided as should
+also too long bills. Call ducks, together with East Indias and Mallards
+should have their wings clipped or be pinioned, that is, have the first
+joint of one wing cut off, to prevent them from flying away.
+
+_The Gray Call._ The plumage of the Gray Call is practically that of the
+Rouen although they are not quite as good in color as a breed. There is
+more of a tendency for some of the birds to run to dark and others,
+especially the males, to run too light in color. While they are likely
+to be well penciled the shade of color is apt to be wrong. White in the
+flights and under the wings must be guarded against as must also absence
+of ribbon or wing bar in females. The color of the plumage is likely to
+fade with age but after the birds moult and secure their new plumage,
+the color is usually higher again. In general the same color
+characteristics hold true as with the Rouen and the same defects must be
+guarded against.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. Upper--Gray Call Drake. Lower--Gray Call Duck.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture_.)]
+
+_The White Call._ This variety is, both in type and color, practically a
+miniature Pekin except for the short, rather broad head and bill.
+They breed very true in color and should be free from creaminess. The
+same general defects must be watched for and avoided as in the Pekin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. Upper--White Call Duck. Lower--White Call Drake.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Black East India._ This is a black breed which is small in size
+being a bantam duck like the Call. As a matter of fact it is a miniature
+Cayuga. The color should be black throughout and the same color
+characteristics hold true as in the case of the Cayuga. The same color
+defects must therefore be guarded against, the worst one being white in
+the breast of females especially. Avoid breeding from a drake with a
+black bill as in this respect the breed differs from the Cayuga since
+the bill of the duck should be black but that of the drake should be
+very dark green. Purple barring must be carefully selected against.
+
+_The Muscovy._ This breed differs in certain respects very markedly from
+the other standard breeds of ducks. They are long and broad in body
+which is carried in a horizontal position but are not so deep in keel as
+the Pekin, Aylesbury or Rouen. The longest bodied young ducks will make
+the largest individuals. The head should have feathers on the top which
+can be elevated at will to form a crest. Guard against breeders having
+smooth heads, or in other words, lacking a crest. The face is covered
+with corrugations or caruncles and should be red in color. At the base
+of the upper bill there is a sort of knob-like formation in the drake
+which serves as one of the distinguishing characteristics between the
+duck and drake of this breed. The more prominent the knob and the more
+wrinkled or corrugated the face the better is the specimen in this
+respect. The wings are long and strong and these birds fly very well.
+They will also climb fences. The drakes are quite pugnacious and fight
+one another badly at times. They are especially pugnacious when they
+have young.
+
+This breed of ducks will often roost on roosts like chickens or in the
+trees or on the barn. They do not quack like other ducks and unlike
+other domesticated breeds which moult two or three times a year, they
+moult only once, taking longer to do so, usually about 90 days, although
+the female may complete her moult a little sooner. The period of
+incubation for Muscovy eggs is longer, being from 33 to 35 days as
+compared to 28 days for other breeds. In size the male and female differ
+considerably as will be seen from the standard weights given (See Page
+14), the male being considerably larger. These ducks lay well, the
+fertility runs good, the eggs hatch well, and the little ducks are hardy
+and easily raised. They are a broody breed. The ducks will make their
+nests and hatch out their eggs if allowed to do so and are excellent
+mothers. Sometimes they will fly up and make their nests in a hollow
+tree. A Muscovy duck can cover properly about 20 eggs. In spite of the
+fact that they fly well they are easily domesticated. It takes about
+two years for the males of this breed to fully mature although the ducks
+get their full size when one year of age. The Muscovy is perhaps the
+best general purpose breed for a farm flock.
+
+The extent and intensity of the red of the face increases up to maturity
+and the redder the face the better. The plumage of the Muscovy is not as
+downy or oily as other breeds, the feathers being harder. For this
+reason the birds are more apt to become water soaked and to drown as a
+result when they have not been accustomed to water in which to swim.
+This is especially true of the drakes on account of their large size and
+long wing feathers. Muscovy ducks dress well, having a rich yellow skin,
+and therefore make a good market duck, although the difference in size
+of the duck and drake and the dark pin feathers of the Colored variety
+are disadvantages from a market standpoint. Select against breeders
+which run small in size as there is more or less of a tendency for this
+breed to decrease in size. The Muscovy is long lived, specimens having
+been known to breed until they were eight or ten years of age.
+
+_The Colored Muscovy._ Although the standard calls for more or less
+white in different sections of this variety, as a matter of fact
+breeders desire to get the birds as dark as possible except for a very
+small patch of white on the breast and a small patch of white on the
+center of the wing. Indeed, birds without the white on the breast and
+with very little on the wing are valuable breeders since there is a
+tendency for too much white to occur in the plumage. Occasionally all
+black birds occur and these can be used to advantage in breeding when
+there is a tendency toward too much white in plumage. Plumage more than
+half white is a disqualification. The dark plumage birds such as are
+wanted are very likely to show considerable black or gypsy color in the
+face which should be a good red. This must be selected against insofar
+as possible. The nearly black or the darkest birds are quite likely to
+show some white or grizzling on the head. Grizzled or brownish penciled
+feathers sometimes occur in various parts of the plumage and must of
+course be guarded against as the markings should be distinctly black and
+white. The baby ducks of this variety are quite apt to show considerable
+white although the best of them come yellowish black. This variety tends
+to run a little larger in size than the white variety although the
+standard weights are the same for both. Dun or chocolate colored ducks
+sometimes come from Colored Muscovies while Blue Muscovies can be
+produced by crossing the Colored and the white varieties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. Upper--Colored Muscovy Drake. Notice the partly
+erect crest feather on top of the head. Lower--White Muscovy Drake.
+Notice the long, horizontal body and the rough or carunculated face.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The White Muscovy._ This variety should have pure white plumage
+throughout. Young Muscovies of both sexes often have a patch of black on
+top of the head up to the time they moult at maturity. Since black
+disqualifies it is impossible to show young ducks in this condition but
+these black feathers usually come in white after the moult and such
+birds need not therefore be discarded as breeders. When it is desired to
+show young White Muscovies which have black on the head it is customary
+to pluck these black feathers a sufficient time before the show so that
+the white feathers which come in their place will have time to grow out.
+There is little or no trouble with black or gypsy face in this variety.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. Upper--Crested White Drake. Lower--Young White
+Muscovy duck showing black on top of the head. This is not an unusual
+occurrence and the black is lost when the bird gets its mature plumage
+in the fall. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Blue Swedish._ In type and size this breed is about the same as the
+Cayuga although perhaps slightly more upstanding. In selecting the
+mating it is important to use birds which are close to standard weight
+as there is somewhat of a tendency for the size to be too small. As its
+name indicates the color is largely blue except for a white heart-shaped
+patch or bib which should be present on the breast. Sometimes this white
+extends along the underside of the body from the under-bill almost to
+the vent. Such birds are undesirable as breeders since they show too
+much white. On the other hand birds lacking a prominent white bib must
+also be avoided. Two of the flight feathers should be white and birds
+lacking these must be avoided. Guard against any red, gray or black in
+any part of the plumage. Sometimes, however, birds having more or less
+black throughout the plumage are used as breeders for the purpose of
+strengthening the blue color. Avoid any tendency toward a ribbon on the
+wing-bow and also birds that are too light, ashy or washed out in the
+blue color.
+
+Sometimes birds show lines of white feathers around the eyes and over
+the head and these should be selected against as breeders as they are
+likely to cause white splashing in the plumage. Yellow or greenish bills
+must likewise be avoided since the first of these is a disqualification.
+In general this variety in breeding behaves insofar as color is
+concerned, very much like the Blue Andalusian chicken.[3] The young
+ducks when hatched are yellow or creamy blue and from blue matings there
+are also produced black and white ducklings. As in other colored breeds
+and varieties, the dark pin feathers are somewhat of a disadvantage from
+a market standpoint.
+
+[Footnote 3: For a detailed discussion of the behaviour of the Blue
+Andalusian in breeding, the reader is referred to "The Mating and
+Breeding of Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by
+the Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York City.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. Blue Swedish duck showing white flight feathers.
+The Standard calls for only two white flights, but there is a decided
+tendency as shown here for more flights to be white. (_Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Crested White._ Although not so large, this breed is much like the
+Pekin but with body carried more nearly horizontal and with a crest on
+the head. The type varies considerably however, the principal selection
+practiced having been for crest. The plumage is white in color
+throughout. What is desired in the crest is to have as large a one as
+possible, round and perfect in form, and set squarely on the head. Not
+infrequently crooked crests occur and also double or split crests, that
+is to say, where the crest is parted or divided. In some cases the
+crests may even come treble, that is, split into three parts. Entire
+absence of crest is by no means uncommon. In fact, it is considered a
+pretty good proportion if one half of the ducks hatched have crests
+although the matings vary considerably in this, occasionally one
+producing practically 100% of the offspring with crests. Avoid as
+breeders birds with small crests, lopped crests, split crests or showing
+an absence of crest. Avoid also breeders showing mottled or green bills
+in females and black bean in the bill of drakes.
+
+_The Buff._ In type this breed is similar to the Swedish. As will be
+seen from the standard weights it is one of the medium sized breeds and
+makes a very nice market bird as it dresses out into a nice round fat
+carcass and is a good layer. In color the birds of both sexes should be
+as uniform a buff as possible except that the head and upper part of the
+neck in the drake should be seal brown when in full plumage. Color
+defects which are likely to be encountered and which should be avoided
+are the tendency for the head of the drake to run to a chestnut color
+and for his neck to be too light or faded out in color. Sometimes the
+head of the drake runs too dark in color approaching a greenish black
+like the head of the Rouen. This is of course undesirable. The wings of
+both sexes are apt to run to light or even in some cases, pure white
+flights. Blue wing bars are sometimes shown and these must be carefully
+avoided. Penciling such as is found in the Fawn and White Runner
+sometimes occurs and since it is a serious defect must be rigidly
+guarded against. Any tendency toward a white bib or a white ring around
+the neck of both sexes must likewise be avoided. Greenish or mottled
+bills must be avoided in ducks which are to be used as breeders. Not
+much trouble is experienced in the bill of drakes which as a rule comes
+good. Any blue cast in the feathers on the rump and back of both sexes
+must be selected against. As a rule the females of this breed tend to be
+better colored than the males. At certain periods of the moult the head
+coloring of the drakes becomes a good buff color and later when the
+moult is complete, it changes to a copper color. When hatched the
+ducklings are a creamy yellow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. Pair of Buff Ducks--Drake on the right
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Runner._ The type of this breed is quite different from that of the
+other breed of ducks and type is very important. The Runner wants to be
+decidedly upstanding and to be very reachy. It should have very slim
+slender lines. The neck should be straight and the head should be
+carried at right angles to the neck. The bill should be perfectly
+straight on top and on a line with the skull showing absolutely no
+tendency to be dished. The legs of this breed are longer than those of
+other ducks and this accounts for the fact that they run rather than
+waddle when they move about. It is from this fact that they get their
+name. They are very active and are troublesome about crawling through
+fences. They are good layers and non-sitters and they have often been
+called the Leghorns of the duck family. It must be remembered, however,
+that while they have the inherent ability to lay as well as hens they
+will do this only when they receive proper feed and care. It is quite
+useless to expect a high egg yield from them when they are carelessly
+fed and improperly housed and cared for. Avoid as breeders ducks of both
+sexes that are too heavy behind, or in other words, are too
+heavy-bottomed. Avoid birds which are too short in legs. Avoid crooked
+or sharp backs. Round heads must likewise be avoided.
+
+_The Fawn and White Runner._ In this variety the markings must be very
+distinct and definite. There is a tendency which must be avoided for the
+head to run to black instead of chestnut, especially in males. It is
+likewise necessary to avoid females which tend to show penciling on the
+sides of the breast or on the wing-bows. These defects are apt to be
+associated with colored flight feathers which is also a defect to be
+avoided. Guard against too much fawn extending up the neck from the body
+to the head as the neck should be white in color. Too dark tail coverts
+approaching a greenish black sometimes occur and are undesirable. In
+type this variety will not average quite as good as the White.
+
+_The White Runner._ This variety is best in type and it likewise runs
+good in color which should be white throughout. Sometimes foreign color
+will be shown in the back of females and this of course must be avoided.
+Also avoid birds as breeders with green or mottled bills.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. Penciled Runner Drake on left and White Runner
+Drake on right. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Penciled Runner._ In type this variety runs about the same as the
+Fawn and White. The color combination is rather difficult to breed as it
+is hard to get the good penciling desired in the female together with
+the white markings. In general, in breeding this variety there is a
+tendency to pay more attention to type than to color. The penciling is
+like that of the Rouen but lighter in color consisting of a brown
+penciling on a fawn colored ground. Avoid any grayish stippling on the
+breast of the drake and also on the wing-bows. These defects are likely
+to be associated with colored flights which are undesirable. The colored
+portion of the head of the drake is darker than that of the duck in this
+variety. Avoid lack of white on the neck in both sexes and avoid females
+which are lacking in penciling.
+
+_Preparing Ducks for the Show._ Aside from selecting the individuals
+which most nearly approach the standard requirements there is very
+little which can be done in the way of preparing the birds for the show
+as these fowls are practically self-prepared. For a period of at least a
+week or ten days before they are shipped to the show those intended for
+exhibition should be given access to a grass range and also if possible
+to running water. The grass range will keep them in good condition and
+the running water will allow them to clean themselves. Any broken
+feathers should be plucked at least six weeks before the birds are to be
+shown in order to allow the feathers time enough to grow out again. It
+must be remembered that most ducks after getting in a good condition of
+flesh do not tend to hold this for a very long period but soon grow
+thinner again and will not take on fat the second time for some little
+period.
+
+Often there will be a difference in weight as high as 3 pounds when a
+duck is in good condition and after it has thinned. In order to have the
+ducks in top form, therefore, it is necessary to bring them up to flesh
+at the proper time. In order to bring ducks which are to be exhibited up
+to standard weight, they should be fed twice daily, for at least 10 days
+before shipping, a grain mixture consisting of one part corn and two
+parts oats. Give them all they will eat of this mixture. With Runners
+and the small breeds of ducks there is a danger of their putting on too
+much weight if corn is used in the ration and it is therefore best to
+give them oats alone. When the birds are shipped to the show they are
+quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey. When this
+occurs fill a barrel about half full of water. Then as the ducks are
+taken out of the shipping coops take three of them at a time, put them
+in the barrel and cover it over, leaving them for a few minutes. When
+they are taken out they will usually be clean.
+
+
+Catching and Handling Ducks
+
+Ducks should never be caught by the legs which are short and weak and
+are very likely to be injured. For the same reason they should never be
+carried by the legs. Ducks should be caught by the neck, grasping them
+just below the head. They can be carried short distances without injury
+in this way but it is not advisable to carry fat ducks by the neck for
+any considerable distance. The best way to handle them is to catch them
+by the neck, then carry them on the arm with the legs in the hand just
+as one would carry a chicken. See Fig. 15. A scoop net about 18 inches
+in diameter and with a six foot handle can also be used to excellent
+advantage in catching ducks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. Two methods of carrying ducks. (_Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs
+
+Eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh as duck eggs tend
+to deteriorate in quality quite rapidly. They may be shipped fairly long
+distances. Shipment may be made either by express or by Parcel Post. In
+order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of the jar to which
+the eggs are subjected during shipment, they must be carefully packed.
+One of the best methods is to use an ordinary market basket. Line the
+basket well on the bottom and sides with excelsior. Wrap each egg in
+paper and then wrap in excelsior so that there will be a good thick
+cushion of excelsior between the eggs and they will not be allowed to
+come in contact with one another. Pack the eggs in the basket securely
+standing them on end so that they cannot move or shift around. Cover
+the top of the eggs with a thick layer of excelsior using enough so that
+it runs up well above the sides of the basket. Over the top sew a piece
+of strong cotton cloth. Instead of sewing the cloth it can be pushed up
+under the outside rim of the basket with a case knife, this being
+quicker and equally as effective as sewing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Location--Estimate of Equipment and Capital
+Necessary in Starting the Business
+
+
+_Distribution._ Commercial Duck farming is confined very largely to the
+sections within easy shipping distance of the larger cities. A great
+majority of these farms are located about New York City, particularly on
+Long Island. Some duck farms are located on the Pacific Coast and a few
+commercial plants are scattered about here and there throughout the
+country. The size of these farms ranges all the way from plants with an
+output of 5,000 or 10,000 ducklings up to those with an output around
+100,000 yearly.
+
+_Stock Used._ The stock used on the commercial duck plants of the United
+States consists exclusively of the Pekin. The reasons for the use of
+this particular breed are the fact that it has white plumage and
+therefore dresses out well, that it is of good size, that its egg
+production is good, and that it makes quick growth.
+
+_Location of Plant._ On Long Island the commercial duck plants are
+located along the streams, especially those on the southern shore of the
+Island, which empty into the various bays. Locations along these
+streams are not easy to secure at the present time owing to the fact
+that duck farms are not allowed in many sections where summer homes have
+been built. A water site of this sort is very valuable, although not
+absolutely essential, since it provides water yards for the breeding
+ducks and for the fattening ducklings if desired, and reduces the labor
+and cost of equipment materially since the ducks always have access to
+water and no additional provision need be made to provide them with
+drinking water. It also enables the ducks to keep their plumage clean.
+Usually these locations are on fresh water streams but some of them are
+further out toward the bay where the water is salty or at least
+brackish.
+
+The mature ducks thrive well on the salt water and do not have to be
+furnished with fresh drinking water in addition. For the young ducks,
+however, with a salt water location it is necessary to provide fresh
+drinking water. A few farms in other sections of the country are what
+are known as dry land farms, that is to say, they are not situated on
+the bank of a stream. In such locations running water is carried through
+the yards so that the ducks have an ample supply of drinking water and
+in some cases artificial ponds are constructed to provide water in which
+the breeding ducks can swim. Formerly the idea was universally held that
+swimming water was essential for the breeders in order to secure good
+fertility, and many duck farmers still believe that better results can
+be secured in this way. On some of the dry land duck farms, however,
+breeding ducks are successfully kept without such swimming places. The
+young market ducklings do not require water to swim in although some
+raisers prefer to have it and it is commonly allowed where readily
+available. On the dry land farms provision is made simply for a
+continuous supply of fresh drinking water for the fattening ducklings.
+Ducklings kept out of the water, do not take as much exercise and, in
+consequence, fatten a little more readily.
+
+
+Making a Start in Duck Farming
+
+Duck farms or plants are sometimes operated on a considerable scale at
+the beginning, the plans being carefully laid by some experienced duck
+man. In these cases, operations at the start may be of sufficient
+magnitude so that the output will amount to 15,000 or 20,000 ducklings
+in a year. In most cases, however, these places have been the result of
+a more gradual growth from a small beginning, a condition made necessary
+either by the inexperience of the grower or by lack of capital. Not
+infrequently men engaged in other forms of farming but possessing a
+suitable location will keep 200 or 300 breeding ducks and from this
+gradually build up a good sized duck plant.
+
+_Equipment, Capital, etc. Required._ The estimates given as to the
+amount of equipment and capital required are based on the assumption
+that a plant is to be operated of sufficient size to have a yearly
+output of about 30,000 ducklings. It must be understood in this
+connection that location and various other conditions or circumstances
+will influence the cost of different items of equipment and for this
+reason these estimates must not be considered as absolute but should
+rather serve as a guide or basis on which to figure. The figures here
+given contemplate the building up of an establishment which is efficient
+but which is in no particular elaborate, the buildings and other
+equipment being as simple and inexpensive as possible.
+
+_Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant._ The plant must be carefully
+planned so as to make the best possible use of the land and particularly
+of the water frontage. It is particularly important to arrange the
+buildings in such a manner as to cut down labor as much as possible. If
+there is any expectation of enlarging the capacity at some future time,
+this must also be borne in mind in the arrangement of the various
+buildings and yards. The incubator cellar should be convenient to the
+No. 1 brooder house and the various brooder houses to one another. The
+brooder house must likewise be convenient to the growing and fattening
+houses and yards and these in turn to the killing house. The feed room
+should be centrally located so as to save labor as much as possible in
+feeding the ducks.
+
+_Land Required._ For a duck plant of the size indicated 10 acres of land
+should be ample. This, however, means that no effort would be made to
+grow any of the feed for the ducks or ducklings with the exception of
+green feed. In some cases where the lay of the land is unusually
+favorable so that the plant can be laid out to the very best advantage,
+a smaller amount of ground than this might be sufficient but it is not
+well to figure on less than 10 acres.
+
+_Number of Breeders Required._ With the usual methods of management and
+with good success, one may estimate that 40 young ducks can be marketed
+each year from each breeding female. This is a good average although in
+some good years duck raisers will do a little better than this. On the
+other hand in poor years they will not do so well. For a plant having an
+output of 30,000 market ducks there would therefore be needed in the
+neighborhood of 800 breeding ducks in addition to 100 drakes.
+
+_Housing Required for Breeders._ In figuring on the amount of housing
+required for this number of breeding ducks, it is necessary to figure on
+2-1/2 to 3 square feet of floor space per bird, 3 square feet being better
+than 2-1/2. This would require a housing space 20 feet deep by 120 feet
+long. However ducks are not usually housed in one building of this size,
+and in fact it is better not to do so since the smaller the flock of
+breeders kept together the better they will do. In no case should a duck
+raiser run more than 400 ducks in a flock and it is very much better to
+run them in pens of 100 each. In fact, some breeders do not place more
+than 25 to 50 breeding ducks in a pen.
+
+_Incubator Capacity._ Incubators are used exclusively for hatching the
+eggs. At the present time in practically all cases some form of hot
+water mammoth incubator is utilized for this purpose. An investment is
+required both in incubators and in a cellar in which to operate them. In
+figuring on the incubator capacity necessary to take care of a
+proposition of this size, it is necessary to base the estimate on the
+number of eggs produced during the season of flush production. The duck
+raiser figures on incubating all eggs suitable for the purpose rather
+than to sell any of them for other purposes as there is a greater profit
+in rearing and marketing the ducklings. For that reason he must have
+incubator capacity enough to take care of all the eggs laid at any time
+of the year. During the season of flush production the yield will
+ordinarily run in the neighborhood of 80%. The period of incubation is
+28 days but 2 days more should be added to this to allow for cleaning
+out the machines, etc., before starting another hatch. This means that
+there would be 30 days between hatches. Figuring on 800 ducks with an
+80% production for 30 days an incubator capacity of around 19,200 eggs
+would be required.
+
+_Brooder Capacity._ A brooder house capacity, where artificial heat can
+be supplied, sufficient to take care of about half of the total output
+of the plant at one time is necessary. This means there would have to
+be on this plant a heated brooder house capacity for 15,000 ducklings.
+About half of this number or 7500 would need accommodations in the
+number 1 or warmest brooder house where the heat can be kept up to 65 or
+70 degrees in the house itself, and warmer of course under the hover.
+The other 7500 ducklings capacity would be in the number 2 house, that
+is, a house where heat could be supplied in the early spring and where
+the temperature could be run up to 60 degrees. Hovers in such a house
+are not really needed but it is common to cover the hot waterpipes with
+a platform in order to provide a runway on which one can run a wheel
+barrow and thus simplify feeding. Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is
+needed in the number 2 brooder house. The young ducks are usually 2 to 3
+weeks old when they go into the number 2 house and they stay there for
+about 2 weeks depending on the weather. Heat for the brooder houses is
+supplied by means of hot water pipes and a coal burning stove such as
+are used in brooder houses for chickens. A number 3 or cold brooder
+house is also needed where ducklings can be housed and can be driven in
+at night and in cold weather after they have graduated from the number 2
+house. From the number 3 house a part of the ducklings are taken
+directly to the yards where they are housed in open front sheds.
+
+_Fattening Houses or Sheds._ In addition to the brooder houses, there
+are required fattening houses or sheds for the ducks when they are moved
+from the No. 3 brooder house to the yards. Suitable houses for this
+purpose are 16 feet deep by 24 feet long. In front they are 5 feet high
+and in the rear 3-1/2 feet. They are set on posts with a base board around
+to make them tight. The fronts are entirely open and provided with
+curtains which are used only in the winter to keep out the snow. The
+ducklings are shut in these houses when desired by means of wire panels
+which close the lower part of the front. Houses such as described are
+divided into two parts and each side will accommodate 200 ducklings.
+
+_Feed Storage._ Considerable feed storage room is necessary as it is
+very desirable to be able to buy feed in quantity and also to carry a
+considerable stock on hand in order to offset the possibility of not
+being able to secure feed at any time. There should be storage capacity
+for 4 cars of 30 tons each, in other words, for 120 tons of feed. Still
+greater capacity than this is desirable. In connection with the feed
+storage there should be a place where the feed can be mixed and where
+feed can be cooked. Two power operated feed mixers are required as one
+is not sufficient during the busy season to allow the mixing and feeding
+of the mash for both the breeders and the young stock at the same time.
+A feed cutter is necessary in preparing the green feed which is mixed in
+the mash. The usual type of kettle feed cooker is commonly used for
+boiling fish and preparing other cooked feeds but in its place a small
+four-horse steam boiler can be utilized to good advantage as this makes
+it possible to cook the feed right in the mixer by using a steam hose.
+
+_Killing and Picking House._ A killing and picking house where the ducks
+can be prepared for market is another necessary building but this need
+not be an expensive building. It must be located with reference to its
+convenience to the rest of the plant. It is also desirable to locate it
+over a spring if one is available for the spring water can be used to
+excellent advantage in cooling the dressed ducklings. When a spring is
+not available water must be piped to this building. The killing house is
+usually built with at least one side open or partly open. A place is
+provided outside the picking room where the ducks can be hung and bled.
+Inside room is required for six or eight pickers. A kettle for heating
+water to be used in scalding the ducks is necessary as are also tanks in
+which to place the ducks after they are picked. Additional room is
+needed where the ducks can be weighed and packed ready for shipment.
+
+_Residence._ In addition to the other buildings enumerated, a residence
+would of course be necessary. The size and elaborateness of this and
+consequently its cost depends entirely upon the owner's needs and
+wishes.
+
+_Horse Power._ One horse and wagon for the purpose of drawing the feed
+about the plant and for certain other necessary work would be required.
+If the owner desires to do his own hauling of the feed from the railroad
+and the other necessary trucking he would, of course, have to keep more
+horses, a team at least, or an automobile truck. Where only one horse is
+kept, this trucking must be hired done.
+
+_Feeding Track._ On many of the larger duck farms, a feed track is
+employed in feeding the stock. Such a track consists of a framework of
+sufficient strength to support a car filled with mash which is pushed
+along the track by hand. The track leads from the feed mixer across the
+various yards where the ducks to be fed are located, including both the
+breeding ducks, yard ducks and brooder ducks in yards. This involves a
+considerable amount of trackage which must be fairly level and which
+runs over the yard fences or along the ends of the yards so that the
+feed can be shoveled directly from the car into the feeding trays in the
+yards. The use of a feed track simplifies the feeding considerably but
+its construction is quite expensive. Where a track is not used, the feed
+as mixed is dumped into a low wagon which is driven along the yards, or
+through them by removing movable panels in the fences and the feed
+shoveled from the wagon to the feed trays.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. Power feed mixer. The feed is dumped into a low
+wagon from which it is shoveled to the ducks. (_Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Electric Lights._ Most duck farms at the present time are located where
+electric lighting is available. It is desirable and in fact almost
+necessary to have the various houses wired so that lights can be turned
+on when desired. In addition, lights are usually provided in the yards
+for fattening ducks and are used at night and especially during storms
+to keep the ducks from stampeding.
+
+_Water Supply._ An adequate water supply is essential. This will consist
+of a well or spring furnishing an ample amount of water, a power pump
+and a water supply tank. From the tank, the water must be piped to the
+incubator cellar, the brooder houses, the killing house, the feed house
+and to any of the yards where the ducks do not have access to a natural
+supply of good water. In addition, of course, the water from the same
+tank is usually used to supply the residence.
+
+_Fences._ Not a great deal of investment is necessary in fences since
+the yards are rather small and the fences are low. Two-foot fences of
+two-inch mesh wire are used for the yard ducks while for the little
+ducks 18-inch wire of one-inch mesh is used. The biggest items of
+expense connected with the fences are the cost of the stakes or posts
+used in their construction and the labor used in this work. The portion
+of the yards extending into the water are the most troublesome and most
+expensive to build. In some cases, rather elaborate wooden picket fences
+are used in the water yards. These are more permanent but are more
+expensive to build.
+
+_Labor._ For a plant of the size indicated there would be required in
+addition to an active working proprietor three other men. One man would
+be needed to operate the incubators, one man would devote his time to
+the brooder houses, one man would feed the yard ducks and the fattening
+pens, and one man would do the killing and packing, take care of the
+feathers, clean the yards, etc. Of course, there would be periods when
+these men would not have their entire time taken up with their
+particular duties and this would permit them to turn in and help with
+the miscellaneous work on the plant.
+
+In addition to the regular men employed, additional labor would be
+necessary to do the picking. For this purpose pickers are usually
+brought in and work by the piece. During the spring of 1920 these
+pickers received six cents per duck and they will average about 75 ducks
+a day, beginning work at 6 in the morning and finishing by noon or a
+little later. Some pickers will average as high as 100 ducks a day. In
+the busy season from 800 to 1200 ducks will be marketed per week and the
+usual practice is to kill and pick not over three days a week, usually
+during the first part of the week.
+
+_Invested Capital._ Investment in the business exclusive of working
+capital, that is to say, the money in the land and buildings and other
+equipment would require under present conditions about $1,000 for each
+thousand ducks marketed. In other words, in a plant of this size, close
+to $30,000 would be invested. The amount of invested capital depends to
+some extent upon location and upon the elaborateness of the buildings
+and other equipment but with a well laid out economical plant an
+investment of the size indicated should be sufficient.
+
+_Working Capital._ In addition to the capital invested in the plant
+there would be required a considerable amount of working capital. From
+the first of November to the beginning of the marketing of the ducks
+there would be required from $6,000 to $8,000 with which to purchase
+feed, meet the pay roll, and for other running expenses. Even after the
+marketing begins there would be a period of from a month to six weeks
+when the expenses will continue to be greater than the receipts so that
+some additional capital might be necessary. However, returns would begin
+to come in which could be used to take care of the more pressing current
+obligations so that additional working capital which might be needed
+over that indicated would not be large.
+
+_Profits._ The profits in commercial duck raising vary widely, as must
+be expected, depending upon the management, upon the season and upon
+prices received. After deducting all overhead charges and interest on
+the investment, the net return per duck should be at least 10 cents per
+duckling marketed. In fact the return should be 15 cents to provide much
+inducement to engage in the business. Some seasons the returns will run
+greater than this but on the other hand, there is always the chance of
+occasional big losses.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Management of the Breeding Stock
+
+
+_Age of Breeders._ On most large commercial duck plants the entire
+breeding stock is renewed each year. In other words, the breeders are
+kept only through their first laying season. This makes it necessary to
+select from the young stock reared and save for breeders as many head as
+it is desired to carry for the coming year. This practice is used for
+the reason that ducks lay best during their first year. Therefore, since
+it is desired to keep up the maximum egg production in order to raise as
+many market ducks as possible, young breeders are considered better.
+Some raisers, however, keep a part of their breeding ducks for two years
+and occasionally for 3 or even 4 years but this is not the usual
+practice. Recent comparison made between young and two year old ducks as
+breeders would seem to indicate that ducklings hatched from the eggs of
+the latter live a little better.
+
+_Distinguishing Young from Old Ducks._ In this connection it is of
+interest to know how young ducks can be readily distinguished from the
+older birds. The young ducks have bright yellow legs and bills while
+the old ducks after a period of laying, lose a considerable amount of
+the yellow from these sections. In addition, soon after the ducks begin
+to lay, their bills as a rule will begin to be streaked with black.
+Young ducks can also be told from the old ducks by feeling of the end of
+the breast bone which runs to a point at the abdomen. In the older ducks
+this is hard while in the young ducks it is gristly and bends easily.
+The windpipe of an old duck is hard and rather difficult to compress or
+dent while in the young duck it is softer and easily dented.
+
+_Selection of Breeding Ducks._ The breeders are usually selected from
+the ducklings which reach market age from the last week in June through
+July. As these lots become ready for market and are driven into the pens
+to be slaughtered each duck is handled and any especially good birds
+which the proprietor thinks will make good breeders are thrown out at
+this time.
+
+In making selection of breeders those are chosen which are healthy and
+thrifty and which have good wide, long and deep bodies. Ducks with
+crooked wings, crooked tails, hump backs or paddle legs are rejected for
+this purpose. After the young ducks for breeders are selected they are
+put in a yard or fattening pen until the number which the owner expects
+to keep is complete. These young breeders generally begin to moult soon
+after they are selected and from this time on they are fed whole corn
+and plenty of green feed until it is time to begin feeding the laying
+ration. Some of the breeding ducks will usually begin to lay about
+December 1 although they will not lay heavily at that time. The laying
+ration described later should be begun about that time or a couple of
+weeks earlier.
+
+_Number of Females to a Drake._ As a rule on commercial duck farms the
+birds are mated in the proportion of about one drake to seven ducks.
+This proportion will vary to some extent under different methods of
+management and weather conditions and may run all the way from 1 to 5 to
+1 to 8. The smaller number of drakes should be used late in the season
+while the larger number will give better fertility early in the breeding
+season.
+
+Since the drakes do not fight seriously, flock matings can be made.
+Better results will be obtained from smaller flocks than from large
+flocks and there will also be less cracked eggs and less very dirty eggs
+from the smaller flocks. Before the ducks are let out in the morning
+there is a tendency for them to run back and forth through the pens, and
+in this way they tramp over many of the eggs which are laid anywhere
+about the floor. The larger the flock the more cracked and dirty eggs
+will result. While the drakes do not fight each other they do at times
+injure and kill the ducks to some extent when three or four drakes may
+chase one duck. In this way they may injure the ducks' backs and often
+pick their eyes and necks. Whenever a duck is found which is injured she
+should be removed from the flock. Difficulty of this sort is most
+prevalent about the 1st of March. If the trouble gets very bad it can be
+stopped to some extent by cutting back the upper bills of the drakes
+about one-fourth of an inch with a tinsnip or by reducing the proportion
+of drakes.
+
+_Securing Breeding Drakes._ It is common practice on duck plants to
+avoid inbreeding by securing drakes from some other flock each year.
+This is usually accomplished by buying the drakes outright from some
+neighboring duck farmer. It may also be accomplished by purchasing a few
+eggs for hatching in order to secure new blood. In any particular
+community there is a tendency for the duck farmers to trade breeding
+drakes among themselves for a period of years with the result that they
+all have much the same blood and not a great deal of benefit is obtained
+from securing the drakes from some neighbor's flock. It is undoubtedly
+good practice to go farther afield occasionally for a supply of breeding
+drakes. In purchasing stock for new blood be sure that it is as good as
+the home stock and better if it can be found. It will do no good to
+purchase and use inferior stock and may do much harm.
+
+
+Houses and Yards for Breeders
+
+The breeding flocks are usually confined to breeding yards. The size of
+these yards depends upon the size of the breeding flock but large yards
+are not required. A yard for 200 breeders is not as a rule larger
+than 100 by 200 feet including the water part of the yard. Houses and
+yards should be located on sand if possible as this is easier to keep
+clean and therefore keeps the birds in better condition. Occasional
+flocks of breeding ducks are allowed their liberty but this is not
+common practice nor is it good practice unless the surroundings are
+clean and the ducks do not have access to stagnant mud or refuse in
+which they can work. If ducks work too much in this kind of material
+they will eat more or less of it which injures the eggs for hatching
+purposes.
+
+Many different styles of houses are used for breeders, some of which are
+decidedly more elaborate than is necessary. A very satisfactory
+economical house is one 20 feet deep, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet at
+back, with a shed roof. This can be constructed of tongue and groove
+material or may be made of unmatched stuff and covered with paper. A
+house of this proportion makes a good light house and it can be carried
+in length according to the size of the flock. For a breeding unit of 200
+ducks, which is a good unit to use, a house 20 feet deep and 30 to 40
+feet long is suitable. No floor is used in the house but it should be
+well filled up with dirt so that the water will not come in.
+
+One or more good sized openings are left in the front of the breeding
+house for ventilation, or windows may be placed in the front which can
+be used for this purpose. Good ventilation is necessary. Additional
+ventilation is secured from the doors. If the weather is mild the doors
+are left partly open, if cold they are nearly closed, while when the
+weather is hot they are left entirely open. A good scheme is to use a
+sort of Dutch door so that the bottom or top half can be opened
+independently. In this way the top part of the doors can be left open so
+as to let in the sunlight and still keep the ducks in the house or the
+top may be left closed and the bottom opened so as to allow the ducks to
+go in or out and still cut down the amount of ventilation. When the
+weather is warm the doors may be left entirely open except for a board
+18 inches to 2 feet wide inserted in the bottom of the door when it is
+desired to keep the ducks in.
+
+Shade is essential for the breeders and if not provided naturally by
+trees must be supplied by means of artificial shelters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17. Upper--Rear and end view of house or shed used
+for fattening ducks. Lower--General view on a duck plant, showing open
+front fattening houses in the foreground and houses for breeders in the
+background. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18. A good house for breeding ducks. It is 20 feet
+deep, 40 feet long, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet in the rear and will
+accommodate 200 breeders. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding Houses._ Usually straw, meadow hay,
+or swale hay is used for bedding. Shavings make good material for this
+purpose if they do not contain too much sawdust. The principal objection
+to shavings is that it takes longer to bed with them. Often a few joists
+are laid at the back of the house on which to pile bales of straw or
+other bedding so that it will be kept dry and will serve as an emergency
+supply available for bedding the house in stormy days. The houses should
+be bedded fairly often in order to keep the floors clean and dry and so
+as not to allow the ducks' feet to get cold. The frequency with which
+bedding is necessary will depend upon the weather. In winter it may at
+times be necessary to bed every day. In May it may be necessary only
+twice a week and still later in the season only once a week. In wet
+weather the ducks track in lots of mud and water and frequent bedding
+helps to keep the eggs clean. The houses are cleaned out only once a
+year and this is usually done after the ducks have stopped laying. To
+clean out the houses while the ducks are laying would disturb them and
+tend to stop their egg production.
+
+_Cleaning the Breeding Yards._ The yards should be cleaned whenever they
+need it, that is, whenever they begin to get sloppy or sticky. It is a
+matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary. The character of
+the soil influences this, as sandy yards absorb the droppings better and
+do not need cleaning as frequently as heavier soils. In the yards for
+the breeding ducks, or the water yards, this will as a rule not be over
+2 or 3 times a season. In dry weather cleaning is accomplished by
+sweeping the yards with a broom. In wet weather the droppings spread
+over the yard and are packed down by the ducks' feet until they form a
+layer of putty-like material which cannot be swept off but is scraped
+off by means of a hoe.
+
+_Water Yards for Breeders._ Formerly it was the consensus of opinion
+that breeders needed water in which they could swim in order to keep in
+good breeding condition and to give the best results in fertility of the
+eggs. At present it is not considered necessary to have sufficient
+water to permit swimming although many breeders prefer to do this and
+feel that they get better results from it. However, breeding ducks have
+been and are being kept successfully in dry yards where water is
+supplied to them simply in an amount sufficient to allow them to drink
+and to clean themselves. Where water yards are provided this should not
+be on stagnant water but there should be some circulation of the water
+so as to keep it clean and fresh. Where the lay of the land is such that
+it is not possible to run all the yards down to a stream for this
+purpose it is sometimes possible to dig a canal or ditch from the stream
+to the yards so as to allow the ducks access to the water. Where the
+yards can extend into the water it saves a great deal of labor or
+considerable expense in equipment as it is not then necessary to provide
+the ducks with drinking water by means of some artificial arrangement
+such as a concrete gutter or ditch extending through the yards or by
+means of artificial ponds.
+
+If the water yards used freeze over in winter it is necessary to cut
+holes in the ice so that the ducks can get water for drinking purposes.
+Sometimes the ducks will go into these water holes and after getting
+their plumage wet will come out and sit down in the yard and freeze fast
+to the ground. During such weather conditions it is necessary to make
+the rounds of the yards frequently and to loosen any ducks that have
+frozen fast. If they are left in that condition they are apt to
+injure themselves in trying to pull free and if left too long will die.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. Another successful type of house for breeding
+ducks. It is 20 ft. by 40 ft. and is divided into two pens each of which
+will accommodate 100 breeders. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. Meal time for the breeders. (_Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Feeding the Breeders._ Breeding ducks are fed twice a day, in the
+morning and at night. It is usual practice to feed the breeders last in
+the morning and first at night. The reason for feeding them last in the
+morning is that they are usually fed in the yards rather than the house
+and they should be kept in until they are through laying which will be
+after daylight. A good breeding ration consists of the following, the
+proportions being given by measure in bushels.
+
+1 bushel bran.
+1 bushel low-grade flour.
+1 bushel corn meal.
+1 bushel green feed.
+1/2 bushel either raw or cooked vegetables.
+1 bushel in 10 of beef scrap.
+1/2 bushel in 10 of cooked fish.
+
+This ration will keep the breeding ducks in good flesh but there will be
+no difficulty in their getting too fat. It is also a good laying ration
+and will promote good egg production. The vegetables used in this ration
+usually consist of sugar beets, cow beets, potatoes, etc. However, if
+potatoes are used the amount of flour in the ration should be reduced a
+little so as not to make the ration too heavy. Beets, when used, are fed
+raw cut up and mixed in the feed. Small potatoes, boiled and mixed in
+the feed are more valuable as they have a greater food value than beets.
+Some duck growers feed fish entirely, using no beef scrap. This is done
+where a plentiful supply of fish can be secured by going out into the
+bay after them. However, this is not very good practice for a sufficient
+supply of fish may not always be available and the ducks are so fond of
+the fish that they will not eat well the beef scrap used as a substitute
+for the fish, until they have become used to it. Fish is prepared for
+feeding by boiling it thoroughly in a feed cooker.
+
+The available land on the plant is used to grow a supply of green feed.
+Rye is used for this purpose early in the spring as soon as it is high
+enough to mow. It is mowed the first time when it is like a lawn. At
+this stage it does not have to be cut up. Oats are used in the same way.
+During the summer fodder corn is used. This is the poorest crop for the
+purpose but is as a rule the only one available at that time. Rape is
+sowed in August and its use begun about the time of the first frost and
+kept up until the hard freezes come or until it is buried under the
+snow. Creek grass which is secured from the fresh water streams on Long
+Island by going out in a flat bottom boat and raking it off the creek
+bottom with a wooden rake, is very much relished by the ducks and is
+used whenever it is available. However, the supply of this material is
+not as plentiful as it was formerly and it is rather hard to get. When
+it is available it can be used either in winter or summer.
+
+Good field clover cut up and boiled with the potatoes or with the fish
+makes a good green feed. All of these green materials for use in the
+ration, unless they are already in short lengths, are cut up by means of
+a power feed cutter before they are mixed in the mash. When no other
+form of green feed is available ground alfalfa is used but only half as
+much of this material is mixed with the ration as is used of any of the
+other kinds of green feed. Wherever possible the various duck yards
+should be used to grow a crop of green stuff such as oats or rye as this
+not only helps out on the supply of green feed but also helps to sweeten
+the soil. The growing of a crop on the heavier types of soil used for
+ducks is especially important as such soils are more likely to become
+contaminated from the droppings.
+
+The ration for the ducks is mixed up in a power feed mixer which works
+much on the principle of a power dough mixer. In fact, dough mixers are
+used on some plants. In mixing the feed enough water should be added to
+bring the material to a consistency where it will hold together when
+squeezed in the hand. In fact, the consistency should be between crumbly
+and sticky, but should never be sloppy. The feed is dumped from the
+mixer into a low horse drawn wagon and driven around to the various
+yards where it is shoveled off on to the feed troughs or trays. On some
+large duck plants a track is provided which runs over the yards and over
+this a car loaded with feed is pushed and the feed shoveled into the
+feed trays.
+
+The breeders should be fed in the same place. If feeding is begun in the
+house this practice should be continued. If feeding is begun in the
+yards it should be continued there. To change disturbs the ducks and
+interferes with their egg production.
+
+Coarse ground oyster shell about as large as corn should be kept before
+the breeders all the time in boxes where they can help themselves. A
+flock of 700 or 800 breeders will eat upwards of 200 pounds a week of
+this material. Unless sand is available in the yards where they can get
+it, ducks should also have access to a supply of good sharp creek sand
+but when kept in sand yards no other form of grit need be furnished.
+
+The usual method of feeding is to utilize flat troughs on which the feed
+is shoveled. Only as much feed should be given at the regular feeding
+time as the ducks will eat up clean. This makes it necessary to watch
+the feeding carefully and to regulate the amount accordingly. It is good
+practice to gather up any feed that is left by the ducks so that it will
+not lie there to sour and spoil as such feed is bad for the birds.
+
+
+Egg Production
+
+The average egg production of Pekin ducks kept under commercial farm
+conditions will run from 80 to 125 eggs per head for the season. This
+will vary somewhat from year to year and also with the management and
+feed given the ducks. The laying begins to a small extent about December
+1 and gradually increases until the ducks are laying freely in February.
+As the hot weather of summer begins to come on the laying drops off
+until about July 1 and after this not enough eggs are produced as a rule
+to pay to hold the breeding ducks longer. Often many ducks will stop
+laying considerably before this, especially those which have started
+laying early and it may not pay to keep such pens later than May. Laying
+takes place early in the morning and practically all the eggs are laid
+soon after daylight. It is for this reason that the ducks are usually
+shut up at night so that all the eggs laid will be secured as some of
+them would otherwise be lost by their being laid around in the yard or
+in the water. In the spring the ducks can be let out about 6 a. m., as
+the laying will be pretty well over by that time, but in winter they
+must be kept shut up later in order to secure all the eggs. After the
+ducks start laying in the spring they are very regular and continuous
+layers and will miss fewer days than most hens.
+
+After the breeding ducks are first put in the breeding pens and shut in
+the houses at night it is common practice to use electric lights for the
+first 2 or 3 weeks in order to keep them from stampeding as ducks in
+strange surroundings are quite nervous and are quite likely to stampede
+and to run over one another thus causing cripples. Electric lights have
+also been used to some extent during the late fall and winter for the
+purpose of inducing egg production earlier than the natural season. As a
+rule the ducks can be started to laying about 4 weeks after turning on
+the lights but the average production under this system is not likely to
+run more than 60 eggs for the season as so handled they moult quite
+early in the spring. A single 25 watt light is sufficient for a house or
+pen 16 x 24 feet and the lights are left turned on all night.
+
+The object in feeding and caring for the breeding ducks is to keep them
+from moulting and to keep them laying as long as possible. It must be
+remembered that any radical change in feed or manner of feeding,
+shutting them up too closely, change of temperature, or other disturbing
+conditions are likely to cause moulting and to check egg production. Any
+change in feed must be made carefully and gradually, not suddenly. It
+must also be remembered that ducks are excitable birds and must be
+handled and driven carefully so as to disturb them as little as
+possible.
+
+
+Time of Marketing Breeders
+
+The breeders should be turned off to market whenever their egg
+production drops off so decidedly that it no longer pays to hold them.
+In most cases this will be about the 1st of July but it may range
+considerably earlier than this, especially with pens of ducks that have
+started laying early. When the ducks finish laying their eggs they begin
+to moult and it is at this time that they should be marketed. If
+marketing is delayed, the ducks will lose condition as the moulting
+progresses and will therefore be held at a loss.
+
+
+Diseases and Pests
+
+_Disease._ Old ducks, that is, mature ducks, are practically free from
+disease. Of course, there will be a certain amount of loss in the
+breeding stock from various causes but this should not run for the
+entire season more than 10% of the flock. Ducks do not become egg bound,
+but sometimes, especially during heavy laying, they become ruptured.
+
+_Insect Pests._ Ducks are remarkably free from lice and other insect
+pests and those which they do have do not trouble them much. It is
+unnecessary therefore to take any precautions in the way of treating the
+ducks to keep them free of insects.
+
+_Dogs._ Occasionally trouble may be experienced from dogs. If these
+animals get into the yards with the breeders or the fattening ducks,
+they may kill a good many and in addition will seriously injure the rest
+by chasing them and by the fright which the ducks are given.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Incubation
+
+
+The Pekin duck is essentially a non-broody breed. It, therefore, becomes
+necessary to resort to incubators for the purpose of hatching the eggs.
+Occasional ducks will sit if allowed to do so but it is not the practice
+on commercial duck farms to allow them to sit and hatch their young. No
+special means are taken to break them of broodiness other than not to
+allow them eggs to sit on.
+
+_Kinds of Incubators Used._ Both the smaller kerosene lamp heated
+incubators and the large or mammoth hot water heated incubators are used
+for hatching duck eggs. At the present time the mammoth hot water
+machines are those which are in principal use due largely to the
+lessened labor required to operate them.
+
+_Incubator Cellar._ It is necessary to provide some room in which the
+incubators can be installed and operated. This may take the form of a
+cellar, or the incubators may be operated in rooms above the ground.
+Many of the incubator cellars on duck farms are only partially under
+ground and not a few of them are built entirely out of ground. The
+particular size and shape of the cellar or incubator room will, of
+course, depend upon the number of incubators to be installed and upon
+their make and shape. Usually these buildings are constructed with
+rather thick walls so that the temperature of the room will fluctuate
+less with changes in outside temperature. Provision is also necessary by
+means of windows or other ventilating devices to provide for good
+ventilation in the room. The cellars are usually constructed with cement
+floors as moisture is used freely and wooden floors would rot out
+quickly.
+
+_Incubator Capacity Required._ The aim on commercial duck farms is to
+hatch all of the eggs produced which are suitable for the purpose.
+Practically no eggs are sold except the cracked eggs or those which
+would not give good results in the incubator such as too large or too
+small eggs. Occasionally, of course, there will be sales of duck eggs in
+comparatively large lots for incubation purposes where someone is
+starting a duck farm. Occasionally also duck farmers buy from each other
+a few eggs for incubation in order to secure new blood. On the whole,
+however, practically all of the eggs laid are incubated and it is
+necessary to have an incubator capacity sufficient to take care of the
+eggs as they are produced during the flush season.
+
+Since the egg production at this time will run around about 80% and
+since the period of incubation is 28 days and a couple more days must be
+allowed to take the ducklings out of the machines and to clean up the
+machines, it is necessary to figure on 30 days between hatches. To take
+care of the flush production at this time there would be required an
+incubator capacity of from 20 to 25 eggs per head of breeding ducks. The
+latter figure is a safer estimate than the former. Of course, eggs
+sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity are not put in the
+machines at any one time but different lots are put in as soon as a
+sufficient number is obtained to make it worth while. There will be,
+therefore, eggs in various stages of incubation in different sections of
+the machines at the same time. While Pekin duck eggs will run about 1/2
+heavier in weight than hens' eggs they do not take up a proportionately
+greater amount of space in the incubator. An incubator tray will
+accommodate about 5/6 as many Pekin duck eggs as it will hens' eggs.
+
+_Age of Hatching Eggs._ Duck eggs should be set as often as enough are
+secured to fill one or more trays in the incubator or enough to produce
+a sufficient number of ducklings to utilize brooding space to advantage.
+Since duck eggs deteriorate more rapidly than hens' eggs they cannot be
+kept so long before they are set. It is best not to save them for longer
+than one week. During the season of flush production it is not, of
+course, necessary to save them that long since enough eggs will be
+secured to set each day if desired. The usual practice at this time is
+to set twice a week. During the early part of the season when the
+production of eggs is low and the temperature cool the eggs are often
+saved for as long a period as two weeks without noticeably bad results.
+
+_Care of Hatching Eggs._ Eggs for hatching should be kept in a cool
+place. Any place suitable for keeping hens' eggs for hatching is a
+suitable place for duck eggs. The temperature should be from 50 deg. to 70 deg.
+Fahrenheit. Where the eggs are not kept longer than one week, it is not
+necessary to turn them, especially if they are kept on end. If kept
+longer than this it is safer to turn them once a day or once in two
+days, handling them carefully so as not to crack any or to injure their
+hatching qualities.
+
+_Selecting the Eggs for Hatching._ Medium sized eggs are preferred for
+this purpose. Therefore, the extremely large eggs and the very small
+ones are thrown out. Rough shelled eggs or eggs with crooked or deformed
+shells are likewise thrown out since they are not likely to hatch well.
+Eggs that are badly soiled so that they cannot be tested easily are
+washed but the clean eggs are not. All the eggs intended for incubation
+purposes are sounded by striking them gently against one another in
+order to detect and remove the cracked eggs. No selection is made on the
+basis of color. The eggs may be white, creamy white or a blue, or bluish
+green in color. At the present time a considerably less proportion of
+the eggs show a blue tint than formerly. As the egg laying season
+advances the eggs laid by the ducks tend to get a little larger.
+
+_Temperature._ Up to the time of testing, that is, about the fifth day,
+the incubator is run at a temperature of from 101 to 102 degrees. After
+the fifth day the temperature is kept as near 103 as possible. The most
+sensitive period for a duck egg is during the first 3 or 4 days of
+incubation. If they are allowed to get too warm during this time the
+germ may be killed while if the temperature is too low, development will
+be retarded.
+
+_Position of the Thermometer._ In figuring on the proper temperature at
+which to run the incubator, the thermometer should be so placed that the
+bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs, preferably touching a
+fertile egg. If the thermometer bulb rests on an infertile egg the
+temperature recorded will be lower than the actual temperature of
+fertile eggs in the later stages of incubation, due to the animal heat
+of the developing embryos, with the result that the machine would be
+operated at too high a temperature.
+
+_Testing._ It is common practice to make only one complete test. This is
+done on the evening of the fifth day. Testing may be done by means of an
+ordinary candling device such as is used with hens' eggs, each egg being
+examined separately. To save time a piece of apparatus may be used which
+is simple in construction and which simplifies the process of candling
+considerably. This may be termed a testing table. It consists of a
+table the same width as an incubator tray and longer than the tray. In
+the table there is an opening the size of a row of eggs and beneath this
+are placed several electric light bulbs with reflectors back of them so
+as to throw the light up through the eggs. By sliding the tray along the
+table each row of eggs is brought over the lights and their condition
+can be quickly noted. At this test all the infertile eggs are taken out
+as well as any eggs in which the germs have died. The infertile eggs
+after a careful retest are then packed in cases and sent to market where
+they are usually sold to bakers as tested eggs. While no second test is
+made of the eggs left in the machines the experienced incubator operator
+is constantly on the watch for and is constantly removing any eggs which
+die at a later time. To the experienced eye the color of the egg
+indicates that it has died as it takes on a sort of pinkish or darkish
+tint. Duck eggs after they die will spoil very quickly and must be
+removed promptly as the odor which they throw off is very strong and
+will prove harmful to the other eggs. The inexperienced operator can
+readily locate dead eggs by smelling over the tray.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. Interior of house for breeding ducks. Notice the
+heavy bedding and the feeding track. (_Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. Incubator cellar on large duck plant. Trays of
+eggs set out to turn and cool. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Turning the Eggs._ The eggs are neither turned, cooled nor otherwise
+disturbed after they are put in the incubator until after they are
+tested on the fifth day. From this time on they are turned twice a day,
+morning and night, until they begin to pip.
+
+_Cooling the Eggs._ There is a considerable difference in the practice
+of incubator operators with regard to cooling. No cooling should be done
+until after the first test. After this some incubator men cool the eggs
+by dropping the doors of the machine. Others take the trays of eggs out
+and put them on top of the machine. Cooling is usually done once a day.
+The amount of cooling which the eggs require seems to vary greatly and
+here again the judgment of the operator comes into play. About the best
+general rule which can be given is that the eggs should be cooled until
+they do not feel warm to the face but they should never be cooled to the
+extent that they feel cold to the face or hands. The length of time to
+bring this about varies with the age of the eggs and the temperature of
+the room.
+
+_Moisture._ A good deal of moisture is used in incubating duck eggs. It
+is usual to begin to spray the eggs with water the next day after
+testing. However, this may vary anywhere from the sixth to the tenth
+day. They are sprayed quite thoroughly, some men using water enough so
+that it runs out of the bottom of the machine. No particular care is
+taken to see that the water used is warm. Ordinary water just as it
+comes from the pipes is commonly used and is applied by means of a spray
+nozzle attached to a hose. However, extremely cold water should not be
+used for this purpose. This spraying is done once or twice a day as the
+operator may think necessary until the eggs begin to hatch. In many
+cases even then if the ducklings seem to be drying too fast after they
+come out of the shell, or to be having difficulty to get out it is well
+to open the machines and wet the eggs down thoroughly.
+
+_Fertility._ The fertility varies with the season that is, with the
+weather. At the beginning of the laying season when the weather is cold
+the fertility usually runs rather low. This is likewise true at the end
+of the laying season when the heat of summer sets in. During the
+interval between these two times of low fertility there will usually be
+one or more periods during which the fertility will go down and then
+come back again. This seems to occur even though the weather remains
+about the same and though there is no change in the method of feeding.
+Fertility may be considered to be good when it runs about 85%. When the
+fertility is running poor the hatching of the eggs left in the machines
+after testing will usually be poor also.
+
+_Hatching._ It takes longer as a rule from the time that the ducklings
+pip the eggs until they hatch than it does with chicks. To retain the
+moisture which is so necessary during hatching, the machines are usually
+shut tightly and are not opened until the hatching is pretty well
+completed unless it becomes necessary to add more moisture as indicated
+above. The little ducklings should be left in the incubator until the
+hatching is over and they are thoroughly dried off. As soon as the
+hatching is completed, the ventilators in the machines are opened to
+hasten the drying process. If the ducklings open their bills and pant
+it is an indication that they are not getting enough ventilation and
+this should be supplied by fastening the machine door open a little way.
+If the ducks are not ready to be taken out of the machines by noon or
+soon after, it is best to leave them until the next morning before
+removing them to the brooder house. In the meantime, however, the old
+eggs and shells and other refuse should be taken out. Usually the hatch
+is completed in time so that the ducklings can be removed to the brooder
+house on the afternoon of the 28th day. As a rule the earlier the hatch
+is completed the better are the ducklings.
+
+Figures secured on results in hatching for the entire season on Long
+Island duck farms indicate that as a whole the duck raisers will not
+average much over 40% hatch of all eggs set. Some hatches may run as
+high as 60% or even more and in some seasons the average percentage will
+run higher than 40. Some especially skilled operators may also secure
+considerably better average results than this. It is quite a common
+practice on the part of duck farmers to pay their incubator man a bonus
+on all ducklings over 40% hatched during the season. This bonus may
+range anywhere from $1 to $5 per thousand ducklings. Such an arrangement
+serves to give the incubator man a greater incentive to give the
+machines good attention and to secure just the best results of which he
+is capable.
+
+_Selling Baby Ducks._ Within the last two or three years there has
+sprung into existence a small but increasing trade in baby ducks. They
+are handled and shipped about the same as baby chicks. Baby ducks are
+ready for shipment as soon as they are thoroughly dry, usually about 12
+hours after the hatch starts to come off. They are neither fed nor
+watered before shipment and are packed in cardboard boxes used in
+shipping baby chicks. As a rule the shipping boxes will accommodate
+about half the number of ducklings that they will chicks. Of course the
+outside temperature very largely governs the matter of the number to a
+compartment. In warm summer weather, a two compartment box intended for
+50 chicks will accommodate 26 ducklings if well ventilated at the sides
+and top. They are shipped by parcel post and can be sent anywhere within
+a radius of one thousand miles if the trip does not require more than 36
+hours. For best results the ducklings should not be allowed to go much
+beyond this length of time before they are fed. On receipt they should
+be placed immediately in a brooder already prepared for them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Brooding and Rearing the Young Stock
+
+
+Young ducks are easier to brood than chicks. They seem to learn more
+quickly where the source of heat is and they are less likely to cause
+trouble from crowding. They are also less subject to disease.
+
+_Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder House._ The
+ducklings should be left in the incubator until they are thoroughly
+dried off. Usually they will be dried so that they can be moved on the
+afternoon of the 28th day of incubation. If, however, they are not ready
+early in the afternoon it is best to leave them in the machine until the
+next morning. In moving the ducklings, place them in boxes, baskets or
+other suitable carriers and cover them with burlap or cloth to avoid any
+danger of the ducklings becoming chilled.
+
+_Brooder Houses Repaired._ There are many different types and styles of
+brooder houses which are used with success. For this reason only one
+type of each class of brooder house needed is described in detail. These
+particular houses have been in successful use for a considerable period
+of time and are given because they embody all the necessary requisites
+for such houses and at the same time utilize the space to good advantage
+and are economical in construction.
+
+In general there are required three different brooder houses. The first
+of these requires sufficient heating capacity so that the temperature of
+the house itself can be maintained at 65 to 70 degrees even in the cold
+weather of winter or early spring. In addition, hovers are required in
+this house under which a temperature can be maintained from 80 to 90
+degrees. For convenience this house will be spoken of as brooder house
+No. 1. A second brooder house which can be called brooder house No. 2
+will be required which is equipped with heating apparatus so that the
+temperature can be run up to 60 degrees when required. The third brooder
+house known as brooder house No. 3 is a cold brooder house or one
+without artificial heat. It furnishes shelter for the young ducks where
+they can be driven in at night and during the day in cold weather. As
+the ducklings pass out of the brooder house No. 3 they are housed in
+sheds or shelters with yards which usually extend into the water but
+which may not do so in all cases.
+
+
+Brooder House No. 1
+
+The length of this house determines its capacity, the required amount of
+which will depend upon the output of any particular plant. There should
+be brooder capacity in this house sufficient to care for approximately
+1/4 of the total output for the year at one time.
+
+_Construction of House._ A suitable house which has been in practical
+use for some time consists of one 20 feet wide and running east and west
+with windows in the south or front side. If the location were right such
+a house could be run north and south to good advantage and should then
+have windows on each side so as to let in the sunlight from both
+directions. The front wall of this house is 7 feet high, the back wall 4
+feet. The ridge of the house is about 2 feet in front of the center, the
+front slope of the roof having an eight inch pitch while the back slope
+has a 6 inch pitch. The roof rafters are 2 x 4's placed every two feet.
+The studs and plates are likewise 2 x 4. The walls are made of matched
+material. The roof is constructed of 1 x 2 inch strips placed every 4
+inches and these covered with shingles. Tie beams every 8 feet extend
+from front to rear plates. This particular brooder house is not ceiled
+but a good tight ceiling 8 feet above the walk or runway would make it
+easier to keep the house clean and would also render it somewhat easier
+in cold weather to maintain the temperature desired. The house is built
+on a concrete wall or foundation and a dirt floor is used but the dirt
+must be filled in well above the level of the ground outside so that
+there is no danger of water coming into the house or the floors becoming
+damp or sloppy. Windows are placed in the front wall, one to each pen.
+In every other pen there is a small door in the back of the house to
+facilitate cleaning out the pens. A window can be substituted for this
+door to good advantage as it makes the house lighter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. Interior of No. 1 brooder house showing walk and
+hover combined in the middle of the house and pens on each side.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Heating Apparatus._ Heat is furnished by means of a coal burning stove
+which heats water and causes it to circulate through pipes run the
+length of the house. The heater must always be placed in the windward
+end of the building as otherwise it is hard to get the heat down to the
+other end as the wind tends to drive it back. The hot water pipes are
+carried down the center of the house and the return pipes are located in
+the same place. A low partition is run lengthwise of the house dividing
+the pipes and thus forming double pens, half extending from the center
+to the front and half from the center to the rear of the house. The
+pipes and the partition between them is covered over with boards making
+a 4 foot walk or runway directly over the pipes, which comes into most
+convenient use as a place to convey, by means of a wheelbarrow, feed or
+other material needed in the house, and as a convenient place from which
+to care for the ducklings in the pens on each side. This board covering
+over the pipes also serves to hold the heat and thus forms hovers.
+
+It is advisable to partition off the first third of the house, that is,
+the portion in which the heater is located, with a solid partition. Then
+by having suitable valves in the pipes, the heat can be cut off from
+the rest of the house and only the smaller partitioned off end used as a
+separate and independent section of the brooder. This is especially
+useful when only a small number of ducklings are being hatched early in
+the spring when the weather is cold and it may be difficult to heat the
+whole building properly. It is also economical in fuel under such
+conditions.
+
+If, on the other hand, the number of ducklings hatched during the cold
+weather is so large that all or nearly all of the house capacity is
+needed to care for them, it will usually pay to install an additional
+heater, the pipes from which can be run along the rear wall of the
+building, in order to keep up a proper house temperature when the
+weather is severe.
+
+_Pens._ Having the hovers in the center of the house, makes it possible
+to have double sets of pens, one running from the center to the front
+wall and the other from the center to the rear wall. The pens are
+divided off by means of partitions made of one foot boards. These are
+high enough to confine the ducklings to their own pen and at the same
+time are easy to step over. In a house of this width, 20 feet, with 4
+feet in the center taken up by the double hovers or walk, each pen is 8
+feet long in the clear or 10 feet to the partition under the hover. The
+pens in the first third of the house are made 5 feet wide, in the next
+third 6 feet and in the last third 7 feet wide. When the ducklings are
+first brought from the incubator cellar they are placed in the pens
+nearest the heater as the temperature will run somewhat higher there
+than in the portions of the house more remote from the heater. These 5 x
+10 foot pens will accommodate 125 baby ducklings although better results
+will be obtained by placing only 100 in a pen if sufficient room is
+available. Some duck growers use boards which can be slipped into slots
+made of cleats nailed to the pen partitions at different distances from
+the hover and which serve to confine the baby ducklings close to the
+hover for the first few days or until they learn to go under the hover
+to get warm.
+
+As additional ducklings are hatched later and brought to the brooder
+house, the ducklings already there are moved along the necessary number
+of pens in order to accommodate the new-comers in the pens nearest the
+heater. For this purpose, a small door is made in each partition next
+the outside wall of the house through which the ducklings can be driven.
+A broom is a handy implement to use in driving the ducklings as they can
+be pushed along in front of it. It is best to drive the ducklings just
+after they have been fed as they are not so nervous and afraid at that
+time.
+
+The increased width of the pens in the second and third portions of the
+house is for the purpose of taking care of the growth of the ducklings
+as they are moved along the house. Pens of the same width as those in
+which they were started become too crowded as the ducklings increase in
+size.
+
+_Equipment of the Pen._ The equipment of the pens is quite simple. Water
+is piped through the house along both walls so that it is available to
+each pen. A spigot is provided in each pen and under this is placed the
+drinking dish, which consists of a round metal pan about a foot in
+diameter and 3 or 4 inches deep. A square pan should never be used as
+the ducklings are apt to get their bills caught in the corners. One
+quarter inch mesh wire netting is bent in a circle and placed in the
+drinking dish as a guard to keep the ducklings from getting into the
+pan. This guard should be made of such size that there is a space
+between the wire and the edge of the dish of about 1-1/2 inches all around.
+This guard should be about 8 inches high. The water pan itself is set
+upon a wire covered frame about 18 inches square under which is dug a
+pit 4 or 5 inches deep to drain away any water which the ducklings slop
+out of the pan. Such an arrangement keeps the pens from becoming sloppy
+and damp.
+
+Each pen must also have a flat metal dish on which to place the feed for
+the little ducks. Metal pans are better than wooden feeding trays as
+they are easier to keep clean.
+
+In each pen is provided a small hopper filled with fine sharp creek sand
+to which the ducklings have access at all times. Some duck growers
+prefer to mix the sand in the feed rather than to provide it in hoppers.
+After the ducklings are allowed to run in the yards, sand need not be
+furnished if the yards are sand as the ducklings will help
+themselves. If the land in the yards is not sand, however, it is
+necessary to continue to furnish this material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. Watering arrangement in the brooder pens for
+young ducklings. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. Another type of No. 1 brooder house. Here the
+hovers are along the back of the house and the work is done from an
+alleyway along the front. The box with handles on top of the hover is
+used in carrying the newly hatched ducklings from the incubator cellar
+to the brooder house. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Grading and Sorting the Ducklings._ As the ducklings are moved from pen
+to pen through this house as well as the other houses, they are
+constantly graded for size and thriftiness, the smaller, less thrifty
+individuals being left with younger lots. Some ducklings do not grow as
+quickly as others, and these if left with ducklings larger than
+themselves will not get their share of the feed and will not do as well.
+In this connection it should be noted that when young ducks are not
+fairly clean it is a good indication that they are not doing as well as
+they should.
+
+_Cleaning and Bedding the Pens._ Careful attention must be given to
+keeping the pens and the ducklings themselves clean if they are to do
+well. Therefore the pens must be cleaned out as often as may be
+necessary to accomplish this purpose. The judgment of the brooder man
+must decide how often this is necessary but it will be at least once a
+week. When cleaning the pens the old bedding is thrown out from the
+front pens through the windows and from the back pens through the door
+provided in the rear wall for this purpose. Bedding the pens must be
+done more frequently, usually about every other day. Fresh bedding will
+help to absorb the droppings and will keep the pens from becoming sloppy
+or sticky. For bedding, straw, meadow hay, swale hay or any other
+suitable material available should be utilized.
+
+_Ventilation._ Plenty of ventilation is required in the brooder house in
+order to take out the ammonia odor which arises from the droppings.
+Properly managed, the doors and windows provide sufficient means of
+ventilation but some duck growers prefer to have roof ventilators in
+addition.
+
+_Other Types of Brooder Houses._ Many other types of brooder houses are
+used, some of them being shed roof construction and many of them being
+built narrower than this house, that is to say, 14, 16 or 18 feet wide
+with an alleyway along the front or rear side of the house from which
+the work is done. The hovers are placed at the back of the pens when the
+alley-way is in the front, otherwise, they are placed next to the
+alley-way. The disadvantages of these houses are that only single pens
+are provided and that valuable brooding space is used up by the
+alley-way. The advantages of the house described above lie in the fact
+that the hovers are in the center of the house with the pens on each
+side of this, thus doubling the capacity, and that by making use of a
+walk over the hover pipe no room is wasted in an alley-way. Having pens
+on each side also lessens the labor of taking care of the ducklings to
+some extent as the arrangement is more compact.
+
+
+Length of Time in Brooder
+
+_In House No. 1._ As a rule the ducklings are kept in the No. 1 house
+until they are from 2 to 3 weeks old, this of course depending somewhat
+upon the time of year and the weather and also upon the number of
+ducklings for which accommodations must be provided at any particular
+time. As the ducks are moved down through the house and eventually reach
+the last pens they are taken from this house and placed in brooder house
+No. 2.
+
+_Brooder House No. 2._ This is a heated house like brooder house No. 1
+but in which it is not necessary to maintain so high a temperature.
+Sufficient heating apparatus should be installed to make it possible to
+maintain the temperature at 60 degrees if this becomes necessary in the
+early spring.
+
+The particular brooder house described is 14 feet wide and has a shed
+roof. It is provided with a window in the front of each pen. No openings
+are required along the back since this is not a double pen house. The
+space in such a house could undoubtedly be used to better advantage if
+it were constructed as wide as the No. 1 house and the hot water pipes
+and walk put through the middle of the house so as to provide double
+pens. In this house the hot water pipes are run along the rear of the
+pens, and while hovers are not really necessary, a walk is constructed
+over the pipes in order to save space and provide a convenient place
+from which to do the work, and this forms hovers.
+
+Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is needed in the No. 2 house. The pens in
+this house are 12 feet wide and they are equipped with feeding and
+watering arrangements as in brooder house No. 1. As the ducklings are
+moved to this house from the No. 1 house from 150 to 200 are placed in
+each pen. They are moved through the house from pen to pen in the same
+manner as in the No. 1 house to make way for new arrivals. As a rule
+they stay in this house about two weeks depending somewhat on the
+weather and upon the number of ducklings being brooded. Yards are used
+in connection with this house which are the same width as the pens and
+50 feet in length. As in the No. 1 house the pens in this house should
+be cleaned at least once a week and they should be bedded with straw or
+other bedding material every other day. As soon as the ducks have been
+moved through this No. 2 house they are put in brooder house No. 3.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. Brooder house No. 2 and yards. The trees furnish
+fine shade for the growing ducklings. (_Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+Brooder House No. 3
+
+This is a shed roof house 16 feet wide equipped with single pens. No
+heat is required in this house. Yards of the same width as the pens and
+50 feet deep are used. Usually the ducks are fed outside the house from
+a wagon driven along a roadway just in front of the yards.
+
+The pens are 16 feet wide and the same number of ducks is used in them
+as in the No. 2 house. As a rule the ducks stay in this house about 2
+weeks and are then moved to the duck pens or shelters with the larger
+yards which may or may not have water. From this point on the ducks are
+termed yard ducks.
+
+In all three of the brooder houses the young ducks are supplied with
+their drinking water from pipes through the houses. They are not given
+access to water until they are moved to the yards.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. Brooder house No. 3. At the time this picture
+was taken there were no ducklings in the house and advantage was taken
+of this fact to give it a good cleaning by throwing out the bedding and
+droppings, which will be hauled away and spread on cropped land.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. Long brooder house and yards with feeding track.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. Upper--Pekin ducklings 3 days old. Lower--Pekin
+ducklings 2 weeks old. Duck egg used for size comparison. (_Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. Upper--Pekin ducklings 3 weeks old. Lower--Pekin
+ducklings 6 weeks old. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. Interior of a cold brooder house. The low
+partitions can easily be stepped over. (_Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Yard Accommodations for Ducklings
+
+As the ducklings get to be 8 weeks old they can stand ordinary weather
+conditions and it is not absolutely necessary to have houses for them.
+However, it is common and good practice to provide shelter where they
+can be housed at night and can take refuge from storms. A suitable house
+for this purpose consists of a building 16 x 24 feet divided into two
+parts with 200 ducklings to a side. This house is 5 feet high in front
+and 3-1/2 feet in back. It is set on posts with a baseboard around it to
+make it tight. It can be constructed of matched stuff or unmatched stuff
+covered with paper. The front is left open but curtains are placed on
+the front which can be used to close the openings so as to keep out the
+snow. These are used only in the winter. When the ducklings are first
+started in these sheds they are shut in when desired by means of wire
+panels fitted into the lower part of the open front. The ducklings are
+left in these yards and fed there until they are ready for market.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. Eat, drink and grow fat for tomorrow they die.
+Fattening or yard ducks with fattening house or shelter used.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Shade._ Shade is important for the ducklings as soon as the sun gets
+hot. Exposure to the sun without shade will cause quite a heavy loss in
+ducklings. If natural shade is not furnished by trees, some artificial
+means must be adopted to supply the shade. This may take the form of
+shelters or low frames covered with boards, brush or burlap.
+
+_Feeding._ The first feed and water is given as soon as the ducks are
+placed in the No. 1 brooder house or when 24 to 36 hours old. They are
+fed 3 times a day, in the morning about 6 a. m., at noon, and at night
+about 4:30 or 5 o'clock. The time of feeding should be regular, and
+fairly early in the morning but not any earlier in the afternoon than
+one can help so that the time between the evening and the morning feed
+will not be too long. Some growers prefer to feed 4 or 5 times daily for
+the first week or two. The birds are fed as much as they will clean up
+at each feeding and if any feed is left it should be gathered up so that
+it will not sour and cause digestive troubles.
+
+The first feed consists of the following:--One measure corn meal, one
+measure bran, one measure ground crackers, stale bread or shredded wheat
+waste, one measure in 10 of beef scrap or fish, one measure in 6 of
+creek grass or other very fine green stuff. Green rye or oats should
+never be used for this purpose after it becomes jointed. If the feed is
+mixed up with cold water about -1/2 measure of low-grade wheat flour should
+be used to cause it to stick together. If hot water is used in the
+mixing this is not needed.
+
+Sand must be fed either by mixing it in to the extent of about 3% of the
+ration or the sand can be fed separately in hoppers as previously
+described. This same mixture may be fed in the No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3
+brooder houses, or in other words, until ducklings go to the yards, or
+ration No. 2 given below may be substituted either at the start or after
+a week or ten days. After the ducklings go to the yards the following
+fattening ration is used: 200 pounds corn meal, 100 pounds low-grade
+flour, 100 pounds bran, 1 part in 10 of beef scrap and 2 tubs or bushels
+of green stuff. Some duck growers prefer to feed 300 pounds of corn meal
+instead of 200 pounds. This ration like the other is fed 3 times a day.
+Of course, there are many different rations in use with good results,
+every grower having more or less personal preferences in this matter. A
+proper proportion of animal feed, consisting of beef scrap or fish is
+very important as the ducklings will not grow and make normal gains if
+this is omitted or reduced in amount.
+
+Much has been written about the feeding of celery seed to fattening
+ducklings for the purpose of improving the flavor of the flesh and
+formerly ducklings were advertised and sold as "celery-fed". As a matter
+of fact, the amount of celery seed fed was small and it is questionable
+how much influence it had on the flavor of the birds. At the present
+time, celery seed is not used in fattening the ducklings on most of the
+large duck farms of Long Island.
+
+A comparison of gains made by ducklings on two different rations is
+shown in the following table. Ration No. 1 consists of the fattening
+ration given above. Ration No. 2 consists of 100 pounds bran, 100 pounds
+corn meal, 50 pounds rolled oats, 50 pounds gluten feed, 10% beef scrap.
+The ducks used were three days old at the first weighing and there were
+27 in each lot. After the second weighing the number in each lot was
+reduced to 24 ducks.
+
+                    Feed No. 1                    Feed No. 2
+              Total Weight  Average Weight  Total Weight  Average Wt
+August 14         4-3/4 lbs.        0.176         4-3/4    lbs.    0.176
+August 21        10      "          0.37          9-1/2     "      0.352
+August 28        16-1/2  "          0.687        17-1/2     "      0.729
+September 5      25      "          1.041        27         "      1.125
+September 13     44-1/2  "          1.854        48-1/2     "      2.02
+September 19     50      "          2.083        56-1/2     "      2.354
+September 27     64      "          2.666        67         "      2.62
+October 4        78-1/2  "          3.27         82-1/2     "      3.437
+October 11       99-1/2  "          4.145       103-1/2     "      4.312
+October 18      115-1/2  "          4.812       119         "      4.958
+October 25      126      "          5.25        135         "      5.62
+
+_Lights for Ducklings._ Often when the ducks are about one-third grown
+or about 4 weeks old they will stampede at night at any unusual noise or
+any other disturbance. In doing this, especially when they are in fairly
+large lots, they surge back and forth in the pens, running over one
+another with the result that their backs are torn and scratched while
+not infrequently more serious injuries result and may cause cripples.
+To keep them quiet it is common to use lights at night. Formerly
+lanterns were used but now on most duck plants electric lights are
+available for this purpose. For a house 140 feet long, six 15-watt
+lights scattered at equal intervals will be sufficient, and these can be
+used in like proportion for houses of other lengths. The lights are left
+on all night. Even when the ducks are half grown and may be out on the
+yards it is still necessary to use lights on stormy nights so that they
+will stay in and keep quiet and not get drowned in the rain. With a 16 x
+24 foot house such as described previously, a single 25 watt light is
+sufficient. Ducklings are especially likely to be stampeded during
+thunderstorms and if a storm is coming up it is well to turn on the
+lights and to shut the ducklings in their shelters when they are first
+placed in the yards. One should not carry a lantern when moving among
+the ducklings at night as this will cause moving shadows which are very
+likely to frighten and stampede the birds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. Another type of duck shed used on Long Island.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. Convenient feeding arrangements. At the right of
+the feeding track runs a water pipe with spigots and pans at frequent
+intervals. At the left are the feeding trays. (_Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Pounds of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck._ It is stated by long
+established duck growers that from 5 to 7 pounds of feed is required,
+this including the feed given to the breeding ducks for the season, to
+produce a pound of market duck.
+
+_Water for Young Ducks._ Drinking water is provided to the ducklings
+while in the brooder houses by means of a piped supply. The drinking
+pans are filled at each feeding time but at no other time. Water is not
+left before them continuously while they are in the brooder houses as
+they would be working in it all the time and this would keep them dirty
+and make the house sloppy. After they are put out on the yards they may
+or may not be provided with water in which they can swim. Most duck
+growers on Long Island allow them to have access to water. While it is
+undoubtedly true that swimming in the water induces them to take more
+exercise and thus tends to reduce somewhat the rapidity of fattening, at
+the same time it lessens the labor very materially as they do not need
+to be provided with a supply of drinking water other than the water in
+which they swim. Ducklings can be grown very successfully with only a
+limited amount of water, that is, only enough to drink and in which to
+wash themselves.
+
+_Age and Weight When Ready for Market._ Ducklings are usually marketed
+when they are 10 to 12 weeks old. A partial moult on the neck and breast
+occurs about this time giving them a somewhat rough look. This indicates
+that they are in proper condition to kill. If killing is not done within
+a week after this moult starts they will begin to lose flesh and it will
+be some time before they will fatten again. Ducks when ready to ship
+will average from 5 to 6 pounds. A majority will weigh nearer 5 than 6
+pounds. A pen of fattened ducks is driven up to the killing house and
+into a pen where each one is caught up and examined to see if it is in
+good condition. If the duck has a good smooth breast so that the
+breastbone is not felt when handled and is well fleshed on the back it
+is ready to kill. If it is not in this condition it is thrown out and
+these thin ducks are returned to the yards for further fattening or are
+utilized for shipping alive. Thin ducks are generally used for live
+shipments as they will not shrink as much as well fattened ducks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. An important part of rations for ducks. Green
+feed ready to be cut up into short lengths suitable for mixing in the
+feed. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. Feeding fattening or yard ducks from the feeding
+track. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Cripples._ There will always be found in the flocks more or less
+crippled ducks and those with crooked backs, twisted wings, etc. As a
+rule ducks with twisted wings fatten well and are in good condition and
+can be killed about as soon as any of the others. The crippled ducks are
+sorted out into a lot by themselves where they are held until they can
+be put into condition to market. It is doubtful whether it pays the duck
+growers to bother with these ducks since they are rather difficult to
+condition and it would probably pay better to kill them. However, it is
+quite common practice to carry them until they can be marketed.
+
+_Cleaning the Yards._ The yards must be cleaned whenever they need it.
+It is a matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary but they
+must be cleaned whenever they get sticky or sloppy. The weather will
+have a considerable influence upon the frequency of cleaning which may
+be necessary once in two weeks, or in the yards of brooder houses Nos. 2
+and 3 may run as often as once a week. In dry weather the yards are
+cleaned by sweeping up the droppings and carting them away. In wet
+weather the ducks in running about over the yard pack down the droppings
+until they form a sort of putty-like layer which has to be scraped off
+with a hoe.
+
+_Critical Period with Young Ducks._ The critical period with young ducks
+is the first week of their existence. With good management after they
+have passed this point not many are lost. The loss in young ducks from
+the time they are hatched until they are ready for market will range all
+the way from 5 to 30%. When the loss does not average more than 10% for
+the season this is considered good. Undoubtedly many duck raisers lose a
+greater percent than 10.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37. Yard ducks at rest. (_Photograph from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry. U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38. On this plant, the lay of the land was such that
+not all of the yards could be run down to the stream. So a shallow canal
+was dug from the stream through the yards which were without natural
+water frontage. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+Disease Prevention
+
+Trouble from disease in young ducks is not severe although there is a
+greater loss from this source than in the case of mature ducks. The aim
+of the grower should be to use such methods of management and feeding as
+will keep the ducklings in good health and reduce the losses to a
+minimum. To accomplish this care must be taken to see that the brooding
+temperatures are correct, that the feed used contains what the ducklings
+need, that they are not overfed and that the house and yards are clean
+and dry and the feed and water dishes are clean. Remember that green
+feed and animal feed are essential ingredients in the ration.
+
+_Gapes or Pneumonia._ One of the principal troubles is a disease which
+is called "pneumonia" by some duck raisers and by others "gapes". It is
+not the same disease which is called gapes in chickens. In fact, it is a
+form of cold which approaches pneumonia. The little ducks stretch their
+necks up and breathe hard and usually die within a comparatively short
+time. This disease may affect either the baby ducks or ducks which are
+old enough to kill. All that can be done is to make sure that the
+housing and brooding conditions are such as to correct the trouble which
+causes the colds.
+
+_Fits._ In addition, the little ducks for the first 3 or 4 days may be
+more or less subject to a disease which is called "fits" by some duck
+growers. With this disease they simply keel over and soon die. It is
+probably a digestive difficulty of some sort. The feeding of plenty of
+green stuff or the turning of the ducks out on grass will usually stop
+this trouble.
+
+_Diarrhoea._ This is a fairly common trouble. It may be due to improper
+feeding, or to too high or low temperature in the brooder. The obvious
+treatment is to remedy the cause or causes of the trouble.
+
+_Lameness._ Not infrequently growers, particularly beginners, experience
+difficulty from a fairly large proportion of their ducklings becoming
+lame. This may grow worse until a considerable number of the birds will
+die. This trouble may be due to a lack of animal matter and mineral
+matter in the ration or may be due to digestive troubles caused by poor
+rations, by over feeding, by failing to gather up feed not eaten by the
+ducklings and leaving it to sour, or by lack of cleanliness of the feed
+and water dishes. Where the pens are allowed to become damp and sloppy
+this may also cause some lameness.
+
+_Sore Eyes._ Occasionally duck growers complain that their ducklings
+suffer from sore eyes. This may be due to a cold causing a discharge
+from the eyes or may be due to the use of too sloppy feed which adheres
+to the eyes and causes an irritation. Affected birds should be placed in
+a separate pen from the others and the eyes should be bathed with an
+antiseptic solution.
+
+_Feather Eating or "Quilling"._ This is a bad habit which is apt to
+cause more or less trouble when the ducklings are about two-thirds
+grown. It is much more likely to occur when the birds are kept in
+cramped quarters. It is usually started by one or a few individuals but
+when the feathers are injured so that they begin to bleed, which they
+will very quickly do, the vice will spread among the whole flock and
+serious damage will occur. It is therefore necessary to be on the
+lookout for this trouble, and as soon as detected, the birds responsible
+should be removed. If the culprits are placed with older birds which are
+already feathered, they will not trouble by trying to eat the feathers.
+It is the blood in the growing feathers which attracts them. If the
+habit has become general, it is more difficult to check. About the best
+thing that can be done, is to turn them out in a roomy yard, one with a
+growing green crop, if available, where they will be so busy as to stop
+the feather eating of their own accord.
+
+_Rats._--Rats are very destructive if they get into the brooder house. A
+single rat has been known to kill and drag off as many as 200 ducklings
+in one night. If a rat gets into the brooder house it is therefore of
+the utmost importance that it be hunted down and killed without delay.
+Otherwise serious losses will result.
+
+
+Cooperative Feed Association
+
+A very large proportion of the feed used on a duck plant is that which
+is fed to the market ducks. By purchasing feed in considerable
+quantities the duck grower is able to cut down the cost to some extent.
+A number of the duck raisers on Long Island have developed this idea
+further by forming a cooperative feed organization. Stock in this
+concern is held both by the duck growers and by outsiders but is
+controlled by the duck growers. The feed association maintains a feed
+warehouse, purchases feeds in quantity and does business both with the
+duck growers and with other persons in the market for feed. The
+existence of a cooperative feed purchasing association of this sort not
+only cuts down to some extent the cost of feed but likewise makes it
+possible for the duck growers to have greater assurance of securing the
+supply which is so necessary to them during the growing season.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Marketing
+
+
+On commercial duck farms, the business consists mainly of producing
+large quickly grown ducklings which are marketed before they are mature.
+Because of this immaturity, the ducks are quite commonly termed green
+ducks. The business has also become so highly specialized on Long Island
+and this is such a center of the industry, that the birds are commonly
+quoted on the New York market as Long Island ducklings.
+
+_Proper Age to Market._ It is important that the ducklings be marketed
+as soon as they have reached the proper age and stage of development.
+When the ducklings are about 10 to 12 weeks old they begin to shed their
+first growth of feathers. This is apparent first on the neck and breast,
+giving them somewhat of a rough appearance. The ducklings must be
+marketed within one week after they begin this moult. If they are
+allowed to go longer than this they will begin to get thin and as it
+will take them 6 weeks or more to grow a new crop of feathers it will be
+a considerable period before they get back in market condition again and
+any additional weight which they may attain will not be sufficient to
+pay for the feed eaten during this period.
+
+_Weights at the Time of Marketing._ Well grown ducklings should average
+in weight from 5 to 6 pounds at 10 to 12 weeks of age when they are
+ready to be marketed. A majority of the ducks will weigh closer to 5
+pounds than they will to 6. The vast majority of ducklings are marketed
+at this age as it does not pay to keep them past the time they reach
+prime market condition. On commercial duck farms practically the only
+ducks which are marketed at an older age than this are the breeders
+which are turned off at the end of the laying season and the ducklings
+which by reason of their being crippled or less thrifty are not in
+suitable market condition at this time and are held longer until they
+are in good condition. The ducklings are marketed from early spring
+until late fall. The time at which ducklings are first available for
+market in any quantity depends upon the earliness with which the
+breeders begin to lay and the end of the season depends upon how late
+the breeders continue to lay at a profitable rate.
+
+_The Last Feed for Market Ducks._ It is important in order to have the
+dressed ducklings appear to the best advantage and also in order to
+insure their keeping qualities as much as possible that they should have
+no feed in their crops when they are killed. This means that if they are
+to be killed in the morning, which is the usual practice, they should be
+fed for the last time the previous night. If, however, they are not to
+be killed until afternoon they can be fed lightly in the morning.
+
+_Sorting Market Ducklings._ When a pen of ducklings which are being
+fattened are deemed ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing
+house and a few of them at a time driven into a small pen where it is
+easy to catch and examine them. Each duck as it is caught is examined to
+make sure that it is in proper market condition. The examination
+consists of feeling of the duck's body to see that it has a good smooth
+breast so that the breast bone cannot be readily felt. If it is in that
+condition it is ready to kill. Ducks which do not show this condition
+are thrown out and returned to the yards where they are fed for a longer
+period unless it is desired to ship them alive.
+
+At the proper season of the year when breeders for the next season are
+to be selected, suitable birds for that purpose are picked out from the
+market lots as they are examined. In any lot of ducks there will be
+found some cripples. It is common practice to sort these out and group
+them together in a pen by themselves where they are held until they are
+in suitable condition for marketing. It is doubtful whether it pays to
+hold these cripples as they are hard to get in good condition and in
+many cases are probably kept and fed at a loss. Some ducklings will show
+twisted wings but as a rule they are thrifty and will fatten readily and
+be in good market condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. Awaiting slaughter. The fattened ducklings are
+driven into these catching pens. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. Carrying the ducklings from the catching pen to
+the killing place. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U.
+S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Killing._ As the ducklings suitable for killing are selected, 10 or 12
+of them, depending upon the capacity of the killing room, are hung up by
+their feet, the head being fastened down by means of a hook or else
+weighted down by means of a blood can hung from a hook inserted through
+the bill. By means of a long, narrow bladed sharp knife the veins in the
+throat just beyond the skull are severed so as to cause free bleeding.
+The blood flows either into the blood can or into a trough above which
+the birds are hung. The birds are not stuck or brained unless it is
+desired to dry pick them nor are they as a rule stunned by hitting them
+on the head before bleeding. In some states, however, the law requires
+that all birds bled shall first be stunned in this manner. The bleeding
+of the ducks causes their death and they are allowed to hang until they
+are thoroughly bled out. They are then taken down, the blood washed off
+of their heads and placed on a table or on the floor convenient to the
+pickers, other ducks being hung in their places.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. The ducks are hung by the feet and the veins in
+the neck cut from inside the mouth to cause free bleeding. (_Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42. After the throat veins are cut, the ducks are
+allowed to hang until they are well bled out. The blood is caught in the
+trough below. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43. Ducks which have been bled, ready to have the
+blood washed from their heads and mouths before they are picked.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44. After they are bled and washed, the ducks are
+laid in the picking room ready for the pickers. (_Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Scalding._ The picker selects a duck from the table where they are
+placed after being taken down and carries it to a large kettle of water
+which is maintained at a temperature just below boiling. They are
+thoroughly soused in this water holding them by the head and feet so as
+to allow the water to penetrate into the feathers until they can be
+readily plucked. The picker tests the readiness with which the feathers
+come out by plucking a few from the breast or body and thus determines
+whether the scalding is sufficient or whether more is required. Care is
+taken not to dip the feet or head in the water as this might discolor
+these parts. Practically all market ducks from Long Island are scald
+picked at the present time. Dry picking which is demanded in some
+markets such as Boston makes a somewhat better looking carcass and also
+increases the value of the feathers, but is generally considered too
+slow and too highly skilled a process for use on the average duck farm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45. Holding the head in one hand and the feet in the
+other, the picker dips the duck in water heated nearly to the boiling
+point and souses well to work the water into the feathers until they
+pluck easily. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Picking._. After scalding the picker starts removing the feathers. In
+doing this the duck is held either on the lap or on a board nailed to
+the side of the feather box. The feathers on the breast are picked
+first, then working down toward the tail, pulling the feathers with the
+grain. The soft body feathers as plucked are thrown into the feather
+box, the coarser feathers being thrown on the floor. The main wing and
+tail feathers are left on as are likewise some of the feathers of the
+neck next the head.
+
+The most troublesome part of picking ducks is removing the down. This
+may be removed to some extent by rubbing with the hand although care
+must be taken not to bruise the skin severely. In some cases the down is
+shaved off with a sharp knife. In some of the commercial packing houses
+the duck's body is sprinkled with powdered rosin and then dipped into
+the hot water. This melts the rosin so that the down and rosin can be
+rubbed off easily with the hand leaving the body clean. Pin feathers
+are usually removed by grasping them between the thumb and a dull knife.
+
+In some packing houses, ducks are steamed before picking. Where this is
+done they are picked clean and the wing and tail feathers are pulled
+before steaming takes place. Six or eight ducks which have been bled are
+hung at the same time in the top of a steam box or barrel which can be
+made air-tight and the steam turned on until the soft feathers of the
+breast come off easily. The length of time to steam depends on the
+temperature of the steam itself and varies from one-half to 2 minutes.
+In some cases the ducks are hung in a steam box with the heads outside
+so as to prevent the steam from coming into contact with the heads,
+possibly discoloring them.
+
+On Long Island women are used very largely for picking and they secure
+for this service 6 cents per duck. A good picker should do 75 ducks or
+even more a day. The value of the feathers will slightly more than pay
+for the cost of picking.
+
+Picking usually begins early in the morning about 6 o'clock and is
+generally finished by noon or soon after. Most duck raisers figure on
+doing their killing and picking during the first half of the week and do
+not like to kill if they can help it during the latter days of the week.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46. Picking the ducks. (_Photograph from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Dry Picking._ Where the market requires it, the ducks must be dry
+picked. In doing this the procedure is the same as in dry picking
+chickens. After the cut is made to bleed the ducks, the point of the
+knife is plunged through the roof of the mouth until it reaches the
+brain when it is turned to cause a paralysis of the muscles which
+enables the feathers to be plucked more easily. The duck is then struck
+on the back of the head with a club to stun it and make it easier to
+handle when picking. The picker seats himself by the feather box, with
+the duck on his lap, holding the head pressed against the outside of the
+box and held there by the picker's leg. He then proceeds immediately and
+as quickly as possible to pluck the feathers. It is necessary to
+accomplish this without delay, for the feathers soon set and are then
+much harder to pluck and are more likely to result in tears in the skin.
+When removing the down, the hand is moistened when much of the down can
+be rubbed off. Pin feathers are removed by grasping them between the
+thumb and the edge of a dull knife and any which cannot be gotten in
+this way are shaved off with a sharp knife. After picking, the carcasses
+are cooled in cold water the same as the scalded birds.
+
+_Cooling._ After the birds are plucked they are thrown into cold water
+and are left there for several hours or until the body heat is entirely
+removed. It is most important that this be thoroughly accomplished for
+if any body heat is left in the carcasses they are almost sure to become
+green-struck when packed. The length of time that they must be left
+in the water depends upon the weather conditions. If the weather is warm
+so that the water is not very cool it is necessary to add ice in order
+to hasten the cooling and to accomplish it thoroughly. Cooling in water
+also serves to plump the carcasses somewhat.
+
+_Packing._ After the ducks are thoroughly cooled they are removed from
+the water and packed. Long Island ducklings are usually packed in
+barrels. Forty-five ducks will pack in a sugar barrel and 33 in a flour
+barrel. The proper number for the barrel used is placed on hanging
+spring scales and weighed before being packed. The best method of
+packing is to lay the ducks on their sides. If they are packed on their
+backs or bellies, the ice used between the layers is apt to cause a
+cutting or bruising of the soft abdomens and injure the appearance of
+the carcasses. Between each layer of ducks a scoopful of cracked ice is
+used although in cool weather it may only be necessary to use half a
+scoop of ice. After the barrel is packed it should be allowed to stand
+for a while to settle. Then the top of the barrel is piled up with
+cracked ice and covered with burlap. On the side of the barrel is marked
+the number of ducks and their weight. Later a card is tacked alongside
+of this showing the consignee's and the shipper's names as well as the
+number of ducks and their weight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. Dressed duckling. The main feathers of the tail
+and wings and the feathers of the neck part of the way from the head to
+the body are left on. The rest of the body is picked clean. (_Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. After thorough cooling a sufficient number of
+ducks to fill a barrel is weighed out and packed with or without ice
+depending upon the weather. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Shipping._ The barrels should be packed and shipped the same evening.
+Shipping may be done either by express or by automobile truck. A good
+many of the Long Island ducklings are now shipped into New York City by
+truck.
+
+_Cooperative Marketing Association._ The duck growers on Long Island
+have formed a cooperative marketing association. This association
+maintains its own house in New York City and sells practically the
+entire output of Long Island ducklings, controlling probably 90%. During
+the year 1919 there were in the neighborhood of 800,000 head of ducks
+marketed through this house. Practically all of the capital stock of
+this concern is held by the duck growers and they are not allowed to
+sell any of their stock without first offering it to the association.
+
+_Prices for Ducks._ Early in the season the ducklings bring the best
+prices, that is to say from March 1 to May 1. Then as the output of
+ducks increases prices gradually drop. The heaviest shipments occur in
+June, July and August. In September as the output of ducks begins to
+drop off the price begins to climb a little. The following prices as
+quoted in the New York Produce Review show the range from March, 1920,
+to June, 1921.
+
+
+Long Island Ducklings--Fresh Dressed
+
+
+1920
+
+March 31            45c per lb.
+April 21            45c  "   "
+  "   28            38c  "   "
+May 5               35c  "   "
+ " 12               35c  "   "
+ " 26               35c  "   "
+June 2              35c  "   "
+ "   9              35c  "   "
+ "   16             35c  "   "
+ "   23             35c  "   "
+ "   30             35c  "   "
+July 7              35c  "   "
+ "   14             35c  "   "
+ "   21             35c  "   "
+ "   28             35c  "   "
+August 4            36c  "   "
+  "    11           36c  "   "
+  "    18           36c  "   "
+  "    25           36c  "   "
+September 1         36c  "   "
+    "     8         37c  "   "
+    "     15        37c  "   "
+    "     22        38c  "   "
+    "     29        38c  "   "
+October 6           38c  "   "
+   "    13          38c  "   "
+   "    20          39c  "   "
+   "    27          39c  "   "
+November 3          40c  "   "
+
+
+1921
+
+March 30            48c per  lb.
+April 6             46c  "   "
+  "   13            38c  "   "
+  "   20            38c  "   "
+  "   27            38c  "   "
+May 4               35c  "   "
+ " 11               32c  "   "
+ " 18               28c  "   "
+ " 25               28c  "   "
+June 1              28c  "   "
+
+The following quotations from the same source give the prices for frozen
+Long Island ducklings.
+
+
+1920
+
+January 7           41c per  lb.
+   "    14          41c  "   "
+   "    21          41c  "   "
+   "    28          41c  "   "
+February 4          41c  "   "
+    "    11         41c  "   "
+    "    18         41c  "   "
+    "    25         41c  "   "
+March 3             41c  "   "
+  "   10            41c  "   "
+  "   17            41c  "   "
+November 10         40c  "   "
+    "    17         40c  "   "
+    "    24         40c  "   "
+December 1          40c  "   "
+    "    8          40c  "   "
+    "    8          40c  "   "
+    "    15         40c  "   "
+    "    22         40c  "   "
+    "    29         40c  "   "
+
+
+1921
+
+January 5           40c per lb.
+   "    12          40c  "   "
+   "    19          40c  "   "
+   "    26          40c  "   "
+February 2          41c  "   "
+   "     9          41c  "   "
+   "     16         41c  "   "
+   "     23         41c  "   "
+March 2             41c  "   "
+   "  9             41c  "   "
+   "  16            41c  "   "
+   "  23            41c  "   "
+
+Quotations from the same source are given below to give some idea of the
+range in price of the live Long Island spring ducklings and likewise of
+live old Long Island ducks or breeders.
+
+
+Long Island Spring Ducklings--Live.
+
+
+1920
+
+March 3             50c per lb.
+  "   24            50c  "   "
+  "   31            55c  "   "
+May 5               40c  "   "
+ "  12              40c  "   "
+ "  19              36 @ 40c per lb.
+ "  26              40 @ 41c  "   "
+June 2              40c per lb.
+ "   9              36 @ 38c per lb.
+ "   16             36c per lb.
+ "   23             37c  "   "
+ "   30             38c  "   "
+July 7              38c  "   "
+ "   14             38c  "   "
+ "   21             40c  "   "
+ "   28             40c  "   "
+August 4            38c  "   "
+   "   11           34 @ 36c per lb.
+   "   18           38c per lb.
+   "   25           38c  "   "
+September 1         40c  "   "
+    "     8         42 @ 45c per lb.
+    "     15        45c per lb.
+    "     22        45c  "   "
+    "     29        40c  "   "
+October 6           42c  "   "
+   "    13          42c  "   "
+   "    27          42c  "   "
+November 3          42c  "   "
+    "    10         42c  "   "
+    "    17         44c  "   "
+    "    24         44c  "   "
+December 1          44c  "   "
+"        15         42 @ 46c per lb.
+
+
+1921
+
+March 2             55c  "   "
+  "   9             55c  "   "
+  "   16            52c  "   "
+  "   23            50c  "   "
+  "   30            55c  "   "
+April 6             50c  "   "
+  "   13            40c  "   "
+  "   20            45c  "   "
+  "   27            38 @ 42c per lb.
+May 4               38c  per lb.
+"   11              38c  "   "
+"   18              33c  "   "
+"   25              33c  "   "
+June 1              32c  "   "
+
+
+Long Island Old Ducks or Breeders--Live
+
+
+1920
+
+March 17            45c per lb.
+  "   31            45c  "   "
+May 19              30c  "   "
+"   26              35c  "   "
+June 9              30 @ 32c per lb.
+  "  16             32c per lb.
+  "  23             32c  "   "
+  "  30             35c  "   "
+July 7              35c  "   "
+  "  14             35c  "   "
+  "  28             30c  "   "
+August 4            35c  "   "
+April 6             42c  "   "
+  "   13            36c  "   "
+  "   20            39c  "   "
+  "   27            33 @ 37c per lb.
+May   11            33c per lb.
+  "   25            30c  "   "
+
+_Shipping Ducks Alive_. While the great majority of ducks are shipped
+dressed there is some shipment of live ducks. This is particularly true
+during the Jewish holidays in March and in September and October when
+the demand for live ducks and the price paid for them is excellent. As a
+rule it pays better to ship alive the ducks which are inclined to be a
+little thin rather than to ship those which are in top market condition.
+This is due to the fact that fat ducks will shrink very considerably
+when cooped and shipped alive, this shrinkage running from one-half to
+three-quarters of a pound per head where they are cooped not to exceed
+12 to 15 hours. The ducks which are in the fattest condition will shrink
+the most. At the season of the year when live ducks are in best demand
+it often pays to ship alive the ducklings which are sorted out as not
+being in the best condition rather than to hold them for further
+fattening.
+
+_Saving the Feathers._ The feathers from the ducks form quite an
+important source of revenue to the duck farmers. As stated before the
+value of the feathers will a little more than pay for the cost of
+picking and since this is a considerable item of expense the grower
+cannot afford to neglect the feathers. The soft body feathers are kept
+separate from the coarser feathers, the latter being thrown on the floor
+as they are plucked. These coarser feathers are later swept up and are
+commonly spoken of as sweepings. Feathers from dry-picked ducks are
+superior in quality and bring a better price but most of the duck
+feathers now marketed from commercial duck farms are scalded feathers.
+The feathers after each day's killing are gathered up and spread out in
+a loft where they can be placed in a layer not over 3 or 4 inches deep.
+This should be an airy place so as to give the feathers a good place to
+dry out. On the second day they are scraped up in a pile and then spread
+out again, thus turning them over and changing their position. They are
+then left until they are dry enough to sack which should be in a little
+over a week. Unless the feathers are thoroughly dried out they will heat
+when sacked and this will seriously hurt their market quality. When dry
+they are packed either in the large special feather sacks made for this
+purpose or in smaller sacks, about as big as two bran sacks, which will
+hold from 60 to 80 pounds of feathers. The feathers are shipped to
+regular feather dealers or manufacturers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49. A valuable by-product of duck plants. The
+feathers from a duck will pay for the cost of picking. (_Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Prices and Uses of Duck Feathers._ The soft body feathers and the
+coarser feathers often called "sweepings" should be kept and sold
+separate. While scalded feathers are not worth as much as dry picked
+feathers, the former if properly dried out or cured will find a ready
+sale. Feathers packed before they are thoroughly dried out, are likely
+to arrive at their destination in a matted and musty or heated
+condition. This, of course, injures their quality and the price paid for
+them is discounted according to their condition.
+
+The soft body feathers of ducks are used almost entirely for bedding
+purposes, that is, are put in pillows and feather beds. White feathers
+are preferred and usually bring a somewhat higher price.
+
+The prices paid for the feathers vary quite widely at different times of
+the year, and in different sections of the country, and also of course
+with the condition of the feathers themselves. The quotations given
+below represent the prices paid in June, 1921.
+
+Duck Feathers               Cents     Per Pound
+Pure white, dry picked      50         "    "
+Stained and scalded white   40         "    "
+Dark or mixed, dry picked   33         "    "
+Dark or mixed, scalded      20 to 25   "    "
+
+_Marketing Eggs._ On commercial duck farms very few eggs are marketed.
+This is due to the fact that the duck growers find it more profitable to
+incubate all eggs suitable for that purpose and to rear and market the
+ducklings rather than to sell the eggs. There are always, however, a
+certain number of cracked eggs and others which may be too large or too
+small to use for hatching and which are therefore marketed. In addition
+the infertile eggs tested out on the 5th day are sold. The eggs may be
+packed in ordinary 30 dozen egg cases such as are used for hens' eggs,
+utilizing a special filler 5 cells square. With these fillers a case
+holds 20 5-6 dozen duck eggs. A special duck case, holding 30 dozen duck
+eggs may be used, the fillers in this case being 6 cells square like the
+fillers used for hens' eggs. The cells in these fillers are 2 inches
+square and 2-1/4 or 2-1/2 inches deep.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+Duck Raising on the Farm
+
+
+Duck raising as ordinarily conducted on the general farm consists of the
+keeping of a comparatively small flock purely as a side line. Ducks on
+the general farm may be kept for the production of meat and eggs, for
+egg production, or mainly as a breeding proposition where the idea is to
+produce birds of exhibition quality. On occasional farms ducks of the
+rarer breeds are kept mainly for ornamental purposes.
+
+_Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising._ A small flock of ducks on the
+farm can be kept to best advantage where they can be separated from the
+other poultry and where they can have access to a pasture or an orchard
+which will provide them with a plentiful supply of green feed. Ducks
+stand confinement quite well but if they are closely confined it is
+necessary to provide for them the green feed which they cannot secure
+for themselves. On many farms the flock of ducks is allowed to range at
+liberty and under these conditions the cost of maintaining them is much
+lower since they pick up a considerable part of their feed. An enclosed
+run or yard, however, should be available where they can be confined
+when desired. It is also necessary to provide a house or shed in which
+they can be shut at night and during the early morning. Otherwise, many
+of the eggs may be dropped anywhere about the place or in the water with
+the result that some of them will be lost. A pond or stream to which the
+ducks can have access and in which they can swim is a great advantage
+since it helps to keep them in good breeding condition. It is a common
+but mistaken idea that low, wet land is best suited for ducks.
+
+_Size of Flock._--The average farm flock of ducks is small, rarely
+running over 15 to 20 head. In many cases not over 10 or 12 ducks with
+one or two drakes will be kept. A flock of this size will furnish quite
+a large number of ducks for the farmer's table or for sale in addition
+to more or less eggs which can either be used at home or sold.
+
+_Making a Start._ In making a start with a farm flock of ducks it is
+probably best to figure on keeping only a few head. If the farmer begins
+with 4 or 5 ducks and one drake he can make his start at small expense
+and from this number he will be able to increase the size of his flock
+if he finds that results warrant it. Probably the best way to make a
+start is to purchase the desired breeding stock in the fall. This will
+give the ducks a chance to get settled and to be in good condition and
+accustomed to their quarters by spring so that they will begin to breed
+and lay.
+
+Eggs for hatching can be purchased if desired and the young ducklings
+hatched and reared with chicken hens. Baby ducks are rarely purchased in
+making a start as are baby chicks.
+
+_Selecting the Breed._ Any one of the breeds forming the so-called meat
+class will prove satisfactory for a farm flock. This class includes the
+Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Cayuga, Buff and Blue Swedish. The
+birds of any of these breeds are of good size and therefore produce a
+suitable table fowl. At the same time they are layers and will produce
+eggs for the table or for market as well. Where the purpose in keeping
+the ducks is mainly that of producing eggs for market the Runner is
+undoubtedly the breed to select. While these ducks are smaller in size
+the ducklings will make good carcasses of broiler size for the table
+being killed for this purpose when about 2-1/2 to 3 pounds in weight. In
+addition, the Runner is the best laying breed and by many persons is
+considered to be equal in its egg producing qualities to any of the
+breeds of chickens.
+
+Selection of any breed or variety of the meat or egg classes and
+especially the selection of a breed or variety for ornamental purposes
+or for the pleasure of breeding will depend upon the individual
+preference of the owner for body shape, color of plumage and other
+characteristics. A pure breed of some kind should by all means be kept
+in preference to the common or so-called "puddle" duck. Not only will
+the pure breeds give greater uniformity in the carcasses produced but
+the results in egg production will likewise be better.
+
+_Age of Breeding Stock._ The best results in breeding are secured from
+ducks during their first laying season. Not only is egg production
+better but they are less likely to become so fat and large as to
+interfere with the fertility and hatchability of the eggs. In fact, on
+commercial duck farms the breeding stock is entirely renewed each year.
+However, ducks can be profitably kept until they are 2 or 3 years old,
+and it is common practice in a farm flock to hold over some of the
+breeders after they have finished their first year. Of course, where the
+duck breeder has some especially fine stock which will produce just the
+quality he desires in the offspring, he holds and utilizes these birds
+just as long as they are in good breeding condition. As a rule it is
+best not to hold breeding ducks after they have finished their second
+laying season.
+
+_Size of Matings._ The proper number of ducks which should be mated to a
+drake varies with the different breeds. Pekins and Aylesbury can be
+mated in the proportion of one drake to 6 to 8 ducks. In the Rouen mate
+4 or 5 ducks to a drake and in the Cayuga 5 or 6 ducks to a drake. In
+the Muscovy as high as 10 females may be mated with one male. In the
+Blue Swedish and Buff mate in the proportion of 6 or 7 ducks to one
+drake. In the Call and East India breeds from 5 to 8 ducks can be mated
+to one drake. In the Crested White use 5 or 6 ducks and in the Runner
+6 to 8 ducks to a drake.
+
+Where young drakes are used more ducks can be mated to them than is the
+case with old drakes. It is also true that where especially large
+exhibition birds have been reserved for breeding purposes it is
+necessary to reduce the number of ducks mated to a drake as otherwise
+the fertility is very likely to run lower with these older heavier
+ducks.
+
+_Breeding and Laying Season._ Under ordinary farm conditions where the
+ducks receive only fairly good care and feed the laying does not begin
+to any extent until February or March. With exceptional care the ducks
+will begin to lay in January and a few may even lay in December. The
+ducks lay very persistently and continue their laying until hot weather
+sets in or usually about the first of July. They gradually let up in
+their laying until it ceases almost entirely soon after that date. The
+breeding season is at its height in the months of April and May. At this
+time the fertility will run best and the results in hatching will be
+most satisfactory. However, it is possible to continue to hatch the duck
+eggs which are produced with fair results as long as the ducks continue
+to lay.
+
+
+Management of Breeders.
+
+_Housing._ Some sort of house or shelter must be provided for the
+breeding flock. Any available shed or a part of the poultry house may
+be utilized for this purpose. No special requirements are necessary
+except that the house should provide sufficient ventilation. This is
+best furnished by means of a window and in addition, an opening in the
+front of the house should be provided which can be closed by means of a
+curtain during severe winter weather. A board floor is not necessary if
+the dirt floor is filled up 6 or 8 inches above the ground level outside
+the house. The floors should be provided with an abundance of litter
+which is usually changed only once or twice during the year. As the
+litter tends to become dirty more litter must be added. No equipment is
+necessary in the houses as the birds rest on the floor and lay their
+eggs anywhere about the house or wherever they may make their nests. The
+house should be so arranged that the ducks can be shut in at night and
+can be kept there until they have finished laying in the morning. As
+most of the duck eggs are laid early in the morning they can be let out
+by 8 or 9 o'clock in the summer. If let out earlier than this they are
+likely to lay some of their eggs in the pond or stream to which they
+have access and these would be lost.
+
+_Feeding._ On many farms the breeding flock of ducks is fed on the same
+ration which is given the farm fowls. However, better results will be
+obtained if they are given special feeds. After the laying season is
+over the breeding ducks can be fed sparingly on a mash consisting of one
+part by weight corn meal, 2 parts bran, 1 part low grade wheat flour, 1
+part green feed, 8% beef scrap and 3% oyster shell. This mash is mixed
+up with water until it has a consistency just between sticky and
+crumbly. It should never be fed in a sloppy condition. A feed of this
+mash should be given in the morning and at night and during the long
+days of summer it is well also to give a light feed of cracked corn or
+mixed grains in the middle of the day. However, judgment must be used in
+feeding ducks especially if they have range over which they can roam
+where they can pick up more or less animal feed and other material. In
+this case it is not necessary to feed nearly so much. Another mash which
+may be used instead of the one given consists of 3 parts by measure of
+corn meal, 4 parts bran, 2 parts low grade wheat flour, three-fourths
+part beef scrap and 2 parts green feed with a supply of oyster shell.
+
+Along about December 1 the feed should be changed with the idea of
+inducing egg production. A feed consisting of one part by weight corn
+meal, 1 part low grade flour or middlings, 1 part bran, 15% beef scrap,
+15% vegetables or green feed together with oyster shell should be fed
+morning and evening and in addition a feed consisting of corn and wheat
+may be given at noon in a quantity of about one quart for each 30 ducks.
+As much mash should be given them at the morning and evening feed as
+they will clean up.
+
+Another good mash feed which may be used consists of 2 parts by weight
+of bran, 2 parts middlings, 2 parts corn meal, 1 part beef scrap, 1 part
+ground oats and one-tenth of the total weight sand. In addition, of
+course, green feed must be added to the ration if it is not available at
+all times in the yard. This mash is fed in the morning and in the
+evening. The noon feed consists of 1 part by weight of corn and 2 parts
+oats. Where green feed is not available and must be supplied, cut
+clover, alfalfa, rye, oats and corn may be utilized cut up into short
+pieces and mixed in the mash. The mash should be fed either to breeding
+stock or to ducklings on flat trays or boards rather than in troughs as
+the ducks can get at it better in this form. It must be kept in mind
+that while ducks are good egg producers during the laying and breeding
+season they will not lay any great number of eggs unless they are fed
+for this purpose. For rations used on commercial duck farms see Chapter
+IV.
+
+_Water._ It is important that a plentiful supply of drinking water be
+available to the ducks. A fresh supply must be provided at each feeding
+time before the feed is thrown to the ducks as they like to eat and
+drink alternately when feeding. Where the breeding ducks have access to
+a stream or pond of fresh water it is not necessary to provide any other
+supply of drinking water.
+
+Where water is available in which the ducks can swim it is essential to
+see that provision is made so that the ducks can get in and out of the
+water easily. If this is not done they may become exhausted and unable
+to climb out or they may become partially cramped when the water is very
+cold with the result that they will drown. If given access to water in
+which they can swim during cold weather it is necessary to be on the
+look-out to see that the ducks do not freeze fast to the ground when
+they come out of the water.
+
+_Yards._ Where yards are provided for ducks poultry netting about 2 feet
+high is ordinarily used. This will confine most of the breeds but higher
+fences even 5 or 6 feet high must be provided for the breeds which fly
+readily such as the Muscovy, Call, East India, Mallard, Wood and
+Mandarin. In some cases it is even necessary to cover over the tops of
+the yards in order to keep the birds from flying out or to pinion the
+birds, that is, to cut off the outermost joint of one wing. The netting
+used for yards should be strung on posts set in the ground and the lower
+edge should be pegged down so that the birds cannot get under it.
+
+_Care of Eggs for Hatching._ Duck eggs for hatching must be gathered
+each day and should be put in some cool place to be held until they are
+set. They should be turned daily, the same as hens' eggs and the general
+care is exactly similar. It does not, however, pay to keep duck eggs as
+long before setting them as they spoil more quickly than hens' eggs. In
+fact, it is best to set duck eggs when they are not over a week old if
+this can be arranged.
+
+_Hatching the Eggs._ The period of incubation for duck eggs ranges from
+26 to 28 days for all of the breeds except the Muscovy. In this breed it
+takes from 33 to 36 days for the eggs to hatch. Inasmuch as most of the
+commonly kept breeds are not very broody and therefore do not make
+reliable hatchers and mothers it is necessary to resort either to the
+use of chicken hens for this purpose or else to utilize incubators.
+Either one of these methods can be used with good success. With the
+small farm flock it is very common to utilize hens. The ordinary hen
+will be able to cover 9 to 11 duck eggs to advantage depending on her
+size and upon the season of the year. In cold weather the smaller number
+should be used rather than the larger number. Before setting the hen she
+should be thoroughly dusted with insect powder to free her from lice.
+Several hens can be set in the same room but they should be confined on
+their nests allowing them to come off only once a day for feed and
+water. Cracked corn makes an excellent feed for sitting hens. If desired
+Muscovy, Call, East India, Mallard, Wood or Mandarin ducks can be
+allowed to make their nests and to hatch their eggs as they are reliable
+sitters and good mothers.
+
+After the duck eggs first pip there usually elapses a longer period of
+time before the ducklings get out of the shell than is the case with
+chicks. For this reason it is well to take the hens off for feed and
+water when the first eggs are pipped returning them to the nest as
+quickly as possible and confining them there until the hatch is over.
+
+During the last week of incubation it is desirable to sprinkle the eggs
+daily with water using quite a liberal amount as duck eggs seem to
+require more moisture than hens' eggs in order to hatch well.
+
+All duck eggs which are at all badly soiled should be washed before they
+are set. Washing does not seem to injure their hatching qualities. In
+fact, some breeders prefer to wash all duck eggs whether dirty or not,
+feeling that this opens up the pores and causes a better hatch. This
+belief is based upon the idea that when ducks hatch their own eggs under
+natural conditions they have access to water in which they swim and in
+coming back on the nest their wet feathers serve to wash the eggs.
+
+Where an incubator is used for hatching the eggs are placed in the
+machine just as hens' eggs. For the first week the temperature is kept
+about 102 degrees and for the rest of the period is maintained as close
+to 103 degrees as possible, the bulb of the thermometer being on a level
+with the tops of the eggs. Often the temperature will run up a little
+higher than this at hatching time but this does not do any harm. An
+incubator will accommodate from four-fifths to five-sixths as many duck
+eggs as it will hens' eggs.
+
+About the fifth or sixth day the duck eggs are tested and all infertile
+and dead germs removed. From this time on eggs are turned twice a day
+and usually cooled once a day until they pip. A second test may be made
+about the fifteenth or sixteenth day when any eggs which have died are
+removed. If dead germ eggs are left in the machines they spoil very
+quickly and cause a strong odor which makes it necessary to remove them.
+During the last week or ten days and in some cases for a longer period
+than this incubator operators supply moisture daily to the machine. This
+is usually provided by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water which
+has been warmed to about the temperature of the machine. However, if
+warm water is not available, water of ordinary temperature may be used
+although it is not well to use extremely cold water. As a rule the eggs
+begin to pip about the twenty-sixth day. At this time the machine should
+be tightly closed up and left so until the hatching is over. In case
+moisture seems to be lacking and the ducklings are having a hard time to
+get out of the shell the machine can be opened and the eggs sprinkled
+again. If there seems to be sufficient moisture, however, the machines
+should not be opened or disturbed. As a rule it takes ducklings from 24
+to 48 hours to hatch after the pipping first begins. It is advisable to
+leave the ducklings in the incubator until they are well dried off
+before removing them to the brooder. As a rule the hatching will be
+entirely over by the twenty-eighth day.
+
+_Brooding and Rearing._ Ducklings can be brooded if desired by means of
+chicken hens. In this case the ducklings which the hen hatches should
+be given to her and she should be confined to some kind of a coop which
+will allow the ducklings to run at liberty. If the hen is given her
+liberty she goes too far and takes too much exercise for the little
+ducks. Where artificial brooders are used any type of brooding apparatus
+can be utilized which is used with success for chickens. It must be
+remembered, however, that ducklings do not require as high a degree of
+heat as do baby chicks and should be started off at a temperature of
+about 90 degrees under the hover. This can be reduced rather rapidly
+until it is down to 80 at about 2 weeks of age. The length of time that
+the ducklings require heat after this depends upon the season and the
+weather. Even in fairly cool weather they do not need any heat after
+they are 5 or 6 weeks old.
+
+It is necessary to keep the brooders clean and in order to do this they
+must be cleaned out frequently and new litter supplied. While the
+ducklings are small the brooders should be cleaned at least every other
+day and as they get larger, cleaning once a week with the addition of
+fresh litter between times will be sufficient.
+
+_Feeding the Ducklings._ Ducklings do not need to be fed until they are
+from 24 to 36 hours old. At this time they may be given a mixture
+composed of equal parts by measure of rolled oats and bread crumbs with
+3% of sharp sand mixed in the feed. This may be given them five times
+daily although some duck raisers feed only 3 times daily from the
+start. About the third day this feed is changed to equal parts of bread,
+rolled oats, bran and corn meal. After the seventh day the ration may
+consist of 3 parts bran, 1 part each of low-grade wheat flour and corn
+meal, 10% green feed, 5% beef scrap with about 3% of sand mixed in.
+
+The ducklings should be fed four times daily after the seventh day until
+they are two or three weeks old. After that time they need be fed only
+three times daily, morning, noon and night. The sand may be given to the
+ducklings either by mixing it in the mash or by feeding it in a hopper
+where they can help themselves. The mash feed which is prepared for the
+ducklings is mixed with water until it has a consistency a little wetter
+than crumbly but not exactly sticky. Sloppy feed should never be used.
+As the ducklings grow older the amount of beef scrap can be increased
+until it consists of 15% of the ration by the end of the third week. The
+proportion of corn meal can likewise be increased and simultaneously the
+amount of bran decreased until the ducklings are on a fattening ration.
+Unless they have a plentiful supply of green feed in the yards to which
+they have access it is necessary to provide this to the extent of about
+10% of the feed and it should consist of tender green stuff rather
+finely chopped and mixed in with the mash.
+
+About 2 weeks before the ducklings are to be marketed they should be put
+on a ration consisting of three parts by weight of corn meal, two parts
+low-grade flour or middlings, one part bran, one-half part beef scrap,
+10% green feed and about 3% oyster shell or sand. This mash is fed three
+times daily. Another ration which can be used for fattening purposes
+consists of 3 parts corn meal, 1 part low-grade wheat flour, 1 part
+bran, 5% beef scrap and 3% oyster shell with green feed and grit in
+addition.
+
+Where fish is available it can be substituted for the beef scrap but on
+most farms this is impractical. The fish where fed is boiled and mixed
+in the mash. However, no fish should be fed up to within 2 weeks before
+the ducks are killed as there is danger of giving a fishy taste to the
+carcass. For additional information as to feeding methods used on
+commercial duck farms which could be utilized to advantage for the farm
+flocks, see Chapter VI.
+
+Birds which are to be reserved for breeders should be selected out and
+taken away from the ducklings which are to be fattened. These breeding
+birds should be carried along on the ration which they have been
+receiving until about December 1 when they should be put on a laying
+ration.
+
+It is very necessary to see that the ducklings have a plentiful supply
+of drinking water. It is especially important to renew this supply just
+before the ducklings are fed so that they will have ample water while
+they are consuming their feed. The water should be given in dishes deep
+enough so that the ducks can immerse their entire bill as this enables
+them to wash the sand out of their nostrils.
+
+_Water for Ducklings._ In addition to the drinking water provided duck
+raisers sometimes allow the growing ducklings access to water in which
+they can swim. If it is desired to fatten the ducklings quickly and turn
+them off on the market as green ducks many raisers do not consider this
+advisable as it induces the ducklings to take more exercise and makes it
+more difficult to fatten them. However, access to water in which they
+can swim makes it unnecessary to provide any other supply of drinking
+water and for this reason lessens the work considerably. Unless it is
+easy for the ducklings to get in and out of the water there is danger of
+some of them drowning as they are likely to get tired and unable to
+climb out. Little ducklings allowed access to very cold water are
+subject to cramp and may be drowned as a result.
+
+_Distinguishing the Sexes._ It is difficult to distinguish the sexes of
+growing ducks until they begin to reach maturity. There is, however, a
+difference in their appearance. The drakes are coarser or thicker and
+more masculine in appearance showing this especially about the head and
+neck. Also as they secure their mature plumage the drake shows curled
+feathers on top of the tail which are often referred to as sex feathers.
+In addition, the voice of the duck is harsher and coarser than that of
+the drake.
+
+_Marketing the Ducks._ Most of the ducks produced on farms are marketed
+alive. This is because the farmer has no special market and he does not
+find that it pays him to dress and ship the ducks with the chance that
+they might spoil. In fact, most of the farm raised ducks are not turned
+off as green ducks at 10 to 12 weeks as is done on the commercial duck
+plants but are held until fall and then sold as spring ducks. They will
+weigh somewhat more at that time but as a rule the price received per
+pound will be lower than that obtained for green ducks during the spring
+and summer. Where there is a special demand for ducklings which the
+farmer can supply it will pay him to dress and deliver the ducks. If it
+is desired to dress the ducks, the directions given under Chapter VII
+can be modified to suit the farmer's needs. The soft body feathers
+should be saved in accordance with the directions given on page 106, as
+they can be used at home in making pillows or can be sold.
+
+Such eggs as are produced in surplus may either be utilized on the home
+table or sent to market. As a rule duck eggs are not in great demand
+except at certain seasons such as at Easter and during the Jewish
+holidays in the spring and fall when they bring somewhat higher prices
+than hens' eggs. The larger size of duck eggs, however, makes them
+favored by bakers and they can usually be sold at any time in a city of
+any size at prices as good as those received for hens' eggs.
+
+Eggs for market can be packed in the ordinary 30-dozen hen egg cases by
+using special fillers which hold 25 eggs instead of 36 as in the case of
+hens' eggs. See page 119. A farmer with a small flock of ducks will
+usually not have eggs enough to fill a case frequently and for this
+reason he usually finds it more convenient to market the few eggs he has
+by taking them into town in a basket.
+
+_Disease and Insect Pests._ Ducks are very little troubled by insect
+pests, nor are they greatly troubled by diseases. The usual difficulties
+encountered along this line are those discussed under this head in
+Chapter VI. Losses are often experienced as the result of predatory
+animals. Rats will cause a great amount of havoc among the young ducks
+if they are able to get at them. A single night's work on the part of
+one rat may practically clean out a small flock of ducklings. It is
+necessary to make sure that the ducklings are shut in at night so that
+rats cannot get at them.
+
+
+
+
+GEESE
+
+PART II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+Extent of the Industry--Opportunities
+
+
+Geese can be raised successfully in practically all parts of the United
+States and are in fact scattered in small flocks over a considerable
+portion of the country being most abundant in the South and in the
+Middle West.
+
+The census figures for the year 1920 show Illinois with 195,769 geese to
+be the leading state in numbers, closely followed by Missouri, Arkansas
+and Iowa. Next in order of importance as goose raising states come
+Kentucky, Tennessee, Minnesota, North Carolina and Texas. The census
+figures of 1920 compared with those for 1910 show a decrease in the
+number of geese from 4,431,980 to 2,939,203. The only groups of states
+which showed an increase in the number of geese during this period were
+the North Atlantic and the Mountain states. Of the total farms in the
+United States only a small proportion, probably one-tenth, have any
+geese and the number of geese per farm would not average over 4 to 10
+depending on the section.
+
+_Nature of the Industry._ Geese are kept almost wholly in small flocks
+as a side line on general farms. The purpose of goose raising is
+primarily one of the production of meat although in the past flocks of
+geese have been kept to some extent, particularly in the south for the
+purpose of plucking them to secure the feathers. This practice of
+plucking live geese is decreasing and is much less common than formerly.
+The eggs of the geese do not enter to any extent into the egg trade of
+the country. As a rule all the eggs produced are hatched for the purpose
+of rearing young geese and it is only occasionally that goose eggs are
+used for culinary purposes.
+
+_Opportunities for Goose Raising._ Undoubtedly the greatest opportunity
+along the line of goose raising lies in the small flock kept on the
+general farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is to say, where there
+is an abundance of suitable pasture land together with some water to
+which the geese can have access, a small flock can be most profitably
+kept. They can be reared very cheaply as both the young and old geese
+will secure practically their entire living during the summer from
+pasture if an abundant supply of suitable green material is available.
+The cost of rearing them therefore is low. In addition both the young
+and old geese are very hardy and require comparatively little care. They
+are little subject to disease and therefore losses are small.
+
+Geese live and breed for a long time and this makes it possible to turn
+off to market a larger proportion of the young stock reared than is the
+case with most other classes of poultry. For all of these reasons,
+therefore, a small flock of geese will return a good profit to the
+farmer without having to supply any great amount of equipment or without
+having to feed very much in the way of expensive feeds. In addition to
+the geese which can be marketed, the maintenance of a small flock also
+helps to provide a variety in the farmer's diet by furnishing suitable
+birds for the holiday seasons such as Thanksgiving and Christmas.
+
+In addition to the opportunity for goose raising in small flocks on
+general farms there likewise exists a definite opportunity to specialize
+along this line somewhat more extensively. In certain places, notably
+the state of Wisconsin, goose raising becomes a more important activity
+on some farms than merely that of a by-product. Larger numbers are
+reared and special steps are taken in fattening and finishing them for
+market either by means of pen fattening or by means of hand fattening or
+noodling the geese. Geese so finished for market bring a special price
+and allow a good profit to the raiser for the time which he has put into
+them.
+
+An outgrowth of the goose raising industry which has been worked to a
+limited extent consists of the gathering together of the geese raised in
+any particular portion of the country on one farm and the feeding of
+them there in large flocks in the fields so as to fatten them for
+market. There are not many of these special fattening farms but several
+persons in different sections of the country who have made a practice
+of gathering together and marketing the geese in this way have found it
+very profitable. Probably a similar opportunity exists in certain other
+sections where goose raising on the farms in small numbers is common and
+where no one has yet made the effort to collect and fatten the geese
+before marketing them.
+
+While geese are not exhibited to the same extent as chickens, still
+there will always be found a market for birds of good quality, both for
+the purpose of exhibition and also as breeders to be used in improving
+the stock of other goose raisers.
+
+_Goose Raising as a Business for Farm Women._ Like turkey raising goose
+raising as a side line on the farm offers an excellent money making
+opportunity for the farm women. Without any great outlay of capital to
+get a start and without its being necessary to provide much in the way
+of buildings or other equipment, a flock of geese can be started which
+will allow a nice profit to the farm woman for the care and attention
+which she gives them. In this connection it should be remembered that
+while the opportunities for profit may not be so large as in turkey
+raising, yet the care required is much less and the chances of serious
+difficulties due to disease and to inability to raise the young stock
+are relatively small. Goose raising therefore offers a most profitable
+side line employment for the farm woman.
+
+_Geese as Weed Destroyers._ As stated before geese are close grazers. In
+fact, during the growing season of the year green vegetation forms most
+and in some cases practically all of their diet. The vegetation which
+they will eat readily is quite varied and in many cases geese will be
+found to be very valuable in ridding pastures or fields of troublesome
+weeds. In the southern states geese are often kept on farms where cotton
+is raised for the purpose of keeping the cotton fields free from weeds.
+
+
+Objection to Geese
+
+An objection to geese often expressed but without good foundation is
+that they will spoil the pasture for other stock. This is not true if
+the pasture is not overstocked with geese. Of course geese are very
+close grazers and if too many of them are kept on a field they will eat
+the grass down so close that there will be none for other animals to
+get. Similarly the idea that other animals will not eat grass grown
+where goose droppings have fallen is not true except where the birds are
+too thick so that the grass is soiled badly by the droppings.
+
+The fact that geese are noisy creatures makes them undesirable to some
+persons. It is true that they make a good deal of noise and that their
+cry is of a very hoarse, rasping character and to a person with bad
+nerves they may be annoying but this is no valid or weighty objection to
+the normal, healthy farmer. The Chinese geese are the noisiest and
+consequently the greatest offenders in this particular.
+
+A more valid objection to geese lies in the fact of their rather ugly
+disposition. Ganders, especially as they grow older and during the
+breeding season, are decidedly pugnacious and will not hesitate to
+attack human beings. They strike heavy formidable blows with their wings
+and with their strong bills they inflict most painful bites. Where there
+are children about the house it may be necessary to dispose of ugly
+ganders to safeguard the children from serious injury.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+Specimens--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and Handling
+
+
+_Breeds of Geese._ There are six standard breeds of geese consisting of
+the following: Toulouse, Embden, African, Chinese, Wild or Canadian and
+Egyptian. All of these breeds consist of a single variety with the
+exception of the Chinese which is composed of two. The Toulouse is known
+as the Gray Toulouse, the Embden as the White Embden, the African as the
+Gray African, the two varieties of the Chinese as the Brown Chinese and
+the White Chinese, the Wild or Canadian as the Gray and the Egyptian as
+the Colored.
+
+The first four of these breeds are the ones which are commonly kept in
+domestication. In a general way it may be said that these breeds are
+meat breeds for the reason that they are kept mainly for the production
+of meat. The Wild or Canadian and the Egyptian are more in the nature of
+ornamental breeds since they are not so commonly kept and are
+principally to be found where ornamental water-fowls are maintained. The
+Chinese are sometimes classed as ornamental geese on account of their
+smaller size but they are much more commonly kept than either the
+Canadian or the Egyptian and make a good market fowl where the demand is
+not for such a large carcass.
+
+In addition to the standard breeds there are several other rare breeds
+among which is the Sebastapol which is kept purely as an ornamental
+breed by reason of its peculiar feathering. The Sebastapol is a white
+goose in which the feathers of the upper part of the body show a twisted
+or frizzled condition which gives it much the general effect of the
+feathers being curled. In addition to the standard breeds of geese there
+are kept on a great majority of farms ordinary common geese of no
+definite breed or variety. These geese in general are of smaller size
+than the larger standard breeds and have probably arisen as the result
+of the crossing of the standard breeds and the subsequent deterioration
+in size and color marking is due to careless breeding and selection.
+
+In some sections and for certain special purposes definite crosses of
+standard breeds are made for the production of table geese having
+certain desired qualities. For this purpose the African ganders are very
+popular used upon the Toulouse geese. To some extent there is produced
+and marketed a goose known as the mongrel goose. This has excellent
+table quality and is in good demand on account of its superior eating
+qualities and its rapid growth. It is produced by using the Wild or
+Canadian gander upon Toulouse, African or Embden geese. The result of
+this cross is a hybrid goose which has much the appearance of the Wild
+goose but which will not breed although the females will lay eggs. As a
+rule Toulouse or African females are used for the cross rather than
+Embden as from the latter there is a greater tendency to get a lighter
+cross which would not resemble its Wild father so closely and might not
+therefore be so readily recognized as genuine mongrel geese.
+
+_Nomenclature._ The term geese is used to indicate the birds of both
+sexes taken as a whole and also as a plural form for the word goose. The
+term goose is used to distinguish the female of the species. The male is
+given the specific name of gander to distinguish it from goose. The
+young of both sexes are termed goslings. In giving the standard weights
+for the different breeds of geese the birds are classified as adult
+ganders and young ganders and as adult geese and young geese. By adult
+goose or gander is meant a bird which is over one year old, by young
+goose or gander is meant a bird which is less than one year. Not
+infrequently in connection with market reports use will be made of the
+term "green geese". This indicates birds which are marketed when they
+are of large size but still young and immature, the green referring to
+this immature condition.
+
+_Size._ An idea of the size of the different standard breeds of geese
+can best be secured by giving the standard weights. They are as
+follows:
+
+Breed             Adult   Adult     Young   Young
+                 Gander   Goose    Gander   Goose
+
+Toulouse         26 lbs.  20 lbs.  20 lbs.  16 lbs.
+Embden           20  "    18  "    18  "    16  "
+African          20  "    18  "    16  "    14  "
+Chinese          12  "    10  "    10  "     8  "
+Wild or Canadian 12  "    10  "    10  "     8  "
+Egyptian         10  "     8  "     8  "     6  "
+
+_Popularity of the Breeds_. Of the different standard breeds kept the
+Toulouse is undoubtedly the most popular in this country probably due to
+its large size as well as to its quick growth. The Embden follows the
+Toulouse closely in popularity. The Chinese geese are probably third
+most numerous in numbers while the African ranks fourth. In certain
+sections the African seems to be very popular and one would expect to
+find more of this breed than seem to be present on farms. Neither the
+Canadian nor the Egyptians are to be found in any great numbers, the
+latter in particular being very rare.
+
+
+Egg Production
+
+It must always be remembered in speaking of the egg production of any
+breed of poultry that there will be a considerable variation in
+individuals within a breed and that egg production will also be affected
+very largely by the conditions under which the birds are kept. For this
+reason any attempt to give an average egg production for a breed is at
+best only an approximation. These approximations often serve, however,
+to show some well established contrast between the different breeds with
+respect to their egg laying ability. The Toulouse is a fairly prolific
+breed of geese and individuals should average from 12 to 36 eggs, the
+majority laying about 20 eggs. The Embden is very similar to the
+Toulouse in laying ability although probably on the whole not quite so
+good a layer. The African is generally considered a good layer and is
+said to average from 20 to 40 eggs. Some breeders state that the pure
+African are not as good layers as this, being about equal to the Embden
+and that the better laying Africans really have some Brown Chinese blood
+in them which has been introduced to increase prolificacy. The Chinese
+is the most prolific breed. The birds of either the White or Brown
+variety should average from 60 to 100 eggs. The eggs laid by the Chinese
+are smaller than those of the Toulouse, Embden or African. The Wild or
+Canadian and the Egyptian geese are small layers. They rarely lay more
+than one sitting during a season and the eggs will as a rule range from
+4 to 8 in number.
+
+_Size of Goose Eggs._ Goose eggs are decidedly larger than duck eggs.
+There is a considerable variation in size, depending upon the breed. The
+eggs of the Toulouse, African and Embden are of about the same size and
+will vary from 6-1/2 to 8 ounces each. The eggs of the Chinese are smaller
+and will weigh from 5-1/2 to 6 ounces each, while eggs of the Canadian and
+Egyptian are the smallest of the standard breeds, running from 5 to 5-1/2
+ounces each.
+
+_Color of Goose Eggs._ In general goose eggs are whitish in color but
+may shade to a gray or buff tinge. The Wild or Canadian sometimes lay
+eggs which are off the white, showing a considerable green tinge.
+
+
+About Geese and Matings
+
+_Broodiness._ All of the breeds of geese with the exception of the
+Toulouse may be classed as broody breeds, that is to say, they will make
+their nests and hatch their young if given a chance to do so. Not
+infrequently individuals of the Toulouse breed will do this also but as
+a rule they are not dependable for this purpose.
+
+_Size of Mating._ In making the mating it is usual in order to secure
+best results to use one gander with from two to four geese in the
+Toulouse, Embden and African breeds. In fact, better results will be
+secured in these breeds where not over 3 geese are used and in many
+cases the geese are mated in trios or even in pairs. In the Chinese
+geese a somewhat larger mating can be employed, one gander being used
+with 4 to 6 geese. The Wild or Canadian and the Egyptian geese in most
+cases pair only.
+
+_Age of Breeders._ Geese can be retained and will give good results as
+breeders for a longer period than most other classes of poultry. While
+the young geese will often lay during their first year the results from
+the eggs produced by them are not as a rule very satisfactory. It is
+sometimes claimed that the eggs of young geese will not hatch but this
+is untrue and goslings have been raised from such eggs. Canadian and
+Egyptian geese do not lay until they are 3 years old. Females may be
+kept for breeding purposes until they are 8 to 10 years old and should
+give good results during this time. If they continue to lay longer than
+this and are valuable breeding individuals they should of course be
+retained just so long as they lay at a profitable rate. Instances are
+reported where geese 15 to 20 years old were still giving good results
+as breeders. As a rule ganders cannot be successfully kept for breeding
+purposes as long as can the geese. Yearling ganders are often used but
+they are at their best for breeding purposes when from 3 to 5 years old
+and it is not generally wise to retain them after they are 6 or 7 years
+old. Egyptian and Canadian ganders will not breed before they are 2
+years old. In general it is good practice to mate young ganders to older
+geese and to mate younger geese with older ganders as this seems to get
+better results both in fertility and in hatching.
+
+_Marking Young Geese._ It is often desirable to mark young geese in some
+way so that their breeding can be told or so that a record can be kept
+of their age. This can be readily accomplished by punching various
+combinations of holes in the webs between the toes at the time the
+goslings are hatched.
+
+_Considerations in Making the Mating._[4] In making the mating in
+breeding geese it must be kept in mind that it is of primary importance
+to select the breeders first of all for size, prolificacy and vitality.
+Without these qualities no matter what else the breeding geese may be
+there is scant chance of satisfactory results. Having selected birds
+which are of suitable size and vitality those should then be utilized
+for breeding which approach most nearly both in type and color to the
+requirements as given in the American Standard of Perfection. As a rule,
+a new mating can be made by taking the birds selected and shutting them
+up together in a pen away from the other birds and out of sound of the
+voices of their former mates. As a rule about a month of this treatment
+will suffice to bring about the new matings desired and the birds can
+then be allowed to range at liberty.
+
+[Footnote 4: For a more detailed description of the principles of
+breeding as applied to poultry and which is equally applicable to geese,
+the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by Harry
+M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the Orange Judd Publishing Co.,
+New York, N. Y.]
+
+Some ganders are very troublesome about mating. This is particularly
+true as they get older. In some cases it is impossible to get ganders to
+mate at all while frequently they will refuse to mate with more than one
+goose. As a rule, matings once made are permanent from year to year
+unless changed by the breeder on account of poor results. Where new
+matings are to be made or where changes are to be made this should be
+done in the fall so that the birds will have been mated for several
+months before the breeding season begins in order to insure good
+results. After the matings are made the geese can be allowed to run
+together in larger flocks but the practice is frequently employed of
+keeping the different matings in pens to themselves so as to avoid the
+fighting which will otherwise occur between the ganders. During the
+breeding season the ganders are quite savage and will fight fiercely.
+
+
+Breeds of Geese[5]
+
+_The Toulouse._ This breed is characterized by its very low down deep
+broad massive body. The body should come well down in front and should
+be so deep and full behind that it tends to drag on the ground when the
+bird walks. The skin of the rear portion of the body should have folds.
+The appearance or type of the Toulouse depends a great deal upon the
+condition of flesh which a bird may be in at the time as a fat well
+fleshed condition will improve type very materially. A dewlap, that is
+to say, a pendulous flap of skin on the throat, is desired but
+comparatively few birds show a well developed dewlap. It is more likely
+to appear with age than it is in the younger birds. In color the
+Toulouse breeds quite true. The principal difficulty which is
+encountered is the occasional appearance of one, two or three white
+flight feathers in the wing. These white flights constitute a
+disqualification and must of course be avoided in the breeding. It is
+necessary also to avoid any birds which lack in size, length, breadth or
+depth of body, particularly depth in front. Birds of this breed are of
+large size and make quick growth and for this reason are a fine market
+goose although the dark colored pin feathers are somewhat of a drawback
+from a market point of view.
+
+[Footnote 5: For a complete and official description and list of
+disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of geese, the
+reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published by
+the American Poultry Association, obtainable from Orange Judd Publishing
+Company, New York, N. Y.]
+
+_The Embden._ This breed is of good size but somewhat smaller than the
+Toulouse. It has not quite so long a keel or underline as the Toulouse
+and while deep in body it is not so baggy. There should be no dewlap in
+this breed. The plumage should be pure white throughout, the only
+difficulty of any importance occurring here being the occasional
+appearance of slate on the backs of young geese. This, however, is not
+serious as it almost invariably disappears with the first moult. Embden
+geese are rapid growers and mature early which together with the fact
+that their plumage is white makes them an excellent market bird.
+
+_The African._ In type the African is much the same as the Toulouse
+although not quite as large being about the size of the Embden. What is
+desired is a low down body which is flat in keel and without any folds
+of skin. The neck should be short. This bird unlike the Toulouse is
+characterized by a knob or protuberance extending out from the head at
+the base of the upper bill. This knob should be black in color and
+should show no tinge of yellow on the top or about the base. If the knob
+gets scarred or injured it is apt to turn yellow and freezing likewise
+is apt to cause it to turn yellow. Birds of this breed both young and
+old should show dewlaps, the absence of these in adult specimens
+constituting a disqualification. As in the Toulouse avoid any white
+flight feathers. The African makes an excellent market goose being like
+the Embden and Toulouse, quick growing and early maturing. The ganders
+are especially in favor for use in crossing with other varieties for the
+production of market geese. It seems probable that some Brown Chinese
+blood has been crossed into the Africans on various occasions probably
+for the purpose of increasing the prolificacy of the African as the
+Brown Chinese is an excellent layer. It is also true that crosses
+between the Brown Chinese and the Toulouse are sometimes shown for
+Africans but as a rule this cross results in too dark a bird and such
+crosses should never be used for breeding purposes since they would not
+continue to give the uniformity and other qualities obtained in the
+first generation.
+
+_The Chinese._ The Chinese is quite different in type from the three
+preceding breeds. It is much smaller and higher set on legs and has a
+body much more upright in carriage. The neck is long and slender and the
+head has a large knob. An important part about the type is to secure a
+very slender neck, another important point being to secure a very large
+knob; the larger this is the better. There is, however, a decided
+tendency for the knob to run small when the neck is slender and it is
+difficult to secure in perfection the combination of a very slender neck
+and a large knob. The Chinese geese should be in good condition but
+should not be too fat when shown as too good a condition of flesh
+injures the type materially. If fat there is a decided tendency for the
+birds to bag down behind which is undesirable. The Chinese geese are the
+best layers but the egg which they lay is smaller. On account of their
+smaller size they do not make as good market geese where large sized
+carcasses are desired but where smaller carcasses suitable for family
+use are in demand the Chinese make a satisfactory market breed.
+
+_The Brown Chinese._ In this variety the knob should be dark brown or
+black. As in the African, injury or freezing may turn the knob yellow
+which is undesirable. The plumage should be a rich brown shade of color,
+a faded gray color being very undesirable. The stripe down the back of
+the neck should be well defined and should be distinctly in contrast
+with the rest of the neck color. White feathers in the primaries or
+secondaries must be avoided.
+
+_The White Chinese._ The knob in this variety should be orange and any
+tendency toward yellow should be avoided. The plumage should be pure
+white throughout. Occasional young females may show slate in the back
+but this is not serious as it almost invariably disappears with the
+first moult.
+
+_The Wild or Canadian._ Contrary to expectation this breed when
+domesticated is very peaceable and very tame. There is often, however, a
+tendency for them to grow uneasy when the migratory season comes. To
+keep the birds from flying away it is necessary to clip the flight
+feathers of one wing or what is safer still to pinion the bird.
+Pinioning consists of cutting off the first joint of one wing. This may
+be done when the birds are small or may be done at any time and does not
+seem to bother them much. One of the best ways to accomplish this is to
+break the joint and then cut it off by using a chisel and hammer. Not
+much bleeding will result but it is well to put a little iodine on the
+cut. These birds breed very true in type and color and progress in the
+mating simply consists of continuing to select those birds for breeders
+which show markings in the greatest excellence. In type a Canadian goose
+is quite different from that of the other breeds mentioned. It is
+smaller, set much higher on legs and its body is neater and trimmer, and
+is oblong and carried in a horizontal position. The neck is long and
+slender. These birds mate only in pairs as a rule and the females do not
+mature and lay until they are three years old. The ganders often breed
+when they are two years old. Usually only a single sitting of eggs is
+laid consisting of from 4 to 8. Usually, however, all of these eggs will
+hatch and the young prove to be strong and easily reared.
+
+_The Egyptian._ This is the smallest of the standard breeds of geese. In
+type it more nearly approaches the Canadian than any other breed but it
+is somewhat longer in legs, showing more of the thigh beneath the body.
+The body is not carried in quite such a horizontal position as the
+Canadian but slopes downward slightly from the breast to the tail. The
+neck is neither so long nor quite so slender as that of the Canadian.
+This breed is the brightest colored of any of the geese and breeds
+fairly true in color and markings. Like the Canadian the Egyptian goose
+is likely to become uneasy at times and one wing should therefore be
+pinioned or the flight feathers clipped to keep the birds from flying
+away. Like the Canadian the Egyptians mate in pairs only and lay but one
+sitting during the year. The females do not lay until they are three
+years old.
+
+Neither the Egyptian nor the Canadian geese should be closely confined
+or no eggs will be laid. The goose should be allowed to make her own
+nest and hatch her eggs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50. Left--Egyptian Gander. Right--Sebastapol Goose.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51. Left.--Toulouse Gander. Right--Embden Gander.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52. Left--Wild or Canadian Gander. Right--African
+Gander. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53. Left--Brown Chinese Gander. Right--White Chinese
+Gander. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Preparing Geese for the Show
+
+The preparation of geese for the show is comparatively a simple matter.
+It requires first of all that individuals shall be selected which
+approach nearest to the standard requirements both in type and in color.
+As to the actual preparation for exhibition the geese are practically
+self-prepared. For a period of at least a week or ten days before they
+are shipped to the show they should be given access to a grass range and
+to running water. The grass range tends to put them in good condition
+while the running water will give them an opportunity to clean
+themselves. Any broken feathers should be plucked at least six weeks
+before the birds are to be shown so as to give them an opportunity to
+grow in new ones.
+
+Since all of the common breeds of geese, with the exception of the
+Chinese, should be shown in a fat condition in order to give them their
+best type they should be given a grain mixture twice daily for a period
+of at least ten days before the show in order to get them in good flesh
+and to bring them up to standard weight. This ration should consist of
+one part corn and two parts oats. In Chinese geese where it is desired
+to have them in good condition of flesh but without showing any tendency
+toward bagginess, oats alone should be fed as they are apt to put on too
+much fat when corn is fed as well. When the birds are shipped to the
+show they are quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the
+journey. If this occurs fill a barrel about half full of water. As the
+geese are taken from the shipping coops place two of them at a time in
+the barrel, cover it over and leave them for a few minutes. Then take
+them out and they will usually be clean.
+
+
+Catching and Handling Geese
+
+Never catch geese by the legs which are weak and are easily broken or
+injured. For the same reason they should never be carried by the legs.
+In catching geese grasp them by the neck just below the head. Often a
+crooked stick is of value in getting hold of the birds by the neck.
+Geese can be carried short distances by the neck without injury but it
+is not advisable to carry them for any considerable distance in this
+manner, particularly if they are fat. The best way to handle the geese
+is to catch them by the neck, then place one arm over the shoulders and
+around the bird's body thus holding the wings in place while both legs
+are grasped with the hand. The neck should be held with the other hand
+to keep the bird from biting. In releasing the bird in a pen or shipping
+coop do not let go of the neck until the bird is placed where it is
+wanted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54--Proper manner of picking up and carrying geese
+with the head and neck under the arm. (_Photographs from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs
+
+Goose eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh if they are
+to be received in good condition and are to give good results in
+hatching. They can be shipped long distances either by express or by
+parcel post. In order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of
+the jar to which the eggs are subjected during shipment they should be
+carefully packed in a market basket or other suitable receptacle. The
+same method of packing the eggs should be employed as with duck eggs
+described on page 137.
+
+
+Prices for Breeding Stock
+
+While the demand for breeding stock is not so broad with geese as it is
+with some other classes of poultry, there does exist a steady and
+profitable demand for this class of fowls. Goose eggs for hatching are
+usually sold in sittings of 5 and the price varies somewhat depending
+upon the variety. As a rule, Embden and Toulouse eggs will bring from 60
+cents to $1.20 each. Chinese goose eggs will bring from 40 cents to $1
+each while the eggs of the African goose will bring from $1 to $2 each.
+Of course the price of eggs for hatching like that of breeding birds
+depends on the quality of the stock. The prices for the birds themselves
+for breeding purposes will run anywhere from about $8 to $10 apiece for
+good birds suitable for breeding on farm flocks, to $25 or even $50 each
+of birds of especially fine quality.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+Management of Breeding Geese
+
+
+_Range for Breeders._ Since grass or other vegetation, when plentiful,
+will furnish practically the entire living both for breeding and growing
+geese, it is by all means desirable to have suitable range for the
+breeding stock. Aside from economy of production range is desirable from
+the fact that the breeders keep in better condition and better results
+in breeding and fertility are obtained. The range for breeding geese
+should therefore consist of grass land or pasture. Often rather low wet
+land can be used for this purpose, particularly if some higher land is
+also available to provide a more favorable kind of grass. Often geese
+can be ranged on the same pasture with horses or cattle. Later in the
+season after the harvest, both breeding and growing geese can be given
+the range of the stubble fields to good advantage as they will glean
+most of the shelled grain. The entire flock of breeders is generally
+allowed to run together but the flock may be divided if desired, or each
+mating may be kept in a colony by itself if the fighting of the ganders
+proves troublesome.
+
+_Number of Geese to the Acre._ The number of geese which can be kept or
+run to the acre depends of course upon the nature of the land available
+for the purpose. The better the pasture and therefore the more green
+feed available throughout the summer and fall, the more geese can be
+run. In general, the practice is to run from 4 to 25 geese to an acre;
+ten is a fair average under normal conditions.
+
+_Water for Breeding Geese._ While water to which the geese can have
+access for swimming is not absolutely essential for their well being,
+they like it and it is well to provide water if possible especially
+during the breeding season. It not only takes care of the problem of
+supplying drinking water, but in the opinion of many goose raisers,
+increases the fertility of the eggs laid. A natural water supply such as
+a stream or pond in the pasture is therefore desirable, but if none is
+available an artificial pond or tank can be furnished to good advantage.
+
+_Distinguishing the Sex._ It is difficult to distinguish the sex of
+geese. It is, of course, necessary to know the sex so as to provide the
+proper number of ganders and so as to know what birds to pen together in
+making a mating. Once the sex of a bird is determined it is well for the
+novice to mark it by means of a suitable leg band so that its sex can be
+easily distinguished in the future.
+
+It is more difficult to distinguish the sex of young than of old geese.
+The gander is generally slightly larger and coarser than the goose, with
+a longer, thicker neck and larger head. The gander also has a shriller
+cry than the goose whose cry consists of a harsher sound. Some goose
+raisers claim that they can distinguish the sex of mature geese by the
+body shape, the underline of the body of the gander from the tail to the
+point where the legs join the body being nearly straight, while in the
+goose this line tends to round out with the fuller development of the
+abdomen. This difference is more marked during the laying season than at
+other times. Considerable experience is necessary in order to
+distinguish sex by any of the means described and the really sure way is
+by an examination of the sexual organs or by observing the actions of
+the geese when mating.
+
+Upon examination the sphincter muscle which closes the anus of the
+female when stretched will be found to have a folded appearance. If the
+gander is placed upon his back and pressure applied around the anus, the
+penis will protrude. This test is more easily made on a mature than on
+an immature gander and is also easier to make during warm than during
+cold weather.
+
+_Purchase of Breeding Stock._ Geese when mated usually stay mated
+permanently. Matings are not, therefore, changed from year to year as a
+rule so long as they continue to give satisfactory results. If it
+becomes necessary to make new matings or to break up old matings, this
+should be done in the fall, so that the birds will be thoroughly used to
+the new order of things by the time the breeding season arrives, and
+the results in eggs laid and young stock grown will not, therefore, be
+adversely affected. For this reason, any breeding stock purchased should
+be secured in the fall rather than to wait until just before the
+breeding season opens. As a rule, also, a better selection of breeding
+stock to choose from is available to the purchaser in the fall.
+
+_Time of Laying._ Geese start laying in the early spring and continue to
+lay throughout the spring. With special attention given to the feeding,
+they should begin in the northeastern part of the United States about
+February 1 and should continue to lay until about June 1 when geese of
+the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse, African and Embden will
+generally be pretty well through. Some individuals will lay later than
+this and the Chinese geese also have a rather longer laying season
+extending further into the summer. The length of the laying season is
+also affected by whether the geese are broken up when they become broody
+or whether they are allowed to sit. The latter practice, of course,
+stops the layings. It must be remembered that the Canadian and Egyptian
+as a rule lay only a single small setting of eggs during the season.
+
+As a rule geese lay during the night or the forenoon. The frequency of
+laying varies, some geese laying every other day while others lay more
+or less often.
+
+_Housing._ Geese withstand the weather very well and do not need much in
+the way of houses or shelter except during winter and during severe
+storms. In the North it is the usual practice and good practice to
+provide shelter for the geese, which may take the form of a poultry
+house, or of any shed or barn available for the purpose. A shed with
+openings on the south side makes an ideal goose shelter or house. Most
+breeders in the South who give their flocks good attention also provide
+shelter for them during the winter although geese are also successfully
+kept in that section without shelter.
+
+The houses provided for the breeders must be kept clean and as dry as
+possible. The best way to do this is to bed them liberally with straw,
+shavings or some similar material, especially during the winter. As the
+bedding becomes soiled, more should be added and the house should be
+cleaned out from time to time and fresh litter put in.
+
+No equipment for the houses is necessary. The geese will lay their eggs
+in nests which they make on the floor and if plenty of clean bedding is
+provided, the eggs will not get badly soiled. Large boxes, barrels, or
+similar shelter provided with an abundance of nesting material may be
+scattered about the range to provide places in which the geese may make
+their nests.
+
+_Yards._ Usually no yards are provided for geese as they are allowed the
+range of a pasture or are allowed to roam at liberty about the farm. Any
+ordinary woven wire stock fence such as might be used to fence a pasture
+will serve to keep the geese confined as well as the other stock. If
+for any reason it is desired to confine geese to a yard, the effort
+should be made to provide yard enough so that the geese will have a
+constant supply of green feed. In a small yard this is impossible. A 2-1/2
+or 3 foot fence is high enough to confine any of the common breeds of
+geese and will also serve for Canadian and Egyptian geese if they have
+been pinioned which should always be done.
+
+_Feeding the Breeding Geese._ While the flock of geese may be allowed to
+pick most of their living from a good grass range during the summer and
+fall, it is necessary to feed them during the winter. In fact during the
+summer it may be necessary to feed them lightly on grain or wet mash if
+the pasture gets short. The quantity of feed necessary for this purpose
+depends upon the condition of the pasture and must be judged by the
+condition of the birds.
+
+During the winter, they must be fed regularly. The feed given them
+should consist of both grain and some form of roughage. It is necessary
+to be careful not to overfeed so that the geese will become too fat, for
+while they should be in good condition of flesh at the beginning of the
+breeding season, if they are too fat, poor fertility and poor hatches
+will result.
+
+_Feed._ Oats makes the best feed for breeding geese as it is not too
+fattening. Corn, wheat or barley fed alone is likely to prove too
+fattening but a limited quantity should be fed for variety. The grain
+should be fed twice a day throughout the winter and should be given
+rather sparingly, depending on roughage to make up the bulk of the feed.
+Vegetables, clover or alfalfa hay, chopped corn stover or silage make
+good roughage for this purpose. Corn silage is a fine feed if it is not
+moldy and does not contain so much corn as to be too fattening.
+
+About three weeks or a month before it is desired to have the geese
+commence laying, which should be at such a time that the first goslings
+hatched will have good grass pasture, a mash should be added to the feed
+to stimulate egg production. This mash is generally fed in the morning
+with the vegetables or roughage and may consist of three parts bran or
+shorts, one part corn meal and one-fourth part meat scrap. If available
+buttermilk or skim milk can be used to mix the mash and replace the meat
+scrap. Another mash for this purpose consists of corn meal one-fourth
+part, bran two parts, and ground oats one part, mixed up with skim milk
+or buttermilk.
+
+Grit and oyster shell should be kept where the geese can help themselves
+particularly during the laying season. Drinking water must be available
+at all times and if a natural supply is not available, must be given in
+drinking fountains or dishes which should be so arranged that the geese
+cannot get their feet into the water. When they can get into the
+drinking water, they will quickly get it into a filthy condition.
+
+When the geese are running in a field with horses or cattle a small
+enclosure should be fenced in to which the geese can gain access by
+means of suitable openings but which will keep the other stock out. In
+this should be placed the drinking fountain for the geese and in this
+enclosure the geese should be fed. Otherwise the cattle or horses will
+get most of the feed intended for the geese and in addition, some of the
+geese may be stepped on or kicked and injured when the stock crowds
+around at feeding time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+Incubation
+
+
+_Care of Eggs for Hatching._ Since egg production usually begins early
+in the spring while the weather is still cold, it is necessary to gather
+the eggs at frequent intervals to prevent their freezing or becoming
+chilled. Later in the season daily collection will be satisfactory. The
+eggs as collected should be kept in a cool place and where the
+evaporation of the egg contents will not be too great. If set at fairly
+frequent intervals, there will be no difficulty on this score. If they
+are to be kept for some time, they may be stored in bran to prevent
+evaporation. It is well to mark the eggs as gathered with the date they
+are laid so as to overcome the possibility of saving too long any eggs
+for hatching.
+
+Some goose raisers think that it is best to wash goose eggs before
+setting them. This belief is based on the fact that when a goose makes
+her own nest and has access to water in which to swim she comes on the
+nest with her feathers wet. It is to simulate this condition that the
+eggs are washed. Certainly any dirty eggs should be washed.
+
+_Methods of Incubation._ The most usual methods of hatching goose eggs
+are by means of the chicken hen and the goose. Incubators may also be
+used but do not as a rule seem to give as good results as they do with
+hen or duck eggs. Turkey hens may also be utilized for this purpose but
+are not commonly available although they make good mothers. Probably the
+most common method of hatching is the use of chicken hens. Next common
+is to allow the goose to hatch her own eggs. Goose eggs hatch well under
+hens or geese. During the height of the season nearly every fertile egg
+should hatch if the breeding geese are managed and fed so that they are
+in good condition. Early in the season the eggs may not run as fertile
+or hatch as well as later.
+
+_Period of Incubation._ The period of incubation of goose eggs is
+approximately 30 days, but may vary from 28 to 33 or occasionally even
+35 days.
+
+_Hatching with Chicken Hens._ Chicken hens are used very commonly to
+hatch goose eggs both because they give good results and are readily
+available and also because it is desirable to take the first eggs laid
+by the geese away and not to let them get broody and sit so that they
+will lay more eggs. For the latter reason practically all the eggs laid
+early in the season are hatched by chicken hens.
+
+The nest can be prepared for the hen either in a suitable place in a
+poultry house or in a shed or other building or in a box or barrel on
+the ground. As soon as the hen shows that she is ready to sit by staying
+on the nest, in which has been placed a nest egg or two, for a couple of
+nights in succession, she may be given a sitting of eggs. Four to 6
+goose eggs will constitute a sitting for a common hen. The hen should be
+confined to the nest being let off only once a day for exercise, feed
+and water.
+
+The sitting hen must be given good care, being even more particular in
+this respect than when she is sitting on hens' eggs as the period of
+incubation is longer. In addition to being careful to see that the hen
+comes off her nest for food and water she should be dusted 2 or 3 times
+during the hatch with some good insect powder to keep her free from lice
+and therefore contented to stay on the nest. Two or 3 days before the
+goslings hatch she should be dusted with especial care so that the
+goslings will be free from vermin.
+
+On account of the large size of the eggs the hen should not be depended
+upon to turn them and this should be done by hand once or twice daily.
+
+_Hatching with Geese._ All breeds of geese will hatch their eggs
+although some are more persistently broody than others while there is a
+considerable difference in individuals in this respect. Toulouse and
+Chinese are perhaps the least broody of the breeds and are sometimes
+termed non-broody. The eggs laid by geese are generally gathered as
+laid. If this were not done they will become broody and stop laying
+quicker than they do under this treatment.
+
+The goose should be allowed to make her own nest. Often she will do this
+in a barrel, box or other shelter if these are conveniently available.
+When she shows that she is broody and has stopped laying she should be
+given a sitting of eggs which will consist of 10 or 11. Geese are often
+difficult to manage when they have young.
+
+Wild and Egyptian geese should always be allowed to make their own nests
+which they like to do on dry ground near the water, using straw leaves
+or similar material to make the nest. They should not be disturbed as
+they are ugly during this time. They will hatch practically every egg.
+
+_Breaking Up Broody Geese._ A goose which shows a desire to sit, can be
+broken up quite easily by confining her to a slat-bottomed coop without
+any feed, but with plenty of water to drink, for from 2 to 4 days. After
+being broken up she will generally commence laying again after an
+interval of a few days.
+
+_Hatching with an Incubator._ While it is more difficult to hatch goose
+eggs in incubators than it is hen or duck eggs, this can be done by an
+experienced operator with a fair degree of success. The incubator should
+be operated at a temperature of 101.5 to 102.5 degrees F., with the
+thermometer so placed that the bulb is on a level with the top of the
+eggs. Beginning with the third day, the eggs should be turned twice a
+day as with hens' eggs. Beginning about the tenth day, the eggs should
+be cooled once a day, and they need more cooling than hens' eggs
+require. They should be cooled down to a temperature of about 80 to 85
+degrees. All goose eggs whether in incubators or under hens or geese
+should be tested once during the hatch. The best time to do this is
+sometime between the tenth and fourteenth days, when any infertile eggs
+or dead germs should be thrown out.
+
+_Moisture for Hatching Eggs._ Where eggs are being hatched in an
+incubator, there is need for the use of considerable moisture. It should
+be added first at about the end of the first week of incubation and
+should be repeated a couple of times during the second week. This can
+best be done by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water heated to about
+100 degrees. Beginning with the 15th day and until 2 or 3 days before
+the eggs are ready to hatch soak them in warm water for from one-half a
+minute to a minute once every 2 or 3 days. For the last 2 or 3 days do
+this daily.
+
+When the eggs are being hatched by chicken hens or geese in nests
+indoors or in boxes or barrels and in dry weather, moisture should be
+added in the same manner and with the same frequency and amount as in
+the incubator. When the nest is on damp ground, it is not necessary to
+use any moisture on the eggs.
+
+_Hatching._ Goslings as a rule hatch rather slowly and somewhat
+unevenly, especially when under hens. For this reason it is well to
+remove each gosling as it hatches from under the hen or goose and place
+it in a covered, cloth-lined box or basket and keep near the stove
+until the hatch is completed. As soon as the hatch is over, the goslings
+that have been removed from the nest can be put back under the hen or
+goose which is to be allowed to assume the duties of motherhood.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Brooding and Rearing Goslings
+
+
+When the hatch is completed all the goslings which have been removed
+from the nest should be returned; and the hen or goose removed to the
+coop which she is to occupy while brooding them. At this time, if
+hatched with a hen the goslings should be examined carefully on the head
+and neck to see whether there are any head lice present. If any are
+found the heads and necks of the goslings must be greased with a little
+lard or vaseline. Not too much grease should be used as it may prove
+harmful to the goslings.
+
+_Methods of Brooding._ The most common methods of brooding goslings are
+the use of geese, of chicken hens or of artificial means. Geese make the
+best mothers but are not always available especially during the early
+hatches. Geese may also prove rather unruly when they have young and for
+this reason are not in favor with some goose raisers. When hatching is
+done simultaneously with geese and hens it is the practice of some
+raisers to give all the goslings hatched to the geese to rear.
+
+Hens can be used very successfully for rearing goslings especially if
+they are confined to a coop for the first week or two so that they
+cannot range too far and too fast and tire the goslings out. Not over 6
+or 8 goslings should be given to a hen to brood.
+
+Artificial methods are very successful with goslings much more so in
+fact than are artificial methods of hatching the eggs. Some goose
+raisers prefer to use artificial means of brooding, especially if they
+have only a few goslings and are brooding at the same time some chicks
+or ducklings.
+
+_Brooding with Hens or Geese._ A suitable roomy coop should be provided
+to which the goslings with their mother, either hen or goose, can be
+moved when the hatch is completed. The coop should be so constructed by
+means of a slatted front or otherwise, that the hen can be confined and
+the goslings allowed to range. It is very desirable to get the goslings
+out on grass as soon as possible. A goose with goslings is often allowed
+to have her liberty but many raisers prefer to confine her to a coop the
+same as when a hen is used. The coop should have a board floor well
+bedded with straw, shavings or similar material. This will not only help
+to keep the goslings dry but will also serve to protect them from their
+enemies during the night. For this same reason the coop should be so
+constructed that it can be closed at night by means of a wire covered
+door so as to shut out marauders, and at the same time allow plenty of
+ventilation. The coop must be cleaned often so as to keep the goslings
+clean and dry.
+
+_Length of Time Brooding Is Necessary._ The time that goslings need
+brooding will, of course, depend upon the weather. During mild weather
+10 days is usually sufficient, after which they can do without any
+brooding. Early in the season, brooding must be extended over a longer
+period. This may mean anywhere from 2 to 4 weeks or even longer.
+
+_Artificial Brooding._ For this purpose any brooder utilized for chicks
+or ducks can be used for goslings. To start with they should have a
+temperature of about 100 degrees but this can be reduced in a few days
+until in a week or ten days it is only 70 to 80 degrees or if the
+weather is mild artificial heat may be dispensed with entirely. Where
+there are only a few goslings they may be put with a brood of ducks as
+long as they need heat. It does not work so well to put them with chicks
+both because they do not require a high temperature so long as the
+chicks and also because they are so large as to be likely to tread on
+and injure some of the chicks. Brooders should be well bedded with
+straw, shavings or some similar material and should be cleaned out every
+2 or 3 days so as to be kept clean and dry. Do not crowd the goslings;
+give them plenty of room.
+
+Some goose raisers do not depend upon heated brooders at all, especially
+when only a few goslings are to be brooded. For the first day or two the
+goslings are kept in a covered basket or box in the house near a fire
+and after this are put out during the warmth of the day but brought into
+the house and put in the basket or box at night until they are two or
+three weeks old. The same practice should be followed with goslings
+reared in brooders, these being used only during the night after the
+first 2 or 3 days, the goslings being put out-doors during the day in
+good weather.
+
+When goslings which are being artificially brooded are put out during
+the day on the grass, they should be confined at first. This can be
+easily accomplished by building a triangular enclosure, formed of 3
+boards, 1 foot wide or wider, placed up on edge. This enclosure can be
+easily shifted to a new position each day thus giving the goslings fresh
+ground and fresh grass.
+
+
+General Care of Growing Goslings
+
+Goslings should be kept dry and for this reason should be kept shut up
+until the dew is off the grass in the morning. For the same reason they
+should not be allowed access to water in which to swim until they are at
+least 3 or 4 weeks old. When allowed to swim, care should be taken to
+see that they can get out of the water easily.
+
+Goslings caught in a cold rain will often be overcome and apparently
+dead. Frequently they can be revived and saved by wrapping them in a
+heated cloth and placing them near a warm fire. While they are still
+young, goslings should be driven under shelter whenever a rain storm
+comes up.
+
+When allowed to run at liberty, goslings must be kept track of to some
+extent. They may become lost and have to be driven back to their shelter
+at night. Or they may fall into holes or get caught in fences and
+corners and must be released. When allowed to run with larger stock they
+are more or less liable to injury from being stepped upon or kicked.
+
+A growing coop or shelter of some sort should be provided for the
+growing goslings although this is not always done after they are pretty
+well feathered out. Such a coop should be large enough so that the
+goslings are not crowded, and should be well ventilated. It should have
+a board floor and be capable of being closed so as to protect the
+goslings from their enemies, but without cutting off ventilation.
+
+If natural shade is not available where the goslings range, artificial
+shade of some sort must be provided during the hot weather. Growing
+goslings are quite susceptible to extreme heat and will not make as good
+growth if not provided with shade. Artificial shade of boards or brush
+can be easily provided.
+
+If for any reason it is necessary to confine growing goslings, they
+should be provided with good grass yards or runs and their coops or
+shelters should be moved to a fresh location frequently.
+
+It is better, if possible, to keep the growing stock separate from the
+old breeding stock as they will do better and make more rapid growth
+under these conditions. Usually, however, where only a few geese are
+reared each year, old and young stock are allowed to range together.
+
+_Feeding the Goslings._ Like chicks or ducks, goslings do not need to be
+fed as soon as hatched, the yolk of the eggs providing all the
+nourishment they need for at least 36 hours. They should, however, be
+furnished water to drink as soon as the hatch is completed.
+
+The first feed should consist of stale bread, soaked in milk or water.
+With this material should be mixed boiled eggs chopped up fine. The
+goslings should be fed 3 or preferably 4 times daily until they are 2 or
+3 weeks old. Chopped grass or some other green feed should be added to
+the feed, the quantity fed being increased steadily. It is important to
+get the goslings out on grass as soon as possible, which should be after
+the first 2 or 3 days if the weather is good, so that they will be able
+to graze for themselves. Five per cent of fine grit or sharp sand should
+likewise be added to the feed. Some growers prefer to feed the grit or
+sand in a hopper to which the goslings have constant access and from
+which they can help themselves. A constant supply of fresh drinking
+water is essential and this should be provided in drinking fountains or
+dishes such that the goslings cannot get their feet or bodies in them.
+
+When a good grass range is available, the goslings, after they are 2 or
+3 weeks old, will need only one light feed of mash daily in addition to
+the grass they eat. Such a mash will consist of 2 parts shorts and 1
+part corn meal, ground oats or ground barley. Where the pasture is good
+many goslings are raised from the age of 2 or 3 weeks until they are
+ready to be fattened without any other feed than the grass and other
+material which they get for themselves. However, the feeding of one
+light feed of mash a day is advantageous as it insures adequate feed for
+their need and promotes quicker growth. After the goslings are 6 weeks
+old, if they are still fed, the mash should be changed to equal parts
+shorts, corn meal and ground oats with 5% meat scrap. This same mash can
+be continued until fattening time. Whole grains are not generally fed to
+goslings until they are well feathered and often not until it is desired
+to fatten them.
+
+_Percentage of Goslings Raised._ Goslings are for the most part quite
+hardy and are comparatively easy to brood. This coupled with the fact
+that they are relatively free from disease and are not much troubled
+with insect pests makes it possible to raise a large per cent of the
+thrifty goslings hatched. With good care and with good strong healthy
+stock, it should be possible to raise in the neighborhood of 90% of the
+goslings hatched.
+
+_Rapidity of Growth._ Goslings make a very rapid growth. When marketed
+as green geese they are usually turned off at from 12 to 16 weeks of
+age. At this age they should weigh from 9 to 12 pounds, depending upon
+the breed and upon the rapidity of growth. Many, probably most, young
+geese are not marketed at as early an age as this but are held until the
+Christmas season or later and marketed at heavier weight. The best grown
+Toulouse goslings should attain a weight of 16 to 18 pounds by Christmas
+or when 6 to 8 months old. Other breeds will weigh proportionately less.
+Special attention or special feeding will, of course, increase the
+weight over that attained without such feeding.
+
+As a rule the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse do not get their full
+growth until they are about 18 months old. After this as geese of both
+sexes grow older, they will, of course, fill out more and attain greater
+weight.
+
+_Disease._ Goslings are remarkably free from disease and a very large
+percentage of all strong goslings hatched should be reared. One of the
+principal difficulties is diarrhoea. This is usually caused by faulty
+feeding. It may be due to feeding too great a quantity of soft feed or
+to giving soft feed in too sloppy a condition. Access to stagnant water,
+unclean enclosures or unclean drinking dishes may also cause diarrhoea.
+When partly grown goslings which are being given soft feed are troubled
+with diarrhoea, this may sometimes be checked by substituting a light
+feed of corn daily for a part of the soft feed.
+
+Goslings are sometimes troubled with lameness. This is usually caused by
+faulty feeding also, particularly by feeding a ration which is lacking
+in something needed, such as some form of animal feed like beef scrap
+which may cause a lack of mineral matter in the ration. If the goslings
+cannot secure it for themselves a supply of grit or gravel should be
+placed at their disposal.
+
+There is an infectious disease of geese which sometimes causes trouble
+known as goose septicemia or hemorrhagic septicemia. This is a disease
+similar to fowl cholera and may attack either young or mature geese. It
+is not often found on farms where the geese are raised in small lots,
+but sometimes proves troublesome on farms where a large number of geese
+are gathered together for fattening. The geese are often found dead when
+one goes to feed them without having shown much preliminary sickness.
+The disease is usually fatal. Shortly before they die the affected geese
+may acquire an uncertain gait and may twist the head about and burrow it
+in the dirt. Treatment is of no avail. If the disease occurs in a flock,
+the affected birds should be removed and killed, while the rest of the
+flock should be moved to new ground if possible. The ground which they
+previously occupied should be plowed and any houses, shelter, feed
+troughs, and drinking vessels should be thoroughly disinfected.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+Fattening and Marketing Geese
+
+
+_Classes of Geese Marketed._ The market geese consist principally of the
+surplus young ganders not required for breeding purposes and such of the
+old geese of either sex as it may be considered desirable to get rid of.
+Some young females, when the number raised is in excess of the number
+required for breeders also find their way to market. While these geese
+are marketed in the largest numbers during the Thanksgiving and
+Christmas holiday season, particularly the latter, some geese of course
+find their way to market practically throughout the year. There is also
+a rather limited trade in "green geese" which corresponds to the trade
+in spring or "green" ducklings. Green geese are goslings about 12 to 16
+weeks old, generally of the larger breeds, which are forced for rapid
+growth and are made to weigh in the neighborhood of 10 pounds at that
+age. These bring a good price and yield a good profit where there is
+demand for this class of geese.
+
+_Markets and Prices._ As with most classes of poultry, the large cities
+offer the best market for geese. Especially the cities which have a
+large foreign population make good markets as many foreigners are more
+in the habit of using geese for a holiday dish than are native
+Americans. The most favorable market usually occurs at Christmas when
+roast goose and apple sauce is in considerable favor. Considerable
+numbers of geese are also used at Thanksgiving time and in recent years
+as the price of turkeys has steadily increased there has been an
+increasing tendency to substitute goose for turkey on that day.
+Following are prices paid for various classes of geese on the New York
+wholesale market from May 1920 to June 1921 as reported by the New York
+Produce Review. Quite a wide variation in price will be noted in many
+cases which reflects the difference in condition of the geese as
+received. In the case of express receipts of live geese where a wide
+variation in prices occurs the high quotations represent the receipt of
+especially fattened geese from nearby farms.
+
+WESTERN GEESE, FROZEN
+
+1920
+May   5      25 @ 31c per lb.
+     12      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     19      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     26      25 @ 31c  "  "
+June  2      25 @ 31c  "  "
+      9      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     16      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     30      23 @ 29c  "  "
+July  7      23 @ 29c  "  "
+     14      21 @ 27c  "  "
+     21      21 @ 27c  "  "
+     28      21 @ 27c  "  "
+Aug.  4      20 @ 25c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan. 26      26 @ 34c  "  "
+Feb.  2      26 @ 34c  "  "
+      9      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     16      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     23      26 @ 36c  "  "
+Mar.  2      26 @ 36c  "  "
+      9      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     16      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     30      25 @ 35c  "  "
+Apr.  6      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     13      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     20      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     27      25 @ 35c  "  "
+May   4      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     11      25 @ 35c  "  "
+
+FRESH DRESSED GEESE
+
+1920
+Nov. 17      34 @ 43c per lb.
+     24      30 @ 38c  "  "
+Dec.  1      25 @ 36c  "  "
+      8      30 @ 36c  "  "
+     15      30 @ 39c  "  "
+     22      30 @ 40c  "  "
+     29      30 @ 40c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan.  5      30 @ 37c  "  "
+     12      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     19      25 @ 34c  "  "
+     26      25 @ 34c  "  "
+
+
+FRESH DRESSED GEESE
+
+1921
+Feb.  2      25 @ 34c per    lb.
+      9      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     16      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     23      26 @ 36c  "  "
+Mar.  2      26 @ 36c  "  "
+      9      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     16      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 35c  "  "
+
+LIVE GEESE--VIA FREIGHT
+
+1920
+May   5      18 @ 20c per  lb.
+     12      22c       "  "
+     19      20 @ 22c  "  "
+     26      20 @ 22c  "  "
+June  2      20 @ 22c  "  "
+      9      20 @ 22c  "  "
+     16      20 @ 22c  "  "
+     23      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     30      18 @ 20c  "  "
+July  7      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     14      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     28      25c       "  "
+Aug   4      25c       "  "
+     18      25c       "  "
+     25      25c       "  "
+Sept. 1      25c       "  "
+     22      26c       "  "
+     29      26c       "  "
+Oct. 20      25 @ 28c  "  "
+     27      27 @ 30c  "  "
+Nov.  3      32c       "  "
+     10      32c       "  "
+     17      32c       "  "
+     24      28 @ 32c  "  "
+Dec.  1      28 @ 30c  "  "
+      8      30 @ 34c  "  "
+     15      28 @ 35c  "  "
+     22      25 @ 30c  "  "
+     29      27 @ 32c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan.  5      26 @ 32c  "  "
+     12      26 @ 30c  "  "
+     19      25 @ 29c  "  "
+     26      25 @ 29c  "  "
+Feb.  2      27 @ 33c  "  "
+      9      28 @ 33c  "  "
+     16      26 @ 32c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 26c  "  "
+
+LIVE GEESE--VIA FREIGHT
+
+1921
+Mar.  2      25c  per lb.
+      9      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     16      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     23      20c       "  "
+     30      20c       "  "
+Apr.  6      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     13      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     20      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     27      15 @ 18c  "  "
+May   4      14 @ 16c  "  "
+     11      14 @ 16c  "  "
+     18      14 @ 16c  "  "
+     25      14 @ 16c  "  "
+June  1      14 @ 16c  "  "
+
+LIVE GEESE--VIA EXPRESS
+
+1920
+Nov. 24      30 @ 33c per lb.
+Dec.  1      30 @ 32c  "  "
+      8      32 @ 35c  "  "
+     15      30c       "  "
+     22      30c       "  "
+     29      28 @ 35c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan.  5      29 @ 38c  "  "
+     12      28 @ 38c  "  "
+     19      28 @ 36c  "  "
+     26      27 @ 37c  "  "
+Feb.  9      28 @ 40c  "  "
+     16      28 @ 42c  "  "
+     23      26 @ 28c  "  "
+Mar.  2      25 @ 28c  "  "
+      9      20 @ 23c  "  "
+     16      18 @ 22c  "  "
+     23      18 @ 22c  "  "
+     30      20 @ 23c  "  "
+Apr.  6      17 @ 20c  "  "
+     13      17 @ 20c  "  "
+     20      17 @ 21c  "  "
+     27      16 @ 20c  "  "
+May   4      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     11      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     18      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     25      15 @ 18c  "  "
+
+_Prejudice Against Roast Goose._ There exists on the part of some
+persons a prejudice against goose on the grounds that it is too greasy a
+dish. When improperly cooked, goose will prove to be too greasy to suit
+many fastidious palates but this condition is not so much the fault of
+the fowl as it is of the method of preparation and cooking. When dressed
+if the goose shows a large amount of abdominal fat, as it usually does
+and should, a large part of this should be removed. This fat when tried
+out is highly esteemed by many cooks and by other persons is treasured
+as an efficacious treatment for croup in children. Also while the goose
+is roasting, a part of the fat as it cooks out of the carcass should be
+removed. Treated in this way one need have no fear that the roast goose
+will prove too greasy but instead one will be pleasantly surprised at
+the rich taste which the roast goose possesses.
+
+_Methods of Fattening Geese for Market._ Many geese are sent to market
+without any special treatment or effort to fatten them, being taken
+right off pasture in such condition as they happen to be or at best with
+only a half-hearted attempt to fatten them by feeding a little corn or
+some other grain for a short period. When a real effort is made to
+fatten geese for the market it is generally done in one of three ways.
+First is pen fattening which is the method best adapted to small lots of
+geese on the average farm. Second is by noodling which is only attempted
+in sections where the goose raisers are somewhat of specialists and
+where the effort is made to turn out geese of superior quality. Third is
+fattening in large flocks which is practiced only by a very limited
+number of farmers in scattered sections who take the unfattened geese
+raised on the general farms and finish them for market.
+
+_Pen Fattening._ For this purpose the geese are put in pens large enough
+to hold them comfortably but without any yards. Not over 20 to 25 geese
+should be penned together for this purpose. To get the best results the
+geese should be kept as quiet as possible and to accomplish this the
+pens are partly darkened and the geese disturbed only at feeding time.
+The geese are fed three times daily; in the morning, at noon and at
+night, being given all they will clean up. One feed should consist of a
+moist mash composed of one part shorts and two parts corn meal. This
+mash should not be sloppy. The other two feeds consist mainly of corn
+with some oats or barley. Some roughage such as vegetables or hay should
+also be supplied. The pens should be deeply bedded with good oat straw.
+The geese will eat a considerable amount of this which thus helps to
+supply the roughage which they need. The straw also, of course, serves
+to keep the pen and the birds clean. A plentiful supply of good drinking
+water is also necessary. The usual period of fattening is three to five
+weeks and a gain of from 4 to 6 pounds per bird can be secured. This
+method of fattening is commonly used by goose raisers in Wisconsin and
+the geese from this state are noted for their fine quality.
+
+A less intensive form of pen fattening is often used by farmers where a
+small yard is provided in addition to the pen itself and where no effort
+is made to darken the pen. If no other means for fattening are
+available, a small yard can be built, a few boards arranged for a
+shelter at one end and the birds fed in this enclosure as described
+above.
+
+_Noodling Geese._ Noodling geese is a method of hand feeding which has
+for its purpose the production of the best fattened geese. It is not
+employed to any extent except in the section about Watertown, Wisconsin,
+where the farmers specialize to some extent on goose fattening. It is a
+method requiring long hours and tedious labor and cannot be profitably
+carried on unless a special price can be obtained for the product.
+
+In noodling geese, 8 or 10 geese are placed in a pen about 8 by 12 feet
+which is heavily bedded with straw. A partition extends halfway across
+the pen and is utilized to keep the geese separate as they are fed.
+Young ganders and any old ganders or geese which are to be marketed are
+used for noodling.
+
+The pen is kept dark and the geese should be disturbed only at feeding
+time. The first feed is given at 5 o'clock in the morning and five feeds
+are given daily at about 4 hour intervals, the last feed coming at 11 p.
+m. However, when the geese are first put on feed they are noodled only
+3 times a day this being gradually increased to 5 times. The feeder sits
+on a box or stool in a corner of the pen, grasps each goose in turn
+holding it between his legs to keep it from struggling as he stuffs it
+with noodles. The goose is handled by its neck, never by its legs which
+are easily injured, and is held with its back toward the feeder. The
+feeder usually wears gloves to protect his hands from the severe bites
+which the birds will inflict. The feeder must also handle the birds as
+carefully as possible, especially as killing time approaches for the
+flesh bruises easily and the discolored patches spoil the appearance of
+the dressed goose.
+
+The feeder at the start usually gives each goose from 3 to 5 noodles,
+gradually increasing this to 6 or 7 noodles if the birds will stand it,
+the number of noodles fed depending upon the size and condition of each
+bird, the feeder being obliged to use his judgment in this matter. In
+general if any feed can be felt in the craw, no noodles are given until
+the next feeding time. Failure to observe this is likely to cause the
+bird to go off feed. If any geese are noticed which are off feed they
+should be taken out and marketed.
+
+The noodles are made of scalded corn meal, ground oats, ground barley
+and ground wheat or wheat flour, using equal parts of each. This
+material is thoroughly mixed and salted as one would bread and is then
+put through a sausage stuffer. The product as it comes from the stuffer
+is cut into noodles about 2-1/2 or 3 inches long and these are boiled for
+10 or 15 minutes or until they float. A wash boiler with a wire rack
+forming a false bottom about 1-1/2 inches above the boiler bottom is used
+for this purpose. When cooked the noodles are dipped in cold water and
+then rolled in flour to keep them from sticking together. A supply of
+noodles is made which will last for 2 or 3 days' feeding.
+
+Just before feeding, hot water is poured over the noodles to make them
+warm and slippery. The mouth of the goose is forced open and the noodles
+are put in, one at a time, and worked down by using the fingers on the
+outside of the neck. As each goose is fed it is placed on the other side
+of the partition until all in the pen have been fed. It is important
+that plenty of drinking water be kept before the geese.
+
+The feeding period where geese are noodled usually extends from 3 to 4
+weeks. Gains of 6 to 10 pounds per bird can be secured and often an
+increased price of 10 to 15 cents a pound can be secured for such
+specially fattened geese. Noodled geese will average about 25 pounds and
+some individuals have been made to weigh nearly 40 pounds. One man can
+noodle from 50 to 100 geese but has to put in long hours. Noodled geese
+should be dressed where fattened as they are soft fleshed and would
+shrink badly if shipped alive.
+
+Fattening methods similar to the noodling described are used in parts
+of Europe for the production of the enlarged goose livers which are
+employed in making "patte de fois gras".
+
+
+Methods Used on Fattening Farms
+
+As previously mentioned, a few farmers make a specialty of buying the
+geese in their section of the country in the fall when it is too late
+for serious trouble to develop from hemorrhagic septicemia, a disease
+similar to fowl cholera, and to fatten or finish them in large flocks
+for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. Methods are employed in
+different sections which differ quite widely.
+
+On a farm in the Middle West the geese are collected from the general
+farms where they are produced in small flocks and brought to the farm
+where they are kept in flocks as large as 1,000 or even more, and are
+allowed to run in a cornfield or orchard. They are fattened for about a
+month. Corn on the cob and plenty of water is kept before the geese all
+the time and if they are running in a cornfield they eat the leaves off
+the corn stalks for roughage. Roughage is supplied if not available
+otherwise and straw, hay or vegetables are utilized for this purpose.
+
+No shelter is provided during mild weather, the geese getting such
+protection as they can from the trees or corn stalks. If the weather
+turns unusually severe, the geese are generally driven into sheds or
+barns. When fattened the geese are usually shipped to some large market
+alive. Several farms in the neighborhood of Boston make a specialty of
+finishing geese each fall, and the methods used are quite different from
+those described above. No geese are raised on these farms, the operation
+being confined to the fattening or finishing of the geese and to killing
+and dressing them for the market. Some of these goose fatteners also
+have stalls or stands in the Boston markets where they are enabled to
+dispose of their fattened geese to the best advantage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55. Large flock of geese fattening in an orchard.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Fatteners._ In previous years these fatteners depended largely upon the
+geese produced on the Rhode Island farms for their supply. In the past
+few years, however, the supply from this source has dwindled greatly and
+the bulk of the geese for fattening are now shipped from Prince Edward
+Island, Canada, in carload lots. Such summer geese as are now fattened
+still come from Rhode Island and are brought in by truck. The fattening
+season begins in September and lasts until Christmas. Some early
+goslings are bought in June but there is not as good a profit from the
+summer geese, the demand and prices being adversely affected by the
+supply of spring ducklings available at that time.
+
+Experience and good judgment will benefit the goose fattener greatly
+when purchasing his supply of geese for fattening. What he wants are
+goslings, not older geese, which have made a good growth and which have
+a large frame but which are in poor flesh rather than fat. Such geese
+will make more rapid and more profitable gains. When geese are bought
+for shipment by the carload from Prince Edward Island, they should be
+penned and fed at the point of shipment for 3 or 4 days before they are
+loaded in the cars, so as to put them in shape to stand the journey
+well. On the farms from which they come, the goslings are not fed much
+and in consequence are not in shape to stand shipment.
+
+_The Goslings_ which are secured from the farms for fattening are mainly
+common geese of no particular breed. Some pure bred geese are also
+obtained as are some first crosses between the pure breeds. A class of
+geese which is obtained in some numbers from Prince Edward Island and
+which is much desired is the so-called "Mongrel" goose. These are
+obtained by breeding a Wild or Canadian gander to geese of dark plumage
+similar to the Toulouse or African. The mongrel geese much resemble the
+wild gander in type and color and are in demand on the market because of
+their wild or gamy flavor. They bring about 10 cents per pound more than
+common geese. The market, however, is somewhat limited. These geese will
+not breed although the females will lay eggs. Where the wild gander is
+mated with light colored or white geese the offspring will have more or
+less light colored feathers and will not as closely resemble the wild
+parent and for this reason are not as desirable.
+
+_Shipping._ The geese are loaded into stock cars into which three
+separate decks are built to accommodate them. From 1200 to 1400 geese
+can be loaded into a car thus arranged. The journey usually takes about
+5 or 6 days and some fatteners send a man along with the car to feed and
+water the geese 2 or 3 times during the trip. If a man does not
+accompany the car, buckets of corn should be placed in the car for feed
+and some potatoes should also be supplied as these will serve in place
+of drinking water. If the car is not subjected to unusual delay, the
+geese should come through in good shape, but if much delayed there may
+be 25 to 100 geese dead when the car arrives at its destination.
+
+When the car arrives at the end of its journey, the geese are unloaded
+and driven to the farm where they are turned into the fields together in
+a large flock. The fields in which they are thus kept should have a
+supply of growing green feed or grass and a good supply of fresh
+drinking water. They are kept here until they are wanted for the
+fattening pens which may be from a week to 20 days after their arrival
+at the farm. While in this large supply flock they are fed on corn and
+grass which they can get for themselves.
+
+_Summer Geese_ to be fattened are placed only about 50 in a pen or
+enclosure; and are provided with a few boards set on posts to protect
+them from the hot sun. The later geese are fattened in lots of 3 or 4
+hundred or even more, depending upon how many pickers are available to
+be kept busy. It is for this reason also that the geese are not all put
+on the fattening ration at the same time, but are started at intervals
+so as to have a continuous supply coming along to keep the pickers busy.
+The geese not put in the fattening lots at the start are left in the
+fields to grow and develop until they are needed.
+
+The enclosures in which the geese are penned for fattening are small
+lots or fields enclosed by stone walls or board fences 2-1/2 to 3 feet
+high. These lots should be dry and well-drained, a location on a side
+hill being good for this purpose. The fattening lots must be kept clean
+and stagnant water must not be allowed to stand in the lots as this is
+likely to cause sickness, especially diarrhoea. These yards should be
+plowed up each spring and planted to oats, corn or some other growing
+crop to sweeten them. No houses or shelters are provided for these geese
+but some yards are somewhat wooded which affords a measure of protection
+from the wind.
+
+_Feeding._ When the geese are placed in the fattening lots, some
+fatteners prefer to fast the geese for from 3 to 5 days, giving them no
+feed but plenty of water to drink. This gives them a good appetite and
+puts them in good shape for fattening.
+
+The geese are fed three times a day, in the morning, at noon and at
+night. The morning and night feed usually consists of a moist mixed feed
+fed in troughs; while the noon feed is whole corn thrown on the ground.
+The use of one feed of corn a day is supposed to check any tendency
+toward diarrhoea. In very cold weather some fatteners feed the mixed
+feed at noon and the corn at night. At first the geese are not given all
+they will eat but are worked up gradually, increasing the amount each
+day until they are getting all they want. As a rule the geese will drop
+back a little in feed consumption after they reach the point where they
+get all they want and from this time on, the feeding must be very
+carefully watched to see that they are not given so much that they will
+leave some to sour which would cause diarrhoea. The morning and noon
+feeds are lighter, the heaviest feed being given at night. The bird's
+appetites will vary from day to day so that it is best to make the
+rounds twice in feeding to make sure that they have enough and that none
+is left. If any is left it must be gathered up and carried away.
+
+No provision is made for furnishing the fattening geese with green feed
+or roughage. The practice with respect to drinking water varies. Some
+fatteners keep a supply before the birds in troughs which must be washed
+out each day to keep them clean. Others furnish no water except that
+used in mixing up the feed.
+
+_Corn Meal_ is the principal ingredient of the fattening mixture. To a
+sack of corn meal is added 10% beef scrap and five good shovels of grit
+or medium sized gravel. In addition some fatteners add 10% of flour to
+bind the mixture together. This material should be thoroughly mixed up
+in a dry state as a better mix can be obtained in this way. It is then
+mixed up with water, the practice here varying. Some fatteners mix in a
+trough with boiling water a short time before feeding, while others mix
+it with cold water letting it soak over night and adding more water in
+the morning if it is too dry at that time. It should be mixed until it
+can be shoveled readily but should be quite solid, never in a sloppy
+condition as this is likely to cause diarrhoea. A little salt may be
+added, if desired, as an appetizer. While corn meal is generally used,
+hominy may take its place. After the geese are started on the fattening
+ration, this must be given throughout the fattening period. Changing to
+some other feed will throw the geese off feed and cause a loss.
+
+_Feeding._ When the mixed feed is ready it is shoveled into boxes or
+barrels on a low wagon and driven to the fattening lots where it is
+shoveled into the troughs for the geese. Ordinary V-shaped troughs are
+favored instead of flat troughs as the latter afford hiding places for
+rats which may cause damage in addition to the feed which they eat by
+frightening the geese.
+
+Geese are easily frightened and must therefore be handled rather
+carefully and gently as a severe fright will interfere with the gains
+they will make. Some fatteners provide electric lights where the geese
+rest at night so that they can see and will not be so likely to become
+frightened.
+
+When the geese are ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing
+house and into a pen where they may be easily caught. Each goose as
+caught is examined to see whether it is in condition for killing. If it
+is not it is put back with a later lot for additional fattening. Good
+condition in a goose is judged by its weight when handled and also by
+the condition of its breast and the fat on its back. A good place to
+test geese for fat is on the side of the body just below the point where
+the wing joins the body. If fat can be seized between the thumb and
+finger at that point, the goose is in good condition.
+
+_Dry Picking._ All fattened geese for the Boston market are dry picked.
+The goose is held between the knees of the picker with the wings held
+fast against the sides of the body. The head is grasped by the left
+hand, the mouth forced open and the veins in the back of the throat just
+beyond the skull severed with a sharp knife for the purpose of bleeding
+the bird. If the bird is to be stuck, which is not always done, the
+point of the knife is then plunged through the roof of the mouth to the
+brain. The legs are then seized in the left hand, together with the ends
+of the wings to prevent the goose from struggling and the goose is
+struck once or twice sharply on the back of the head with a club held in
+the right hand. This is for the purpose of stunning the bird. The geese
+may also be bled by sticking the knife through the neck from the outside
+just below the head.
+
+The picker then takes his seat beside the feather box, holding the goose
+on his lap with the head held between his knee and the outside of the
+box. He proceeds to pluck the feathers as rapidly as possible, removing
+all the feathers except the main wing feathers or those of the first
+joint of the wing and the feathers of the neck half way from the head to
+the body. All the soft body feathers are thrown in the box and saved.
+The coarser feathers are thrown on the floor. The down is removed by
+rubbing the moistened hand over the skin. To save the hands, ordinary
+rubber heels dipped in water are often used. Sharp knives are also used
+to shave off the pin feathers which cannot be plucked and any down not
+removed by rubbing.
+
+The dry picked goose presents a much better appearance than a scalded
+goose and the feathers are more valuable. The skin of a dry picked bird
+is not so likely to be rubbed off in removing the down.
+
+_The Value of the Feathers_ is sufficient to pay for the cost of the
+picking or perhaps a little more. The cost of picking in the fall of
+1920 ranged from 15 to 20 cents per goose where the picker was boarded
+and 24 cents without board. A good man can pick about 40 geese in a day.
+Women are not employed for this work as the geese are too big and too
+strong for them to handle.
+
+After the geese are picked, the blood is washed from the head and the
+feet washed if that is necessary. They are then thrown into barrels of
+cold water to cool and must be left there until the body heat is
+entirely removed. The wings are tied in place by means of a string or
+tape tied around the body and wings and the legs may also be crossed
+over the back and tied. The geese when ready for market are either
+shipped in by express or are taken in by automobile truck.
+
+_Gain in Weight._ In fattening according to the methods described above
+a gain in weight is secured of from 6 to 8 pounds per goose. This does
+not represent the total gain in value, however, for the fattened geese
+will bring more per pound as a result of their finished condition. The
+fattened geese when ready for market will weigh from 12 to 20 pounds.
+Weights taken on two carloads of fattened geese showed an average weight
+of 14 pounds. On December 2, 1920, fattened geese from these farms were
+bringing 42 cents per pound on the Boston market while the mongrel geese
+were worth 50 cents or a little better.
+
+The question may arise as to the size of farm necessary to carry on a
+business of this sort. Using the methods employed about Boston a farm of
+30 acres would be sufficient to handle 20,000 geese in a season. In
+selecting a farm for such a purpose, a location should be chosen where
+there are no close neighbors as the odor from the geese and yards is
+offensive to most persons.
+
+_Selling Geese Alive._ Most farmers who raise only a few geese ship them
+alive, either sending them to some commission house or selling them to
+someone who makes a specialty of fattening. Such geese are often in
+poor condition and bring the lowest quotation. Large coops similar to
+those used for turkeys should be used in shipping geese.
+
+_Killing._ Where geese are killed on the farm for shipment to market
+they are usually hung up by means of a cord about the legs. When geese
+are to be dry picked the veins in the throat just beyond the skull are
+first severed with a long bladed knife such as used for killing turkeys
+to cause good bleeding and the point of the knife is then plunged
+through the roof of the mouth to the brain performing the stick which
+serves to make the feathers come out more easily as with other classes
+of poultry. Since it is rather difficult to dry pick geese, they are
+usually scalded or steamed and where this is done, the stick is not made
+but after the veins in the throat are cut, the goose is stunned by a
+blow on the back of the head with a short club. A blood can or weight is
+then hooked through the lower bill which keeps the neck straightened out
+and prevents the blood from being thrown about the room or on the birds.
+The birds are allowed to hang until they are dead and thoroughly bled
+out.
+
+_Picking._ When geese are dry picked, the feathers are removed just as
+soon as the birds are stuck for the longer the delay the harder the
+feathers pull. The wings are picked to the first joint and the feathers
+of the neck half-way to the head. The soft pin feathers and fine down
+may be removed by shaving the skin or rubbing the body with moistened
+hands will partially remove them.
+
+Usually geese are scalded or steamed for picking. For steaming a wash
+boiler three-quarters full of boiling water and with a burlap sack
+tightly stretched over its top can be used. The goose is simply laid on
+the sack and the steam coming through the burlap steams the feathers and
+makes them easy to remove. The breast should be steamed first, then the
+back and then each side. Two or three minutes will be time enough to
+complete the steaming. The feathers are steamed until they pull out
+easily. The goose must be kept moving to prevent the flesh from becoming
+scalded and since the breast is especially tender it is usual to lay the
+head under the breast to prevent the latter from scalding. After
+steaming the body feathers are removed and the bird is then singed over
+a flame furnished by alcohol burned in shallow tin plates, in order to
+remove the down. The down may also be removed by sprinkling powdered
+rosin over the goose's body which is then dipped into hot water. The hot
+water melts the rosin which sticks to the down and the down and rosin
+can then be rubbed off together.
+
+Geese may also be steamed by scalding slightly in hot water and then
+wrapping tightly in burlap or some other cloth. They are kept wrapped
+for about five minutes which allows the steam to work thoroughly through
+the feathers which can then be plucked easily.
+
+Exactly the same methods can and often are employed in dressing geese as
+are used with ducks. The reader is therefore also referred to the
+material in Chapter VII.
+
+There seems to be no great insistence on the part of most markets for
+dry picked geese. Some will pay slightly more for the dry picked birds
+but others make no difference.
+
+_Packing for Shipment._ After picking, the geese are washed and then
+placed in cold water to cool. Ice water is best for this purpose and is
+essential in warm weather. The carcasses must be allowed to remain in
+the water until they are thoroughly cooled, which will take at least one
+to two hours. If any animal heat is left in the bodies, they will spoil
+very quickly. Often the carcasses are dipped in hot water, before being
+thrown in the cold water, to plump them. After they are thoroughly
+cooled, the geese are packed in barrels for shipping. If the weather is
+cool they may be packed in well ventilated barrels without ice, but if
+the weather is warm, cracked ice must be used in packing, proceeding in
+the same way as when packing ducks as described on page 109. It is
+always risky to pack without ice.
+
+_Saving the Feathers._ Goose feathers are valuable and should therefore
+be saved when the geese are plucked. The soft body feathers and the
+coarser feathers should be kept separate. The feathers should be cured
+by spreading them out in a thin layer on the floor of a loft or room,
+stirring them up occasionally until they are thoroughly dried out, when
+they can be sacked and sold. Failure to dry the feathers thoroughly will
+result in their heating and molding with the result that they will
+arrive at their destination in bad shape and will be worth less money.
+The soft body feathers of geese are practically all used in making beds
+and pillows while the quills are sometimes utilized in making toothpicks
+and cigarette holders. Prices for goose feathers in June 1921 were as
+follows:
+
+Pure White          dry picked  75c per lb.
+Good average white   "    "     65c  "   "
+Largely gray         "    "     55c  "   "
+Largely gray         scalded    40c  "   "
+Long goose quills                5c  "   "
+
+These prices were for good dry feathers.
+
+
+Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers
+
+In the days of feather beds and home-made pillows the practice of
+plucking live geese for their feathers was very common. Now, however,
+with the demand for goose feathers less and with the opinion of some
+breeders that plucking geese is both cruel and injurious, the practice
+seems to be decreasing. Many goose raisers in the South and a less
+number in the Middle West and North however still pluck the feathers
+from the live geese prior to the time of moulting. The frequency with
+which the picking is done varies greatly, some picking as often as every
+six weeks during the spring, summer and early fall while others pick
+twice, once in the spring and once in the fall, or once in the spring
+only. Geese should never be picked during the late fall or winter when
+the weather is cold or during the breeding season. Both young and old
+geese are plucked and the average yearly production of feathers per
+goose is about one pound. When the quills of the feathers are dry and do
+not contain any blood, the feathers are ripe for picking. In plucking, a
+stocking is placed over the head of the goose and the goose held on the
+lap and between the legs during the process.
+
+An assistant to hold the goose during the plucking simplifies the work
+greatly. In plucking, part of the soft feathers of the breast, sides,
+abdomen and back are taken but these sections should not be plucked
+clean. It is especially important that enough short feathers be left to
+support the wings.
+
+After plucking, the feathers must be cured before they are shipped. This
+may be done by spreading them out on a floor as described for the
+feathers taken from slaughtered geese or they may be placed loosely in
+burlap sacks and hung up in a garret or loft. Hanging in this way and in
+the loosely woven sacks, they are subjected to a good circulation of air
+and will dry out without heating. Sacks of feathers should not be piled
+or packed closely together, on top of one another or even be allowed to
+lie on the floor until they are thoroughly dry as otherwise they are
+almost sure to heat and mold.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+A
+
+Absence of crest in Crested White Duck, 34
+
+African Goose, 156,  157
+
+Age of
+  breeding ducks, 55,  123
+  breeding geese, 152
+  duck eggs for hatching, 72
+  ducklings for market, 96, 102,  136
+  green geese, 187
+  Muscovy duck, 31
+
+Amount of feed
+  per pound of market duck, 95
+  for noodled geese, 197
+Amount of land
+  for duck plant, 46
+  for goose fattening farm, 208
+
+Arrangement of cars for shipping live geese, 202
+
+Arrangement of duck plant, 45
+
+Artificial water yards for ducks, 62
+
+Aylesbury duck, 23
+
+
+B
+
+Baby ducks, selling, 78
+
+Bantam ducks, 27, 29
+
+Bean,
+  definition of, 13
+  black in, 22, 23, 35
+
+Bedding
+  brood coop for goslings, 180
+  duck breeding houses, 60
+  duck brooder houses, 87
+  goose breeding houses, 168
+  pens for fattening geese, 195
+
+Beef scrap, feeding, to ducks, 64
+
+Bib in
+  Blue Swedish ducks, 33
+  Buff ducks, 36
+
+Bill,
+  definition of, 13
+  black in, of Black East India, 29
+
+Black East India duck, 29
+
+Black in bean of
+  Aylesbury, 23
+  Crested White Duck, 35
+  Pekin, 22
+
+Black bill in Black East India drakes, 29
+
+Black
+  head, greenish, in Buff drakes, 35
+  head, in Fawn and White Runners, 37
+  in face of Muscovy,  32
+  plumage of Blue Swedish, 33
+  on head of young White Muscovy, 32
+  tail coverts, greenish, in Fawn and White Runners, 37
+
+Bleeding
+  ducks, 105
+  geese, 206, 209
+
+Blue
+  cast in Buff ducks, 36
+  Muscovy, 32
+  Swedish ducks, 33
+  wing bar in Buff ducks, 35
+
+Body shape in breeding ducks, selecting for, 19
+
+Braining geese, 206, 209
+
+Breaking up
+  goose matings, 154
+  broody geese, 175
+
+Breast-bone as index of age in ducks, 56
+
+Breeding
+  drakes, securing, 58
+  ducks, opportunity to produce, 6
+  ducks, prices for, 7
+  season for ducks, 124
+
+Breeds of ducks, 9
+  Aylesbury, 23
+  Blue Swedish, 33
+  broodiness of, 18
+  Buff, 35
+  Call, 27
+  Cayuga, 25
+  common or puddle, 9
+  Crested White, 34
+  East India, 29
+  egg, 11
+  egg production of, 15
+  Mallard, 10
+  Mandarin, 10
+  meat, 11
+  mule, 9
+  Muscovy, 29
+  ornamental, 11
+  Pekin, 21
+  popularity of, 14
+  Rouen, 23
+  Runner, 36
+  size of, 14
+  Wood, 10
+
+Breeds of geese, 147
+  African, 156
+  Canadian, 159
+  Chinese, 158
+  common, 148
+  Egyptian, 160
+  Embden, 156
+  mongrel, 148
+  Sebastapol, 148
+  Toulouse, 155
+  Wild, 159
+
+Brood coop for goslings, 179
+
+Brooder
+  capacity on duck plants, 47
+  houses for ducklings, 80-90
+
+Brooders for goslings, 180
+
+Broodiness of
+  ducks, 18
+  geese, 152
+  geese, breaking up, 175
+
+Brooding
+  ducklings, 80-90, 131
+  goslings, 178
+    by artificial means, 180
+    with geese, 179
+    with hens, 179
+    without artificial heat, 180
+
+Brown Chinese goose, 158
+
+Brownish color in Cayuga ducks, 26
+
+Buff Ducks, 35
+
+Button head in Call ducks, 28
+
+Buying geese for fattening, 200
+
+
+C
+
+Call ducks, 27
+
+Canadian goose--see Wild
+
+Capacity of
+  car for geese, 202
+  farm for fattening geese, 208
+  incubator for duck eggs, 130
+
+Capital,
+  invested, for duck plant, 53
+  working, for duck plant, 54
+
+Care of
+  duck eggs for hatching, 73, 128
+  goose eggs for hatching, 172
+  growing goslings, 181
+  hen sitting on goose eggs, 174
+
+Carrying
+  ducks, 39
+  geese, 162
+
+Caruncles on face of Muscovy, 29
+
+Cases, shipping, for duck eggs, 119, 137
+
+Catching
+  ducks, 39
+  geese, 162
+
+Cayuga duck, 25
+
+Celery seed, feeding, to fattening ducks, 93
+
+Changing feed for fattening geese, 205
+
+Chestnut colored head in Buff drakes, 35
+
+Chilling of goslings by rain, 181
+
+Chinese goose, 158
+
+Chocolate colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, 32
+
+Claret in breast of Rouen drakes, deficiency of, 24
+
+Classification of breeds of ducks, 11
+
+Cleaning
+  brood coops for goslings, 179
+  duck
+    breeding houses, 60
+    brooder houses, 87
+    yards, 61, 97
+  goose breeding houses, 168
+
+Cleanliness of plumage as indication of health, 19
+
+Color of
+  duck eggs, 17
+  goose eggs, 152
+
+Colored flights in
+  Fawn and White Runners, 37
+  Penciled Runners, 38
+
+Colored Muscovy, 31
+
+Commercial duck farming,
+  opportunity for, 4
+  distribution of, 42
+
+Condition of
+  breeding geese, 169
+  ducks ready to kill, 96
+  geese for fattening, 200
+  geese ready to kill, 206
+
+Conditioning exhibition ducks, 38
+
+Conditions for duck raising on the farm, 120
+
+Confining goslings to yards, 181
+
+Considerations, general, in making
+  duck matings, 18-21
+  goose matings, 154
+
+Consistency of feed for
+  ducks, 65, 126, 133
+  fattening geese, 205
+
+Construction of brooder houses for ducks, 82
+
+Cooking geese to overcome greasiness, 194
+
+Cooling duck
+  carcasses, 108
+  eggs during incubation, 75, 131
+
+Cooling goose
+  carcasses, 207, 211
+  eggs during incubation, 175
+
+Coop, growing, for goslings, 182
+
+Cooperative
+  feed buying, 101
+  marketing, 110
+
+Copper colored head of Buff drakes, 36
+
+Cost of picking
+  ducks, 107
+  geese, 207
+
+Creaminess in plumage of
+  Aylesbury, 23
+  Pekin, 23
+
+Crest,
+  tendency toward, in the Pekin, 22
+  of Muscovy, 29
+  of Crested White, 34
+
+Crested White duck, 34
+
+Crippled ducks, 97, 104
+
+Critical period with young ducks, 98
+
+Crooked back
+  in ducks, 19
+  in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Crooked crest in Crested White, 34
+
+Crooked tail in ducks, 19
+
+Crossed feathers on neck of Pekin drake, 22
+
+Crossing African and Brown Chinese geese, 157
+
+Curing
+  duck feathers, 117
+  goose feathers, 211, 213
+
+
+D
+
+Darkening pens
+  for fattening geese, 195
+  for noodling geese, 196
+
+Dewlap in
+  Toulouse geese, 155
+  African geese, 157
+
+Diarrhoea
+  of ducklings, 99
+  of goslings, 185
+
+Diseases
+  of ducklings, 98-100
+  of goslings, 185
+  of mature ducks, 69
+  prevention of, 98
+
+Dished bill in Rouen, 24
+
+Distinguishing
+  sex
+    in ducks, 13, 135
+    in geese, 165
+  young from old ducks, 55
+
+Distribution of duck raising, 3
+
+Dogs a source of loss in ducks, 69
+
+Double crest in Crested White ducks, 34
+
+Down, removing,
+  from market ducks, 108
+  from market geese, 207, 210
+
+Drake,
+  definition of, 12
+  adult, meaning of, 13
+  young, meaning of, 13
+
+Drakerel, definition of, 13
+
+Drinking dishes
+  for ducklings, 86
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Driving geese from railway to farm, 202
+
+Drowning ducks, 31, 128, 135
+
+Dry, keeping goslings, 181
+
+Dry land duck farms, 44
+
+Dry picking
+  ducks, 107
+  geese, 206
+
+Duck,
+  definition of, 12
+  adult, meaning of, 13
+  young, meaning of, 13
+
+Duck raising
+  as a side line, 120
+  distribution of, 3
+  for egg production, 5
+  for ornamental purposes, 7
+  kinds of, 4
+  on the general farm, 5
+  opportunities for, 4, 120
+
+Ducklet, definition of, 13
+
+Duckling, meaning of, 12
+
+Ducks,
+  number of,
+    in leading states, 3
+    in U. S., 3
+  value of, in U. S., 3
+
+Dun colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, 32
+
+
+E
+
+Egg class of ducks, 11
+
+Egg production,
+  duck raising for, 5
+  of breeds of ducks, 15
+  of breeds of geese, 150
+  of Pekins on commercial plants, 66
+  selection of breeders for, 21
+
+Eggs, duck,
+  color of, 17
+  for hatching,
+    age of, 72
+    care of, 73, 128
+    frequency of setting, 72
+    packing and shipping, 40
+    prices of, 7
+    selection of, 73
+    washing, 130
+  marketing, 118
+  size of, 16
+
+Eggs, goose,
+  care of, for hatching, 172
+  color of, 152
+  size of, 151
+  washing for hatching, 172
+
+Egyptian goose, 160
+
+Electric lights
+  for breeding ducks, 67
+  for duck plants, 51
+  for ducklings, 94
+  for fattening geese, 205
+
+Embden goose, 156
+
+Equipment of pens in duck brooders, 86
+
+Examining
+  geese to determine sex, 165
+  fattened geese for market condition, 206
+
+Extent of
+  duck industry, 3
+  goose industry, 141
+
+Eye as indication of health in ducks, 19
+
+
+F
+
+Faded gray in Brown Chinese geese, 158
+
+Fading of color in
+  Buff ducks, 35
+  Cayuga ducks, 27
+  Gray Call ducks, 28
+  Rouen ducks, 25
+
+Fasting geese before fattening, 203
+
+Fattening farms for geese, 199
+
+Fattening geese,
+  by noodling, 196
+  methods of, 194
+  on farms in the east, 200
+  on farms in the middle west, 199
+  on large fattening farms, 199-208
+  pen, 195
+
+Fattening houses or sheds for ducklings, 48
+
+Fattening summer geese, 202
+
+Fawn and White Runner, 37
+
+Fawn colored breasts in Rouen females, 25
+
+Fawn on neck, too much, in Fawn and White Runner, 37
+
+Feather eating in ducklings, 100
+
+Feathered legs in ducks, 19
+
+Feathers,
+  saving duck, 117
+  saving geese, 207, 211
+  plucking from live geese, 212
+
+Feed, cooperative buying of, 101
+
+Feed cooker
+  for ducks, 49
+  cutter for ducks, 49
+  last, for market ducklings, 103
+  mixer for ducks, 49
+  storage for duck plant, 49
+  troughs or trays for ducks, 66
+  troughs for fattening geese, 205
+  wagon
+    for ducks, 65
+    for geese, 205
+
+Feeding
+  breeding ducks, 63
+  breeding geese, 169
+  Call ducks, 27
+  ducklings, 92, 132
+  fattening geese, 195, 196, 203
+  geese during shipment, 202
+  goslings, 183
+  growing and fattening ducklings, 92-94, 132
+  noodles to geese, 198
+  show ducks, 39
+  show geese, 161
+  supply geese on fattening farms, 202
+  track on duck plants, 51, 65
+
+Fences
+  for ducks, 52, 128
+  for fattening geese, 203
+  for geese, 168
+
+Fertility of duck eggs, 20, 77
+
+Fireless brooding goslings, 180
+
+First feed
+  for ducklings, 92
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Fish, feeding, to ducks, 63, 92, 134
+
+Fits in ducklings, 99
+
+Flat breast in Aylesburys, 23
+
+Flatiron shape in Call ducks, 28
+
+Folded feathers on neck of Pekin drake, 22
+
+Foreign color in back of White Runner ducks, 37
+
+Free range
+  for ducks, 120
+  for geese, 168
+  for goslings, 182
+
+Freezing of ducks to the ground, 62, 128
+
+Frequency
+  of plucking live geese for feathers, 212
+  of setting duck eggs, 72
+
+Frightening breeding ducks, 67
+  ducklings, 94
+  fattening geese, 205
+
+
+G
+
+Gains in weight
+  made by ducklings, 94
+  secured in noodling geese, 198
+  secured in pen fattening geese, 195
+  secured on goose fattening farms, 208
+
+Gander, definition of, 149
+
+Gapes in ducklings, 99
+
+Geese as weed destroyers, 145
+
+Goose eggs for hatching,
+  care of, 172
+  washing, 172
+
+Goose fattening farms, 199
+
+Goose raising,
+  as a business for farm women, 144
+  as a side line, 141
+  distribution of, 141
+  on general farms, 142
+  opportunities for, 142
+
+Goose septicemia, 186
+
+Gosling, definition of, 149
+
+Grading growing ducklings, 87
+
+Grass yards for goslings, 182
+
+Gray Call duck, 28
+
+Gray,
+  faded, in Brown Chinese geese, 158
+  in plumage of Blue Swedish ducks, 33
+  stippling on Penciled Runner drakes, 38
+
+Greasing heads of goslings for lice, 178
+
+Green bill
+  in Aylesbury, 23
+  in Buff ducks, 36
+  in Crested White ducks, 35
+  in Pekin, 22
+  in White Runner, 37
+
+Green ducks, 102
+
+Green feed
+  for breeding ducks, 64
+  for breeding geese, 169
+  for ducklings, 92, 133
+  for fattening geese, 204
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Green geese, 149, 187
+
+Grit
+  for breeding geese, 170
+  for fattening geese, 204
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Growing green feed for ducks, 64
+
+Growth of goslings, rapidity of, 184
+
+Gypsy face in Muscovy ducks, 32
+
+
+H
+
+Handling
+  ducks, 39
+  geese, 162
+  geese during noodling, 197
+
+Hatches of duck eggs, 78
+
+Hatching duck eggs
+  with an incubator, 70, 130
+  with hens, 129
+
+Hatching eggs, duck, packing and shipping, 40
+
+Hatching goose eggs
+  with chicken hens, 173
+  with geese, 174
+  with incubators, 175
+
+Health,
+  selection of breeding ducks for, 19
+  indications of, in ducks, 19
+
+Heating apparatus for duck brooder house, 83
+
+Heavy bottoms in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Hemorrhagic septicemia of geese, 186
+
+Horse power required on a duck plant, 50
+
+House capacity
+  for breeding ducks, 46
+  for fattening ducks, 48
+
+Houses
+  for breeding ducks, 59
+  for breeding geese, 167
+
+Hump back in ducks, 19
+
+
+I
+
+Identification of ducks by toe punching, 12
+
+Incubation, period of,
+  for ducks, 47, 129
+  for geese, 173
+
+Incubator capacity on duck plants, 47, 71
+
+Incubator cellar, 70
+
+Incubators, kinds of, for duck eggs, 70
+
+Injury
+  to ducks, 57, 62
+  to goslings, 182
+
+Insect pests of ducks, 69
+
+
+K
+
+Keel, deep,
+  in Aylesbury, 23
+  in Call, 28
+  in Pekin, 22
+  in Rouen, 24
+
+Killing
+  ducks, 105
+  geese, 206, 209
+  house for duck plants, 50
+
+Knob on head
+  of African geese, 157
+  of Chinese geese, 158
+  of Muscovy drake, 29
+
+
+L
+
+Labor required
+  on duck plants, 52
+  in noodling geese, 198
+
+Lameness
+  of ducklings, 99
+  of goslings, 185
+
+Land required for duck plants, 46
+
+Laying ration
+  for ducks, 126
+  for geese, 169
+
+Laying season
+  for ducks, 66, 124
+  for geese, 167
+
+Lay-out of duck plant, 45
+
+Length of time
+  in brooder house for ducklings, 88
+  brooding necessary for goslings, 180
+
+Lights
+  for breeding ducks, 67
+  for ducklings, 94
+  for fattening geese, 205
+
+Live ducks, shipping to market, 116
+
+Live geese,
+  shipping to market, 208
+  plucking for feathers, 212
+
+Location
+  of duck plant, 42
+  of goose fattening farm, 208
+
+Lopped crest in White Crested ducks, 35
+
+Loss
+  in ducklings, 98
+  in geese during shipment, 202
+
+Lost, goslings becoming, 182
+
+Lots, fattening, for geese, 203
+
+
+M
+
+Making a start in duck raising, 121
+
+Making new goose matings, 154
+
+Mallard duck, 10
+  summer plumage of males, 25
+
+Mandarin duck, 10
+
+Marketing
+  duck eggs, 118, 136
+  ducks, 102, 135
+
+Markets for geese, 187
+
+Marking
+  ducklings, 12
+  goslings, 153
+
+Mating
+  ducks, general considerations in, 18
+  geese, general considerations in, 154
+
+Meat class of ducks, 11
+
+Mixing feed
+  for ducks, 65
+  for fattening geese, 204
+
+Moisture
+  for duck eggs during incubation, 76, 131
+  for goose eggs during incubation, 176
+
+Molt of ducklings as indication of market condition, 102
+
+Mongrel goose, 148, 201
+
+Mortality
+  of breeding ducks, 69
+  of geese during shipment, 202
+
+Mosquito larvae, destruction of, by ducks, 8
+
+Mule ducks, 9
+
+Muscovy duck, 29
+
+
+N
+
+Narrow shoulders
+  in Call ducks, 28
+  in Pekin ducks, 22
+
+Nest, preparing the, for hatching goose eggs, 173
+
+Nomenclature
+  of ducks, 12
+  of geese, 149
+
+Noodles, making, for fattening geese, 197
+
+Noodling geese, 196
+
+Number
+  of breeding ducks required, 46
+  of ducklings marketed per breeding duck, 46
+  of ducklings to a pen, 85, 90
+  of ducks in leading states, 3
+  of ducks in U. S., 3
+  of ducks to a drake, 57
+  of geese carried on fattening farms, 208
+  of geese in leading states, 141
+  of geese in U. S., 141
+  of geese noodled by one man, 198
+  of geese to the acre, 164
+  of times
+    ducklings are fed, 92
+    geese are fed on fattening farms, 203
+    noodled geese are fed, 197
+    pen fattened geese are fed, 195
+
+
+O
+
+Objections
+  to duck farms, 43
+  to geese, 145
+  to goose fattening farms, 208
+
+Odor from goose fattening farms, 208
+
+Opportunities
+  for duck raising, 4
+  for goose raising, 142
+
+Ornamental
+  purposes, ducks for, 7
+  class of ducks, 11
+
+Output of duck plants, 42, 45
+
+Oyster shell, feeding,
+  to breeding ducks, 66
+  to breeding geese, 170
+
+
+P
+
+Packing dressed
+  ducks for shipment, 109
+  geese for shipment, 211
+
+Packing
+  duck hatching eggs, 40
+  goose hatching eggs, 162
+
+Pasturing
+  geese, 164
+  goslings, 183
+
+Patte de fois gras, 199
+
+Pay for picking
+  ducks, 107
+  geese, 207
+
+Pekin duck, 21
+
+Pekin duck on commercial plants, 42
+
+Penciled Runner duck, 37
+
+Penciling in
+  Buff ducks, 35
+  Fawn and White Runner females, 37
+  Rouen females, 25
+
+Penciling, lack of, in Penciled Runner females, 38
+
+Pen fattening geese, 195
+
+Pens
+  for fattening geese, 203
+  for noodling geese, 196
+  in brooder house for ducklings  84, 89
+
+Percent
+  hatch of duck eggs set, 78
+  loss
+    in ducklings, 98
+    in goslings, 184
+
+Period of incubation
+  for duck eggs, 129
+  for goose eggs, 173
+  for Muscovy duck, 30
+
+Period of feeding
+  noodled geese, 198
+  pen fattening geese, 195
+
+Picking house for duck plants, 50
+
+Picking
+  market ducks, 106
+  market geese, 206
+
+Pin feathers, removing, from ducks, 107
+
+Pinioning
+  ducks, 28
+  wild geese, 159
+
+Pneumonia in ducklings, 99
+
+Popularity of breeds
+  of ducks, 14
+  of geese, 150
+
+Pounds feed to produce pound of market duck, 95
+
+Prejudice against roast goose, 194
+
+Preparing
+  ducks for the show, 38
+  geese for the show, 161
+
+Prevention of disease in ducklings, 98
+
+Prices
+  of duck breeding stock and eggs, 7
+  of duck feathers, 118
+  of goose breeding stock and eggs, 163
+  of goose feathers, 212
+  of market ducks, 110
+  of market geese, 188
+  of mongrel geese, 208
+  of specially fattened geese, 208
+
+Prince Edward Island geese, 201
+
+Production, yearly, of feathers from live geese, 213
+
+Profits from duck farming, 54
+
+Protecting feed of geese from other stock, 171
+
+Puddle ducks, 9
+
+Pulling broken feathers
+  in ducks, 38
+  in geese, 161
+
+Purple barring in Black East India ducks, 29
+
+Purple rump in Rouen drake, 24
+
+
+Q
+
+Quilling in ducklings, 100
+
+
+R
+
+Range
+  for fattening geese, 199
+  for geese, 164
+
+Rapidity of growth of goslings, 184
+
+Rations
+  for breeding ducks, 63, 125
+  for breeding geese, 169
+  for ducklings, 92, 132
+  for fattening geese, 195, 197,  203
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Rats as source of loss in ducklings, 101
+
+Red in plumage of Blue Swedish, 33
+
+Removing
+  baby ducks to the brooder, 80
+  newly hatched goslings from the nest, 176
+
+Reviving goslings chilled by rain, 181
+
+Rhode Island geese, 200
+
+Ribbon or wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call, 28
+
+Ring, white,
+  in Buff ducks, 36
+  in Rouen, 24
+  width of, in Rouen, 24
+
+Roach back in ducks, 19
+
+Rouen duck, 23
+
+Roughage
+  for fattening geese, 195, 199, 204
+  in rations for geese, 170
+
+Round head in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Runner duck, 36
+
+
+S
+
+Sand, feeding,
+  to breeding ducks, 66
+  to ducklings, 86, 93
+  to goslings, 183
+
+Scalding market
+  ducks, 105
+  geese, 209
+
+Sebastapol goose, 148
+
+Selection of breeding ducks, 19
+  on commercial plants, 56
+  on general farms, 134
+
+Selection of breeding geese, 154
+
+Selection of duck eggs for hatching, 73
+
+Selecting the breed of ducks, 122
+
+Separating growing goslings from old stock, 182
+
+Septicemia, goose or hemorrhagic, 186
+
+Sex
+  in ducks, distinguishing, 13, 135
+  in geese, distinguishing, 165
+
+Shade
+  for breeding ducks, 60
+  for fattening summer geese, 202
+  for goslings, 182
+  for growing ducklings, 92
+
+Sharp backs in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Shaving market geese to remove down, 209
+
+Shelter
+  for fattening geese, 199, 203
+  for growing goslings, 181
+
+Shipping
+  dressed ducks, 109
+  dressed geese, 208
+  hatching eggs,
+    duck, 40
+    geese, 162
+
+Shipping live geese for fattening, 201
+
+Short legs in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Shrinking in shipping ducks alive, 116
+
+Size
+  of breeding ducks, 19
+  of breeds of ducks, 14
+  of breeds of geese, 150
+  of duck eggs, 16
+  of duck farms, 42, 44, 46
+  of flocks of breeding ducks, 46
+  of flocks of ducks on general farms, 121
+  of flocks of fattening geese, 195, 196, 199, 202
+  of goose eggs, 151
+  of male and female Muscovy, 30
+  of mating in ducks, 20, 123
+  of mating in geese, 152
+  of sitting of duck eggs, 7, 129
+  of sitting of goose eggs, 163, 174
+
+Slate on backs
+  of young Embden geese, 156
+  of young White Chinese geese, 159
+
+Smooth head in Muscovy duck, 29
+
+Sore eyes in ducklings, 100
+
+Sorting
+  growing ducklings, 87
+  market ducklings, 104
+
+Split crest in Crested White ducks, 34
+
+Steaming
+  ducks for picking, 107
+  geese for picking, 210
+
+Sticking or braining geese, 206, 209
+
+Stippling, gray, on Penciled Runner ducks, 38
+
+Stunning geese, 206, 209
+
+Summer geese, fattening, 202
+
+Summer plumage of Rouen drakes, 25
+
+Swimming, preventing goslings from, 181
+
+Temperatures, incubation,
+  for duck eggs, 74
+  for goose eggs, 175
+
+Temperatures, brooder,
+  for ducklings, 81
+  for goslings, 180
+
+Testing
+  duck eggs, 74, 130
+  table for candling duck eggs, 75
+
+Time of feeding
+  breeding ducks, 63, 126
+  geese on fattening farms, 203
+  noodled geese, 196
+  pen fattened geese, 195
+
+Time of first feed
+  for ducklings, 92
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Time of laying
+  with ducks, 67
+  with geese, 167
+
+Time
+  of marketing breeding ducks, 68
+  of plucking live geese for feathers, 212
+  to purchase breeding ducks, 121
+    breeding geese, 166
+
+Toulouse goose, defects in, 155
+
+Tray, feed, for ducks, 66
+
+Triple crest in Crested White ducks, 34
+
+Trough, feed, for ducks, 66
+
+Turning
+  duck eggs during incubation, 75
+  goose eggs during incubation, 174, 175
+
+Twisted wings in ducks, 19
+
+
+U
+
+Uses
+  for duck feathers, 118
+  for goose feathers, 212
+
+
+V
+
+Value
+  of duck feathers, 117
+  of ducks in the U. S., 8
+  of goose feathers, 207
+
+Vegetables, feeding, to ducks, 63
+
+Ventilation
+  for goslings, 179
+  of brooder houses, 88
+  of incubator cellars, 71
+  of incubators when hatching, 77
+
+Vigor, selection of breeding ducks for, 19
+
+
+W
+
+Washing
+  duck eggs for hatching, 130
+  goose eggs for hatching, 172
+  show ducks, 39
+  show geese, 162
+
+Water
+  for breeding ducks, 61, 127
+  for breeding geese, 165
+  for ducklings, 96, 135
+  for fattening geese, 195, 198, 204
+  for geese during shipment, 202
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Water site for duck plants, 42
+
+Water supply for duck plants, 52
+
+Water yards
+  for breeding ducks, 61
+  for growing and fattening ducklings, 96, 135
+
+Weed destruction by geese, 96, 103
+
+Weight
+  of ducklings when ready for market, 96, 103
+  of geese from fattening farms, 208
+  of goslings when ready for market, 185
+  of green geese, 184, 187
+  of noodled geese, 198
+
+Weights
+  of Black East India ducks, 14
+  of Call ducks, 14
+  of duck eggs, 14
+  of goose eggs, 151
+  of Mallard ducks, 10
+  of standard breeds of ducks, 14
+  of standard breeds of geese, 150
+
+White around eyes
+  of Blue Swedish, 34
+  of Cayuga, 26
+
+White bib
+  in Blue Swedish, 33
+  in Buff ducks, 36
+
+White Call duck, description of, 28
+
+White Chinese goose, 159
+
+White in breast
+  of Black East India, 29
+  of Cayuga, 26
+
+White in fluff of Rouen drake, 24
+
+White in wings
+  of African geese, 157
+  of Blue Swedish ducks, 33
+  of Brown Chinese geese, 159
+  of Buff ducks, 35
+  of Gray Call ducks, 28
+  of Rouen ducks, 24
+  of Toulouse geese, 156
+
+White Muscovy duck,
+  description of, 32
+  black on head of young, 32
+
+White on head of Colored Muscovy, 32
+
+White on neck of Cayuga, 26
+
+White Runner duck, 37
+
+Wild or Canadian goose, 159
+
+Windpipe as indication of age in ducks, 56
+
+Wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call females, 28
+
+Wood duck, 10
+
+
+Y
+
+Yards
+  for breeding ducks, 58, 128
+  for breeding geese, 168
+  for fattening ducklings, 91
+  for fattening geese, 203
+  for goslings, 181
+
+Yellow bills
+  in Blue Swedish, 34
+  in Rouen females, 25
+
+Yellow, loss of, legs and bills of Pekin with laying, 56
+
+Yellow on knob
+  of African geese, 157
+  of Brown Chinese geese, 158
+  of White Chinese geese, 159
+
+Yield of feathers from live geese, 213
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Apart from minor changes to formatting, table alignment and punctuation,
+the only changes made to the text from the original are as follows:
+
+Preface (2nd page): "minumum" changed to "minimum" (... with the minimum
+of initial investment and of labor.)
+
+"Sebastapool" changed to "Sebastapol" in List of Illustrations (Egyptian
+Gander and Sebastapol Goose) Figure 50 caption, and twice in the index.
+This is consistent with the use of "Sebastapol" in the text.
+
+Page 20: "neccessary" changed to "necessary" (... it becomes neccessary
+to mate a smaller number of females ...).
+
+Page 30: missing page reference added (See Page 14).
+
+Page 72: comma deleted after "Of" (Of course, eggs sufficient to fill
+the entire incubator capacity ...).
+
+Fig 28 caption: "yords" changed to "yards" (Long brooder house and yards
+with feeding track.)
+
+Page 107: duplicate word "the" deleted (... hung in a steam box with the
+heads outside ...)
+
+Page 131: "chickens" changed to "chicken" (Ducklings can be brooded if
+desired by means of chicken hens.)
+
+Page 136: missing page reference added (... in accordance with the
+directions given on page 106).
+
+Page 137: missing page reference added (See page 119).
+
+Page 141: "1920" changed to "1910" (The census figures of 1920 compared
+with those for 1910 ...)
+
+Page 145: "in" changed to "is" (An objection to geese often expressed
+but without good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture for
+other stock.)
+
+Page 154: "Ameriacn" changed to "American" (... the American Standard of
+Perfection.)
+
+Page 155 Footnote: "standard" changed to initial upper case "Standard"
+(American Standard of Perfection).
+
+Page 163: missing page reference added (The same method of packing the
+eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described on page 137.)
+
+Page 165: "thoughout" changed to "throughout" (... green feed available
+throughout the summer and fall ...)
+
+Page 166: "penus" changed to "penis" (... the penis will protrude.)
+
+Page 182: "close" changed to "closed" (It should have a board floor and
+be capable of being closed ...)
+
+Page 194: "pleasanty" changed to "pleasantly" ( ...one will be
+pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which the roast goose possesses.)
+
+Page 211: missing page reference added ( ... in the same way as when
+packing ducks as described on page 109.)
+
+Page 222 (Index): "stipling" changed to "stippling" (Gray stippling on
+Penciled Runner drakes).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ducks and Geese, by
+Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND GEESE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33029.txt or 33029.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/0/2/33029/
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner, La Monte
+H.P. Yarroll and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture
+(CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.