initial commit of ebook 33029HEADmain

123 files changed, 24709 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/33029-8.txt b/33029-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f075eae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7538 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Ducks and Geese, by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ducks and Geese
+
+Author: Harry M. Lamon
+        Rob R. Slocum
+
+Release Date: June 30, 2010 [EBook #33029]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND GEESE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner, La Monte
+H.P. Yarroll and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture
+(CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+This Plain Text version uses the Latin-1 character set.
+
+The figure captions have been retained in the same order of appearance
+as the plates in the original, but moved to follow the section which
+each illustrates.
+
+Minor inconsistencies in spelling have been retained as in the original.
+Where typographical errors have been corrected and missing references
+added, these are listed at the end of this book.
+
+Bold and small capital typeface in the original is represented in the
+Plain Text version by UPPER CASE. Italic typeface in the original is
+indicated in the Plain Text version by _underscores_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece._ General view of water yards and ducklings
+on a large Long Island duck farm. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+
+
+                      DUCKS AND GEESE
+
+                            BY
+
+                      HARRY M. LAMON
+
+SENIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES
+                DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+                           AND
+
+                      ROB R. SLOCUM
+
+    POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES
+                DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+                      _Authors of
+          "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry"
+                  and "Turkey Raising"_
+
+                      ILLUSTRATED
+
+                        NEW YORK
+              ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+                         LONDON
+        KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO., LIMITED
+
+                          1922
+
+                  COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY
+            ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY
+                 _All Rights Reserved_
+
+                  PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Of all lines of poultry keeping, duck raising is unique in that it lends
+itself to the greatest degree of specialization and intensification
+along lines which are purely commercial. On a comparatively small area
+thousands of ducklings can be reared and marketed yearly. The call for
+information concerning the methods used by these commercial duck raisers
+has been considerable, and since such information is not available in
+complete concise form the present book has been prepared partly to
+furnish just this information.
+
+The methods used by successful Long Island duck raisers differ widely in
+some particulars and since in the space at command, it has been
+impossible to describe all the methods used, the plan has been adopted
+of detailing in the main the methods of one successful grower. This it
+is believed will prove to be more helpful and less confusing than to
+attempt to give the method of several different men.
+
+Much space has been given to the operations of the commercial duck
+raisers but the fact is recognized that the great bulk of the ducks
+entering into the trade of the country is the product of small flocks
+kept on general farms. For this reason a chapter has been added dealing
+with duck raising on the farm, and attention is here called to the fact
+that most of the information given under commercial duck raising can be
+readily adapted to use in connection with the farm flock.
+
+Detailed, complete information on goose raising is even more fragmentary
+than is the case with ducks. Yet there is a fine opportunity to rear a
+few geese at a profit on many farms, and the need and call for
+information is quite general. It is for this reason that a section of
+this book has been devoted to goose raising and in that section all the
+good reliable information available on the subject is given. The special
+attention of the women of the farm is directed to the opportunity which
+goose raising offers to make a good profit on a small side line with the
+minimum of initial investment and of labor.
+
+The greatest care has been taken to make the information on both duck
+and goose raising as complete and clear as possible. However, the
+authors appreciate the unlimited value of good illustrations in making
+clear methods and operations which are more difficult to grasp from a
+word description, and have therefore assembled a set of illustrations
+for this book, the completeness and excellence of which have never
+before been approached in any book on the subject. The illustrations
+alone are an education.
+
+In preparing and presenting this book to the public, the authors take
+pleasure in acknowledging their deep indebtedness to the following
+persons for help and information furnished:
+
+Roy E. Pardee
+John C. Kriner
+Charles McClave
+Stanley Mason
+Dr. Balliet
+William Minnich
+George W. Hackett
+Dawson Brothers
+
+Particular acknowledgment is due Robert A. Tuttle for the manner in
+which he threw open his duck plant to the authors and for the most
+generous amount of time which he gave in furnishing information.
+
+Special acknowledgment is likewise due Alfred R. Lee, Poultryman, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture, for information secured from his Farmers'
+Bulletins on duck raising and goose raising.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+Preface
+
+List of Illustrations.
+
+
+PART I--DUCKS
+
+Chapter.                                                         Page.
+
+I.    Extent of the Industry--Opportunities                          3
+
+        Present Extent of the Industry--Different Types of Duck
+        Raising--Opportunities for Duck Raising--Prices for
+        Breeding Stock--Ducks for Ornamental Purposes.
+
+II.   Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+      Specimens--Preparing Ducks for the Show--Catching and
+      Handling                                                       9
+
+        Breeds of Ducks--Classification of Breeds--Marking the
+        Ducks--Nomenclature--Distinguishing the
+        Sex--Size--Popularity of Breeds--Egg Production--Size of
+        Duck Eggs--Color of Eggs--Broodiness--General
+        Considerations in Making the Mating--Making the
+        Mating--The Pekin--The Aylesbury--The Rouen--The
+        Cayuga--The Call--The Gray Call--The White Call--The
+        Black East India--The Muscovy--The Colored Muscovy--The
+        White Muscovy--The Blue Swedish--The Crested White--The
+        Buff--The Runner--The Fawn and White Runner--The White
+        Runner--The Penciled Runner--Preparing Ducks for the
+        Show--Catching and Handling Ducks--Packing and Shipping
+        Hatching Eggs.
+
+III.  Commercial Duck Farming--Location--Estimate of Equipment
+      and Capital Necessary in Starting the Business                42
+
+        Distribution--Stock Used--Location of Plant--Making a
+        Start in Duck Farming--Equipment, Capital, etc.
+        Required--Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant--Land
+        Required--Number of Breeders required--Housing Required
+        for Breeders--Incubator Capacity--Brooder
+        Capacity--Fattening Houses or Sheds--Feed
+        Storage--Killing and Picking House--Resident--Horse
+        Power--Feeding Track--Electric Lights--Water
+        Supply--Fences--Labor--Invested Capital--Working
+        Capital--Profits.
+
+IV.   Commercial Duck Farming--Management of the Breeding Stock     55
+
+        Age of Breeders--Distinguishing Young from Old
+        Ducks--Selection of Breeding Ducks--Number of Females to
+        a Drake--Securing Breeding Drakes--Houses and Yards for
+        Breeders--Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding
+        Houses--Cleaning the Breeding Yards--Water Yards for
+        Breeders--Feeding the Breeders--Egg Production--Time of
+        Marketing Breeders--Disease--Insect Pests--Dogs.
+
+V.    Commercial Duck Farming--Incubation                           70
+
+        Kinds of incubators used--Incubator Cellar--Incubator
+        Capacity Required--Age of Hatching Eggs--Care of
+        Hatching Eggs--Selecting the Eggs for
+        Hatching--Temperature--Position of
+        Thermometer--Testing--Turning the Eggs--Cooling the
+        Eggs--Moisture--Fertility--Hatching--Selling Baby Ducks.
+
+VI.   Commercial Duck Farming--Brooding and Rearing the
+      Young Stock                                                   80
+
+        Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder
+        House--Brooder Houses Required--Brooder House No.
+        1--Construction of House--Heating
+        Apparatus--Pens--Equipment of the Pens--Grading and
+        Sorting the Ducklings--Cleaning and Bedding the
+        Pens--Ventilation--Other Types of Brooder Houses--Length
+        of Time in Brooder House No. 1--Brooder House No.
+        2--Brooder House No. 3--Yard Accommodations for
+        Ducklings--Shade--Feeding--Lights for Ducklings--Pounds
+        of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck--Water for
+        Young Ducks--Age and Weight when Ready for
+        Market--Cripples--Cleaning the Yards--Critical Period
+        with Young Ducks--Disease Prevention--Gapes or
+        Pneumonia--Fits--Diarrhoea--Lameness--Sore Eyes--Feather
+        Eating or Quilling--Rats--Cooperative Feed Association.
+
+VII.  Commercial Duck Farming--Marketing                           102
+
+        Proper Age to Market--Weights at Time of Marketing--The
+        Last Feed for Market Ducks--Sorting Market
+        Ducklings--Killing--Scalding--Picking--Dry
+        Picking--Cooling--Packing--Shipping--Cooperative
+        Marketing Association--Prices for Ducks--Shipping Ducks
+        Alive--Saving the Feathers--Prices and Uses of Duck
+        Feathers--Marketing Eggs.
+
+VIII. Duck Raising, on the Farm                                    120
+
+        Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising--Size of
+        Flock--Making a Start--Selecting the Breed--Age of
+        Breeding Stock--Size of Matings--Breeding and Laying
+        Season--Management of
+        Breeders--Housing--Feeding--Water--Yards--Care of Eggs
+        for Hatching--Hatching the Eggs--Brooding and
+        Rearing--Feeding the Ducklings--Water for
+        Ducklings--Distinguishing the Sexes--Marketing the
+        Ducks--Diseases and Insect Pests.
+
+
+PART II--GEESE
+
+IX.   Extent of the Industry--Opportunities                        141
+
+        Nature of the Industry--Opportunities for Goose
+        Raising--Goose Raising as a Business for Farm
+        Women--Geese as Weed Destroyers--Objections to Geese.
+
+X.    Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+      Specimens--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and
+      Handling                                                     147
+
+        Breeds of Geese--Nomenclature--Size--Popularity of the
+        Breeds--Egg Production--Size of Goose Eggs--Color of
+        Goose Eggs--Broodiness--Size of Mating--Age of
+        Breeders--Marking Young Geese--General Considerations in
+        Making the Mating--Making the Mating--The Toulouse--The
+        Embden--The African--The Chinese--The Brown Chinese--The
+        White Chinese--The Wild or Canadian--The
+        Egyptian--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and
+        Handling Geese--Packing and Shipping Hatching
+        Eggs--Prices for Breeding Stock.
+
+XI.   Management of Breeding Geese                                 164
+
+        Range for Breeders--Number of Geese to the Acre--Water
+        for Breeding Geese--Distinguishing the Sex--Purchase of
+        Breeding Stock--Time of Laying--Housing--Yards--Feeding
+        the Breeding Geese.
+
+XII.  Incubation                                                   172
+
+        Care of Eggs for Hatching--Methods of Incubation--Period
+        of Incubation--Hatching with Chicken Hens--Hatching with
+        Geese--Breaking Up Broody Geese--Hatching with an
+        Incubator--Moisture for Hatching Eggs--Hatching.
+
+XIII. Brooding and Rearing Goslings                                178
+
+        Methods of Brooding--Brooding with Hens or Geese--Length
+        of Time Brooding is Necessary--Artificial
+        Brooding--General Care of Growing Goslings--Feeding the
+        Goslings--Percentage of Goslings Raised--Rapidity of
+        Growth--Diseases.
+
+XIV.  Fattening and Marketing Geese                                187
+
+        Classes of Geese Marketed--Markets and Prices--Prejudice
+        Against Roast Goose--Methods of Fattening Geese for
+        Market--Pen Fattening--Noodling Geese--Methods Used on
+        Fattening Farms--Selling Geese
+        Alive--Killing--Picking--Packing for Shipment--Saving the
+        Feathers--Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers.
+
+Index                                                              215
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    Frontispiece. Water Yards and Ducklings.
+
+ 1. Mule Ducks and Blue Swedish Ducks                               10
+
+ 2. Mallard Ducks                                                   11
+
+ 3. Goose, Duck and Hen Eggs                                        18
+
+ 4. Young Pekins for Breeders and Aylesbury Drake                   19
+
+ 5. Rouen Drake and Black East India Ducks                          24
+
+ 6. Rouen Drake in Summer Plumage and Rouen Duck                    25
+
+ 7. Cayuga Ducks                                                    26
+
+ 8. Gray Call Ducks                                                 27
+
+ 9. White Call Ducks                                                28
+
+10. Colored Muscovy Drake and White Muscovy Drake                   29
+
+11. Crested White Drake and Young White Muscovy
+      Showing Black on Head                                         32
+
+12. Wing of Blue Swedish Duck                                       33
+
+13. Pair of Buff Ducks                                              36
+
+14. Penciled Runner Drake and White Runner Drake                    37
+
+15. Methods of Carrying Ducks                                       40
+
+16. Power Feed Mixer                                                41
+
+17. Duck Houses                                                     58
+
+18. House for Breeding Ducks                                        59
+
+19. Another Type of Breeding House                                  62
+
+20. Feeding the Breeders                                            63
+
+21. Interior of Breeding House                                      74
+
+22. Incubator Cellar                                                75
+
+23. Interior of No. 1 Brooder House                                 82
+
+24. Watering Arrangement in Brooder Pens                            83
+
+25. Another Type of No. 1 Brooder House                             86
+
+26. Brooder House No. 2                                             87
+
+27. Brooder House No. 3                                             88
+
+28. Long Brooder House and Yards                                    89
+
+29. Pekin Ducklings 3 Days and 2 Weeks Old                          90
+
+30. Pekin Ducklings 3 Weeks and 6 Weeks Old                         91
+
+31. Interior of Cold Brooder House                                  92
+
+32. Yard Ducks                                                      93
+
+33. Duck Sheds                                                      94
+
+34. Feeding and Watering Arrangements                               95
+
+35. Green Feed for Ducks                                            96
+
+36. Feeding from Track                                              97
+
+37. Yard Ducks at Rest                                              98
+
+38. Artificial Water Yards                                          99
+
+39. Catching Pens for Fattening Ducklings                          104
+
+40. Carrying Ducklings to Slaughter                                105
+
+41. Hanging Ducklings and Cutting Throat Veins                     106
+
+42. Bleeding Ducklings                                             107
+
+43. Washing Heads                                                  108
+
+44. Ducklings Ready for the Pickers                                109
+
+45. Scalding                                                       110
+
+46. Picking Ducks                                                  111
+
+47. Dressed Duckling                                               112
+
+48. Weighing Out Ducklings for Packing                             113
+
+49. Curing Duck Feathers                                           148
+
+50. Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose                           149
+
+51. Toulouse and Embden Ganders                                    154
+
+52. Canadian and African Ganders                                   155
+
+53. Brown and White Chinese Ganders                                158
+
+54. Methods of Handling Geese                                      159
+
+55. Geese Fattening in an Orchard                                  198
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DUCKS
+
+PART I
+
+
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+Present Extent of the Industry
+
+
+Duck raising while representing an industry of considerable value to the
+United States when considered from a national standpoint, is one of the
+minor branches of the poultry industry. According to the 1920 census
+there were 2,817,624 ducks in the United States with a valuation of
+$3,373,966. As compared with this the census for 1910 shows a slightly
+greater number of ducks, 2,906,525, but their value was considerably
+less being only $1,567,164. In the ten years between the census of 1900
+and that of 1910 there was a decrease in the number of ducks of nearly
+40%.
+
+According to the 1920 census the more important duck raising states
+arranged in their order of importance were Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania,
+New York, Missouri, Minnesota, Tennessee, Ohio, South Dakota, Indiana,
+Nebraska and Kentucky. The number reported for Iowa was 235,249 and for
+Kentucky 99,577. New England, the North Atlantic, the East North
+Central, the West North Central, the Mountain and the Pacific states
+showed an increase, while the South Atlantic, East South Central and
+West South Central states showed a decrease. In spite of the existence
+of quite a number of large commercial duck farms, the great bulk of
+ducks produced are those which come from the general farms where only
+small flocks are kept. Yet only a small proportion of farms have ducks
+on them. The comparatively small number of ducks is distributed over
+practically the entire United States, being more common in some sections
+than others, particularly along the Atlantic Coast and along the Pacific
+Coast, with fairly numerous flocks on the farms of the Middle West.
+
+_Different Types of Duck Raising._ The conditions under which ducks are
+kept and the purpose for which they are kept fall under four heads:
+First, commercial duck raising for the production of duck meat; second,
+duck raising as a by-product of the general farm; third, duck raising
+for egg production; fourth, duck breeding for pleasure, exhibition or
+the sale of breeding stock.
+
+_Opportunities for Duck Raising._ Undoubtedly the greatest opportunity
+for profitable duck growing lies under the first of these heads, namely,
+commercial duck raising. Where the conditions of climate, soil and land
+are favorable and where the location is good with respect to market
+there exists an excellent opportunity for one skilled in duck growing to
+engage in that business in an intensive manner for the purpose of
+putting on the market spring or green ducklings. Where these are in
+demand they bring a good price and since the output per farm is large
+they pay a good return even with a small margin of profit per pound.
+
+The second greatest opportunity undoubtedly consists of duck raising as
+a by-product of the general farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is
+to say, where there is a considerable amount of pasture land easily
+accessible, and particularly where there is a stream or pond to which
+the ducks can have access, a small flock of ducks, say 10 or 12 females,
+can be kept to excellent advantage on the farm. The cost of maintaining
+them will not be great and they will not only provide a most acceptable
+variety in the form of duck meat and duck eggs for the farmers' table
+but they will also produce a surplus which can be sold at a profit. It
+must be remembered, however, that where only a small flock is kept it is
+generally impracticable for the farmer to give his ducks the attention
+necessary to cater to the market for green ducklings. As a result he
+usually keeps them until fall and sells them on the market at a
+considerably lower price than is obtained by the commercial duck grower.
+
+There also exists an opportunity which has not been developed to any
+great extent to keep some one of the egg producing breeds of ducks such
+as the Indian Runner for the primary purpose of egg production. A few
+ventures of this sort seem to have been successful but it must be
+remembered that the market for duck eggs is not nearly so broad as that
+for hens' eggs and that in some quarters there exists considerable
+prejudice against duck eggs for table consumption. Before engaging in
+duck raising primarily for the production of market eggs it would
+therefore be necessary to investigate and consider carefully the market
+conditions in the neighborhood so as to know whether the eggs could be
+marketed to advantage. While the Runner ducks are prolific layers there
+is no advantage in keeping them in preference to fowls as egg producers.
+The eggs are larger in size but it takes more feed to produce them,
+while they cannot as a rule be disposed of at much if any higher price
+than can be secured for hens' eggs. For baking purposes duck eggs can be
+readily sold on account of their larger size.
+
+There is always an opportunity to produce fine stock of any kind,
+whether it be ducks, chickens, turkeys or geese. Ducks are not exhibited
+to the same extent as are chickens and the competition in the shows is
+not as a rule so keen. Nevertheless many persons are interested in
+producing and exhibiting good stock and there exists a very definite
+market for birds of quality.
+
+There is also a probability that a good business could be worked up by
+one who would pay special attention to producing a strain of ducks of
+early maturity, large size and good vigor in order to supply breeding
+drakes to many of the commercial duck farms. These farms usually secure
+drakes for breeding from sources outside their own flocks each year but
+the usual practice is to exchange drakes with some other commercial
+grower. While very good birds are to be found on these duck farms there
+is no greater opportunity to engage in any systematic breeding, the
+selection of the breeding stock being of rather a hurried nature during
+certain seasons of the year when the ducks are being marketed. Moreover,
+the long continued custom of exchanging drakes with the neighboring
+farmers has in most cases led to the blood being so largely confined
+within one circle that no great percentage of new blood is obtained by
+these exchanges. Of course, the opportunity along breeding lines for
+this purpose is limited to the Pekin duck as this is the breed which is
+kept upon all the large commercial duck farms in the United States.
+
+_Prices for Breeding Stock._ Duck breeders who make a specialty of
+selling breeding stock or eggs for hatching find a steady and quite a
+wide demand for their stock. The eggs are usually sold in sittings of 11
+and bring a price of from $3 to $5 per sitting depending on the quality
+of the stock. The prices received for the birds themselves depend of
+course upon their quality and may run anywhere from about $5 to $25 per
+bird.
+
+_Ducks for Ornamental Purposes._ On estates or in parks where natural or
+artificial ponds are included in the grounds, waterfowl are often kept
+for ornamental purposes. Any breeds may be used, and often the gay
+colored Wood Duck and Mandarin, or some one of the small breeds such as
+the Calls, Black East Indian or the Mallards are kept for this purpose.
+It is said that these small ducks will absolutely destroy the mosquito
+larvae in any such ponds or lakes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+Specimens--Preparing Ducks for the Show--Catching and Handling
+
+
+_Breeds of Ducks._ There are 11 standard breeds of ducks. All of these
+breeds with the exception of the Call, Muscovy and Runner consist of a
+single variety. The Call is divided into two varieties, the Gray and the
+White; the Muscovy consists of two varieties, the Colored and the White;
+and the Runner consists of three varieties, the Fawn and White, the
+White and the Penciled.
+
+Duck breeders, of course, whether raising the birds for fancy or for
+profit, keep one of the standard breads or varieties. Frequently, also,
+the farm flocks consist of standardbred ducks but on many farms,
+probably a great majority, the flock consists of the common or so-called
+"puddle" duck. In certain parts of the South there is a duck known as
+the "mule duck" which is a cross between the Muscovy and the common
+duck. This is a duck of good market quality but will not breed from
+which characteristic it gets its name. Most of the common or "puddle"
+ducks which are found on farms are of rather small size, are indifferent
+as layers, and do not make a desirable type of market duck. They have
+arisen simply from the crossing of standard breeds with resultant
+carelessness and indifference in breeding. Because of the care with
+which they have been selected and bred for definite purposes, the
+standard breeds are decidedly superior to the common "puddle" ducks and
+should by all means be kept in preference since they will yield better
+results and greater profits.
+
+In addition to the standard breeds and varieties flocks of Mallards are
+also kept to a limited extent. The Mallard is a common small wild duck
+which has lent itself readily to domestication and which thrives with
+proper care under confined conditions. In weight, the drakes will run
+from 2½ pounds to 3 pounds or even a little larger. The ducks average
+about 2¼ pounds with a variation of from 1 pound 12 ounces to 2 pounds 8
+ounces. By selecting the large eggs for hatching and by liberal feeding,
+it is easy to increase the size of Mallards to such an extent that they
+resemble small Rouens rather than wild Mallards. The plumage of the
+Mallard is very similar to that of the Rouen but of a lighter shade.
+Another small wild duck known as the Wood or Carolina duck, which is a
+native of North America, has been domesticated and on account of the
+great beauty of its plumage is usually to be found wherever ornamental
+waterfowl are kept. The Mandarin duck is a small duck of about the same
+size as the Wood duck, is of beautiful plumage and like the Wood duck
+is generally kept for ornamental purposes. This duck is said to be a
+native of China.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. Upper--Pair of Mule Ducks. Lower--Pair of Blue
+Swedish Ducks. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Upper--Mallard Duck. Lower--Mallard Drake. The
+Mallard is a wild duck which is quite easily domesticated and which has
+a plumage color very similar to the Rouen. It is small in size.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+Classification of Breeds
+
+So far as the standard breeds and varieties are concerned they may be
+divided into three classes according to the purpose for which they are
+kept and for which they are best suited. First is the meat class which
+consists of the Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Buff, Cayuga and Blue
+Swedish. These breeds could well be termed general purpose ducks for
+they are quite good layers in addition to producing excellent table
+carcasses and are therefore well suited for general farm use. They are,
+however, kept more particularly for meat production.
+
+The second class is known as the egg class and consists of the three
+varieties of the Runner Duck, formerly known as the Indian Runner. The
+Runner Duck is much smaller in size than the birds of the meat class, is
+longer in leg and more active, and is not so well suited for the
+production of table ducks but is a very prolific layer. With proper
+feeding and management the Runner ducks will compare favorably with hens
+as egg producers.
+
+The third class is known as the ornamental class and is composed of the
+ducks which are kept and bred principally for ornamental purposes. This
+class consists of the Call duck with its two varieties, the Black East
+India duck and the Crested White duck. Both the Call and East India
+ducks are small in size being really the bantams of the duck family.
+While they make good table birds, their small size handicaps them as
+commercial meat fowl. The Crested White duck is of larger size,
+possesses a crest and is bred mainly as an ornamental fowl.
+
+_Marking the Ducks._ The duck raiser who is breeding his ducks for
+exhibition quality has need for knowledge of the breeding of the birds
+he may contemplate using in his matings. In order that this information
+may be available, the young ducks as they are hatched can be marked by
+toe punching them on the webs of their feet in the same manner that baby
+chicks are toe punched. A different set or combination of marks is used
+for each mating so that the breeding of the different ducks can be
+distinguished. Mature ducks can, if desired, be leg banded in order to
+furnish a distinguishing mark.
+
+
+Nomenclature
+
+Before taking up a description of the matings of the different standard
+breeds and varieties it is well to indicate the common nomenclature
+which is used in connection with these fowls and which differs from that
+used for chickens. The male duck is called drake, the female duck is
+termed duck, and the young duck of either sex is termed duckling. In
+giving the standard weights for the different breeds of ducks, weights
+are given for adult ducks and adult drakes, and for young ducks and
+young drakes. By adult duck or drake is meant a bird which is over one
+year old. By young duck or drake is meant a bird which is less than one
+year old. The horny mouth parts of the duck instead of being termed beak
+as in chickens are called bill, and the separate division of the upper
+bill at its extremity is termed the bean. Ducks do not show any comb or
+wattles as in chickens. In England use is made of the terms ducklet and
+drakerel. Ducklet is used to signify a female during her first laying
+season just as the word pullet is used in contrast to hen. Drakerel is
+used to signify a young drake as contrasted with an older drake just as
+the word cockerel is used in comparison to cock in chickens.
+
+_Distinguishing the Sex._ The sex of mature ducks can be readily told by
+their voices and also by a difference in the feathering. The duck gives
+voice to a coarse, harsh sound which is the characteristic "quack"
+usually thought of in connection with this class of fowl. The drake on
+the other hand utters a cry which is not nearly so loud or harsh but
+which is more of a hissing sound. Distinction of sex by this means can
+be made after the ducklings are from 4 to 6 weeks old. Before this age,
+both sexes make the same peeping noise.
+
+Mature drakes are also distinguished from the ducks by the presence of
+two sex feathers at the base of the tail. These are short feathers
+which curl or curve upward and forward toward the body of the bird. In
+ducks these feathers are absent.
+
+
+Size
+
+An idea of the size of the different standard breeds can best be
+obtained by giving the standard weights. They are as follows:--
+
+              Adult Drake.  Adult Duck.  Young Drake.  Young Duck.
+Pekin              9             8            8             7
+Aylesbury          9             8            8             7
+Rouen              9             8            8             7
+Cayuga             8             7            7             6
+Muscovy           10             7            8             6
+Blue Swedish       8             7            6½            5½
+Crested White      7             6            6             5
+Buff               8             7            7             6
+Runner             4½            4            4             3½
+
+There are no standard weights for the Call duck and for the Black East
+India duck but these are all small in size, being really bantam ducks.
+The drakes will weigh from 2½ to 3 pounds and the ducks from 2 to 2½
+pounds.
+
+
+Popularity of Breeds
+
+In the meat class by far the most popular duck in this country is the
+Pekin. It is the breed which is used exclusively on the large
+commercial duck farms. Next to the Pekin in this class probably comes
+the Muscovy which is quite commonly kept in some sections of the
+country, particularly in the South. The Aylesbury duck has never proved
+to be very popular in the United States perhaps due to its white bill
+and skin, although it is the popular market duck of England. The other
+breeds included in the meat class are kept more or less commonly but do
+not approach in popularity either the Pekin or the Muscovy. Any of the
+breeds in this class will prove to be satisfactory for a farm flock,
+although the Colored breeds and varieties are at a disadvantage when
+dressed due to their dark pin feathers.
+
+In the _egg_ class there is included only the Indian Runner and this of
+course is the breed which is kept wherever the production of duck eggs
+is the primary object. The Fawn and White is the most popular variety of
+this breed.
+
+In the ornamental class there is no particular outstanding breed, since
+the ducks belonging in this class are kept very largely to satisfy the
+pleasure of the owner and the selection of a breed is entirely a matter
+of personal preference.
+
+
+Egg Production
+
+While the conditions under which ducks are kept and the care they are
+given will affect their egg production greatly, there are certain
+rather definite comparisons that can be made between the different
+breeds. The Pekin is a good layer and will produce from 80 to 120 eggs.
+The Aylesbury and the Rouen are about alike in laying ability, neither
+being quite as good as the Pekin. The Cayuga is a good layer ranking
+with the Aylesbury and Rouen or between these and the Pekin. The Muscovy
+is an excellent layer being fully as prolific as the Pekin, especially
+if broken up when broody and not allowed to sit. The Blue Swedish is
+about equal to the Cayuga in laying ability. The Buff duck is an
+excellent layer comparing favorably with the Pekin or even with the
+Runner. The Runner ducks are the best layers of the duck family and if
+given proper care and good feed will compare favorably with hens in egg
+producing ability. The Crested White duck is not a particularly good
+layer. The Calls and the Black East India ducks will lay from 20 to 60
+eggs per year, approaching the latter number if the eggs are collected
+as laid and the ducks are not allowed to sit which will induce some of
+them to continue to lay for quite a portion of the year. Extremely large
+ducks of any breed do not lay as well as the more medium sized birds.
+
+_Size of Duck Eggs._ The eggs of the different meat breeds will run
+about the same in size with the exception of the Muscovy whose eggs run
+a little larger. Actual weights of eggs from representative flocks show
+Pekin, Rouen, Aylesbury and Cayuga eggs to average about 2½ pounds per
+dozen although there is a tendency for the Rouen eggs to run somewhat
+larger and for Cayugas to run a little smaller. Muscovy eggs weigh about
+3 pounds per dozen with selected large eggs weighing as high as 3¼
+pounds. Eggs of the Runner duck are smaller but are considerably larger
+than average hens' eggs or about the size of large Minorca eggs. They
+weigh about 2 pounds per dozen. Eggs of the bantam breeds of ducks, the
+Calls and the Black East India, together with those of the Mandarin and
+Wood ducks will weigh from one pound to 1½ pounds per dozen depending
+upon the size of the ducks themselves. Eggs of the Mallard duck will run
+from 26 to 32 ounces to the dozen. The size of eggs laid by ducks,
+especially the bantam breeds and the Mallard can be increased somewhat
+by liberal feeding. Average hens' eggs should weigh about 1½ pounds per
+dozen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. Upper--Comparison of size of goose egg on the
+left a black egg of a Cayuga duck in the center and a hen egg on the
+right. Lower--Duck eggs--At the left is a Pekin duck egg, next a black
+egg laid by a Cayuga duck, third a Muscovy egg, fourth a duck egg of
+green color and on the extreme right the egg of a Runner duck.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Color of Eggs._ The color of duck eggs ranges from white to a polished
+black. Pekin eggs run mostly white although some show a decided blue or
+green tint. Aylesbury eggs run quite uniformly white. The color of Rouen
+eggs varies from white to a dark green. The Cayuga produces very few
+white eggs, most of them being green or black, some being as black as
+though polished. Muscovy eggs run from a white to a greenish cream in
+color. The eggs of the Blue Swedish and the Buff ducks usually run
+white. The Runner duck lays white eggs as a rule while the Crested White
+duck lays eggs which range in color from white to green. The eggs of
+the Call ducks run from white to green while the eggs of the Black East
+India, like the Cayuga, for the most part run from green to black.
+
+A peculiarity in regard to the egg color is that the same female may lay
+eggs which are widely different in color. It is likewise true that the
+color of the shell is influenced to some extent by the feed. Ducks on
+range will lay darker colored eggs than those which are yarded. There is
+also a tendency for the eggs to run darker in color when laying first
+begins and for the eggs to lighten as laying proceeds. A peculiarity in
+regard to duck eggs with a dark colored shell is that a thorough washing
+will lighten up the shell color decidedly.
+
+_Broodiness._ The Muscovy, the Call and the Black East India ducks are
+broody breeds. The ducks of these breeds will make their nests, hatch
+their eggs and are good mothers. All the other breeds are classed as
+non-broody breeds. Of course, a certain percentage of them will go
+broody and show a desire to sit but they do not make reliable sitters
+and mothers and are not as a rule used for this purpose.
+
+
+Considerations in Making the Mating[1]
+
+Since ducks are kept for different purposes there will of course be
+certain fundamental differences in the different classes in the
+selection of the individuals to make up the mating. Whatever the
+purpose, however, the first consideration in selecting the breeders must
+be to secure those which possess excellent vigor and general health and
+which meet insofar as possible the standard requirements for size. Where
+the Call duck and the Black East India are concerned the selection for
+size must be for smallness since that is a characteristic greatly
+desired. In the other breeds the selection for size must be to see that
+they come up to the standard weights for the particular breed in
+question. As in other classes of fowls the condition and cleanliness of
+the plumage and the general appearance and actions of the birds are good
+indications of their health and thriftiness. A bright eye is likewise a
+valuable indication of good health while a watery eye is usually a sign
+of weakness. It is necessary to guard against birds which show any
+tendency toward crooked or roach back, hump back, crooked tails, or
+twisted wings. Since all breeds of ducks should have clean or
+unfeathered legs it is likewise necessary to guard against any breeders
+which show down on the shanks or between the toes as this sometimes
+occurs.
+
+[Footnote 1: For a more detailed discussion of the principles of
+breeding as applied to chickens and which is equally applicable to
+ducks, the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by
+Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the Orange Judd
+Publishing Company, New York City.]
+
+In selecting the mating for any one of the meat breeds use birds which
+have good length, width and depth of body so that they will have plenty
+of meat carrying capacity. For breeders of market ducks, birds which
+are active, well matured and which are not extreme in size for the breed
+are preferable as the fertility is likely to run better than with the
+extremely large birds. Where birds are bred for exhibition purposes, it
+frequently happens that it is desirable to use large breeders and to
+hold them for breeding purposes as long as they are in good breeding
+condition. Where this is the case it becomes necessary to mate a smaller
+number of females to a drake than would be the case with smaller and
+younger breeders. Where old birds are used as breeders better results
+will be secured by mating old ducks to a young drake or vice versa than
+by mating together old birds of both sexes. While ducks of any of the
+meat breeds are kept primarily for meat production, it is essential that
+the egg production be good throughout the breeding season in order to
+raise as many ducklings and secure as great a profit as possible.
+Selection of the females as breeders should be made therefore on the
+basis of good egg production as well as good meat type if the conditions
+under which the ducks are kept are such as to make it possible to check
+this in any manner.
+
+In selecting the mating in the Runner breed it is necessary to keep in
+mind that the general type of body is quite different from that of the
+meat breeds, being much slimmer and much more upright in body carriage.
+For this mating select thrifty, healthy birds and those which are
+active. Some breeders trapnest their Runner ducks or have some other
+means of checking up the better layers. As in chickens, it is of course
+desirable to use these better layers as breeders since the purpose in
+keeping this kind of duck is primarily egg production.
+
+In selecting the mating in the Call and East India breeds it is
+necessary to use the smaller ducks since the object here is to keep the
+size small. In addition, with these breeds or with any other breeds kept
+and bred primarily for fancy or exhibition purposes, it is necessary to
+conform just as closely as possible to the standard requirements[2] both
+insofar as size and type are concerned, and also with respect to color.
+
+[Footnote 2: For a complete and official description and list of
+disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of ducks, the
+reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published by
+the American Poultry Association, and obtained by Orange Judd Publishing
+Company, New York, N. Y.]
+
+
+Breeds of Ducks
+
+_The Pekin._ While this variety wants to be of good size and to have
+length, breadth and depth of body it is somewhat more upstanding than
+some of the other meat breeds, showing a definite slope of body downward
+from shoulders to tail. The back line of the Pekin should show a slight
+concavity from the shoulders to the tail and the upper line of the bill
+is likewise slightly concave between the point where it joins the head
+and its extremity. The shoulders should be broad and any tendency
+toward narrowness at this point must be avoided. While a good depth of
+keel is desired, the standard does not call for so deep a keel as in the
+Aylesbury. As a matter of fact, however, the winning specimens as seen
+in the shows are not as a rule as erect in carriage as called for by the
+standard illustration, there being a tendency to get them almost if not
+quite as deep in keel as the Aylesbury. In fact, some breeders seem to
+strive for a low down keel approaching a condition where they are nearly
+as low in front as behind but this is not desirable Pekin type.
+
+Sometimes a drake will show a rough neck, that is, the feathers on the
+back of the neck will be crossed or folded over showing a tendency to
+curl. These birds should be avoided as breeders since there is a
+tendency for them to produce ducks having a crest. Sometimes a green or
+a greenish spotted bill will be encountered. Since the bill should be a
+clear yellow, breeders showing this defect should be avoided
+particularly as they are likely to produce birds having greenish or
+olive colored legs. The shanks and toes should be a clear deep orange.
+Black sometimes occurs in the bean. This may occur in birds of either
+sex but is more common in the ducks than in the drakes. In the drake
+black in the bean disqualifies but while it is undesirable and a serious
+defect in the duck it does not disqualify. The color of the plumage is
+white or creamy white throughout. Creaminess in this variety is not a
+serious defect as it is in white chickens. The use, however, of yellow
+corn and of foods very rich in oil tends to increase the creaminess of
+the plumage and should not be used to excess for birds which are to be
+exhibited.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. Upper--Young Pekins which on account of their
+size, thriftiness and rapid growth were selected out of a lot about to
+be killed for market and saved for breeders. Lower--Aylesbury
+Drake--Notice the depth and development of the breast. (_Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Aylesbury._ This breed is particularly noted for its deep keel. It
+differs from the Pekin in type in that it is more nearly level in body.
+There is a decided tendency for the Aylesbury to run too short in body
+which has probably come about by extreme selection for deep keel. It is
+well, therefore, in making the mating to select breeders with good
+length of body. Since the deep full breast and keel is characteristic of
+this breed it is necessary to avoid breeders which show any tendency
+toward a flat breast. As in the case of the Pekins avoid any birds which
+have green or olive colored bills. The back line of the Aylesbury should
+be straight, showing no tendency toward a slight concavity as in the
+Pekin. Birds showing this shape back should be avoided. As in the Pekin
+black on the bill or bean of the drake will disqualify and in the duck
+is a serious defect. The color of plumage should be white throughout and
+should show no tendency toward creaminess. The bill in this breed is
+flesh colored instead of yellow as in the Pekin. The Aylesbury is not
+quite as nervous a breed as the Pekin.
+
+_The Rouen._ The Rouen duck is a parti-colored breed and is therefore
+much more difficult to secure in perfection of color and marking than
+is the case with the white breeds. Moreover, the dark pin feathers make
+the ducks more difficult to dress than in white breeds. In type these
+birds are very level in body and are massive, carrying a great deal of
+meat. Avoid birds showing a lack of length of body or depth of keel or
+which are too flat in breast. The back of the Rouen should have a
+slightly convex or arched shape from neck to tail and it is necessary to
+guard against birds which have a flat or a concave back. The body of the
+Rouen should be carried practically horizontal. The upper line of the
+bill should be slightly dished or concave. The white ring about the neck
+of the drake is an important part of the marking. This should not be too
+wide but should run about a quarter of an inch in width. It should be as
+distinct and clean cut as possible but should not quite come together in
+the rear. Any approach to a ring in the female is a disqualification.
+White in the primary or secondary wing feathers is a serious defect
+since it constitutes a disqualification. It must therefore be carefully
+avoided. White feathers in the fluff of the drake is another color
+defect which must be guarded against.
+
+_Breast of Drake._ The farther the claret color on the breast of the
+drake extends down the better will be the females secured from the
+mating. Drakes which are deficient in the amount of claret on the breast
+should therefore be thrown out as breeders. A purple rump in drakes must
+be avoided as must black feathers over the rump as they tend to keep
+up too dark a body color in the female. On the other hand too bright or
+light a color in the male or exhibition female will produce females
+which are too light in color. Drakes with light olive colored bills must
+be avoided as these will have a tendency to produce offspring which show
+too much yellow in the females' bills, and clear yellow bills constitute
+a disqualification. In the females solid yellow bills, fawn colored
+breasts and absence of penciling must be avoided. Females which are dark
+or nearly black over the rump are good breeders as they tend to keep up
+the ground color of the body and tail.
+
+The Rouen shows some tendency to fade in color. This is evidenced first
+on the tips of the wings. The fading will also show in the fluff of
+drakes. The drakes of this breed and likewise of the Gray Call and the
+Mallard show a peculiar behavior with respect to the color of their
+plumage. About June 1 the drakes moult, losing their characteristic male
+adult plumage and the new plumage is practically that of the female.
+This female plumage is retained until about October when they gradually
+regain their normal winter male plumage. Young Rouens of both sexes have
+female plumage until the last moult which occurs at about four or five
+months of age, when the drakes assume the adult male plumage. The sex of
+the young Rouens can, however, be told by the difference in the color of
+the bills.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. Upper--Rouen Drake. Notice the low set, nearly
+horizontal body, the massive appearance and the arched back. Lower--Pair
+of Black East India Ducks. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. Upper--Rouen Drake showing summer plumage. At
+this season the Rouen drake assumes a plumage resembling quite closely
+that of the female. In the fall the drake again assumes the normal male
+plumage. Lower--Rouen Duck. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Cayuga._ The Cayuga is much like the other breeds of the meat
+class in general type or shape of body showing good length, breadth and
+depth. It is a very solid duck and weighs heavier than it looks. The
+body carriage is slightly more upright than the Rouen but not so much so
+as the Pekin. The back line should be straight and any tendency toward
+an arched back must be avoided. It is slightly smaller than the Pekin,
+Aylesbury and Rouen, averaging about a pound less.
+
+In making the mating, size is important and breeders should be selected
+which are up to standard weights if possible. While this breed is not
+kept very widely at the present time, nevertheless it is an excellent
+market duck, dressing out into a very plump yellow carcass in spite of
+its black plumage which is a disadvantage in dressing. The color should
+be a lustrous greenish black throughout, being somewhat brighter in the
+drake than in the duck. The duck is more likely to show a brownish cast
+of plumage, particularly as she grows older. It is hard to hold good
+black color with age. Moreover, white or gray is apt to occur in the
+breast of females. With age also a little white sometimes develops on
+the back of the neck, around the eyes and underneath the neck at the
+base of the bill. The white which occurs in breast is more likely to
+come in ducks and is not commonly found in the drakes. In the drakes on
+the other hand, there is a tendency for the white to come on the throat
+under the bill.
+
+Drakes as a rule run truer in color and hold their color better than
+do the ducks. Where the white mottling occurs in plumage with age one
+need not hesitate to breed from these birds if they were of good black
+color as young birds. The drakes of the best color do not as a rule fade
+or become mottled to any great extent with age. It is necessary to guard
+against birds as breeders which have a rusty brown lacing on the breast
+and under the wings, also those which have a wing-bow laced with brown.
+There is a tendency for the bill of drakes, which should be black, to be
+too light or olive in color and this tendency increases with age. Drakes
+with bills of this color should be avoided as breeders. When Cayugas are
+first hatched the baby ducks all show a white breast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. Upper--Cayuga Duck. Lower--Cayuga Drake.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Call._ The Call ducks are the bantams of the duck race. There is
+always a tendency for them to grow too large and this is especially true
+when they have an opportunity to eat all they want as for example when
+they are fed with the larger ducks. They should not be fed too liberally
+and should be given wheat or some other solid grain rather than any
+mash. If there is a good pond of water to which the Call ducks can have
+access they do not need to be fed much of anything.
+
+In breeding, the smallest individuals which are suitable in other
+respects for breeders, should be selected in order to keep down the size
+and offset the tendency to breed larger in successive generations. In
+type the Calls are practically miniature Pekins except that they should
+have a very short, rather broad head and bill. The broad flat and short
+bill and the round short head give the head an appearance which is often
+described by the term "button headed". In this breed avoid birds which
+show arched backs. The body should have what is known as a flatiron
+shape, that is, should be broad at the shoulders and taper toward the
+tail. Too deep keels and narrow shoulders should be avoided as should
+also too long bills. Call ducks, together with East Indias and Mallards
+should have their wings clipped or be pinioned, that is, have the first
+joint of one wing cut off, to prevent them from flying away.
+
+_The Gray Call._ The plumage of the Gray Call is practically that of the
+Rouen although they are not quite as good in color as a breed. There is
+more of a tendency for some of the birds to run to dark and others,
+especially the males, to run too light in color. While they are likely
+to be well penciled the shade of color is apt to be wrong. White in the
+flights and under the wings must be guarded against as must also absence
+of ribbon or wing bar in females. The color of the plumage is likely to
+fade with age but after the birds moult and secure their new plumage,
+the color is usually higher again. In general the same color
+characteristics hold true as with the Rouen and the same defects must be
+guarded against.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. Upper--Gray Call Drake. Lower--Gray Call Duck.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture_.)]
+
+_The White Call._ This variety is, both in type and color, practically a
+miniature Pekin except for the short, rather broad head and bill.
+They breed very true in color and should be free from creaminess. The
+same general defects must be watched for and avoided as in the Pekin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. Upper--White Call Duck. Lower--White Call Drake.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Black East India._ This is a black breed which is small in size
+being a bantam duck like the Call. As a matter of fact it is a miniature
+Cayuga. The color should be black throughout and the same color
+characteristics hold true as in the case of the Cayuga. The same color
+defects must therefore be guarded against, the worst one being white in
+the breast of females especially. Avoid breeding from a drake with a
+black bill as in this respect the breed differs from the Cayuga since
+the bill of the duck should be black but that of the drake should be
+very dark green. Purple barring must be carefully selected against.
+
+_The Muscovy._ This breed differs in certain respects very markedly from
+the other standard breeds of ducks. They are long and broad in body
+which is carried in a horizontal position but are not so deep in keel as
+the Pekin, Aylesbury or Rouen. The longest bodied young ducks will make
+the largest individuals. The head should have feathers on the top which
+can be elevated at will to form a crest. Guard against breeders having
+smooth heads, or in other words, lacking a crest. The face is covered
+with corrugations or caruncles and should be red in color. At the base
+of the upper bill there is a sort of knob-like formation in the drake
+which serves as one of the distinguishing characteristics between the
+duck and drake of this breed. The more prominent the knob and the more
+wrinkled or corrugated the face the better is the specimen in this
+respect. The wings are long and strong and these birds fly very well.
+They will also climb fences. The drakes are quite pugnacious and fight
+one another badly at times. They are especially pugnacious when they
+have young.
+
+This breed of ducks will often roost on roosts like chickens or in the
+trees or on the barn. They do not quack like other ducks and unlike
+other domesticated breeds which moult two or three times a year, they
+moult only once, taking longer to do so, usually about 90 days, although
+the female may complete her moult a little sooner. The period of
+incubation for Muscovy eggs is longer, being from 33 to 35 days as
+compared to 28 days for other breeds. In size the male and female differ
+considerably as will be seen from the standard weights given (See Page
+14), the male being considerably larger. These ducks lay well, the
+fertility runs good, the eggs hatch well, and the little ducks are hardy
+and easily raised. They are a broody breed. The ducks will make their
+nests and hatch out their eggs if allowed to do so and are excellent
+mothers. Sometimes they will fly up and make their nests in a hollow
+tree. A Muscovy duck can cover properly about 20 eggs. In spite of the
+fact that they fly well they are easily domesticated. It takes about
+two years for the males of this breed to fully mature although the ducks
+get their full size when one year of age. The Muscovy is perhaps the
+best general purpose breed for a farm flock.
+
+The extent and intensity of the red of the face increases up to maturity
+and the redder the face the better. The plumage of the Muscovy is not as
+downy or oily as other breeds, the feathers being harder. For this
+reason the birds are more apt to become water soaked and to drown as a
+result when they have not been accustomed to water in which to swim.
+This is especially true of the drakes on account of their large size and
+long wing feathers. Muscovy ducks dress well, having a rich yellow skin,
+and therefore make a good market duck, although the difference in size
+of the duck and drake and the dark pin feathers of the Colored variety
+are disadvantages from a market standpoint. Select against breeders
+which run small in size as there is more or less of a tendency for this
+breed to decrease in size. The Muscovy is long lived, specimens having
+been known to breed until they were eight or ten years of age.
+
+_The Colored Muscovy._ Although the standard calls for more or less
+white in different sections of this variety, as a matter of fact
+breeders desire to get the birds as dark as possible except for a very
+small patch of white on the breast and a small patch of white on the
+center of the wing. Indeed, birds without the white on the breast and
+with very little on the wing are valuable breeders since there is a
+tendency for too much white to occur in the plumage. Occasionally all
+black birds occur and these can be used to advantage in breeding when
+there is a tendency toward too much white in plumage. Plumage more than
+half white is a disqualification. The dark plumage birds such as are
+wanted are very likely to show considerable black or gypsy color in the
+face which should be a good red. This must be selected against insofar
+as possible. The nearly black or the darkest birds are quite likely to
+show some white or grizzling on the head. Grizzled or brownish penciled
+feathers sometimes occur in various parts of the plumage and must of
+course be guarded against as the markings should be distinctly black and
+white. The baby ducks of this variety are quite apt to show considerable
+white although the best of them come yellowish black. This variety tends
+to run a little larger in size than the white variety although the
+standard weights are the same for both. Dun or chocolate colored ducks
+sometimes come from Colored Muscovies while Blue Muscovies can be
+produced by crossing the Colored and the white varieties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. Upper--Colored Muscovy Drake. Notice the partly
+erect crest feather on top of the head. Lower--White Muscovy Drake.
+Notice the long, horizontal body and the rough or carunculated face.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The White Muscovy._ This variety should have pure white plumage
+throughout. Young Muscovies of both sexes often have a patch of black on
+top of the head up to the time they moult at maturity. Since black
+disqualifies it is impossible to show young ducks in this condition but
+these black feathers usually come in white after the moult and such
+birds need not therefore be discarded as breeders. When it is desired to
+show young White Muscovies which have black on the head it is customary
+to pluck these black feathers a sufficient time before the show so that
+the white feathers which come in their place will have time to grow out.
+There is little or no trouble with black or gypsy face in this variety.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. Upper--Crested White Drake. Lower--Young White
+Muscovy duck showing black on top of the head. This is not an unusual
+occurrence and the black is lost when the bird gets its mature plumage
+in the fall. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Blue Swedish._ In type and size this breed is about the same as the
+Cayuga although perhaps slightly more upstanding. In selecting the
+mating it is important to use birds which are close to standard weight
+as there is somewhat of a tendency for the size to be too small. As its
+name indicates the color is largely blue except for a white heart-shaped
+patch or bib which should be present on the breast. Sometimes this white
+extends along the underside of the body from the under-bill almost to
+the vent. Such birds are undesirable as breeders since they show too
+much white. On the other hand birds lacking a prominent white bib must
+also be avoided. Two of the flight feathers should be white and birds
+lacking these must be avoided. Guard against any red, gray or black in
+any part of the plumage. Sometimes, however, birds having more or less
+black throughout the plumage are used as breeders for the purpose of
+strengthening the blue color. Avoid any tendency toward a ribbon on the
+wing-bow and also birds that are too light, ashy or washed out in the
+blue color.
+
+Sometimes birds show lines of white feathers around the eyes and over
+the head and these should be selected against as breeders as they are
+likely to cause white splashing in the plumage. Yellow or greenish bills
+must likewise be avoided since the first of these is a disqualification.
+In general this variety in breeding behaves insofar as color is
+concerned, very much like the Blue Andalusian chicken.[3] The young
+ducks when hatched are yellow or creamy blue and from blue matings there
+are also produced black and white ducklings. As in other colored breeds
+and varieties, the dark pin feathers are somewhat of a disadvantage from
+a market standpoint.
+
+[Footnote 3: For a detailed discussion of the behaviour of the Blue
+Andalusian in breeding, the reader is referred to "The Mating and
+Breeding of Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by
+the Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York City.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. Blue Swedish duck showing white flight feathers.
+The Standard calls for only two white flights, but there is a decided
+tendency as shown here for more flights to be white. (_Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Crested White._ Although not so large, this breed is much like the
+Pekin but with body carried more nearly horizontal and with a crest on
+the head. The type varies considerably however, the principal selection
+practiced having been for crest. The plumage is white in color
+throughout. What is desired in the crest is to have as large a one as
+possible, round and perfect in form, and set squarely on the head. Not
+infrequently crooked crests occur and also double or split crests, that
+is to say, where the crest is parted or divided. In some cases the
+crests may even come treble, that is, split into three parts. Entire
+absence of crest is by no means uncommon. In fact, it is considered a
+pretty good proportion if one half of the ducks hatched have crests
+although the matings vary considerably in this, occasionally one
+producing practically 100% of the offspring with crests. Avoid as
+breeders birds with small crests, lopped crests, split crests or showing
+an absence of crest. Avoid also breeders showing mottled or green bills
+in females and black bean in the bill of drakes.
+
+_The Buff._ In type this breed is similar to the Swedish. As will be
+seen from the standard weights it is one of the medium sized breeds and
+makes a very nice market bird as it dresses out into a nice round fat
+carcass and is a good layer. In color the birds of both sexes should be
+as uniform a buff as possible except that the head and upper part of the
+neck in the drake should be seal brown when in full plumage. Color
+defects which are likely to be encountered and which should be avoided
+are the tendency for the head of the drake to run to a chestnut color
+and for his neck to be too light or faded out in color. Sometimes the
+head of the drake runs too dark in color approaching a greenish black
+like the head of the Rouen. This is of course undesirable. The wings of
+both sexes are apt to run to light or even in some cases, pure white
+flights. Blue wing bars are sometimes shown and these must be carefully
+avoided. Penciling such as is found in the Fawn and White Runner
+sometimes occurs and since it is a serious defect must be rigidly
+guarded against. Any tendency toward a white bib or a white ring around
+the neck of both sexes must likewise be avoided. Greenish or mottled
+bills must be avoided in ducks which are to be used as breeders. Not
+much trouble is experienced in the bill of drakes which as a rule comes
+good. Any blue cast in the feathers on the rump and back of both sexes
+must be selected against. As a rule the females of this breed tend to be
+better colored than the males. At certain periods of the moult the head
+coloring of the drakes becomes a good buff color and later when the
+moult is complete, it changes to a copper color. When hatched the
+ducklings are a creamy yellow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. Pair of Buff Ducks--Drake on the right
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Runner._ The type of this breed is quite different from that of the
+other breed of ducks and type is very important. The Runner wants to be
+decidedly upstanding and to be very reachy. It should have very slim
+slender lines. The neck should be straight and the head should be
+carried at right angles to the neck. The bill should be perfectly
+straight on top and on a line with the skull showing absolutely no
+tendency to be dished. The legs of this breed are longer than those of
+other ducks and this accounts for the fact that they run rather than
+waddle when they move about. It is from this fact that they get their
+name. They are very active and are troublesome about crawling through
+fences. They are good layers and non-sitters and they have often been
+called the Leghorns of the duck family. It must be remembered, however,
+that while they have the inherent ability to lay as well as hens they
+will do this only when they receive proper feed and care. It is quite
+useless to expect a high egg yield from them when they are carelessly
+fed and improperly housed and cared for. Avoid as breeders ducks of both
+sexes that are too heavy behind, or in other words, are too
+heavy-bottomed. Avoid birds which are too short in legs. Avoid crooked
+or sharp backs. Round heads must likewise be avoided.
+
+_The Fawn and White Runner._ In this variety the markings must be very
+distinct and definite. There is a tendency which must be avoided for the
+head to run to black instead of chestnut, especially in males. It is
+likewise necessary to avoid females which tend to show penciling on the
+sides of the breast or on the wing-bows. These defects are apt to be
+associated with colored flight feathers which is also a defect to be
+avoided. Guard against too much fawn extending up the neck from the body
+to the head as the neck should be white in color. Too dark tail coverts
+approaching a greenish black sometimes occur and are undesirable. In
+type this variety will not average quite as good as the White.
+
+_The White Runner._ This variety is best in type and it likewise runs
+good in color which should be white throughout. Sometimes foreign color
+will be shown in the back of females and this of course must be avoided.
+Also avoid birds as breeders with green or mottled bills.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. Penciled Runner Drake on left and White Runner
+Drake on right. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Penciled Runner._ In type this variety runs about the same as the
+Fawn and White. The color combination is rather difficult to breed as it
+is hard to get the good penciling desired in the female together with
+the white markings. In general, in breeding this variety there is a
+tendency to pay more attention to type than to color. The penciling is
+like that of the Rouen but lighter in color consisting of a brown
+penciling on a fawn colored ground. Avoid any grayish stippling on the
+breast of the drake and also on the wing-bows. These defects are likely
+to be associated with colored flights which are undesirable. The colored
+portion of the head of the drake is darker than that of the duck in this
+variety. Avoid lack of white on the neck in both sexes and avoid females
+which are lacking in penciling.
+
+_Preparing Ducks for the Show._ Aside from selecting the individuals
+which most nearly approach the standard requirements there is very
+little which can be done in the way of preparing the birds for the show
+as these fowls are practically self-prepared. For a period of at least a
+week or ten days before they are shipped to the show those intended for
+exhibition should be given access to a grass range and also if possible
+to running water. The grass range will keep them in good condition and
+the running water will allow them to clean themselves. Any broken
+feathers should be plucked at least six weeks before the birds are to be
+shown in order to allow the feathers time enough to grow out again. It
+must be remembered that most ducks after getting in a good condition of
+flesh do not tend to hold this for a very long period but soon grow
+thinner again and will not take on fat the second time for some little
+period.
+
+Often there will be a difference in weight as high as 3 pounds when a
+duck is in good condition and after it has thinned. In order to have the
+ducks in top form, therefore, it is necessary to bring them up to flesh
+at the proper time. In order to bring ducks which are to be exhibited up
+to standard weight, they should be fed twice daily, for at least 10 days
+before shipping, a grain mixture consisting of one part corn and two
+parts oats. Give them all they will eat of this mixture. With Runners
+and the small breeds of ducks there is a danger of their putting on too
+much weight if corn is used in the ration and it is therefore best to
+give them oats alone. When the birds are shipped to the show they are
+quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey. When this
+occurs fill a barrel about half full of water. Then as the ducks are
+taken out of the shipping coops take three of them at a time, put them
+in the barrel and cover it over, leaving them for a few minutes. When
+they are taken out they will usually be clean.
+
+
+Catching and Handling Ducks
+
+Ducks should never be caught by the legs which are short and weak and
+are very likely to be injured. For the same reason they should never be
+carried by the legs. Ducks should be caught by the neck, grasping them
+just below the head. They can be carried short distances without injury
+in this way but it is not advisable to carry fat ducks by the neck for
+any considerable distance. The best way to handle them is to catch them
+by the neck, then carry them on the arm with the legs in the hand just
+as one would carry a chicken. See Fig. 15. A scoop net about 18 inches
+in diameter and with a six foot handle can also be used to excellent
+advantage in catching ducks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. Two methods of carrying ducks. (_Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs
+
+Eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh as duck eggs tend
+to deteriorate in quality quite rapidly. They may be shipped fairly long
+distances. Shipment may be made either by express or by Parcel Post. In
+order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of the jar to which
+the eggs are subjected during shipment, they must be carefully packed.
+One of the best methods is to use an ordinary market basket. Line the
+basket well on the bottom and sides with excelsior. Wrap each egg in
+paper and then wrap in excelsior so that there will be a good thick
+cushion of excelsior between the eggs and they will not be allowed to
+come in contact with one another. Pack the eggs in the basket securely
+standing them on end so that they cannot move or shift around. Cover
+the top of the eggs with a thick layer of excelsior using enough so that
+it runs up well above the sides of the basket. Over the top sew a piece
+of strong cotton cloth. Instead of sewing the cloth it can be pushed up
+under the outside rim of the basket with a case knife, this being
+quicker and equally as effective as sewing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Location--Estimate of Equipment and Capital
+Necessary in Starting the Business
+
+
+_Distribution._ Commercial Duck farming is confined very largely to the
+sections within easy shipping distance of the larger cities. A great
+majority of these farms are located about New York City, particularly on
+Long Island. Some duck farms are located on the Pacific Coast and a few
+commercial plants are scattered about here and there throughout the
+country. The size of these farms ranges all the way from plants with an
+output of 5,000 or 10,000 ducklings up to those with an output around
+100,000 yearly.
+
+_Stock Used._ The stock used on the commercial duck plants of the United
+States consists exclusively of the Pekin. The reasons for the use of
+this particular breed are the fact that it has white plumage and
+therefore dresses out well, that it is of good size, that its egg
+production is good, and that it makes quick growth.
+
+_Location of Plant._ On Long Island the commercial duck plants are
+located along the streams, especially those on the southern shore of the
+Island, which empty into the various bays. Locations along these
+streams are not easy to secure at the present time owing to the fact
+that duck farms are not allowed in many sections where summer homes have
+been built. A water site of this sort is very valuable, although not
+absolutely essential, since it provides water yards for the breeding
+ducks and for the fattening ducklings if desired, and reduces the labor
+and cost of equipment materially since the ducks always have access to
+water and no additional provision need be made to provide them with
+drinking water. It also enables the ducks to keep their plumage clean.
+Usually these locations are on fresh water streams but some of them are
+further out toward the bay where the water is salty or at least
+brackish.
+
+The mature ducks thrive well on the salt water and do not have to be
+furnished with fresh drinking water in addition. For the young ducks,
+however, with a salt water location it is necessary to provide fresh
+drinking water. A few farms in other sections of the country are what
+are known as dry land farms, that is to say, they are not situated on
+the bank of a stream. In such locations running water is carried through
+the yards so that the ducks have an ample supply of drinking water and
+in some cases artificial ponds are constructed to provide water in which
+the breeding ducks can swim. Formerly the idea was universally held that
+swimming water was essential for the breeders in order to secure good
+fertility, and many duck farmers still believe that better results can
+be secured in this way. On some of the dry land duck farms, however,
+breeding ducks are successfully kept without such swimming places. The
+young market ducklings do not require water to swim in although some
+raisers prefer to have it and it is commonly allowed where readily
+available. On the dry land farms provision is made simply for a
+continuous supply of fresh drinking water for the fattening ducklings.
+Ducklings kept out of the water, do not take as much exercise and, in
+consequence, fatten a little more readily.
+
+
+Making a Start in Duck Farming
+
+Duck farms or plants are sometimes operated on a considerable scale at
+the beginning, the plans being carefully laid by some experienced duck
+man. In these cases, operations at the start may be of sufficient
+magnitude so that the output will amount to 15,000 or 20,000 ducklings
+in a year. In most cases, however, these places have been the result of
+a more gradual growth from a small beginning, a condition made necessary
+either by the inexperience of the grower or by lack of capital. Not
+infrequently men engaged in other forms of farming but possessing a
+suitable location will keep 200 or 300 breeding ducks and from this
+gradually build up a good sized duck plant.
+
+_Equipment, Capital, etc. Required._ The estimates given as to the
+amount of equipment and capital required are based on the assumption
+that a plant is to be operated of sufficient size to have a yearly
+output of about 30,000 ducklings. It must be understood in this
+connection that location and various other conditions or circumstances
+will influence the cost of different items of equipment and for this
+reason these estimates must not be considered as absolute but should
+rather serve as a guide or basis on which to figure. The figures here
+given contemplate the building up of an establishment which is efficient
+but which is in no particular elaborate, the buildings and other
+equipment being as simple and inexpensive as possible.
+
+_Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant._ The plant must be carefully
+planned so as to make the best possible use of the land and particularly
+of the water frontage. It is particularly important to arrange the
+buildings in such a manner as to cut down labor as much as possible. If
+there is any expectation of enlarging the capacity at some future time,
+this must also be borne in mind in the arrangement of the various
+buildings and yards. The incubator cellar should be convenient to the
+No. 1 brooder house and the various brooder houses to one another. The
+brooder house must likewise be convenient to the growing and fattening
+houses and yards and these in turn to the killing house. The feed room
+should be centrally located so as to save labor as much as possible in
+feeding the ducks.
+
+_Land Required._ For a duck plant of the size indicated 10 acres of land
+should be ample. This, however, means that no effort would be made to
+grow any of the feed for the ducks or ducklings with the exception of
+green feed. In some cases where the lay of the land is unusually
+favorable so that the plant can be laid out to the very best advantage,
+a smaller amount of ground than this might be sufficient but it is not
+well to figure on less than 10 acres.
+
+_Number of Breeders Required._ With the usual methods of management and
+with good success, one may estimate that 40 young ducks can be marketed
+each year from each breeding female. This is a good average although in
+some good years duck raisers will do a little better than this. On the
+other hand in poor years they will not do so well. For a plant having an
+output of 30,000 market ducks there would therefore be needed in the
+neighborhood of 800 breeding ducks in addition to 100 drakes.
+
+_Housing Required for Breeders._ In figuring on the amount of housing
+required for this number of breeding ducks, it is necessary to figure on
+2½ to 3 square feet of floor space per bird, 3 square feet being better
+than 2½. This would require a housing space 20 feet deep by 120 feet
+long. However ducks are not usually housed in one building of this size,
+and in fact it is better not to do so since the smaller the flock of
+breeders kept together the better they will do. In no case should a duck
+raiser run more than 400 ducks in a flock and it is very much better to
+run them in pens of 100 each. In fact, some breeders do not place more
+than 25 to 50 breeding ducks in a pen.
+
+_Incubator Capacity._ Incubators are used exclusively for hatching the
+eggs. At the present time in practically all cases some form of hot
+water mammoth incubator is utilized for this purpose. An investment is
+required both in incubators and in a cellar in which to operate them. In
+figuring on the incubator capacity necessary to take care of a
+proposition of this size, it is necessary to base the estimate on the
+number of eggs produced during the season of flush production. The duck
+raiser figures on incubating all eggs suitable for the purpose rather
+than to sell any of them for other purposes as there is a greater profit
+in rearing and marketing the ducklings. For that reason he must have
+incubator capacity enough to take care of all the eggs laid at any time
+of the year. During the season of flush production the yield will
+ordinarily run in the neighborhood of 80%. The period of incubation is
+28 days but 2 days more should be added to this to allow for cleaning
+out the machines, etc., before starting another hatch. This means that
+there would be 30 days between hatches. Figuring on 800 ducks with an
+80% production for 30 days an incubator capacity of around 19,200 eggs
+would be required.
+
+_Brooder Capacity._ A brooder house capacity, where artificial heat can
+be supplied, sufficient to take care of about half of the total output
+of the plant at one time is necessary. This means there would have to
+be on this plant a heated brooder house capacity for 15,000 ducklings.
+About half of this number or 7500 would need accommodations in the
+number 1 or warmest brooder house where the heat can be kept up to 65 or
+70 degrees in the house itself, and warmer of course under the hover.
+The other 7500 ducklings capacity would be in the number 2 house, that
+is, a house where heat could be supplied in the early spring and where
+the temperature could be run up to 60 degrees. Hovers in such a house
+are not really needed but it is common to cover the hot waterpipes with
+a platform in order to provide a runway on which one can run a wheel
+barrow and thus simplify feeding. Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is
+needed in the number 2 brooder house. The young ducks are usually 2 to 3
+weeks old when they go into the number 2 house and they stay there for
+about 2 weeks depending on the weather. Heat for the brooder houses is
+supplied by means of hot water pipes and a coal burning stove such as
+are used in brooder houses for chickens. A number 3 or cold brooder
+house is also needed where ducklings can be housed and can be driven in
+at night and in cold weather after they have graduated from the number 2
+house. From the number 3 house a part of the ducklings are taken
+directly to the yards where they are housed in open front sheds.
+
+_Fattening Houses or Sheds._ In addition to the brooder houses, there
+are required fattening houses or sheds for the ducks when they are moved
+from the No. 3 brooder house to the yards. Suitable houses for this
+purpose are 16 feet deep by 24 feet long. In front they are 5 feet high
+and in the rear 3½ feet. They are set on posts with a base board around
+to make them tight. The fronts are entirely open and provided with
+curtains which are used only in the winter to keep out the snow. The
+ducklings are shut in these houses when desired by means of wire panels
+which close the lower part of the front. Houses such as described are
+divided into two parts and each side will accommodate 200 ducklings.
+
+_Feed Storage._ Considerable feed storage room is necessary as it is
+very desirable to be able to buy feed in quantity and also to carry a
+considerable stock on hand in order to offset the possibility of not
+being able to secure feed at any time. There should be storage capacity
+for 4 cars of 30 tons each, in other words, for 120 tons of feed. Still
+greater capacity than this is desirable. In connection with the feed
+storage there should be a place where the feed can be mixed and where
+feed can be cooked. Two power operated feed mixers are required as one
+is not sufficient during the busy season to allow the mixing and feeding
+of the mash for both the breeders and the young stock at the same time.
+A feed cutter is necessary in preparing the green feed which is mixed in
+the mash. The usual type of kettle feed cooker is commonly used for
+boiling fish and preparing other cooked feeds but in its place a small
+four-horse steam boiler can be utilized to good advantage as this makes
+it possible to cook the feed right in the mixer by using a steam hose.
+
+_Killing and Picking House._ A killing and picking house where the ducks
+can be prepared for market is another necessary building but this need
+not be an expensive building. It must be located with reference to its
+convenience to the rest of the plant. It is also desirable to locate it
+over a spring if one is available for the spring water can be used to
+excellent advantage in cooling the dressed ducklings. When a spring is
+not available water must be piped to this building. The killing house is
+usually built with at least one side open or partly open. A place is
+provided outside the picking room where the ducks can be hung and bled.
+Inside room is required for six or eight pickers. A kettle for heating
+water to be used in scalding the ducks is necessary as are also tanks in
+which to place the ducks after they are picked. Additional room is
+needed where the ducks can be weighed and packed ready for shipment.
+
+_Residence._ In addition to the other buildings enumerated, a residence
+would of course be necessary. The size and elaborateness of this and
+consequently its cost depends entirely upon the owner's needs and
+wishes.
+
+_Horse Power._ One horse and wagon for the purpose of drawing the feed
+about the plant and for certain other necessary work would be required.
+If the owner desires to do his own hauling of the feed from the railroad
+and the other necessary trucking he would, of course, have to keep more
+horses, a team at least, or an automobile truck. Where only one horse is
+kept, this trucking must be hired done.
+
+_Feeding Track._ On many of the larger duck farms, a feed track is
+employed in feeding the stock. Such a track consists of a framework of
+sufficient strength to support a car filled with mash which is pushed
+along the track by hand. The track leads from the feed mixer across the
+various yards where the ducks to be fed are located, including both the
+breeding ducks, yard ducks and brooder ducks in yards. This involves a
+considerable amount of trackage which must be fairly level and which
+runs over the yard fences or along the ends of the yards so that the
+feed can be shoveled directly from the car into the feeding trays in the
+yards. The use of a feed track simplifies the feeding considerably but
+its construction is quite expensive. Where a track is not used, the feed
+as mixed is dumped into a low wagon which is driven along the yards, or
+through them by removing movable panels in the fences and the feed
+shoveled from the wagon to the feed trays.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. Power feed mixer. The feed is dumped into a low
+wagon from which it is shoveled to the ducks. (_Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Electric Lights._ Most duck farms at the present time are located where
+electric lighting is available. It is desirable and in fact almost
+necessary to have the various houses wired so that lights can be turned
+on when desired. In addition, lights are usually provided in the yards
+for fattening ducks and are used at night and especially during storms
+to keep the ducks from stampeding.
+
+_Water Supply._ An adequate water supply is essential. This will consist
+of a well or spring furnishing an ample amount of water, a power pump
+and a water supply tank. From the tank, the water must be piped to the
+incubator cellar, the brooder houses, the killing house, the feed house
+and to any of the yards where the ducks do not have access to a natural
+supply of good water. In addition, of course, the water from the same
+tank is usually used to supply the residence.
+
+_Fences._ Not a great deal of investment is necessary in fences since
+the yards are rather small and the fences are low. Two-foot fences of
+two-inch mesh wire are used for the yard ducks while for the little
+ducks 18-inch wire of one-inch mesh is used. The biggest items of
+expense connected with the fences are the cost of the stakes or posts
+used in their construction and the labor used in this work. The portion
+of the yards extending into the water are the most troublesome and most
+expensive to build. In some cases, rather elaborate wooden picket fences
+are used in the water yards. These are more permanent but are more
+expensive to build.
+
+_Labor._ For a plant of the size indicated there would be required in
+addition to an active working proprietor three other men. One man would
+be needed to operate the incubators, one man would devote his time to
+the brooder houses, one man would feed the yard ducks and the fattening
+pens, and one man would do the killing and packing, take care of the
+feathers, clean the yards, etc. Of course, there would be periods when
+these men would not have their entire time taken up with their
+particular duties and this would permit them to turn in and help with
+the miscellaneous work on the plant.
+
+In addition to the regular men employed, additional labor would be
+necessary to do the picking. For this purpose pickers are usually
+brought in and work by the piece. During the spring of 1920 these
+pickers received six cents per duck and they will average about 75 ducks
+a day, beginning work at 6 in the morning and finishing by noon or a
+little later. Some pickers will average as high as 100 ducks a day. In
+the busy season from 800 to 1200 ducks will be marketed per week and the
+usual practice is to kill and pick not over three days a week, usually
+during the first part of the week.
+
+_Invested Capital._ Investment in the business exclusive of working
+capital, that is to say, the money in the land and buildings and other
+equipment would require under present conditions about $1,000 for each
+thousand ducks marketed. In other words, in a plant of this size, close
+to $30,000 would be invested. The amount of invested capital depends to
+some extent upon location and upon the elaborateness of the buildings
+and other equipment but with a well laid out economical plant an
+investment of the size indicated should be sufficient.
+
+_Working Capital._ In addition to the capital invested in the plant
+there would be required a considerable amount of working capital. From
+the first of November to the beginning of the marketing of the ducks
+there would be required from $6,000 to $8,000 with which to purchase
+feed, meet the pay roll, and for other running expenses. Even after the
+marketing begins there would be a period of from a month to six weeks
+when the expenses will continue to be greater than the receipts so that
+some additional capital might be necessary. However, returns would begin
+to come in which could be used to take care of the more pressing current
+obligations so that additional working capital which might be needed
+over that indicated would not be large.
+
+_Profits._ The profits in commercial duck raising vary widely, as must
+be expected, depending upon the management, upon the season and upon
+prices received. After deducting all overhead charges and interest on
+the investment, the net return per duck should be at least 10 cents per
+duckling marketed. In fact the return should be 15 cents to provide much
+inducement to engage in the business. Some seasons the returns will run
+greater than this but on the other hand, there is always the chance of
+occasional big losses.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Management of the Breeding Stock
+
+
+_Age of Breeders._ On most large commercial duck plants the entire
+breeding stock is renewed each year. In other words, the breeders are
+kept only through their first laying season. This makes it necessary to
+select from the young stock reared and save for breeders as many head as
+it is desired to carry for the coming year. This practice is used for
+the reason that ducks lay best during their first year. Therefore, since
+it is desired to keep up the maximum egg production in order to raise as
+many market ducks as possible, young breeders are considered better.
+Some raisers, however, keep a part of their breeding ducks for two years
+and occasionally for 3 or even 4 years but this is not the usual
+practice. Recent comparison made between young and two year old ducks as
+breeders would seem to indicate that ducklings hatched from the eggs of
+the latter live a little better.
+
+_Distinguishing Young from Old Ducks._ In this connection it is of
+interest to know how young ducks can be readily distinguished from the
+older birds. The young ducks have bright yellow legs and bills while
+the old ducks after a period of laying, lose a considerable amount of
+the yellow from these sections. In addition, soon after the ducks begin
+to lay, their bills as a rule will begin to be streaked with black.
+Young ducks can also be told from the old ducks by feeling of the end of
+the breast bone which runs to a point at the abdomen. In the older ducks
+this is hard while in the young ducks it is gristly and bends easily.
+The windpipe of an old duck is hard and rather difficult to compress or
+dent while in the young duck it is softer and easily dented.
+
+_Selection of Breeding Ducks._ The breeders are usually selected from
+the ducklings which reach market age from the last week in June through
+July. As these lots become ready for market and are driven into the pens
+to be slaughtered each duck is handled and any especially good birds
+which the proprietor thinks will make good breeders are thrown out at
+this time.
+
+In making selection of breeders those are chosen which are healthy and
+thrifty and which have good wide, long and deep bodies. Ducks with
+crooked wings, crooked tails, hump backs or paddle legs are rejected for
+this purpose. After the young ducks for breeders are selected they are
+put in a yard or fattening pen until the number which the owner expects
+to keep is complete. These young breeders generally begin to moult soon
+after they are selected and from this time on they are fed whole corn
+and plenty of green feed until it is time to begin feeding the laying
+ration. Some of the breeding ducks will usually begin to lay about
+December 1 although they will not lay heavily at that time. The laying
+ration described later should be begun about that time or a couple of
+weeks earlier.
+
+_Number of Females to a Drake._ As a rule on commercial duck farms the
+birds are mated in the proportion of about one drake to seven ducks.
+This proportion will vary to some extent under different methods of
+management and weather conditions and may run all the way from 1 to 5 to
+1 to 8. The smaller number of drakes should be used late in the season
+while the larger number will give better fertility early in the breeding
+season.
+
+Since the drakes do not fight seriously, flock matings can be made.
+Better results will be obtained from smaller flocks than from large
+flocks and there will also be less cracked eggs and less very dirty eggs
+from the smaller flocks. Before the ducks are let out in the morning
+there is a tendency for them to run back and forth through the pens, and
+in this way they tramp over many of the eggs which are laid anywhere
+about the floor. The larger the flock the more cracked and dirty eggs
+will result. While the drakes do not fight each other they do at times
+injure and kill the ducks to some extent when three or four drakes may
+chase one duck. In this way they may injure the ducks' backs and often
+pick their eyes and necks. Whenever a duck is found which is injured she
+should be removed from the flock. Difficulty of this sort is most
+prevalent about the 1st of March. If the trouble gets very bad it can be
+stopped to some extent by cutting back the upper bills of the drakes
+about one-fourth of an inch with a tinsnip or by reducing the proportion
+of drakes.
+
+_Securing Breeding Drakes._ It is common practice on duck plants to
+avoid inbreeding by securing drakes from some other flock each year.
+This is usually accomplished by buying the drakes outright from some
+neighboring duck farmer. It may also be accomplished by purchasing a few
+eggs for hatching in order to secure new blood. In any particular
+community there is a tendency for the duck farmers to trade breeding
+drakes among themselves for a period of years with the result that they
+all have much the same blood and not a great deal of benefit is obtained
+from securing the drakes from some neighbor's flock. It is undoubtedly
+good practice to go farther afield occasionally for a supply of breeding
+drakes. In purchasing stock for new blood be sure that it is as good as
+the home stock and better if it can be found. It will do no good to
+purchase and use inferior stock and may do much harm.
+
+
+Houses and Yards for Breeders
+
+The breeding flocks are usually confined to breeding yards. The size of
+these yards depends upon the size of the breeding flock but large yards
+are not required. A yard for 200 breeders is not as a rule larger
+than 100 by 200 feet including the water part of the yard. Houses and
+yards should be located on sand if possible as this is easier to keep
+clean and therefore keeps the birds in better condition. Occasional
+flocks of breeding ducks are allowed their liberty but this is not
+common practice nor is it good practice unless the surroundings are
+clean and the ducks do not have access to stagnant mud or refuse in
+which they can work. If ducks work too much in this kind of material
+they will eat more or less of it which injures the eggs for hatching
+purposes.
+
+Many different styles of houses are used for breeders, some of which are
+decidedly more elaborate than is necessary. A very satisfactory
+economical house is one 20 feet deep, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet at
+back, with a shed roof. This can be constructed of tongue and groove
+material or may be made of unmatched stuff and covered with paper. A
+house of this proportion makes a good light house and it can be carried
+in length according to the size of the flock. For a breeding unit of 200
+ducks, which is a good unit to use, a house 20 feet deep and 30 to 40
+feet long is suitable. No floor is used in the house but it should be
+well filled up with dirt so that the water will not come in.
+
+One or more good sized openings are left in the front of the breeding
+house for ventilation, or windows may be placed in the front which can
+be used for this purpose. Good ventilation is necessary. Additional
+ventilation is secured from the doors. If the weather is mild the doors
+are left partly open, if cold they are nearly closed, while when the
+weather is hot they are left entirely open. A good scheme is to use a
+sort of Dutch door so that the bottom or top half can be opened
+independently. In this way the top part of the doors can be left open so
+as to let in the sunlight and still keep the ducks in the house or the
+top may be left closed and the bottom opened so as to allow the ducks to
+go in or out and still cut down the amount of ventilation. When the
+weather is warm the doors may be left entirely open except for a board
+18 inches to 2 feet wide inserted in the bottom of the door when it is
+desired to keep the ducks in.
+
+Shade is essential for the breeders and if not provided naturally by
+trees must be supplied by means of artificial shelters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17. Upper--Rear and end view of house or shed used
+for fattening ducks. Lower--General view on a duck plant, showing open
+front fattening houses in the foreground and houses for breeders in the
+background. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18. A good house for breeding ducks. It is 20 feet
+deep, 40 feet long, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet in the rear and will
+accommodate 200 breeders. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding Houses._ Usually straw, meadow hay,
+or swale hay is used for bedding. Shavings make good material for this
+purpose if they do not contain too much sawdust. The principal objection
+to shavings is that it takes longer to bed with them. Often a few joists
+are laid at the back of the house on which to pile bales of straw or
+other bedding so that it will be kept dry and will serve as an emergency
+supply available for bedding the house in stormy days. The houses should
+be bedded fairly often in order to keep the floors clean and dry and so
+as not to allow the ducks' feet to get cold. The frequency with which
+bedding is necessary will depend upon the weather. In winter it may at
+times be necessary to bed every day. In May it may be necessary only
+twice a week and still later in the season only once a week. In wet
+weather the ducks track in lots of mud and water and frequent bedding
+helps to keep the eggs clean. The houses are cleaned out only once a
+year and this is usually done after the ducks have stopped laying. To
+clean out the houses while the ducks are laying would disturb them and
+tend to stop their egg production.
+
+_Cleaning the Breeding Yards._ The yards should be cleaned whenever they
+need it, that is, whenever they begin to get sloppy or sticky. It is a
+matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary. The character of
+the soil influences this, as sandy yards absorb the droppings better and
+do not need cleaning as frequently as heavier soils. In the yards for
+the breeding ducks, or the water yards, this will as a rule not be over
+2 or 3 times a season. In dry weather cleaning is accomplished by
+sweeping the yards with a broom. In wet weather the droppings spread
+over the yard and are packed down by the ducks' feet until they form a
+layer of putty-like material which cannot be swept off but is scraped
+off by means of a hoe.
+
+_Water Yards for Breeders._ Formerly it was the consensus of opinion
+that breeders needed water in which they could swim in order to keep in
+good breeding condition and to give the best results in fertility of the
+eggs. At present it is not considered necessary to have sufficient
+water to permit swimming although many breeders prefer to do this and
+feel that they get better results from it. However, breeding ducks have
+been and are being kept successfully in dry yards where water is
+supplied to them simply in an amount sufficient to allow them to drink
+and to clean themselves. Where water yards are provided this should not
+be on stagnant water but there should be some circulation of the water
+so as to keep it clean and fresh. Where the lay of the land is such that
+it is not possible to run all the yards down to a stream for this
+purpose it is sometimes possible to dig a canal or ditch from the stream
+to the yards so as to allow the ducks access to the water. Where the
+yards can extend into the water it saves a great deal of labor or
+considerable expense in equipment as it is not then necessary to provide
+the ducks with drinking water by means of some artificial arrangement
+such as a concrete gutter or ditch extending through the yards or by
+means of artificial ponds.
+
+If the water yards used freeze over in winter it is necessary to cut
+holes in the ice so that the ducks can get water for drinking purposes.
+Sometimes the ducks will go into these water holes and after getting
+their plumage wet will come out and sit down in the yard and freeze fast
+to the ground. During such weather conditions it is necessary to make
+the rounds of the yards frequently and to loosen any ducks that have
+frozen fast. If they are left in that condition they are apt to
+injure themselves in trying to pull free and if left too long will die.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. Another successful type of house for breeding
+ducks. It is 20 ft. by 40 ft. and is divided into two pens each of which
+will accommodate 100 breeders. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. Meal time for the breeders. (_Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Feeding the Breeders._ Breeding ducks are fed twice a day, in the
+morning and at night. It is usual practice to feed the breeders last in
+the morning and first at night. The reason for feeding them last in the
+morning is that they are usually fed in the yards rather than the house
+and they should be kept in until they are through laying which will be
+after daylight. A good breeding ration consists of the following, the
+proportions being given by measure in bushels.
+
+1 bushel bran.
+1 bushel low-grade flour.
+1 bushel corn meal.
+1 bushel green feed.
+½ bushel either raw or cooked vegetables.
+1 bushel in 10 of beef scrap.
+½ bushel in 10 of cooked fish.
+
+This ration will keep the breeding ducks in good flesh but there will be
+no difficulty in their getting too fat. It is also a good laying ration
+and will promote good egg production. The vegetables used in this ration
+usually consist of sugar beets, cow beets, potatoes, etc. However, if
+potatoes are used the amount of flour in the ration should be reduced a
+little so as not to make the ration too heavy. Beets, when used, are fed
+raw cut up and mixed in the feed. Small potatoes, boiled and mixed in
+the feed are more valuable as they have a greater food value than beets.
+Some duck growers feed fish entirely, using no beef scrap. This is done
+where a plentiful supply of fish can be secured by going out into the
+bay after them. However, this is not very good practice for a sufficient
+supply of fish may not always be available and the ducks are so fond of
+the fish that they will not eat well the beef scrap used as a substitute
+for the fish, until they have become used to it. Fish is prepared for
+feeding by boiling it thoroughly in a feed cooker.
+
+The available land on the plant is used to grow a supply of green feed.
+Rye is used for this purpose early in the spring as soon as it is high
+enough to mow. It is mowed the first time when it is like a lawn. At
+this stage it does not have to be cut up. Oats are used in the same way.
+During the summer fodder corn is used. This is the poorest crop for the
+purpose but is as a rule the only one available at that time. Rape is
+sowed in August and its use begun about the time of the first frost and
+kept up until the hard freezes come or until it is buried under the
+snow. Creek grass which is secured from the fresh water streams on Long
+Island by going out in a flat bottom boat and raking it off the creek
+bottom with a wooden rake, is very much relished by the ducks and is
+used whenever it is available. However, the supply of this material is
+not as plentiful as it was formerly and it is rather hard to get. When
+it is available it can be used either in winter or summer.
+
+Good field clover cut up and boiled with the potatoes or with the fish
+makes a good green feed. All of these green materials for use in the
+ration, unless they are already in short lengths, are cut up by means of
+a power feed cutter before they are mixed in the mash. When no other
+form of green feed is available ground alfalfa is used but only half as
+much of this material is mixed with the ration as is used of any of the
+other kinds of green feed. Wherever possible the various duck yards
+should be used to grow a crop of green stuff such as oats or rye as this
+not only helps out on the supply of green feed but also helps to sweeten
+the soil. The growing of a crop on the heavier types of soil used for
+ducks is especially important as such soils are more likely to become
+contaminated from the droppings.
+
+The ration for the ducks is mixed up in a power feed mixer which works
+much on the principle of a power dough mixer. In fact, dough mixers are
+used on some plants. In mixing the feed enough water should be added to
+bring the material to a consistency where it will hold together when
+squeezed in the hand. In fact, the consistency should be between crumbly
+and sticky, but should never be sloppy. The feed is dumped from the
+mixer into a low horse drawn wagon and driven around to the various
+yards where it is shoveled off on to the feed troughs or trays. On some
+large duck plants a track is provided which runs over the yards and over
+this a car loaded with feed is pushed and the feed shoveled into the
+feed trays.
+
+The breeders should be fed in the same place. If feeding is begun in the
+house this practice should be continued. If feeding is begun in the
+yards it should be continued there. To change disturbs the ducks and
+interferes with their egg production.
+
+Coarse ground oyster shell about as large as corn should be kept before
+the breeders all the time in boxes where they can help themselves. A
+flock of 700 or 800 breeders will eat upwards of 200 pounds a week of
+this material. Unless sand is available in the yards where they can get
+it, ducks should also have access to a supply of good sharp creek sand
+but when kept in sand yards no other form of grit need be furnished.
+
+The usual method of feeding is to utilize flat troughs on which the feed
+is shoveled. Only as much feed should be given at the regular feeding
+time as the ducks will eat up clean. This makes it necessary to watch
+the feeding carefully and to regulate the amount accordingly. It is good
+practice to gather up any feed that is left by the ducks so that it will
+not lie there to sour and spoil as such feed is bad for the birds.
+
+
+Egg Production
+
+The average egg production of Pekin ducks kept under commercial farm
+conditions will run from 80 to 125 eggs per head for the season. This
+will vary somewhat from year to year and also with the management and
+feed given the ducks. The laying begins to a small extent about December
+1 and gradually increases until the ducks are laying freely in February.
+As the hot weather of summer begins to come on the laying drops off
+until about July 1 and after this not enough eggs are produced as a rule
+to pay to hold the breeding ducks longer. Often many ducks will stop
+laying considerably before this, especially those which have started
+laying early and it may not pay to keep such pens later than May. Laying
+takes place early in the morning and practically all the eggs are laid
+soon after daylight. It is for this reason that the ducks are usually
+shut up at night so that all the eggs laid will be secured as some of
+them would otherwise be lost by their being laid around in the yard or
+in the water. In the spring the ducks can be let out about 6 a. m., as
+the laying will be pretty well over by that time, but in winter they
+must be kept shut up later in order to secure all the eggs. After the
+ducks start laying in the spring they are very regular and continuous
+layers and will miss fewer days than most hens.
+
+After the breeding ducks are first put in the breeding pens and shut in
+the houses at night it is common practice to use electric lights for the
+first 2 or 3 weeks in order to keep them from stampeding as ducks in
+strange surroundings are quite nervous and are quite likely to stampede
+and to run over one another thus causing cripples. Electric lights have
+also been used to some extent during the late fall and winter for the
+purpose of inducing egg production earlier than the natural season. As a
+rule the ducks can be started to laying about 4 weeks after turning on
+the lights but the average production under this system is not likely to
+run more than 60 eggs for the season as so handled they moult quite
+early in the spring. A single 25 watt light is sufficient for a house or
+pen 16 × 24 feet and the lights are left turned on all night.
+
+The object in feeding and caring for the breeding ducks is to keep them
+from moulting and to keep them laying as long as possible. It must be
+remembered that any radical change in feed or manner of feeding,
+shutting them up too closely, change of temperature, or other disturbing
+conditions are likely to cause moulting and to check egg production. Any
+change in feed must be made carefully and gradually, not suddenly. It
+must also be remembered that ducks are excitable birds and must be
+handled and driven carefully so as to disturb them as little as
+possible.
+
+
+Time of Marketing Breeders
+
+The breeders should be turned off to market whenever their egg
+production drops off so decidedly that it no longer pays to hold them.
+In most cases this will be about the 1st of July but it may range
+considerably earlier than this, especially with pens of ducks that have
+started laying early. When the ducks finish laying their eggs they begin
+to moult and it is at this time that they should be marketed. If
+marketing is delayed, the ducks will lose condition as the moulting
+progresses and will therefore be held at a loss.
+
+
+Diseases and Pests
+
+_Disease._ Old ducks, that is, mature ducks, are practically free from
+disease. Of course, there will be a certain amount of loss in the
+breeding stock from various causes but this should not run for the
+entire season more than 10% of the flock. Ducks do not become egg bound,
+but sometimes, especially during heavy laying, they become ruptured.
+
+_Insect Pests._ Ducks are remarkably free from lice and other insect
+pests and those which they do have do not trouble them much. It is
+unnecessary therefore to take any precautions in the way of treating the
+ducks to keep them free of insects.
+
+_Dogs._ Occasionally trouble may be experienced from dogs. If these
+animals get into the yards with the breeders or the fattening ducks,
+they may kill a good many and in addition will seriously injure the rest
+by chasing them and by the fright which the ducks are given.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Incubation
+
+
+The Pekin duck is essentially a non-broody breed. It, therefore, becomes
+necessary to resort to incubators for the purpose of hatching the eggs.
+Occasional ducks will sit if allowed to do so but it is not the practice
+on commercial duck farms to allow them to sit and hatch their young. No
+special means are taken to break them of broodiness other than not to
+allow them eggs to sit on.
+
+_Kinds of Incubators Used._ Both the smaller kerosene lamp heated
+incubators and the large or mammoth hot water heated incubators are used
+for hatching duck eggs. At the present time the mammoth hot water
+machines are those which are in principal use due largely to the
+lessened labor required to operate them.
+
+_Incubator Cellar._ It is necessary to provide some room in which the
+incubators can be installed and operated. This may take the form of a
+cellar, or the incubators may be operated in rooms above the ground.
+Many of the incubator cellars on duck farms are only partially under
+ground and not a few of them are built entirely out of ground. The
+particular size and shape of the cellar or incubator room will, of
+course, depend upon the number of incubators to be installed and upon
+their make and shape. Usually these buildings are constructed with
+rather thick walls so that the temperature of the room will fluctuate
+less with changes in outside temperature. Provision is also necessary by
+means of windows or other ventilating devices to provide for good
+ventilation in the room. The cellars are usually constructed with cement
+floors as moisture is used freely and wooden floors would rot out
+quickly.
+
+_Incubator Capacity Required._ The aim on commercial duck farms is to
+hatch all of the eggs produced which are suitable for the purpose.
+Practically no eggs are sold except the cracked eggs or those which
+would not give good results in the incubator such as too large or too
+small eggs. Occasionally, of course, there will be sales of duck eggs in
+comparatively large lots for incubation purposes where someone is
+starting a duck farm. Occasionally also duck farmers buy from each other
+a few eggs for incubation in order to secure new blood. On the whole,
+however, practically all of the eggs laid are incubated and it is
+necessary to have an incubator capacity sufficient to take care of the
+eggs as they are produced during the flush season.
+
+Since the egg production at this time will run around about 80% and
+since the period of incubation is 28 days and a couple more days must be
+allowed to take the ducklings out of the machines and to clean up the
+machines, it is necessary to figure on 30 days between hatches. To take
+care of the flush production at this time there would be required an
+incubator capacity of from 20 to 25 eggs per head of breeding ducks. The
+latter figure is a safer estimate than the former. Of course, eggs
+sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity are not put in the
+machines at any one time but different lots are put in as soon as a
+sufficient number is obtained to make it worth while. There will be,
+therefore, eggs in various stages of incubation in different sections of
+the machines at the same time. While Pekin duck eggs will run about ½
+heavier in weight than hens' eggs they do not take up a proportionately
+greater amount of space in the incubator. An incubator tray will
+accommodate about 5/6 as many Pekin duck eggs as it will hens' eggs.
+
+_Age of Hatching Eggs._ Duck eggs should be set as often as enough are
+secured to fill one or more trays in the incubator or enough to produce
+a sufficient number of ducklings to utilize brooding space to advantage.
+Since duck eggs deteriorate more rapidly than hens' eggs they cannot be
+kept so long before they are set. It is best not to save them for longer
+than one week. During the season of flush production it is not, of
+course, necessary to save them that long since enough eggs will be
+secured to set each day if desired. The usual practice at this time is
+to set twice a week. During the early part of the season when the
+production of eggs is low and the temperature cool the eggs are often
+saved for as long a period as two weeks without noticeably bad results.
+
+_Care of Hatching Eggs._ Eggs for hatching should be kept in a cool
+place. Any place suitable for keeping hens' eggs for hatching is a
+suitable place for duck eggs. The temperature should be from 50° to 70°
+Fahrenheit. Where the eggs are not kept longer than one week, it is not
+necessary to turn them, especially if they are kept on end. If kept
+longer than this it is safer to turn them once a day or once in two
+days, handling them carefully so as not to crack any or to injure their
+hatching qualities.
+
+_Selecting the Eggs for Hatching._ Medium sized eggs are preferred for
+this purpose. Therefore, the extremely large eggs and the very small
+ones are thrown out. Rough shelled eggs or eggs with crooked or deformed
+shells are likewise thrown out since they are not likely to hatch well.
+Eggs that are badly soiled so that they cannot be tested easily are
+washed but the clean eggs are not. All the eggs intended for incubation
+purposes are sounded by striking them gently against one another in
+order to detect and remove the cracked eggs. No selection is made on the
+basis of color. The eggs may be white, creamy white or a blue, or bluish
+green in color. At the present time a considerably less proportion of
+the eggs show a blue tint than formerly. As the egg laying season
+advances the eggs laid by the ducks tend to get a little larger.
+
+_Temperature._ Up to the time of testing, that is, about the fifth day,
+the incubator is run at a temperature of from 101 to 102 degrees. After
+the fifth day the temperature is kept as near 103 as possible. The most
+sensitive period for a duck egg is during the first 3 or 4 days of
+incubation. If they are allowed to get too warm during this time the
+germ may be killed while if the temperature is too low, development will
+be retarded.
+
+_Position of the Thermometer._ In figuring on the proper temperature at
+which to run the incubator, the thermometer should be so placed that the
+bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs, preferably touching a
+fertile egg. If the thermometer bulb rests on an infertile egg the
+temperature recorded will be lower than the actual temperature of
+fertile eggs in the later stages of incubation, due to the animal heat
+of the developing embryos, with the result that the machine would be
+operated at too high a temperature.
+
+_Testing._ It is common practice to make only one complete test. This is
+done on the evening of the fifth day. Testing may be done by means of an
+ordinary candling device such as is used with hens' eggs, each egg being
+examined separately. To save time a piece of apparatus may be used which
+is simple in construction and which simplifies the process of candling
+considerably. This may be termed a testing table. It consists of a
+table the same width as an incubator tray and longer than the tray. In
+the table there is an opening the size of a row of eggs and beneath this
+are placed several electric light bulbs with reflectors back of them so
+as to throw the light up through the eggs. By sliding the tray along the
+table each row of eggs is brought over the lights and their condition
+can be quickly noted. At this test all the infertile eggs are taken out
+as well as any eggs in which the germs have died. The infertile eggs
+after a careful retest are then packed in cases and sent to market where
+they are usually sold to bakers as tested eggs. While no second test is
+made of the eggs left in the machines the experienced incubator operator
+is constantly on the watch for and is constantly removing any eggs which
+die at a later time. To the experienced eye the color of the egg
+indicates that it has died as it takes on a sort of pinkish or darkish
+tint. Duck eggs after they die will spoil very quickly and must be
+removed promptly as the odor which they throw off is very strong and
+will prove harmful to the other eggs. The inexperienced operator can
+readily locate dead eggs by smelling over the tray.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. Interior of house for breeding ducks. Notice the
+heavy bedding and the feeding track. (_Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. Incubator cellar on large duck plant. Trays of
+eggs set out to turn and cool. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Turning the Eggs._ The eggs are neither turned, cooled nor otherwise
+disturbed after they are put in the incubator until after they are
+tested on the fifth day. From this time on they are turned twice a day,
+morning and night, until they begin to pip.
+
+_Cooling the Eggs._ There is a considerable difference in the practice
+of incubator operators with regard to cooling. No cooling should be done
+until after the first test. After this some incubator men cool the eggs
+by dropping the doors of the machine. Others take the trays of eggs out
+and put them on top of the machine. Cooling is usually done once a day.
+The amount of cooling which the eggs require seems to vary greatly and
+here again the judgment of the operator comes into play. About the best
+general rule which can be given is that the eggs should be cooled until
+they do not feel warm to the face but they should never be cooled to the
+extent that they feel cold to the face or hands. The length of time to
+bring this about varies with the age of the eggs and the temperature of
+the room.
+
+_Moisture._ A good deal of moisture is used in incubating duck eggs. It
+is usual to begin to spray the eggs with water the next day after
+testing. However, this may vary anywhere from the sixth to the tenth
+day. They are sprayed quite thoroughly, some men using water enough so
+that it runs out of the bottom of the machine. No particular care is
+taken to see that the water used is warm. Ordinary water just as it
+comes from the pipes is commonly used and is applied by means of a spray
+nozzle attached to a hose. However, extremely cold water should not be
+used for this purpose. This spraying is done once or twice a day as the
+operator may think necessary until the eggs begin to hatch. In many
+cases even then if the ducklings seem to be drying too fast after they
+come out of the shell, or to be having difficulty to get out it is well
+to open the machines and wet the eggs down thoroughly.
+
+_Fertility._ The fertility varies with the season that is, with the
+weather. At the beginning of the laying season when the weather is cold
+the fertility usually runs rather low. This is likewise true at the end
+of the laying season when the heat of summer sets in. During the
+interval between these two times of low fertility there will usually be
+one or more periods during which the fertility will go down and then
+come back again. This seems to occur even though the weather remains
+about the same and though there is no change in the method of feeding.
+Fertility may be considered to be good when it runs about 85%. When the
+fertility is running poor the hatching of the eggs left in the machines
+after testing will usually be poor also.
+
+_Hatching._ It takes longer as a rule from the time that the ducklings
+pip the eggs until they hatch than it does with chicks. To retain the
+moisture which is so necessary during hatching, the machines are usually
+shut tightly and are not opened until the hatching is pretty well
+completed unless it becomes necessary to add more moisture as indicated
+above. The little ducklings should be left in the incubator until the
+hatching is over and they are thoroughly dried off. As soon as the
+hatching is completed, the ventilators in the machines are opened to
+hasten the drying process. If the ducklings open their bills and pant
+it is an indication that they are not getting enough ventilation and
+this should be supplied by fastening the machine door open a little way.
+If the ducks are not ready to be taken out of the machines by noon or
+soon after, it is best to leave them until the next morning before
+removing them to the brooder house. In the meantime, however, the old
+eggs and shells and other refuse should be taken out. Usually the hatch
+is completed in time so that the ducklings can be removed to the brooder
+house on the afternoon of the 28th day. As a rule the earlier the hatch
+is completed the better are the ducklings.
+
+Figures secured on results in hatching for the entire season on Long
+Island duck farms indicate that as a whole the duck raisers will not
+average much over 40% hatch of all eggs set. Some hatches may run as
+high as 60% or even more and in some seasons the average percentage will
+run higher than 40. Some especially skilled operators may also secure
+considerably better average results than this. It is quite a common
+practice on the part of duck farmers to pay their incubator man a bonus
+on all ducklings over 40% hatched during the season. This bonus may
+range anywhere from $1 to $5 per thousand ducklings. Such an arrangement
+serves to give the incubator man a greater incentive to give the
+machines good attention and to secure just the best results of which he
+is capable.
+
+_Selling Baby Ducks._ Within the last two or three years there has
+sprung into existence a small but increasing trade in baby ducks. They
+are handled and shipped about the same as baby chicks. Baby ducks are
+ready for shipment as soon as they are thoroughly dry, usually about 12
+hours after the hatch starts to come off. They are neither fed nor
+watered before shipment and are packed in cardboard boxes used in
+shipping baby chicks. As a rule the shipping boxes will accommodate
+about half the number of ducklings that they will chicks. Of course the
+outside temperature very largely governs the matter of the number to a
+compartment. In warm summer weather, a two compartment box intended for
+50 chicks will accommodate 26 ducklings if well ventilated at the sides
+and top. They are shipped by parcel post and can be sent anywhere within
+a radius of one thousand miles if the trip does not require more than 36
+hours. For best results the ducklings should not be allowed to go much
+beyond this length of time before they are fed. On receipt they should
+be placed immediately in a brooder already prepared for them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Brooding and Rearing the Young Stock
+
+
+Young ducks are easier to brood than chicks. They seem to learn more
+quickly where the source of heat is and they are less likely to cause
+trouble from crowding. They are also less subject to disease.
+
+_Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder House._ The
+ducklings should be left in the incubator until they are thoroughly
+dried off. Usually they will be dried so that they can be moved on the
+afternoon of the 28th day of incubation. If, however, they are not ready
+early in the afternoon it is best to leave them in the machine until the
+next morning. In moving the ducklings, place them in boxes, baskets or
+other suitable carriers and cover them with burlap or cloth to avoid any
+danger of the ducklings becoming chilled.
+
+_Brooder Houses Repaired._ There are many different types and styles of
+brooder houses which are used with success. For this reason only one
+type of each class of brooder house needed is described in detail. These
+particular houses have been in successful use for a considerable period
+of time and are given because they embody all the necessary requisites
+for such houses and at the same time utilize the space to good advantage
+and are economical in construction.
+
+In general there are required three different brooder houses. The first
+of these requires sufficient heating capacity so that the temperature of
+the house itself can be maintained at 65 to 70 degrees even in the cold
+weather of winter or early spring. In addition, hovers are required in
+this house under which a temperature can be maintained from 80 to 90
+degrees. For convenience this house will be spoken of as brooder house
+No. 1. A second brooder house which can be called brooder house No. 2
+will be required which is equipped with heating apparatus so that the
+temperature can be run up to 60 degrees when required. The third brooder
+house known as brooder house No. 3 is a cold brooder house or one
+without artificial heat. It furnishes shelter for the young ducks where
+they can be driven in at night and during the day in cold weather. As
+the ducklings pass out of the brooder house No. 3 they are housed in
+sheds or shelters with yards which usually extend into the water but
+which may not do so in all cases.
+
+
+Brooder House No. 1
+
+The length of this house determines its capacity, the required amount of
+which will depend upon the output of any particular plant. There should
+be brooder capacity in this house sufficient to care for approximately
+¼ of the total output for the year at one time.
+
+_Construction of House._ A suitable house which has been in practical
+use for some time consists of one 20 feet wide and running east and west
+with windows in the south or front side. If the location were right such
+a house could be run north and south to good advantage and should then
+have windows on each side so as to let in the sunlight from both
+directions. The front wall of this house is 7 feet high, the back wall 4
+feet. The ridge of the house is about 2 feet in front of the center, the
+front slope of the roof having an eight inch pitch while the back slope
+has a 6 inch pitch. The roof rafters are 2 × 4's placed every two feet.
+The studs and plates are likewise 2 × 4. The walls are made of matched
+material. The roof is constructed of 1 × 2 inch strips placed every 4
+inches and these covered with shingles. Tie beams every 8 feet extend
+from front to rear plates. This particular brooder house is not ceiled
+but a good tight ceiling 8 feet above the walk or runway would make it
+easier to keep the house clean and would also render it somewhat easier
+in cold weather to maintain the temperature desired. The house is built
+on a concrete wall or foundation and a dirt floor is used but the dirt
+must be filled in well above the level of the ground outside so that
+there is no danger of water coming into the house or the floors becoming
+damp or sloppy. Windows are placed in the front wall, one to each pen.
+In every other pen there is a small door in the back of the house to
+facilitate cleaning out the pens. A window can be substituted for this
+door to good advantage as it makes the house lighter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. Interior of No. 1 brooder house showing walk and
+hover combined in the middle of the house and pens on each side.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Heating Apparatus._ Heat is furnished by means of a coal burning stove
+which heats water and causes it to circulate through pipes run the
+length of the house. The heater must always be placed in the windward
+end of the building as otherwise it is hard to get the heat down to the
+other end as the wind tends to drive it back. The hot water pipes are
+carried down the center of the house and the return pipes are located in
+the same place. A low partition is run lengthwise of the house dividing
+the pipes and thus forming double pens, half extending from the center
+to the front and half from the center to the rear of the house. The
+pipes and the partition between them is covered over with boards making
+a 4 foot walk or runway directly over the pipes, which comes into most
+convenient use as a place to convey, by means of a wheelbarrow, feed or
+other material needed in the house, and as a convenient place from which
+to care for the ducklings in the pens on each side. This board covering
+over the pipes also serves to hold the heat and thus forms hovers.
+
+It is advisable to partition off the first third of the house, that is,
+the portion in which the heater is located, with a solid partition. Then
+by having suitable valves in the pipes, the heat can be cut off from
+the rest of the house and only the smaller partitioned off end used as a
+separate and independent section of the brooder. This is especially
+useful when only a small number of ducklings are being hatched early in
+the spring when the weather is cold and it may be difficult to heat the
+whole building properly. It is also economical in fuel under such
+conditions.
+
+If, on the other hand, the number of ducklings hatched during the cold
+weather is so large that all or nearly all of the house capacity is
+needed to care for them, it will usually pay to install an additional
+heater, the pipes from which can be run along the rear wall of the
+building, in order to keep up a proper house temperature when the
+weather is severe.
+
+_Pens._ Having the hovers in the center of the house, makes it possible
+to have double sets of pens, one running from the center to the front
+wall and the other from the center to the rear wall. The pens are
+divided off by means of partitions made of one foot boards. These are
+high enough to confine the ducklings to their own pen and at the same
+time are easy to step over. In a house of this width, 20 feet, with 4
+feet in the center taken up by the double hovers or walk, each pen is 8
+feet long in the clear or 10 feet to the partition under the hover. The
+pens in the first third of the house are made 5 feet wide, in the next
+third 6 feet and in the last third 7 feet wide. When the ducklings are
+first brought from the incubator cellar they are placed in the pens
+nearest the heater as the temperature will run somewhat higher there
+than in the portions of the house more remote from the heater. These 5 ×
+10 foot pens will accommodate 125 baby ducklings although better results
+will be obtained by placing only 100 in a pen if sufficient room is
+available. Some duck growers use boards which can be slipped into slots
+made of cleats nailed to the pen partitions at different distances from
+the hover and which serve to confine the baby ducklings close to the
+hover for the first few days or until they learn to go under the hover
+to get warm.
+
+As additional ducklings are hatched later and brought to the brooder
+house, the ducklings already there are moved along the necessary number
+of pens in order to accommodate the new-comers in the pens nearest the
+heater. For this purpose, a small door is made in each partition next
+the outside wall of the house through which the ducklings can be driven.
+A broom is a handy implement to use in driving the ducklings as they can
+be pushed along in front of it. It is best to drive the ducklings just
+after they have been fed as they are not so nervous and afraid at that
+time.
+
+The increased width of the pens in the second and third portions of the
+house is for the purpose of taking care of the growth of the ducklings
+as they are moved along the house. Pens of the same width as those in
+which they were started become too crowded as the ducklings increase in
+size.
+
+_Equipment of the Pen._ The equipment of the pens is quite simple. Water
+is piped through the house along both walls so that it is available to
+each pen. A spigot is provided in each pen and under this is placed the
+drinking dish, which consists of a round metal pan about a foot in
+diameter and 3 or 4 inches deep. A square pan should never be used as
+the ducklings are apt to get their bills caught in the corners. One
+quarter inch mesh wire netting is bent in a circle and placed in the
+drinking dish as a guard to keep the ducklings from getting into the
+pan. This guard should be made of such size that there is a space
+between the wire and the edge of the dish of about 1½ inches all around.
+This guard should be about 8 inches high. The water pan itself is set
+upon a wire covered frame about 18 inches square under which is dug a
+pit 4 or 5 inches deep to drain away any water which the ducklings slop
+out of the pan. Such an arrangement keeps the pens from becoming sloppy
+and damp.
+
+Each pen must also have a flat metal dish on which to place the feed for
+the little ducks. Metal pans are better than wooden feeding trays as
+they are easier to keep clean.
+
+In each pen is provided a small hopper filled with fine sharp creek sand
+to which the ducklings have access at all times. Some duck growers
+prefer to mix the sand in the feed rather than to provide it in hoppers.
+After the ducklings are allowed to run in the yards, sand need not be
+furnished if the yards are sand as the ducklings will help
+themselves. If the land in the yards is not sand, however, it is
+necessary to continue to furnish this material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. Watering arrangement in the brooder pens for
+young ducklings. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. Another type of No. 1 brooder house. Here the
+hovers are along the back of the house and the work is done from an
+alleyway along the front. The box with handles on top of the hover is
+used in carrying the newly hatched ducklings from the incubator cellar
+to the brooder house. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Grading and Sorting the Ducklings._ As the ducklings are moved from pen
+to pen through this house as well as the other houses, they are
+constantly graded for size and thriftiness, the smaller, less thrifty
+individuals being left with younger lots. Some ducklings do not grow as
+quickly as others, and these if left with ducklings larger than
+themselves will not get their share of the feed and will not do as well.
+In this connection it should be noted that when young ducks are not
+fairly clean it is a good indication that they are not doing as well as
+they should.
+
+_Cleaning and Bedding the Pens._ Careful attention must be given to
+keeping the pens and the ducklings themselves clean if they are to do
+well. Therefore the pens must be cleaned out as often as may be
+necessary to accomplish this purpose. The judgment of the brooder man
+must decide how often this is necessary but it will be at least once a
+week. When cleaning the pens the old bedding is thrown out from the
+front pens through the windows and from the back pens through the door
+provided in the rear wall for this purpose. Bedding the pens must be
+done more frequently, usually about every other day. Fresh bedding will
+help to absorb the droppings and will keep the pens from becoming sloppy
+or sticky. For bedding, straw, meadow hay, swale hay or any other
+suitable material available should be utilized.
+
+_Ventilation._ Plenty of ventilation is required in the brooder house in
+order to take out the ammonia odor which arises from the droppings.
+Properly managed, the doors and windows provide sufficient means of
+ventilation but some duck growers prefer to have roof ventilators in
+addition.
+
+_Other Types of Brooder Houses._ Many other types of brooder houses are
+used, some of them being shed roof construction and many of them being
+built narrower than this house, that is to say, 14, 16 or 18 feet wide
+with an alleyway along the front or rear side of the house from which
+the work is done. The hovers are placed at the back of the pens when the
+alley-way is in the front, otherwise, they are placed next to the
+alley-way. The disadvantages of these houses are that only single pens
+are provided and that valuable brooding space is used up by the
+alley-way. The advantages of the house described above lie in the fact
+that the hovers are in the center of the house with the pens on each
+side of this, thus doubling the capacity, and that by making use of a
+walk over the hover pipe no room is wasted in an alley-way. Having pens
+on each side also lessens the labor of taking care of the ducklings to
+some extent as the arrangement is more compact.
+
+
+Length of Time in Brooder
+
+_In House No. 1._ As a rule the ducklings are kept in the No. 1 house
+until they are from 2 to 3 weeks old, this of course depending somewhat
+upon the time of year and the weather and also upon the number of
+ducklings for which accommodations must be provided at any particular
+time. As the ducks are moved down through the house and eventually reach
+the last pens they are taken from this house and placed in brooder house
+No. 2.
+
+_Brooder House No. 2._ This is a heated house like brooder house No. 1
+but in which it is not necessary to maintain so high a temperature.
+Sufficient heating apparatus should be installed to make it possible to
+maintain the temperature at 60 degrees if this becomes necessary in the
+early spring.
+
+The particular brooder house described is 14 feet wide and has a shed
+roof. It is provided with a window in the front of each pen. No openings
+are required along the back since this is not a double pen house. The
+space in such a house could undoubtedly be used to better advantage if
+it were constructed as wide as the No. 1 house and the hot water pipes
+and walk put through the middle of the house so as to provide double
+pens. In this house the hot water pipes are run along the rear of the
+pens, and while hovers are not really necessary, a walk is constructed
+over the pipes in order to save space and provide a convenient place
+from which to do the work, and this forms hovers.
+
+Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is needed in the No. 2 house. The pens in
+this house are 12 feet wide and they are equipped with feeding and
+watering arrangements as in brooder house No. 1. As the ducklings are
+moved to this house from the No. 1 house from 150 to 200 are placed in
+each pen. They are moved through the house from pen to pen in the same
+manner as in the No. 1 house to make way for new arrivals. As a rule
+they stay in this house about two weeks depending somewhat on the
+weather and upon the number of ducklings being brooded. Yards are used
+in connection with this house which are the same width as the pens and
+50 feet in length. As in the No. 1 house the pens in this house should
+be cleaned at least once a week and they should be bedded with straw or
+other bedding material every other day. As soon as the ducks have been
+moved through this No. 2 house they are put in brooder house No. 3.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. Brooder house No. 2 and yards. The trees furnish
+fine shade for the growing ducklings. (_Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+Brooder House No. 3
+
+This is a shed roof house 16 feet wide equipped with single pens. No
+heat is required in this house. Yards of the same width as the pens and
+50 feet deep are used. Usually the ducks are fed outside the house from
+a wagon driven along a roadway just in front of the yards.
+
+The pens are 16 feet wide and the same number of ducks is used in them
+as in the No. 2 house. As a rule the ducks stay in this house about 2
+weeks and are then moved to the duck pens or shelters with the larger
+yards which may or may not have water. From this point on the ducks are
+termed yard ducks.
+
+In all three of the brooder houses the young ducks are supplied with
+their drinking water from pipes through the houses. They are not given
+access to water until they are moved to the yards.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. Brooder house No. 3. At the time this picture
+was taken there were no ducklings in the house and advantage was taken
+of this fact to give it a good cleaning by throwing out the bedding and
+droppings, which will be hauled away and spread on cropped land.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. Long brooder house and yards with feeding track.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. Upper--Pekin ducklings 3 days old. Lower--Pekin
+ducklings 2 weeks old. Duck egg used for size comparison. (_Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. Upper--Pekin ducklings 3 weeks old. Lower--Pekin
+ducklings 6 weeks old. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. Interior of a cold brooder house. The low
+partitions can easily be stepped over. (_Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Yard Accommodations for Ducklings
+
+As the ducklings get to be 8 weeks old they can stand ordinary weather
+conditions and it is not absolutely necessary to have houses for them.
+However, it is common and good practice to provide shelter where they
+can be housed at night and can take refuge from storms. A suitable house
+for this purpose consists of a building 16 × 24 feet divided into two
+parts with 200 ducklings to a side. This house is 5 feet high in front
+and 3½ feet in back. It is set on posts with a baseboard around it to
+make it tight. It can be constructed of matched stuff or unmatched stuff
+covered with paper. The front is left open but curtains are placed on
+the front which can be used to close the openings so as to keep out the
+snow. These are used only in the winter. When the ducklings are first
+started in these sheds they are shut in when desired by means of wire
+panels fitted into the lower part of the open front. The ducklings are
+left in these yards and fed there until they are ready for market.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. Eat, drink and grow fat for tomorrow they die.
+Fattening or yard ducks with fattening house or shelter used.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Shade._ Shade is important for the ducklings as soon as the sun gets
+hot. Exposure to the sun without shade will cause quite a heavy loss in
+ducklings. If natural shade is not furnished by trees, some artificial
+means must be adopted to supply the shade. This may take the form of
+shelters or low frames covered with boards, brush or burlap.
+
+_Feeding._ The first feed and water is given as soon as the ducks are
+placed in the No. 1 brooder house or when 24 to 36 hours old. They are
+fed 3 times a day, in the morning about 6 a. m., at noon, and at night
+about 4:30 or 5 o'clock. The time of feeding should be regular, and
+fairly early in the morning but not any earlier in the afternoon than
+one can help so that the time between the evening and the morning feed
+will not be too long. Some growers prefer to feed 4 or 5 times daily for
+the first week or two. The birds are fed as much as they will clean up
+at each feeding and if any feed is left it should be gathered up so that
+it will not sour and cause digestive troubles.
+
+The first feed consists of the following:--One measure corn meal, one
+measure bran, one measure ground crackers, stale bread or shredded wheat
+waste, one measure in 10 of beef scrap or fish, one measure in 6 of
+creek grass or other very fine green stuff. Green rye or oats should
+never be used for this purpose after it becomes jointed. If the feed is
+mixed up with cold water about ½ measure of low-grade wheat flour should
+be used to cause it to stick together. If hot water is used in the
+mixing this is not needed.
+
+Sand must be fed either by mixing it in to the extent of about 3% of the
+ration or the sand can be fed separately in hoppers as previously
+described. This same mixture may be fed in the No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3
+brooder houses, or in other words, until ducklings go to the yards, or
+ration No. 2 given below may be substituted either at the start or after
+a week or ten days. After the ducklings go to the yards the following
+fattening ration is used: 200 pounds corn meal, 100 pounds low-grade
+flour, 100 pounds bran, 1 part in 10 of beef scrap and 2 tubs or bushels
+of green stuff. Some duck growers prefer to feed 300 pounds of corn meal
+instead of 200 pounds. This ration like the other is fed 3 times a day.
+Of course, there are many different rations in use with good results,
+every grower having more or less personal preferences in this matter. A
+proper proportion of animal feed, consisting of beef scrap or fish is
+very important as the ducklings will not grow and make normal gains if
+this is omitted or reduced in amount.
+
+Much has been written about the feeding of celery seed to fattening
+ducklings for the purpose of improving the flavor of the flesh and
+formerly ducklings were advertised and sold as "celery-fed". As a matter
+of fact, the amount of celery seed fed was small and it is questionable
+how much influence it had on the flavor of the birds. At the present
+time, celery seed is not used in fattening the ducklings on most of the
+large duck farms of Long Island.
+
+A comparison of gains made by ducklings on two different rations is
+shown in the following table. Ration No. 1 consists of the fattening
+ration given above. Ration No. 2 consists of 100 pounds bran, 100 pounds
+corn meal, 50 pounds rolled oats, 50 pounds gluten feed, 10% beef scrap.
+The ducks used were three days old at the first weighing and there were
+27 in each lot. After the second weighing the number in each lot was
+reduced to 24 ducks.
+
+                    Feed No. 1                    Feed No. 2
+              Total Weight  Average Weight  Total Weight  Average Wt
+August 14         4¾ lbs.        0.176         4¾    lbs.    0.176
+August 21        10   "          0.37          9½     "      0.352
+August 28        16½  "          0.687        17½     "      0.729
+September 5      25   "          1.041        27      "      1.125
+September 13     44½  "          1.854        48½     "      2.02
+September 19     50   "          2.083        56½     "      2.354
+September 27     64   "          2.666        67      "      2.62
+October 4        78½  "          3.27         82½     "      3.437
+October 11       99½  "          4.145       103½     "      4.312
+October 18      115½  "          4.812       119      "      4.958
+October 25      126   "          5.25        135      "      5.62
+
+_Lights for Ducklings._ Often when the ducks are about one-third grown
+or about 4 weeks old they will stampede at night at any unusual noise or
+any other disturbance. In doing this, especially when they are in fairly
+large lots, they surge back and forth in the pens, running over one
+another with the result that their backs are torn and scratched while
+not infrequently more serious injuries result and may cause cripples.
+To keep them quiet it is common to use lights at night. Formerly
+lanterns were used but now on most duck plants electric lights are
+available for this purpose. For a house 140 feet long, six 15-watt
+lights scattered at equal intervals will be sufficient, and these can be
+used in like proportion for houses of other lengths. The lights are left
+on all night. Even when the ducks are half grown and may be out on the
+yards it is still necessary to use lights on stormy nights so that they
+will stay in and keep quiet and not get drowned in the rain. With a 16 ×
+24 foot house such as described previously, a single 25 watt light is
+sufficient. Ducklings are especially likely to be stampeded during
+thunderstorms and if a storm is coming up it is well to turn on the
+lights and to shut the ducklings in their shelters when they are first
+placed in the yards. One should not carry a lantern when moving among
+the ducklings at night as this will cause moving shadows which are very
+likely to frighten and stampede the birds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. Another type of duck shed used on Long Island.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. Convenient feeding arrangements. At the right of
+the feeding track runs a water pipe with spigots and pans at frequent
+intervals. At the left are the feeding trays. (_Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Pounds of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck._ It is stated by long
+established duck growers that from 5 to 7 pounds of feed is required,
+this including the feed given to the breeding ducks for the season, to
+produce a pound of market duck.
+
+_Water for Young Ducks._ Drinking water is provided to the ducklings
+while in the brooder houses by means of a piped supply. The drinking
+pans are filled at each feeding time but at no other time. Water is not
+left before them continuously while they are in the brooder houses as
+they would be working in it all the time and this would keep them dirty
+and make the house sloppy. After they are put out on the yards they may
+or may not be provided with water in which they can swim. Most duck
+growers on Long Island allow them to have access to water. While it is
+undoubtedly true that swimming in the water induces them to take more
+exercise and thus tends to reduce somewhat the rapidity of fattening, at
+the same time it lessens the labor very materially as they do not need
+to be provided with a supply of drinking water other than the water in
+which they swim. Ducklings can be grown very successfully with only a
+limited amount of water, that is, only enough to drink and in which to
+wash themselves.
+
+_Age and Weight When Ready for Market._ Ducklings are usually marketed
+when they are 10 to 12 weeks old. A partial moult on the neck and breast
+occurs about this time giving them a somewhat rough look. This indicates
+that they are in proper condition to kill. If killing is not done within
+a week after this moult starts they will begin to lose flesh and it will
+be some time before they will fatten again. Ducks when ready to ship
+will average from 5 to 6 pounds. A majority will weigh nearer 5 than 6
+pounds. A pen of fattened ducks is driven up to the killing house and
+into a pen where each one is caught up and examined to see if it is in
+good condition. If the duck has a good smooth breast so that the
+breastbone is not felt when handled and is well fleshed on the back it
+is ready to kill. If it is not in this condition it is thrown out and
+these thin ducks are returned to the yards for further fattening or are
+utilized for shipping alive. Thin ducks are generally used for live
+shipments as they will not shrink as much as well fattened ducks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. An important part of rations for ducks. Green
+feed ready to be cut up into short lengths suitable for mixing in the
+feed. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. Feeding fattening or yard ducks from the feeding
+track. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Cripples._ There will always be found in the flocks more or less
+crippled ducks and those with crooked backs, twisted wings, etc. As a
+rule ducks with twisted wings fatten well and are in good condition and
+can be killed about as soon as any of the others. The crippled ducks are
+sorted out into a lot by themselves where they are held until they can
+be put into condition to market. It is doubtful whether it pays the duck
+growers to bother with these ducks since they are rather difficult to
+condition and it would probably pay better to kill them. However, it is
+quite common practice to carry them until they can be marketed.
+
+_Cleaning the Yards._ The yards must be cleaned whenever they need it.
+It is a matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary but they
+must be cleaned whenever they get sticky or sloppy. The weather will
+have a considerable influence upon the frequency of cleaning which may
+be necessary once in two weeks, or in the yards of brooder houses Nos. 2
+and 3 may run as often as once a week. In dry weather the yards are
+cleaned by sweeping up the droppings and carting them away. In wet
+weather the ducks in running about over the yard pack down the droppings
+until they form a sort of putty-like layer which has to be scraped off
+with a hoe.
+
+_Critical Period with Young Ducks._ The critical period with young ducks
+is the first week of their existence. With good management after they
+have passed this point not many are lost. The loss in young ducks from
+the time they are hatched until they are ready for market will range all
+the way from 5 to 30%. When the loss does not average more than 10% for
+the season this is considered good. Undoubtedly many duck raisers lose a
+greater percent than 10.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37. Yard ducks at rest. (_Photograph from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry. U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38. On this plant, the lay of the land was such that
+not all of the yards could be run down to the stream. So a shallow canal
+was dug from the stream through the yards which were without natural
+water frontage. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+Disease Prevention
+
+Trouble from disease in young ducks is not severe although there is a
+greater loss from this source than in the case of mature ducks. The aim
+of the grower should be to use such methods of management and feeding as
+will keep the ducklings in good health and reduce the losses to a
+minimum. To accomplish this care must be taken to see that the brooding
+temperatures are correct, that the feed used contains what the ducklings
+need, that they are not overfed and that the house and yards are clean
+and dry and the feed and water dishes are clean. Remember that green
+feed and animal feed are essential ingredients in the ration.
+
+_Gapes or Pneumonia._ One of the principal troubles is a disease which
+is called "pneumonia" by some duck raisers and by others "gapes". It is
+not the same disease which is called gapes in chickens. In fact, it is a
+form of cold which approaches pneumonia. The little ducks stretch their
+necks up and breathe hard and usually die within a comparatively short
+time. This disease may affect either the baby ducks or ducks which are
+old enough to kill. All that can be done is to make sure that the
+housing and brooding conditions are such as to correct the trouble which
+causes the colds.
+
+_Fits._ In addition, the little ducks for the first 3 or 4 days may be
+more or less subject to a disease which is called "fits" by some duck
+growers. With this disease they simply keel over and soon die. It is
+probably a digestive difficulty of some sort. The feeding of plenty of
+green stuff or the turning of the ducks out on grass will usually stop
+this trouble.
+
+_Diarrhoea._ This is a fairly common trouble. It may be due to improper
+feeding, or to too high or low temperature in the brooder. The obvious
+treatment is to remedy the cause or causes of the trouble.
+
+_Lameness._ Not infrequently growers, particularly beginners, experience
+difficulty from a fairly large proportion of their ducklings becoming
+lame. This may grow worse until a considerable number of the birds will
+die. This trouble may be due to a lack of animal matter and mineral
+matter in the ration or may be due to digestive troubles caused by poor
+rations, by over feeding, by failing to gather up feed not eaten by the
+ducklings and leaving it to sour, or by lack of cleanliness of the feed
+and water dishes. Where the pens are allowed to become damp and sloppy
+this may also cause some lameness.
+
+_Sore Eyes._ Occasionally duck growers complain that their ducklings
+suffer from sore eyes. This may be due to a cold causing a discharge
+from the eyes or may be due to the use of too sloppy feed which adheres
+to the eyes and causes an irritation. Affected birds should be placed in
+a separate pen from the others and the eyes should be bathed with an
+antiseptic solution.
+
+_Feather Eating or "Quilling"._ This is a bad habit which is apt to
+cause more or less trouble when the ducklings are about two-thirds
+grown. It is much more likely to occur when the birds are kept in
+cramped quarters. It is usually started by one or a few individuals but
+when the feathers are injured so that they begin to bleed, which they
+will very quickly do, the vice will spread among the whole flock and
+serious damage will occur. It is therefore necessary to be on the
+lookout for this trouble, and as soon as detected, the birds responsible
+should be removed. If the culprits are placed with older birds which are
+already feathered, they will not trouble by trying to eat the feathers.
+It is the blood in the growing feathers which attracts them. If the
+habit has become general, it is more difficult to check. About the best
+thing that can be done, is to turn them out in a roomy yard, one with a
+growing green crop, if available, where they will be so busy as to stop
+the feather eating of their own accord.
+
+_Rats._--Rats are very destructive if they get into the brooder house. A
+single rat has been known to kill and drag off as many as 200 ducklings
+in one night. If a rat gets into the brooder house it is therefore of
+the utmost importance that it be hunted down and killed without delay.
+Otherwise serious losses will result.
+
+
+Cooperative Feed Association
+
+A very large proportion of the feed used on a duck plant is that which
+is fed to the market ducks. By purchasing feed in considerable
+quantities the duck grower is able to cut down the cost to some extent.
+A number of the duck raisers on Long Island have developed this idea
+further by forming a cooperative feed organization. Stock in this
+concern is held both by the duck growers and by outsiders but is
+controlled by the duck growers. The feed association maintains a feed
+warehouse, purchases feeds in quantity and does business both with the
+duck growers and with other persons in the market for feed. The
+existence of a cooperative feed purchasing association of this sort not
+only cuts down to some extent the cost of feed but likewise makes it
+possible for the duck growers to have greater assurance of securing the
+supply which is so necessary to them during the growing season.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Marketing
+
+
+On commercial duck farms, the business consists mainly of producing
+large quickly grown ducklings which are marketed before they are mature.
+Because of this immaturity, the ducks are quite commonly termed green
+ducks. The business has also become so highly specialized on Long Island
+and this is such a center of the industry, that the birds are commonly
+quoted on the New York market as Long Island ducklings.
+
+_Proper Age to Market._ It is important that the ducklings be marketed
+as soon as they have reached the proper age and stage of development.
+When the ducklings are about 10 to 12 weeks old they begin to shed their
+first growth of feathers. This is apparent first on the neck and breast,
+giving them somewhat of a rough appearance. The ducklings must be
+marketed within one week after they begin this moult. If they are
+allowed to go longer than this they will begin to get thin and as it
+will take them 6 weeks or more to grow a new crop of feathers it will be
+a considerable period before they get back in market condition again and
+any additional weight which they may attain will not be sufficient to
+pay for the feed eaten during this period.
+
+_Weights at the Time of Marketing._ Well grown ducklings should average
+in weight from 5 to 6 pounds at 10 to 12 weeks of age when they are
+ready to be marketed. A majority of the ducks will weigh closer to 5
+pounds than they will to 6. The vast majority of ducklings are marketed
+at this age as it does not pay to keep them past the time they reach
+prime market condition. On commercial duck farms practically the only
+ducks which are marketed at an older age than this are the breeders
+which are turned off at the end of the laying season and the ducklings
+which by reason of their being crippled or less thrifty are not in
+suitable market condition at this time and are held longer until they
+are in good condition. The ducklings are marketed from early spring
+until late fall. The time at which ducklings are first available for
+market in any quantity depends upon the earliness with which the
+breeders begin to lay and the end of the season depends upon how late
+the breeders continue to lay at a profitable rate.
+
+_The Last Feed for Market Ducks._ It is important in order to have the
+dressed ducklings appear to the best advantage and also in order to
+insure their keeping qualities as much as possible that they should have
+no feed in their crops when they are killed. This means that if they are
+to be killed in the morning, which is the usual practice, they should be
+fed for the last time the previous night. If, however, they are not to
+be killed until afternoon they can be fed lightly in the morning.
+
+_Sorting Market Ducklings._ When a pen of ducklings which are being
+fattened are deemed ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing
+house and a few of them at a time driven into a small pen where it is
+easy to catch and examine them. Each duck as it is caught is examined to
+make sure that it is in proper market condition. The examination
+consists of feeling of the duck's body to see that it has a good smooth
+breast so that the breast bone cannot be readily felt. If it is in that
+condition it is ready to kill. Ducks which do not show this condition
+are thrown out and returned to the yards where they are fed for a longer
+period unless it is desired to ship them alive.
+
+At the proper season of the year when breeders for the next season are
+to be selected, suitable birds for that purpose are picked out from the
+market lots as they are examined. In any lot of ducks there will be
+found some cripples. It is common practice to sort these out and group
+them together in a pen by themselves where they are held until they are
+in suitable condition for marketing. It is doubtful whether it pays to
+hold these cripples as they are hard to get in good condition and in
+many cases are probably kept and fed at a loss. Some ducklings will show
+twisted wings but as a rule they are thrifty and will fatten readily and
+be in good market condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. Awaiting slaughter. The fattened ducklings are
+driven into these catching pens. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. Carrying the ducklings from the catching pen to
+the killing place. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U.
+S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Killing._ As the ducklings suitable for killing are selected, 10 or 12
+of them, depending upon the capacity of the killing room, are hung up by
+their feet, the head being fastened down by means of a hook or else
+weighted down by means of a blood can hung from a hook inserted through
+the bill. By means of a long, narrow bladed sharp knife the veins in the
+throat just beyond the skull are severed so as to cause free bleeding.
+The blood flows either into the blood can or into a trough above which
+the birds are hung. The birds are not stuck or brained unless it is
+desired to dry pick them nor are they as a rule stunned by hitting them
+on the head before bleeding. In some states, however, the law requires
+that all birds bled shall first be stunned in this manner. The bleeding
+of the ducks causes their death and they are allowed to hang until they
+are thoroughly bled out. They are then taken down, the blood washed off
+of their heads and placed on a table or on the floor convenient to the
+pickers, other ducks being hung in their places.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. The ducks are hung by the feet and the veins in
+the neck cut from inside the mouth to cause free bleeding. (_Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42. After the throat veins are cut, the ducks are
+allowed to hang until they are well bled out. The blood is caught in the
+trough below. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43. Ducks which have been bled, ready to have the
+blood washed from their heads and mouths before they are picked.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44. After they are bled and washed, the ducks are
+laid in the picking room ready for the pickers. (_Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Scalding._ The picker selects a duck from the table where they are
+placed after being taken down and carries it to a large kettle of water
+which is maintained at a temperature just below boiling. They are
+thoroughly soused in this water holding them by the head and feet so as
+to allow the water to penetrate into the feathers until they can be
+readily plucked. The picker tests the readiness with which the feathers
+come out by plucking a few from the breast or body and thus determines
+whether the scalding is sufficient or whether more is required. Care is
+taken not to dip the feet or head in the water as this might discolor
+these parts. Practically all market ducks from Long Island are scald
+picked at the present time. Dry picking which is demanded in some
+markets such as Boston makes a somewhat better looking carcass and also
+increases the value of the feathers, but is generally considered too
+slow and too highly skilled a process for use on the average duck farm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45. Holding the head in one hand and the feet in the
+other, the picker dips the duck in water heated nearly to the boiling
+point and souses well to work the water into the feathers until they
+pluck easily. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Picking._. After scalding the picker starts removing the feathers. In
+doing this the duck is held either on the lap or on a board nailed to
+the side of the feather box. The feathers on the breast are picked
+first, then working down toward the tail, pulling the feathers with the
+grain. The soft body feathers as plucked are thrown into the feather
+box, the coarser feathers being thrown on the floor. The main wing and
+tail feathers are left on as are likewise some of the feathers of the
+neck next the head.
+
+The most troublesome part of picking ducks is removing the down. This
+may be removed to some extent by rubbing with the hand although care
+must be taken not to bruise the skin severely. In some cases the down is
+shaved off with a sharp knife. In some of the commercial packing houses
+the duck's body is sprinkled with powdered rosin and then dipped into
+the hot water. This melts the rosin so that the down and rosin can be
+rubbed off easily with the hand leaving the body clean. Pin feathers
+are usually removed by grasping them between the thumb and a dull knife.
+
+In some packing houses, ducks are steamed before picking. Where this is
+done they are picked clean and the wing and tail feathers are pulled
+before steaming takes place. Six or eight ducks which have been bled are
+hung at the same time in the top of a steam box or barrel which can be
+made air-tight and the steam turned on until the soft feathers of the
+breast come off easily. The length of time to steam depends on the
+temperature of the steam itself and varies from one-half to 2 minutes.
+In some cases the ducks are hung in a steam box with the heads outside
+so as to prevent the steam from coming into contact with the heads,
+possibly discoloring them.
+
+On Long Island women are used very largely for picking and they secure
+for this service 6 cents per duck. A good picker should do 75 ducks or
+even more a day. The value of the feathers will slightly more than pay
+for the cost of picking.
+
+Picking usually begins early in the morning about 6 o'clock and is
+generally finished by noon or soon after. Most duck raisers figure on
+doing their killing and picking during the first half of the week and do
+not like to kill if they can help it during the latter days of the week.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46. Picking the ducks. (_Photograph from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Dry Picking._ Where the market requires it, the ducks must be dry
+picked. In doing this the procedure is the same as in dry picking
+chickens. After the cut is made to bleed the ducks, the point of the
+knife is plunged through the roof of the mouth until it reaches the
+brain when it is turned to cause a paralysis of the muscles which
+enables the feathers to be plucked more easily. The duck is then struck
+on the back of the head with a club to stun it and make it easier to
+handle when picking. The picker seats himself by the feather box, with
+the duck on his lap, holding the head pressed against the outside of the
+box and held there by the picker's leg. He then proceeds immediately and
+as quickly as possible to pluck the feathers. It is necessary to
+accomplish this without delay, for the feathers soon set and are then
+much harder to pluck and are more likely to result in tears in the skin.
+When removing the down, the hand is moistened when much of the down can
+be rubbed off. Pin feathers are removed by grasping them between the
+thumb and the edge of a dull knife and any which cannot be gotten in
+this way are shaved off with a sharp knife. After picking, the carcasses
+are cooled in cold water the same as the scalded birds.
+
+_Cooling._ After the birds are plucked they are thrown into cold water
+and are left there for several hours or until the body heat is entirely
+removed. It is most important that this be thoroughly accomplished for
+if any body heat is left in the carcasses they are almost sure to become
+green-struck when packed. The length of time that they must be left
+in the water depends upon the weather conditions. If the weather is warm
+so that the water is not very cool it is necessary to add ice in order
+to hasten the cooling and to accomplish it thoroughly. Cooling in water
+also serves to plump the carcasses somewhat.
+
+_Packing._ After the ducks are thoroughly cooled they are removed from
+the water and packed. Long Island ducklings are usually packed in
+barrels. Forty-five ducks will pack in a sugar barrel and 33 in a flour
+barrel. The proper number for the barrel used is placed on hanging
+spring scales and weighed before being packed. The best method of
+packing is to lay the ducks on their sides. If they are packed on their
+backs or bellies, the ice used between the layers is apt to cause a
+cutting or bruising of the soft abdomens and injure the appearance of
+the carcasses. Between each layer of ducks a scoopful of cracked ice is
+used although in cool weather it may only be necessary to use half a
+scoop of ice. After the barrel is packed it should be allowed to stand
+for a while to settle. Then the top of the barrel is piled up with
+cracked ice and covered with burlap. On the side of the barrel is marked
+the number of ducks and their weight. Later a card is tacked alongside
+of this showing the consignee's and the shipper's names as well as the
+number of ducks and their weight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. Dressed duckling. The main feathers of the tail
+and wings and the feathers of the neck part of the way from the head to
+the body are left on. The rest of the body is picked clean. (_Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. After thorough cooling a sufficient number of
+ducks to fill a barrel is weighed out and packed with or without ice
+depending upon the weather. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Shipping._ The barrels should be packed and shipped the same evening.
+Shipping may be done either by express or by automobile truck. A good
+many of the Long Island ducklings are now shipped into New York City by
+truck.
+
+_Cooperative Marketing Association._ The duck growers on Long Island
+have formed a cooperative marketing association. This association
+maintains its own house in New York City and sells practically the
+entire output of Long Island ducklings, controlling probably 90%. During
+the year 1919 there were in the neighborhood of 800,000 head of ducks
+marketed through this house. Practically all of the capital stock of
+this concern is held by the duck growers and they are not allowed to
+sell any of their stock without first offering it to the association.
+
+_Prices for Ducks._ Early in the season the ducklings bring the best
+prices, that is to say from March 1 to May 1. Then as the output of
+ducks increases prices gradually drop. The heaviest shipments occur in
+June, July and August. In September as the output of ducks begins to
+drop off the price begins to climb a little. The following prices as
+quoted in the New York Produce Review show the range from March, 1920,
+to June, 1921.
+
+
+Long Island Ducklings--Fresh Dressed
+
+
+1920
+
+March 31            45c per lb.
+April 21            45c  "   "
+  "   28            38c  "   "
+May 5               35c  "   "
+ " 12               35c  "   "
+ " 26               35c  "   "
+June 2              35c  "   "
+ "   9              35c  "   "
+ "   16             35c  "   "
+ "   23             35c  "   "
+ "   30             35c  "   "
+July 7              35c  "   "
+ "   14             35c  "   "
+ "   21             35c  "   "
+ "   28             35c  "   "
+August 4            36c  "   "
+  "    11           36c  "   "
+  "    18           36c  "   "
+  "    25           36c  "   "
+September 1         36c  "   "
+    "     8         37c  "   "
+    "     15        37c  "   "
+    "     22        38c  "   "
+    "     29        38c  "   "
+October 6           38c  "   "
+   "    13          38c  "   "
+   "    20          39c  "   "
+   "    27          39c  "   "
+November 3          40c  "   "
+
+
+1921
+
+March 30            48c per  lb.
+April 6             46c  "   "
+  "   13            38c  "   "
+  "   20            38c  "   "
+  "   27            38c  "   "
+May 4               35c  "   "
+ " 11               32c  "   "
+ " 18               28c  "   "
+ " 25               28c  "   "
+June 1              28c  "   "
+
+The following quotations from the same source give the prices for frozen
+Long Island ducklings.
+
+
+1920
+
+January 7           41c per  lb.
+   "    14          41c  "   "
+   "    21          41c  "   "
+   "    28          41c  "   "
+February 4          41c  "   "
+    "    11         41c  "   "
+    "    18         41c  "   "
+    "    25         41c  "   "
+March 3             41c  "   "
+  "   10            41c  "   "
+  "   17            41c  "   "
+November 10         40c  "   "
+    "    17         40c  "   "
+    "    24         40c  "   "
+December 1          40c  "   "
+    "    8          40c  "   "
+    "    8          40c  "   "
+    "    15         40c  "   "
+    "    22         40c  "   "
+    "    29         40c  "   "
+
+
+1921
+
+January 5           40c per lb.
+   "    12          40c  "   "
+   "    19          40c  "   "
+   "    26          40c  "   "
+February 2          41c  "   "
+   "     9          41c  "   "
+   "     16         41c  "   "
+   "     23         41c  "   "
+March 2             41c  "   "
+   "  9             41c  "   "
+   "  16            41c  "   "
+   "  23            41c  "   "
+
+Quotations from the same source are given below to give some idea of the
+range in price of the live Long Island spring ducklings and likewise of
+live old Long Island ducks or breeders.
+
+
+Long Island Spring Ducklings--Live.
+
+
+1920
+
+March 3             50c per lb.
+  "   24            50c  "   "
+  "   31            55c  "   "
+May 5               40c  "   "
+ "  12              40c  "   "
+ "  19              36 @ 40c per lb.
+ "  26              40 @ 41c  "   "
+June 2              40c per lb.
+ "   9              36 @ 38c per lb.
+ "   16             36c per lb.
+ "   23             37c  "   "
+ "   30             38c  "   "
+July 7              38c  "   "
+ "   14             38c  "   "
+ "   21             40c  "   "
+ "   28             40c  "   "
+August 4            38c  "   "
+   "   11           34 @ 36c per lb.
+   "   18           38c per lb.
+   "   25           38c  "   "
+September 1         40c  "   "
+    "     8         42 @ 45c per lb.
+    "     15        45c per lb.
+    "     22        45c  "   "
+    "     29        40c  "   "
+October 6           42c  "   "
+   "    13          42c  "   "
+   "    27          42c  "   "
+November 3          42c  "   "
+    "    10         42c  "   "
+    "    17         44c  "   "
+    "    24         44c  "   "
+December 1          44c  "   "
+"        15         42 @ 46c per lb.
+
+
+1921
+
+March 2             55c  "   "
+  "   9             55c  "   "
+  "   16            52c  "   "
+  "   23            50c  "   "
+  "   30            55c  "   "
+April 6             50c  "   "
+  "   13            40c  "   "
+  "   20            45c  "   "
+  "   27            38 @ 42c per lb.
+May 4               38c  per lb.
+"   11              38c  "   "
+"   18              33c  "   "
+"   25              33c  "   "
+June 1              32c  "   "
+
+
+Long Island Old Ducks or Breeders--Live
+
+
+1920
+
+March 17            45c per lb.
+  "   31            45c  "   "
+May 19              30c  "   "
+"   26              35c  "   "
+June 9              30 @ 32c per lb.
+  "  16             32c per lb.
+  "  23             32c  "   "
+  "  30             35c  "   "
+July 7              35c  "   "
+  "  14             35c  "   "
+  "  28             30c  "   "
+August 4            35c  "   "
+April 6             42c  "   "
+  "   13            36c  "   "
+  "   20            39c  "   "
+  "   27            33 @ 37c per lb.
+May   11            33c per lb.
+  "   25            30c  "   "
+
+_Shipping Ducks Alive_. While the great majority of ducks are shipped
+dressed there is some shipment of live ducks. This is particularly true
+during the Jewish holidays in March and in September and October when
+the demand for live ducks and the price paid for them is excellent. As a
+rule it pays better to ship alive the ducks which are inclined to be a
+little thin rather than to ship those which are in top market condition.
+This is due to the fact that fat ducks will shrink very considerably
+when cooped and shipped alive, this shrinkage running from one-half to
+three-quarters of a pound per head where they are cooped not to exceed
+12 to 15 hours. The ducks which are in the fattest condition will shrink
+the most. At the season of the year when live ducks are in best demand
+it often pays to ship alive the ducklings which are sorted out as not
+being in the best condition rather than to hold them for further
+fattening.
+
+_Saving the Feathers._ The feathers from the ducks form quite an
+important source of revenue to the duck farmers. As stated before the
+value of the feathers will a little more than pay for the cost of
+picking and since this is a considerable item of expense the grower
+cannot afford to neglect the feathers. The soft body feathers are kept
+separate from the coarser feathers, the latter being thrown on the floor
+as they are plucked. These coarser feathers are later swept up and are
+commonly spoken of as sweepings. Feathers from dry-picked ducks are
+superior in quality and bring a better price but most of the duck
+feathers now marketed from commercial duck farms are scalded feathers.
+The feathers after each day's killing are gathered up and spread out in
+a loft where they can be placed in a layer not over 3 or 4 inches deep.
+This should be an airy place so as to give the feathers a good place to
+dry out. On the second day they are scraped up in a pile and then spread
+out again, thus turning them over and changing their position. They are
+then left until they are dry enough to sack which should be in a little
+over a week. Unless the feathers are thoroughly dried out they will heat
+when sacked and this will seriously hurt their market quality. When dry
+they are packed either in the large special feather sacks made for this
+purpose or in smaller sacks, about as big as two bran sacks, which will
+hold from 60 to 80 pounds of feathers. The feathers are shipped to
+regular feather dealers or manufacturers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49. A valuable by-product of duck plants. The
+feathers from a duck will pay for the cost of picking. (_Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Prices and Uses of Duck Feathers._ The soft body feathers and the
+coarser feathers often called "sweepings" should be kept and sold
+separate. While scalded feathers are not worth as much as dry picked
+feathers, the former if properly dried out or cured will find a ready
+sale. Feathers packed before they are thoroughly dried out, are likely
+to arrive at their destination in a matted and musty or heated
+condition. This, of course, injures their quality and the price paid for
+them is discounted according to their condition.
+
+The soft body feathers of ducks are used almost entirely for bedding
+purposes, that is, are put in pillows and feather beds. White feathers
+are preferred and usually bring a somewhat higher price.
+
+The prices paid for the feathers vary quite widely at different times of
+the year, and in different sections of the country, and also of course
+with the condition of the feathers themselves. The quotations given
+below represent the prices paid in June, 1921.
+
+Duck Feathers               Cents     Per Pound
+Pure white, dry picked      50         "    "
+Stained and scalded white   40         "    "
+Dark or mixed, dry picked   33         "    "
+Dark or mixed, scalded      20 to 25   "    "
+
+_Marketing Eggs._ On commercial duck farms very few eggs are marketed.
+This is due to the fact that the duck growers find it more profitable to
+incubate all eggs suitable for that purpose and to rear and market the
+ducklings rather than to sell the eggs. There are always, however, a
+certain number of cracked eggs and others which may be too large or too
+small to use for hatching and which are therefore marketed. In addition
+the infertile eggs tested out on the 5th day are sold. The eggs may be
+packed in ordinary 30 dozen egg cases such as are used for hens' eggs,
+utilizing a special filler 5 cells square. With these fillers a case
+holds 20 5-6 dozen duck eggs. A special duck case, holding 30 dozen duck
+eggs may be used, the fillers in this case being 6 cells square like the
+fillers used for hens' eggs. The cells in these fillers are 2 inches
+square and 2¼ or 2½ inches deep.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+Duck Raising on the Farm
+
+
+Duck raising as ordinarily conducted on the general farm consists of the
+keeping of a comparatively small flock purely as a side line. Ducks on
+the general farm may be kept for the production of meat and eggs, for
+egg production, or mainly as a breeding proposition where the idea is to
+produce birds of exhibition quality. On occasional farms ducks of the
+rarer breeds are kept mainly for ornamental purposes.
+
+_Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising._ A small flock of ducks on the
+farm can be kept to best advantage where they can be separated from the
+other poultry and where they can have access to a pasture or an orchard
+which will provide them with a plentiful supply of green feed. Ducks
+stand confinement quite well but if they are closely confined it is
+necessary to provide for them the green feed which they cannot secure
+for themselves. On many farms the flock of ducks is allowed to range at
+liberty and under these conditions the cost of maintaining them is much
+lower since they pick up a considerable part of their feed. An enclosed
+run or yard, however, should be available where they can be confined
+when desired. It is also necessary to provide a house or shed in which
+they can be shut at night and during the early morning. Otherwise, many
+of the eggs may be dropped anywhere about the place or in the water with
+the result that some of them will be lost. A pond or stream to which the
+ducks can have access and in which they can swim is a great advantage
+since it helps to keep them in good breeding condition. It is a common
+but mistaken idea that low, wet land is best suited for ducks.
+
+_Size of Flock._--The average farm flock of ducks is small, rarely
+running over 15 to 20 head. In many cases not over 10 or 12 ducks with
+one or two drakes will be kept. A flock of this size will furnish quite
+a large number of ducks for the farmer's table or for sale in addition
+to more or less eggs which can either be used at home or sold.
+
+_Making a Start._ In making a start with a farm flock of ducks it is
+probably best to figure on keeping only a few head. If the farmer begins
+with 4 or 5 ducks and one drake he can make his start at small expense
+and from this number he will be able to increase the size of his flock
+if he finds that results warrant it. Probably the best way to make a
+start is to purchase the desired breeding stock in the fall. This will
+give the ducks a chance to get settled and to be in good condition and
+accustomed to their quarters by spring so that they will begin to breed
+and lay.
+
+Eggs for hatching can be purchased if desired and the young ducklings
+hatched and reared with chicken hens. Baby ducks are rarely purchased in
+making a start as are baby chicks.
+
+_Selecting the Breed._ Any one of the breeds forming the so-called meat
+class will prove satisfactory for a farm flock. This class includes the
+Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Cayuga, Buff and Blue Swedish. The
+birds of any of these breeds are of good size and therefore produce a
+suitable table fowl. At the same time they are layers and will produce
+eggs for the table or for market as well. Where the purpose in keeping
+the ducks is mainly that of producing eggs for market the Runner is
+undoubtedly the breed to select. While these ducks are smaller in size
+the ducklings will make good carcasses of broiler size for the table
+being killed for this purpose when about 2½ to 3 pounds in weight. In
+addition, the Runner is the best laying breed and by many persons is
+considered to be equal in its egg producing qualities to any of the
+breeds of chickens.
+
+Selection of any breed or variety of the meat or egg classes and
+especially the selection of a breed or variety for ornamental purposes
+or for the pleasure of breeding will depend upon the individual
+preference of the owner for body shape, color of plumage and other
+characteristics. A pure breed of some kind should by all means be kept
+in preference to the common or so-called "puddle" duck. Not only will
+the pure breeds give greater uniformity in the carcasses produced but
+the results in egg production will likewise be better.
+
+_Age of Breeding Stock._ The best results in breeding are secured from
+ducks during their first laying season. Not only is egg production
+better but they are less likely to become so fat and large as to
+interfere with the fertility and hatchability of the eggs. In fact, on
+commercial duck farms the breeding stock is entirely renewed each year.
+However, ducks can be profitably kept until they are 2 or 3 years old,
+and it is common practice in a farm flock to hold over some of the
+breeders after they have finished their first year. Of course, where the
+duck breeder has some especially fine stock which will produce just the
+quality he desires in the offspring, he holds and utilizes these birds
+just as long as they are in good breeding condition. As a rule it is
+best not to hold breeding ducks after they have finished their second
+laying season.
+
+_Size of Matings._ The proper number of ducks which should be mated to a
+drake varies with the different breeds. Pekins and Aylesbury can be
+mated in the proportion of one drake to 6 to 8 ducks. In the Rouen mate
+4 or 5 ducks to a drake and in the Cayuga 5 or 6 ducks to a drake. In
+the Muscovy as high as 10 females may be mated with one male. In the
+Blue Swedish and Buff mate in the proportion of 6 or 7 ducks to one
+drake. In the Call and East India breeds from 5 to 8 ducks can be mated
+to one drake. In the Crested White use 5 or 6 ducks and in the Runner
+6 to 8 ducks to a drake.
+
+Where young drakes are used more ducks can be mated to them than is the
+case with old drakes. It is also true that where especially large
+exhibition birds have been reserved for breeding purposes it is
+necessary to reduce the number of ducks mated to a drake as otherwise
+the fertility is very likely to run lower with these older heavier
+ducks.
+
+_Breeding and Laying Season._ Under ordinary farm conditions where the
+ducks receive only fairly good care and feed the laying does not begin
+to any extent until February or March. With exceptional care the ducks
+will begin to lay in January and a few may even lay in December. The
+ducks lay very persistently and continue their laying until hot weather
+sets in or usually about the first of July. They gradually let up in
+their laying until it ceases almost entirely soon after that date. The
+breeding season is at its height in the months of April and May. At this
+time the fertility will run best and the results in hatching will be
+most satisfactory. However, it is possible to continue to hatch the duck
+eggs which are produced with fair results as long as the ducks continue
+to lay.
+
+
+Management of Breeders.
+
+_Housing._ Some sort of house or shelter must be provided for the
+breeding flock. Any available shed or a part of the poultry house may
+be utilized for this purpose. No special requirements are necessary
+except that the house should provide sufficient ventilation. This is
+best furnished by means of a window and in addition, an opening in the
+front of the house should be provided which can be closed by means of a
+curtain during severe winter weather. A board floor is not necessary if
+the dirt floor is filled up 6 or 8 inches above the ground level outside
+the house. The floors should be provided with an abundance of litter
+which is usually changed only once or twice during the year. As the
+litter tends to become dirty more litter must be added. No equipment is
+necessary in the houses as the birds rest on the floor and lay their
+eggs anywhere about the house or wherever they may make their nests. The
+house should be so arranged that the ducks can be shut in at night and
+can be kept there until they have finished laying in the morning. As
+most of the duck eggs are laid early in the morning they can be let out
+by 8 or 9 o'clock in the summer. If let out earlier than this they are
+likely to lay some of their eggs in the pond or stream to which they
+have access and these would be lost.
+
+_Feeding._ On many farms the breeding flock of ducks is fed on the same
+ration which is given the farm fowls. However, better results will be
+obtained if they are given special feeds. After the laying season is
+over the breeding ducks can be fed sparingly on a mash consisting of one
+part by weight corn meal, 2 parts bran, 1 part low grade wheat flour, 1
+part green feed, 8% beef scrap and 3% oyster shell. This mash is mixed
+up with water until it has a consistency just between sticky and
+crumbly. It should never be fed in a sloppy condition. A feed of this
+mash should be given in the morning and at night and during the long
+days of summer it is well also to give a light feed of cracked corn or
+mixed grains in the middle of the day. However, judgment must be used in
+feeding ducks especially if they have range over which they can roam
+where they can pick up more or less animal feed and other material. In
+this case it is not necessary to feed nearly so much. Another mash which
+may be used instead of the one given consists of 3 parts by measure of
+corn meal, 4 parts bran, 2 parts low grade wheat flour, three-fourths
+part beef scrap and 2 parts green feed with a supply of oyster shell.
+
+Along about December 1 the feed should be changed with the idea of
+inducing egg production. A feed consisting of one part by weight corn
+meal, 1 part low grade flour or middlings, 1 part bran, 15% beef scrap,
+15% vegetables or green feed together with oyster shell should be fed
+morning and evening and in addition a feed consisting of corn and wheat
+may be given at noon in a quantity of about one quart for each 30 ducks.
+As much mash should be given them at the morning and evening feed as
+they will clean up.
+
+Another good mash feed which may be used consists of 2 parts by weight
+of bran, 2 parts middlings, 2 parts corn meal, 1 part beef scrap, 1 part
+ground oats and one-tenth of the total weight sand. In addition, of
+course, green feed must be added to the ration if it is not available at
+all times in the yard. This mash is fed in the morning and in the
+evening. The noon feed consists of 1 part by weight of corn and 2 parts
+oats. Where green feed is not available and must be supplied, cut
+clover, alfalfa, rye, oats and corn may be utilized cut up into short
+pieces and mixed in the mash. The mash should be fed either to breeding
+stock or to ducklings on flat trays or boards rather than in troughs as
+the ducks can get at it better in this form. It must be kept in mind
+that while ducks are good egg producers during the laying and breeding
+season they will not lay any great number of eggs unless they are fed
+for this purpose. For rations used on commercial duck farms see Chapter
+IV.
+
+_Water._ It is important that a plentiful supply of drinking water be
+available to the ducks. A fresh supply must be provided at each feeding
+time before the feed is thrown to the ducks as they like to eat and
+drink alternately when feeding. Where the breeding ducks have access to
+a stream or pond of fresh water it is not necessary to provide any other
+supply of drinking water.
+
+Where water is available in which the ducks can swim it is essential to
+see that provision is made so that the ducks can get in and out of the
+water easily. If this is not done they may become exhausted and unable
+to climb out or they may become partially cramped when the water is very
+cold with the result that they will drown. If given access to water in
+which they can swim during cold weather it is necessary to be on the
+look-out to see that the ducks do not freeze fast to the ground when
+they come out of the water.
+
+_Yards._ Where yards are provided for ducks poultry netting about 2 feet
+high is ordinarily used. This will confine most of the breeds but higher
+fences even 5 or 6 feet high must be provided for the breeds which fly
+readily such as the Muscovy, Call, East India, Mallard, Wood and
+Mandarin. In some cases it is even necessary to cover over the tops of
+the yards in order to keep the birds from flying out or to pinion the
+birds, that is, to cut off the outermost joint of one wing. The netting
+used for yards should be strung on posts set in the ground and the lower
+edge should be pegged down so that the birds cannot get under it.
+
+_Care of Eggs for Hatching._ Duck eggs for hatching must be gathered
+each day and should be put in some cool place to be held until they are
+set. They should be turned daily, the same as hens' eggs and the general
+care is exactly similar. It does not, however, pay to keep duck eggs as
+long before setting them as they spoil more quickly than hens' eggs. In
+fact, it is best to set duck eggs when they are not over a week old if
+this can be arranged.
+
+_Hatching the Eggs._ The period of incubation for duck eggs ranges from
+26 to 28 days for all of the breeds except the Muscovy. In this breed it
+takes from 33 to 36 days for the eggs to hatch. Inasmuch as most of the
+commonly kept breeds are not very broody and therefore do not make
+reliable hatchers and mothers it is necessary to resort either to the
+use of chicken hens for this purpose or else to utilize incubators.
+Either one of these methods can be used with good success. With the
+small farm flock it is very common to utilize hens. The ordinary hen
+will be able to cover 9 to 11 duck eggs to advantage depending on her
+size and upon the season of the year. In cold weather the smaller number
+should be used rather than the larger number. Before setting the hen she
+should be thoroughly dusted with insect powder to free her from lice.
+Several hens can be set in the same room but they should be confined on
+their nests allowing them to come off only once a day for feed and
+water. Cracked corn makes an excellent feed for sitting hens. If desired
+Muscovy, Call, East India, Mallard, Wood or Mandarin ducks can be
+allowed to make their nests and to hatch their eggs as they are reliable
+sitters and good mothers.
+
+After the duck eggs first pip there usually elapses a longer period of
+time before the ducklings get out of the shell than is the case with
+chicks. For this reason it is well to take the hens off for feed and
+water when the first eggs are pipped returning them to the nest as
+quickly as possible and confining them there until the hatch is over.
+
+During the last week of incubation it is desirable to sprinkle the eggs
+daily with water using quite a liberal amount as duck eggs seem to
+require more moisture than hens' eggs in order to hatch well.
+
+All duck eggs which are at all badly soiled should be washed before they
+are set. Washing does not seem to injure their hatching qualities. In
+fact, some breeders prefer to wash all duck eggs whether dirty or not,
+feeling that this opens up the pores and causes a better hatch. This
+belief is based upon the idea that when ducks hatch their own eggs under
+natural conditions they have access to water in which they swim and in
+coming back on the nest their wet feathers serve to wash the eggs.
+
+Where an incubator is used for hatching the eggs are placed in the
+machine just as hens' eggs. For the first week the temperature is kept
+about 102 degrees and for the rest of the period is maintained as close
+to 103 degrees as possible, the bulb of the thermometer being on a level
+with the tops of the eggs. Often the temperature will run up a little
+higher than this at hatching time but this does not do any harm. An
+incubator will accommodate from four-fifths to five-sixths as many duck
+eggs as it will hens' eggs.
+
+About the fifth or sixth day the duck eggs are tested and all infertile
+and dead germs removed. From this time on eggs are turned twice a day
+and usually cooled once a day until they pip. A second test may be made
+about the fifteenth or sixteenth day when any eggs which have died are
+removed. If dead germ eggs are left in the machines they spoil very
+quickly and cause a strong odor which makes it necessary to remove them.
+During the last week or ten days and in some cases for a longer period
+than this incubator operators supply moisture daily to the machine. This
+is usually provided by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water which
+has been warmed to about the temperature of the machine. However, if
+warm water is not available, water of ordinary temperature may be used
+although it is not well to use extremely cold water. As a rule the eggs
+begin to pip about the twenty-sixth day. At this time the machine should
+be tightly closed up and left so until the hatching is over. In case
+moisture seems to be lacking and the ducklings are having a hard time to
+get out of the shell the machine can be opened and the eggs sprinkled
+again. If there seems to be sufficient moisture, however, the machines
+should not be opened or disturbed. As a rule it takes ducklings from 24
+to 48 hours to hatch after the pipping first begins. It is advisable to
+leave the ducklings in the incubator until they are well dried off
+before removing them to the brooder. As a rule the hatching will be
+entirely over by the twenty-eighth day.
+
+_Brooding and Rearing._ Ducklings can be brooded if desired by means of
+chicken hens. In this case the ducklings which the hen hatches should
+be given to her and she should be confined to some kind of a coop which
+will allow the ducklings to run at liberty. If the hen is given her
+liberty she goes too far and takes too much exercise for the little
+ducks. Where artificial brooders are used any type of brooding apparatus
+can be utilized which is used with success for chickens. It must be
+remembered, however, that ducklings do not require as high a degree of
+heat as do baby chicks and should be started off at a temperature of
+about 90 degrees under the hover. This can be reduced rather rapidly
+until it is down to 80 at about 2 weeks of age. The length of time that
+the ducklings require heat after this depends upon the season and the
+weather. Even in fairly cool weather they do not need any heat after
+they are 5 or 6 weeks old.
+
+It is necessary to keep the brooders clean and in order to do this they
+must be cleaned out frequently and new litter supplied. While the
+ducklings are small the brooders should be cleaned at least every other
+day and as they get larger, cleaning once a week with the addition of
+fresh litter between times will be sufficient.
+
+_Feeding the Ducklings._ Ducklings do not need to be fed until they are
+from 24 to 36 hours old. At this time they may be given a mixture
+composed of equal parts by measure of rolled oats and bread crumbs with
+3% of sharp sand mixed in the feed. This may be given them five times
+daily although some duck raisers feed only 3 times daily from the
+start. About the third day this feed is changed to equal parts of bread,
+rolled oats, bran and corn meal. After the seventh day the ration may
+consist of 3 parts bran, 1 part each of low-grade wheat flour and corn
+meal, 10% green feed, 5% beef scrap with about 3% of sand mixed in.
+
+The ducklings should be fed four times daily after the seventh day until
+they are two or three weeks old. After that time they need be fed only
+three times daily, morning, noon and night. The sand may be given to the
+ducklings either by mixing it in the mash or by feeding it in a hopper
+where they can help themselves. The mash feed which is prepared for the
+ducklings is mixed with water until it has a consistency a little wetter
+than crumbly but not exactly sticky. Sloppy feed should never be used.
+As the ducklings grow older the amount of beef scrap can be increased
+until it consists of 15% of the ration by the end of the third week. The
+proportion of corn meal can likewise be increased and simultaneously the
+amount of bran decreased until the ducklings are on a fattening ration.
+Unless they have a plentiful supply of green feed in the yards to which
+they have access it is necessary to provide this to the extent of about
+10% of the feed and it should consist of tender green stuff rather
+finely chopped and mixed in with the mash.
+
+About 2 weeks before the ducklings are to be marketed they should be put
+on a ration consisting of three parts by weight of corn meal, two parts
+low-grade flour or middlings, one part bran, one-half part beef scrap,
+10% green feed and about 3% oyster shell or sand. This mash is fed three
+times daily. Another ration which can be used for fattening purposes
+consists of 3 parts corn meal, 1 part low-grade wheat flour, 1 part
+bran, 5% beef scrap and 3% oyster shell with green feed and grit in
+addition.
+
+Where fish is available it can be substituted for the beef scrap but on
+most farms this is impractical. The fish where fed is boiled and mixed
+in the mash. However, no fish should be fed up to within 2 weeks before
+the ducks are killed as there is danger of giving a fishy taste to the
+carcass. For additional information as to feeding methods used on
+commercial duck farms which could be utilized to advantage for the farm
+flocks, see Chapter VI.
+
+Birds which are to be reserved for breeders should be selected out and
+taken away from the ducklings which are to be fattened. These breeding
+birds should be carried along on the ration which they have been
+receiving until about December 1 when they should be put on a laying
+ration.
+
+It is very necessary to see that the ducklings have a plentiful supply
+of drinking water. It is especially important to renew this supply just
+before the ducklings are fed so that they will have ample water while
+they are consuming their feed. The water should be given in dishes deep
+enough so that the ducks can immerse their entire bill as this enables
+them to wash the sand out of their nostrils.
+
+_Water for Ducklings._ In addition to the drinking water provided duck
+raisers sometimes allow the growing ducklings access to water in which
+they can swim. If it is desired to fatten the ducklings quickly and turn
+them off on the market as green ducks many raisers do not consider this
+advisable as it induces the ducklings to take more exercise and makes it
+more difficult to fatten them. However, access to water in which they
+can swim makes it unnecessary to provide any other supply of drinking
+water and for this reason lessens the work considerably. Unless it is
+easy for the ducklings to get in and out of the water there is danger of
+some of them drowning as they are likely to get tired and unable to
+climb out. Little ducklings allowed access to very cold water are
+subject to cramp and may be drowned as a result.
+
+_Distinguishing the Sexes._ It is difficult to distinguish the sexes of
+growing ducks until they begin to reach maturity. There is, however, a
+difference in their appearance. The drakes are coarser or thicker and
+more masculine in appearance showing this especially about the head and
+neck. Also as they secure their mature plumage the drake shows curled
+feathers on top of the tail which are often referred to as sex feathers.
+In addition, the voice of the duck is harsher and coarser than that of
+the drake.
+
+_Marketing the Ducks._ Most of the ducks produced on farms are marketed
+alive. This is because the farmer has no special market and he does not
+find that it pays him to dress and ship the ducks with the chance that
+they might spoil. In fact, most of the farm raised ducks are not turned
+off as green ducks at 10 to 12 weeks as is done on the commercial duck
+plants but are held until fall and then sold as spring ducks. They will
+weigh somewhat more at that time but as a rule the price received per
+pound will be lower than that obtained for green ducks during the spring
+and summer. Where there is a special demand for ducklings which the
+farmer can supply it will pay him to dress and deliver the ducks. If it
+is desired to dress the ducks, the directions given under Chapter VII
+can be modified to suit the farmer's needs. The soft body feathers
+should be saved in accordance with the directions given on page 106, as
+they can be used at home in making pillows or can be sold.
+
+Such eggs as are produced in surplus may either be utilized on the home
+table or sent to market. As a rule duck eggs are not in great demand
+except at certain seasons such as at Easter and during the Jewish
+holidays in the spring and fall when they bring somewhat higher prices
+than hens' eggs. The larger size of duck eggs, however, makes them
+favored by bakers and they can usually be sold at any time in a city of
+any size at prices as good as those received for hens' eggs.
+
+Eggs for market can be packed in the ordinary 30-dozen hen egg cases by
+using special fillers which hold 25 eggs instead of 36 as in the case of
+hens' eggs. See page 119. A farmer with a small flock of ducks will
+usually not have eggs enough to fill a case frequently and for this
+reason he usually finds it more convenient to market the few eggs he has
+by taking them into town in a basket.
+
+_Disease and Insect Pests._ Ducks are very little troubled by insect
+pests, nor are they greatly troubled by diseases. The usual difficulties
+encountered along this line are those discussed under this head in
+Chapter VI. Losses are often experienced as the result of predatory
+animals. Rats will cause a great amount of havoc among the young ducks
+if they are able to get at them. A single night's work on the part of
+one rat may practically clean out a small flock of ducklings. It is
+necessary to make sure that the ducklings are shut in at night so that
+rats cannot get at them.
+
+
+
+
+GEESE
+
+PART II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+Extent of the Industry--Opportunities
+
+
+Geese can be raised successfully in practically all parts of the United
+States and are in fact scattered in small flocks over a considerable
+portion of the country being most abundant in the South and in the
+Middle West.
+
+The census figures for the year 1920 show Illinois with 195,769 geese to
+be the leading state in numbers, closely followed by Missouri, Arkansas
+and Iowa. Next in order of importance as goose raising states come
+Kentucky, Tennessee, Minnesota, North Carolina and Texas. The census
+figures of 1920 compared with those for 1910 show a decrease in the
+number of geese from 4,431,980 to 2,939,203. The only groups of states
+which showed an increase in the number of geese during this period were
+the North Atlantic and the Mountain states. Of the total farms in the
+United States only a small proportion, probably one-tenth, have any
+geese and the number of geese per farm would not average over 4 to 10
+depending on the section.
+
+_Nature of the Industry._ Geese are kept almost wholly in small flocks
+as a side line on general farms. The purpose of goose raising is
+primarily one of the production of meat although in the past flocks of
+geese have been kept to some extent, particularly in the south for the
+purpose of plucking them to secure the feathers. This practice of
+plucking live geese is decreasing and is much less common than formerly.
+The eggs of the geese do not enter to any extent into the egg trade of
+the country. As a rule all the eggs produced are hatched for the purpose
+of rearing young geese and it is only occasionally that goose eggs are
+used for culinary purposes.
+
+_Opportunities for Goose Raising._ Undoubtedly the greatest opportunity
+along the line of goose raising lies in the small flock kept on the
+general farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is to say, where there
+is an abundance of suitable pasture land together with some water to
+which the geese can have access, a small flock can be most profitably
+kept. They can be reared very cheaply as both the young and old geese
+will secure practically their entire living during the summer from
+pasture if an abundant supply of suitable green material is available.
+The cost of rearing them therefore is low. In addition both the young
+and old geese are very hardy and require comparatively little care. They
+are little subject to disease and therefore losses are small.
+
+Geese live and breed for a long time and this makes it possible to turn
+off to market a larger proportion of the young stock reared than is the
+case with most other classes of poultry. For all of these reasons,
+therefore, a small flock of geese will return a good profit to the
+farmer without having to supply any great amount of equipment or without
+having to feed very much in the way of expensive feeds. In addition to
+the geese which can be marketed, the maintenance of a small flock also
+helps to provide a variety in the farmer's diet by furnishing suitable
+birds for the holiday seasons such as Thanksgiving and Christmas.
+
+In addition to the opportunity for goose raising in small flocks on
+general farms there likewise exists a definite opportunity to specialize
+along this line somewhat more extensively. In certain places, notably
+the state of Wisconsin, goose raising becomes a more important activity
+on some farms than merely that of a by-product. Larger numbers are
+reared and special steps are taken in fattening and finishing them for
+market either by means of pen fattening or by means of hand fattening or
+noodling the geese. Geese so finished for market bring a special price
+and allow a good profit to the raiser for the time which he has put into
+them.
+
+An outgrowth of the goose raising industry which has been worked to a
+limited extent consists of the gathering together of the geese raised in
+any particular portion of the country on one farm and the feeding of
+them there in large flocks in the fields so as to fatten them for
+market. There are not many of these special fattening farms but several
+persons in different sections of the country who have made a practice
+of gathering together and marketing the geese in this way have found it
+very profitable. Probably a similar opportunity exists in certain other
+sections where goose raising on the farms in small numbers is common and
+where no one has yet made the effort to collect and fatten the geese
+before marketing them.
+
+While geese are not exhibited to the same extent as chickens, still
+there will always be found a market for birds of good quality, both for
+the purpose of exhibition and also as breeders to be used in improving
+the stock of other goose raisers.
+
+_Goose Raising as a Business for Farm Women._ Like turkey raising goose
+raising as a side line on the farm offers an excellent money making
+opportunity for the farm women. Without any great outlay of capital to
+get a start and without its being necessary to provide much in the way
+of buildings or other equipment, a flock of geese can be started which
+will allow a nice profit to the farm woman for the care and attention
+which she gives them. In this connection it should be remembered that
+while the opportunities for profit may not be so large as in turkey
+raising, yet the care required is much less and the chances of serious
+difficulties due to disease and to inability to raise the young stock
+are relatively small. Goose raising therefore offers a most profitable
+side line employment for the farm woman.
+
+_Geese as Weed Destroyers._ As stated before geese are close grazers. In
+fact, during the growing season of the year green vegetation forms most
+and in some cases practically all of their diet. The vegetation which
+they will eat readily is quite varied and in many cases geese will be
+found to be very valuable in ridding pastures or fields of troublesome
+weeds. In the southern states geese are often kept on farms where cotton
+is raised for the purpose of keeping the cotton fields free from weeds.
+
+
+Objection to Geese
+
+An objection to geese often expressed but without good foundation is
+that they will spoil the pasture for other stock. This is not true if
+the pasture is not overstocked with geese. Of course geese are very
+close grazers and if too many of them are kept on a field they will eat
+the grass down so close that there will be none for other animals to
+get. Similarly the idea that other animals will not eat grass grown
+where goose droppings have fallen is not true except where the birds are
+too thick so that the grass is soiled badly by the droppings.
+
+The fact that geese are noisy creatures makes them undesirable to some
+persons. It is true that they make a good deal of noise and that their
+cry is of a very hoarse, rasping character and to a person with bad
+nerves they may be annoying but this is no valid or weighty objection to
+the normal, healthy farmer. The Chinese geese are the noisiest and
+consequently the greatest offenders in this particular.
+
+A more valid objection to geese lies in the fact of their rather ugly
+disposition. Ganders, especially as they grow older and during the
+breeding season, are decidedly pugnacious and will not hesitate to
+attack human beings. They strike heavy formidable blows with their wings
+and with their strong bills they inflict most painful bites. Where there
+are children about the house it may be necessary to dispose of ugly
+ganders to safeguard the children from serious injury.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+Specimens--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and Handling
+
+
+_Breeds of Geese._ There are six standard breeds of geese consisting of
+the following: Toulouse, Embden, African, Chinese, Wild or Canadian and
+Egyptian. All of these breeds consist of a single variety with the
+exception of the Chinese which is composed of two. The Toulouse is known
+as the Gray Toulouse, the Embden as the White Embden, the African as the
+Gray African, the two varieties of the Chinese as the Brown Chinese and
+the White Chinese, the Wild or Canadian as the Gray and the Egyptian as
+the Colored.
+
+The first four of these breeds are the ones which are commonly kept in
+domestication. In a general way it may be said that these breeds are
+meat breeds for the reason that they are kept mainly for the production
+of meat. The Wild or Canadian and the Egyptian are more in the nature of
+ornamental breeds since they are not so commonly kept and are
+principally to be found where ornamental water-fowls are maintained. The
+Chinese are sometimes classed as ornamental geese on account of their
+smaller size but they are much more commonly kept than either the
+Canadian or the Egyptian and make a good market fowl where the demand is
+not for such a large carcass.
+
+In addition to the standard breeds there are several other rare breeds
+among which is the Sebastapol which is kept purely as an ornamental
+breed by reason of its peculiar feathering. The Sebastapol is a white
+goose in which the feathers of the upper part of the body show a twisted
+or frizzled condition which gives it much the general effect of the
+feathers being curled. In addition to the standard breeds of geese there
+are kept on a great majority of farms ordinary common geese of no
+definite breed or variety. These geese in general are of smaller size
+than the larger standard breeds and have probably arisen as the result
+of the crossing of the standard breeds and the subsequent deterioration
+in size and color marking is due to careless breeding and selection.
+
+In some sections and for certain special purposes definite crosses of
+standard breeds are made for the production of table geese having
+certain desired qualities. For this purpose the African ganders are very
+popular used upon the Toulouse geese. To some extent there is produced
+and marketed a goose known as the mongrel goose. This has excellent
+table quality and is in good demand on account of its superior eating
+qualities and its rapid growth. It is produced by using the Wild or
+Canadian gander upon Toulouse, African or Embden geese. The result of
+this cross is a hybrid goose which has much the appearance of the Wild
+goose but which will not breed although the females will lay eggs. As a
+rule Toulouse or African females are used for the cross rather than
+Embden as from the latter there is a greater tendency to get a lighter
+cross which would not resemble its Wild father so closely and might not
+therefore be so readily recognized as genuine mongrel geese.
+
+_Nomenclature._ The term geese is used to indicate the birds of both
+sexes taken as a whole and also as a plural form for the word goose. The
+term goose is used to distinguish the female of the species. The male is
+given the specific name of gander to distinguish it from goose. The
+young of both sexes are termed goslings. In giving the standard weights
+for the different breeds of geese the birds are classified as adult
+ganders and young ganders and as adult geese and young geese. By adult
+goose or gander is meant a bird which is over one year old, by young
+goose or gander is meant a bird which is less than one year. Not
+infrequently in connection with market reports use will be made of the
+term "green geese". This indicates birds which are marketed when they
+are of large size but still young and immature, the green referring to
+this immature condition.
+
+_Size._ An idea of the size of the different standard breeds of geese
+can best be secured by giving the standard weights. They are as
+follows:
+
+Breed             Adult   Adult     Young   Young
+                 Gander   Goose    Gander   Goose
+
+Toulouse         26 lbs.  20 lbs.  20 lbs.  16 lbs.
+Embden           20  "    18  "    18  "    16  "
+African          20  "    18  "    16  "    14  "
+Chinese          12  "    10  "    10  "     8  "
+Wild or Canadian 12  "    10  "    10  "     8  "
+Egyptian         10  "     8  "     8  "     6  "
+
+_Popularity of the Breeds_. Of the different standard breeds kept the
+Toulouse is undoubtedly the most popular in this country probably due to
+its large size as well as to its quick growth. The Embden follows the
+Toulouse closely in popularity. The Chinese geese are probably third
+most numerous in numbers while the African ranks fourth. In certain
+sections the African seems to be very popular and one would expect to
+find more of this breed than seem to be present on farms. Neither the
+Canadian nor the Egyptians are to be found in any great numbers, the
+latter in particular being very rare.
+
+
+Egg Production
+
+It must always be remembered in speaking of the egg production of any
+breed of poultry that there will be a considerable variation in
+individuals within a breed and that egg production will also be affected
+very largely by the conditions under which the birds are kept. For this
+reason any attempt to give an average egg production for a breed is at
+best only an approximation. These approximations often serve, however,
+to show some well established contrast between the different breeds with
+respect to their egg laying ability. The Toulouse is a fairly prolific
+breed of geese and individuals should average from 12 to 36 eggs, the
+majority laying about 20 eggs. The Embden is very similar to the
+Toulouse in laying ability although probably on the whole not quite so
+good a layer. The African is generally considered a good layer and is
+said to average from 20 to 40 eggs. Some breeders state that the pure
+African are not as good layers as this, being about equal to the Embden
+and that the better laying Africans really have some Brown Chinese blood
+in them which has been introduced to increase prolificacy. The Chinese
+is the most prolific breed. The birds of either the White or Brown
+variety should average from 60 to 100 eggs. The eggs laid by the Chinese
+are smaller than those of the Toulouse, Embden or African. The Wild or
+Canadian and the Egyptian geese are small layers. They rarely lay more
+than one sitting during a season and the eggs will as a rule range from
+4 to 8 in number.
+
+_Size of Goose Eggs._ Goose eggs are decidedly larger than duck eggs.
+There is a considerable variation in size, depending upon the breed. The
+eggs of the Toulouse, African and Embden are of about the same size and
+will vary from 6½ to 8 ounces each. The eggs of the Chinese are smaller
+and will weigh from 5½ to 6 ounces each, while eggs of the Canadian and
+Egyptian are the smallest of the standard breeds, running from 5 to 5½
+ounces each.
+
+_Color of Goose Eggs._ In general goose eggs are whitish in color but
+may shade to a gray or buff tinge. The Wild or Canadian sometimes lay
+eggs which are off the white, showing a considerable green tinge.
+
+
+About Geese and Matings
+
+_Broodiness._ All of the breeds of geese with the exception of the
+Toulouse may be classed as broody breeds, that is to say, they will make
+their nests and hatch their young if given a chance to do so. Not
+infrequently individuals of the Toulouse breed will do this also but as
+a rule they are not dependable for this purpose.
+
+_Size of Mating._ In making the mating it is usual in order to secure
+best results to use one gander with from two to four geese in the
+Toulouse, Embden and African breeds. In fact, better results will be
+secured in these breeds where not over 3 geese are used and in many
+cases the geese are mated in trios or even in pairs. In the Chinese
+geese a somewhat larger mating can be employed, one gander being used
+with 4 to 6 geese. The Wild or Canadian and the Egyptian geese in most
+cases pair only.
+
+_Age of Breeders._ Geese can be retained and will give good results as
+breeders for a longer period than most other classes of poultry. While
+the young geese will often lay during their first year the results from
+the eggs produced by them are not as a rule very satisfactory. It is
+sometimes claimed that the eggs of young geese will not hatch but this
+is untrue and goslings have been raised from such eggs. Canadian and
+Egyptian geese do not lay until they are 3 years old. Females may be
+kept for breeding purposes until they are 8 to 10 years old and should
+give good results during this time. If they continue to lay longer than
+this and are valuable breeding individuals they should of course be
+retained just so long as they lay at a profitable rate. Instances are
+reported where geese 15 to 20 years old were still giving good results
+as breeders. As a rule ganders cannot be successfully kept for breeding
+purposes as long as can the geese. Yearling ganders are often used but
+they are at their best for breeding purposes when from 3 to 5 years old
+and it is not generally wise to retain them after they are 6 or 7 years
+old. Egyptian and Canadian ganders will not breed before they are 2
+years old. In general it is good practice to mate young ganders to older
+geese and to mate younger geese with older ganders as this seems to get
+better results both in fertility and in hatching.
+
+_Marking Young Geese._ It is often desirable to mark young geese in some
+way so that their breeding can be told or so that a record can be kept
+of their age. This can be readily accomplished by punching various
+combinations of holes in the webs between the toes at the time the
+goslings are hatched.
+
+_Considerations in Making the Mating._[4] In making the mating in
+breeding geese it must be kept in mind that it is of primary importance
+to select the breeders first of all for size, prolificacy and vitality.
+Without these qualities no matter what else the breeding geese may be
+there is scant chance of satisfactory results. Having selected birds
+which are of suitable size and vitality those should then be utilized
+for breeding which approach most nearly both in type and color to the
+requirements as given in the American Standard of Perfection. As a rule,
+a new mating can be made by taking the birds selected and shutting them
+up together in a pen away from the other birds and out of sound of the
+voices of their former mates. As a rule about a month of this treatment
+will suffice to bring about the new matings desired and the birds can
+then be allowed to range at liberty.
+
+[Footnote 4: For a more detailed description of the principles of
+breeding as applied to poultry and which is equally applicable to geese,
+the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by Harry
+M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the Orange Judd Publishing Co.,
+New York, N. Y.]
+
+Some ganders are very troublesome about mating. This is particularly
+true as they get older. In some cases it is impossible to get ganders to
+mate at all while frequently they will refuse to mate with more than one
+goose. As a rule, matings once made are permanent from year to year
+unless changed by the breeder on account of poor results. Where new
+matings are to be made or where changes are to be made this should be
+done in the fall so that the birds will have been mated for several
+months before the breeding season begins in order to insure good
+results. After the matings are made the geese can be allowed to run
+together in larger flocks but the practice is frequently employed of
+keeping the different matings in pens to themselves so as to avoid the
+fighting which will otherwise occur between the ganders. During the
+breeding season the ganders are quite savage and will fight fiercely.
+
+
+Breeds of Geese[5]
+
+_The Toulouse._ This breed is characterized by its very low down deep
+broad massive body. The body should come well down in front and should
+be so deep and full behind that it tends to drag on the ground when the
+bird walks. The skin of the rear portion of the body should have folds.
+The appearance or type of the Toulouse depends a great deal upon the
+condition of flesh which a bird may be in at the time as a fat well
+fleshed condition will improve type very materially. A dewlap, that is
+to say, a pendulous flap of skin on the throat, is desired but
+comparatively few birds show a well developed dewlap. It is more likely
+to appear with age than it is in the younger birds. In color the
+Toulouse breeds quite true. The principal difficulty which is
+encountered is the occasional appearance of one, two or three white
+flight feathers in the wing. These white flights constitute a
+disqualification and must of course be avoided in the breeding. It is
+necessary also to avoid any birds which lack in size, length, breadth or
+depth of body, particularly depth in front. Birds of this breed are of
+large size and make quick growth and for this reason are a fine market
+goose although the dark colored pin feathers are somewhat of a drawback
+from a market point of view.
+
+[Footnote 5: For a complete and official description and list of
+disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of geese, the
+reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published by
+the American Poultry Association, obtainable from Orange Judd Publishing
+Company, New York, N. Y.]
+
+_The Embden._ This breed is of good size but somewhat smaller than the
+Toulouse. It has not quite so long a keel or underline as the Toulouse
+and while deep in body it is not so baggy. There should be no dewlap in
+this breed. The plumage should be pure white throughout, the only
+difficulty of any importance occurring here being the occasional
+appearance of slate on the backs of young geese. This, however, is not
+serious as it almost invariably disappears with the first moult. Embden
+geese are rapid growers and mature early which together with the fact
+that their plumage is white makes them an excellent market bird.
+
+_The African._ In type the African is much the same as the Toulouse
+although not quite as large being about the size of the Embden. What is
+desired is a low down body which is flat in keel and without any folds
+of skin. The neck should be short. This bird unlike the Toulouse is
+characterized by a knob or protuberance extending out from the head at
+the base of the upper bill. This knob should be black in color and
+should show no tinge of yellow on the top or about the base. If the knob
+gets scarred or injured it is apt to turn yellow and freezing likewise
+is apt to cause it to turn yellow. Birds of this breed both young and
+old should show dewlaps, the absence of these in adult specimens
+constituting a disqualification. As in the Toulouse avoid any white
+flight feathers. The African makes an excellent market goose being like
+the Embden and Toulouse, quick growing and early maturing. The ganders
+are especially in favor for use in crossing with other varieties for the
+production of market geese. It seems probable that some Brown Chinese
+blood has been crossed into the Africans on various occasions probably
+for the purpose of increasing the prolificacy of the African as the
+Brown Chinese is an excellent layer. It is also true that crosses
+between the Brown Chinese and the Toulouse are sometimes shown for
+Africans but as a rule this cross results in too dark a bird and such
+crosses should never be used for breeding purposes since they would not
+continue to give the uniformity and other qualities obtained in the
+first generation.
+
+_The Chinese._ The Chinese is quite different in type from the three
+preceding breeds. It is much smaller and higher set on legs and has a
+body much more upright in carriage. The neck is long and slender and the
+head has a large knob. An important part about the type is to secure a
+very slender neck, another important point being to secure a very large
+knob; the larger this is the better. There is, however, a decided
+tendency for the knob to run small when the neck is slender and it is
+difficult to secure in perfection the combination of a very slender neck
+and a large knob. The Chinese geese should be in good condition but
+should not be too fat when shown as too good a condition of flesh
+injures the type materially. If fat there is a decided tendency for the
+birds to bag down behind which is undesirable. The Chinese geese are the
+best layers but the egg which they lay is smaller. On account of their
+smaller size they do not make as good market geese where large sized
+carcasses are desired but where smaller carcasses suitable for family
+use are in demand the Chinese make a satisfactory market breed.
+
+_The Brown Chinese._ In this variety the knob should be dark brown or
+black. As in the African, injury or freezing may turn the knob yellow
+which is undesirable. The plumage should be a rich brown shade of color,
+a faded gray color being very undesirable. The stripe down the back of
+the neck should be well defined and should be distinctly in contrast
+with the rest of the neck color. White feathers in the primaries or
+secondaries must be avoided.
+
+_The White Chinese._ The knob in this variety should be orange and any
+tendency toward yellow should be avoided. The plumage should be pure
+white throughout. Occasional young females may show slate in the back
+but this is not serious as it almost invariably disappears with the
+first moult.
+
+_The Wild or Canadian._ Contrary to expectation this breed when
+domesticated is very peaceable and very tame. There is often, however, a
+tendency for them to grow uneasy when the migratory season comes. To
+keep the birds from flying away it is necessary to clip the flight
+feathers of one wing or what is safer still to pinion the bird.
+Pinioning consists of cutting off the first joint of one wing. This may
+be done when the birds are small or may be done at any time and does not
+seem to bother them much. One of the best ways to accomplish this is to
+break the joint and then cut it off by using a chisel and hammer. Not
+much bleeding will result but it is well to put a little iodine on the
+cut. These birds breed very true in type and color and progress in the
+mating simply consists of continuing to select those birds for breeders
+which show markings in the greatest excellence. In type a Canadian goose
+is quite different from that of the other breeds mentioned. It is
+smaller, set much higher on legs and its body is neater and trimmer, and
+is oblong and carried in a horizontal position. The neck is long and
+slender. These birds mate only in pairs as a rule and the females do not
+mature and lay until they are three years old. The ganders often breed
+when they are two years old. Usually only a single sitting of eggs is
+laid consisting of from 4 to 8. Usually, however, all of these eggs will
+hatch and the young prove to be strong and easily reared.
+
+_The Egyptian._ This is the smallest of the standard breeds of geese. In
+type it more nearly approaches the Canadian than any other breed but it
+is somewhat longer in legs, showing more of the thigh beneath the body.
+The body is not carried in quite such a horizontal position as the
+Canadian but slopes downward slightly from the breast to the tail. The
+neck is neither so long nor quite so slender as that of the Canadian.
+This breed is the brightest colored of any of the geese and breeds
+fairly true in color and markings. Like the Canadian the Egyptian goose
+is likely to become uneasy at times and one wing should therefore be
+pinioned or the flight feathers clipped to keep the birds from flying
+away. Like the Canadian the Egyptians mate in pairs only and lay but one
+sitting during the year. The females do not lay until they are three
+years old.
+
+Neither the Egyptian nor the Canadian geese should be closely confined
+or no eggs will be laid. The goose should be allowed to make her own
+nest and hatch her eggs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50. Left--Egyptian Gander. Right--Sebastapol Goose.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51. Left.--Toulouse Gander. Right--Embden Gander.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52. Left--Wild or Canadian Gander. Right--African
+Gander. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53. Left--Brown Chinese Gander. Right--White Chinese
+Gander. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Preparing Geese for the Show
+
+The preparation of geese for the show is comparatively a simple matter.
+It requires first of all that individuals shall be selected which
+approach nearest to the standard requirements both in type and in color.
+As to the actual preparation for exhibition the geese are practically
+self-prepared. For a period of at least a week or ten days before they
+are shipped to the show they should be given access to a grass range and
+to running water. The grass range tends to put them in good condition
+while the running water will give them an opportunity to clean
+themselves. Any broken feathers should be plucked at least six weeks
+before the birds are to be shown so as to give them an opportunity to
+grow in new ones.
+
+Since all of the common breeds of geese, with the exception of the
+Chinese, should be shown in a fat condition in order to give them their
+best type they should be given a grain mixture twice daily for a period
+of at least ten days before the show in order to get them in good flesh
+and to bring them up to standard weight. This ration should consist of
+one part corn and two parts oats. In Chinese geese where it is desired
+to have them in good condition of flesh but without showing any tendency
+toward bagginess, oats alone should be fed as they are apt to put on too
+much fat when corn is fed as well. When the birds are shipped to the
+show they are quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the
+journey. If this occurs fill a barrel about half full of water. As the
+geese are taken from the shipping coops place two of them at a time in
+the barrel, cover it over and leave them for a few minutes. Then take
+them out and they will usually be clean.
+
+
+Catching and Handling Geese
+
+Never catch geese by the legs which are weak and are easily broken or
+injured. For the same reason they should never be carried by the legs.
+In catching geese grasp them by the neck just below the head. Often a
+crooked stick is of value in getting hold of the birds by the neck.
+Geese can be carried short distances by the neck without injury but it
+is not advisable to carry them for any considerable distance in this
+manner, particularly if they are fat. The best way to handle the geese
+is to catch them by the neck, then place one arm over the shoulders and
+around the bird's body thus holding the wings in place while both legs
+are grasped with the hand. The neck should be held with the other hand
+to keep the bird from biting. In releasing the bird in a pen or shipping
+coop do not let go of the neck until the bird is placed where it is
+wanted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54--Proper manner of picking up and carrying geese
+with the head and neck under the arm. (_Photographs from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs
+
+Goose eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh if they are
+to be received in good condition and are to give good results in
+hatching. They can be shipped long distances either by express or by
+parcel post. In order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of
+the jar to which the eggs are subjected during shipment they should be
+carefully packed in a market basket or other suitable receptacle. The
+same method of packing the eggs should be employed as with duck eggs
+described on page 137.
+
+
+Prices for Breeding Stock
+
+While the demand for breeding stock is not so broad with geese as it is
+with some other classes of poultry, there does exist a steady and
+profitable demand for this class of fowls. Goose eggs for hatching are
+usually sold in sittings of 5 and the price varies somewhat depending
+upon the variety. As a rule, Embden and Toulouse eggs will bring from 60
+cents to $1.20 each. Chinese goose eggs will bring from 40 cents to $1
+each while the eggs of the African goose will bring from $1 to $2 each.
+Of course the price of eggs for hatching like that of breeding birds
+depends on the quality of the stock. The prices for the birds themselves
+for breeding purposes will run anywhere from about $8 to $10 apiece for
+good birds suitable for breeding on farm flocks, to $25 or even $50 each
+of birds of especially fine quality.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+Management of Breeding Geese
+
+
+_Range for Breeders._ Since grass or other vegetation, when plentiful,
+will furnish practically the entire living both for breeding and growing
+geese, it is by all means desirable to have suitable range for the
+breeding stock. Aside from economy of production range is desirable from
+the fact that the breeders keep in better condition and better results
+in breeding and fertility are obtained. The range for breeding geese
+should therefore consist of grass land or pasture. Often rather low wet
+land can be used for this purpose, particularly if some higher land is
+also available to provide a more favorable kind of grass. Often geese
+can be ranged on the same pasture with horses or cattle. Later in the
+season after the harvest, both breeding and growing geese can be given
+the range of the stubble fields to good advantage as they will glean
+most of the shelled grain. The entire flock of breeders is generally
+allowed to run together but the flock may be divided if desired, or each
+mating may be kept in a colony by itself if the fighting of the ganders
+proves troublesome.
+
+_Number of Geese to the Acre._ The number of geese which can be kept or
+run to the acre depends of course upon the nature of the land available
+for the purpose. The better the pasture and therefore the more green
+feed available throughout the summer and fall, the more geese can be
+run. In general, the practice is to run from 4 to 25 geese to an acre;
+ten is a fair average under normal conditions.
+
+_Water for Breeding Geese._ While water to which the geese can have
+access for swimming is not absolutely essential for their well being,
+they like it and it is well to provide water if possible especially
+during the breeding season. It not only takes care of the problem of
+supplying drinking water, but in the opinion of many goose raisers,
+increases the fertility of the eggs laid. A natural water supply such as
+a stream or pond in the pasture is therefore desirable, but if none is
+available an artificial pond or tank can be furnished to good advantage.
+
+_Distinguishing the Sex._ It is difficult to distinguish the sex of
+geese. It is, of course, necessary to know the sex so as to provide the
+proper number of ganders and so as to know what birds to pen together in
+making a mating. Once the sex of a bird is determined it is well for the
+novice to mark it by means of a suitable leg band so that its sex can be
+easily distinguished in the future.
+
+It is more difficult to distinguish the sex of young than of old geese.
+The gander is generally slightly larger and coarser than the goose, with
+a longer, thicker neck and larger head. The gander also has a shriller
+cry than the goose whose cry consists of a harsher sound. Some goose
+raisers claim that they can distinguish the sex of mature geese by the
+body shape, the underline of the body of the gander from the tail to the
+point where the legs join the body being nearly straight, while in the
+goose this line tends to round out with the fuller development of the
+abdomen. This difference is more marked during the laying season than at
+other times. Considerable experience is necessary in order to
+distinguish sex by any of the means described and the really sure way is
+by an examination of the sexual organs or by observing the actions of
+the geese when mating.
+
+Upon examination the sphincter muscle which closes the anus of the
+female when stretched will be found to have a folded appearance. If the
+gander is placed upon his back and pressure applied around the anus, the
+penis will protrude. This test is more easily made on a mature than on
+an immature gander and is also easier to make during warm than during
+cold weather.
+
+_Purchase of Breeding Stock._ Geese when mated usually stay mated
+permanently. Matings are not, therefore, changed from year to year as a
+rule so long as they continue to give satisfactory results. If it
+becomes necessary to make new matings or to break up old matings, this
+should be done in the fall, so that the birds will be thoroughly used to
+the new order of things by the time the breeding season arrives, and
+the results in eggs laid and young stock grown will not, therefore, be
+adversely affected. For this reason, any breeding stock purchased should
+be secured in the fall rather than to wait until just before the
+breeding season opens. As a rule, also, a better selection of breeding
+stock to choose from is available to the purchaser in the fall.
+
+_Time of Laying._ Geese start laying in the early spring and continue to
+lay throughout the spring. With special attention given to the feeding,
+they should begin in the northeastern part of the United States about
+February 1 and should continue to lay until about June 1 when geese of
+the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse, African and Embden will
+generally be pretty well through. Some individuals will lay later than
+this and the Chinese geese also have a rather longer laying season
+extending further into the summer. The length of the laying season is
+also affected by whether the geese are broken up when they become broody
+or whether they are allowed to sit. The latter practice, of course,
+stops the layings. It must be remembered that the Canadian and Egyptian
+as a rule lay only a single small setting of eggs during the season.
+
+As a rule geese lay during the night or the forenoon. The frequency of
+laying varies, some geese laying every other day while others lay more
+or less often.
+
+_Housing._ Geese withstand the weather very well and do not need much in
+the way of houses or shelter except during winter and during severe
+storms. In the North it is the usual practice and good practice to
+provide shelter for the geese, which may take the form of a poultry
+house, or of any shed or barn available for the purpose. A shed with
+openings on the south side makes an ideal goose shelter or house. Most
+breeders in the South who give their flocks good attention also provide
+shelter for them during the winter although geese are also successfully
+kept in that section without shelter.
+
+The houses provided for the breeders must be kept clean and as dry as
+possible. The best way to do this is to bed them liberally with straw,
+shavings or some similar material, especially during the winter. As the
+bedding becomes soiled, more should be added and the house should be
+cleaned out from time to time and fresh litter put in.
+
+No equipment for the houses is necessary. The geese will lay their eggs
+in nests which they make on the floor and if plenty of clean bedding is
+provided, the eggs will not get badly soiled. Large boxes, barrels, or
+similar shelter provided with an abundance of nesting material may be
+scattered about the range to provide places in which the geese may make
+their nests.
+
+_Yards._ Usually no yards are provided for geese as they are allowed the
+range of a pasture or are allowed to roam at liberty about the farm. Any
+ordinary woven wire stock fence such as might be used to fence a pasture
+will serve to keep the geese confined as well as the other stock. If
+for any reason it is desired to confine geese to a yard, the effort
+should be made to provide yard enough so that the geese will have a
+constant supply of green feed. In a small yard this is impossible. A 2½
+or 3 foot fence is high enough to confine any of the common breeds of
+geese and will also serve for Canadian and Egyptian geese if they have
+been pinioned which should always be done.
+
+_Feeding the Breeding Geese._ While the flock of geese may be allowed to
+pick most of their living from a good grass range during the summer and
+fall, it is necessary to feed them during the winter. In fact during the
+summer it may be necessary to feed them lightly on grain or wet mash if
+the pasture gets short. The quantity of feed necessary for this purpose
+depends upon the condition of the pasture and must be judged by the
+condition of the birds.
+
+During the winter, they must be fed regularly. The feed given them
+should consist of both grain and some form of roughage. It is necessary
+to be careful not to overfeed so that the geese will become too fat, for
+while they should be in good condition of flesh at the beginning of the
+breeding season, if they are too fat, poor fertility and poor hatches
+will result.
+
+_Feed._ Oats makes the best feed for breeding geese as it is not too
+fattening. Corn, wheat or barley fed alone is likely to prove too
+fattening but a limited quantity should be fed for variety. The grain
+should be fed twice a day throughout the winter and should be given
+rather sparingly, depending on roughage to make up the bulk of the feed.
+Vegetables, clover or alfalfa hay, chopped corn stover or silage make
+good roughage for this purpose. Corn silage is a fine feed if it is not
+moldy and does not contain so much corn as to be too fattening.
+
+About three weeks or a month before it is desired to have the geese
+commence laying, which should be at such a time that the first goslings
+hatched will have good grass pasture, a mash should be added to the feed
+to stimulate egg production. This mash is generally fed in the morning
+with the vegetables or roughage and may consist of three parts bran or
+shorts, one part corn meal and one-fourth part meat scrap. If available
+buttermilk or skim milk can be used to mix the mash and replace the meat
+scrap. Another mash for this purpose consists of corn meal one-fourth
+part, bran two parts, and ground oats one part, mixed up with skim milk
+or buttermilk.
+
+Grit and oyster shell should be kept where the geese can help themselves
+particularly during the laying season. Drinking water must be available
+at all times and if a natural supply is not available, must be given in
+drinking fountains or dishes which should be so arranged that the geese
+cannot get their feet into the water. When they can get into the
+drinking water, they will quickly get it into a filthy condition.
+
+When the geese are running in a field with horses or cattle a small
+enclosure should be fenced in to which the geese can gain access by
+means of suitable openings but which will keep the other stock out. In
+this should be placed the drinking fountain for the geese and in this
+enclosure the geese should be fed. Otherwise the cattle or horses will
+get most of the feed intended for the geese and in addition, some of the
+geese may be stepped on or kicked and injured when the stock crowds
+around at feeding time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+Incubation
+
+
+_Care of Eggs for Hatching._ Since egg production usually begins early
+in the spring while the weather is still cold, it is necessary to gather
+the eggs at frequent intervals to prevent their freezing or becoming
+chilled. Later in the season daily collection will be satisfactory. The
+eggs as collected should be kept in a cool place and where the
+evaporation of the egg contents will not be too great. If set at fairly
+frequent intervals, there will be no difficulty on this score. If they
+are to be kept for some time, they may be stored in bran to prevent
+evaporation. It is well to mark the eggs as gathered with the date they
+are laid so as to overcome the possibility of saving too long any eggs
+for hatching.
+
+Some goose raisers think that it is best to wash goose eggs before
+setting them. This belief is based on the fact that when a goose makes
+her own nest and has access to water in which to swim she comes on the
+nest with her feathers wet. It is to simulate this condition that the
+eggs are washed. Certainly any dirty eggs should be washed.
+
+_Methods of Incubation._ The most usual methods of hatching goose eggs
+are by means of the chicken hen and the goose. Incubators may also be
+used but do not as a rule seem to give as good results as they do with
+hen or duck eggs. Turkey hens may also be utilized for this purpose but
+are not commonly available although they make good mothers. Probably the
+most common method of hatching is the use of chicken hens. Next common
+is to allow the goose to hatch her own eggs. Goose eggs hatch well under
+hens or geese. During the height of the season nearly every fertile egg
+should hatch if the breeding geese are managed and fed so that they are
+in good condition. Early in the season the eggs may not run as fertile
+or hatch as well as later.
+
+_Period of Incubation._ The period of incubation of goose eggs is
+approximately 30 days, but may vary from 28 to 33 or occasionally even
+35 days.
+
+_Hatching with Chicken Hens._ Chicken hens are used very commonly to
+hatch goose eggs both because they give good results and are readily
+available and also because it is desirable to take the first eggs laid
+by the geese away and not to let them get broody and sit so that they
+will lay more eggs. For the latter reason practically all the eggs laid
+early in the season are hatched by chicken hens.
+
+The nest can be prepared for the hen either in a suitable place in a
+poultry house or in a shed or other building or in a box or barrel on
+the ground. As soon as the hen shows that she is ready to sit by staying
+on the nest, in which has been placed a nest egg or two, for a couple of
+nights in succession, she may be given a sitting of eggs. Four to 6
+goose eggs will constitute a sitting for a common hen. The hen should be
+confined to the nest being let off only once a day for exercise, feed
+and water.
+
+The sitting hen must be given good care, being even more particular in
+this respect than when she is sitting on hens' eggs as the period of
+incubation is longer. In addition to being careful to see that the hen
+comes off her nest for food and water she should be dusted 2 or 3 times
+during the hatch with some good insect powder to keep her free from lice
+and therefore contented to stay on the nest. Two or 3 days before the
+goslings hatch she should be dusted with especial care so that the
+goslings will be free from vermin.
+
+On account of the large size of the eggs the hen should not be depended
+upon to turn them and this should be done by hand once or twice daily.
+
+_Hatching with Geese._ All breeds of geese will hatch their eggs
+although some are more persistently broody than others while there is a
+considerable difference in individuals in this respect. Toulouse and
+Chinese are perhaps the least broody of the breeds and are sometimes
+termed non-broody. The eggs laid by geese are generally gathered as
+laid. If this were not done they will become broody and stop laying
+quicker than they do under this treatment.
+
+The goose should be allowed to make her own nest. Often she will do this
+in a barrel, box or other shelter if these are conveniently available.
+When she shows that she is broody and has stopped laying she should be
+given a sitting of eggs which will consist of 10 or 11. Geese are often
+difficult to manage when they have young.
+
+Wild and Egyptian geese should always be allowed to make their own nests
+which they like to do on dry ground near the water, using straw leaves
+or similar material to make the nest. They should not be disturbed as
+they are ugly during this time. They will hatch practically every egg.
+
+_Breaking Up Broody Geese._ A goose which shows a desire to sit, can be
+broken up quite easily by confining her to a slat-bottomed coop without
+any feed, but with plenty of water to drink, for from 2 to 4 days. After
+being broken up she will generally commence laying again after an
+interval of a few days.
+
+_Hatching with an Incubator._ While it is more difficult to hatch goose
+eggs in incubators than it is hen or duck eggs, this can be done by an
+experienced operator with a fair degree of success. The incubator should
+be operated at a temperature of 101.5 to 102.5 degrees F., with the
+thermometer so placed that the bulb is on a level with the top of the
+eggs. Beginning with the third day, the eggs should be turned twice a
+day as with hens' eggs. Beginning about the tenth day, the eggs should
+be cooled once a day, and they need more cooling than hens' eggs
+require. They should be cooled down to a temperature of about 80 to 85
+degrees. All goose eggs whether in incubators or under hens or geese
+should be tested once during the hatch. The best time to do this is
+sometime between the tenth and fourteenth days, when any infertile eggs
+or dead germs should be thrown out.
+
+_Moisture for Hatching Eggs._ Where eggs are being hatched in an
+incubator, there is need for the use of considerable moisture. It should
+be added first at about the end of the first week of incubation and
+should be repeated a couple of times during the second week. This can
+best be done by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water heated to about
+100 degrees. Beginning with the 15th day and until 2 or 3 days before
+the eggs are ready to hatch soak them in warm water for from one-half a
+minute to a minute once every 2 or 3 days. For the last 2 or 3 days do
+this daily.
+
+When the eggs are being hatched by chicken hens or geese in nests
+indoors or in boxes or barrels and in dry weather, moisture should be
+added in the same manner and with the same frequency and amount as in
+the incubator. When the nest is on damp ground, it is not necessary to
+use any moisture on the eggs.
+
+_Hatching._ Goslings as a rule hatch rather slowly and somewhat
+unevenly, especially when under hens. For this reason it is well to
+remove each gosling as it hatches from under the hen or goose and place
+it in a covered, cloth-lined box or basket and keep near the stove
+until the hatch is completed. As soon as the hatch is over, the goslings
+that have been removed from the nest can be put back under the hen or
+goose which is to be allowed to assume the duties of motherhood.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Brooding and Rearing Goslings
+
+
+When the hatch is completed all the goslings which have been removed
+from the nest should be returned; and the hen or goose removed to the
+coop which she is to occupy while brooding them. At this time, if
+hatched with a hen the goslings should be examined carefully on the head
+and neck to see whether there are any head lice present. If any are
+found the heads and necks of the goslings must be greased with a little
+lard or vaseline. Not too much grease should be used as it may prove
+harmful to the goslings.
+
+_Methods of Brooding._ The most common methods of brooding goslings are
+the use of geese, of chicken hens or of artificial means. Geese make the
+best mothers but are not always available especially during the early
+hatches. Geese may also prove rather unruly when they have young and for
+this reason are not in favor with some goose raisers. When hatching is
+done simultaneously with geese and hens it is the practice of some
+raisers to give all the goslings hatched to the geese to rear.
+
+Hens can be used very successfully for rearing goslings especially if
+they are confined to a coop for the first week or two so that they
+cannot range too far and too fast and tire the goslings out. Not over 6
+or 8 goslings should be given to a hen to brood.
+
+Artificial methods are very successful with goslings much more so in
+fact than are artificial methods of hatching the eggs. Some goose
+raisers prefer to use artificial means of brooding, especially if they
+have only a few goslings and are brooding at the same time some chicks
+or ducklings.
+
+_Brooding with Hens or Geese._ A suitable roomy coop should be provided
+to which the goslings with their mother, either hen or goose, can be
+moved when the hatch is completed. The coop should be so constructed by
+means of a slatted front or otherwise, that the hen can be confined and
+the goslings allowed to range. It is very desirable to get the goslings
+out on grass as soon as possible. A goose with goslings is often allowed
+to have her liberty but many raisers prefer to confine her to a coop the
+same as when a hen is used. The coop should have a board floor well
+bedded with straw, shavings or similar material. This will not only help
+to keep the goslings dry but will also serve to protect them from their
+enemies during the night. For this same reason the coop should be so
+constructed that it can be closed at night by means of a wire covered
+door so as to shut out marauders, and at the same time allow plenty of
+ventilation. The coop must be cleaned often so as to keep the goslings
+clean and dry.
+
+_Length of Time Brooding Is Necessary._ The time that goslings need
+brooding will, of course, depend upon the weather. During mild weather
+10 days is usually sufficient, after which they can do without any
+brooding. Early in the season, brooding must be extended over a longer
+period. This may mean anywhere from 2 to 4 weeks or even longer.
+
+_Artificial Brooding._ For this purpose any brooder utilized for chicks
+or ducks can be used for goslings. To start with they should have a
+temperature of about 100 degrees but this can be reduced in a few days
+until in a week or ten days it is only 70 to 80 degrees or if the
+weather is mild artificial heat may be dispensed with entirely. Where
+there are only a few goslings they may be put with a brood of ducks as
+long as they need heat. It does not work so well to put them with chicks
+both because they do not require a high temperature so long as the
+chicks and also because they are so large as to be likely to tread on
+and injure some of the chicks. Brooders should be well bedded with
+straw, shavings or some similar material and should be cleaned out every
+2 or 3 days so as to be kept clean and dry. Do not crowd the goslings;
+give them plenty of room.
+
+Some goose raisers do not depend upon heated brooders at all, especially
+when only a few goslings are to be brooded. For the first day or two the
+goslings are kept in a covered basket or box in the house near a fire
+and after this are put out during the warmth of the day but brought into
+the house and put in the basket or box at night until they are two or
+three weeks old. The same practice should be followed with goslings
+reared in brooders, these being used only during the night after the
+first 2 or 3 days, the goslings being put out-doors during the day in
+good weather.
+
+When goslings which are being artificially brooded are put out during
+the day on the grass, they should be confined at first. This can be
+easily accomplished by building a triangular enclosure, formed of 3
+boards, 1 foot wide or wider, placed up on edge. This enclosure can be
+easily shifted to a new position each day thus giving the goslings fresh
+ground and fresh grass.
+
+
+General Care of Growing Goslings
+
+Goslings should be kept dry and for this reason should be kept shut up
+until the dew is off the grass in the morning. For the same reason they
+should not be allowed access to water in which to swim until they are at
+least 3 or 4 weeks old. When allowed to swim, care should be taken to
+see that they can get out of the water easily.
+
+Goslings caught in a cold rain will often be overcome and apparently
+dead. Frequently they can be revived and saved by wrapping them in a
+heated cloth and placing them near a warm fire. While they are still
+young, goslings should be driven under shelter whenever a rain storm
+comes up.
+
+When allowed to run at liberty, goslings must be kept track of to some
+extent. They may become lost and have to be driven back to their shelter
+at night. Or they may fall into holes or get caught in fences and
+corners and must be released. When allowed to run with larger stock they
+are more or less liable to injury from being stepped upon or kicked.
+
+A growing coop or shelter of some sort should be provided for the
+growing goslings although this is not always done after they are pretty
+well feathered out. Such a coop should be large enough so that the
+goslings are not crowded, and should be well ventilated. It should have
+a board floor and be capable of being closed so as to protect the
+goslings from their enemies, but without cutting off ventilation.
+
+If natural shade is not available where the goslings range, artificial
+shade of some sort must be provided during the hot weather. Growing
+goslings are quite susceptible to extreme heat and will not make as good
+growth if not provided with shade. Artificial shade of boards or brush
+can be easily provided.
+
+If for any reason it is necessary to confine growing goslings, they
+should be provided with good grass yards or runs and their coops or
+shelters should be moved to a fresh location frequently.
+
+It is better, if possible, to keep the growing stock separate from the
+old breeding stock as they will do better and make more rapid growth
+under these conditions. Usually, however, where only a few geese are
+reared each year, old and young stock are allowed to range together.
+
+_Feeding the Goslings._ Like chicks or ducks, goslings do not need to be
+fed as soon as hatched, the yolk of the eggs providing all the
+nourishment they need for at least 36 hours. They should, however, be
+furnished water to drink as soon as the hatch is completed.
+
+The first feed should consist of stale bread, soaked in milk or water.
+With this material should be mixed boiled eggs chopped up fine. The
+goslings should be fed 3 or preferably 4 times daily until they are 2 or
+3 weeks old. Chopped grass or some other green feed should be added to
+the feed, the quantity fed being increased steadily. It is important to
+get the goslings out on grass as soon as possible, which should be after
+the first 2 or 3 days if the weather is good, so that they will be able
+to graze for themselves. Five per cent of fine grit or sharp sand should
+likewise be added to the feed. Some growers prefer to feed the grit or
+sand in a hopper to which the goslings have constant access and from
+which they can help themselves. A constant supply of fresh drinking
+water is essential and this should be provided in drinking fountains or
+dishes such that the goslings cannot get their feet or bodies in them.
+
+When a good grass range is available, the goslings, after they are 2 or
+3 weeks old, will need only one light feed of mash daily in addition to
+the grass they eat. Such a mash will consist of 2 parts shorts and 1
+part corn meal, ground oats or ground barley. Where the pasture is good
+many goslings are raised from the age of 2 or 3 weeks until they are
+ready to be fattened without any other feed than the grass and other
+material which they get for themselves. However, the feeding of one
+light feed of mash a day is advantageous as it insures adequate feed for
+their need and promotes quicker growth. After the goslings are 6 weeks
+old, if they are still fed, the mash should be changed to equal parts
+shorts, corn meal and ground oats with 5% meat scrap. This same mash can
+be continued until fattening time. Whole grains are not generally fed to
+goslings until they are well feathered and often not until it is desired
+to fatten them.
+
+_Percentage of Goslings Raised._ Goslings are for the most part quite
+hardy and are comparatively easy to brood. This coupled with the fact
+that they are relatively free from disease and are not much troubled
+with insect pests makes it possible to raise a large per cent of the
+thrifty goslings hatched. With good care and with good strong healthy
+stock, it should be possible to raise in the neighborhood of 90% of the
+goslings hatched.
+
+_Rapidity of Growth._ Goslings make a very rapid growth. When marketed
+as green geese they are usually turned off at from 12 to 16 weeks of
+age. At this age they should weigh from 9 to 12 pounds, depending upon
+the breed and upon the rapidity of growth. Many, probably most, young
+geese are not marketed at as early an age as this but are held until the
+Christmas season or later and marketed at heavier weight. The best grown
+Toulouse goslings should attain a weight of 16 to 18 pounds by Christmas
+or when 6 to 8 months old. Other breeds will weigh proportionately less.
+Special attention or special feeding will, of course, increase the
+weight over that attained without such feeding.
+
+As a rule the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse do not get their full
+growth until they are about 18 months old. After this as geese of both
+sexes grow older, they will, of course, fill out more and attain greater
+weight.
+
+_Disease._ Goslings are remarkably free from disease and a very large
+percentage of all strong goslings hatched should be reared. One of the
+principal difficulties is diarrhoea. This is usually caused by faulty
+feeding. It may be due to feeding too great a quantity of soft feed or
+to giving soft feed in too sloppy a condition. Access to stagnant water,
+unclean enclosures or unclean drinking dishes may also cause diarrhoea.
+When partly grown goslings which are being given soft feed are troubled
+with diarrhoea, this may sometimes be checked by substituting a light
+feed of corn daily for a part of the soft feed.
+
+Goslings are sometimes troubled with lameness. This is usually caused by
+faulty feeding also, particularly by feeding a ration which is lacking
+in something needed, such as some form of animal feed like beef scrap
+which may cause a lack of mineral matter in the ration. If the goslings
+cannot secure it for themselves a supply of grit or gravel should be
+placed at their disposal.
+
+There is an infectious disease of geese which sometimes causes trouble
+known as goose septicemia or hemorrhagic septicemia. This is a disease
+similar to fowl cholera and may attack either young or mature geese. It
+is not often found on farms where the geese are raised in small lots,
+but sometimes proves troublesome on farms where a large number of geese
+are gathered together for fattening. The geese are often found dead when
+one goes to feed them without having shown much preliminary sickness.
+The disease is usually fatal. Shortly before they die the affected geese
+may acquire an uncertain gait and may twist the head about and burrow it
+in the dirt. Treatment is of no avail. If the disease occurs in a flock,
+the affected birds should be removed and killed, while the rest of the
+flock should be moved to new ground if possible. The ground which they
+previously occupied should be plowed and any houses, shelter, feed
+troughs, and drinking vessels should be thoroughly disinfected.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+Fattening and Marketing Geese
+
+
+_Classes of Geese Marketed._ The market geese consist principally of the
+surplus young ganders not required for breeding purposes and such of the
+old geese of either sex as it may be considered desirable to get rid of.
+Some young females, when the number raised is in excess of the number
+required for breeders also find their way to market. While these geese
+are marketed in the largest numbers during the Thanksgiving and
+Christmas holiday season, particularly the latter, some geese of course
+find their way to market practically throughout the year. There is also
+a rather limited trade in "green geese" which corresponds to the trade
+in spring or "green" ducklings. Green geese are goslings about 12 to 16
+weeks old, generally of the larger breeds, which are forced for rapid
+growth and are made to weigh in the neighborhood of 10 pounds at that
+age. These bring a good price and yield a good profit where there is
+demand for this class of geese.
+
+_Markets and Prices._ As with most classes of poultry, the large cities
+offer the best market for geese. Especially the cities which have a
+large foreign population make good markets as many foreigners are more
+in the habit of using geese for a holiday dish than are native
+Americans. The most favorable market usually occurs at Christmas when
+roast goose and apple sauce is in considerable favor. Considerable
+numbers of geese are also used at Thanksgiving time and in recent years
+as the price of turkeys has steadily increased there has been an
+increasing tendency to substitute goose for turkey on that day.
+Following are prices paid for various classes of geese on the New York
+wholesale market from May 1920 to June 1921 as reported by the New York
+Produce Review. Quite a wide variation in price will be noted in many
+cases which reflects the difference in condition of the geese as
+received. In the case of express receipts of live geese where a wide
+variation in prices occurs the high quotations represent the receipt of
+especially fattened geese from nearby farms.
+
+WESTERN GEESE, FROZEN
+
+1920
+May   5      25 @ 31c per lb.
+     12      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     19      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     26      25 @ 31c  "  "
+June  2      25 @ 31c  "  "
+      9      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     16      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     30      23 @ 29c  "  "
+July  7      23 @ 29c  "  "
+     14      21 @ 27c  "  "
+     21      21 @ 27c  "  "
+     28      21 @ 27c  "  "
+Aug.  4      20 @ 25c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan. 26      26 @ 34c  "  "
+Feb.  2      26 @ 34c  "  "
+      9      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     16      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     23      26 @ 36c  "  "
+Mar.  2      26 @ 36c  "  "
+      9      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     16      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     30      25 @ 35c  "  "
+Apr.  6      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     13      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     20      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     27      25 @ 35c  "  "
+May   4      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     11      25 @ 35c  "  "
+
+FRESH DRESSED GEESE
+
+1920
+Nov. 17      34 @ 43c per lb.
+     24      30 @ 38c  "  "
+Dec.  1      25 @ 36c  "  "
+      8      30 @ 36c  "  "
+     15      30 @ 39c  "  "
+     22      30 @ 40c  "  "
+     29      30 @ 40c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan.  5      30 @ 37c  "  "
+     12      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     19      25 @ 34c  "  "
+     26      25 @ 34c  "  "
+
+
+FRESH DRESSED GEESE
+
+1921
+Feb.  2      25 @ 34c per    lb.
+      9      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     16      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     23      26 @ 36c  "  "
+Mar.  2      26 @ 36c  "  "
+      9      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     16      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 35c  "  "
+
+LIVE GEESE--VIA FREIGHT
+
+1920
+May   5      18 @ 20c per  lb.
+     12      22c       "  "
+     19      20 @ 22c  "  "
+     26      20 @ 22c  "  "
+June  2      20 @ 22c  "  "
+      9      20 @ 22c  "  "
+     16      20 @ 22c  "  "
+     23      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     30      18 @ 20c  "  "
+July  7      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     14      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     28      25c       "  "
+Aug   4      25c       "  "
+     18      25c       "  "
+     25      25c       "  "
+Sept. 1      25c       "  "
+     22      26c       "  "
+     29      26c       "  "
+Oct. 20      25 @ 28c  "  "
+     27      27 @ 30c  "  "
+Nov.  3      32c       "  "
+     10      32c       "  "
+     17      32c       "  "
+     24      28 @ 32c  "  "
+Dec.  1      28 @ 30c  "  "
+      8      30 @ 34c  "  "
+     15      28 @ 35c  "  "
+     22      25 @ 30c  "  "
+     29      27 @ 32c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan.  5      26 @ 32c  "  "
+     12      26 @ 30c  "  "
+     19      25 @ 29c  "  "
+     26      25 @ 29c  "  "
+Feb.  2      27 @ 33c  "  "
+      9      28 @ 33c  "  "
+     16      26 @ 32c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 26c  "  "
+
+LIVE GEESE--VIA FREIGHT
+
+1921
+Mar.  2      25c  per lb.
+      9      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     16      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     23      20c       "  "
+     30      20c       "  "
+Apr.  6      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     13      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     20      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     27      15 @ 18c  "  "
+May   4      14 @ 16c  "  "
+     11      14 @ 16c  "  "
+     18      14 @ 16c  "  "
+     25      14 @ 16c  "  "
+June  1      14 @ 16c  "  "
+
+LIVE GEESE--VIA EXPRESS
+
+1920
+Nov. 24      30 @ 33c per lb.
+Dec.  1      30 @ 32c  "  "
+      8      32 @ 35c  "  "
+     15      30c       "  "
+     22      30c       "  "
+     29      28 @ 35c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan.  5      29 @ 38c  "  "
+     12      28 @ 38c  "  "
+     19      28 @ 36c  "  "
+     26      27 @ 37c  "  "
+Feb.  9      28 @ 40c  "  "
+     16      28 @ 42c  "  "
+     23      26 @ 28c  "  "
+Mar.  2      25 @ 28c  "  "
+      9      20 @ 23c  "  "
+     16      18 @ 22c  "  "
+     23      18 @ 22c  "  "
+     30      20 @ 23c  "  "
+Apr.  6      17 @ 20c  "  "
+     13      17 @ 20c  "  "
+     20      17 @ 21c  "  "
+     27      16 @ 20c  "  "
+May   4      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     11      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     18      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     25      15 @ 18c  "  "
+
+_Prejudice Against Roast Goose._ There exists on the part of some
+persons a prejudice against goose on the grounds that it is too greasy a
+dish. When improperly cooked, goose will prove to be too greasy to suit
+many fastidious palates but this condition is not so much the fault of
+the fowl as it is of the method of preparation and cooking. When dressed
+if the goose shows a large amount of abdominal fat, as it usually does
+and should, a large part of this should be removed. This fat when tried
+out is highly esteemed by many cooks and by other persons is treasured
+as an efficacious treatment for croup in children. Also while the goose
+is roasting, a part of the fat as it cooks out of the carcass should be
+removed. Treated in this way one need have no fear that the roast goose
+will prove too greasy but instead one will be pleasantly surprised at
+the rich taste which the roast goose possesses.
+
+_Methods of Fattening Geese for Market._ Many geese are sent to market
+without any special treatment or effort to fatten them, being taken
+right off pasture in such condition as they happen to be or at best with
+only a half-hearted attempt to fatten them by feeding a little corn or
+some other grain for a short period. When a real effort is made to
+fatten geese for the market it is generally done in one of three ways.
+First is pen fattening which is the method best adapted to small lots of
+geese on the average farm. Second is by noodling which is only attempted
+in sections where the goose raisers are somewhat of specialists and
+where the effort is made to turn out geese of superior quality. Third is
+fattening in large flocks which is practiced only by a very limited
+number of farmers in scattered sections who take the unfattened geese
+raised on the general farms and finish them for market.
+
+_Pen Fattening._ For this purpose the geese are put in pens large enough
+to hold them comfortably but without any yards. Not over 20 to 25 geese
+should be penned together for this purpose. To get the best results the
+geese should be kept as quiet as possible and to accomplish this the
+pens are partly darkened and the geese disturbed only at feeding time.
+The geese are fed three times daily; in the morning, at noon and at
+night, being given all they will clean up. One feed should consist of a
+moist mash composed of one part shorts and two parts corn meal. This
+mash should not be sloppy. The other two feeds consist mainly of corn
+with some oats or barley. Some roughage such as vegetables or hay should
+also be supplied. The pens should be deeply bedded with good oat straw.
+The geese will eat a considerable amount of this which thus helps to
+supply the roughage which they need. The straw also, of course, serves
+to keep the pen and the birds clean. A plentiful supply of good drinking
+water is also necessary. The usual period of fattening is three to five
+weeks and a gain of from 4 to 6 pounds per bird can be secured. This
+method of fattening is commonly used by goose raisers in Wisconsin and
+the geese from this state are noted for their fine quality.
+
+A less intensive form of pen fattening is often used by farmers where a
+small yard is provided in addition to the pen itself and where no effort
+is made to darken the pen. If no other means for fattening are
+available, a small yard can be built, a few boards arranged for a
+shelter at one end and the birds fed in this enclosure as described
+above.
+
+_Noodling Geese._ Noodling geese is a method of hand feeding which has
+for its purpose the production of the best fattened geese. It is not
+employed to any extent except in the section about Watertown, Wisconsin,
+where the farmers specialize to some extent on goose fattening. It is a
+method requiring long hours and tedious labor and cannot be profitably
+carried on unless a special price can be obtained for the product.
+
+In noodling geese, 8 or 10 geese are placed in a pen about 8 by 12 feet
+which is heavily bedded with straw. A partition extends halfway across
+the pen and is utilized to keep the geese separate as they are fed.
+Young ganders and any old ganders or geese which are to be marketed are
+used for noodling.
+
+The pen is kept dark and the geese should be disturbed only at feeding
+time. The first feed is given at 5 o'clock in the morning and five feeds
+are given daily at about 4 hour intervals, the last feed coming at 11 p.
+m. However, when the geese are first put on feed they are noodled only
+3 times a day this being gradually increased to 5 times. The feeder sits
+on a box or stool in a corner of the pen, grasps each goose in turn
+holding it between his legs to keep it from struggling as he stuffs it
+with noodles. The goose is handled by its neck, never by its legs which
+are easily injured, and is held with its back toward the feeder. The
+feeder usually wears gloves to protect his hands from the severe bites
+which the birds will inflict. The feeder must also handle the birds as
+carefully as possible, especially as killing time approaches for the
+flesh bruises easily and the discolored patches spoil the appearance of
+the dressed goose.
+
+The feeder at the start usually gives each goose from 3 to 5 noodles,
+gradually increasing this to 6 or 7 noodles if the birds will stand it,
+the number of noodles fed depending upon the size and condition of each
+bird, the feeder being obliged to use his judgment in this matter. In
+general if any feed can be felt in the craw, no noodles are given until
+the next feeding time. Failure to observe this is likely to cause the
+bird to go off feed. If any geese are noticed which are off feed they
+should be taken out and marketed.
+
+The noodles are made of scalded corn meal, ground oats, ground barley
+and ground wheat or wheat flour, using equal parts of each. This
+material is thoroughly mixed and salted as one would bread and is then
+put through a sausage stuffer. The product as it comes from the stuffer
+is cut into noodles about 2½ or 3 inches long and these are boiled for
+10 or 15 minutes or until they float. A wash boiler with a wire rack
+forming a false bottom about 1½ inches above the boiler bottom is used
+for this purpose. When cooked the noodles are dipped in cold water and
+then rolled in flour to keep them from sticking together. A supply of
+noodles is made which will last for 2 or 3 days' feeding.
+
+Just before feeding, hot water is poured over the noodles to make them
+warm and slippery. The mouth of the goose is forced open and the noodles
+are put in, one at a time, and worked down by using the fingers on the
+outside of the neck. As each goose is fed it is placed on the other side
+of the partition until all in the pen have been fed. It is important
+that plenty of drinking water be kept before the geese.
+
+The feeding period where geese are noodled usually extends from 3 to 4
+weeks. Gains of 6 to 10 pounds per bird can be secured and often an
+increased price of 10 to 15 cents a pound can be secured for such
+specially fattened geese. Noodled geese will average about 25 pounds and
+some individuals have been made to weigh nearly 40 pounds. One man can
+noodle from 50 to 100 geese but has to put in long hours. Noodled geese
+should be dressed where fattened as they are soft fleshed and would
+shrink badly if shipped alive.
+
+Fattening methods similar to the noodling described are used in parts
+of Europe for the production of the enlarged goose livers which are
+employed in making "patte de fois gras".
+
+
+Methods Used on Fattening Farms
+
+As previously mentioned, a few farmers make a specialty of buying the
+geese in their section of the country in the fall when it is too late
+for serious trouble to develop from hemorrhagic septicemia, a disease
+similar to fowl cholera, and to fatten or finish them in large flocks
+for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. Methods are employed in
+different sections which differ quite widely.
+
+On a farm in the Middle West the geese are collected from the general
+farms where they are produced in small flocks and brought to the farm
+where they are kept in flocks as large as 1,000 or even more, and are
+allowed to run in a cornfield or orchard. They are fattened for about a
+month. Corn on the cob and plenty of water is kept before the geese all
+the time and if they are running in a cornfield they eat the leaves off
+the corn stalks for roughage. Roughage is supplied if not available
+otherwise and straw, hay or vegetables are utilized for this purpose.
+
+No shelter is provided during mild weather, the geese getting such
+protection as they can from the trees or corn stalks. If the weather
+turns unusually severe, the geese are generally driven into sheds or
+barns. When fattened the geese are usually shipped to some large market
+alive. Several farms in the neighborhood of Boston make a specialty of
+finishing geese each fall, and the methods used are quite different from
+those described above. No geese are raised on these farms, the operation
+being confined to the fattening or finishing of the geese and to killing
+and dressing them for the market. Some of these goose fatteners also
+have stalls or stands in the Boston markets where they are enabled to
+dispose of their fattened geese to the best advantage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55. Large flock of geese fattening in an orchard.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Fatteners._ In previous years these fatteners depended largely upon the
+geese produced on the Rhode Island farms for their supply. In the past
+few years, however, the supply from this source has dwindled greatly and
+the bulk of the geese for fattening are now shipped from Prince Edward
+Island, Canada, in carload lots. Such summer geese as are now fattened
+still come from Rhode Island and are brought in by truck. The fattening
+season begins in September and lasts until Christmas. Some early
+goslings are bought in June but there is not as good a profit from the
+summer geese, the demand and prices being adversely affected by the
+supply of spring ducklings available at that time.
+
+Experience and good judgment will benefit the goose fattener greatly
+when purchasing his supply of geese for fattening. What he wants are
+goslings, not older geese, which have made a good growth and which have
+a large frame but which are in poor flesh rather than fat. Such geese
+will make more rapid and more profitable gains. When geese are bought
+for shipment by the carload from Prince Edward Island, they should be
+penned and fed at the point of shipment for 3 or 4 days before they are
+loaded in the cars, so as to put them in shape to stand the journey
+well. On the farms from which they come, the goslings are not fed much
+and in consequence are not in shape to stand shipment.
+
+_The Goslings_ which are secured from the farms for fattening are mainly
+common geese of no particular breed. Some pure bred geese are also
+obtained as are some first crosses between the pure breeds. A class of
+geese which is obtained in some numbers from Prince Edward Island and
+which is much desired is the so-called "Mongrel" goose. These are
+obtained by breeding a Wild or Canadian gander to geese of dark plumage
+similar to the Toulouse or African. The mongrel geese much resemble the
+wild gander in type and color and are in demand on the market because of
+their wild or gamy flavor. They bring about 10 cents per pound more than
+common geese. The market, however, is somewhat limited. These geese will
+not breed although the females will lay eggs. Where the wild gander is
+mated with light colored or white geese the offspring will have more or
+less light colored feathers and will not as closely resemble the wild
+parent and for this reason are not as desirable.
+
+_Shipping._ The geese are loaded into stock cars into which three
+separate decks are built to accommodate them. From 1200 to 1400 geese
+can be loaded into a car thus arranged. The journey usually takes about
+5 or 6 days and some fatteners send a man along with the car to feed and
+water the geese 2 or 3 times during the trip. If a man does not
+accompany the car, buckets of corn should be placed in the car for feed
+and some potatoes should also be supplied as these will serve in place
+of drinking water. If the car is not subjected to unusual delay, the
+geese should come through in good shape, but if much delayed there may
+be 25 to 100 geese dead when the car arrives at its destination.
+
+When the car arrives at the end of its journey, the geese are unloaded
+and driven to the farm where they are turned into the fields together in
+a large flock. The fields in which they are thus kept should have a
+supply of growing green feed or grass and a good supply of fresh
+drinking water. They are kept here until they are wanted for the
+fattening pens which may be from a week to 20 days after their arrival
+at the farm. While in this large supply flock they are fed on corn and
+grass which they can get for themselves.
+
+_Summer Geese_ to be fattened are placed only about 50 in a pen or
+enclosure; and are provided with a few boards set on posts to protect
+them from the hot sun. The later geese are fattened in lots of 3 or 4
+hundred or even more, depending upon how many pickers are available to
+be kept busy. It is for this reason also that the geese are not all put
+on the fattening ration at the same time, but are started at intervals
+so as to have a continuous supply coming along to keep the pickers busy.
+The geese not put in the fattening lots at the start are left in the
+fields to grow and develop until they are needed.
+
+The enclosures in which the geese are penned for fattening are small
+lots or fields enclosed by stone walls or board fences 2½ to 3 feet
+high. These lots should be dry and well-drained, a location on a side
+hill being good for this purpose. The fattening lots must be kept clean
+and stagnant water must not be allowed to stand in the lots as this is
+likely to cause sickness, especially diarrhoea. These yards should be
+plowed up each spring and planted to oats, corn or some other growing
+crop to sweeten them. No houses or shelters are provided for these geese
+but some yards are somewhat wooded which affords a measure of protection
+from the wind.
+
+_Feeding._ When the geese are placed in the fattening lots, some
+fatteners prefer to fast the geese for from 3 to 5 days, giving them no
+feed but plenty of water to drink. This gives them a good appetite and
+puts them in good shape for fattening.
+
+The geese are fed three times a day, in the morning, at noon and at
+night. The morning and night feed usually consists of a moist mixed feed
+fed in troughs; while the noon feed is whole corn thrown on the ground.
+The use of one feed of corn a day is supposed to check any tendency
+toward diarrhoea. In very cold weather some fatteners feed the mixed
+feed at noon and the corn at night. At first the geese are not given all
+they will eat but are worked up gradually, increasing the amount each
+day until they are getting all they want. As a rule the geese will drop
+back a little in feed consumption after they reach the point where they
+get all they want and from this time on, the feeding must be very
+carefully watched to see that they are not given so much that they will
+leave some to sour which would cause diarrhoea. The morning and noon
+feeds are lighter, the heaviest feed being given at night. The bird's
+appetites will vary from day to day so that it is best to make the
+rounds twice in feeding to make sure that they have enough and that none
+is left. If any is left it must be gathered up and carried away.
+
+No provision is made for furnishing the fattening geese with green feed
+or roughage. The practice with respect to drinking water varies. Some
+fatteners keep a supply before the birds in troughs which must be washed
+out each day to keep them clean. Others furnish no water except that
+used in mixing up the feed.
+
+_Corn Meal_ is the principal ingredient of the fattening mixture. To a
+sack of corn meal is added 10% beef scrap and five good shovels of grit
+or medium sized gravel. In addition some fatteners add 10% of flour to
+bind the mixture together. This material should be thoroughly mixed up
+in a dry state as a better mix can be obtained in this way. It is then
+mixed up with water, the practice here varying. Some fatteners mix in a
+trough with boiling water a short time before feeding, while others mix
+it with cold water letting it soak over night and adding more water in
+the morning if it is too dry at that time. It should be mixed until it
+can be shoveled readily but should be quite solid, never in a sloppy
+condition as this is likely to cause diarrhoea. A little salt may be
+added, if desired, as an appetizer. While corn meal is generally used,
+hominy may take its place. After the geese are started on the fattening
+ration, this must be given throughout the fattening period. Changing to
+some other feed will throw the geese off feed and cause a loss.
+
+_Feeding._ When the mixed feed is ready it is shoveled into boxes or
+barrels on a low wagon and driven to the fattening lots where it is
+shoveled into the troughs for the geese. Ordinary V-shaped troughs are
+favored instead of flat troughs as the latter afford hiding places for
+rats which may cause damage in addition to the feed which they eat by
+frightening the geese.
+
+Geese are easily frightened and must therefore be handled rather
+carefully and gently as a severe fright will interfere with the gains
+they will make. Some fatteners provide electric lights where the geese
+rest at night so that they can see and will not be so likely to become
+frightened.
+
+When the geese are ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing
+house and into a pen where they may be easily caught. Each goose as
+caught is examined to see whether it is in condition for killing. If it
+is not it is put back with a later lot for additional fattening. Good
+condition in a goose is judged by its weight when handled and also by
+the condition of its breast and the fat on its back. A good place to
+test geese for fat is on the side of the body just below the point where
+the wing joins the body. If fat can be seized between the thumb and
+finger at that point, the goose is in good condition.
+
+_Dry Picking._ All fattened geese for the Boston market are dry picked.
+The goose is held between the knees of the picker with the wings held
+fast against the sides of the body. The head is grasped by the left
+hand, the mouth forced open and the veins in the back of the throat just
+beyond the skull severed with a sharp knife for the purpose of bleeding
+the bird. If the bird is to be stuck, which is not always done, the
+point of the knife is then plunged through the roof of the mouth to the
+brain. The legs are then seized in the left hand, together with the ends
+of the wings to prevent the goose from struggling and the goose is
+struck once or twice sharply on the back of the head with a club held in
+the right hand. This is for the purpose of stunning the bird. The geese
+may also be bled by sticking the knife through the neck from the outside
+just below the head.
+
+The picker then takes his seat beside the feather box, holding the goose
+on his lap with the head held between his knee and the outside of the
+box. He proceeds to pluck the feathers as rapidly as possible, removing
+all the feathers except the main wing feathers or those of the first
+joint of the wing and the feathers of the neck half way from the head to
+the body. All the soft body feathers are thrown in the box and saved.
+The coarser feathers are thrown on the floor. The down is removed by
+rubbing the moistened hand over the skin. To save the hands, ordinary
+rubber heels dipped in water are often used. Sharp knives are also used
+to shave off the pin feathers which cannot be plucked and any down not
+removed by rubbing.
+
+The dry picked goose presents a much better appearance than a scalded
+goose and the feathers are more valuable. The skin of a dry picked bird
+is not so likely to be rubbed off in removing the down.
+
+_The Value of the Feathers_ is sufficient to pay for the cost of the
+picking or perhaps a little more. The cost of picking in the fall of
+1920 ranged from 15 to 20 cents per goose where the picker was boarded
+and 24 cents without board. A good man can pick about 40 geese in a day.
+Women are not employed for this work as the geese are too big and too
+strong for them to handle.
+
+After the geese are picked, the blood is washed from the head and the
+feet washed if that is necessary. They are then thrown into barrels of
+cold water to cool and must be left there until the body heat is
+entirely removed. The wings are tied in place by means of a string or
+tape tied around the body and wings and the legs may also be crossed
+over the back and tied. The geese when ready for market are either
+shipped in by express or are taken in by automobile truck.
+
+_Gain in Weight._ In fattening according to the methods described above
+a gain in weight is secured of from 6 to 8 pounds per goose. This does
+not represent the total gain in value, however, for the fattened geese
+will bring more per pound as a result of their finished condition. The
+fattened geese when ready for market will weigh from 12 to 20 pounds.
+Weights taken on two carloads of fattened geese showed an average weight
+of 14 pounds. On December 2, 1920, fattened geese from these farms were
+bringing 42 cents per pound on the Boston market while the mongrel geese
+were worth 50 cents or a little better.
+
+The question may arise as to the size of farm necessary to carry on a
+business of this sort. Using the methods employed about Boston a farm of
+30 acres would be sufficient to handle 20,000 geese in a season. In
+selecting a farm for such a purpose, a location should be chosen where
+there are no close neighbors as the odor from the geese and yards is
+offensive to most persons.
+
+_Selling Geese Alive._ Most farmers who raise only a few geese ship them
+alive, either sending them to some commission house or selling them to
+someone who makes a specialty of fattening. Such geese are often in
+poor condition and bring the lowest quotation. Large coops similar to
+those used for turkeys should be used in shipping geese.
+
+_Killing._ Where geese are killed on the farm for shipment to market
+they are usually hung up by means of a cord about the legs. When geese
+are to be dry picked the veins in the throat just beyond the skull are
+first severed with a long bladed knife such as used for killing turkeys
+to cause good bleeding and the point of the knife is then plunged
+through the roof of the mouth to the brain performing the stick which
+serves to make the feathers come out more easily as with other classes
+of poultry. Since it is rather difficult to dry pick geese, they are
+usually scalded or steamed and where this is done, the stick is not made
+but after the veins in the throat are cut, the goose is stunned by a
+blow on the back of the head with a short club. A blood can or weight is
+then hooked through the lower bill which keeps the neck straightened out
+and prevents the blood from being thrown about the room or on the birds.
+The birds are allowed to hang until they are dead and thoroughly bled
+out.
+
+_Picking._ When geese are dry picked, the feathers are removed just as
+soon as the birds are stuck for the longer the delay the harder the
+feathers pull. The wings are picked to the first joint and the feathers
+of the neck half-way to the head. The soft pin feathers and fine down
+may be removed by shaving the skin or rubbing the body with moistened
+hands will partially remove them.
+
+Usually geese are scalded or steamed for picking. For steaming a wash
+boiler three-quarters full of boiling water and with a burlap sack
+tightly stretched over its top can be used. The goose is simply laid on
+the sack and the steam coming through the burlap steams the feathers and
+makes them easy to remove. The breast should be steamed first, then the
+back and then each side. Two or three minutes will be time enough to
+complete the steaming. The feathers are steamed until they pull out
+easily. The goose must be kept moving to prevent the flesh from becoming
+scalded and since the breast is especially tender it is usual to lay the
+head under the breast to prevent the latter from scalding. After
+steaming the body feathers are removed and the bird is then singed over
+a flame furnished by alcohol burned in shallow tin plates, in order to
+remove the down. The down may also be removed by sprinkling powdered
+rosin over the goose's body which is then dipped into hot water. The hot
+water melts the rosin which sticks to the down and the down and rosin
+can then be rubbed off together.
+
+Geese may also be steamed by scalding slightly in hot water and then
+wrapping tightly in burlap or some other cloth. They are kept wrapped
+for about five minutes which allows the steam to work thoroughly through
+the feathers which can then be plucked easily.
+
+Exactly the same methods can and often are employed in dressing geese as
+are used with ducks. The reader is therefore also referred to the
+material in Chapter VII.
+
+There seems to be no great insistence on the part of most markets for
+dry picked geese. Some will pay slightly more for the dry picked birds
+but others make no difference.
+
+_Packing for Shipment._ After picking, the geese are washed and then
+placed in cold water to cool. Ice water is best for this purpose and is
+essential in warm weather. The carcasses must be allowed to remain in
+the water until they are thoroughly cooled, which will take at least one
+to two hours. If any animal heat is left in the bodies, they will spoil
+very quickly. Often the carcasses are dipped in hot water, before being
+thrown in the cold water, to plump them. After they are thoroughly
+cooled, the geese are packed in barrels for shipping. If the weather is
+cool they may be packed in well ventilated barrels without ice, but if
+the weather is warm, cracked ice must be used in packing, proceeding in
+the same way as when packing ducks as described on page 109. It is
+always risky to pack without ice.
+
+_Saving the Feathers._ Goose feathers are valuable and should therefore
+be saved when the geese are plucked. The soft body feathers and the
+coarser feathers should be kept separate. The feathers should be cured
+by spreading them out in a thin layer on the floor of a loft or room,
+stirring them up occasionally until they are thoroughly dried out, when
+they can be sacked and sold. Failure to dry the feathers thoroughly will
+result in their heating and molding with the result that they will
+arrive at their destination in bad shape and will be worth less money.
+The soft body feathers of geese are practically all used in making beds
+and pillows while the quills are sometimes utilized in making toothpicks
+and cigarette holders. Prices for goose feathers in June 1921 were as
+follows:
+
+Pure White          dry picked  75c per lb.
+Good average white   "    "     65c  "   "
+Largely gray         "    "     55c  "   "
+Largely gray         scalded    40c  "   "
+Long goose quills                5c  "   "
+
+These prices were for good dry feathers.
+
+
+Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers
+
+In the days of feather beds and home-made pillows the practice of
+plucking live geese for their feathers was very common. Now, however,
+with the demand for goose feathers less and with the opinion of some
+breeders that plucking geese is both cruel and injurious, the practice
+seems to be decreasing. Many goose raisers in the South and a less
+number in the Middle West and North however still pluck the feathers
+from the live geese prior to the time of moulting. The frequency with
+which the picking is done varies greatly, some picking as often as every
+six weeks during the spring, summer and early fall while others pick
+twice, once in the spring and once in the fall, or once in the spring
+only. Geese should never be picked during the late fall or winter when
+the weather is cold or during the breeding season. Both young and old
+geese are plucked and the average yearly production of feathers per
+goose is about one pound. When the quills of the feathers are dry and do
+not contain any blood, the feathers are ripe for picking. In plucking, a
+stocking is placed over the head of the goose and the goose held on the
+lap and between the legs during the process.
+
+An assistant to hold the goose during the plucking simplifies the work
+greatly. In plucking, part of the soft feathers of the breast, sides,
+abdomen and back are taken but these sections should not be plucked
+clean. It is especially important that enough short feathers be left to
+support the wings.
+
+After plucking, the feathers must be cured before they are shipped. This
+may be done by spreading them out on a floor as described for the
+feathers taken from slaughtered geese or they may be placed loosely in
+burlap sacks and hung up in a garret or loft. Hanging in this way and in
+the loosely woven sacks, they are subjected to a good circulation of air
+and will dry out without heating. Sacks of feathers should not be piled
+or packed closely together, on top of one another or even be allowed to
+lie on the floor until they are thoroughly dry as otherwise they are
+almost sure to heat and mold.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+A
+
+Absence of crest in Crested White Duck, 34
+
+African Goose, 156,  157
+
+Age of
+  breeding ducks, 55,  123
+  breeding geese, 152
+  duck eggs for hatching, 72
+  ducklings for market, 96, 102,  136
+  green geese, 187
+  Muscovy duck, 31
+
+Amount of feed
+  per pound of market duck, 95
+  for noodled geese, 197
+Amount of land
+  for duck plant, 46
+  for goose fattening farm, 208
+
+Arrangement of cars for shipping live geese, 202
+
+Arrangement of duck plant, 45
+
+Artificial water yards for ducks, 62
+
+Aylesbury duck, 23
+
+
+B
+
+Baby ducks, selling, 78
+
+Bantam ducks, 27, 29
+
+Bean,
+  definition of, 13
+  black in, 22, 23, 35
+
+Bedding
+  brood coop for goslings, 180
+  duck breeding houses, 60
+  duck brooder houses, 87
+  goose breeding houses, 168
+  pens for fattening geese, 195
+
+Beef scrap, feeding, to ducks, 64
+
+Bib in
+  Blue Swedish ducks, 33
+  Buff ducks, 36
+
+Bill,
+  definition of, 13
+  black in, of Black East India, 29
+
+Black East India duck, 29
+
+Black in bean of
+  Aylesbury, 23
+  Crested White Duck, 35
+  Pekin, 22
+
+Black bill in Black East India drakes, 29
+
+Black
+  head, greenish, in Buff drakes, 35
+  head, in Fawn and White Runners, 37
+  in face of Muscovy,  32
+  plumage of Blue Swedish, 33
+  on head of young White Muscovy, 32
+  tail coverts, greenish, in Fawn and White Runners, 37
+
+Bleeding
+  ducks, 105
+  geese, 206, 209
+
+Blue
+  cast in Buff ducks, 36
+  Muscovy, 32
+  Swedish ducks, 33
+  wing bar in Buff ducks, 35
+
+Body shape in breeding ducks, selecting for, 19
+
+Braining geese, 206, 209
+
+Breaking up
+  goose matings, 154
+  broody geese, 175
+
+Breast-bone as index of age in ducks, 56
+
+Breeding
+  drakes, securing, 58
+  ducks, opportunity to produce, 6
+  ducks, prices for, 7
+  season for ducks, 124
+
+Breeds of ducks, 9
+  Aylesbury, 23
+  Blue Swedish, 33
+  broodiness of, 18
+  Buff, 35
+  Call, 27
+  Cayuga, 25
+  common or puddle, 9
+  Crested White, 34
+  East India, 29
+  egg, 11
+  egg production of, 15
+  Mallard, 10
+  Mandarin, 10
+  meat, 11
+  mule, 9
+  Muscovy, 29
+  ornamental, 11
+  Pekin, 21
+  popularity of, 14
+  Rouen, 23
+  Runner, 36
+  size of, 14
+  Wood, 10
+
+Breeds of geese, 147
+  African, 156
+  Canadian, 159
+  Chinese, 158
+  common, 148
+  Egyptian, 160
+  Embden, 156
+  mongrel, 148
+  Sebastapol, 148
+  Toulouse, 155
+  Wild, 159
+
+Brood coop for goslings, 179
+
+Brooder
+  capacity on duck plants, 47
+  houses for ducklings, 80-90
+
+Brooders for goslings, 180
+
+Broodiness of
+  ducks, 18
+  geese, 152
+  geese, breaking up, 175
+
+Brooding
+  ducklings, 80-90, 131
+  goslings, 178
+    by artificial means, 180
+    with geese, 179
+    with hens, 179
+    without artificial heat, 180
+
+Brown Chinese goose, 158
+
+Brownish color in Cayuga ducks, 26
+
+Buff Ducks, 35
+
+Button head in Call ducks, 28
+
+Buying geese for fattening, 200
+
+
+C
+
+Call ducks, 27
+
+Canadian goose--see Wild
+
+Capacity of
+  car for geese, 202
+  farm for fattening geese, 208
+  incubator for duck eggs, 130
+
+Capital,
+  invested, for duck plant, 53
+  working, for duck plant, 54
+
+Care of
+  duck eggs for hatching, 73, 128
+  goose eggs for hatching, 172
+  growing goslings, 181
+  hen sitting on goose eggs, 174
+
+Carrying
+  ducks, 39
+  geese, 162
+
+Caruncles on face of Muscovy, 29
+
+Cases, shipping, for duck eggs, 119, 137
+
+Catching
+  ducks, 39
+  geese, 162
+
+Cayuga duck, 25
+
+Celery seed, feeding, to fattening ducks, 93
+
+Changing feed for fattening geese, 205
+
+Chestnut colored head in Buff drakes, 35
+
+Chilling of goslings by rain, 181
+
+Chinese goose, 158
+
+Chocolate colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, 32
+
+Claret in breast of Rouen drakes, deficiency of, 24
+
+Classification of breeds of ducks, 11
+
+Cleaning
+  brood coops for goslings, 179
+  duck
+    breeding houses, 60
+    brooder houses, 87
+    yards, 61, 97
+  goose breeding houses, 168
+
+Cleanliness of plumage as indication of health, 19
+
+Color of
+  duck eggs, 17
+  goose eggs, 152
+
+Colored flights in
+  Fawn and White Runners, 37
+  Penciled Runners, 38
+
+Colored Muscovy, 31
+
+Commercial duck farming,
+  opportunity for, 4
+  distribution of, 42
+
+Condition of
+  breeding geese, 169
+  ducks ready to kill, 96
+  geese for fattening, 200
+  geese ready to kill, 206
+
+Conditioning exhibition ducks, 38
+
+Conditions for duck raising on the farm, 120
+
+Confining goslings to yards, 181
+
+Considerations, general, in making
+  duck matings, 18-21
+  goose matings, 154
+
+Consistency of feed for
+  ducks, 65, 126, 133
+  fattening geese, 205
+
+Construction of brooder houses for ducks, 82
+
+Cooking geese to overcome greasiness, 194
+
+Cooling duck
+  carcasses, 108
+  eggs during incubation, 75, 131
+
+Cooling goose
+  carcasses, 207, 211
+  eggs during incubation, 175
+
+Coop, growing, for goslings, 182
+
+Cooperative
+  feed buying, 101
+  marketing, 110
+
+Copper colored head of Buff drakes, 36
+
+Cost of picking
+  ducks, 107
+  geese, 207
+
+Creaminess in plumage of
+  Aylesbury, 23
+  Pekin, 23
+
+Crest,
+  tendency toward, in the Pekin, 22
+  of Muscovy, 29
+  of Crested White, 34
+
+Crested White duck, 34
+
+Crippled ducks, 97, 104
+
+Critical period with young ducks, 98
+
+Crooked back
+  in ducks, 19
+  in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Crooked crest in Crested White, 34
+
+Crooked tail in ducks, 19
+
+Crossed feathers on neck of Pekin drake, 22
+
+Crossing African and Brown Chinese geese, 157
+
+Curing
+  duck feathers, 117
+  goose feathers, 211, 213
+
+
+D
+
+Darkening pens
+  for fattening geese, 195
+  for noodling geese, 196
+
+Dewlap in
+  Toulouse geese, 155
+  African geese, 157
+
+Diarrhoea
+  of ducklings, 99
+  of goslings, 185
+
+Diseases
+  of ducklings, 98-100
+  of goslings, 185
+  of mature ducks, 69
+  prevention of, 98
+
+Dished bill in Rouen, 24
+
+Distinguishing
+  sex
+    in ducks, 13, 135
+    in geese, 165
+  young from old ducks, 55
+
+Distribution of duck raising, 3
+
+Dogs a source of loss in ducks, 69
+
+Double crest in Crested White ducks, 34
+
+Down, removing,
+  from market ducks, 108
+  from market geese, 207, 210
+
+Drake,
+  definition of, 12
+  adult, meaning of, 13
+  young, meaning of, 13
+
+Drakerel, definition of, 13
+
+Drinking dishes
+  for ducklings, 86
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Driving geese from railway to farm, 202
+
+Drowning ducks, 31, 128, 135
+
+Dry, keeping goslings, 181
+
+Dry land duck farms, 44
+
+Dry picking
+  ducks, 107
+  geese, 206
+
+Duck,
+  definition of, 12
+  adult, meaning of, 13
+  young, meaning of, 13
+
+Duck raising
+  as a side line, 120
+  distribution of, 3
+  for egg production, 5
+  for ornamental purposes, 7
+  kinds of, 4
+  on the general farm, 5
+  opportunities for, 4, 120
+
+Ducklet, definition of, 13
+
+Duckling, meaning of, 12
+
+Ducks,
+  number of,
+    in leading states, 3
+    in U. S., 3
+  value of, in U. S., 3
+
+Dun colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, 32
+
+
+E
+
+Egg class of ducks, 11
+
+Egg production,
+  duck raising for, 5
+  of breeds of ducks, 15
+  of breeds of geese, 150
+  of Pekins on commercial plants, 66
+  selection of breeders for, 21
+
+Eggs, duck,
+  color of, 17
+  for hatching,
+    age of, 72
+    care of, 73, 128
+    frequency of setting, 72
+    packing and shipping, 40
+    prices of, 7
+    selection of, 73
+    washing, 130
+  marketing, 118
+  size of, 16
+
+Eggs, goose,
+  care of, for hatching, 172
+  color of, 152
+  size of, 151
+  washing for hatching, 172
+
+Egyptian goose, 160
+
+Electric lights
+  for breeding ducks, 67
+  for duck plants, 51
+  for ducklings, 94
+  for fattening geese, 205
+
+Embden goose, 156
+
+Equipment of pens in duck brooders, 86
+
+Examining
+  geese to determine sex, 165
+  fattened geese for market condition, 206
+
+Extent of
+  duck industry, 3
+  goose industry, 141
+
+Eye as indication of health in ducks, 19
+
+
+F
+
+Faded gray in Brown Chinese geese, 158
+
+Fading of color in
+  Buff ducks, 35
+  Cayuga ducks, 27
+  Gray Call ducks, 28
+  Rouen ducks, 25
+
+Fasting geese before fattening, 203
+
+Fattening farms for geese, 199
+
+Fattening geese,
+  by noodling, 196
+  methods of, 194
+  on farms in the east, 200
+  on farms in the middle west, 199
+  on large fattening farms, 199-208
+  pen, 195
+
+Fattening houses or sheds for ducklings, 48
+
+Fattening summer geese, 202
+
+Fawn and White Runner, 37
+
+Fawn colored breasts in Rouen females, 25
+
+Fawn on neck, too much, in Fawn and White Runner, 37
+
+Feather eating in ducklings, 100
+
+Feathered legs in ducks, 19
+
+Feathers,
+  saving duck, 117
+  saving geese, 207, 211
+  plucking from live geese, 212
+
+Feed, cooperative buying of, 101
+
+Feed cooker
+  for ducks, 49
+  cutter for ducks, 49
+  last, for market ducklings, 103
+  mixer for ducks, 49
+  storage for duck plant, 49
+  troughs or trays for ducks, 66
+  troughs for fattening geese, 205
+  wagon
+    for ducks, 65
+    for geese, 205
+
+Feeding
+  breeding ducks, 63
+  breeding geese, 169
+  Call ducks, 27
+  ducklings, 92, 132
+  fattening geese, 195, 196, 203
+  geese during shipment, 202
+  goslings, 183
+  growing and fattening ducklings, 92-94, 132
+  noodles to geese, 198
+  show ducks, 39
+  show geese, 161
+  supply geese on fattening farms, 202
+  track on duck plants, 51, 65
+
+Fences
+  for ducks, 52, 128
+  for fattening geese, 203
+  for geese, 168
+
+Fertility of duck eggs, 20, 77
+
+Fireless brooding goslings, 180
+
+First feed
+  for ducklings, 92
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Fish, feeding, to ducks, 63, 92, 134
+
+Fits in ducklings, 99
+
+Flat breast in Aylesburys, 23
+
+Flatiron shape in Call ducks, 28
+
+Folded feathers on neck of Pekin drake, 22
+
+Foreign color in back of White Runner ducks, 37
+
+Free range
+  for ducks, 120
+  for geese, 168
+  for goslings, 182
+
+Freezing of ducks to the ground, 62, 128
+
+Frequency
+  of plucking live geese for feathers, 212
+  of setting duck eggs, 72
+
+Frightening breeding ducks, 67
+  ducklings, 94
+  fattening geese, 205
+
+
+G
+
+Gains in weight
+  made by ducklings, 94
+  secured in noodling geese, 198
+  secured in pen fattening geese, 195
+  secured on goose fattening farms, 208
+
+Gander, definition of, 149
+
+Gapes in ducklings, 99
+
+Geese as weed destroyers, 145
+
+Goose eggs for hatching,
+  care of, 172
+  washing, 172
+
+Goose fattening farms, 199
+
+Goose raising,
+  as a business for farm women, 144
+  as a side line, 141
+  distribution of, 141
+  on general farms, 142
+  opportunities for, 142
+
+Goose septicemia, 186
+
+Gosling, definition of, 149
+
+Grading growing ducklings, 87
+
+Grass yards for goslings, 182
+
+Gray Call duck, 28
+
+Gray,
+  faded, in Brown Chinese geese, 158
+  in plumage of Blue Swedish ducks, 33
+  stippling on Penciled Runner drakes, 38
+
+Greasing heads of goslings for lice, 178
+
+Green bill
+  in Aylesbury, 23
+  in Buff ducks, 36
+  in Crested White ducks, 35
+  in Pekin, 22
+  in White Runner, 37
+
+Green ducks, 102
+
+Green feed
+  for breeding ducks, 64
+  for breeding geese, 169
+  for ducklings, 92, 133
+  for fattening geese, 204
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Green geese, 149, 187
+
+Grit
+  for breeding geese, 170
+  for fattening geese, 204
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Growing green feed for ducks, 64
+
+Growth of goslings, rapidity of, 184
+
+Gypsy face in Muscovy ducks, 32
+
+
+H
+
+Handling
+  ducks, 39
+  geese, 162
+  geese during noodling, 197
+
+Hatches of duck eggs, 78
+
+Hatching duck eggs
+  with an incubator, 70, 130
+  with hens, 129
+
+Hatching eggs, duck, packing and shipping, 40
+
+Hatching goose eggs
+  with chicken hens, 173
+  with geese, 174
+  with incubators, 175
+
+Health,
+  selection of breeding ducks for, 19
+  indications of, in ducks, 19
+
+Heating apparatus for duck brooder house, 83
+
+Heavy bottoms in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Hemorrhagic septicemia of geese, 186
+
+Horse power required on a duck plant, 50
+
+House capacity
+  for breeding ducks, 46
+  for fattening ducks, 48
+
+Houses
+  for breeding ducks, 59
+  for breeding geese, 167
+
+Hump back in ducks, 19
+
+
+I
+
+Identification of ducks by toe punching, 12
+
+Incubation, period of,
+  for ducks, 47, 129
+  for geese, 173
+
+Incubator capacity on duck plants, 47, 71
+
+Incubator cellar, 70
+
+Incubators, kinds of, for duck eggs, 70
+
+Injury
+  to ducks, 57, 62
+  to goslings, 182
+
+Insect pests of ducks, 69
+
+
+K
+
+Keel, deep,
+  in Aylesbury, 23
+  in Call, 28
+  in Pekin, 22
+  in Rouen, 24
+
+Killing
+  ducks, 105
+  geese, 206, 209
+  house for duck plants, 50
+
+Knob on head
+  of African geese, 157
+  of Chinese geese, 158
+  of Muscovy drake, 29
+
+
+L
+
+Labor required
+  on duck plants, 52
+  in noodling geese, 198
+
+Lameness
+  of ducklings, 99
+  of goslings, 185
+
+Land required for duck plants, 46
+
+Laying ration
+  for ducks, 126
+  for geese, 169
+
+Laying season
+  for ducks, 66, 124
+  for geese, 167
+
+Lay-out of duck plant, 45
+
+Length of time
+  in brooder house for ducklings, 88
+  brooding necessary for goslings, 180
+
+Lights
+  for breeding ducks, 67
+  for ducklings, 94
+  for fattening geese, 205
+
+Live ducks, shipping to market, 116
+
+Live geese,
+  shipping to market, 208
+  plucking for feathers, 212
+
+Location
+  of duck plant, 42
+  of goose fattening farm, 208
+
+Lopped crest in White Crested ducks, 35
+
+Loss
+  in ducklings, 98
+  in geese during shipment, 202
+
+Lost, goslings becoming, 182
+
+Lots, fattening, for geese, 203
+
+
+M
+
+Making a start in duck raising, 121
+
+Making new goose matings, 154
+
+Mallard duck, 10
+  summer plumage of males, 25
+
+Mandarin duck, 10
+
+Marketing
+  duck eggs, 118, 136
+  ducks, 102, 135
+
+Markets for geese, 187
+
+Marking
+  ducklings, 12
+  goslings, 153
+
+Mating
+  ducks, general considerations in, 18
+  geese, general considerations in, 154
+
+Meat class of ducks, 11
+
+Mixing feed
+  for ducks, 65
+  for fattening geese, 204
+
+Moisture
+  for duck eggs during incubation, 76, 131
+  for goose eggs during incubation, 176
+
+Molt of ducklings as indication of market condition, 102
+
+Mongrel goose, 148, 201
+
+Mortality
+  of breeding ducks, 69
+  of geese during shipment, 202
+
+Mosquito larvae, destruction of, by ducks, 8
+
+Mule ducks, 9
+
+Muscovy duck, 29
+
+
+N
+
+Narrow shoulders
+  in Call ducks, 28
+  in Pekin ducks, 22
+
+Nest, preparing the, for hatching goose eggs, 173
+
+Nomenclature
+  of ducks, 12
+  of geese, 149
+
+Noodles, making, for fattening geese, 197
+
+Noodling geese, 196
+
+Number
+  of breeding ducks required, 46
+  of ducklings marketed per breeding duck, 46
+  of ducklings to a pen, 85, 90
+  of ducks in leading states, 3
+  of ducks in U. S., 3
+  of ducks to a drake, 57
+  of geese carried on fattening farms, 208
+  of geese in leading states, 141
+  of geese in U. S., 141
+  of geese noodled by one man, 198
+  of geese to the acre, 164
+  of times
+    ducklings are fed, 92
+    geese are fed on fattening farms, 203
+    noodled geese are fed, 197
+    pen fattened geese are fed, 195
+
+
+O
+
+Objections
+  to duck farms, 43
+  to geese, 145
+  to goose fattening farms, 208
+
+Odor from goose fattening farms, 208
+
+Opportunities
+  for duck raising, 4
+  for goose raising, 142
+
+Ornamental
+  purposes, ducks for, 7
+  class of ducks, 11
+
+Output of duck plants, 42, 45
+
+Oyster shell, feeding,
+  to breeding ducks, 66
+  to breeding geese, 170
+
+
+P
+
+Packing dressed
+  ducks for shipment, 109
+  geese for shipment, 211
+
+Packing
+  duck hatching eggs, 40
+  goose hatching eggs, 162
+
+Pasturing
+  geese, 164
+  goslings, 183
+
+Patte de fois gras, 199
+
+Pay for picking
+  ducks, 107
+  geese, 207
+
+Pekin duck, 21
+
+Pekin duck on commercial plants, 42
+
+Penciled Runner duck, 37
+
+Penciling in
+  Buff ducks, 35
+  Fawn and White Runner females, 37
+  Rouen females, 25
+
+Penciling, lack of, in Penciled Runner females, 38
+
+Pen fattening geese, 195
+
+Pens
+  for fattening geese, 203
+  for noodling geese, 196
+  in brooder house for ducklings  84, 89
+
+Percent
+  hatch of duck eggs set, 78
+  loss
+    in ducklings, 98
+    in goslings, 184
+
+Period of incubation
+  for duck eggs, 129
+  for goose eggs, 173
+  for Muscovy duck, 30
+
+Period of feeding
+  noodled geese, 198
+  pen fattening geese, 195
+
+Picking house for duck plants, 50
+
+Picking
+  market ducks, 106
+  market geese, 206
+
+Pin feathers, removing, from ducks, 107
+
+Pinioning
+  ducks, 28
+  wild geese, 159
+
+Pneumonia in ducklings, 99
+
+Popularity of breeds
+  of ducks, 14
+  of geese, 150
+
+Pounds feed to produce pound of market duck, 95
+
+Prejudice against roast goose, 194
+
+Preparing
+  ducks for the show, 38
+  geese for the show, 161
+
+Prevention of disease in ducklings, 98
+
+Prices
+  of duck breeding stock and eggs, 7
+  of duck feathers, 118
+  of goose breeding stock and eggs, 163
+  of goose feathers, 212
+  of market ducks, 110
+  of market geese, 188
+  of mongrel geese, 208
+  of specially fattened geese, 208
+
+Prince Edward Island geese, 201
+
+Production, yearly, of feathers from live geese, 213
+
+Profits from duck farming, 54
+
+Protecting feed of geese from other stock, 171
+
+Puddle ducks, 9
+
+Pulling broken feathers
+  in ducks, 38
+  in geese, 161
+
+Purple barring in Black East India ducks, 29
+
+Purple rump in Rouen drake, 24
+
+
+Q
+
+Quilling in ducklings, 100
+
+
+R
+
+Range
+  for fattening geese, 199
+  for geese, 164
+
+Rapidity of growth of goslings, 184
+
+Rations
+  for breeding ducks, 63, 125
+  for breeding geese, 169
+  for ducklings, 92, 132
+  for fattening geese, 195, 197,  203
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Rats as source of loss in ducklings, 101
+
+Red in plumage of Blue Swedish, 33
+
+Removing
+  baby ducks to the brooder, 80
+  newly hatched goslings from the nest, 176
+
+Reviving goslings chilled by rain, 181
+
+Rhode Island geese, 200
+
+Ribbon or wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call, 28
+
+Ring, white,
+  in Buff ducks, 36
+  in Rouen, 24
+  width of, in Rouen, 24
+
+Roach back in ducks, 19
+
+Rouen duck, 23
+
+Roughage
+  for fattening geese, 195, 199, 204
+  in rations for geese, 170
+
+Round head in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Runner duck, 36
+
+
+S
+
+Sand, feeding,
+  to breeding ducks, 66
+  to ducklings, 86, 93
+  to goslings, 183
+
+Scalding market
+  ducks, 105
+  geese, 209
+
+Sebastapol goose, 148
+
+Selection of breeding ducks, 19
+  on commercial plants, 56
+  on general farms, 134
+
+Selection of breeding geese, 154
+
+Selection of duck eggs for hatching, 73
+
+Selecting the breed of ducks, 122
+
+Separating growing goslings from old stock, 182
+
+Septicemia, goose or hemorrhagic, 186
+
+Sex
+  in ducks, distinguishing, 13, 135
+  in geese, distinguishing, 165
+
+Shade
+  for breeding ducks, 60
+  for fattening summer geese, 202
+  for goslings, 182
+  for growing ducklings, 92
+
+Sharp backs in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Shaving market geese to remove down, 209
+
+Shelter
+  for fattening geese, 199, 203
+  for growing goslings, 181
+
+Shipping
+  dressed ducks, 109
+  dressed geese, 208
+  hatching eggs,
+    duck, 40
+    geese, 162
+
+Shipping live geese for fattening, 201
+
+Short legs in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Shrinking in shipping ducks alive, 116
+
+Size
+  of breeding ducks, 19
+  of breeds of ducks, 14
+  of breeds of geese, 150
+  of duck eggs, 16
+  of duck farms, 42, 44, 46
+  of flocks of breeding ducks, 46
+  of flocks of ducks on general farms, 121
+  of flocks of fattening geese, 195, 196, 199, 202
+  of goose eggs, 151
+  of male and female Muscovy, 30
+  of mating in ducks, 20, 123
+  of mating in geese, 152
+  of sitting of duck eggs, 7, 129
+  of sitting of goose eggs, 163, 174
+
+Slate on backs
+  of young Embden geese, 156
+  of young White Chinese geese, 159
+
+Smooth head in Muscovy duck, 29
+
+Sore eyes in ducklings, 100
+
+Sorting
+  growing ducklings, 87
+  market ducklings, 104
+
+Split crest in Crested White ducks, 34
+
+Steaming
+  ducks for picking, 107
+  geese for picking, 210
+
+Sticking or braining geese, 206, 209
+
+Stippling, gray, on Penciled Runner ducks, 38
+
+Stunning geese, 206, 209
+
+Summer geese, fattening, 202
+
+Summer plumage of Rouen drakes, 25
+
+Swimming, preventing goslings from, 181
+
+Temperatures, incubation,
+  for duck eggs, 74
+  for goose eggs, 175
+
+Temperatures, brooder,
+  for ducklings, 81
+  for goslings, 180
+
+Testing
+  duck eggs, 74, 130
+  table for candling duck eggs, 75
+
+Time of feeding
+  breeding ducks, 63, 126
+  geese on fattening farms, 203
+  noodled geese, 196
+  pen fattened geese, 195
+
+Time of first feed
+  for ducklings, 92
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Time of laying
+  with ducks, 67
+  with geese, 167
+
+Time
+  of marketing breeding ducks, 68
+  of plucking live geese for feathers, 212
+  to purchase breeding ducks, 121
+    breeding geese, 166
+
+Toulouse goose, defects in, 155
+
+Tray, feed, for ducks, 66
+
+Triple crest in Crested White ducks, 34
+
+Trough, feed, for ducks, 66
+
+Turning
+  duck eggs during incubation, 75
+  goose eggs during incubation, 174, 175
+
+Twisted wings in ducks, 19
+
+
+U
+
+Uses
+  for duck feathers, 118
+  for goose feathers, 212
+
+
+V
+
+Value
+  of duck feathers, 117
+  of ducks in the U. S., 8
+  of goose feathers, 207
+
+Vegetables, feeding, to ducks, 63
+
+Ventilation
+  for goslings, 179
+  of brooder houses, 88
+  of incubator cellars, 71
+  of incubators when hatching, 77
+
+Vigor, selection of breeding ducks for, 19
+
+
+W
+
+Washing
+  duck eggs for hatching, 130
+  goose eggs for hatching, 172
+  show ducks, 39
+  show geese, 162
+
+Water
+  for breeding ducks, 61, 127
+  for breeding geese, 165
+  for ducklings, 96, 135
+  for fattening geese, 195, 198, 204
+  for geese during shipment, 202
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Water site for duck plants, 42
+
+Water supply for duck plants, 52
+
+Water yards
+  for breeding ducks, 61
+  for growing and fattening ducklings, 96, 135
+
+Weed destruction by geese, 96, 103
+
+Weight
+  of ducklings when ready for market, 96, 103
+  of geese from fattening farms, 208
+  of goslings when ready for market, 185
+  of green geese, 184, 187
+  of noodled geese, 198
+
+Weights
+  of Black East India ducks, 14
+  of Call ducks, 14
+  of duck eggs, 14
+  of goose eggs, 151
+  of Mallard ducks, 10
+  of standard breeds of ducks, 14
+  of standard breeds of geese, 150
+
+White around eyes
+  of Blue Swedish, 34
+  of Cayuga, 26
+
+White bib
+  in Blue Swedish, 33
+  in Buff ducks, 36
+
+White Call duck, description of, 28
+
+White Chinese goose, 159
+
+White in breast
+  of Black East India, 29
+  of Cayuga, 26
+
+White in fluff of Rouen drake, 24
+
+White in wings
+  of African geese, 157
+  of Blue Swedish ducks, 33
+  of Brown Chinese geese, 159
+  of Buff ducks, 35
+  of Gray Call ducks, 28
+  of Rouen ducks, 24
+  of Toulouse geese, 156
+
+White Muscovy duck,
+  description of, 32
+  black on head of young, 32
+
+White on head of Colored Muscovy, 32
+
+White on neck of Cayuga, 26
+
+White Runner duck, 37
+
+Wild or Canadian goose, 159
+
+Windpipe as indication of age in ducks, 56
+
+Wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call females, 28
+
+Wood duck, 10
+
+
+Y
+
+Yards
+  for breeding ducks, 58, 128
+  for breeding geese, 168
+  for fattening ducklings, 91
+  for fattening geese, 203
+  for goslings, 181
+
+Yellow bills
+  in Blue Swedish, 34
+  in Rouen females, 25
+
+Yellow, loss of, legs and bills of Pekin with laying, 56
+
+Yellow on knob
+  of African geese, 157
+  of Brown Chinese geese, 158
+  of White Chinese geese, 159
+
+Yield of feathers from live geese, 213
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Apart from minor changes to formatting, table alignment and punctuation,
+the only changes made to the text from the original are as follows:
+
+Preface (2nd page): "minumum" changed to "minimum" (... with the minimum
+of initial investment and of labor.)
+
+"Sebastapool" changed to "Sebastapol" in List of Illustrations (Egyptian
+Gander and Sebastapol Goose) Figure 50 caption, and twice in the index.
+This is consistent with the use of "Sebastapol" in the text.
+
+Page 20: "neccessary" changed to "necessary" (... it becomes neccessary
+to mate a smaller number of females ...).
+
+Page 30: missing page reference added (See Page 14).
+
+Page 72: comma deleted after "Of" (Of course, eggs sufficient to fill
+the entire incubator capacity ...).
+
+Fig 28 caption: "yords" changed to "yards" (Long brooder house and yards
+with feeding track.)
+
+Page 107: duplicate word "the" deleted (... hung in a steam box with the
+heads outside ...)
+
+Page 131: "chickens" changed to "chicken" (Ducklings can be brooded if
+desired by means of chicken hens.)
+
+Page 136: missing page reference added (... in accordance with the
+directions given on page 106).
+
+Page 137: missing page reference added (See page 119).
+
+Page 141: "1920" changed to "1910" (The census figures of 1920 compared
+with those for 1910 ...)
+
+Page 145: "in" changed to "is" (An objection to geese often expressed
+but without good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture for
+other stock.)
+
+Page 154: "Ameriacn" changed to "American" (... the American Standard of
+Perfection.)
+
+Page 155 Footnote: "standard" changed to initial upper case "Standard"
+(American Standard of Perfection).
+
+Page 163: missing page reference added (The same method of packing the
+eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described on page 137.)
+
+Page 165: "thoughout" changed to "throughout" (... green feed available
+throughout the summer and fall ...)
+
+Page 166: "penus" changed to "penis" (... the penis will protrude.)
+
+Page 182: "close" changed to "closed" (It should have a board floor and
+be capable of being closed ...)
+
+Page 194: "pleasanty" changed to "pleasantly" ( ...one will be
+pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which the roast goose possesses.)
+
+Page 211: missing page reference added ( ... in the same way as when
+packing ducks as described on page 109.)
+
+Page 222 (Index): "stipling" changed to "stippling" (Gray stippling on
+Penciled Runner drakes).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ducks and Geese, by 
+Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND GEESE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33029-8.txt or 33029-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/0/2/33029/
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner, La Monte
+H.P. Yarroll and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture
+(CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/33029-8.zip b/33029-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a1471c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-8.zip
diff --git a/33029-h.zip b/33029-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5291791
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h.zip
diff --git a/33029-h/33029-h.htm b/33029-h/33029-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4260fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/33029-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,9617 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<!-- $Id: header.txt 236 2009-12-07 18:57:00Z vlsimpson $ -->
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Ducks and Geese, by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+body {
+    margin-left: 10%;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+}
+
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+    text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+p {
+    margin-top: .75em;
+    text-align: justify;
+    margin-bottom: .75em;
+}
+
+hr {
+    width: 33%;
+    margin-top: 2em;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+hr.long {
+    width: 66%;
+} /* longer rule before new chapters */
+
+table {
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+}
+
+td.toc-page {
+    text-align: right;
+    vertical-align: bottom;
+} /* page numbers in TOC */
+
+td.toc-detail {
+    text-align: left;
+    padding-left: 1em;
+} /* chapter content summaries in TOC */
+
+td.toc-itemnum {
+    text-align: left;
+    vertical-align: top;
+} /* chapter and figure numbers */
+
+td.right-indent {
+    text-align:right;
+    padding-right:1.0em;
+} /* right align one fraction-width indented */
+
+td.left-indent {
+    text-align:left;
+    padding-left:2.0em;
+} /* left aligned and indented */
+
+.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+    /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 92%;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    text-align: right;
+} /* page numbers */
+
+.bb       {border-bottom: solid 2px;}
+
+.bl       {border-left: solid 2px;}
+
+.bt       {border-top: solid 2px;}
+
+.br       {border-right: solid 2px;}
+
+.bbox     {border: solid 2px;}
+
+.center   {text-align: center;}
+
+.smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+
+.u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+.caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+/* Images */
+.figcenter   {
+    margin: auto;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figleft {
+    float: left;
+    clear: left;
+    margin-left: 10%;
+    margin-bottom: 1em;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    margin-right: 1em;
+    padding: 0;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figright {
+    float: right;
+    clear: right;
+    margin-left: 1em;
+    margin-bottom:
+    1em;
+    margin-top: 1em;
+    margin-right: 10%;
+    padding: 0;
+    text-align: center;
+}
+
+/* Footnotes */
+.footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+
+.footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+
+.footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+
+.fnanchor {
+    vertical-align: super;
+    font-size: .8em;
+    text-decoration:
+    none;
+}
+
+/* Index */
+.ditto {padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em;} /* spacing for ditto marks in lists */
+
+ul        {list-style-type: none} /* no bullets on lists */
+
+ul.nest   {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em; text-indent: -1.5em;} /* spacing for nested list */
+ul.nest2  {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em; text-indent: -3em;} /* spacing for nested list */
+
+li        {margin-top: .15em; margin-bottom: .15em;} /* spacing for list */
+li.indent {padding-left: 1.5em;} /* indented header */
+
+div.trans-note {
+    border-style: solid;
+    border-width: 1px;
+    margin: 2em 15%;
+    padding: 1em;
+    text-align: center;
+} /* transcriber's note */
+
+
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Ducks and Geese, by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ducks and Geese
+
+Author: Harry M. Lamon
+        Rob R. Slocum
+
+Release Date: June 30, 2010 [EBook #33029]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND GEESE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner, La Monte
+H.P. Yarroll and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture
+(CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="trans-note">
+<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>The figure captions have been retained in the same order of appearance
+as the plates in the original, but moved to follow the section which
+each illustrates. The list of illustrations has been adjusted accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>Minor inconsistencies in spelling have been retained as in the original.
+Where typographical errors have been corrected and missing references
+added, these are <a href="#TN_detail">listed at the end of this book</a>.</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li><a href="#TABLE_OF_CONTENTS">Table of Contents</a></li>
+<li><a href="#LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS">List of Illustrations</a></li>
+<li><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/frontispiece.002.jpg"><img src="images/frontispiece_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt=""
+title="Water yards and ducklings. Linked to larger image of frontispiece." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><i>Frontispiece.</i> General view of water yards and ducklings on a large Long Island duck farm. (<i>Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h1>                      DUCKS AND GEESE</h1>
+
+<p class="center">                            BY<br />
+                      HARRY M. LAMON</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size:small">SENIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES<br />
+                DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE</p>
+
+<p class="center">                           AND<br />
+                      ROB R. SLOCUM</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size:small">    POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES<br />
+                DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE</p>
+
+<p class="center">                      <i>Authors of<br />
+          "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry"<br />
+                  and "Turkey Raising"</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">                      ILLUSTRATED</p>
+
+<p class="center">                        NEW YORK<br />
+              ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY</p>
+
+<p class="center">                         LONDON<br />
+        KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TR&Uuml;BNER &amp; CO., LIMITED</p>
+
+<p class="center">                          1922</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">              <span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1922, <span class="smcap">by</span><br />
+              <span class="smcap">Orange Judd Publishing Company</span><br />
+                <i>All Rights Reserved</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">                   PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span>
+</p>
+
+
+
+<h3>PREFACE</h3>
+
+
+<p>Of all lines of poultry keeping, duck raising is
+unique in that it lends itself to the greatest degree
+of specialization and intensification along lines
+which are purely commercial. On a comparatively
+small area thousands of ducklings can be reared and
+marketed yearly. The call for information concerning
+the methods used by these commercial duck
+raisers has been considerable, and since such information
+is not available in complete concise form
+the present book has been prepared partly to furnish
+just this information.</p>
+
+<p>The methods used by successful Long Island duck
+raisers differ widely in some particulars and since
+in the space at command, it has been impossible to
+describe all the methods used, the plan has been
+adopted of detailing in the main the methods of one
+successful grower. This it is believed will prove to
+be more helpful and less confusing than to attempt
+to give the method of several different men.</p>
+
+<p>Much space has been given to the operations of
+the commercial duck raisers but the fact is recognized
+that the great bulk of the ducks entering into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>the trade of the country is the product of small
+flocks kept on general farms. For this reason a
+chapter has been added dealing with duck raising
+on the farm, and attention is here called to the fact
+that most of the information given under commercial
+duck raising can be readily adapted to use in
+connection with the farm flock.</p>
+
+<p>Detailed, complete information on goose raising
+is even more fragmentary than is the case with
+ducks. Yet there is a fine opportunity to rear a few
+geese at a profit on many farms, and the need and
+call for information is quite general. It is for this
+reason that a section of this book has been devoted
+to goose raising and in that section all the good reliable
+information available on the subject is given.
+The special attention of the women of the farm is
+directed to the opportunity which goose raising offers
+to make a good profit on a small side line with
+the minimum of initial investment and of labor.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest care has been taken to make the information
+on both duck and goose raising as complete
+and clear as possible. However, the authors
+appreciate the unlimited value of good illustrations
+in making clear methods and operations which are
+more difficult to grasp from a word description, and
+have therefore assembled a set of illustrations for
+this book, the completeness and excellence of which
+have never before been approached in any book on
+the subject. The illustrations alone are an education.</p>
+
+<p>In preparing and presenting this book to the public,
+the authors take pleasure in acknowledging<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>
+their deep indebtedness to the following persons for
+help and information furnished:</p>
+
+<ul style="margin-left:4em">
+<li>Roy E. Pardee</li>
+<li>John C. Kriner</li>
+<li>Charles McClave</li>
+<li>Stanley Mason</li>
+<li>Dr. Balliet</li>
+<li>William Minnich</li>
+<li>George W. Hackett</li>
+<li>Dawson Brothers</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Particular acknowledgment is due Robert A. Tuttle
+for the manner in which he threw open his duck
+plant to the authors and for the most generous
+amount of time which he gave in furnishing information.</p>
+
+<p>Special acknowledgment is likewise due Alfred
+R. Lee, Poultryman, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
+for information secured from his Farmers' Bulletins
+on duck raising and goose raising.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS</h3>
+
+
+
+<table>
+
+<tr><td></td><td align="left">Preface</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td align="left">List of Illustrations.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td></td><td align="center">PART I&mdash;DUCKS</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Chapter.</td>    <td></td>   <td class="toc-page">Page.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">I.</td>    <td align="left">Extent of the Industry&mdash;Opportunities</td>    <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Present Extent of the Industry&mdash;Different Types of Duck
+        Raising&mdash;Opportunities for Duck Raising&mdash;Prices for
+        Breeding Stock&mdash;Ducks for Ornamental Purposes.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">II.</td>   <td>Breeds and Varieties&mdash;How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+      Specimens&mdash;Preparing Ducks for the Show&mdash;Catching and
+      Handling</td>                                                       <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Breeds of Ducks&mdash;Classification of Breeds&mdash;Marking the
+        Ducks&mdash;Nomenclature&mdash;Distinguishing the
+        Sex&mdash;Size&mdash;Popularity of Breeds&mdash;Egg Production&mdash;Size of
+        Duck Eggs&mdash;Color of Eggs&mdash;Broodiness&mdash;General
+        Considerations in Making the Mating&mdash;Making the
+        Mating&mdash;The Pekin&mdash;The Aylesbury&mdash;The Rouen&mdash;The
+        Cayuga&mdash;The Call&mdash;The Gray Call&mdash;The White Call&mdash;The
+        Black East India&mdash;The Muscovy&mdash;The Colored Muscovy&mdash;The
+        White Muscovy&mdash;The Blue Swedish&mdash;The Crested White&mdash;The
+        Buff&mdash;The Runner&mdash;The Fawn and White Runner&mdash;The White
+        Runner&mdash;The Penciled Runner&mdash;Preparing Ducks for the
+        Show&mdash;Catching and Handling Ducks&mdash;Packing and Shipping
+        Hatching Eggs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">III.</td>  <td>Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Location&mdash;Estimate of Equipment
+      and Capital Necessary in Starting the Business</td>                <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Distribution&mdash;Stock Used&mdash;Location of Plant&mdash;Making a
+        Start in Duck Farming&mdash;Equipment, Capital, etc.
+        Required&mdash;Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant&mdash;Land
+        Required&mdash;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>Number of Breeders required&mdash;Housing Required
+        for Breeders&mdash;Incubator Capacity&mdash;Brooder
+        Capacity&mdash;Fattening Houses or Sheds&mdash;Feed
+        Storage&mdash;Killing and Picking House&mdash;Resident&mdash;Horse
+        Power&mdash;Feeding Track&mdash;Electric Lights&mdash;Water
+        Supply&mdash;Fences&mdash;Labor&mdash;Invested Capital&mdash;Working
+        Capital&mdash;Profits.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">IV.</td>   <td>Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Management of the Breeding Stock</td>     <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Age of Breeders&mdash;Distinguishing Young from Old
+        Ducks&mdash;Selection of Breeding Ducks&mdash;Number of Females to
+        a Drake&mdash;Securing Breeding Drakes&mdash;Houses and Yards for
+        Breeders&mdash;Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding
+        Houses&mdash;Cleaning the Breeding Yards&mdash;Water Yards for
+        Breeders&mdash;Feeding the Breeders&mdash;Egg Production&mdash;Time of
+        Marketing Breeders&mdash;Disease&mdash;Insect Pests&mdash;Dogs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">V.</td>    <td>Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Incubation</td>                           <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Kinds of incubators used&mdash;Incubator Cellar&mdash;Incubator
+        Capacity Required&mdash;Age of Hatching Eggs&mdash;Care of
+        Hatching Eggs&mdash;Selecting the Eggs for
+        Hatching&mdash;Temperature&mdash;Position of
+        Thermometer&mdash;Testing&mdash;Turning the Eggs&mdash;Cooling the
+        Eggs&mdash;Moisture&mdash;Fertility&mdash;Hatching&mdash;Selling Baby Ducks.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">VI.</td>   <td>Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Brooding and Rearing the
+      Young Stock</td>                                                   <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder
+        House&mdash;Brooder Houses Required&mdash;Brooder House No.
+        1&mdash;Construction of House&mdash;Heating
+        Apparatus&mdash;Pens&mdash;Equipment of the Pens&mdash;Grading and
+        Sorting the Ducklings&mdash;Cleaning and Bedding the
+        Pens&mdash;Ventilation&mdash;Other Types of Brooder Houses&mdash;Length
+        of Time in Brooder House No. 1&mdash;Brooder House No.
+        2&mdash;Brooder House No. 3&mdash;Yard Accommodations for
+        Ducklings&mdash;Shade&mdash;Feeding&mdash;Lights for Ducklings&mdash;Pounds
+        of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck&mdash;Water for
+        Young Ducks&mdash;Age and Weight when Ready for
+        Market&mdash;Cripples&mdash;Cleaning the Yards&mdash;Critical Period
+        with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span>Young Ducks&mdash;Disease Prevention&mdash;Gapes or
+        Pneumonia&mdash;Fits&mdash;Diarrhoea&mdash;Lameness&mdash;Sore Eyes&mdash;Feather
+        Eating or Quilling&mdash;Rats&mdash;Cooperative Feed Association.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">VII.</td>  <td>Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Marketing</td>                           <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Proper Age to Market&mdash;Weights at Time of Marketing&mdash;The
+        Last Feed for Market Ducks&mdash;Sorting Market
+        Ducklings&mdash;Killing&mdash;Scalding&mdash;Picking&mdash;Dry
+        Picking&mdash;Cooling&mdash;Packing&mdash;Shipping&mdash;Cooperative
+        Marketing Association&mdash;Prices for Ducks&mdash;Shipping Ducks
+        Alive&mdash;Saving the Feathers&mdash;Prices and Uses of Duck
+        Feathers&mdash;Marketing Eggs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">VIII.</td> <td>Duck Raising, on the Farm</td>                                    <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising&mdash;Size of
+        Flock&mdash;Making a Start&mdash;Selecting the Breed&mdash;Age of
+        Breeding Stock&mdash;Size of Matings&mdash;Breeding and Laying
+        Season&mdash;Management of
+        Breeders&mdash;Housing&mdash;Feeding&mdash;Water&mdash;Yards&mdash;Care of Eggs
+        for Hatching&mdash;Hatching the Eggs&mdash;Brooding and
+        Rearing&mdash;Feeding the Ducklings&mdash;Water for
+        Ducklings&mdash;Distinguishing the Sexes&mdash;Marketing the
+        Ducks&mdash;Diseases and Insect Pests.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td></td><td align="center" style="padding-top:0.5em">PART II&mdash;GEESE</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">IX.</td>   <td>Extent of the Industry&mdash;Opportunities</td>                        <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Nature of the Industry&mdash;Opportunities for Goose
+        Raising&mdash;Goose Raising as a Business for Farm
+        Women&mdash;Geese as Weed Destroyers&mdash;Objections to Geese.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">X.</td>    <td>Breeds and Varieties&mdash;How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+      Specimens&mdash;Preparing Geese for the Show&mdash;Catching and
+      Handling</td>                                                     <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Breeds of Geese&mdash;Nomenclature&mdash;Size&mdash;Popularity of the
+        Breeds&mdash;Egg Production&mdash;Size of Goose Eggs&mdash;Color of
+        Goose Eggs&mdash;Broodiness&mdash;Size of Mating&mdash;Age of
+        Breeders&mdash;Marking Young Geese&mdash;General Considerations in
+        Making the Mating&mdash;Making the Mating&mdash;The Toulouse&mdash;The
+        Embden&mdash;The African&mdash;The Chinese&mdash;The Brown Chinese&mdash;The
+        White Chinese&mdash;The Wild or Canadian&mdash;The
+        <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>Egyptian&mdash;Preparing Geese for the Show&mdash;Catching and
+        Handling Geese&mdash;Packing and Shipping Hatching
+        Eggs&mdash;Prices for Breeding Stock.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">XI.</td>   <td>Management of Breeding Geese</td>                                 <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Range for Breeders&mdash;Number of Geese to the Acre&mdash;Water
+        for Breeding Geese&mdash;Distinguishing the Sex&mdash;Purchase of
+        Breeding Stock&mdash;Time of Laying&mdash;Housing&mdash;Yards&mdash;Feeding
+        the Breeding Geese.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">XII.</td>  <td>Incubation</td>                                                   <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Care of Eggs for Hatching&mdash;Methods of Incubation&mdash;Period
+        of Incubation&mdash;Hatching with Chicken Hens&mdash;Hatching with
+        Geese&mdash;Breaking Up Broody Geese&mdash;Hatching with an
+        Incubator&mdash;Moisture for Hatching Eggs&mdash;Hatching.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">XIII.</td> <td>Brooding and Rearing Goslings</td>                                <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Methods of Brooding&mdash;Brooding with Hens or Geese&mdash;Length
+        of Time Brooding is Necessary&mdash;Artificial
+        Brooding&mdash;General Care of Growing Goslings&mdash;Feeding the
+        Goslings&mdash;Percentage of Goslings Raised&mdash;Rapidity of
+        Growth&mdash;Diseases.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="toc-itemnum">XIV.</td>  <td>Fattening and Marketing Geese</td>                                <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td></td><td class="toc-detail">Classes of Geese Marketed&mdash;Markets and Prices&mdash;Prejudice
+        Against Roast Goose&mdash;Methods of Fattening Geese for
+        Market&mdash;Pen Fattening&mdash;Noodling Geese&mdash;Methods Used on
+        Fattening Farms&mdash;Selling Geese
+        Alive&mdash;Killing&mdash;Picking&mdash;Packing for Shipment&mdash;Saving the
+        Feathers&mdash;Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td>Index</td> <td></td>                                                             <td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+
+<table>
+<tr>
+<td></td>    <td>Frontispiece. Water Yards and Ducklings.</td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum"> 1.</td> <td>Mule Ducks and Blue Swedish Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum"> 2.</td> <td>Mallard Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum"> 3.</td> <td>Goose, Duck and Hen Eggs</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum"> 4.</td> <td>Young Pekins for Breeders and Aylesbury Drake</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum"> 5.</td> <td>Rouen Drake and Black East India Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum"> 6.</td> <td>Rouen Drake in Summer Plumage and Rouen Duck</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum"> 7.</td> <td>Cayuga Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum"> 8.</td> <td>Gray Call Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum"> 9.</td> <td>White Call Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">10.</td> <td>Colored Muscovy Drake and White Muscovy Drake</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">11.</td> <td>Crested White Drake and Young White Muscovy
+      Showing Black on Head</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">12.</td> <td>Wing of Blue Swedish Duck</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">13.</td> <td>Pair of Buff Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">14.</td> <td>Penciled Runner Drake and White Runner Drake</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">15.</td> <td>Methods of Carrying Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">16.</td> <td>Power Feed Mixer</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">17.</td> <td>Duck Houses</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">18.</td> <td>House for Breeding Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">19.</td> <td>Another Type of Breeding House</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">20.</td> <td>Feeding the Breeders</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">21.</td> <td>Interior of Breeding House</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">22.</td> <td>Incubator Cellar</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">23.</td> <td>Interior of No. 1 Brooder House</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">24.</td> <td>Watering Arrangement in Brooder Pens</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">25.</td> <td>Another Type of No. 1 Brooder House</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">26.</td> <td>Brooder House No. 2</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">27.</td> <td>Brooder House No. 3</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">28.</td> <td>Long Brooder House and Yards</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">29.</td> <td>Pekin Ducklings 3 Days and 2 Weeks Old</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">30.</td> <td>Pekin Ducklings 3 Weeks and 6 Weeks Old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">31.</td> <td>Interior of Cold Brooder House</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">32.</td> <td>Yard Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">33.</td> <td>Duck Sheds</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">34.</td> <td>Feeding and Watering Arrangements</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">35.</td> <td>Green Feed for Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">36.</td> <td>Feeding from Track</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">37.</td> <td>Yard Ducks at Rest</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">38.</td> <td>Artificial Water Yards</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">39.</td> <td>Catching Pens for Fattening Ducklings</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">40.</td> <td>Carrying Ducklings to Slaughter</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">104</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">41.</td> <td>Hanging Ducklings and Cutting Throat Veins</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">42.</td> <td>Bleeding Ducklings</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">43.</td> <td>Washing Heads</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">44.</td> <td>Ducklings Ready for the Pickers</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">45.</td> <td>Scalding</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">46.</td> <td>Picking Ducks</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">47.</td> <td>Dressed Duckling</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">48.</td> <td>Weighing Out Ducklings for Packing</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">49.</td> <td>Curing Duck Feathers</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">50.</td> <td>Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">51.</td> <td>Toulouse and Embden Ganders</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">52.</td> <td>Canadian and African Ganders</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">53.</td> <td>Brown and White Chinese Ganders</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">54.</td> <td>Methods of Handling Geese</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="toc-itemnum">55.</td> <td>Geese Fattening in an Orchard</td>
+<td class="toc-page"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="DUCKS" id="DUCKS"></a>DUCKS
+<br />
+<span style="font-size:medium">PART I</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="Chapter_I" id="Chapter_I"></a>CHAPTER I
+<br />
+Present Extent of the Industry</h3>
+
+
+<p>Duck raising while representing an industry of
+considerable value to the United States when considered
+from a national standpoint, is one of the minor
+branches of the poultry industry. According to the
+1920 census there were 2,817,624 ducks in the United
+States with a valuation of $3,373,966. As compared
+with this the census for 1910 shows a slightly greater
+number of ducks, 2,906,525, but their value was considerably
+less being only $1,567,164. In the ten
+years between the census of 1900 and that of 1910
+there was a decrease in the number of ducks of
+nearly 40%.</p>
+
+<p>According to the 1920 census the more important
+duck raising states arranged in their order of importance
+were Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania, New
+York, Missouri, Minnesota, Tennessee, Ohio, South
+Dakota, Indiana, Nebraska and Kentucky. The number
+reported for Iowa was 235,249 and for Kentucky
+99,577. New England, the North Atlantic, the East
+North Central, the West North Central, the Moun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>tain
+and the Pacific states showed an increase, while
+the South Atlantic, East South Central and West
+South Central states showed a decrease. In spite of
+the existence of quite a number of large commercial
+duck farms, the great bulk of ducks produced are
+those which come from the general farms where
+only small flocks are kept. Yet only a small proportion
+of farms have ducks on them. The comparatively
+small number of ducks is distributed over
+practically the entire United States, being more common
+in some sections than others, particularly along
+the Atlantic Coast and along the Pacific Coast, with
+fairly numerous flocks on the farms of the Middle
+West.</p>
+
+<p><i>Different Types of Duck Raising.</i> The conditions
+under which ducks are kept and the purpose for
+which they are kept fall under four heads: First,
+commercial duck raising for the production of duck
+meat; second, duck raising as a by-product of the
+general farm; third, duck raising for egg production;
+fourth, duck breeding for pleasure, exhibition
+or the sale of breeding stock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opportunities for Duck Raising.</i> Undoubtedly the
+greatest opportunity for profitable duck growing
+lies under the first of these heads, namely, commercial
+duck raising. Where the conditions of climate,
+soil and land are favorable and where the location
+is good with respect to market there exists an excellent
+opportunity for one skilled in duck growing
+to engage in that business in an intensive manner<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+for the purpose of putting on the market spring or
+green ducklings. Where these are in demand they
+bring a good price and since the output per farm is
+large they pay a good return even with a small margin
+of profit per pound.</p>
+
+<p>The second greatest opportunity undoubtedly
+consists of duck raising as a by-product of the general
+farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is to
+say, where there is a considerable amount of pasture
+land easily accessible, and particularly where there
+is a stream or pond to which the ducks can have access,
+a small flock of ducks, say 10 or 12 females,
+can be kept to excellent advantage on the farm. The
+cost of maintaining them will not be great and they
+will not only provide a most acceptable variety in
+the form of duck meat and duck eggs for the farmers'
+table but they will also produce a surplus which
+can be sold at a profit. It must be remembered,
+however, that where only a small flock is kept it is
+generally impracticable for the farmer to give his
+ducks the attention necessary to cater to the market
+for green ducklings. As a result he usually keeps
+them until fall and sells them on the market at a
+considerably lower price than is obtained by the
+commercial duck grower.</p>
+
+<p>There also exists an opportunity which has not
+been developed to any great extent to keep some one
+of the egg producing breeds of ducks such as the Indian
+Runner for the primary purpose of egg production.
+A few ventures of this sort seem to have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+successful but it must be remembered that the market
+for duck eggs is not nearly so broad as that for hens'
+eggs and that in some quarters there exists considerable
+prejudice against duck eggs for table consumption.
+Before engaging in duck raising primarily
+for the production of market eggs it would therefore
+be necessary to investigate and consider carefully
+the market conditions in the neighborhood so as to
+know whether the eggs could be marketed to advantage.
+While the Runner ducks are prolific layers
+there is no advantage in keeping them in preference
+to fowls as egg producers. The eggs are larger
+in size but it takes more feed to produce them, while
+they cannot as a rule be disposed of at much if any
+higher price than can be secured for hens' eggs.
+For baking purposes duck eggs can be readily sold
+on account of their larger size.</p>
+
+<p>There is always an opportunity to produce fine
+stock of any kind, whether it be ducks, chickens,
+turkeys or geese. Ducks are not exhibited to the
+same extent as are chickens and the competition in
+the shows is not as a rule so keen. Nevertheless
+many persons are interested in producing and exhibiting
+good stock and there exists a very definite
+market for birds of quality.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a probability that a good business
+could be worked up by one who would pay special
+attention to producing a strain of ducks of early
+maturity, large size and good vigor in order to supply
+breeding drakes to many of the commercial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+duck farms. These farms usually secure drakes for
+breeding from sources outside their own flocks each
+year but the usual practice is to exchange drakes
+with some other commercial grower. While very
+good birds are to be found on these duck farms
+there is no greater opportunity to engage in any systematic
+breeding, the selection of the breeding stock
+being of rather a hurried nature during certain seasons
+of the year when the ducks are being marketed.
+Moreover, the long continued custom of exchanging
+drakes with the neighboring farmers has in most
+cases led to the blood being so largely confined within
+one circle that no great percentage of new blood
+is obtained by these exchanges. Of course, the opportunity
+along breeding lines for this purpose is
+limited to the Pekin duck as this is the breed which
+is kept upon all the large commercial duck farms
+in the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prices for Breeding Stock.</i> Duck breeders who
+make a specialty of selling breeding stock or eggs
+for hatching find a steady and quite a wide demand
+for their stock. The eggs are usually sold in sittings
+of 11 and bring a price of from $3 to $5 per sitting
+depending on the quality of the stock. The prices
+received for the birds themselves depend of course
+upon their quality and may run anywhere from
+about $5 to $25 per bird.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ducks for Ornamental Purposes.</i> On estates or in
+parks where natural or artificial ponds are included
+in the grounds, waterfowl are often kept for orna<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>mental
+purposes. Any breeds may be used, and
+often the gay colored Wood Duck and Mandarin, or
+some one of the small breeds such as the Calls,
+Black East Indian or the Mallards are kept for this
+purpose. It is said that these small ducks will absolutely
+destroy the mosquito larvae in any such ponds
+or lakes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II
+<br />
+Breeds and Varieties&mdash;How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+Specimens&mdash;Preparing Ducks for the
+Show&mdash;Catching and Handling</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Breeds of Ducks.</i> There are 11 standard breeds
+of ducks. All of these breeds with the exception of
+the Call, Muscovy and Runner consist of a single
+variety. The Call is divided into two varieties, the
+Gray and the White; the Muscovy consists of two
+varieties, the Colored and the White; and the Runner
+consists of three varieties, the Fawn and White,
+the White and the Penciled.</p>
+
+<p>Duck breeders, of course, whether raising the
+birds for fancy or for profit, keep one of the standard
+breads or varieties. Frequently, also, the farm
+flocks consist of standardbred ducks but on many
+farms, probably a great majority, the flock consists
+of the common or so-called "puddle" duck. In certain
+parts of the South there is a duck known as the
+"mule duck" which is a cross between the Muscovy
+and the common duck. This is a duck of good market
+quality but will not breed from which characteristic
+it gets its name. Most of the common or
+"puddle" ducks which are found on farms are of
+rather small size, are indifferent as layers, and do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+not make a desirable type of market duck. They
+have arisen simply from the crossing of standard
+breeds with resultant carelessness and indifference
+in breeding. Because of the care with which they
+have been selected and bred for definite purposes,
+the standard breeds are decidedly superior to the
+common "puddle" ducks and should by all means
+be kept in preference since they will yield better
+results and greater profits.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the standard breeds and varieties
+flocks of Mallards are also kept to a limited extent.
+The Mallard is a common small wild duck which
+has lent itself readily to domestication and which
+thrives with proper care under confined conditions.
+In weight, the drakes will run from 2½ pounds to 3
+pounds or even a little larger. The ducks average
+about 2¼ pounds with a variation of from 1 pound
+12 ounces to 2 pounds 8 ounces. By selecting the
+large eggs for hatching and by liberal feeding, it is
+easy to increase the size of Mallards to such an extent
+that they resemble small Rouens rather than
+wild Mallards. The plumage of the Mallard is very
+similar to that of the Rouen but of a lighter shade.
+Another small wild duck known as the Wood or
+Carolina duck, which is a native of North America,
+has been domesticated and on account of the great
+beauty of its plumage is usually to be found wherever
+ornamental waterfowl are kept. The Mandarin
+duck is a small duck of about the same size as
+the Wood duck, is of beautiful plumage and like the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+Wood duck is generally kept for ornamental purposes.
+This duck is said to be a native of China.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 259px;">
+<a href="images/fig01.jpg"><img src="images/fig01_tn.jpg" width="259" height="400" alt=""
+title="Mule ducks and Blue Swedish ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 1." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1. Upper&mdash;Pair of Mule Ducks. Lower&mdash;Pair of Blue
+Swedish Ducks. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 261px;">
+<a href="images/fig02.jpg"><img src="images/fig02_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt=""
+title="Mallard ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 2." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2. Upper&mdash;Mallard Duck. Lower&mdash;Mallard Drake. The
+Mallard is a wild duck which is quite easily domesticated and which has
+a plumage color very similar to the Rouen. It is small in size.
+(<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<h4>Classification of Breeds</h4>
+
+<p>So far as the standard breeds and varieties are
+concerned they may be divided into three classes
+according to the purpose for which they are kept
+and for which they are best suited. First is the meat
+class which consists of the Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy,
+Rouen, Buff, Cayuga and Blue Swedish. These
+breeds could well be termed general purpose ducks
+for they are quite good layers in addition to producing
+excellent table carcasses and are therefore well
+suited for general farm use. They are, however,
+kept more particularly for meat production.</p>
+
+<p>The second class is known as the egg class and
+consists of the three varieties of the Runner Duck,
+formerly known as the Indian Runner. The Runner
+Duck is much smaller in size than the birds of the
+meat class, is longer in leg and more active, and is
+not so well suited for the production of table ducks
+but is a very prolific layer. With proper feeding
+and management the Runner ducks will compare
+favorably with hens as egg producers.</p>
+
+<p>The third class is known as the ornamental class
+and is composed of the ducks which are kept and
+bred principally for ornamental purposes. This
+class consists of the Call duck with its two varieties,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+the Black East India duck and the Crested White
+duck. Both the Call and East India ducks are small
+in size being really the bantams of the duck family.
+While they make good table birds, their small size
+handicaps them as commercial meat fowl. The
+Crested White duck is of larger size, possesses a
+crest and is bred mainly as an ornamental fowl.</p>
+
+<p><i>Marking the Ducks.</i> The duck raiser who is
+breeding his ducks for exhibition quality has need
+for knowledge of the breeding of the birds he may
+contemplate using in his matings. In order that this
+information may be available, the young ducks as
+they are hatched can be marked by toe punching
+them on the webs of their feet in the same manner
+that baby chicks are toe punched. A different set
+or combination of marks is used for each mating so
+that the breeding of the different ducks can be distinguished.
+Mature ducks can, if desired, be leg
+banded in order to furnish a distinguishing mark.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Nomenclature</h4>
+
+<p>Before taking up a description of the matings of
+the different standard breeds and varieties it is well
+to indicate the common nomenclature which is used
+in connection with these fowls and which differs
+from that used for chickens. The male duck is
+called drake, the female duck is termed duck, and
+the young duck of either sex is termed duckling. In
+giving the standard weights for the different breeds<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+of ducks, weights are given for adult ducks and
+adult drakes, and for young ducks and young
+drakes. By adult duck or drake is meant a bird
+which is over one year old. By young duck or drake
+is meant a bird which is less than one year old. The
+horny mouth parts of the duck instead of being
+termed beak as in chickens are called bill, and the
+separate division of the upper bill at its extremity
+is termed the bean. Ducks do not show any comb
+or wattles as in chickens. In England use is made of
+the terms ducklet and drakerel. Ducklet is used to
+signify a female during her first laying season just
+as the word pullet is used in contrast to hen. Drakerel
+is used to signify a young drake as contrasted
+with an older drake just as the word cockerel is used
+in comparison to cock in chickens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distinguishing the Sex.</i> The sex of mature ducks
+can be readily told by their voices and also by a difference
+in the feathering. The duck gives voice to a
+coarse, harsh sound which is the characteristic
+"quack" usually thought of in connection with this
+class of fowl. The drake on the other hand utters
+a cry which is not nearly so loud or harsh but which
+is more of a hissing sound. Distinction of sex by this
+means can be made after the ducklings are from 4
+to 6 weeks old. Before this age, both sexes make
+the same peeping noise.</p>
+
+<p>Mature drakes are also distinguished from the
+ducks by the presence of two sex feathers at the
+base of the tail. These are short feathers which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+curl or curve upward and forward toward the body
+of the bird. In ducks these feathers are absent.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Size</h4>
+
+<p>An idea of the size of the different standard
+breeds can best be obtained by giving the standard
+weights. They are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Standard weights of various breeds of duck.">
+<tr><th align="left"></th><th align="center">Adult Drake.</th><th align="center">Adult Duck.</th><th align="center">Young Drake.</th><th align="center">Young Duck.</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pekin</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Aylesbury</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rouen</td><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cayuga</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Muscovy</td><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Blue Swedish</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">6½</td><td align="center">5½</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Crested White</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Buff</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Runner</td><td align="center">4½</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">3½</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>There are no standard weights for the Call duck
+and for the Black East India duck but these are all
+small in size, being really bantam ducks. The drakes
+will weigh from 2½ to 3 pounds and the ducks from
+2 to 2½ pounds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Popularity of Breeds</h4>
+
+<p>In the meat class by far the most popular duck in
+this country is the Pekin. It is the breed which is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+used exclusively on the large commercial duck
+farms. Next to the Pekin in this class probably
+comes the Muscovy which is quite commonly kept in
+some sections of the country, particularly in the
+South. The Aylesbury duck has never proved to be
+very popular in the United States perhaps due to its
+white bill and skin, although it is the popular market
+duck of England. The other breeds included in
+the meat class are kept more or less commonly but
+do not approach in popularity either the Pekin or
+the Muscovy. Any of the breeds in this class will
+prove to be satisfactory for a farm flock, although
+the Colored breeds and varieties are at a disadvantage
+when dressed due to their dark pin feathers.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>egg</i> class there is included only the Indian
+Runner and this of course is the breed which is kept
+wherever the production of duck eggs is the primary
+object. The Fawn and White is the most popular
+variety of this breed.</p>
+
+<p>In the ornamental class there is no particular outstanding
+breed, since the ducks belonging in this
+class are kept very largely to satisfy the pleasure of
+the owner and the selection of a breed is entirely a
+matter of personal preference.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Egg Production</h4>
+
+<p>While the conditions under which ducks are kept
+and the care they are given will affect their egg pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>duction
+greatly, there are certain rather definite
+comparisons that can be made between the different
+breeds. The Pekin is a good layer and will produce
+from 80 to 120 eggs. The Aylesbury and the Rouen
+are about alike in laying ability, neither being quite
+as good as the Pekin. The Cayuga is a good layer
+ranking with the Aylesbury and Rouen or between
+these and the Pekin. The Muscovy is an excellent
+layer being fully as prolific as the Pekin, especially
+if broken up when broody and not allowed to sit. The
+Blue Swedish is about equal to the Cayuga in laying
+ability. The Buff duck is an excellent layer comparing
+favorably with the Pekin or even with the
+Runner. The Runner ducks are the best layers of
+the duck family and if given proper care and good
+feed will compare favorably with hens in egg producing
+ability. The Crested White duck is not a particularly
+good layer. The Calls and the Black East India
+ducks will lay from 20 to 60 eggs per year, approaching
+the latter number if the eggs are collected
+as laid and the ducks are not allowed to sit which
+will induce some of them to continue to lay for quite
+a portion of the year. Extremely large ducks of any
+breed do not lay as well as the more medium sized
+birds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Size of Duck Eggs.</i> The eggs of the different
+meat breeds will run about the same in size with
+the exception of the Muscovy whose eggs run a little
+larger. Actual weights of eggs from representative
+flocks show Pekin, Rouen, Aylesbury and Cayuga<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+eggs to average about 2½ pounds per dozen although
+there is a tendency for the Rouen eggs to run somewhat
+larger and for Cayugas to run a little smaller.
+Muscovy eggs weigh about 3 pounds per dozen with
+selected large eggs weighing as high as 3¼ pounds.
+Eggs of the Runner duck are smaller but are considerably
+larger than average hens' eggs or about the
+size of large Minorca eggs. They weigh about 2
+pounds per dozen. Eggs of the bantam breeds of
+ducks, the Calls and the Black East India, together
+with those of the Mandarin and Wood ducks will
+weigh from one pound to 1½ pounds per dozen depending
+upon the size of the ducks themselves. Eggs
+of the Mallard duck will run from 26 to 32 ounces
+to the dozen. The size of eggs laid by ducks, especially
+the bantam breeds and the Mallard can be
+increased somewhat by liberal feeding. Average
+hens' eggs should weigh about 1½ pounds per dozen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig03.jpg"><img src="images/fig03_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Goose, duck and hen eggs. Linked to larger image of figure 3." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3. Upper&mdash;Comparison of size of goose egg on the left a black egg of a Cayuga duck in the center
+and a hen egg on the right. Lower&mdash;Duck eggs&mdash;At the left is a Pekin duck egg, next a black egg laid by a
+Cayuga duck, third a Muscovy egg, fourth a duck egg of green color and on the extreme right the egg of
+a Runner duck. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Color of Eggs.</i> The color of duck eggs ranges
+from white to a polished black. Pekin eggs run
+mostly white although some show a decided blue
+or green tint. Aylesbury eggs run quite uniformly
+white. The color of Rouen eggs varies from white
+to a dark green. The Cayuga produces very few
+white eggs, most of them being green or black, some
+being as black as though polished. Muscovy eggs
+run from a white to a greenish cream in color. The
+eggs of the Blue Swedish and the Buff ducks usually
+run white. The Runner duck lays white eggs as a
+rule while the Crested White duck lays eggs which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+range in color from white to green. The eggs of the
+Call ducks run from white to green while the eggs
+of the Black East India, like the Cayuga, for the
+most part run from green to black.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiarity in regard to the egg color is that the
+same female may lay eggs which are widely different
+in color. It is likewise true that the color of the
+shell is influenced to some extent by the feed. Ducks
+on range will lay darker colored eggs than those
+which are yarded. There is also a tendency for the
+eggs to run darker in color when laying first begins
+and for the eggs to lighten as laying proceeds. A
+peculiarity in regard to duck eggs with a dark
+colored shell is that a thorough washing will lighten
+up the shell color decidedly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Broodiness.</i> The Muscovy, the Call and the Black
+East India ducks are broody breeds. The ducks of
+these breeds will make their nests, hatch their eggs
+and are good mothers. All the other breeds are
+classed as non-broody breeds. Of course, a certain
+percentage of them will go broody and show a desire
+to sit but they do not make reliable sitters and
+mothers and are not as a rule used for this purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Considerations in Making the Mating<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></h4>
+
+<p>Since ducks are kept for different purposes there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+will of course be certain fundamental differences in
+the different classes in the selection of the individuals
+to make up the mating. Whatever the purpose,
+however, the first consideration in selecting the
+breeders must be to secure those which possess excellent
+vigor and general health and which meet
+insofar as possible the standard requirements for
+size. Where the Call duck and the Black East India
+are concerned the selection for size must be for
+smallness since that is a characteristic greatly desired.
+In the other breeds the selection for size must
+be to see that they come up to the standard weights
+for the particular breed in question. As in other
+classes of fowls the condition and cleanliness of the
+plumage and the general appearance and actions of
+the birds are good indications of their health and
+thriftiness. A bright eye is likewise a valuable indication
+of good health while a watery eye is usually a
+sign of weakness. It is necessary to guard against
+birds which show any tendency toward crooked or
+roach back, hump back, crooked tails, or twisted
+wings. Since all breeds of ducks should have clean or
+unfeathered legs it is likewise necessary to guard
+against any breeders which show down on the
+shanks or between the toes as this sometimes occurs.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For a more detailed discussion of the principles of breeding
+as applied to chickens and which is equally applicable to ducks,
+the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry"
+by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the
+Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York City.</p></div>
+
+<p>In selecting the mating for any one of the meat
+breeds use birds which have good length, width and
+depth of body so that they will have plenty of meat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+carrying capacity. For breeders of market ducks,
+birds which are active, well matured and which are
+not extreme in size for the breed are preferable as
+the fertility is likely to run better than with the extremely
+large birds. Where birds are bred for exhibition
+purposes, it frequently happens that it is
+desirable to use large breeders and to hold them for
+breeding purposes as long as they are in good breeding
+condition. Where this is the case it becomes
+necessary to mate a smaller number of females to
+a drake than would be the case with smaller and
+younger breeders. Where old birds are used as
+breeders better results will be secured by mating old
+ducks to a young drake or vice versa than by mating
+together old birds of both sexes. While ducks of any
+of the meat breeds are kept primarily for meat production,
+it is essential that the egg production be good
+throughout the breeding season in order to raise as
+many ducklings and secure as great a profit as possible.
+Selection of the females as breeders should be
+made therefore on the basis of good egg production
+as well as good meat type if the conditions under
+which the ducks are kept are such as to make it
+possible to check this in any manner.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting the mating in the Runner breed it is
+necessary to keep in mind that the general type of
+body is quite different from that of the meat breeds,
+being much slimmer and much more upright in body
+carriage. For this mating select thrifty, healthy
+birds and those which are active. Some breeders<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+trapnest their Runner ducks or have some other
+means of checking up the better layers. As in
+chickens, it is of course desirable to use these better
+layers as breeders since the purpose in keeping this
+kind of duck is primarily egg production.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting the mating in the Call and East India
+breeds it is necessary to use the smaller ducks since
+the object here is to keep the size small. In addition,
+with these breeds or with any other breeds kept
+and bred primarily for fancy or exhibition purposes,
+it is necessary to conform just as closely as possible
+to the standard requirements<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> both insofar as size
+and type are concerned, and also with respect to
+color.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> For a complete and official description and list of disqualifications
+of the standard breeds and varieties of ducks, the
+reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published
+by the American Poultry Association, and obtained by
+Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York, N. Y.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>Breeds of Ducks</h4>
+
+<p><i>The Pekin.</i> While this variety wants to be of
+good size and to have length, breadth and depth of
+body it is somewhat more upstanding than some of
+the other meat breeds, showing a definite slope of
+body downward from shoulders to tail. The back
+line of the Pekin should show a slight concavity
+from the shoulders to the tail and the upper line of
+the bill is likewise slightly concave between the
+point where it joins the head and its extremity. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>shoulders should be broad and any tendency toward
+narrowness at this point must be avoided. While a
+good depth of keel is desired, the standard does not
+call for so deep a keel as in the Aylesbury. As a
+matter of fact, however, the winning specimens as
+seen in the shows are not as a rule as erect in carriage
+as called for by the standard illustration,
+there being a tendency to get them almost if not
+quite as deep in keel as the Aylesbury. In fact,
+some breeders seem to strive for a low down keel
+approaching a condition where they are nearly as
+low in front as behind but this is not desirable Pekin
+type.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes a drake will show a rough neck, that
+is, the feathers on the back of the neck will be
+crossed or folded over showing a tendency to curl.
+These birds should be avoided as breeders since
+there is a tendency for them to produce ducks having
+a crest. Sometimes a green or a greenish spotted
+bill will be encountered. Since the bill should be a
+clear yellow, breeders showing this defect should be
+avoided particularly as they are likely to produce
+birds having greenish or olive colored legs. The
+shanks and toes should be a clear deep orange.
+Black sometimes occurs in the bean. This may occur
+in birds of either sex but is more common in the
+ducks than in the drakes. In the drake black in the
+bean disqualifies but while it is undesirable and a
+serious defect in the duck it does not disqualify. The
+color of the plumage is white or creamy white<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+throughout. Creaminess in this variety is not a
+serious defect as it is in white chickens. The use,
+however, of yellow corn and of foods very rich in
+oil tends to increase the creaminess of the plumage
+and should not be used to excess for birds which are
+to be exhibited.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;">
+<a href="images/fig04.jpg"><img src="images/fig04_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt=""
+title="Young Pekins for breeders and Aylesbury drake. Linked to larger image of figure 4." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4. Upper&mdash;Young Pekins which on account of their size,
+thriftiness and rapid growth were selected out of a lot about to be
+killed for market and saved for breeders. Lower&mdash;Aylesbury
+Drake&mdash;Notice the depth and development of the breast. (<i>Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Aylesbury.</i> This breed is particularly noted
+for its deep keel. It differs from the Pekin in type
+in that it is more nearly level in body. There is a
+decided tendency for the Aylesbury to run too short
+in body which has probably come about by extreme
+selection for deep keel. It is well, therefore, in making
+the mating to select breeders with good length
+of body. Since the deep full breast and keel is characteristic
+of this breed it is necessary to avoid breeders
+which show any tendency toward a flat breast.
+As in the case of the Pekins avoid any birds which
+have green or olive colored bills. The back line of
+the Aylesbury should be straight, showing no tendency
+toward a slight concavity as in the Pekin.
+Birds showing this shape back should be avoided.
+As in the Pekin black on the bill or bean of the
+drake will disqualify and in the duck is a serious defect.
+The color of plumage should be white throughout
+and should show no tendency toward creaminess.
+The bill in this breed is flesh colored instead
+of yellow as in the Pekin. The Aylesbury is not
+quite as nervous a breed as the Pekin.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Rouen.</i> The Rouen duck is a parti-colored
+breed and is therefore much more difficult to secure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+in perfection of color and marking than is the case
+with the white breeds. Moreover, the dark pin
+feathers make the ducks more difficult to dress
+than in white breeds. In type these birds are very
+level in body and are massive, carrying a great deal
+of meat. Avoid birds showing a lack of length of
+body or depth of keel or which are too flat in breast.
+The back of the Rouen should have a slightly convex
+or arched shape from neck to tail and it is necessary
+to guard against birds which have a flat or a concave
+back. The body of the Rouen should be carried
+practically horizontal. The upper line of the bill
+should be slightly dished or concave. The white
+ring about the neck of the drake is an important
+part of the marking. This should not be too wide
+but should run about a quarter of an inch in width.
+It should be as distinct and clean cut as possible but
+should not quite come together in the rear. Any approach
+to a ring in the female is a disqualification.
+White in the primary or secondary wing feathers is
+a serious defect since it constitutes a disqualification.
+It must therefore be carefully avoided.
+White feathers in the fluff of the drake is another
+color defect which must be guarded against.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 245px;">
+<a href="images/fig05.jpg"><img src="images/fig05_tn.jpg" width="245" height="400" alt=""
+title="Rouen Drake and Black East India Ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 5." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5. Upper&mdash;Rouen Drake. Notice the low set, nearly horizontal
+body, the massive appearance and the arched back. Lower&mdash;Pair
+of Black East India Ducks. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Breast of Drake.</i> The farther the claret color on
+the breast of the drake extends down the better will
+be the females secured from the mating. Drakes
+which are deficient in the amount of claret on the
+breast should therefore be thrown out as breeders. A
+purple rump in drakes must be avoided as must black<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+feathers over the rump as they tend to keep up too
+dark a body color in the female. On the other hand
+too bright or light a color in the male or exhibition
+female will produce females which are too light in
+color. Drakes with light olive colored bills must be
+avoided as these will have a tendency to produce
+offspring which show too much yellow in the females'
+bills, and clear yellow bills constitute a disqualification.
+In the females solid yellow bills, fawn
+colored breasts and absence of penciling must be
+avoided. Females which are dark or nearly black
+over the rump are good breeders as they tend to
+keep up the ground color of the body and tail.</p>
+
+<p>The Rouen shows some tendency to fade in color.
+This is evidenced first on the tips of the wings. The
+fading will also show in the fluff of drakes. The
+drakes of this breed and likewise of the Gray Call
+and the Mallard show a peculiar behavior with respect
+to the color of their plumage. About June 1
+the drakes moult, losing their characteristic male
+adult plumage and the new plumage is practically
+that of the female. This female plumage is retained
+until about October when they gradually regain their
+normal winter male plumage. Young Rouens of both
+sexes have female plumage until the last moult which
+occurs at about four or five months of age, when the
+drakes assume the adult male plumage. The sex
+of the young Rouens can, however, be told by the
+difference in the color of the bills.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;">
+<a href="images/fig06.jpg"><img src="images/fig06_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt=""
+title="Rouen drake and duck. Linked to larger image of figure 6." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6. Upper&mdash;Rouen Drake showing summer plumage. At
+this season the Rouen drake assumes a plumage resembling quite
+closely that of the female. In the fall the drake again assumes the
+normal male plumage. Lower&mdash;Rouen Duck. (<i>Photographs from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Cayuga.</i> The Cayuga is much like the other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+breeds of the meat class in general type or shape of
+body showing good length, breadth and depth. It
+is a very solid duck and weighs heavier than it looks.
+The body carriage is slightly more upright than the
+Rouen but not so much so as the Pekin. The back
+line should be straight and any tendency toward an
+arched back must be avoided. It is slightly smaller
+than the Pekin, Aylesbury and Rouen, averaging
+about a pound less.</p>
+
+<p>In making the mating, size is important and
+breeders should be selected which are up to standard
+weights if possible. While this breed is not
+kept very widely at the present time, nevertheless
+it is an excellent market duck, dressing out into a
+very plump yellow carcass in spite of its black plumage
+which is a disadvantage in dressing. The
+color should be a lustrous greenish black throughout,
+being somewhat brighter in the drake than in
+the duck. The duck is more likely to show a brownish
+cast of plumage, particularly as she grows older.
+It is hard to hold good black color with age. Moreover,
+white or gray is apt to occur in the breast of females.
+With age also a little white sometimes develops
+on the back of the neck, around the eyes and
+underneath the neck at the base of the bill. The
+white which occurs in breast is more likely to come
+in ducks and is not commonly found in the drakes.
+In the drakes on the other hand, there is a tendency
+for the white to come on the throat under the bill.</p>
+
+<p>Drakes as a rule run truer in color and hold their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+color better than do the ducks. Where the white
+mottling occurs in plumage with age one need not
+hesitate to breed from these birds if they were of
+good black color as young birds. The drakes of the
+best color do not as a rule fade or become mottled to
+any great extent with age. It is necessary to guard
+against birds as breeders which have a rusty brown
+lacing on the breast and under the wings, also those
+which have a wing-bow laced with brown. There
+is a tendency for the bill of drakes, which should
+be black, to be too light or olive in color and this
+tendency increases with age. Drakes with bills of
+this color should be avoided as breeders. When
+Cayugas are first hatched the baby ducks all show
+a white breast.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;">
+<a href="images/fig07.jpg"><img src="images/fig07_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt=""
+title="Cayuga ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 7." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7. Upper&mdash;Cayuga Duck. Lower&mdash;Cayuga Drake. (<i>Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Call.</i> The Call ducks are the bantams of the
+duck race. There is always a tendency for them to
+grow too large and this is especially true when they
+have an opportunity to eat all they want as for example
+when they are fed with the larger ducks.
+They should not be fed too liberally and should be
+given wheat or some other solid grain rather than
+any mash. If there is a good pond of water to which
+the Call ducks can have access they do not need to
+be fed much of anything.</p>
+
+<p>In breeding, the smallest individuals which are
+suitable in other respects for breeders, should be
+selected in order to keep down the size and offset
+the tendency to breed larger in successive generations.
+In type the Calls are practically miniature<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+Pekins except that they should have a very short,
+rather broad head and bill. The broad flat and
+short bill and the round short head give the head an
+appearance which is often described by the term
+"button headed". In this breed avoid birds which
+show arched backs. The body should have what is
+known as a flatiron shape, that is, should be broad
+at the shoulders and taper toward the tail. Too
+deep keels and narrow shoulders should be avoided
+as should also too long bills. Call ducks, together
+with East Indias and Mallards should have their
+wings clipped or be pinioned, that is, have the first
+joint of one wing cut off, to prevent them from flying
+away.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Gray Call.</i> The plumage of the Gray Call is
+practically that of the Rouen although they are not
+quite as good in color as a breed. There is more of
+a tendency for some of the birds to run to dark and
+others, especially the males, to run too light in color.
+While they are likely to be well penciled the shade
+of color is apt to be wrong. White in the flights and
+under the wings must be guarded against as must
+also absence of ribbon or wing bar in females. The
+color of the plumage is likely to fade with age but
+after the birds moult and secure their new plumage,
+the color is usually higher again. In general the same
+color characteristics hold true as with the Rouen
+and the same defects must be guarded against.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;">
+<a href="images/fig08.jpg"><img src="images/fig08_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt=""
+title="Gray call ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 8." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8. Upper&mdash;Gray Call Drake. Lower&mdash;Gray Call Duck.
+(<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The White Call.</i> This variety is, both in type
+and color, practically a miniature Pekin except for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+the short, rather broad head and bill. They breed
+very true in color and should be free from creaminess.
+The same general defects must be watched
+for and avoided as in the Pekin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<a href="images/fig09.jpg"><img src="images/fig09_tn.jpg" width="263" height="400" alt=""
+title="White call ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 9." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9. Upper&mdash;White Call Duck. Lower&mdash;White Call Drake.
+(<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Black East India.</i> This is a black breed
+which is small in size being a bantam duck like the
+Call. As a matter of fact it is a miniature Cayuga.
+The color should be black throughout and the same
+color characteristics hold true as in the case of the
+Cayuga. The same color defects must therefore be
+guarded against, the worst one being white in the
+breast of females especially. Avoid breeding from
+a drake with a black bill as in this respect the breed
+differs from the Cayuga since the bill of the duck
+should be black but that of the drake should be very
+dark green. Purple barring must be carefully selected
+against.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Muscovy.</i> This breed differs in certain respects
+very markedly from the other standard
+breeds of ducks. They are long and broad in body
+which is carried in a horizontal position but are not
+so deep in keel as the Pekin, Aylesbury or Rouen.
+The longest bodied young ducks will make the largest
+individuals. The head should have feathers on
+the top which can be elevated at will to form a
+crest. Guard against breeders having smooth
+heads, or in other words, lacking a crest.
+The face is covered with corrugations or caruncles
+and should be red in color. At the base of the upper
+bill there is a sort of knob-like formation in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+drake which serves as one of the distinguishing
+characteristics between the duck and drake of this
+breed. The more prominent the knob and the more
+wrinkled or corrugated the face the better is the
+specimen in this respect. The wings are long and
+strong and these birds fly very well. They will
+also climb fences. The drakes are quite pugnacious
+and fight one another badly at times. They are especially
+pugnacious when they have young.</p>
+
+<p>This breed of ducks will often roost on roosts like
+chickens or in the trees or on the barn. They do not
+quack like other ducks and unlike other domesticated
+breeds which moult two or three times a year, they
+moult only once, taking longer to do so, usually
+about 90 days, although the female may complete
+her moult a little sooner. The period of incubation
+for Muscovy eggs is longer, being from 33 to
+35 days as compared to 28 days for other
+breeds. In size the male and female differ
+considerably as will be seen from the standard
+weights given (<a href="#Page_14">See Page 14</a>), the male being considerably
+larger. These ducks lay well, the fertility
+runs good, the eggs hatch well, and the little ducks
+are hardy and easily raised. They are a broody
+breed. The ducks will make their nests and hatch
+out their eggs if allowed to do so and are excellent
+mothers. Sometimes they will fly up and make their
+nests in a hollow tree. A Muscovy duck can cover
+properly about 20 eggs. In spite of the fact that
+they fly well they are easily domesticated. It takes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+about two years for the males of this breed to fully
+mature although the ducks get their full size when
+one year of age. The Muscovy is perhaps the best
+general purpose breed for a farm flock.</p>
+
+<p>The extent and intensity of the red of the face increases
+up to maturity and the redder the face the
+better. The plumage of the Muscovy is not as downy
+or oily as other breeds, the feathers being harder.
+For this reason the birds are more apt to become
+water soaked and to drown as a result when they
+have not been accustomed to water in which to
+swim. This is especially true of the drakes on account
+of their large size and long wing feathers.
+Muscovy ducks dress well, having a rich yellow skin,
+and therefore make a good market duck, although
+the difference in size of the duck and drake and the
+dark pin feathers of the Colored variety are disadvantages
+from a market standpoint. Select against
+breeders which run small in size as there is more or
+less of a tendency for this breed to decrease in size.
+The Muscovy is long lived, specimens having been
+known to breed until they were eight or ten years
+of age.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Colored Muscovy.</i> Although the standard
+calls for more or less white in different sections of
+this variety, as a matter of fact breeders desire to
+get the birds as dark as possible except for a very
+small patch of white on the breast and a small patch
+of white on the center of the wing. Indeed, birds
+without the white on the breast and with very little on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+the wing are valuable breeders since there is a tendency
+for too much white to occur in the plumage.
+Occasionally all black birds occur and these can be
+used to advantage in breeding when there is a tendency
+toward too much white in plumage. Plumage
+more than half white is a disqualification. The dark
+plumage birds such as are wanted are very likely to
+show considerable black or gypsy color in the face
+which should be a good red. This must be selected
+against insofar as possible. The nearly black or the
+darkest birds are quite likely to show some white or
+grizzling on the head. Grizzled or brownish penciled
+feathers sometimes occur in various parts of
+the plumage and must of course be guarded against
+as the markings should be distinctly black and
+white. The baby ducks of this variety are quite apt
+to show considerable white although the best of
+them come yellowish black. This variety tends to
+run a little larger in size than the white variety
+although the standard weights are the same for
+both. Dun or chocolate colored ducks sometimes
+come from Colored Muscovies while Blue Muscovies
+can be produced by crossing the Colored and the
+white varieties.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 258px;">
+<a href="images/fig10.jpg"><img src="images/fig10_tn.jpg" width="258" height="400" alt=""
+title="Colored Muscovy Drake and White Muscovy Duck. Linked to larger image of figure 10." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 10. Upper&mdash;Colored Muscovy Drake. Notice the partly
+erect crest feather on top of the head. Lower&mdash;White Muscovy
+Drake. Notice the long, horizontal body and the rough or carunculated
+face. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The White Muscovy.</i> This variety should have
+pure white plumage throughout. Young Muscovies
+of both sexes often have a patch of black on top of
+the head up to the time they moult at maturity.
+Since black disqualifies it is impossible to show
+young ducks in this condition but these black feath<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>ers
+usually come in white after the moult and such
+birds need not therefore be discarded as breeders.
+When it is desired to show young White Muscovies
+which have black on the head it is customary to
+pluck these black feathers a sufficient time before
+the show so that the white feathers which come in
+their place will have time to grow out. There is
+little or no trouble with black or gypsy face in this
+variety.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;">
+<a href="images/fig11.jpg"><img src="images/fig11_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt=""
+title="Crested White Drake and Young White Muscovy. Linked to larger image of figure 11." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11. Upper&mdash;Crested White Drake. Lower&mdash;Young White
+Muscovy duck showing black on top of the head. This is not an
+unusual occurrence and the black is lost when the bird gets its
+mature plumage in the fall. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Blue Swedish.</i> In type and size this breed is
+about the same as the Cayuga although perhaps
+slightly more upstanding. In selecting the mating
+it is important to use birds which are close to standard
+weight as there is somewhat of a tendency for
+the size to be too small. As its name indicates the
+color is largely blue except for a white heart-shaped
+patch or bib which should be present on the breast.
+Sometimes this white extends along the underside
+of the body from the under-bill almost to the vent.
+Such birds are undesirable as breeders since they
+show too much white. On the other hand birds lacking
+a prominent white bib must also be avoided. Two
+of the flight feathers should be white and birds
+lacking these must be avoided. Guard against any
+red, gray or black in any part of the plumage. Sometimes,
+however, birds having more or less black
+throughout the plumage are used as breeders for the
+purpose of strengthening the blue color. Avoid any
+tendency toward a ribbon on the wing-bow and also
+birds that are too light, ashy or washed out in the
+blue color.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Sometimes birds show lines of white feathers
+around the eyes and over the head and these should
+be selected against as breeders as they are likely to
+cause white splashing in the plumage. Yellow or
+greenish bills must likewise be avoided since the first
+of these is a disqualification. In general this variety
+in breeding behaves insofar as color is concerned,
+very much like the Blue Andalusian chicken.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> The
+young ducks when hatched are yellow or creamy
+blue and from blue matings there are also produced
+black and white ducklings. As in other colored
+breeds and varieties, the dark pin feathers are somewhat
+of a disadvantage from a market standpoint.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> For a detailed discussion of the behaviour of the Blue Andalusian
+in breeding, the reader is referred to "The Mating
+and Breeding of Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R.
+Slocum, published by the Orange Judd Publishing Company,
+New York City.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig12.jpg"><img src="images/fig12_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263"
+alt="Wing of Blue Swedish duck." title="Linked to larger image of figure 12." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 12. Blue Swedish duck showing white flight feathers. The Standard calls for only two white
+flights, but there is a decided tendency as shown here for more flights to be white. (<i>Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Crested White.</i> Although not so large, this
+breed is much like the Pekin but with body carried
+more nearly horizontal and with a crest on the head.
+The type varies considerably however, the principal
+selection practiced having been for crest. The plumage
+is white in color throughout. What is desired
+in the crest is to have as large a one as possible,
+round and perfect in form, and set squarely on the
+head. Not infrequently crooked crests occur and
+also double or split crests, that is to say, where the
+crest is parted or divided. In some cases the crests
+may even come treble, that is, split into three parts.
+Entire absence of crest is by no means uncommon.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+In fact, it is considered a pretty good proportion if
+one half of the ducks hatched have crests although
+the matings vary considerably in this, occasionally
+one producing practically 100% of the offspring
+with crests. Avoid as breeders birds with small
+crests, lopped crests, split crests or showing an absence
+of crest. Avoid also breeders showing mottled
+or green bills in females and black bean in the
+bill of drakes.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Buff.</i> In type this breed is similar to the
+Swedish. As will be seen from the standard weights
+it is one of the medium sized breeds and makes a
+very nice market bird as it dresses out into a nice
+round fat carcass and is a good layer. In color the
+birds of both sexes should be as uniform a buff as
+possible except that the head and upper part of the
+neck in the drake should be seal brown when in full
+plumage. Color defects which are likely to be encountered
+and which should be avoided are the
+tendency for the head of the drake to run to a chestnut
+color and for his neck to be too light or faded
+out in color. Sometimes the head of the drake runs
+too dark in color approaching a greenish black like
+the head of the Rouen. This is of course undesirable.
+The wings of both sexes are apt to run to light
+or even in some cases, pure white flights. Blue wing
+bars are sometimes shown and these must be carefully
+avoided. Penciling such as is found in the
+Fawn and White Runner sometimes occurs and since
+it is a serious defect must be rigidly guarded against.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+Any tendency toward a white bib or a white ring
+around the neck of both sexes must likewise be
+avoided. Greenish or mottled bills must be avoided
+in ducks which are to be used as breeders. Not much
+trouble is experienced in the bill of drakes which as
+a rule comes good. Any blue cast in the feathers on
+the rump and back of both sexes must be selected
+against. As a rule the females of this breed tend to
+be better colored than the males. At certain periods
+of the moult the head coloring of the drakes becomes
+a good buff color and later when the moult is
+complete, it changes to a copper color. When
+hatched the ducklings are a creamy yellow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig13.jpg"><img src="images/fig13_tn.jpg" width="400" height="260" alt=""
+title="Pair of Buff Ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 13." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 13. Pair of Buff Ducks&mdash;Drake on the right (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Runner.</i> The type of this breed is quite different
+from that of the other breed of ducks and
+type is very important. The Runner wants to be decidedly
+upstanding and to be very reachy. It should
+have very slim slender lines. The neck should be
+straight and the head should be carried at right
+angles to the neck. The bill should be perfectly
+straight on top and on a line with the skull showing
+absolutely no tendency to be dished. The legs of
+this breed are longer than those of other ducks and
+this accounts for the fact that they run rather than
+waddle when they move about. It is from this fact
+that they get their name. They are very active and
+are troublesome about crawling through fences.
+They are good layers and non-sitters and they have
+often been called the Leghorns of the duck family.
+It must be remembered, however, that while they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+have the inherent ability to lay as well as hens they
+will do this only when they receive proper feed and
+care. It is quite useless to expect a high egg yield
+from them when they are carelessly fed and improperly
+housed and cared for. Avoid as breeders ducks
+of both sexes that are too heavy behind, or in other
+words, are too heavy-bottomed. Avoid birds which
+are too short in legs. Avoid crooked or sharp backs.
+Round heads must likewise be avoided.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Fawn and White Runner.</i> In this variety the
+markings must be very distinct and definite. There
+is a tendency which must be avoided for the head
+to run to black instead of chestnut, especially in
+males. It is likewise necessary to avoid females
+which tend to show penciling on the sides of the
+breast or on the wing-bows. These defects are apt
+to be associated with colored flight feathers which
+is also a defect to be avoided. Guard against too
+much fawn extending up the neck from the body to
+the head as the neck should be white in color. Too
+dark tail coverts approaching a greenish black
+sometimes occur and are undesirable. In type this
+variety will not average quite as good as the White.</p>
+
+<p><i>The White Runner.</i> This variety is best in type
+and it likewise runs good in color which should be
+white throughout. Sometimes foreign color will be
+shown in the back of females and this of course must
+be avoided. Also avoid birds as breeders with green
+or mottled bills.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig14.jpg"><img src="images/fig14_tn.jpg" width="400" height="260" alt=""
+title="Pencilled runner drake and white runner drake. Linked to larger image of figure 14." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14. Penciled Runner Drake on left and White Runner Drake on right. (<i>Photographs from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Penciled Runner.</i> In type this variety runs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+about the same as the Fawn and White. The color
+combination is rather difficult to breed as it is hard
+to get the good penciling desired in the female together
+with the white markings. In general, in
+breeding this variety there is a tendency to pay
+more attention to type than to color. The penciling
+is like that of the Rouen but lighter in color consisting
+of a brown penciling on a fawn colored ground.
+Avoid any grayish stippling on the breast of the
+drake and also on the wing-bows. These defects
+are likely to be associated with colored flights which
+are undesirable. The colored portion of the head of
+the drake is darker than that of the duck in this
+variety. Avoid lack of white on the neck in both
+sexes and avoid females which are lacking in penciling.</p>
+
+<p><i>Preparing Ducks for the Show.</i> Aside from selecting
+the individuals which most nearly approach
+the standard requirements there is very little which
+can be done in the way of preparing the birds for
+the show as these fowls are practically self-prepared.
+For a period of at least a week or ten days
+before they are shipped to the show those intended
+for exhibition should be given access to a grass
+range and also if possible to running water. The
+grass range will keep them in good condition and
+the running water will allow them to clean themselves.
+Any broken feathers should be plucked at
+least six weeks before the birds are to be shown in
+order to allow the feathers time enough to grow out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+again. It must be remembered that most ducks
+after getting in a good condition of flesh do not tend
+to hold this for a very long period but soon grow
+thinner again and will not take on fat the second
+time for some little period.</p>
+
+<p>Often there will be a difference in weight as high
+as 3 pounds when a duck is in good condition and
+after it has thinned. In order to have the ducks in
+top form, therefore, it is necessary to bring them up
+to flesh at the proper time. In order to bring ducks
+which are to be exhibited up to standard weight,
+they should be fed twice daily, for at least 10 days
+before shipping, a grain mixture consisting of one
+part corn and two parts oats. Give them all they
+will eat of this mixture. With Runners and the small
+breeds of ducks there is a danger of their putting on
+too much weight if corn is used in the ration and it
+is therefore best to give them oats alone. When
+the birds are shipped to the show they are quite
+likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey.
+When this occurs fill a barrel about half full
+of water. Then as the ducks are taken out of the
+shipping coops take three of them at a time, put
+them in the barrel and cover it over, leaving them
+for a few minutes. When they are taken out they
+will usually be clean.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Catching and Handling Ducks</h4>
+
+<p>Ducks should never be caught by the legs which
+are short and weak and are very likely to be injured.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+For the same reason they should never be carried by
+the legs. Ducks should be caught by the neck,
+grasping them just below the head. They can be
+carried short distances without injury in this way
+but it is not advisable to carry fat ducks by the neck
+for any considerable distance. The best way to handle
+them is to catch them by the neck, then carry
+them on the arm with the legs in the hand just as
+one would carry a chicken. See Fig. 15. A scoop net
+about 18 inches in diameter and with a six foot handle
+can also be used to excellent advantage in catching
+ducks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig15.jpg"><img src="images/fig15_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Methods of carrying ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 15." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15. Two methods of carrying ducks. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h4>Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs</h4>
+
+<p>Eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are
+fresh as duck eggs tend to deteriorate in quality
+quite rapidly. They may be shipped fairly long distances.
+Shipment may be made either by express or
+by Parcel Post. In order to prevent breakage and
+to lessen the effects of the jar to which the eggs are
+subjected during shipment, they must be carefully
+packed. One of the best methods is to use an ordinary
+market basket. Line the basket well on the
+bottom and sides with excelsior. Wrap each egg in
+paper and then wrap in excelsior so that there will
+be a good thick cushion of excelsior between the
+eggs and they will not be allowed to come in contact
+with one another. Pack the eggs in the basket securely
+standing them on end so that they cannot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+move or shift around. Cover the top of the eggs
+with a thick layer of excelsior using enough so that
+it runs up well above the sides of the basket. Over
+the top sew a piece of strong cotton cloth. Instead
+of sewing the cloth it can be pushed up under the
+outside rim of the basket with a case knife, this
+being quicker and equally as effective as sewing.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III
+<br />
+Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Location&mdash;Estimate of
+Equipment and Capital Necessary in Starting
+the Business</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Distribution.</i> Commercial Duck farming is confined
+very largely to the sections within easy shipping
+distance of the larger cities. A great majority
+of these farms are located about New York
+City, particularly on Long Island. Some duck farms
+are located on the Pacific Coast and a few commercial
+plants are scattered about here and there
+throughout the country. The size of these farms
+ranges all the way from plants with an output of
+5,000 or 10,000 ducklings up to those with an output
+around 100,000 yearly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stock Used.</i> The stock used on the commercial
+duck plants of the United States consists exclusively
+of the Pekin. The reasons for the use of this particular
+breed are the fact that it has white plumage
+and therefore dresses out well, that it is of good
+size, that its egg production is good, and that it
+makes quick growth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Location of Plant.</i> On Long Island the commercial
+duck plants are located along the streams, especially
+those on the southern shore of the Island,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+which empty into the various bays. Locations along
+these streams are not easy to secure at the present
+time owing to the fact that duck farms are not allowed
+in many sections where summer homes have
+been built. A water site of this sort is very valuable,
+although not absolutely essential, since it provides
+water yards for the breeding ducks and for the fattening
+ducklings if desired, and reduces the labor
+and cost of equipment materially since the ducks
+always have access to water and no additional provision
+need be made to provide them with drinking
+water. It also enables the ducks to keep their plumage
+clean. Usually these locations are on fresh
+water streams but some of them are further out toward
+the bay where the water is salty or at least
+brackish.</p>
+
+<p>The mature ducks thrive well on the salt water
+and do not have to be furnished with fresh drinking
+water in addition. For the young ducks, however,
+with a salt water location it is necessary to provide
+fresh drinking water. A few farms in other sections
+of the country are what are known as dry land
+farms, that is to say, they are not situated on the
+bank of a stream. In such locations running water
+is carried through the yards so that the ducks have
+an ample supply of drinking water and in some
+cases artificial ponds are constructed to provide
+water in which the breeding ducks can swim. Formerly
+the idea was universally held that swimming
+water was essential for the breeders in order to se<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>cure
+good fertility, and many duck farmers still believe
+that better results can be secured in this way.
+On some of the dry land duck farms, however,
+breeding ducks are successfully kept without such
+swimming places. The young market ducklings do
+not require water to swim in although some raisers
+prefer to have it and it is commonly allowed where
+readily available. On the dry land farms provision
+is made simply for a continuous supply of fresh
+drinking water for the fattening ducklings. Ducklings
+kept out of the water, do not take as much exercise
+and, in consequence, fatten a little more readily.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Making a Start in Duck Farming</h4>
+
+<p>Duck farms or plants are sometimes operated on
+a considerable scale at the beginning, the plans
+being carefully laid by some experienced duck man.
+In these cases, operations at the start may be of
+sufficient magnitude so that the output will amount
+to 15,000 or 20,000 ducklings in a year. In most
+cases, however, these places have been the result
+of a more gradual growth from a small beginning,
+a condition made necessary either by the inexperience
+of the grower or by lack of capital. Not infrequently
+men engaged in other forms of farming but
+possessing a suitable location will keep 200 or 300
+breeding ducks and from this gradually build up a
+good sized duck plant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equipment, Capital, etc. Required.</i> The estimates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+given as to the amount of equipment and capital required
+are based on the assumption that a plant is
+to be operated of sufficient size to have a yearly output
+of about 30,000 ducklings. It must be understood
+in this connection that location and various
+other conditions or circumstances will influence the
+cost of different items of equipment and for this reason
+these estimates must not be considered as absolute
+but should rather serve as a guide or basis on
+which to figure. The figures here given contemplate
+the building up of an establishment which is efficient
+but which is in no particular elaborate, the buildings
+and other equipment being as simple and inexpensive
+as possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant.</i> The plant
+must be carefully planned so as to make the best
+possible use of the land and particularly of the
+water frontage. It is particularly important to arrange
+the buildings in such a manner as to cut down
+labor as much as possible. If there is any expectation
+of enlarging the capacity at some future time,
+this must also be borne in mind in the arrangement
+of the various buildings and yards. The incubator
+cellar should be convenient to the No. 1 brooder
+house and the various brooder houses to one another.
+The brooder house must likewise be convenient
+to the growing and fattening houses and yards
+and these in turn to the killing house. The feed
+room should be centrally located so as to save labor
+as much as possible in feeding the ducks.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Land Required.</i> For a duck plant of the size indicated
+10 acres of land should be ample. This,
+however, means that no effort would be made to
+grow any of the feed for the ducks or ducklings with
+the exception of green feed. In some cases where
+the lay of the land is unusually favorable so that the
+plant can be laid out to the very best advantage, a
+smaller amount of ground than this might be sufficient
+but it is not well to figure on less than 10 acres.</p>
+
+<p><i>Number of Breeders Required.</i> With the usual
+methods of management and with good success, one
+may estimate that 40 young ducks can be marketed
+each year from each breeding female. This is a good
+average although in some good years duck raisers
+will do a little better than this. On the other hand
+in poor years they will not do so well. For a plant
+having an output of 30,000 market ducks there
+would therefore be needed in the neighborhood of
+800 breeding ducks in addition to 100 drakes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Housing Required for Breeders.</i> In figuring on
+the amount of housing required for this number of
+breeding ducks, it is necessary to figure on 2½ to 3
+square feet of floor space per bird, 3 square feet
+being better than 2½. This would require a housing
+space 20 feet deep by 120 feet long. However
+ducks are not usually housed in one building of this
+size, and in fact it is better not to do so since the
+smaller the flock of breeders kept together the better
+they will do. In no case should a duck raiser
+run more than 400 ducks in a flock and it is very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+much better to run them in pens of 100 each. In
+fact, some breeders do not place more than 25 to 50
+breeding ducks in a pen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incubator Capacity.</i> Incubators are used exclusively
+for hatching the eggs. At the present time in
+practically all cases some form of hot water mammoth
+incubator is utilized for this purpose. An investment
+is required both in incubators and in a
+cellar in which to operate them. In figuring on the
+incubator capacity necessary to take care of a proposition
+of this size, it is necessary to base the estimate
+on the number of eggs produced during the season
+of flush production. The duck raiser figures on
+incubating all eggs suitable for the purpose rather
+than to sell any of them for other purposes as there
+is a greater profit in rearing and marketing the
+ducklings. For that reason he must have incubator
+capacity enough to take care of all the eggs laid at
+any time of the year. During the season of flush
+production the yield will ordinarily run in the neighborhood
+of 80%. The period of incubation is 28 days
+but 2 days more should be added to this to allow for
+cleaning out the machines, etc., before starting another
+hatch. This means that there would be 30 days
+between hatches. Figuring on 800 ducks with an 80%
+production for 30 days an incubator capacity of
+around 19,200 eggs would be required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brooder Capacity.</i> A brooder house capacity,
+where artificial heat can be supplied, sufficient to
+take care of about half of the total output of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+plant at one time is necessary. This means there
+would have to be on this plant a heated brooder
+house capacity for 15,000 ducklings. About half
+of this number or 7500 would need accommodations
+in the number 1 or warmest brooder house where
+the heat can be kept up to 65 or 70 degrees in the
+house itself, and warmer of course under the hover.
+The other 7500 ducklings capacity would be in the
+number 2 house, that is, a house where heat could
+be supplied in the early spring and where the temperature
+could be run up to 60 degrees. Hovers in
+such a house are not really needed but it is common
+to cover the hot waterpipes with a platform in order
+to provide a runway on which one can run a wheel
+barrow and thus simplify feeding. Ordinarily
+after May 1 no heat is needed in the number 2
+brooder house. The young ducks are usually 2 to 3
+weeks old when they go into the number 2 house
+and they stay there for about 2 weeks depending on
+the weather. Heat for the brooder houses is supplied
+by means of hot water pipes and a coal burning
+stove such as are used in brooder houses for
+chickens. A number 3 or cold brooder house is also
+needed where ducklings can be housed and can be
+driven in at night and in cold weather after they
+have graduated from the number 2 house. From
+the number 3 house a part of the ducklings are
+taken directly to the yards where they are housed
+in open front sheds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fattening Houses or Sheds.</i> In addition to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+brooder houses, there are required fattening houses
+or sheds for the ducks when they are moved from
+the No. 3 brooder house to the yards. Suitable
+houses for this purpose are 16 feet deep by 24 feet
+long. In front they are 5 feet high and in the rear
+3½ feet. They are set on posts with a base board
+around to make them tight. The fronts are entirely
+open and provided with curtains which are used only
+in the winter to keep out the snow. The ducklings
+are shut in these houses when desired by means of
+wire panels which close the lower part of the front.
+Houses such as described are divided into two parts
+and each side will accommodate 200 ducklings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feed Storage.</i> Considerable feed storage room is
+necessary as it is very desirable to be able to buy
+feed in quantity and also to carry a considerable
+stock on hand in order to offset the possibility of not
+being able to secure feed at any time. There should
+be storage capacity for 4 cars of 30 tons each, in
+other words, for 120 tons of feed. Still greater capacity
+than this is desirable. In connection with the
+feed storage there should be a place where the feed
+can be mixed and where feed can be cooked. Two
+power operated feed mixers are required as one is
+not sufficient during the busy season to allow the
+mixing and feeding of the mash for both the breeders
+and the young stock at the same time. A feed
+cutter is necessary in preparing the green feed
+which is mixed in the mash. The usual type of kettle
+feed cooker is commonly used for boiling fish and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+preparing other cooked feeds but in its place a
+small four-horse steam boiler can be utilized to good
+advantage as this makes it possible to cook the feed
+right in the mixer by using a steam hose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Killing and Picking House.</i> A killing and picking
+house where the ducks can be prepared for market
+is another necessary building but this need not be an
+expensive building. It must be located with reference
+to its convenience to the rest of the plant. It
+is also desirable to locate it over a spring if one is
+available for the spring water can be used to excellent
+advantage in cooling the dressed ducklings.
+When a spring is not available water must be piped
+to this building. The killing house is usually built
+with at least one side open or partly open. A place
+is provided outside the picking room where the
+ducks can be hung and bled. Inside room is required
+for six or eight pickers. A kettle for heating water
+to be used in scalding the ducks is necessary as are
+also tanks in which to place the ducks after they
+are picked. Additional room is needed where the
+ducks can be weighed and packed ready for shipment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Residence.</i> In addition to the other buildings
+enumerated, a residence would of course be necessary.
+The size and elaborateness of this and consequently
+its cost depends entirely upon the owner's
+needs and wishes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Horse Power.</i> One horse and wagon for the purpose
+of drawing the feed about the plant and for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+certain other necessary work would be required. If
+the owner desires to do his own hauling of the feed
+from the railroad and the other necessary trucking
+he would, of course, have to keep more horses, a
+team at least, or an automobile truck. Where only
+one horse is kept, this trucking must be hired done.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feeding Track.</i> On many of the larger duck
+farms, a feed track is employed in feeding the stock.
+Such a track consists of a framework of sufficient
+strength to support a car filled with mash which is
+pushed along the track by hand. The track leads
+from the feed mixer across the various yards where
+the ducks to be fed are located, including both the
+breeding ducks, yard ducks and brooder ducks in
+yards. This involves a considerable amount of
+trackage which must be fairly level and which runs
+over the yard fences or along the ends of the yards
+so that the feed can be shoveled directly from the
+car into the feeding trays in the yards. The use of
+a feed track simplifies the feeding considerably but
+its construction is quite expensive. Where a track
+is not used, the feed as mixed is dumped into a low
+wagon which is driven along the yards, or through
+them by removing movable panels in the fences and
+the feed shoveled from the wagon to the feed trays.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<a href="images/fig16.jpg"><img src="images/fig16_tn.jpg" width="263" height="400" alt=""
+title="Power feed mixer. Linked to larger image of figure 16." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 16. Power feed mixer. The feed is dumped into a low
+wagon from which it is shoveled to the ducks. (<i>Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Electric Lights.</i> Most duck farms at the present
+time are located where electric lighting is available.
+It is desirable and in fact almost necessary to have
+the various houses wired so that lights can be turned
+on when desired. In addition, lights are usually pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>vided
+in the yards for fattening ducks and are used
+at night and especially during storms to keep the
+ducks from stampeding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water Supply.</i> An adequate water supply is essential.
+This will consist of a well or spring furnishing
+an ample amount of water, a power pump and
+a water supply tank. From the tank, the water must
+be piped to the incubator cellar, the brooder houses,
+the killing house, the feed house and to any of the
+yards where the ducks do not have access to a natural
+supply of good water. In addition, of course,
+the water from the same tank is usually used to supply
+the residence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fences.</i> Not a great deal of investment is necessary
+in fences since the yards are rather small and
+the fences are low. Two-foot fences of two-inch
+mesh wire are used for the yard ducks while for the
+little ducks 18-inch wire of one-inch mesh is used.
+The biggest items of expense connected with the
+fences are the cost of the stakes or posts used in their
+construction and the labor used in this work. The
+portion of the yards extending into the water are the
+most troublesome and most expensive to build. In
+some cases, rather elaborate wooden picket fences
+are used in the water yards. These are more permanent
+but are more expensive to build.</p>
+
+<p><i>Labor.</i> For a plant of the size indicated there
+would be required in addition to an active
+working proprietor three other men. One man would
+be needed to operate the incubators, one man would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+devote his time to the brooder houses, one man
+would feed the yard ducks and the fattening pens,
+and one man would do the killing and packing, take
+care of the feathers, clean the yards, etc. Of course,
+there would be periods when these men would not
+have their entire time taken up with their particular
+duties and this would permit them to turn in and
+help with the miscellaneous work on the plant.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the regular men employed, additional
+labor would be necessary to do the picking.
+For this purpose pickers are usually brought in and
+work by the piece. During the spring of 1920 these
+pickers received six cents per duck and they will
+average about 75 ducks a day, beginning work at 6
+in the morning and finishing by noon or a little later.
+Some pickers will average as high as 100 ducks a
+day. In the busy season from 800 to 1200 ducks will
+be marketed per week and the usual practice is to
+kill and pick not over three days a week, usually
+during the first part of the week.</p>
+
+<p><i>Invested Capital.</i> Investment in the business exclusive
+of working capital, that is to say, the money
+in the land and buildings and other equipment
+would require under present conditions about $1,000
+for each thousand ducks marketed. In other words,
+in a plant of this size, close to $30,000 would be invested.
+The amount of invested capital depends to
+some extent upon location and upon the elaborateness
+of the buildings and other equipment but with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+a well laid out economical plant an investment of the
+size indicated should be sufficient.</p>
+
+<p><i>Working Capital.</i> In addition to the capital invested
+in the plant there would be required a considerable
+amount of working capital. From the
+first of November to the beginning of the marketing
+of the ducks there would be required from $6,000
+to $8,000 with which to purchase feed, meet the pay
+roll, and for other running expenses. Even after
+the marketing begins there would be a period of
+from a month to six weeks when the expenses will
+continue to be greater than the receipts so that some
+additional capital might be necessary. However,
+returns would begin to come in which could be used
+to take care of the more pressing current obligations
+so that additional working capital which might be
+needed over that indicated would not be large.</p>
+
+<p><i>Profits.</i> The profits in commercial duck raising
+vary widely, as must be expected, depending upon
+the management, upon the season and upon prices
+received. After deducting all overhead charges and
+interest on the investment, the net return per duck
+should be at least 10 cents per duckling marketed.
+In fact the return should be 15 cents to provide
+much inducement to engage in the business. Some
+seasons the returns will run greater than this but on
+the other hand, there is always the chance of occasional
+big losses.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV
+<br />
+Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Management of the
+Breeding Stock</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Age of Breeders.</i> On most large commercial duck
+plants the entire breeding stock is renewed each
+year. In other words, the breeders are kept only
+through their first laying season. This makes it
+necessary to select from the young stock reared and
+save for breeders as many head as it is desired to
+carry for the coming year. This practice is used
+for the reason that ducks lay best during their first
+year. Therefore, since it is desired to keep up the
+maximum egg production in order to raise as many
+market ducks as possible, young breeders are considered
+better. Some raisers, however, keep a part
+of their breeding ducks for two years and occasionally
+for 3 or even 4 years but this is not the usual
+practice. Recent comparison made between young
+and two year old ducks as breeders would seem to
+indicate that ducklings hatched from the eggs of the
+latter live a little better.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distinguishing Young from Old Ducks.</i> In this
+connection it is of interest to know how young ducks
+can be readily distinguished from the older birds.
+The young ducks have bright yellow legs and bills<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+while the old ducks after a period of laying, lose a
+considerable amount of the yellow from these sections.
+In addition, soon after the ducks begin to lay,
+their bills as a rule will begin to be streaked with
+black. Young ducks can also be told from the old
+ducks by feeling of the end of the breast bone which
+runs to a point at the abdomen. In the older ducks
+this is hard while in the young ducks it is gristly and
+bends easily. The windpipe of an old duck is hard
+and rather difficult to compress or dent while in the
+young duck it is softer and easily dented.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selection of Breeding Ducks.</i> The breeders are
+usually selected from the ducklings which reach
+market age from the last week in June through July.
+As these lots become ready for market and are
+driven into the pens to be slaughtered each duck is
+handled and any especially good birds which the
+proprietor thinks will make good breeders are
+thrown out at this time.</p>
+
+<p>In making selection of breeders those are chosen
+which are healthy and thrifty and which have good
+wide, long and deep bodies. Ducks with crooked
+wings, crooked tails, hump backs or paddle legs are
+rejected for this purpose. After the young ducks
+for breeders are selected they are put in a yard or
+fattening pen until the number which the owner expects
+to keep is complete. These young breeders
+generally begin to moult soon after they are selected
+and from this time on they are fed whole corn and
+plenty of green feed until it is time to begin feeding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+the laying ration. Some of the breeding ducks will
+usually begin to lay about December 1 although
+they will not lay heavily at that time. The laying
+ration described later should be begun about that
+time or a couple of weeks earlier.</p>
+
+<p><i>Number of Females to a Drake.</i> As a rule on commercial
+duck farms the birds are mated in the proportion
+of about one drake to seven ducks. This
+proportion will vary to some extent under different
+methods of management and weather conditions
+and may run all the way from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8. The
+smaller number of drakes should be used late in
+the season while the larger number will give better
+fertility early in the breeding season.</p>
+
+<p>Since the drakes do not fight seriously, flock matings
+can be made. Better results will be obtained
+from smaller flocks than from large flocks and there
+will also be less cracked eggs and less very dirty
+eggs from the smaller flocks. Before the ducks are let
+out in the morning there is a tendency for them to run
+back and forth through the pens, and in this way
+they tramp over many of the eggs which are laid anywhere
+about the floor. The larger the flock the more
+cracked and dirty eggs will result. While the drakes
+do not fight each other they do at times injure and
+kill the ducks to some extent when three or four
+drakes may chase one duck. In this way they may
+injure the ducks' backs and often pick their eyes and
+necks. Whenever a duck is found which is injured
+she should be removed from the flock. Difficulty of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+this sort is most prevalent about the 1st of March.
+If the trouble gets very bad it can be stopped to
+some extent by cutting back the upper bills of the
+drakes about one-fourth of an inch with a tinsnip
+or by reducing the proportion of drakes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Securing Breeding Drakes.</i> It is common practice
+on duck plants to avoid inbreeding by securing
+drakes from some other flock each year. This is
+usually accomplished by buying the drakes outright
+from some neighboring duck farmer. It may also
+be accomplished by purchasing a few eggs for
+hatching in order to secure new blood. In any particular
+community there is a tendency for the duck
+farmers to trade breeding drakes among themselves
+for a period of years with the result that they all
+have much the same blood and not a great deal of
+benefit is obtained from securing the drakes from
+some neighbor's flock. It is undoubtedly good practice
+to go farther afield occasionally for a supply of
+breeding drakes. In purchasing stock for new blood
+be sure that it is as good as the home stock and better
+if it can be found. It will do no good to purchase
+and use inferior stock and may do much harm.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Houses and Yards for Breeders</h4>
+
+<p>The breeding flocks are usually confined to breeding
+yards. The size of these yards depends upon the
+size of the breeding flock but large yards are not required.
+A yard for 200 breeders is not as a rule<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+larger than 100 by 200 feet including the water part
+of the yard. Houses and yards should be located
+on sand if possible as this is easier to keep clean and
+therefore keeps the birds in better condition. Occasional
+flocks of breeding ducks are allowed their
+liberty but this is not common practice nor is it good
+practice unless the surroundings are clean and the
+ducks do not have access to stagnant mud or refuse
+in which they can work. If ducks work too much in
+this kind of material they will eat more or less of it
+which injures the eggs for hatching purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Many different styles of houses are used for breeders,
+some of which are decidedly more elaborate than
+is necessary. A very satisfactory economical house
+is one 20 feet deep, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet at
+back, with a shed roof. This can be constructed
+of tongue and groove material or may be made of
+unmatched stuff and covered with paper. A house
+of this proportion makes a good light house and it
+can be carried in length according to the size of the
+flock. For a breeding unit of 200 ducks, which is a
+good unit to use, a house 20 feet deep and 30 to 40
+feet long is suitable. No floor is used in the house
+but it should be well filled up with dirt so that the
+water will not come in.</p>
+
+<p>One or more good sized openings are left in the
+front of the breeding house for ventilation, or windows
+may be placed in the front which can be used
+for this purpose. Good ventilation is necessary.
+Additional ventilation is secured from the doors. If<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+the weather is mild the doors are left partly open,
+if cold they are nearly closed, while when the
+weather is hot they are left entirely open. A good
+scheme is to use a sort of Dutch door so that the bottom
+or top half can be opened independently. In
+this way the top part of the doors can be left open
+so as to let in the sunlight and still keep the ducks
+in the house or the top may be left closed and the
+bottom opened so as to allow the ducks to go in or
+out and still cut down the amount of ventilation.
+When the weather is warm the doors may be left
+entirely open except for a board 18 inches to 2 feet
+wide inserted in the bottom of the door when it is
+desired to keep the ducks in.</p>
+
+<p>Shade is essential for the breeders and if not provided
+naturally by trees must be supplied by means
+of artificial shelters.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig17a.jpg"><img src="images/fig17a_tn.jpg" width="400" height="336" alt=""
+title="Duck houses (rear view). Linked to larger image." /></a>
+<a href="images/fig17b.jpg"><img src="images/fig17b_tn.jpg" width="400" height="336" alt=""
+title="Duck houses (front view). Linked to larger image." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 17. Upper&mdash;Rear and end view of house or shed used for
+fattening ducks. Lower&mdash;General view on a duck plant, showing
+open front fattening houses in the foreground and houses for
+breeders in the background. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig18.jpg"><img src="images/fig18_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt=""
+title="House for breeding ducks. Linked to larger image." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 18. A good house for breeding ducks. It is 20 feet deep, 40 feet long, 7 feet high in front and 4
+feet in the rear and will accommodate 200 breeders. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding Houses.</i> Usually
+straw, meadow hay, or swale hay is used for
+bedding. Shavings make good material for this purpose
+if they do not contain too much sawdust. The
+principal objection to shavings is that it takes longer
+to bed with them. Often a few joists are laid at the
+back of the house on which to pile bales of straw or
+other bedding so that it will be kept dry and will
+serve as an emergency supply available for bedding
+the house in stormy days. The houses should be
+bedded fairly often in order to keep the floors clean
+and dry and so as not to allow the ducks' feet to get
+cold. The frequency with which bedding is neces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>sary
+will depend upon the weather. In winter it may
+at times be necessary to bed every day. In May it
+may be necessary only twice a week and still later in
+the season only once a week. In wet weather the
+ducks track in lots of mud and water and frequent
+bedding helps to keep the eggs clean. The houses
+are cleaned out only once a year and this is usually
+done after the ducks have stopped laying. To clean
+out the houses while the ducks are laying would
+disturb them and tend to stop their egg production.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cleaning the Breeding Yards.</i> The yards should
+be cleaned whenever they need it, that is, whenever
+they begin to get sloppy or sticky. It is a matter of
+judgment to decide when this is necessary. The
+character of the soil influences this, as sandy yards
+absorb the droppings better and do not need cleaning
+as frequently as heavier soils. In the yards for
+the breeding ducks, or the water yards, this will as
+a rule not be over 2 or 3 times a season. In dry
+weather cleaning is accomplished by sweeping the
+yards with a broom. In wet weather the droppings
+spread over the yard and are packed down by the
+ducks' feet until they form a layer of putty-like material
+which cannot be swept off but is scraped off
+by means of a hoe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water Yards for Breeders.</i> Formerly it was the
+consensus of opinion that breeders needed water in
+which they could swim in order to keep in good
+breeding condition and to give the best results in
+fertility of the eggs. At present it is not considered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+necessary to have sufficient water to permit swimming
+although many breeders prefer to do this and
+feel that they get better results from it. However,
+breeding ducks have been and are being kept successfully
+in dry yards where water is supplied to
+them simply in an amount sufficient to allow them to
+drink and to clean themselves. Where water yards
+are provided this should not be on stagnant water
+but there should be some circulation of the water
+so as to keep it clean and fresh. Where the lay of
+the land is such that it is not possible to run all the
+yards down to a stream for this purpose it is sometimes
+possible to dig a canal or ditch from the stream
+to the yards so as to allow the ducks access to the
+water. Where the yards can extend into the water
+it saves a great deal of labor or considerable expense
+in equipment as it is not then necessary to provide
+the ducks with drinking water by means of
+some artificial arrangement such as a concrete gutter
+or ditch extending through the yards or by
+means of artificial ponds.</p>
+
+<p>If the water yards used freeze over in winter it is
+necessary to cut holes in the ice so that the ducks
+can get water for drinking purposes. Sometimes
+the ducks will go into these water holes and after
+getting their plumage wet will come out and sit
+down in the yard and freeze fast to the ground. During
+such weather conditions it is necessary to make
+the rounds of the yards frequently and to loosen
+any ducks that have frozen fast. If they are left in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+that condition they are apt to injure themselves in
+trying to pull free and if left too long will die.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig19.jpg"><img src="images/fig19_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt=""
+title="Another type of breeding house. Linked to larger image of figure 19." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 19. Another successful type of house for breeding ducks. It is 20 ft. by 40 ft. and is divided into
+two pens each of which will accommodate 100 breeders. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig20.jpg"><img src="images/fig20_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt=""
+title="Feeding the breeders. Linked to larger image of figure 20." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20. Meal time for the breeders. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Feeding the Breeders.</i> Breeding ducks are fed
+twice a day, in the morning and at night. It is usual
+practice to feed the breeders last in the morning
+and first at night. The reason for feeding them last
+in the morning is that they are usually fed in the
+yards rather than the house and they should be kept
+in until they are through laying which will be after
+daylight. A good breeding ration consists of the
+following, the proportions being given by measure
+in bushels.</p>
+
+<ul style="margin-left:4em">
+<li>1 bushel bran.</li>
+<li>1 bushel low-grade flour.</li>
+<li>1 bushel corn meal.</li>
+<li>1 bushel green feed.</li>
+<li>½ bushel either raw or cooked vegetables.</li>
+<li>1 bushel in 10 of beef scrap.</li>
+<li>½ bushel in 10 of cooked fish.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>This ration will keep the breeding ducks in good
+flesh but there will be no difficulty in their getting
+too fat. It is also a good laying ration and will promote
+good egg production. The vegetables used in
+this ration usually consist of sugar beets, cow beets,
+potatoes, etc. However, if potatoes are used the
+amount of flour in the ration should be reduced a
+little so as not to make the ration too heavy. Beets,
+when used, are fed raw cut up and mixed in the
+feed. Small potatoes, boiled and mixed in the feed
+are more valuable as they have a greater food value
+than beets. Some duck growers feed fish entirely,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+using no beef scrap. This is done where a plentiful
+supply of fish can be secured by going out into the
+bay after them. However, this is not very good
+practice for a sufficient supply of fish may not
+always be available and the ducks are so fond of
+the fish that they will not eat well the beef scrap
+used as a substitute for the fish, until they have become
+used to it. Fish is prepared for feeding by
+boiling it thoroughly in a feed cooker.</p>
+
+<p>The available land on the plant is used to grow
+a supply of green feed. Rye is used for this purpose
+early in the spring as soon as it is high enough to
+mow. It is mowed the first time when it is like a
+lawn. At this stage it does not have to be cut up.
+Oats are used in the same way. During the summer
+fodder corn is used. This is the poorest crop for the
+purpose but is as a rule the only one available at
+that time. Rape is sowed in August and its use begun
+about the time of the first frost and kept up
+until the hard freezes come or until it is buried under
+the snow. Creek grass which is secured from
+the fresh water streams on Long Island by going
+out in a flat bottom boat and raking it off the creek
+bottom with a wooden rake, is very much relished
+by the ducks and is used whenever it is available.
+However, the supply of this material is not as plentiful
+as it was formerly and it is rather hard to get.
+When it is available it can be used either in winter
+or summer.</p>
+
+<p>Good field clover cut up and boiled with the pota<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>toes
+or with the fish makes a good green feed. All
+of these green materials for use in the ration, unless
+they are already in short lengths, are cut up by
+means of a power feed cutter before they are mixed
+in the mash. When no other form of green feed is
+available ground alfalfa is used but only half as
+much of this material is mixed with the ration as
+is used of any of the other kinds of green feed.
+Wherever possible the various duck yards should be
+used to grow a crop of green stuff such as oats or
+rye as this not only helps out on the supply of green
+feed but also helps to sweeten the soil. The growing
+of a crop on the heavier types of soil used for ducks
+is especially important as such soils are more likely
+to become contaminated from the droppings.</p>
+
+<p>The ration for the ducks is mixed up in a power
+feed mixer which works much on the principle of a
+power dough mixer. In fact, dough mixers are used
+on some plants. In mixing the feed enough water
+should be added to bring the material to a consistency
+where it will hold together when squeezed in
+the hand. In fact, the consistency should be between
+crumbly and sticky, but should never be
+sloppy. The feed is dumped from the mixer into a
+low horse drawn wagon and driven around to the
+various yards where it is shoveled off on to the feed
+troughs or trays. On some large duck plants a
+track is provided which runs over the yards and
+over this a car loaded with feed is pushed and the
+feed shoveled into the feed trays.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The breeders should be fed in the same place. If
+feeding is begun in the house this practice should
+be continued. If feeding is begun in the yards it
+should be continued there. To change disturbs the
+ducks and interferes with their egg production.</p>
+
+<p>Coarse ground oyster shell about as large as corn
+should be kept before the breeders all the time in
+boxes where they can help themselves. A flock of
+700 or 800 breeders will eat upwards of 200 pounds
+a week of this material. Unless sand is available in
+the yards where they can get it, ducks should also
+have access to a supply of good sharp creek sand
+but when kept in sand yards no other form of grit
+need be furnished.</p>
+
+<p>The usual method of feeding is to utilize flat
+troughs on which the feed is shoveled. Only as much
+feed should be given at the regular feeding time as
+the ducks will eat up clean. This makes it necessary
+to watch the feeding carefully and to regulate
+the amount accordingly. It is good practice to
+gather up any feed that is left by the ducks so that
+it will not lie there to sour and spoil as such feed
+is bad for the birds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Egg Production</h4>
+
+<p>The average egg production of Pekin ducks kept
+under commercial farm conditions will run from
+80 to 125 eggs per head for the season. This will vary
+somewhat from year to year and also with the man<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>agement
+and feed given the ducks. The laying begins
+to a small extent about December 1 and gradually
+increases until the ducks are laying freely in
+February. As the hot weather of summer begins
+to come on the laying drops off until about July
+1 and after this not enough eggs are produced as a
+rule to pay to hold the breeding ducks longer. Often
+many ducks will stop laying considerably before
+this, especially those which have started laying
+early and it may not pay to keep such pens later
+than May. Laying takes place early in the morning
+and practically all the eggs are laid soon after daylight.
+It is for this reason that the ducks are usually
+shut up at night so that all the eggs laid will be secured
+as some of them would otherwise be lost by
+their being laid around in the yard or in the water.
+In the spring the ducks can be let out about 6 a. m.,
+as the laying will be pretty well over by that time,
+but in winter they must be kept shut up later in order
+to secure all the eggs. After the ducks start
+laying in the spring they are very regular and continuous
+layers and will miss fewer days than most
+hens.</p>
+
+<p>After the breeding ducks are first put in the
+breeding pens and shut in the houses at night it is
+common practice to use electric lights for the first
+2 or 3 weeks in order to keep them from stampeding
+as ducks in strange surroundings are quite nervous
+and are quite likely to stampede and to run
+over one another thus causing cripples. Electric<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+lights have also been used to some extent during the
+late fall and winter for the purpose of inducing egg
+production earlier than the natural season. As a
+rule the ducks can be started to laying about 4
+weeks after turning on the lights but the average
+production under this system is not likely to run
+more than 60 eggs for the season as so handled they
+moult quite early in the spring. A single 25 watt
+light is sufficient for a house or pen 16 x 24 feet and
+the lights are left turned on all night.</p>
+
+<p>The object in feeding and caring for the breeding
+ducks is to keep them from moulting and to keep
+them laying as long as possible. It must be remembered
+that any radical change in feed or manner
+of feeding, shutting them up too closely, change of
+temperature, or other disturbing conditions are
+likely to cause moulting and to check egg production.
+Any change in feed must be made carefully
+and gradually, not suddenly. It must also be remembered
+that ducks are excitable birds and must
+be handled and driven carefully so as to disturb
+them as little as possible.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Time of Marketing Breeders</h4>
+
+<p>The breeders should be turned off to market whenever
+their egg production drops off so decidedly that
+it no longer pays to hold them. In most cases this
+will be about the 1st of July but it may range considerably
+earlier than this, especially with pens of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+ducks that have started laying early. When the
+ducks finish laying their eggs they begin to moult
+and it is at this time that they should be marketed.
+If marketing is delayed, the ducks will lose condition
+as the moulting progresses and will therefore
+be held at a loss.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Diseases and Pests</h4>
+
+<p><i>Disease.</i> Old ducks, that is, mature ducks, are
+practically free from disease. Of course, there will
+be a certain amount of loss in the breeding stock
+from various causes but this should not run for the
+entire season more than 10% of the flock. Ducks
+do not become egg bound, but sometimes, especially
+during heavy laying, they become ruptured.</p>
+
+<p><i>Insect Pests.</i> Ducks are remarkably free from
+lice and other insect pests and those which they do
+have do not trouble them much. It is unnecessary
+therefore to take any precautions in the way of
+treating the ducks to keep them free of insects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dogs.</i> Occasionally trouble may be experienced
+from dogs. If these animals get into the yards with
+the breeders or the fattening ducks, they may kill
+a good many and in addition will seriously injure
+the rest by chasing them and by the fright which
+the ducks are given.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V
+<br />
+Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Incubation</h3>
+
+
+<p>The Pekin duck is essentially a non-broody breed.
+It, therefore, becomes necessary to resort to incubators
+for the purpose of hatching the eggs. Occasional
+ducks will sit if allowed to do so but it is not
+the practice on commercial duck farms to allow them
+to sit and hatch their young. No special means are
+taken to break them of broodiness other than not to
+allow them eggs to sit on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kinds of Incubators Used.</i> Both the smaller kerosene
+lamp heated incubators and the large or mammoth
+hot water heated incubators are used for hatching
+duck eggs. At the present time the mammoth hot
+water machines are those which are in principal use
+due largely to the lessened labor required to operate
+them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incubator Cellar.</i> It is necessary to provide some
+room in which the incubators can be installed and
+operated. This may take the form of a cellar, or the
+incubators may be operated in rooms above the
+ground. Many of the incubator cellars on duck
+farms are only partially under ground and not a few
+of them are built entirely out of ground. The particular
+size and shape of the cellar or incubator<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+room will, of course, depend upon the number of incubators
+to be installed and upon their make and
+shape. Usually these buildings are constructed
+with rather thick walls so that the temperature of
+the room will fluctuate less with changes in outside
+temperature. Provision is also necessary by means
+of windows or other ventilating devices to provide
+for good ventilation in the room. The cellars are
+usually constructed with cement floors as moisture
+is used freely and wooden floors would rot out
+quickly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incubator Capacity Required.</i> The aim on commercial
+duck farms is to hatch all of the eggs produced
+which are suitable for the purpose. Practically
+no eggs are sold except the cracked eggs or
+those which would not give good results in the incubator
+such as too large or too small eggs. Occasionally,
+of course, there will be sales of duck eggs
+in comparatively large lots for incubation purposes
+where someone is starting a duck farm. Occasionally
+also duck farmers buy from each other a few
+eggs for incubation in order to secure new blood.
+On the whole, however, practically all of the eggs
+laid are incubated and it is necessary to have an incubator
+capacity sufficient to take care of the eggs
+as they are produced during the flush season.</p>
+
+<p>Since the egg production at this time will run
+around about 80% and since the period of incubation
+is 28 days and a couple more days must be
+allowed to take the ducklings out of the machines<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+and to clean up the machines, it is necessary to figure
+on 30 days between hatches. To take care of
+the flush production at this time there would be required
+an incubator capacity of from 20 to 25 eggs
+per head of breeding ducks. The latter figure is a
+safer estimate than the former. Of course, eggs
+sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity are not
+put in the machines at any one time but different
+lots are put in as soon as a sufficient number is obtained
+to make it worth while. There will be, therefore,
+eggs in various stages of incubation in different
+sections of the machines at the same time. While
+Pekin duck eggs will run about ½ heavier in weight
+than hens' eggs they do not take up a proportionately
+greater amount of space in the incubator. An
+incubator tray will accommodate about 5/6 as many
+Pekin duck eggs as it will hens' eggs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Age of Hatching Eggs.</i> Duck eggs should be set
+as often as enough are secured to fill one or more
+trays in the incubator or enough to produce a sufficient
+number of ducklings to utilize brooding space
+to advantage. Since duck eggs deteriorate more
+rapidly than hens' eggs they cannot be kept so long
+before they are set. It is best not to save them for
+longer than one week. During the season of flush
+production it is not, of course, necessary to save
+them that long since enough eggs will be secured
+to set each day if desired. The usual practice at
+this time is to set twice a week. During the early
+part of the season when the production of eggs is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+low and the temperature cool the eggs are often
+saved for as long a period as two weeks without noticeably
+bad results.</p>
+
+<p><i>Care of Hatching Eggs.</i> Eggs for hatching should
+be kept in a cool place. Any place suitable for keeping
+hens' eggs for hatching is a suitable place for
+duck eggs. The temperature should be from 50&deg;
+to 70&deg; Fahrenheit. Where the eggs are not kept
+longer than one week, it is not necessary to turn
+them, especially if they are kept on end. If kept
+longer than this it is safer to turn them once a day
+or once in two days, handling them carefully so as
+not to crack any or to injure their hatching qualities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selecting the Eggs for Hatching.</i> Medium sized
+eggs are preferred for this purpose. Therefore, the
+extremely large eggs and the very small ones are
+thrown out. Rough shelled eggs or eggs with
+crooked or deformed shells are likewise thrown out
+since they are not likely to hatch well. Eggs that
+are badly soiled so that they cannot be tested easily
+are washed but the clean eggs are not. All the eggs
+intended for incubation purposes are sounded by
+striking them gently against one another in order to
+detect and remove the cracked eggs. No selection
+is made on the basis of color. The eggs may be
+white, creamy white or a blue, or bluish green in
+color. At the present time a considerably less proportion
+of the eggs show a blue tint than formerly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+As the egg laying season advances the eggs laid by
+the ducks tend to get a little larger.</p>
+
+<p><i>Temperature.</i> Up to the time of testing, that is,
+about the fifth day, the incubator is run at a temperature
+of from 101 to 102 degrees. After the fifth
+day the temperature is kept as near 103 as possible.
+The most sensitive period for a duck egg is during
+the first 3 or 4 days of incubation. If they are
+allowed to get too warm during this time the germ
+may be killed while if the temperature is too low,
+development will be retarded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Position of the Thermometer.</i> In figuring on the
+proper temperature at which to run the incubator,
+the thermometer should be so placed that the bulb
+is on a level with the top of the eggs, preferably
+touching a fertile egg. If the thermometer bulb
+rests on an infertile egg the temperature recorded
+will be lower than the actual temperature of fertile
+eggs in the later stages of incubation, due to the
+animal heat of the developing embryos, with the
+result that the machine would be operated at too
+high a temperature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Testing.</i> It is common practice to make only one
+complete test. This is done on the evening of the
+fifth day. Testing may be done by means of an ordinary
+candling device such as is used with hens'
+eggs, each egg being examined separately. To save
+time a piece of apparatus may be used which is simple
+in construction and which simplifies the process
+of candling considerably. This may be termed a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+testing table. It consists of a table the same
+width as an incubator tray and longer than the tray.
+In the table there is an opening the size of a row of
+eggs and beneath this are placed several electric
+light bulbs with reflectors back of them so as to
+throw the light up through the eggs. By sliding the
+tray along the table each row of eggs is brought over
+the lights and their condition can be quickly noted.
+At this test all the infertile eggs are taken out as
+well as any eggs in which the germs have died.
+The infertile eggs after a careful retest are then
+packed in cases and sent to market where they are
+usually sold to bakers as tested eggs. While no second
+test is made of the eggs left in the machines the
+experienced incubator operator is constantly on the
+watch for and is constantly removing any eggs
+which die at a later time. To the experienced eye
+the color of the egg indicates that it has died as it
+takes on a sort of pinkish or darkish tint. Duck
+eggs after they die will spoil very quickly and must
+be removed promptly as the odor which they throw
+off is very strong and will prove harmful to the other
+eggs. The inexperienced operator can readily locate
+dead eggs by smelling over the tray.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig21.jpg"><img src="images/fig21_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Interior of breeding house. Linked to larger image of figure 20." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span> Interior of house for breeding ducks. Notice the heavy bedding and the feeding track. (<i>Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig22.jpg"><img src="images/fig22_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt=""
+title="Incubator cellar. Linked to larger image of figure 21." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 22. Incubator cellar on large duck plant. Trays of eggs set out to turn and cool. (<i>Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Turning the Eggs.</i> The eggs are neither turned,
+cooled nor otherwise disturbed after they are put in
+the incubator until after they are tested on the fifth
+day. From this time on they are turned twice a day,
+morning and night, until they begin to pip.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cooling the Eggs.</i> There is a considerable differ<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>ence
+in the practice of incubator operators with regard
+to cooling. No cooling should be done until
+after the first test. After this some incubator men
+cool the eggs by dropping the doors of the machine.
+Others take the trays of eggs out and put them on
+top of the machine. Cooling is usually done once a
+day. The amount of cooling which the eggs require
+seems to vary greatly and here again the judgment
+of the operator comes into play. About the best general
+rule which can be given is that the eggs should
+be cooled until they do not feel warm to the face
+but they should never be cooled to the extent that
+they feel cold to the face or hands. The length
+of time to bring this about varies with the age of the
+eggs and the temperature of the room.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moisture.</i> A good deal of moisture is used in incubating
+duck eggs. It is usual to begin to spray
+the eggs with water the next day after testing.
+However, this may vary anywhere from the sixth to
+the tenth day. They are sprayed quite thoroughly,
+some men using water enough so that it runs out of
+the bottom of the machine. No particular care is
+taken to see that the water used is warm. Ordinary
+water just as it comes from the pipes is commonly
+used and is applied by means of a spray nozzle attached
+to a hose. However, extremely cold water
+should not be used for this purpose. This spraying
+is done once or twice a day as the operator may
+think necessary until the eggs begin to hatch. In
+many cases even then if the ducklings seem to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+drying too fast after they come out of the shell, or
+to be having difficulty to get out it is well to open
+the machines and wet the eggs down thoroughly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fertility.</i> The fertility varies with the season
+that is, with the weather. At the beginning of the
+laying season when the weather is cold the fertility
+usually runs rather low. This is likewise true at
+the end of the laying season when the heat of summer
+sets in. During the interval between these two
+times of low fertility there will usually be one or
+more periods during which the fertility will go down
+and then come back again. This seems to occur even
+though the weather remains about the same and
+though there is no change in the method of feeding.
+Fertility may be considered to be good when it runs
+about 85%. When the fertility is running poor the
+hatching of the eggs left in the machines after testing
+will usually be poor also.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hatching.</i> It takes longer as a rule from the time
+that the ducklings pip the eggs until they hatch than
+it does with chicks. To retain the moisture which is so
+necessary during hatching, the machines are usually
+shut tightly and are not opened until the hatching
+is pretty well completed unless it becomes necessary
+to add more moisture as indicated above. The little
+ducklings should be left in the incubator until the
+hatching is over and they are thoroughly dried off.
+As soon as the hatching is completed, the ventilators
+in the machines are opened to hasten the drying
+process. If the ducklings open their bills and pant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+it is an indication that they are not getting enough
+ventilation and this should be supplied by fastening
+the machine door open a little way. If the ducks
+are not ready to be taken out of the machines by
+noon or soon after, it is best to leave them until the
+next morning before removing them to the brooder
+house. In the meantime, however, the old eggs and
+shells and other refuse should be taken out. Usually
+the hatch is completed in time so that the ducklings
+can be removed to the brooder house on the afternoon
+of the 28th day. As a rule the earlier the hatch
+is completed the better are the ducklings.</p>
+
+<p>Figures secured on results in hatching for the entire
+season on Long Island duck farms indicate that
+as a whole the duck raisers will not average much
+over 40% hatch of all eggs set. Some hatches may
+run as high as 60% or even more and in some seasons
+the average percentage will run higher than
+40. Some especially skilled operators may also secure
+considerably better average results than this.
+It is quite a common practice on the part of duck
+farmers to pay their incubator man a bonus on all
+ducklings over 40% hatched during the season. This
+bonus may range anywhere from $1 to $5 per thousand
+ducklings. Such an arrangement serves to give
+the incubator man a greater incentive to give the
+machines good attention and to secure just the best
+results of which he is capable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selling Baby Ducks.</i> Within the last two or three
+years there has sprung into existence a small but in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>creasing
+trade in baby ducks. They are handled and
+shipped about the same as baby chicks. Baby ducks
+are ready for shipment as soon as they are thoroughly
+dry, usually about 12 hours after the hatch
+starts to come off. They are neither fed nor watered
+before shipment and are packed in cardboard boxes
+used in shipping baby chicks. As a rule the shipping
+boxes will accommodate about half the number
+of ducklings that they will chicks. Of course the
+outside temperature very largely governs the matter
+of the number to a compartment. In warm summer
+weather, a two compartment box intended for
+50 chicks will accommodate 26 ducklings if well
+ventilated at the sides and top. They are shipped
+by parcel post and can be sent anywhere within a
+radius of one thousand miles if the trip does not require
+more than 36 hours. For best results the ducklings
+should not be allowed to go much beyond this
+length of time before they are fed. On receipt they
+should be placed immediately in a brooder already
+prepared for them.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI
+<br />
+Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Brooding and
+Rearing the Young Stock</h3>
+
+
+<p>Young ducks are easier to brood than chicks.
+They seem to learn more quickly where the source
+of heat is and they are less likely to cause trouble
+from crowding. They are also less subject to disease.</p>
+
+<p><i>Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the
+Brooder House.</i> The ducklings should be left in the
+incubator until they are thoroughly dried off. Usually
+they will be dried so that they can be moved
+on the afternoon of the 28th day of incubation. If,
+however, they are not ready early in the afternoon
+it is best to leave them in the machine until the next
+morning. In moving the ducklings, place them in
+boxes, baskets or other suitable carriers and cover
+them with burlap or cloth to avoid any danger of the
+ducklings becoming chilled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brooder Houses Repaired.</i> There are many different
+types and styles of brooder houses which are
+used with success. For this reason only one type of
+each class of brooder house needed is described in
+detail. These particular houses have been in successful
+use for a considerable period of time and
+are given because they embody all the necessary re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>quisites
+for such houses and at the same time utilize
+the space to good advantage and are economical in
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>In general there are required three different
+brooder houses. The first of these requires sufficient
+heating capacity so that the temperature of the
+house itself can be maintained at 65 to 70 degrees
+even in the cold weather of winter or early spring.
+In addition, hovers are required in this house under
+which a temperature can be maintained from 80 to
+90 degrees. For convenience this house will be spoken
+of as brooder house No. 1. A second brooder house
+which can be called brooder house No. 2 will be required
+which is equipped with heating apparatus so
+that the temperature can be run up to 60 degrees
+when required. The third brooder house known as
+brooder house No. 3 is a cold brooder house or one
+without artificial heat. It furnishes shelter for the
+young ducks where they can be driven in at night
+and during the day in cold weather. As the ducklings
+pass out of the brooder house No. 3 they are
+housed in sheds or shelters with yards which usually
+extend into the water but which may not do so in all
+cases.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Brooder House No. 1</h4>
+
+<p>The length of this house determines its capacity,
+the required amount of which will depend upon the
+output of any particular plant. There should be
+brooder capacity in this house sufficient to care for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+approximately ¼ of the total output for the year at
+one time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Construction of House.</i> A suitable house which
+has been in practical use for some time consists of
+one 20 feet wide and running east and west with
+windows in the south or front side. If the location
+were right such a house could be run north and
+south to good advantage and should then have windows
+on each side so as to let in the sunlight from
+both directions. The front wall of this house is 7
+feet high, the back wall 4 feet. The ridge of the
+house is about 2 feet in front of the center, the front
+slope of the roof having an eight inch pitch while
+the back slope has a 6 inch pitch. The roof rafters
+are 2 x 4's placed every two feet. The studs and
+plates are likewise 2 x 4. The walls are made of
+matched material. The roof is constructed of 1 x 2
+inch strips placed every 4 inches and these covered
+with shingles. Tie beams every 8 feet extend from
+front to rear plates. This particular brooder house
+is not ceiled but a good tight ceiling 8 feet above the
+walk or runway would make it easier to keep the
+house clean and would also render it somewhat easier
+in cold weather to maintain the temperature desired.
+The house is built on a concrete wall or foundation
+and a dirt floor is used but the dirt must be
+filled in well above the level of the ground outside so
+that there is no danger of water coming into the house
+or the floors becoming damp or sloppy. Windows
+are placed in the front wall, one to each pen. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+every other pen there is a small door in the back of
+the house to facilitate cleaning out the pens. A
+window can be substituted for this door to good advantage
+as it makes the house lighter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig23.jpg"><img src="images/fig23_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt=""
+title="Interior of Number 1 Brooder House. Linked to larger image of figure 23." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 23. Interior of No. 1 brooder house showing walk and hover combined in the middle of the house
+and pens on each side. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Heating Apparatus.</i> Heat is furnished by means
+of a coal burning stove which heats water and
+causes it to circulate through pipes run the length
+of the house. The heater must always be placed
+in the windward end of the building as otherwise
+it is hard to get the heat down to the other end as
+the wind tends to drive it back. The hot water pipes
+are carried down the center of the house and the
+return pipes are located in the same place. A low
+partition is run lengthwise of the house dividing the
+pipes and thus forming double pens, half extending
+from the center to the front and half from the center
+to the rear of the house. The pipes and the partition
+between them is covered over with boards making
+a 4 foot walk or runway directly over the pipes,
+which comes into most convenient use as a place to
+convey, by means of a wheelbarrow, feed or other
+material needed in the house, and as a convenient
+place from which to care for the ducklings in the
+pens on each side. This board covering over the
+pipes also serves to hold the heat and thus forms
+hovers.</p>
+
+<p>It is advisable to partition off the first third of the
+house, that is, the portion in which the heater is located,
+with a solid partition. Then by having suitable
+valves in the pipes, the heat can be cut off from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+the rest of the house and only the smaller partitioned
+off end used as a separate and independent section
+of the brooder. This is especially useful when only
+a small number of ducklings are being hatched
+early in the spring when the weather is cold and it
+may be difficult to heat the whole building properly.
+It is also economical in fuel under such conditions.</p>
+
+<p>If, on the other hand, the number of ducklings
+hatched during the cold weather is so large that all
+or nearly all of the house capacity is needed to care
+for them, it will usually pay to install an additional
+heater, the pipes from which can be run along the
+rear wall of the building, in order to keep up a
+proper house temperature when the weather is
+severe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pens.</i> Having the hovers in the center of the
+house, makes it possible to have double sets of pens,
+one running from the center to the front wall and
+the other from the center to the rear wall. The pens
+are divided off by means of partitions made of one
+foot boards. These are high enough to confine the
+ducklings to their own pen and at the same time
+are easy to step over. In a house of this width, 20
+feet, with 4 feet in the center taken up by the double
+hovers or walk, each pen is 8 feet long in the clear
+or 10 feet to the partition under the hover. The pens
+in the first third of the house are made 5 feet wide,
+in the next third 6 feet and in the last third 7 feet
+wide. When the ducklings are first brought from
+the incubator cellar they are placed in the pens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+nearest the heater as the temperature will run somewhat
+higher there than in the portions of the house
+more remote from the heater. These 5 &times; 10 foot pens
+will accommodate 125 baby ducklings although better
+results will be obtained by placing only 100 in
+a pen if sufficient room is available. Some duck
+growers use boards which can be slipped into slots
+made of cleats nailed to the pen partitions at different
+distances from the hover and which serve to
+confine the baby ducklings close to the hover for the
+first few days or until they learn to go under the
+hover to get warm.</p>
+
+<p>As additional ducklings are hatched later and
+brought to the brooder house, the ducklings already
+there are moved along the necessary number of pens
+in order to accommodate the new-comers in the pens
+nearest the heater. For this purpose, a small door
+is made in each partition next the outside wall of
+the house through which the ducklings can be
+driven. A broom is a handy implement to use in
+driving the ducklings as they can be pushed along
+in front of it. It is best to drive the ducklings
+just after they have been fed as they are not so nervous
+and afraid at that time.</p>
+
+<p>The increased width of the pens in the second
+and third portions of the house is for the purpose
+of taking care of the growth of the ducklings as
+they are moved along the house. Pens of the same
+width as those in which they were started become
+too crowded as the ducklings increase in size.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Equipment of the Pen.</i> The equipment of the
+pens is quite simple. Water is piped through the
+house along both walls so that it is available to each
+pen. A spigot is provided in each pen and under
+this is placed the drinking dish, which consists of a
+round metal pan about a foot in diameter and 3 or
+4 inches deep. A square pan should never be used
+as the ducklings are apt to get their bills caught in
+the corners. One quarter inch mesh wire netting is
+bent in a circle and placed in the drinking dish as
+a guard to keep the ducklings from getting into the
+pan. This guard should be made of such size that
+there is a space between the wire and the edge of the
+dish of about 1½ inches all around. This guard
+should be about 8 inches high. The water pan itself
+is set upon a wire covered frame about 18 inches
+square under which is dug a pit 4 or 5 inches deep
+to drain away any water which the ducklings slop
+out of the pan. Such an arrangement keeps the pens
+from becoming sloppy and damp.</p>
+
+<p>Each pen must also have a flat metal dish on
+which to place the feed for the little ducks. Metal
+pans are better than wooden feeding trays as they
+are easier to keep clean.</p>
+
+<p>In each pen is provided a small hopper filled with
+fine sharp creek sand to which the ducklings have
+access at all times. Some duck growers prefer to
+mix the sand in the feed rather than to provide it in
+hoppers. After the ducklings are allowed to run in
+the yards, sand need not be furnished if the yards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+are sand as the ducklings will help themselves. If
+the land in the yards is not sand, however, it is
+necessary to continue to furnish this material.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 260px;">
+<a href="images/fig24.jpg"><img src="images/fig24_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt=""
+title="Watering arrangement in brooder pens. Linked to larger image of figure 24." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 24. Watering arrangement in the brooder pens for young
+ducklings. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U.
+S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig25.jpg"><img src="images/fig25_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt=""
+title="Another type of number 1 brooder house. Linked to larger image of figure 25." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 25. Another type of No. 1 brooder house. Here the hovers are along the back of the house and
+the work is done from an alleyway along the front. The box with handles on top of the hover is used in
+carrying the newly hatched ducklings from the incubator cellar to the brooder house. (<i>Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Grading and Sorting the Ducklings.</i> As the
+ducklings are moved from pen to pen through this
+house as well as the other houses, they are constantly
+graded for size and thriftiness, the smaller,
+less thrifty individuals being left with younger lots.
+Some ducklings do not grow as quickly as others,
+and these if left with ducklings larger than themselves
+will not get their share of the feed and will
+not do as well. In this connection it should be noted
+that when young ducks are not fairly clean it is a
+good indication that they are not doing as well as
+they should.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cleaning and Bedding the Pens.</i> Careful attention
+must be given to keeping the pens and the ducklings
+themselves clean if they are to do well. Therefore
+the pens must be cleaned out as often as may be
+necessary to accomplish this purpose. The judgment
+of the brooder man must decide how often this
+is necessary but it will be at least once a week. When
+cleaning the pens the old bedding is thrown out
+from the front pens through the windows and from
+the back pens through the door provided in the rear
+wall for this purpose. Bedding the pens must be
+done more frequently, usually about every other
+day. Fresh bedding will help to absorb the droppings
+and will keep the pens from becoming sloppy
+or sticky. For bedding, straw, meadow hay, swale<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+hay or any other suitable material available should
+be utilized.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ventilation.</i> Plenty of ventilation is required in
+the brooder house in order to take out the ammonia
+odor which arises from the droppings. Properly
+managed, the doors and windows provide sufficient
+means of ventilation but some duck growers prefer
+to have roof ventilators in addition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Types of Brooder Houses.</i> Many other
+types of brooder houses are used, some of them
+being shed roof construction and many of them
+being built narrower than this house, that is to say,
+14, 16 or 18 feet wide with an alleyway along the
+front or rear side of the house from which the work
+is done. The hovers are placed at the back of the
+pens when the alley-way is in the front, otherwise,
+they are placed next to the alley-way. The disadvantages
+of these houses are that only single pens
+are provided and that valuable brooding space is
+used up by the alley-way. The advantages of the
+house described above lie in the fact that the hovers
+are in the center of the house with the pens on each
+side of this, thus doubling the capacity, and that by
+making use of a walk over the hover pipe no room
+is wasted in an alley-way. Having pens on each
+side also lessens the labor of taking care of the
+ducklings to some extent as the arrangement is more
+compact.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Length of Time in Brooder</h4>
+
+<p><i>In House No. 1.</i> As a rule the ducklings are kept<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+in the No. 1 house until they are from 2 to 3 weeks
+old, this of course depending somewhat upon the
+time of year and the weather and also upon the
+number of ducklings for which accommodations
+must be provided at any particular time. As the
+ducks are moved down through the house and
+eventually reach the last pens they are taken from
+this house and placed in brooder house No. 2.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brooder House No. 2.</i> This is a heated house like
+brooder house No. 1 but in which it is not necessary
+to maintain so high a temperature. Sufficient heating
+apparatus should be installed to make it possible
+to maintain the temperature at 60 degrees if
+this becomes necessary in the early spring.</p>
+
+<p>The particular brooder house described is 14 feet
+wide and has a shed roof. It is provided with a
+window in the front of each pen. No openings are
+required along the back since this is not a double
+pen house. The space in such a house could undoubtedly
+be used to better advantage if it were
+constructed as wide as the No. 1 house and the hot
+water pipes and walk put through the middle of the
+house so as to provide double pens. In this house
+the hot water pipes are run along the rear of the
+pens, and while hovers are not really necessary, a
+walk is constructed over the pipes in order to save
+space and provide a convenient place from which
+to do the work, and this forms hovers.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is needed in the
+No. 2 house. The pens in this house are 12 feet wide<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+and they are equipped with feeding and watering
+arrangements as in brooder house No. 1. As the
+ducklings are moved to this house from the No. 1
+house from 150 to 200 are placed in each pen. They
+are moved through the house from pen to pen in the
+same manner as in the No. 1 house to make way for
+new arrivals. As a rule they stay in this house about
+two weeks depending somewhat on the weather and
+upon the number of ducklings being brooded. Yards
+are used in connection with this house which are the
+same width as the pens and 50 feet in length. As in
+the No. 1 house the pens in this house should be
+cleaned at least once a week and they should be
+bedded with straw or other bedding material every
+other day. As soon as the ducks have been moved
+through this No. 2 house they are put in brooder
+house No. 3.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig26.jpg"><img src="images/fig26_tn.jpg" width="400" height="260" alt=""
+title="Brooder house number 2. Linked to larger image of figure 26." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 26. Brooder house No. 2 and yards. The trees furnish fine shade for the growing ducklings.
+(<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h4>Brooder House No. 3</h4>
+
+<p>This is a shed roof house 16 feet wide equipped
+with single pens. No heat is required in this house.
+Yards of the same width as the pens and 50 feet
+deep are used. Usually the ducks are fed outside
+the house from a wagon driven along a roadway
+just in front of the yards.</p>
+
+<p>The pens are 16 feet wide and the same number
+of ducks is used in them as in the No. 2 house. As
+a rule the ducks stay in this house about 2 weeks
+and are then moved to the duck pens or shelters<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+with the larger yards which may or may not have
+water. From this point on the ducks are termed
+yard ducks.</p>
+
+<p>In all three of the brooder houses the young ducks
+are supplied with their drinking water from pipes
+through the houses. They are not given access to
+water until they are moved to the yards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig27.jpg"><img src="images/fig27_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt=""
+title="Brooder house number 3. Linked to larger image of figure 27." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 27. Brooder house No. 3. At the time this picture was taken there were no ducklings in the house
+and advantage was taken of this fact to give it a good cleaning by throwing out the bedding and droppings,
+which will be hauled away and spread on cropped land. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig28.jpg"><img src="images/fig28_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt=""
+title="Long brooder house and yards. Linked to larger image of figure 28." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 28. Long brooder house and yards with feeding track. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 261px;">
+<a href="images/fig29.jpg"><img src="images/fig29_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt=""
+title="Pekin ducklings. Linked to larger image of figure 29." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 29. Upper&mdash;Pekin ducklings 3 days old. Lower&mdash;Pekin
+ducklings 2 weeks old. Duck egg used for size comparison. (<i>Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 260px;">
+<a href="images/fig30.jpg"><img src="images/fig30_tn.jpg" width="260" height="400" alt=""
+title="Pekn ducklings. Linked to larger image of figure 30." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 30. Upper&mdash;Pekin ducklings 3 weeks old. Lower&mdash;Pekin
+ducklings 6 weeks old. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig31.jpg"><img src="images/fig31_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt=""
+title="Interior of a cold brooder house. Linked to larger image of figure 31." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 31. Interior of a cold brooder house. The low partitions can easily be stepped over. (<i>Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+<hr />
+
+<h4>Yard Accommodations for Ducklings</h4>
+
+<p>As the ducklings get to be 8 weeks old they can
+stand ordinary weather conditions and it is not absolutely
+necessary to have houses for them. However,
+it is common and good practice to provide
+shelter where they can be housed at night and can
+take refuge from storms. A suitable house for this
+purpose consists of a building 16 x 24 feet divided
+into two parts with 200 ducklings to a side. This
+house is 5 feet high in front and 3½ feet in back. It
+is set on posts with a baseboard around it to make
+it tight. It can be constructed of matched stuff or unmatched
+stuff covered with paper. The front is left
+open but curtains are placed on the front which can
+be used to close the openings so as to keep out the
+snow. These are used only in the winter. When
+the ducklings are first started in these sheds they
+are shut in when desired by means of wire panels
+fitted into the lower part of the open front. The
+ducklings are left in these yards and fed there until
+they are ready for market.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig32.jpg"><img src="images/fig32_tn.jpg" width="400" height="265" alt=""
+title="Yard ducks. Link to larger image of figure 32." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 32. Eat, drink and grow fat for tomorrow they die. Fattening or yard ducks with fattening house
+or shelter used. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Shade.</i> Shade is important for the ducklings as
+soon as the sun gets hot. Exposure to the sun without
+shade will cause quite a heavy loss in ducklings.
+If natural shade is not furnished by trees, some artificial
+means must be adopted to supply the shade.
+This may take the form of shelters or low frames
+covered with boards, brush or burlap.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feeding.</i> The first feed and water is given as soon
+as the ducks are placed in the No. 1 brooder house
+or when 24 to 36 hours old. They are fed 3 times a
+day, in the morning about 6 a. m., at noon, and at
+night about 4:30 or 5 o'clock. The time of feeding
+should be regular, and fairly early in the morning
+but not any earlier in the afternoon than one can
+help so that the time between the evening and the
+morning feed will not be too long. Some growers
+prefer to feed 4 or 5 times daily for the first week or
+two. The birds are fed as much as they will clean
+up at each feeding and if any feed is left it should
+be gathered up so that it will not sour and cause
+digestive troubles.</p>
+
+<p>The first feed consists of the following:&mdash;One
+measure corn meal, one measure bran, one measure
+ground crackers, stale bread or shredded wheat
+waste, one measure in 10 of beef scrap or fish, one
+measure in 6 of creek grass or other very fine green
+stuff. Green rye or oats should never be used for
+this purpose after it becomes jointed. If the feed
+is mixed up with cold water about ½ measure of low-grade
+wheat flour should be used to cause it to stick<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+together. If hot water is used in the mixing this is
+not needed.</p>
+
+<p>Sand must be fed either by mixing it in to the extent
+of about 3% of the ration or the sand can be fed
+separately in hoppers as previously described. This
+same mixture may be fed in the No. 1, No. 2, and
+No. 3 brooder houses, or in other words, until ducklings
+go to the yards, or ration No. 2 given below
+may be substituted either at the start or after a week
+or ten days. After the ducklings go to the yards the
+following fattening ration is used: 200 pounds corn
+meal, 100 pounds low-grade flour, 100 pounds bran,
+1 part in 10 of beef scrap and 2 tubs or bushels of
+green stuff. Some duck growers prefer to feed 300
+pounds of corn meal instead of 200 pounds. This
+ration like the other is fed 3 times a day. Of course,
+there are many different rations in use with good results,
+every grower having more or less personal
+preferences in this matter. A proper proportion of
+animal feed, consisting of beef scrap or fish is very
+important as the ducklings will not grow and make
+normal gains if this is omitted or reduced in amount.</p>
+
+<p>Much has been written about the feeding of celery
+seed to fattening ducklings for the purpose of improving
+the flavor of the flesh and formerly ducklings
+were advertised and sold as "celery-fed". As
+a matter of fact, the amount of celery seed fed was
+small and it is questionable how much influence it
+had on the flavor of the birds. At the present time,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+celery seed is not used in fattening the ducklings on
+most of the large duck farms of Long Island.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of gains made by ducklings on two
+different rations is shown in the following table.
+Ration No. 1 consists of the fattening ration given
+above. Ration No. 2 consists of 100 pounds bran,
+100 pounds corn meal, 50 pounds rolled oats, 50
+pounds gluten feed, 10% beef scrap. The ducks
+used were three days old at the first weighing and
+there were 27 in each lot. After the second weighing
+the number in each lot was reduced to 24 ducks.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Comparison of the weight gains made by ducklings on two different rations.">
+<tr><th align="left"></th><th align="center" colspan="3">Feed No. 1</th><th align="center" colspan="3">Feed No. 2</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="center" colspan="2">Total Weight</td><td align="center">Average Weight</td><td align="center" colspan="2">Total Weight</td><td align="center">Average Weight</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">August 14</td><td align="right">4¾</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td class="left-indent">0.176</td><td align="right">4¾</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td class="left-indent">0.176</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">August 21</td><td class="right-indent">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">0.37</td><td align="right">9½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">0.352</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">August 28</td><td align="right">16½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">0.687</td><td align="right">17½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">0.729</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">September 5</td><td class="right-indent">25</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">1.041</td><td class="right-indent">27</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">1.125</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">September 13</td><td align="right">44½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">1.854</td><td align="right">48½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">September 19</td><td class="right-indent">50</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.083</td><td align="right">56½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.354</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">September 27</td><td class="right-indent">64</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.666</td><td class="right-indent">67</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">2.62</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">October 4</td><td align="right">78½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">3.27</td><td align="right">82½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">3.437</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">October 11</td><td align="right">99½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">4.145</td><td align="right">103½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">4.312</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">October 18</td><td align="right">115½</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">4.812</td><td class="right-indent">119</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">4.958</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">October 25</td><td class="right-indent">126</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">5.25</td><td class="right-indent">135</td><td align="center">"</td><td class="left-indent">5.62</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><i>Lights for Ducklings.</i> Often when the ducks are
+about one-third grown or about 4 weeks old they
+will stampede at night at any unusual noise or any
+other disturbance. In doing this, especially when
+they are in fairly large lots, they surge back and
+forth in the pens, running over one another with the
+result that their backs are torn and scratched while
+not infrequently more serious injuries result and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+may cause cripples. To keep them quiet it is common
+to use lights at night. Formerly lanterns were
+used but now on most duck plants electric lights are
+available for this purpose. For a house 140 feet
+long, six 15-watt lights scattered at equal intervals
+will be sufficient, and these can be used in like proportion
+for houses of other lengths. The lights are
+left on all night. Even when the ducks are half
+grown and may be out on the yards it is still necessary
+to use lights on stormy nights so that they will
+stay in and keep quiet and not get drowned in the
+rain. With a 16 &times; 24 foot house such as described
+previously, a single 25 watt light is sufficient. Ducklings
+are especially likely to be stampeded during
+thunderstorms and if a storm is coming up it is well
+to turn on the lights and to shut the ducklings in
+their shelters when they are first placed in the
+yards. One should not carry a lantern when moving
+among the ducklings at night as this will cause
+moving shadows which are very likely to frighten
+and stampede the birds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig33a.jpg"><img src="images/fig33a_tn.jpg" width="400" height="253" alt=""
+title="Duck sheds. Linked to larger image of figure 33." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 33. Another type of duck shed used on Long Island. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig34.jpg"><img src="images/fig34_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Feeding and watering arrangements. Linked to larger image of figure 34." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 34. Convenient feeding arrangements. At the right of the feeding track runs a water pipe with
+spigots and pans at frequent intervals. At the left are the feeding trays. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Pounds of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market
+Duck.</i> It is stated by long established duck growers
+that from 5 to 7 pounds of feed is required, this including
+the feed given to the breeding ducks for the
+season, to produce a pound of market duck.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water for Young Ducks.</i> Drinking water is provided
+to the ducklings while in the brooder houses
+by means of a piped supply. The drinking pans are
+filled at each feeding time but at no other time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+Water is not left before them continuously while
+they are in the brooder houses as they would be
+working in it all the time and this would keep them
+dirty and make the house sloppy. After they are
+put out on the yards they may or may not be provided
+with water in which they can swim. Most
+duck growers on Long Island allow them to have
+access to water. While it is undoubtedly true that
+swimming in the water induces them to take more
+exercise and thus tends to reduce somewhat the
+rapidity of fattening, at the same time it lessens the
+labor very materially as they do not need to be provided
+with a supply of drinking water other than
+the water in which they swim. Ducklings can be
+grown very successfully with only a limited amount
+of water, that is, only enough to drink and in which
+to wash themselves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Age and Weight When Ready for Market.</i> Ducklings
+are usually marketed when they are 10 to 12
+weeks old. A partial moult on the neck and breast
+occurs about this time giving them a somewhat
+rough look. This indicates that they are in proper
+condition to kill. If killing is not done within a
+week after this moult starts they will begin to lose
+flesh and it will be some time before they will fatten
+again. Ducks when ready to ship will average
+from 5 to 6 pounds. A majority will weigh nearer
+5 than 6 pounds. A pen of fattened ducks is driven
+up to the killing house and into a pen where each
+one is caught up and examined to see if it is in good<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+condition. If the duck has a good smooth breast so
+that the breastbone is not felt when handled and is
+well fleshed on the back it is ready to kill. If it is
+not in this condition it is thrown out and these thin
+ducks are returned to the yards for further fattening
+or are utilized for shipping alive. Thin ducks
+are generally used for live shipments as they will
+not shrink as much as well fattened ducks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig35.jpg"><img src="images/fig35_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Green feed for ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 35." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 35. An important part of rations for ducks. Green feed ready to be cut up into short lengths suitable
+for mixing in the feed. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig36.jpg"><img src="images/fig36_tn.jpg" width="400" height="270" alt=""
+title="Feeding from track. Linked to larger image of figure 36." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 36. Feeding fattening or yard ducks from the feeding track. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Cripples.</i> There will always be found in the
+flocks more or less crippled ducks and those with
+crooked backs, twisted wings, etc. As a rule ducks
+with twisted wings fatten well and are in good condition
+and can be killed about as soon as any of the
+others. The crippled ducks are sorted out into a
+lot by themselves where they are held until they can
+be put into condition to market. It is doubtful
+whether it pays the duck growers to bother with
+these ducks since they are rather difficult to condition
+and it would probably pay better to kill them.
+However, it is quite common practice to carry them
+until they can be marketed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cleaning the Yards.</i> The yards must be cleaned
+whenever they need it. It is a matter of judgment
+to decide when this is necessary but they must be
+cleaned whenever they get sticky or sloppy. The
+weather will have a considerable influence upon the
+frequency of cleaning which may be necessary once
+in two weeks, or in the yards of brooder houses Nos.
+2 and 3 may run as often as once a week. In dry
+weather the yards are cleaned by sweeping up the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+droppings and carting them away. In wet weather
+the ducks in running about over the yard pack down
+the droppings until they form a sort of putty-like
+layer which has to be scraped off with a hoe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Critical Period with Young Ducks.</i> The critical
+period with young ducks is the first week of their
+existence. With good management after they have
+passed this point not many are lost. The loss in
+young ducks from the time they are hatched until
+they are ready for market will range all the way
+from 5 to 30%. When the loss does not average
+more than 10% for the season this is considered
+good. Undoubtedly many duck raisers lose a greater
+percent than 10.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig37.jpg"><img src="images/fig37_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Yard ducks at rest. Linked to larger image of figure 37." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 37. Yard ducks at rest. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry. U. S. Department of
+Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig38.jpg"><img src="images/fig38_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Artificial water yards. Linked to larger image of figure 38." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 38. On this plant, the lay of the land was such that not all of the yards could be run down to the
+stream. So a shallow canal was dug from the stream through the yards which were without natural
+water frontage. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+<hr />
+
+<h4>Disease Prevention</h4>
+
+<p>Trouble from disease in young ducks is not severe
+although there is a greater loss from this source
+than in the case of mature ducks. The aim of the
+grower should be to use such methods of management
+and feeding as will keep the ducklings in good
+health and reduce the losses to a minimum. To accomplish
+this care must be taken to see that the
+brooding temperatures are correct, that the feed
+used contains what the ducklings need, that they
+are not overfed and that the house and yards are
+clean and dry and the feed and water dishes are
+clean. Remember that green feed and animal feed
+are essential ingredients in the ration.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Gapes or Pneumonia.</i> One of the principal
+troubles is a disease which is called "pneumonia" by
+some duck raisers and by others "gapes". It is not
+the same disease which is called gapes in chickens.
+In fact, it is a form of cold which approaches pneumonia.
+The little ducks stretch their necks up and
+breathe hard and usually die within a comparatively
+short time. This disease may affect either the baby
+ducks or ducks which are old enough to kill. All
+that can be done is to make sure that the housing
+and brooding conditions are such as to correct the
+trouble which causes the colds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fits.</i> In addition, the little ducks for the first 3 or
+4 days may be more or less subject to a disease
+which is called "fits" by some duck growers. With
+this disease they simply keel over and soon die. It
+is probably a digestive difficulty of some sort. The
+feeding of plenty of green stuff or the turning of the
+ducks out on grass will usually stop this trouble.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diarrhoea.</i> This is a fairly common trouble. It
+may be due to improper feeding, or to too high or
+low temperature in the brooder. The obvious treatment
+is to remedy the cause or causes of the trouble.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lameness.</i> Not infrequently growers, particularly
+beginners, experience difficulty from a fairly
+large proportion of their ducklings becoming lame.
+This may grow worse until a considerable number of
+the birds will die. This trouble may be due to a
+lack of animal matter and mineral matter in the
+ration or may be due to digestive troubles caused by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+poor rations, by over feeding, by failing to gather
+up feed not eaten by the ducklings and leaving it
+to sour, or by lack of cleanliness of the feed and
+water dishes. Where the pens are allowed to become
+damp and sloppy this may also cause some
+lameness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sore Eyes.</i> Occasionally duck growers complain
+that their ducklings suffer from sore eyes. This may
+be due to a cold causing a discharge from the eyes
+or may be due to the use of too sloppy feed which
+adheres to the eyes and causes an irritation. Affected
+birds should be placed in a separate pen from
+the others and the eyes should be bathed with an
+antiseptic solution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feather Eating or "Quilling".</i> This is a bad habit
+which is apt to cause more or less trouble when the
+ducklings are about two-thirds grown. It is much
+more likely to occur when the birds are kept in
+cramped quarters. It is usually started by one or
+a few individuals but when the feathers are injured
+so that they begin to bleed, which they will very
+quickly do, the vice will spread among the whole
+flock and serious damage will occur. It is therefore
+necessary to be on the lookout for this trouble, and
+as soon as detected, the birds responsible should be
+removed. If the culprits are placed with older
+birds which are already feathered, they will not
+trouble by trying to eat the feathers. It is the blood
+in the growing feathers which attracts them. If the
+habit has become general, it is more difficult to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+check. About the best thing that can be done, is to
+turn them out in a roomy yard, one with a growing
+green crop, if available, where they will be so busy
+as to stop the feather eating of their own accord.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rats.</i>&mdash;Rats are very destructive if they get into
+the brooder house. A single rat has been known to
+kill and drag off as many as 200 ducklings in one
+night. If a rat gets into the brooder house it is therefore
+of the utmost importance that it be hunted
+down and killed without delay. Otherwise serious
+losses will result.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Cooperative Feed Association</h4>
+
+<p>A very large proportion of the feed used on a
+duck plant is that which is fed to the market ducks.
+By purchasing feed in considerable quantities the
+duck grower is able to cut down the cost to some
+extent. A number of the duck raisers on Long Island
+have developed this idea further by forming a cooperative
+feed organization. Stock in this concern
+is held both by the duck growers and by outsiders
+but is controlled by the duck growers. The feed association
+maintains a feed warehouse, purchases
+feeds in quantity and does business both with the
+duck growers and with other persons in the market
+for feed. The existence of a cooperative feed purchasing
+association of this sort not only cuts down to
+some extent the cost of feed but likewise makes it
+possible for the duck growers to have greater assurance
+of securing the supply which is so necessary to
+them during the growing season.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII
+<br />
+Commercial Duck Farming&mdash;Marketing</h3>
+
+
+<p>On commercial duck farms, the business consists
+mainly of producing large quickly grown ducklings
+which are marketed before they are mature. Because
+of this immaturity, the ducks are quite commonly
+termed green ducks. The business has also
+become so highly specialized on Long Island and
+this is such a center of the industry, that the birds
+are commonly quoted on the New York market as
+Long Island ducklings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proper Age to Market.</i> It is important that the
+ducklings be marketed as soon as they have reached
+the proper age and stage of development. When
+the ducklings are about 10 to 12 weeks old they begin
+to shed their first growth of feathers. This is
+apparent first on the neck and breast, giving them
+somewhat of a rough appearance. The ducklings
+must be marketed within one week after they begin
+this moult. If they are allowed to go longer than
+this they will begin to get thin and as it will take
+them 6 weeks or more to grow a new crop of
+feathers it will be a considerable period before they
+get back in market condition again and any additional
+weight which they may attain will not be sufficient
+to pay for the feed eaten during this period.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Weights at the Time of Marketing.</i> Well grown
+ducklings should average in weight from 5 to 6
+pounds at 10 to 12 weeks of age when they are
+ready to be marketed. A majority of the ducks will
+weigh closer to 5 pounds than they will to 6. The
+vast majority of ducklings are marketed at this age
+as it does not pay to keep them past the time they
+reach prime market condition. On commercial duck
+farms practically the only ducks which are marketed
+at an older age than this are the breeders
+which are turned off at the end of the laying season
+and the ducklings which by reason of their being
+crippled or less thrifty are not in suitable market
+condition at this time and are held longer until they
+are in good condition. The ducklings are marketed
+from early spring until late fall. The time at which
+ducklings are first available for market in any quantity
+depends upon the earliness with which the
+breeders begin to lay and the end of the season depends
+upon how late the breeders continue to lay at
+a profitable rate.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Last Feed for Market Ducks.</i> It is important
+in order to have the dressed ducklings appear to the
+best advantage and also in order to insure their
+keeping qualities as much as possible that they
+should have no feed in their crops when they are
+killed. This means that if they are to be killed in
+the morning, which is the usual practice, they should
+be fed for the last time the previous night. If, how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>ever,
+they are not to be killed until afternoon they
+can be fed lightly in the morning.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sorting Market Ducklings.</i> When a pen of ducklings
+which are being fattened are deemed ready to
+be killed they are driven up to the killing house and
+a few of them at a time driven into a small pen
+where it is easy to catch and examine them. Each
+duck as it is caught is examined to make sure that
+it is in proper market condition. The examination
+consists of feeling of the duck's body to see that it
+has a good smooth breast so that the breast bone
+cannot be readily felt. If it is in that condition it is
+ready to kill. Ducks which do not show this condition
+are thrown out and returned to the yards where
+they are fed for a longer period unless it is desired
+to ship them alive.</p>
+
+<p>At the proper season of the year when breeders
+for the next season are to be selected, suitable birds
+for that purpose are picked out from the market lots
+as they are examined. In any lot of ducks there will
+be found some cripples. It is common practice to
+sort these out and group them together in a pen by
+themselves where they are held until they are in
+suitable condition for marketing. It is doubtful
+whether it pays to hold these cripples as they are
+hard to get in good condition and in many cases are
+probably kept and fed at a loss. Some ducklings
+will show twisted wings but as a rule they are
+thrifty and will fatten readily and be in good market
+condition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig39.jpg"><img src="images/fig39_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt=""
+title="Catching pens for fattening ducklings. Linked to larger image of figure 39." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 39. Awaiting slaughter. The fattened ducklings are driven into these catching pens. (<i>Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig40.jpg"><img src="images/fig40_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Carrying ducklings to slaughter. Linked to larger image of figure 40." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 40. Carrying the ducklings from the catching pen to the killing place. (<i>Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Killing.</i> As the ducklings suitable for killing are
+selected, 10 or 12 of them, depending upon the capacity
+of the killing room, are hung up by their feet,
+the head being fastened down by means of a hook
+or else weighted down by means of a blood can hung
+from a hook inserted through the bill. By means of
+a long, narrow bladed sharp knife the veins in the
+throat just beyond the skull are severed so as to
+cause free bleeding. The blood flows either into the
+blood can or into a trough above which the birds are
+hung. The birds are not stuck or brained unless it is
+desired to dry pick them nor are they as a rule
+stunned by hitting them on the head before bleeding.
+In some states, however, the law requires that
+all birds bled shall first be stunned in this manner.
+The bleeding of the ducks causes their death and
+they are allowed to hang until they are thoroughly
+bled out. They are then taken down, the blood
+washed off of their heads and placed on a table
+or on the floor convenient to the pickers, other ducks
+being hung in their places.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig41.jpg"><img src="images/fig41_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt=""
+title="Hanging ducklings and cutting throat veins. Linked to larger image of figure 41." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 41. The ducks are hung by the feet and the veins in the neck cut from inside the mouth to cause
+free bleeding. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig42.jpg"><img src="images/fig42_tn.jpg" width="400" height="261" alt=""
+title="Bleeding ducklings. Linked to larger image of figure 42." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 42. After the throat veins are cut, the ducks are allowed to hang until they are well bled out. The
+blood is caught in the trough below. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig43.jpg"><img src="images/fig43_tn.jpg" width="400" height="266" alt=""
+title="Washing heads. Linked to larger image of figure 43." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 43. Ducks which have been bled, ready to have the blood washed from their heads and mouths before
+they are picked. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig44.jpg"><img src="images/fig44_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt=""
+title="Ducklings ready for the pickers. Linked to larger image of figure 44." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 44. After they are bled and washed, the ducks are laid in the picking room ready for the pickers.
+(<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Scalding.</i> The picker selects a duck from the
+table where they are placed after being taken down
+and carries it to a large kettle of water which is
+maintained at a temperature just below boiling.
+They are thoroughly soused in this water holding
+them by the head and feet so as to allow the water
+to penetrate into the feathers until they can be
+readily plucked. The picker tests the readiness with
+which the feathers come out by plucking a few from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+the breast or body and thus determines whether the
+scalding is sufficient or whether more is required.
+Care is taken not to dip the feet or head in the
+water as this might discolor these parts. Practically
+all market ducks from Long Island are scald picked
+at the present time. Dry picking which is demanded
+in some markets such as Boston makes a somewhat
+better looking carcass and also increases the value
+of the feathers, but is generally considered too slow
+and too highly skilled a process for use on the average
+duck farm.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 259px;">
+<a href="images/fig45.jpg"><img src="images/fig45_tn.jpg" width="259" height="400" alt=""
+title="Scalding. Linked to larger image of figure 45." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 45. Holding the head in one hand and the feet in the other,
+the picker dips the duck in water heated nearly to the boiling point
+and souses well to work the water into the feathers until they pluck
+easily. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Picking.</i>. After scalding the picker starts removing
+the feathers. In doing this the duck is held either
+on the lap or on a board nailed to the side of the
+feather box. The feathers on the breast are picked
+first, then working down toward the tail, pulling the
+feathers with the grain. The soft body feathers as
+plucked are thrown into the feather box, the coarser
+feathers being thrown on the floor. The main wing
+and tail feathers are left on as are likewise some of
+the feathers of the neck next the head.</p>
+
+<p>The most troublesome part of picking ducks is removing
+the down. This may be removed to some extent
+by rubbing with the hand although care must
+be taken not to bruise the skin severely. In some
+cases the down is shaved off with a sharp knife. In
+some of the commercial packing houses the duck's
+body is sprinkled with powdered rosin and then
+dipped into the hot water. This melts the rosin so
+that the down and rosin can be rubbed off easily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+with the hand leaving the body clean. Pin feathers
+are usually removed by grasping them between the
+thumb and a dull knife.</p>
+
+<p>In some packing houses, ducks are steamed before
+picking. Where this is done they are picked clean
+and the wing and tail feathers are pulled before
+steaming takes place. Six or eight ducks which
+have been bled are hung at the same time in the top
+of a steam box or barrel which can be made air-tight
+and the steam turned on until the soft feathers
+of the breast come off easily. The length of time
+to steam depends on the temperature of the steam
+itself and varies from one-half to 2 minutes. In some
+cases the ducks are hung in a steam box with the
+heads outside so as to prevent the steam from
+coming into contact with the heads, possibly discoloring
+them.</p>
+
+<p>On Long Island women are used very largely for
+picking and they secure for this service 6 cents per
+duck. A good picker should do 75 ducks or even
+more a day. The value of the feathers will slightly
+more than pay for the cost of picking.</p>
+
+<p>Picking usually begins early in the morning about
+6 o'clock and is generally finished by noon or soon
+after. Most duck raisers figure on doing their killing
+and picking during the first half of the week and
+do not like to kill if they can help it during the latter
+days of the week.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig46.jpg"><img src="images/fig46_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Picking ducks. Linked to larger image of figure 46." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 46. Picking the ducks. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Dry Picking.</i> Where the market requires it, the
+ducks must be dry picked. In doing this the pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>cedure
+is the same as in dry picking chickens. After
+the cut is made to bleed the ducks, the point of the
+knife is plunged through the roof of the mouth until
+it reaches the brain when it is turned to cause a
+paralysis of the muscles which enables the feathers
+to be plucked more easily. The duck is then struck
+on the back of the head with a club to stun it and
+make it easier to handle when picking. The picker
+seats himself by the feather box, with the duck on
+his lap, holding the head pressed against the outside
+of the box and held there by the picker's leg. He
+then proceeds immediately and as quickly as possible
+to pluck the feathers. It is necessary to accomplish
+this without delay, for the feathers soon
+set and are then much harder to pluck and are more
+likely to result in tears in the skin. When removing
+the down, the hand is moistened when much of the
+down can be rubbed off. Pin feathers are removed
+by grasping them between the thumb and the edge
+of a dull knife and any which cannot be gotten in
+this way are shaved off with a sharp knife. After
+picking, the carcasses are cooled in cold water the
+same as the scalded birds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cooling.</i> After the birds are plucked they are
+thrown into cold water and are left there for several
+hours or until the body heat is entirely removed. It
+is most important that this be thoroughly accomplished
+for if any body heat is left in the carcasses
+they are almost sure to become green-struck when
+packed. The length of time that they must be left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+in the water depends upon the weather conditions.
+If the weather is warm so that the water is not very
+cool it is necessary to add ice in order to hasten the
+cooling and to accomplish it thoroughly. Cooling
+in water also serves to plump the carcasses somewhat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Packing.</i> After the ducks are thoroughly cooled
+they are removed from the water and packed. Long
+Island ducklings are usually packed in barrels.
+Forty-five ducks will pack in a sugar barrel and 33
+in a flour barrel. The proper number for the barrel
+used is placed on hanging spring scales and weighed
+before being packed. The best method of packing
+is to lay the ducks on their sides. If they are packed
+on their backs or bellies, the ice used between the
+layers is apt to cause a cutting or bruising of the
+soft abdomens and injure the appearance of the carcasses.
+Between each layer of ducks a scoopful of
+cracked ice is used although in cool weather it may
+only be necessary to use half a scoop of ice. After
+the barrel is packed it should be allowed to stand
+for a while to settle. Then the top of the barrel
+is piled up with cracked ice and covered with burlap.
+On the side of the barrel is marked the number
+of ducks and their weight. Later a card is
+tacked alongside of this showing the consignee's and
+the shipper's names as well as the number of ducks
+and their weight.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 258px;">
+<a href="images/fig47.jpg"><img src="images/fig47_tn.jpg" width="258" height="400" alt=""
+title="Dressed duckling. Linked to larger image of figure 47." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 47. Dressed duckling. The main feathers of the tail and
+wings and the feathers of the neck part of the way from the head
+to the body are left on. The rest of the body is picked clean.
+(<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 261px;">
+<a href="images/fig48.jpg"><img src="images/fig48_tn.jpg" width="261" height="400" alt=""
+title="Weighing out ducklings for packing. Linked to larger image of figure 48." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 48. After thorough cooling a sufficient number of ducks to
+fill a barrel is weighed out and packed with or without ice depending
+upon the weather. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<h5>&nbsp;</h5>
+
+<p><i>Shipping.</i> The barrels should be packed and
+shipped the same evening. Shipping may be done<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+either by express or by automobile truck. A good
+many of the Long Island ducklings are now shipped
+into New York City by truck.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cooperative Marketing Association.</i> The duck
+growers on Long Island have formed a cooperative
+marketing association. This association maintains
+its own house in New York City and sells practically
+the entire output of Long Island ducklings, controlling
+probably 90%. During the year 1919 there were
+in the neighborhood of 800,000 head of ducks marketed
+through this house. Practically all of the capital
+stock of this concern is held by the duck growers
+and they are not allowed to sell any of their stock
+without first offering it to the association.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prices for Ducks.</i> Early in the season the ducklings
+bring the best prices, that is to say from March
+1 to May 1. Then as the output of ducks increases
+prices gradually drop. The heaviest shipments occur
+in June, July and August. In September as the
+output of ducks begins to drop off the price begins
+to climb a little. The following prices as quoted in
+the New York Produce Review show the range from
+March, 1920, to June, 1921.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Long Island Ducklings&mdash;Fresh Dressed</h4>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Seasonal price variation for ducklings.">
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">31</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">April</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>May</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> " </td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> " </td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">August</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">September</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">October</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">39c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">39c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">November</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">48c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>April</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">46c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>The following quotations from the same source
+give the prices for frozen Long Island ducklings.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">January</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">February</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">November</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">December</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> "</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">January</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">February</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Quotations from the same source are given below
+to give some idea of the range in price of the live
+Long Island spring ducklings and likewise of live
+old Long Island ducks or breeders.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Long Island Spring Ducklings&mdash;Live.</h4>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">50c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">50c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">31</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>May</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">36 @ 40c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">40 @ 41c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">36 @ 38c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">August</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">34 @ 36c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">September</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">42 @ 45c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">October</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">November</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">44c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">44c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>December</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">44c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">42 @ 46c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">52c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">50c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">April</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">50c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">38 @ 42c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">33c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">33c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h4>Long Island Old Ducks or Breeders&mdash;Live</h4>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="center">March</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">31</td><td align="right">45c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">May</td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">June</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">30 @ 32c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">August</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">April</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">39c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">33 @ 37c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">May</td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">33c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"> "</td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><i>Shipping Ducks Alive</i>. While the great majority
+of ducks are shipped dressed there is some shipment
+of live ducks. This is particularly true during
+the Jewish holidays in March and in September and
+October when the demand for live ducks and the
+price paid for them is excellent. As a rule it pays
+better to ship alive the ducks which are inclined to
+be a little thin rather than to ship those which are
+in top market condition. This is due to the fact
+that fat ducks will shrink very considerably when
+cooped and shipped alive, this shrinkage running
+from one-half to three-quarters of a pound per head
+where they are cooped not to exceed 12 to 15 hours.
+The ducks which are in the fattest condition will
+shrink the most. At the season of the year when
+live ducks are in best demand it often pays to ship
+alive the ducklings which are sorted out as not being
+in the best condition rather than to hold them for
+further fattening.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Saving the Feathers.</i> The feathers from the ducks
+form quite an important source of revenue to the
+duck farmers. As stated before the value of the
+feathers will a little more than pay for the cost of
+picking and since this is a considerable item of expense
+the grower cannot afford to neglect the feathers.
+The soft body feathers are kept separate from
+the coarser feathers, the latter being thrown on the
+floor as they are plucked. These coarser feathers
+are later swept up and are commonly spoken of as
+sweepings. Feathers from dry-picked ducks are superior
+in quality and bring a better price but most
+of the duck feathers now marketed from commercial
+duck farms are scalded feathers. The feathers after
+each day's killing are gathered up and spread out in
+a loft where they can be placed in a layer not over 3
+or 4 inches deep. This should be an airy place so as
+to give the feathers a good place to dry out. On the
+second day they are scraped up in a pile and then
+spread out again, thus turning them over and changing
+their position. They are then left until they are
+dry enough to sack which should be in a little over
+a week. Unless the feathers are thoroughly dried
+out they will heat when sacked and this will seriously
+hurt their market quality. When dry they are
+packed either in the large special feather sacks
+made for this purpose or in smaller sacks, about as
+big as two bran sacks, which will hold from 60 to 80
+pounds of feathers. The feathers are shipped to
+regular feather dealers or manufacturers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig49.jpg"><img src="images/fig49_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt=""
+title="Curing duck feathers. Linked to larger image of figure 49." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 49. A valuable by-product of duck plants. The feathers from a duck will pay for the cost of
+picking. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Prices and Uses of Duck Feathers.</i> The soft body
+feathers and the coarser feathers often called
+"sweepings" should be kept and sold separate.
+While scalded feathers are not worth as much as dry
+picked feathers, the former if properly dried out or
+cured will find a ready sale. Feathers packed before
+they are thoroughly dried out, are likely to arrive
+at their destination in a matted and musty or
+heated condition. This, of course, injures their quality
+and the price paid for them is discounted according
+to their condition.</p>
+
+<p>The soft body feathers of ducks are used almost
+entirely for bedding purposes, that is, are put in pillows
+and feather beds. White feathers are preferred
+and usually bring a somewhat higher price.</p>
+
+<p>The prices paid for the feathers vary quite widely
+at different times of the year, and in different sections
+of the country, and also of course with the condition
+of the feathers themselves. The quotations
+given below represent the prices paid in June, 1921.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Prices of various grades of duck feathers.">
+<tr><th align="center">Duck Feathers</th><th align="center">Cents</th><th align="center">Per Pound</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pure white, dry picked</td><td align="center">50</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stained and scalded white</td><td align="center">40</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dark or mixed, dry picked</td><td align="center">33</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dark or mixed, scalded</td><td align="center">20 to 25</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><i>Marketing Eggs.</i> On commercial duck farms very
+few eggs are marketed. This is due to the fact that
+the duck growers find it more profitable to incubate
+all eggs suitable for that purpose and to rear and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+market the ducklings rather than to sell the eggs.
+There are always, however, a certain number of
+cracked eggs and others which may be too large or
+too small to use for hatching and which are therefore
+marketed. In addition the infertile eggs tested
+out on the 5th day are sold. The eggs may be packed
+in ordinary 30 dozen egg cases such as are used for
+hens' eggs, utilizing a special filler 5 cells square.
+With these fillers a case holds 20 5-6 dozen duck
+eggs. A special duck case, holding 30 dozen duck
+eggs may be used, the fillers in this case being 6
+cells square like the fillers used for hens' eggs. The
+cells in these fillers are 2 inches square and 2¼ or
+2½ inches deep.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII
+<br />
+Duck Raising on the Farm</h3>
+
+
+<p>Duck raising as ordinarily conducted on the general
+farm consists of the keeping of a comparatively
+small flock purely as a side line. Ducks on the general
+farm may be kept for the production of meat
+and eggs, for egg production, or mainly as a breeding
+proposition where the idea is to produce birds
+of exhibition quality. On occasional farms ducks of
+the rarer breeds are kept mainly for ornamental
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising.</i> A small
+flock of ducks on the farm can be kept to best advantage
+where they can be separated from the
+other poultry and where they can have access to a
+pasture or an orchard which will provide them with
+a plentiful supply of green feed. Ducks stand confinement
+quite well but if they are closely confined
+it is necessary to provide for them the green feed
+which they cannot secure for themselves. On many
+farms the flock of ducks is allowed to range at liberty
+and under these conditions the cost of maintaining
+them is much lower since they pick up a considerable
+part of their feed. An enclosed run or yard,
+however, should be available where they can be con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>fined
+when desired. It is also necessary to provide
+a house or shed in which they can be shut at night
+and during the early morning. Otherwise, many
+of the eggs may be dropped anywhere about the
+place or in the water with the result that some of
+them will be lost. A pond or stream to which the
+ducks can have access and in which they can swim
+is a great advantage since it helps to keep them in
+good breeding condition. It is a common but mistaken
+idea that low, wet land is best suited for
+ducks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Size of Flock.</i>&mdash;The average farm flock of ducks
+is small, rarely running over 15 to 20 head. In many
+cases not over 10 or 12 ducks with one or two drakes
+will be kept. A flock of this size will furnish quite
+a large number of ducks for the farmer's table or
+for sale in addition to more or less eggs which can
+either be used at home or sold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Making a Start.</i> In making a start with a farm
+flock of ducks it is probably best to figure on keeping
+only a few head. If the farmer begins with 4 or
+5 ducks and one drake he can make his start at
+small expense and from this number he will be able
+to increase the size of his flock if he finds that results
+warrant it. Probably the best way to make a
+start is to purchase the desired breeding stock in the
+fall. This will give the ducks a chance to get settled
+and to be in good condition and accustomed to
+their quarters by spring so that they will begin to
+breed and lay.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Eggs for hatching can be purchased if desired
+and the young ducklings hatched and reared with
+chicken hens. Baby ducks are rarely purchased in
+making a start as are baby chicks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selecting the Breed.</i> Any one of the breeds forming
+the so-called meat class will prove satisfactory
+for a farm flock. This class includes the Pekin,
+Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Cayuga, Buff and Blue
+Swedish. The birds of any of these breeds are of
+good size and therefore produce a suitable table
+fowl. At the same time they are layers and will
+produce eggs for the table or for market as well.
+Where the purpose in keeping the ducks is mainly
+that of producing eggs for market the Runner is undoubtedly
+the breed to select. While these ducks
+are smaller in size the ducklings will make good
+carcasses of broiler size for the table being killed for
+this purpose when about 2½ to 3 pounds in weight.
+In addition, the Runner is the best laying breed and
+by many persons is considered to be equal in its egg
+producing qualities to any of the breeds of chickens.</p>
+
+<p>Selection of any breed or variety of the meat or
+egg classes and especially the selection of a breed
+or variety for ornamental purposes or for the pleasure
+of breeding will depend upon the individual
+preference of the owner for body shape, color of
+plumage and other characteristics. A pure breed
+of some kind should by all means be kept in preference
+to the common or so-called "puddle" duck. Not
+only will the pure breeds give greater uniformity in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+the carcasses produced but the results in egg production
+will likewise be better.</p>
+
+<p><i>Age of Breeding Stock.</i> The best results in breeding
+are secured from ducks during their first laying
+season. Not only is egg production better but they
+are less likely to become so fat and large as to interfere
+with the fertility and hatchability of the
+eggs. In fact, on commercial duck farms the breeding
+stock is entirely renewed each year. However,
+ducks can be profitably kept until they are 2 or 3
+years old, and it is common practice in a farm flock
+to hold over some of the breeders after they have
+finished their first year. Of course, where the duck
+breeder has some especially fine stock which will
+produce just the quality he desires in the offspring,
+he holds and utilizes these birds just as long as they
+are in good breeding condition. As a rule it is best
+not to hold breeding ducks after they have finished
+their second laying season.</p>
+
+<p><i>Size of Matings.</i> The proper number of ducks
+which should be mated to a drake varies with the
+different breeds. Pekins and Aylesbury can be
+mated in the proportion of one drake to 6 to 8 ducks.
+In the Rouen mate 4 or 5 ducks to a drake and in
+the Cayuga 5 or 6 ducks to a drake. In the Muscovy
+as high as 10 females may be mated with one male.
+In the Blue Swedish and Buff mate in the proportion
+of 6 or 7 ducks to one drake. In the Call and East
+India breeds from 5 to 8 ducks can be mated to one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+drake. In the Crested White use 5 or 6 ducks and
+in the Runner 6 to 8 ducks to a drake.</p>
+
+<p>Where young drakes are used more ducks can be
+mated to them than is the case with old drakes. It is
+also true that where especially large exhibition
+birds have been reserved for breeding purposes it is
+necessary to reduce the number of ducks mated to a
+drake as otherwise the fertility is very likely to run
+lower with these older heavier ducks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breeding and Laying Season.</i> Under ordinary
+farm conditions where the ducks receive only fairly
+good care and feed the laying does not begin to any
+extent until February or March. With exceptional
+care the ducks will begin to lay in January and a
+few may even lay in December. The ducks lay very
+persistently and continue their laying until hot
+weather sets in or usually about the first of July.
+They gradually let up in their laying until it ceases
+almost entirely soon after that date. The breeding
+season is at its height in the months of April and
+May. At this time the fertility will run best and the
+results in hatching will be most satisfactory. However,
+it is possible to continue to hatch the duck
+eggs which are produced with fair results as long
+as the ducks continue to lay.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Management of Breeders.</h4>
+
+<p><i>Housing.</i> Some sort of house or shelter must be
+provided for the breeding flock. Any available shed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+or a part of the poultry house may be utilized for
+this purpose. No special requirements are necessary
+except that the house should provide sufficient
+ventilation. This is best furnished by means of a
+window and in addition, an opening in the front of
+the house should be provided which can be closed
+by means of a curtain during severe winter weather.
+A board floor is not necessary if the dirt floor
+is filled up 6 or 8 inches above the ground level outside
+the house. The floors should be provided with
+an abundance of litter which is usually changed only
+once or twice during the year. As the litter tends
+to become dirty more litter must be added. No
+equipment is necessary in the houses as the birds
+rest on the floor and lay their eggs anywhere about
+the house or wherever they may make their nests.
+The house should be so arranged that the ducks can
+be shut in at night and can be kept there until they
+have finished laying in the morning. As most of the
+duck eggs are laid early in the morning they can be
+let out by 8 or 9 o'clock in the summer. If let out
+earlier than this they are likely to lay some of their
+eggs in the pond or stream to which they have access
+and these would be lost.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feeding.</i> On many farms the breeding flock of
+ducks is fed on the same ration which is given the
+farm fowls. However, better results will be obtained
+if they are given special feeds. After the laying
+season is over the breeding ducks can be fed
+sparingly on a mash consisting of one part by weight<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+corn meal, 2 parts bran, 1 part low grade wheat
+flour, 1 part green feed, 8% beef scrap and 3%
+oyster shell. This mash is mixed up with water until
+it has a consistency just between sticky and crumbly.
+It should never be fed in a sloppy condition. A feed
+of this mash should be given in the morning and at
+night and during the long days of summer it is well
+also to give a light feed of cracked corn or mixed
+grains in the middle of the day. However, judgment
+must be used in feeding ducks especially if
+they have range over which they can roam where
+they can pick up more or less animal feed and other
+material. In this case it is not necessary to feed nearly
+so much. Another mash which may be used instead
+of the one given consists of 3 parts by measure of
+corn meal, 4 parts bran, 2 parts low grade wheat
+flour, three-fourths part beef scrap and 2 parts
+green feed with a supply of oyster shell.</p>
+
+<p>Along about December 1 the feed should be
+changed with the idea of inducing egg production.
+A feed consisting of one part by weight corn meal,
+1 part low grade flour or middlings, 1 part bran,
+15% beef scrap, 15% vegetables or green feed together
+with oyster shell should be fed morning and
+evening and in addition a feed consisting of corn
+and wheat may be given at noon in a quantity of
+about one quart for each 30 ducks. As much mash
+should be given them at the morning and evening
+feed as they will clean up.</p>
+
+<p>Another good mash feed which may be used con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>sists
+of 2 parts by weight of bran, 2 parts middlings,
+2 parts corn meal, 1 part beef scrap, 1 part ground
+oats and one-tenth of the total weight sand. In addition,
+of course, green feed must be added to the
+ration if it is not available at all times in the yard.
+This mash is fed in the morning and in the evening.
+The noon feed consists of 1 part by weight of corn
+and 2 parts oats. Where green feed is not available
+and must be supplied, cut clover, alfalfa, rye, oats
+and corn may be utilized cut up into short pieces and
+mixed in the mash. The mash should be fed either
+to breeding stock or to ducklings on flat trays or
+boards rather than in troughs as the ducks can get
+at it better in this form. It must be kept in mind that
+while ducks are good egg producers during the laying
+and breeding season they will not lay any great
+number of eggs unless they are fed for this purpose.
+For rations used on commercial duck farms see
+<a href="#CHAPTER_IV">Chapter IV</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water.</i> It is important that a plentiful supply of
+drinking water be available to the ducks. A fresh
+supply must be provided at each feeding time before
+the feed is thrown to the ducks as they like to
+eat and drink alternately when feeding. Where the
+breeding ducks have access to a stream or pond of
+fresh water it is not necessary to provide any other
+supply of drinking water.</p>
+
+<p>Where water is available in which the ducks can
+swim it is essential to see that provision is made so
+that the ducks can get in and out of the water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+easily. If this is not done they may become exhausted
+and unable to climb out or they may become
+partially cramped when the water is very cold with
+the result that they will drown. If given access to
+water in which they can swim during cold weather
+it is necessary to be on the look-out to see that the
+ducks do not freeze fast to the ground when they
+come out of the water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Yards.</i> Where yards are provided for ducks
+poultry netting about 2 feet high is ordinarily used.
+This will confine most of the breeds but higher fences
+even 5 or 6 feet high must be provided for the
+breeds which fly readily such as the Muscovy, Call,
+East India, Mallard, Wood and Mandarin. In some
+cases it is even necessary to cover over the tops of
+the yards in order to keep the birds from flying out
+or to pinion the birds, that is, to cut off the outermost
+joint of one wing. The netting used for yards
+should be strung on posts set in the ground and the
+lower edge should be pegged down so that the birds
+cannot get under it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Care of Eggs for Hatching.</i> Duck eggs for hatching
+must be gathered each day and should be put in
+some cool place to be held until they are set. They
+should be turned daily, the same as hens' eggs and
+the general care is exactly similar. It does not, however,
+pay to keep duck eggs as long before setting
+them as they spoil more quickly than hens' eggs. In
+fact, it is best to set duck eggs when they are not
+over a week old if this can be arranged.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Hatching the Eggs.</i> The period of incubation for
+duck eggs ranges from 26 to 28 days for all of the
+breeds except the Muscovy. In this breed it takes
+from 33 to 36 days for the eggs to hatch. Inasmuch
+as most of the commonly kept breeds are not very
+broody and therefore do not make reliable hatchers
+and mothers it is necessary to resort either to the
+use of chicken hens for this purpose or else to utilize
+incubators. Either one of these methods can be used
+with good success. With the small farm flock it is
+very common to utilize hens. The ordinary hen will
+be able to cover 9 to 11 duck eggs to advantage depending
+on her size and upon the season of the year.
+In cold weather the smaller number should be used
+rather than the larger number. Before setting the
+hen she should be thoroughly dusted with insect
+powder to free her from lice. Several hens can be set
+in the same room but they should be confined on their
+nests allowing them to come off only once a day for
+feed and water. Cracked corn makes an excellent
+feed for sitting hens. If desired Muscovy, Call, East
+India, Mallard, Wood or Mandarin ducks can be allowed
+to make their nests and to hatch their eggs as
+they are reliable sitters and good mothers.</p>
+
+<p>After the duck eggs first pip there usually elapses
+a longer period of time before the ducklings get out
+of the shell than is the case with chicks. For this
+reason it is well to take the hens off for feed and
+water when the first eggs are pipped returning them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+to the nest as quickly as possible and confining them
+there until the hatch is over.</p>
+
+<p>During the last week of incubation it is desirable
+to sprinkle the eggs daily with water using quite a
+liberal amount as duck eggs seem to require more
+moisture than hens' eggs in order to hatch well.</p>
+
+<p>All duck eggs which are at all badly soiled should
+be washed before they are set. Washing does not
+seem to injure their hatching qualities. In fact,
+some breeders prefer to wash all duck eggs whether
+dirty or not, feeling that this opens up the pores and
+causes a better hatch. This belief is based upon the
+idea that when ducks hatch their own eggs under
+natural conditions they have access to water in
+which they swim and in coming back on the nest
+their wet feathers serve to wash the eggs.</p>
+
+<p>Where an incubator is used for hatching the eggs
+are placed in the machine just as hens' eggs. For
+the first week the temperature is kept about 102 degrees
+and for the rest of the period is maintained
+as close to 103 degrees as possible, the bulb of the
+thermometer being on a level with the tops of the
+eggs. Often the temperature will run up a little
+higher than this at hatching time but this does not
+do any harm. An incubator will accommodate from
+four-fifths to five-sixths as many duck eggs as it will
+hens' eggs.</p>
+
+<p>About the fifth or sixth day the duck eggs are
+tested and all infertile and dead germs removed.
+From this time on eggs are turned twice a day and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+usually cooled once a day until they pip. A second
+test may be made about the fifteenth or sixteenth
+day when any eggs which have died are removed. If
+dead germ eggs are left in the machines they spoil
+very quickly and cause a strong odor which makes it
+necessary to remove them. During the last week or
+ten days and in some cases for a longer period than
+this incubator operators supply moisture daily to the
+machine. This is usually provided by sprinkling the
+eggs liberally with water which has been warmed to
+about the temperature of the machine. However,
+if warm water is not available, water of ordinary
+temperature may be used although it is not well to
+use extremely cold water. As a rule the eggs begin
+to pip about the twenty-sixth day. At this time the
+machine should be tightly closed up and left so until
+the hatching is over. In case moisture seems to
+be lacking and the ducklings are having a hard
+time to get out of the shell the machine can be
+opened and the eggs sprinkled again. If there seems
+to be sufficient moisture, however, the machines
+should not be opened or disturbed. As a rule it
+takes ducklings from 24 to 48 hours to hatch after
+the pipping first begins. It is advisable to leave the
+ducklings in the incubator until they are well dried
+off before removing them to the brooder. As a rule
+the hatching will be entirely over by the twenty-eighth
+day.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brooding and Rearing.</i> Ducklings can be brooded
+if desired by means of chicken hens. In this case<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+the ducklings which the hen hatches should be given
+to her and she should be confined to some kind of a
+coop which will allow the ducklings to run at liberty.
+If the hen is given her liberty she goes
+too far and takes too much exercise for the
+little ducks. Where artificial brooders are used
+any type of brooding apparatus can be utilized
+which is used with success for chickens. It must be
+remembered, however, that ducklings do not require
+as high a degree of heat as do baby chicks and
+should be started off at a temperature of about 90
+degrees under the hover. This can be reduced rather
+rapidly until it is down to 80 at about 2 weeks of
+age. The length of time that the ducklings require
+heat after this depends upon the season and the
+weather. Even in fairly cool weather they do not
+need any heat after they are 5 or 6 weeks old.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to keep the brooders clean and in
+order to do this they must be cleaned out frequently
+and new litter supplied. While the ducklings are
+small the brooders should be cleaned at least every
+other day and as they get larger, cleaning once a
+week with the addition of fresh litter between times
+will be sufficient.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feeding the Ducklings.</i> Ducklings do not need to
+be fed until they are from 24 to 36 hours old. At
+this time they may be given a mixture composed of
+equal parts by measure of rolled oats and bread
+crumbs with 3% of sharp sand mixed in the feed.
+This may be given them five times daily although<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+some duck raisers feed only 3 times daily from the
+start. About the third day this feed is changed to
+equal parts of bread, rolled oats, bran and corn
+meal. After the seventh day the ration may consist
+of 3 parts bran, 1 part each of low-grade wheat flour
+and corn meal, 10% green feed, 5% beef scrap with
+about 3% of sand mixed in.</p>
+
+<p>The ducklings should be fed four times daily after
+the seventh day until they are two or three weeks
+old. After that time they need be fed only three
+times daily, morning, noon and night. The sand
+may be given to the ducklings either by mixing it in
+the mash or by feeding it in a hopper where they can
+help themselves. The mash feed which is prepared
+for the ducklings is mixed with water until it has a
+consistency a little wetter than crumbly but not
+exactly sticky. Sloppy feed should never be used.
+As the ducklings grow older the amount of beef
+scrap can be increased until it consists of 15% of
+the ration by the end of the third week. The proportion
+of corn meal can likewise be increased and
+simultaneously the amount of bran decreased until
+the ducklings are on a fattening ration. Unless they
+have a plentiful supply of green feed in the yards
+to which they have access it is necessary to provide
+this to the extent of about 10% of the feed and it
+should consist of tender green stuff rather finely
+chopped and mixed in with the mash.</p>
+
+<p>About 2 weeks before the ducklings are to be
+marketed they should be put on a ration consisting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+of three parts by weight of corn meal, two parts
+low-grade flour or middlings, one part bran, one-half
+part beef scrap, 10% green feed and about 3%
+oyster shell or sand. This mash is fed three times
+daily. Another ration which can be used for fattening
+purposes consists of 3 parts corn meal, 1 part
+low-grade wheat flour, 1 part bran, 5% beef scrap
+and 3% oyster shell with green feed and grit in addition.</p>
+
+<p>Where fish is available it can be substituted for
+the beef scrap but on most farms this is impractical.
+The fish where fed is boiled and mixed in the mash.
+However, no fish should be fed up to within 2 weeks
+before the ducks are killed as there is danger of
+giving a fishy taste to the carcass. For additional
+information as to feeding methods used on commercial
+duck farms which could be utilized to advantage
+for the farm flocks, see <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chapter VI</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Birds which are to be reserved for breeders
+should be selected out and taken away from the
+ducklings which are to be fattened. These breeding
+birds should be carried along on the ration
+which they have been receiving until about December
+1 when they should be put on a laying ration.</p>
+
+<p>It is very necessary to see that the ducklings have
+a plentiful supply of drinking water. It is especially
+important to renew this supply just before the
+ducklings are fed so that they will have ample water
+while they are consuming their feed. The water
+should be given in dishes deep enough so that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+ducks can immerse their entire bill as this enables
+them to wash the sand out of their nostrils.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water for Ducklings.</i> In addition to the drinking
+water provided duck raisers sometimes allow the
+growing ducklings access to water in which they can
+swim. If it is desired to fatten the ducklings quickly
+and turn them off on the market as green ducks many
+raisers do not consider this advisable as it induces
+the ducklings to take more exercise and makes it
+more difficult to fatten them. However, access to
+water in which they can swim makes it unnecessary
+to provide any other supply of drinking water and
+for this reason lessens the work considerably. Unless
+it is easy for the ducklings to get in and out of the
+water there is danger of some of them drowning as
+they are likely to get tired and unable to climb
+out. Little ducklings allowed access to very cold
+water are subject to cramp and may be drowned as
+a result.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distinguishing the Sexes.</i> It is difficult to distinguish
+the sexes of growing ducks until they begin to
+reach maturity. There is, however, a difference in
+their appearance. The drakes are coarser or thicker
+and more masculine in appearance showing this especially
+about the head and neck. Also as they secure
+their mature plumage the drake shows curled
+feathers on top of the tail which are often referred
+to as sex feathers. In addition, the voice of the duck
+is harsher and coarser than that of the drake.</p>
+
+<p><i>Marketing the Ducks.</i> Most of the ducks pro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>duced
+on farms are marketed alive. This is because
+the farmer has no special market and he does not
+find that it pays him to dress and ship the ducks
+with the chance that they might spoil. In fact, most
+of the farm raised ducks are not turned off as green
+ducks at 10 to 12 weeks as is done on the commercial
+duck plants but are held until fall and then sold
+as spring ducks. They will weigh somewhat more
+at that time but as a rule the price received per
+pound will be lower than that obtained for green
+ducks during the spring and summer. Where there
+is a special demand for ducklings which the farmer
+can supply it will pay him to dress and deliver the
+ducks. If it is desired to dress the ducks, the directions
+given under <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chapter VII</a> can be modified to
+suit the farmer's needs. The soft body feathers
+should be saved in accordance with the directions
+given on <a href="#Page_106">page 106</a>, as they can be used at home in
+making pillows or can be sold.</p>
+
+<p>Such eggs as are produced in surplus may either
+be utilized on the home table or sent to market. As
+a rule duck eggs are not in great demand except at
+certain seasons such as at Easter and during the
+Jewish holidays in the spring and fall when they
+bring somewhat higher prices than hens' eggs. The
+larger size of duck eggs, however, makes them
+favored by bakers and they can usually be sold at
+any time in a city of any size at prices as good as
+those received for hens' eggs.</p>
+
+<p>Eggs for market can be packed in the ordinary<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+30-dozen hen egg cases by using special fillers which
+hold 25 eggs instead of 36 as in the case of hens'
+eggs. <a href="#Page_119">See page 119</a>. A farmer with a small flock of
+ducks will usually not have eggs enough to fill a case
+frequently and for this reason he usually finds it
+more convenient to market the few eggs he has by
+taking them into town in a basket.</p>
+
+<p><i>Disease and Insect Pests.</i> Ducks are very little
+troubled by insect pests, nor are they greatly
+troubled by diseases. The usual difficulties encountered
+along this line are those discussed under this
+head in <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">Chapter VI</a>. Losses are often experienced as
+the result of predatory animals. Rats will cause a
+great amount of havoc among the young ducks if
+they are able to get at them. A single night's work
+on the part of one rat may practically clean out a
+small flock of ducklings. It is necessary to make
+sure that the ducklings are shut in at night so that
+rats cannot get at them.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="GEESE" id="GEESE"></a>GEESE
+<br />
+PART II.</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX
+<br />
+Extent of the Industry&mdash;Opportunities</h3>
+
+
+<p>Geese can be raised successfully in practically all
+parts of the United States and are in fact scattered
+in small flocks over a considerable portion of the
+country being most abundant in the South and in the
+Middle West.</p>
+
+<p>The census figures for the year 1920 show Illinois
+with 195,769 geese to be the leading state in numbers,
+closely followed by Missouri, Arkansas
+and Iowa. Next in order of importance as goose
+raising states come Kentucky, Tennessee, Minnesota,
+North Carolina and Texas. The census figures
+of 1920 compared with those for 1910 show a decrease
+in the number of geese from 4,431,980 to
+2,939,203. The only groups of states which showed
+an increase in the number of geese during this
+period were the North Atlantic and the Mountain
+states. Of the total farms in the United States only
+a small proportion, probably one-tenth, have any
+geese and the number of geese per farm would not
+average over 4 to 10 depending on the section.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nature of the Industry.</i> Geese are kept almost
+wholly in small flocks as a side line on general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+farms. The purpose of goose raising is primarily
+one of the production of meat although in the past
+flocks of geese have been kept to some extent, particularly
+in the south for the purpose of plucking
+them to secure the feathers. This practice of plucking
+live geese is decreasing and is much less common
+than formerly. The eggs of the geese do not
+enter to any extent into the egg trade of the country.
+As a rule all the eggs produced are hatched for
+the purpose of rearing young geese and it is only
+occasionally that goose eggs are used for culinary
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opportunities for Goose Raising.</i> Undoubtedly the
+greatest opportunity along the line of goose raising
+lies in the small flock kept on the general farm.
+Where conditions are suitable, that is to say, where
+there is an abundance of suitable pasture land together
+with some water to which the geese can have
+access, a small flock can be most profitably kept.
+They can be reared very cheaply as both the young
+and old geese will secure practically their entire living
+during the summer from pasture if an abundant
+supply of suitable green material is available. The
+cost of rearing them therefore is low. In addition
+both the young and old geese are very hardy and
+require comparatively little care. They are little
+subject to disease and therefore losses are small.</p>
+
+<p>Geese live and breed for a long time and this
+makes it possible to turn off to market a larger proportion
+of the young stock reared than is the case<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+with most other classes of poultry. For all of these
+reasons, therefore, a small flock of geese will return
+a good profit to the farmer without having to supply
+any great amount of equipment or without having
+to feed very much in the way of expensive feeds. In
+addition to the geese which can be marketed, the
+maintenance of a small flock also helps to provide a
+variety in the farmer's diet by furnishing suitable
+birds for the holiday seasons such as Thanksgiving
+and Christmas.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the opportunity for goose raising in
+small flocks on general farms there likewise exists
+a definite opportunity to specialize along this line
+somewhat more extensively. In certain places, notably
+the state of Wisconsin, goose raising becomes a
+more important activity on some farms than merely
+that of a by-product. Larger numbers are reared
+and special steps are taken in fattening and finishing
+them for market either by means of pen fattening
+or by means of hand fattening or noodling the
+geese. Geese so finished for market bring a special
+price and allow a good profit to the raiser for the
+time which he has put into them.</p>
+
+<p>An outgrowth of the goose raising industry which
+has been worked to a limited extent consists of the
+gathering together of the geese raised in any particular
+portion of the country on one farm and the
+feeding of them there in large flocks in the fields so
+as to fatten them for market. There are not many
+of these special fattening farms but several persons<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+in different sections of the country who have made a
+practice of gathering together and marketing the
+geese in this way have found it very profitable.
+Probably a similar opportunity exists in certain
+other sections where goose raising on the farms in
+small numbers is common and where no one has yet
+made the effort to collect and fatten the geese before
+marketing them.</p>
+
+<p>While geese are not exhibited to the same extent
+as chickens, still there will always be found a market
+for birds of good quality, both for the purpose
+of exhibition and also as breeders to be used in improving
+the stock of other goose raisers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Goose Raising as a Business for Farm Women.</i>
+Like turkey raising goose raising as a side line on
+the farm offers an excellent money making opportunity
+for the farm women. Without any great outlay
+of capital to get a start and without its being necessary
+to provide much in the way of buildings or
+other equipment, a flock of geese can be started
+which will allow a nice profit to the farm woman
+for the care and attention which she gives them.
+In this connection it should be remembered that
+while the opportunities for profit may not be so large
+as in turkey raising, yet the care required is much
+less and the chances of serious difficulties due to disease
+and to inability to raise the young stock are
+relatively small. Goose raising therefore offers a
+most profitable side line employment for the farm
+woman.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Geese as Weed Destroyers.</i> As stated before
+geese are close grazers. In fact, during the growing
+season of the year green vegetation forms most and
+in some cases practically all of their diet. The vegetation
+which they will eat readily is quite varied and
+in many cases geese will be found to be very valuable
+in ridding pastures or fields of troublesome
+weeds. In the southern states geese are often kept
+on farms where cotton is raised for the purpose of
+keeping the cotton fields free from weeds.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Objection to Geese</h4>
+
+<p>An objection to geese often expressed but without
+good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture
+for other stock. This is not true if the pasture is not
+overstocked with geese. Of course geese are very
+close grazers and if too many of them are kept on a
+field they will eat the grass down so close that there
+will be none for other animals to get. Similarly the
+idea that other animals will not eat grass grown
+where goose droppings have fallen is not true except
+where the birds are too thick so that the grass is
+soiled badly by the droppings.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that geese are noisy creatures makes
+them undesirable to some persons. It is true that
+they make a good deal of noise and that their cry is
+of a very hoarse, rasping character and to a person
+with bad nerves they may be annoying but this is
+no valid or weighty objection to the normal, healthy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+farmer. The Chinese geese are the noisiest and consequently
+the greatest offenders in this particular.</p>
+
+<p>A more valid objection to geese lies in the fact of
+their rather ugly disposition. Ganders, especially
+as they grow older and during the breeding season,
+are decidedly pugnacious and will not hesitate to attack
+human beings. They strike heavy formidable
+blows with their wings and with their strong bills
+they inflict most painful bites. Where there are children
+about the house it may be necessary to dispose
+of ugly ganders to safeguard the children from serious
+injury.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X
+<br />
+Breeds and Varieties&mdash;How to Mate to Produce
+Exhibition Specimens&mdash;Preparing Geese for the
+Show&mdash;Catching and Handling</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Breeds of Geese.</i> There are six standard breeds
+of geese consisting of the following: Toulouse, Embden,
+African, Chinese, Wild or Canadian and Egyptian.
+All of these breeds consist of a single variety
+with the exception of the Chinese which is composed
+of two. The Toulouse is known as the Gray Toulouse,
+the Embden as the White Embden, the African
+as the Gray African, the two varieties of the Chinese
+as the Brown Chinese and the White Chinese, the
+Wild or Canadian as the Gray and the Egyptian as
+the Colored.</p>
+
+<p>The first four of these breeds are the ones which
+are commonly kept in domestication. In a general
+way it may be said that these breeds are meat
+breeds for the reason that they are kept mainly for
+the production of meat. The Wild or Canadian
+and the Egyptian are more in the nature of ornamental
+breeds since they are not so commonly kept
+and are principally to be found where ornamental
+water-fowls are maintained. The Chinese are sometimes
+classed as ornamental geese on account of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+their smaller size but they are much more commonly
+kept than either the Canadian or the Egyptian and
+make a good market fowl where the demand is not
+for such a large carcass.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the standard breeds there are several
+other rare breeds among which is the Sebastapol
+which is kept purely as an ornamental breed
+by reason of its peculiar feathering. The Sebastapol
+is a white goose in which the feathers of the
+upper part of the body show a twisted or frizzled
+condition which gives it much the general effect of
+the feathers being curled. In addition to the standard
+breeds of geese there are kept on a great majority
+of farms ordinary common geese of no definite
+breed or variety. These geese in general are of
+smaller size than the larger standard breeds and
+have probably arisen as the result of the crossing of
+the standard breeds and the subsequent deterioration
+in size and color marking is due to careless
+breeding and selection.</p>
+
+<p>In some sections and for certain special purposes
+definite crosses of standard breeds are made for the
+production of table geese having certain desired
+qualities. For this purpose the African ganders are
+very popular used upon the Toulouse geese. To some
+extent there is produced and marketed a goose
+known as the mongrel goose. This has excellent
+table quality and is in good demand on account of
+its superior eating qualities and its rapid growth. It
+is produced by using the Wild or Canadian gander<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+upon Toulouse, African or Embden geese. The result
+of this cross is a hybrid goose which has much
+the appearance of the Wild goose but which will
+not breed although the females will lay eggs. As a
+rule Toulouse or African females are used for the
+cross rather than Embden as from the latter there
+is a greater tendency to get a lighter cross which
+would not resemble its Wild father so closely and
+might not therefore be so readily recognized as genuine
+mongrel geese.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nomenclature.</i> The term geese is used to indicate
+the birds of both sexes taken as a whole and also as a
+plural form for the word goose. The term goose is used
+to distinguish the female of the species. The male
+is given the specific name of gander to distinguish
+it from goose. The young of both sexes are termed
+goslings. In giving the standard weights for the
+different breeds of geese the birds are classified as
+adult ganders and young ganders and as adult geese
+and young geese. By adult goose or gander is meant
+a bird which is over one year old, by young goose or
+gander is meant a bird which is less than one year.
+Not infrequently in connection with market reports
+use will be made of the term "green geese". This indicates
+birds which are marketed when they are of
+large size but still young and immature, the green
+referring to this immature condition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Size.</i> An idea of the size of the different standard
+breeds of geese can best be secured by giving the
+standard weights. They are as follows:<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Standard weights of various breeds of geese.">
+<tr><th align="left" style="padding-left:1.5em">Breed</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Adult <br />Gander</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Adult <br />Goose</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Young <br />Gander</th><th align="center" colspan="2">Young <br />Goose</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Toulouse</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">lbs.</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Embden</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">African</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">14</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chinese</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wild or Canadian</td><td align="right">12</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Egyptian</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><i>Popularity of the Breeds</i>. Of the different standard
+breeds kept the Toulouse is undoubtedly the
+most popular in this country probably due to its large
+size as well as to its quick growth. The Embden follows
+the Toulouse closely in popularity. The Chinese
+geese are probably third most numerous in numbers
+while the African ranks fourth. In certain sections
+the African seems to be very popular and one would
+expect to find more of this breed than seem to be
+present on farms. Neither the Canadian nor the
+Egyptians are to be found in any great numbers, the
+latter in particular being very rare.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Egg Production</h4>
+
+<p>It must always be remembered in speaking of the
+egg production of any breed of poultry that there
+will be a considerable variation in individuals within
+a breed and that egg production will also be affected
+very largely by the conditions under which
+the birds are kept. For this reason any attempt to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+give an average egg production for a breed is at
+best only an approximation. These approximations
+often serve, however, to show some well established
+contrast between the different breeds with respect
+to their egg laying ability. The Toulouse is a fairly
+prolific breed of geese and individuals should average
+from 12 to 36 eggs, the majority laying about
+20 eggs. The Embden is very similar to the Toulouse
+in laying ability although probably on the
+whole not quite so good a layer. The African is
+generally considered a good layer and is said to
+average from 20 to 40 eggs. Some breeders state
+that the pure African are not as good layers as this,
+being about equal to the Embden and that the better
+laying Africans really have some Brown Chinese
+blood in them which has been introduced to increase
+prolificacy. The Chinese is the most prolific breed.
+The birds of either the White or Brown variety
+should average from 60 to 100 eggs. The eggs laid
+by the Chinese are smaller than those of the Toulouse,
+Embden or African. The Wild or Canadian
+and the Egyptian geese are small layers. They
+rarely lay more than one sitting during a season and
+the eggs will as a rule range from 4 to 8 in number.</p>
+
+<p><i>Size of Goose Eggs.</i> Goose eggs are decidedly
+larger than duck eggs. There is a considerable variation
+in size, depending upon the breed. The eggs
+of the Toulouse, African and Embden are of about
+the same size and will vary from 6½ to 8 ounces each.
+The eggs of the Chinese are smaller and will weigh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+from 5½ to 6 ounces each, while eggs of the Canadian
+and Egyptian are the smallest of the standard
+breeds, running from 5 to 5½ ounces each.</p>
+
+<p><i>Color of Goose Eggs.</i> In general goose eggs are
+whitish in color but may shade to a gray or buff
+tinge. The Wild or Canadian sometimes lay eggs
+which are off the white, showing a considerable
+green tinge.</p>
+
+
+<h4>About Geese and Matings</h4>
+
+<p><i>Broodiness.</i> All of the breeds of geese with the
+exception of the Toulouse may be classed as broody
+breeds, that is to say, they will make their nests and
+hatch their young if given a chance to do so. Not
+infrequently individuals of the Toulouse breed will
+do this also but as a rule they are not dependable
+for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Size of Mating.</i> In making the mating it is usual
+in order to secure best results to use one gander with
+from two to four geese in the Toulouse, Embden and
+African breeds. In fact, better results will be secured
+in these breeds where not over 3 geese are
+used and in many cases the geese are mated in trios
+or even in pairs. In the Chinese geese a somewhat
+larger mating can be employed, one gander being
+used with 4 to 6 geese. The Wild or Canadian and
+the Egyptian geese in most cases pair only.</p>
+
+<p><i>Age of Breeders.</i> Geese can be retained and will
+give good results as breeders for a longer period<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+than most other classes of poultry. While the young
+geese will often lay during their first year the results
+from the eggs produced by them are not as a rule
+very satisfactory. It is sometimes claimed that the
+eggs of young geese will not hatch but this is untrue
+and goslings have been raised from such eggs.
+Canadian and Egyptian geese do not lay until they
+are 3 years old. Females may be kept for breeding
+purposes until they are 8 to 10 years old and should
+give good results during this time. If they continue
+to lay longer than this and are valuable breeding
+individuals they should of course be retained just
+so long as they lay at a profitable rate. Instances
+are reported where geese 15 to 20 years old were
+still giving good results as breeders. As a rule ganders
+cannot be successfully kept for breeding purposes
+as long as can the geese. Yearling ganders
+are often used but they are at their best for breeding
+purposes when from 3 to 5 years old and it is
+not generally wise to retain them after they are 6 or
+7 years old. Egyptian and Canadian ganders will
+not breed before they are 2 years old. In general
+it is good practice to mate young ganders to older
+geese and to mate younger geese with older ganders
+as this seems to get better results both in fertility
+and in hatching.</p>
+
+<p><i>Marking Young Geese.</i> It is often desirable to
+mark young geese in some way so that their breeding
+can be told or so that a record can be kept of
+their age. This can be readily accomplished by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+punching various combinations of holes in the webs
+between the toes at the time the goslings are
+hatched.</p>
+
+<p><i>Considerations in Making the Mating.</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> In making
+the mating in breeding geese it must be kept in
+mind that it is of primary importance to select the
+breeders first of all for size, prolificacy and vitality.
+Without these qualities no matter what else the
+breeding geese may be there is scant chance of satisfactory
+results. Having selected birds which are
+of suitable size and vitality those should then be
+utilized for breeding which approach most nearly
+both in type and color to the requirements as given
+in the American Standard of Perfection. As a rule,
+a new mating can be made by taking the birds selected
+and shutting them up together in a pen away
+from the other birds and out of sound of the voices
+of their former mates. As a rule about a month of
+this treatment will suffice to bring about the new
+matings desired and the birds can then be allowed
+to range at liberty.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> For a more detailed description of the principles of breeding
+as applied to poultry and which is equally applicable to
+geese, the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of
+Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published
+by the Orange Judd Publishing Co., New York, N. Y.</p></div>
+
+<p>Some ganders are very troublesome about mating.
+This is particularly true as they get older. In
+some cases it is impossible to get ganders to mate at
+all while frequently they will refuse to mate with
+more than one goose. As a rule, matings once made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+are permanent from year to year unless changed by
+the breeder on account of poor results. Where new
+matings are to be made or where changes are to be
+made this should be done in the fall so that the birds
+will have been mated for several months before the
+breeding season begins in order to insure good results.
+After the matings are made the geese can be
+allowed to run together in larger flocks but the practice
+is frequently employed of keeping the different
+matings in pens to themselves so as to avoid the
+fighting which will otherwise occur between the
+ganders. During the breeding season the ganders
+are quite savage and will fight fiercely.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Breeds of Geese<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></h4>
+
+<p><i>The Toulouse.</i> This breed is characterized by its
+very low down deep broad massive body. The body
+should come well down in front and should be so
+deep and full behind that it tends to drag on the
+ground when the bird walks. The skin of the rear
+portion of the body should have folds. The appearance
+or type of the Toulouse depends a great deal
+upon the condition of flesh which a bird may be in
+at the time as a fat well fleshed condition will improve
+type very materially. A dewlap, that is to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+say, a pendulous flap of skin on the throat, is desired
+but comparatively few birds show a well developed
+dewlap. It is more likely to appear with age than
+it is in the younger birds. In color the Toulouse
+breeds quite true. The principal difficulty which is
+encountered is the occasional appearance of one,
+two or three white flight feathers in the wing. These
+white flights constitute a disqualification and must
+of course be avoided in the breeding. It is necessary
+also to avoid any birds which lack in size, length,
+breadth or depth of body, particularly depth in
+front. Birds of this breed are of large size and
+make quick growth and for this reason are a fine
+market goose although the dark colored pin feathers
+are somewhat of a drawback from a market point
+of view.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> For a complete and official description and list of disqualifications
+of the standard breeds and varieties of geese, the
+reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published
+by the American Poultry Association, obtainable from
+Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York, N. Y.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>The Embden.</i> This breed is of good size but somewhat
+smaller than the Toulouse. It has not quite so
+long a keel or underline as the Toulouse and while
+deep in body it is not so baggy. There should be no
+dewlap in this breed. The plumage should be pure
+white throughout, the only difficulty of any importance
+occurring here being the occasional appearance
+of slate on the backs of young geese. This,
+however, is not serious as it almost invariably disappears
+with the first moult. Embden geese are
+rapid growers and mature early which together with
+the fact that their plumage is white makes them an
+excellent market bird.</p>
+
+<p><i>The African.</i> In type the African is much the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+same as the Toulouse although not quite as large
+being about the size of the Embden. What is desired
+is a low down body which is flat in keel and
+without any folds of skin. The neck should be short.
+This bird unlike the Toulouse is characterized by a
+knob or protuberance extending out from the head
+at the base of the upper bill. This knob should be
+black in color and should show no tinge of yellow
+on the top or about the base. If the knob gets
+scarred or injured it is apt to turn yellow and freezing
+likewise is apt to cause it to turn yellow. Birds
+of this breed both young and old should show dewlaps,
+the absence of these in adult specimens constituting
+a disqualification. As in the Toulouse avoid
+any white flight feathers. The African makes an
+excellent market goose being like the Embden and
+Toulouse, quick growing and early maturing. The
+ganders are especially in favor for use in crossing
+with other varieties for the production of market
+geese. It seems probable that some Brown Chinese
+blood has been crossed into the Africans on various
+occasions probably for the purpose of increasing
+the prolificacy of the African as the Brown Chinese
+is an excellent layer. It is also true that crosses between
+the Brown Chinese and the Toulouse are
+sometimes shown for Africans but as a rule this
+cross results in too dark a bird and such crosses
+should never be used for breeding purposes since
+they would not continue to give the uniformity and
+other qualities obtained in the first generation.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>The Chinese.</i> The Chinese is quite different in
+type from the three preceding breeds. It is much
+smaller and higher set on legs and has a body much
+more upright in carriage. The neck is long and slender
+and the head has a large knob. An important
+part about the type is to secure a very slender neck,
+another important point being to secure a very large
+knob; the larger this is the better. There is, however,
+a decided tendency for the knob to run small
+when the neck is slender and it is difficult to secure
+in perfection the combination of a very slender neck
+and a large knob. The Chinese geese should be in
+good condition but should not be too fat when shown
+as too good a condition of flesh injures the type
+materially. If fat there is a decided tendency for
+the birds to bag down behind which is undesirable.
+The Chinese geese are the best layers but the egg
+which they lay is smaller. On account of their
+smaller size they do not make as good market geese
+where large sized carcasses are desired but where
+smaller carcasses suitable for family use are in demand
+the Chinese make a satisfactory market breed.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Brown Chinese.</i> In this variety the knob
+should be dark brown or black. As in the African,
+injury or freezing may turn the knob yellow which
+is undesirable. The plumage should be a rich brown
+shade of color, a faded gray color being very undesirable.
+The stripe down the back of the neck should
+be well defined and should be distinctly in contrast<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
+with the rest of the neck color. White feathers in
+the primaries or secondaries must be avoided.</p>
+
+<p><i>The White Chinese.</i> The knob in this variety
+should be orange and any tendency toward yellow
+should be avoided. The plumage should be pure
+white throughout. Occasional young females may
+show slate in the back but this is not serious as it
+almost invariably disappears with the first moult.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Wild or Canadian.</i> Contrary to expectation
+this breed when domesticated is very peaceable and
+very tame. There is often, however, a tendency for
+them to grow uneasy when the migratory season
+comes. To keep the birds from flying away it is
+necessary to clip the flight feathers of one wing or
+what is safer still to pinion the bird. Pinioning consists
+of cutting off the first joint of one wing. This
+may be done when the birds are small or may be
+done at any time and does not seem to bother them
+much. One of the best ways to accomplish this is
+to break the joint and then cut it off by using a
+chisel and hammer. Not much bleeding will result
+but it is well to put a little iodine on the cut. These
+birds breed very true in type and color and progress
+in the mating simply consists of continuing to select
+those birds for breeders which show markings in the
+greatest excellence. In type a Canadian goose is
+quite different from that of the other breeds mentioned.
+It is smaller, set much higher on legs and its
+body is neater and trimmer, and is oblong and carried
+in a horizontal position. The neck is long and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+slender. These birds mate only in pairs as a rule
+and the females do not mature and lay until they
+are three years old. The ganders often breed when
+they are two years old. Usually only a single sitting
+of eggs is laid consisting of from 4 to 8. Usually,
+however, all of these eggs will hatch and the young
+prove to be strong and easily reared.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Egyptian.</i> This is the smallest of the standard
+breeds of geese. In type it more nearly approaches
+the Canadian than any other breed but it
+is somewhat longer in legs, showing more of the
+thigh beneath the body. The body is not carried in
+quite such a horizontal position as the Canadian but
+slopes downward slightly from the breast to the
+tail. The neck is neither so long nor quite so slender
+as that of the Canadian. This breed is the brightest
+colored of any of the geese and breeds fairly true in
+color and markings. Like the Canadian the Egyptian
+goose is likely to become uneasy at times and
+one wing should therefore be pinioned or the flight
+feathers clipped to keep the birds from flying away.
+Like the Canadian the Egyptians mate in pairs only
+and lay but one sitting during the year. The females
+do not lay until they are three years old.</p>
+
+<p>Neither the Egyptian nor the Canadian geese
+should be closely confined or no eggs will be laid.
+The goose should be allowed to make her own nest
+and hatch her eggs.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig50.jpg"><img src="images/fig50_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt=""
+title="Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose. Linked to larger image of figure 50." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 50. Left&mdash;Egyptian Gander. Right&mdash;Sebastapol Goose. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig51.jpg"><img src="images/fig51_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Toulouse and Embden Ganders. Linked to larger image of figure 51." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 51. Left.&mdash;Toulouse Gander. Right&mdash;Embden Gander. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig52.jpg"><img src="images/fig52_tn.jpg" width="400" height="264" alt=""
+title="Canadian and African Ganders. Linked to larger image of figure 52." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 52. Left&mdash;Wild or Canadian Gander. Right&mdash;African Gander. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig53.jpg"><img src="images/fig53_tn.jpg" width="400" height="263" alt=""
+title="Brown and White Chinese Ganders. Linked to larger image of figure 53." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 53. Left&mdash;Brown Chinese Gander. Right&mdash;White Chinese Gander. (<i>Photographs from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h4>Preparing Geese for the Show</h4>
+
+<p>The preparation of geese for the show is comparatively
+a simple matter. It requires first of all that
+individuals shall be selected which approach nearest
+to the standard requirements both in type and
+in color. As to the actual preparation for exhibition
+the geese are practically self-prepared. For a period
+of at least a week or ten days before they are
+shipped to the show they should be given access to
+a grass range and to running water. The grass
+range tends to put them in good condition while the
+running water will give them an opportunity to clean
+themselves. Any broken feathers should be plucked
+at least six weeks before the birds are to be shown
+so as to give them an opportunity to grow in new
+ones.</p>
+
+<p>Since all of the common breeds of geese, with the
+exception of the Chinese, should be shown in a fat
+condition in order to give them their best type they
+should be given a grain mixture twice daily for a
+period of at least ten days before the show in order
+to get them in good flesh and to bring them up to
+standard weight. This ration should consist of one
+part corn and two parts oats. In Chinese geese
+where it is desired to have them in good condition
+of flesh but without showing any tendency toward
+bagginess, oats alone should be fed as they are apt
+to put on too much fat when corn is fed as well.
+When the birds are shipped to the show they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the
+journey. If this occurs fill a barrel about half full
+of water. As the geese are taken from the shipping
+coops place two of them at a time in the barrel,
+cover it over and leave them for a few minutes. Then
+take them out and they will usually be clean.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Catching and Handling Geese</h4>
+
+<p>Never catch geese by the legs which are weak and
+are easily broken or injured. For the same reason
+they should never be carried by the legs. In catching
+geese grasp them by the neck just below the
+head. Often a crooked stick is of value in getting
+hold of the birds by the neck. Geese can be carried
+short distances by the neck without injury but it is
+not advisable to carry them for any considerable
+distance in this manner, particularly if they are fat.
+The best way to handle the geese is to catch them
+by the neck, then place one arm over the shoulders
+and around the bird's body thus holding the wings
+in place while both legs are grasped with the hand.
+The neck should be held with the other hand to
+keep the bird from biting. In releasing the bird in
+a pen or shipping coop do not let go of the neck
+until the bird is placed where it is wanted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<a href="images/fig54.jpg"><img src="images/fig54_tn.jpg" width="400" height="262" alt=""
+title="Methods of handling geese. Linked to larger image of figure 54." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 54&mdash;Proper manner of picking up and carrying geese with the head and neck under the arm.
+(<i>Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+<hr />
+
+<h4>Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs</h4>
+
+<p>Goose eggs for hatching must be shipped when
+they are fresh if they are to be received in good con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>dition
+and are to give good results in hatching.
+They can be shipped long distances either by express
+or by parcel post. In order to prevent breakage
+and to lessen the effects of the jar to which the
+eggs are subjected during shipment they should be
+carefully packed in a market basket or other suitable
+receptacle. The same method of packing the
+eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described
+on page 137.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Prices for Breeding Stock</h4>
+
+<p>While the demand for breeding stock is not so
+broad with geese as it is with some other classes of
+poultry, there does exist a steady and profitable demand
+for this class of fowls. Goose eggs for hatching
+are usually sold in sittings of 5 and the price
+varies somewhat depending upon the variety. As
+a rule, Embden and Toulouse eggs will bring from
+60 cents to $1.20 each. Chinese goose eggs will
+bring from 40 cents to $1 each while the eggs of the
+African goose will bring from $1 to $2 each. Of
+course the price of eggs for hatching like that of
+breeding birds depends on the quality of the stock.
+The prices for the birds themselves for breeding
+purposes will run anywhere from about $8 to $10
+apiece for good birds suitable for breeding on farm
+flocks, to $25 or even $50 each of birds of especially
+fine quality.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI
+<br />
+Management of Breeding Geese</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Range for Breeders.</i> Since grass or other vegetation,
+when plentiful, will furnish practically the entire
+living both for breeding and growing geese, it
+is by all means desirable to have suitable range for
+the breeding stock. Aside from economy of production
+range is desirable from the fact that the breeders
+keep in better condition and better results in
+breeding and fertility are obtained. The range for
+breeding geese should therefore consist of grass
+land or pasture. Often rather low wet land can be
+used for this purpose, particularly if some higher
+land is also available to provide a more favorable
+kind of grass. Often geese can be ranged on the
+same pasture with horses or cattle. Later in the season
+after the harvest, both breeding and growing
+geese can be given the range of the stubble fields to
+good advantage as they will glean most of the shelled
+grain. The entire flock of breeders is generally
+allowed to run together but the flock may be divided
+if desired, or each mating may be kept in a
+colony by itself if the fighting of the ganders proves
+troublesome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Number of Geese to the Acre.</i> The number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+geese which can be kept or run to the acre depends
+of course upon the nature of the land available for
+the purpose. The better the pasture and therefore
+the more green feed available throughout the summer
+and fall, the more geese can be run. In general,
+the practice is to run from 4 to 25 geese to an
+acre; ten is a fair average under normal conditions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water for Breeding Geese.</i> While water to which
+the geese can have access for swimming is not absolutely
+essential for their well being, they like it
+and it is well to provide water if possible especially
+during the breeding season. It not only takes care
+of the problem of supplying drinking water, but in
+the opinion of many goose raisers, increases the fertility
+of the eggs laid. A natural water supply such
+as a stream or pond in the pasture is therefore desirable,
+but if none is available an artificial pond or
+tank can be furnished to good advantage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distinguishing the Sex.</i> It is difficult to distinguish
+the sex of geese. It is, of course, necessary to
+know the sex so as to provide the proper number of
+ganders and so as to know what birds to pen together
+in making a mating. Once the sex of a bird
+is determined it is well for the novice to mark it by
+means of a suitable leg band so that its sex can be
+easily distinguished in the future.</p>
+
+<p>It is more difficult to distinguish the sex of young
+than of old geese. The gander is generally slightly
+larger and coarser than the goose, with a longer,
+thicker neck and larger head. The gander also has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+a shriller cry than the goose whose cry consists of a
+harsher sound. Some goose raisers claim that they
+can distinguish the sex of mature geese by the body
+shape, the underline of the body of the gander from
+the tail to the point where the legs join the body
+being nearly straight, while in the goose this line
+tends to round out with the fuller development
+of the abdomen. This difference is more marked
+during the laying season than at other times. Considerable
+experience is necessary in order to distinguish
+sex by any of the means described and the
+really sure way is by an examination of the sexual
+organs or by observing the actions of the geese when
+mating.</p>
+
+<p>Upon examination the sphincter muscle which
+closes the anus of the female when stretched will
+be found to have a folded appearance. If the gander
+is placed upon his back and pressure applied
+around the anus, the penis will protrude. This test
+is more easily made on a mature than on an immature
+gander and is also easier to make during warm
+than during cold weather.</p>
+
+<p><i>Purchase of Breeding Stock.</i> Geese when mated
+usually stay mated permanently. Matings are not,
+therefore, changed from year to year as a rule so
+long as they continue to give satisfactory results. If
+it becomes necessary to make new matings or to
+break up old matings, this should be done in the fall,
+so that the birds will be thoroughly used to the new
+order of things by the time the breeding season ar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>rives,
+and the results in eggs laid and young stock
+grown will not, therefore, be adversely affected.
+For this reason, any breeding stock purchased
+should be secured in the fall rather than to wait until
+just before the breeding season opens. As a rule,
+also, a better selection of breeding stock to choose
+from is available to the purchaser in the fall.</p>
+
+<p><i>Time of Laying.</i> Geese start laying in the early
+spring and continue to lay throughout the spring.
+With special attention given to the feeding, they
+should begin in the northeastern part of the United
+States about February 1 and should continue to lay
+until about June 1 when geese of the heavier breeds
+such as the Toulouse, African and Embden will generally
+be pretty well through. Some individuals will
+lay later than this and the Chinese geese also have
+a rather longer laying season extending further into
+the summer. The length of the laying season is also
+affected by whether the geese are broken up when
+they become broody or whether they are allowed to
+sit. The latter practice, of course, stops the layings.
+It must be remembered that the Canadian and Egyptian
+as a rule lay only a single small setting of eggs
+during the season.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule geese lay during the night or the forenoon.
+The frequency of laying varies, some geese
+laying every other day while others lay more or less
+often.</p>
+
+<p><i>Housing.</i> Geese withstand the weather very well
+and do not need much in the way of houses or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+shelter except during winter and during severe
+storms. In the North it is the usual practice and
+good practice to provide shelter for the geese, which
+may take the form of a poultry house, or of any shed
+or barn available for the purpose. A shed with
+openings on the south side makes an ideal goose
+shelter or house. Most breeders in the South who
+give their flocks good attention also provide shelter
+for them during the winter although geese are also
+successfully kept in that section without shelter.</p>
+
+<p>The houses provided for the breeders must be
+kept clean and as dry as possible. The best way to
+do this is to bed them liberally with straw, shavings
+or some similar material, especially during the winter.
+As the bedding becomes soiled, more should be
+added and the house should be cleaned out from
+time to time and fresh litter put in.</p>
+
+<p>No equipment for the houses is necessary. The
+geese will lay their eggs in nests which they make
+on the floor and if plenty of clean bedding is provided,
+the eggs will not get badly soiled. Large
+boxes, barrels, or similar shelter provided with an
+abundance of nesting material may be scattered
+about the range to provide places in which the geese
+may make their nests.</p>
+
+<p><i>Yards.</i> Usually no yards are provided for geese
+as they are allowed the range of a pasture or are
+allowed to roam at liberty about the farm. Any ordinary
+woven wire stock fence such as might be used
+to fence a pasture will serve to keep the geese con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>fined
+as well as the other stock. If for any reason
+it is desired to confine geese to a yard, the effort
+should be made to provide yard enough so that the
+geese will have a constant supply of green feed. In
+a small yard this is impossible. A 2½ or 3 foot fence
+is high enough to confine any of the common breeds
+of geese and will also serve for Canadian and Egyptian
+geese if they have been pinioned which should
+always be done.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feeding the Breeding Geese.</i> While the flock of
+geese may be allowed to pick most of their living
+from a good grass range during the summer and fall,
+it is necessary to feed them during the winter. In
+fact during the summer it may be necessary to feed
+them lightly on grain or wet mash if the pasture gets
+short. The quantity of feed necessary for this purpose
+depends upon the condition of the pasture and
+must be judged by the condition of the birds.</p>
+
+<p>During the winter, they must be fed regularly.
+The feed given them should consist of both grain
+and some form of roughage. It is necessary to be
+careful not to overfeed so that the geese will become
+too fat, for while they should be in good condition
+of flesh at the beginning of the breeding season, if
+they are too fat, poor fertility and poor hatches will
+result.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feed.</i> Oats makes the best feed for breeding
+geese as it is not too fattening. Corn, wheat or barley
+fed alone is likely to prove too fattening but a
+limited quantity should be fed for variety. The grain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+should be fed twice a day throughout the winter
+and should be given rather sparingly, depending on
+roughage to make up the bulk of the feed. Vegetables,
+clover or alfalfa hay, chopped corn stover or
+silage make good roughage for this purpose. Corn
+silage is a fine feed if it is not moldy and does not
+contain so much corn as to be too fattening.</p>
+
+<p>About three weeks or a month before it is desired
+to have the geese commence laying, which should
+be at such a time that the first goslings hatched will
+have good grass pasture, a mash should be added to
+the feed to stimulate egg production. This mash is
+generally fed in the morning with the vegetables or
+roughage and may consist of three parts bran or
+shorts, one part corn meal and one-fourth part meat
+scrap. If available buttermilk or skim milk can be
+used to mix the mash and replace the meat scrap.
+Another mash for this purpose consists of corn meal
+one-fourth part, bran two parts, and ground oats one
+part, mixed up with skim milk or buttermilk.</p>
+
+<p>Grit and oyster shell should be kept where the
+geese can help themselves particularly during the
+laying season. Drinking water must be available at
+all times and if a natural supply is not available,
+must be given in drinking fountains or dishes which
+should be so arranged that the geese cannot get
+their feet into the water. When they can get into
+the drinking water, they will quickly get it into a
+filthy condition.</p>
+
+<p>When the geese are running in a field with horses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+or cattle a small enclosure should be fenced in to
+which the geese can gain access by means of suitable
+openings but which will keep the other stock
+out. In this should be placed the drinking fountain
+for the geese and in this enclosure the geese should
+be fed. Otherwise the cattle or horses will get most
+of the feed intended for the geese and in addition,
+some of the geese may be stepped on or kicked and
+injured when the stock crowds around at feeding
+time.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII
+<br />
+Incubation</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Care of Eggs for Hatching.</i> Since egg production
+usually begins early in the spring while the weather
+is still cold, it is necessary to gather the eggs at frequent
+intervals to prevent their freezing or becoming
+chilled. Later in the season daily collection will
+be satisfactory. The eggs as collected should be kept
+in a cool place and where the evaporation of the egg
+contents will not be too great. If set at fairly frequent
+intervals, there will be no difficulty on this
+score. If they are to be kept for some time, they
+may be stored in bran to prevent evaporation. It
+is well to mark the eggs as gathered with the date
+they are laid so as to overcome the possibility of saving
+too long any eggs for hatching.</p>
+
+<p>Some goose raisers think that it is best to wash
+goose eggs before setting them. This belief is based
+on the fact that when a goose makes her own nest
+and has access to water in which to swim she comes
+on the nest with her feathers wet. It is to simulate
+this condition that the eggs are washed. Certainly
+any dirty eggs should be washed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Methods of Incubation.</i> The most usual methods
+of hatching goose eggs are by means of the chicken<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+hen and the goose. Incubators may also be used but
+do not as a rule seem to give as good results as they
+do with hen or duck eggs. Turkey hens may also be
+utilized for this purpose but are not commonly available
+although they make good mothers. Probably
+the most common method of hatching is the use of
+chicken hens. Next common is to allow the goose
+to hatch her own eggs. Goose eggs hatch well under
+hens or geese. During the height of the season
+nearly every fertile egg should hatch if the breeding
+geese are managed and fed so that they are in
+good condition. Early in the season the eggs may
+not run as fertile or hatch as well as later.</p>
+
+<p><i>Period of Incubation.</i> The period of incubation of
+goose eggs is approximately 30 days, but may vary
+from 28 to 33 or occasionally even 35 days.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hatching with Chicken Hens.</i> Chicken hens are
+used very commonly to hatch goose eggs both because
+they give good results and are readily available
+and also because it is desirable to take the first
+eggs laid by the geese away and not to let them get
+broody and sit so that they will lay more eggs. For
+the latter reason practically all the eggs laid early
+in the season are hatched by chicken hens.</p>
+
+<p>The nest can be prepared for the hen either in a
+suitable place in a poultry house or in a shed or
+other building or in a box or barrel on the ground.
+As soon as the hen shows that she is ready to sit by
+staying on the nest, in which has been placed a nest
+egg or two, for a couple of nights in succession, she<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+may be given a sitting of eggs. Four to 6 goose eggs
+will constitute a sitting for a common hen. The hen
+should be confined to the nest being let off only once
+a day for exercise, feed and water.</p>
+
+<p>The sitting hen must be given good care, being
+even more particular in this respect than when she
+is sitting on hens' eggs as the period of incubation is
+longer. In addition to being careful to see that the
+hen comes off her nest for food and water she should
+be dusted 2 or 3 times during the hatch with some
+good insect powder to keep her free from lice and
+therefore contented to stay on the nest. Two or 3
+days before the goslings hatch she should be dusted
+with especial care so that the goslings will be free
+from vermin.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the large size of the eggs the hen
+should not be depended upon to turn them and this
+should be done by hand once or twice daily.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hatching with Geese.</i> All breeds of geese will
+hatch their eggs although some are more persistently
+broody than others while there is a considerable
+difference in individuals in this respect. Toulouse
+and Chinese are perhaps the least broody of
+the breeds and are sometimes termed non-broody.
+The eggs laid by geese are generally gathered as
+laid. If this were not done they will become broody
+and stop laying quicker than they do under this
+treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The goose should be allowed to make her own
+nest. Often she will do this in a barrel, box or other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+shelter if these are conveniently available. When
+she shows that she is broody and has stopped laying
+she should be given a sitting of eggs which will consist
+of 10 or 11. Geese are often difficult to manage
+when they have young.</p>
+
+<p>Wild and Egyptian geese should always be allowed
+to make their own nests which they like to do
+on dry ground near the water, using straw leaves
+or similar material to make the nest. They should
+not be disturbed as they are ugly during this time.
+They will hatch practically every egg.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breaking Up Broody Geese.</i> A goose which shows
+a desire to sit, can be broken up quite easily by confining
+her to a slat-bottomed coop without any feed,
+but with plenty of water to drink, for from 2 to 4
+days. After being broken up she will generally
+commence laying again after an interval of a few
+days.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hatching with an Incubator.</i> While it is more difficult
+to hatch goose eggs in incubators than it is hen
+or duck eggs, this can be done by an experienced operator
+with a fair degree of success. The incubator
+should be operated at a temperature of 101.5 to
+102.5 degrees F., with the thermometer so placed
+that the bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs.
+Beginning with the third day, the eggs should be
+turned twice a day as with hens' eggs. Beginning
+about the tenth day, the eggs should be cooled once
+a day, and they need more cooling than hens' eggs
+require. They should be cooled down to a temper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>ature
+of about 80 to 85 degrees. All goose eggs
+whether in incubators or under hens or geese should
+be tested once during the hatch. The best time to
+do this is sometime between the tenth and fourteenth
+days, when any infertile eggs or dead germs
+should be thrown out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moisture for Hatching Eggs.</i> Where eggs are
+being hatched in an incubator, there is need for the
+use of considerable moisture. It should be added
+first at about the end of the first week of incubation
+and should be repeated a couple of times during the
+second week. This can best be done by sprinkling
+the eggs liberally with water heated to about 100
+degrees. Beginning with the 15th day and until 2
+or 3 days before the eggs are ready to hatch soak
+them in warm water for from one-half a minute to a
+minute once every 2 or 3 days. For the last 2 or 3
+days do this daily.</p>
+
+<p>When the eggs are being hatched by chicken
+hens or geese in nests indoors or in boxes or barrels
+and in dry weather, moisture should be added in the
+same manner and with the same frequency and
+amount as in the incubator. When the nest is on
+damp ground, it is not necessary to use any moisture
+on the eggs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hatching.</i> Goslings as a rule hatch rather slowly
+and somewhat unevenly, especially when under
+hens. For this reason it is well to remove each gosling
+as it hatches from under the hen or goose and
+place it in a covered, cloth-lined box or basket and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
+keep near the stove until the hatch is completed. As
+soon as the hatch is over, the goslings that have been
+removed from the nest can be put back under the
+hen or goose which is to be allowed to assume the
+duties of motherhood.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII
+<br />
+Brooding and Rearing Goslings</h3>
+
+
+<p>When the hatch is completed all the goslings
+which have been removed from the nest should be
+returned; and the hen or goose removed to the coop
+which she is to occupy while brooding them. At
+this time, if hatched with a hen the goslings should
+be examined carefully on the head and neck to see
+whether there are any head lice present. If any are
+found the heads and necks of the goslings must be
+greased with a little lard or vaseline. Not too much
+grease should be used as it may prove harmful to the
+goslings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Methods of Brooding.</i> The most common methods
+of brooding goslings are the use of geese, of chicken
+hens or of artificial means. Geese make the best
+mothers but are not always available especially during
+the early hatches. Geese may also prove rather
+unruly when they have young and for this reason
+are not in favor with some goose raisers. When
+hatching is done simultaneously with geese and hens
+it is the practice of some raisers to give all the goslings
+hatched to the geese to rear.</p>
+
+<p>Hens can be used very successfully for rearing
+goslings especially if they are confined to a coop for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+the first week or two so that they cannot range too
+far and too fast and tire the goslings out. Not over
+6 or 8 goslings should be given to a hen to brood.</p>
+
+<p>Artificial methods are very successful with goslings
+much more so in fact than are artificial methods
+of hatching the eggs. Some goose raisers prefer
+to use artificial means of brooding, especially if they
+have only a few goslings and are brooding at the
+same time some chicks or ducklings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brooding with Hens or Geese.</i> A suitable roomy
+coop should be provided to which the goslings with
+their mother, either hen or goose, can be moved
+when the hatch is completed. The coop should be
+so constructed by means of a slatted front or otherwise,
+that the hen can be confined and the goslings
+allowed to range. It is very desirable to get the goslings
+out on grass as soon as possible. A goose with
+goslings is often allowed to have her liberty but
+many raisers prefer to confine her to a coop the
+same as when a hen is used. The coop should have
+a board floor well bedded with straw, shavings or
+similar material. This will not only help to keep
+the goslings dry but will also serve to protect them
+from their enemies during the night. For this same
+reason the coop should be so constructed that it can
+be closed at night by means of a wire covered door
+so as to shut out marauders, and at the same time
+allow plenty of ventilation. The coop must be
+cleaned often so as to keep the goslings clean and
+dry.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Length of Time Brooding Is Necessary.</i> The time
+that goslings need brooding will, of course, depend
+upon the weather. During mild weather 10 days is
+usually sufficient, after which they can do without
+any brooding. Early in the season, brooding must be
+extended over a longer period. This may mean anywhere
+from 2 to 4 weeks or even longer.</p>
+
+<p><i>Artificial Brooding.</i> For this purpose any brooder
+utilized for chicks or ducks can be used for goslings.
+To start with they should have a temperature of
+about 100 degrees but this can be reduced in a few
+days until in a week or ten days it is only 70 to 80
+degrees or if the weather is mild artificial heat may
+be dispensed with entirely. Where there are only a
+few goslings they may be put with a brood of ducks
+as long as they need heat. It does not work so well
+to put them with chicks both because they do not
+require a high temperature so long as the chicks and
+also because they are so large as to be likely to tread
+on and injure some of the chicks. Brooders should
+be well bedded with straw, shavings or some similar
+material and should be cleaned out every 2 or 3
+days so as to be kept clean and dry. Do not crowd
+the goslings; give them plenty of room.</p>
+
+<p>Some goose raisers do not depend upon heated
+brooders at all, especially when only a few goslings
+are to be brooded. For the first day or two the goslings
+are kept in a covered basket or box in the house
+near a fire and after this are put out during the
+warmth of the day but brought into the house and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+put in the basket or box at night until they are two
+or three weeks old. The same practice should be followed
+with goslings reared in brooders, these being
+used only during the night after the first 2 or 3 days,
+the goslings being put out-doors during the day in
+good weather.</p>
+
+<p>When goslings which are being artificially
+brooded are put out during the day on the grass,
+they should be confined at first. This can be easily
+accomplished by building a triangular enclosure,
+formed of 3 boards, 1 foot wide or wider, placed up
+on edge. This enclosure can be easily shifted to a
+new position each day thus giving the goslings fresh
+ground and fresh grass.</p>
+
+
+<h4>General Care of Growing Goslings</h4>
+
+<p>Goslings should be kept dry and for this reason
+should be kept shut up until the dew is off the grass
+in the morning. For the same reason they should
+not be allowed access to water in which to swim until
+they are at least 3 or 4 weeks old. When allowed
+to swim, care should be taken to see that they can
+get out of the water easily.</p>
+
+<p>Goslings caught in a cold rain will often be overcome
+and apparently dead. Frequently they can
+be revived and saved by wrapping them in a heated
+cloth and placing them near a warm fire. While
+they are still young, goslings should be driven under
+shelter whenever a rain storm comes up.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When allowed to run at liberty, goslings must be
+kept track of to some extent. They may become lost
+and have to be driven back to their shelter at night.
+Or they may fall into holes or get caught in fences
+and corners and must be released. When allowed
+to run with larger stock they are more or less liable
+to injury from being stepped upon or kicked.</p>
+
+<p>A growing coop or shelter of some sort should be
+provided for the growing goslings although this is
+not always done after they are pretty well feathered
+out. Such a coop should be large enough so that
+the goslings are not crowded, and should be well
+ventilated. It should have a board floor and be capable
+of being closed so as to protect the goslings
+from their enemies, but without cutting off ventilation.</p>
+
+<p>If natural shade is not available where the goslings
+range, artificial shade of some sort must be
+provided during the hot weather. Growing goslings
+are quite susceptible to extreme heat and will not
+make as good growth if not provided with shade.
+Artificial shade of boards or brush can be easily
+provided.</p>
+
+<p>If for any reason it is necessary to confine growing
+goslings, they should be provided with good
+grass yards or runs and their coops or shelters
+should be moved to a fresh location frequently.</p>
+
+<p>It is better, if possible, to keep the growing stock
+separate from the old breeding stock as they will do
+better and make more rapid growth under these<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+conditions. Usually, however, where only a few
+geese are reared each year, old and young stock
+are allowed to range together.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feeding the Goslings.</i> Like chicks or ducks, goslings
+do not need to be fed as soon as hatched, the
+yolk of the eggs providing all the nourishment they
+need for at least 36 hours. They should, however,
+be furnished water to drink as soon as the hatch is
+completed.</p>
+
+<p>The first feed should consist of stale bread,
+soaked in milk or water. With this material should
+be mixed boiled eggs chopped up fine. The goslings
+should be fed 3 or preferably 4 times daily until
+they are 2 or 3 weeks old. Chopped grass or some
+other green feed should be added to the feed, the
+quantity fed being increased steadily. It is important
+to get the goslings out on grass as soon as possible,
+which should be after the first 2 or 3 days if
+the weather is good, so that they will be able to
+graze for themselves. Five per cent of fine grit or
+sharp sand should likewise be added to the feed.
+Some growers prefer to feed the grit or sand in a
+hopper to which the goslings have constant access
+and from which they can help themselves. A constant
+supply of fresh drinking water is essential and
+this should be provided in drinking fountains or
+dishes such that the goslings cannot get their feet or
+bodies in them.</p>
+
+<p>When a good grass range is available, the goslings,
+after they are 2 or 3 weeks old, will need only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+one light feed of mash daily in addition to the grass
+they eat. Such a mash will consist of 2 parts shorts
+and 1 part corn meal, ground oats or ground barley.
+Where the pasture is good many goslings are raised
+from the age of 2 or 3 weeks until they are ready
+to be fattened without any other feed than the grass
+and other material which they get for themselves.
+However, the feeding of one light feed of mash a
+day is advantageous as it insures adequate feed for
+their need and promotes quicker growth. After the
+goslings are 6 weeks old, if they are still fed, the
+mash should be changed to equal parts shorts, corn
+meal and ground oats with 5% meat scrap. This
+same mash can be continued until fattening time.
+Whole grains are not generally fed to goslings until
+they are well feathered and often not until it is desired
+to fatten them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Percentage of Goslings Raised.</i> Goslings are for
+the most part quite hardy and are comparatively
+easy to brood. This coupled with the fact that they
+are relatively free from disease and are not much
+troubled with insect pests makes it possible to raise
+a large per cent of the thrifty goslings hatched.
+With good care and with good strong healthy stock,
+it should be possible to raise in the neighborhood of
+90% of the goslings hatched.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rapidity of Growth.</i> Goslings make a very rapid
+growth. When marketed as green geese they are
+usually turned off at from 12 to 16 weeks of age. At
+this age they should weigh from 9 to 12 pounds, de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>pending
+upon the breed and upon the rapidity of
+growth. Many, probably most, young geese are not
+marketed at as early an age as this but are held
+until the Christmas season or later and marketed at
+heavier weight. The best grown Toulouse goslings
+should attain a weight of 16 to 18 pounds by Christmas
+or when 6 to 8 months old. Other breeds will
+weigh proportionately less. Special attention or
+special feeding will, of course, increase the weight
+over that attained without such feeding.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse
+do not get their full growth until they are about 18
+months old. After this as geese of both sexes grow
+older, they will, of course, fill out more and attain
+greater weight.</p>
+
+<p><i>Disease.</i> Goslings are remarkably free from disease
+and a very large percentage of all strong goslings
+hatched should be reared. One of the principal
+difficulties is diarrhoea. This is usually caused by
+faulty feeding. It may be due to feeding too great
+a quantity of soft feed or to giving soft feed in too
+sloppy a condition. Access to stagnant water, unclean
+enclosures or unclean drinking dishes may
+also cause diarrhoea. When partly grown goslings
+which are being given soft feed are troubled with
+diarrhoea, this may sometimes be checked by substituting
+a light feed of corn daily for a part of the
+soft feed.</p>
+
+<p>Goslings are sometimes troubled with lameness.
+This is usually caused by faulty feeding also, partic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>ularly
+by feeding a ration which is lacking in something
+needed, such as some form of animal feed like
+beef scrap which may cause a lack of mineral matter
+in the ration. If the goslings cannot secure it
+for themselves a supply of grit or gravel should be
+placed at their disposal.</p>
+
+<p>There is an infectious disease of geese which
+sometimes causes trouble known as goose septicemia
+or hemorrhagic septicemia. This is a disease similar
+to fowl cholera and may attack either young or mature
+geese. It is not often found on farms where
+the geese are raised in small lots, but sometimes
+proves troublesome on farms where a large number
+of geese are gathered together for fattening. The
+geese are often found dead when one goes to feed
+them without having shown much preliminary sickness.
+The disease is usually fatal. Shortly before
+they die the affected geese may acquire an uncertain
+gait and may twist the head about and burrow it in
+the dirt. Treatment is of no avail. If the disease
+occurs in a flock, the affected birds should be removed
+and killed, while the rest of the flock should
+be moved to new ground if possible. The ground
+which they previously occupied should be plowed
+and any houses, shelter, feed troughs, and drinking
+vessels should be thoroughly disinfected.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV
+<br />
+Fattening and Marketing Geese</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Classes of Geese Marketed.</i> The market geese
+consist principally of the surplus young ganders not
+required for breeding purposes and such of the old
+geese of either sex as it may be considered desirable
+to get rid of. Some young females, when the number
+raised is in excess of the number required for
+breeders also find their way to market. While these
+geese are marketed in the largest numbers during
+the Thanksgiving and Christmas holiday season,
+particularly the latter, some geese of course find
+their way to market practically throughout the year.
+There is also a rather limited trade in "green geese"
+which corresponds to the trade in spring or "green"
+ducklings. Green geese are goslings about 12 to 16
+weeks old, generally of the larger breeds, which are
+forced for rapid growth and are made to weigh in
+the neighborhood of 10 pounds at that age. These
+bring a good price and yield a good profit where
+there is demand for this class of geese.</p>
+
+<p><i>Markets and Prices.</i> As with most classes of poultry,
+the large cities offer the best market for geese.
+Especially the cities which have a large foreign population
+make good markets as many foreigners are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+more in the habit of using geese for a holiday dish
+than are native Americans. The most favorable
+market usually occurs at Christmas when roast
+goose and apple sauce is in considerable favor. Considerable
+numbers of geese are also used at Thanksgiving
+time and in recent years as the price of turkeys
+has steadily increased there has been an increasing
+tendency to substitute goose for turkey on
+that day. Following are prices paid for various
+classes of geese on the New York wholesale market
+from May 1920 to June 1921 as reported by the New
+York Produce Review. Quite a wide variation in
+price will be noted in many cases which reflects the
+difference in condition of the geese as received. In
+the case of express receipts of live geese where a
+wide variation in prices occurs the high quotations
+represent the receipt of especially fattened geese
+from nearby farms.</p>
+
+<h4>Western Geese, Frozen</h4>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">June</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">25 @ 31c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">23 @ 29c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">23 @ 29c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">21 @ 27c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">21</td><td align="right">21 @ 27c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">21 @ 27c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Aug.</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">20 @ 25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Jan.</td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">26 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Feb.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">26 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mar.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Apr.</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h4>Fresh Dressed Geese</h4>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Nov.</td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">34 @ 43c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">30 @ 38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dec.</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">25 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">30 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">30 @ 39c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">30 @ 40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">30 @ 40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Jan.</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">30 @ 37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">25 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">25 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<h4>Fresh Dressed Geese</h4>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Feb.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">25 @ 34c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mar.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">26 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">25 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h4>Live Geese&mdash;Via Freight</h4>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>June</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">20 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">July</td><td align="right">7</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">14</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">28</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Aug</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sept.</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">26c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">26c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oct.</td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">25 @ 28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">27 @ 30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Nov.</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">17</td><td align="right">32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">28 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dec.</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">28 @ 30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">30 @ 34c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">28 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">25 @ 30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">27 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Jan.</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">26 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">26 @ 30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">25 @ 29c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">25 @ 29c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>Feb.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">27 @ 33c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">28 @ 33c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">26 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">25 @ 26c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Mar.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">25c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">18 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Apr.</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">June</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">14 @ 16c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h4>Live Geese&mdash;Via Express</h4>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1920</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Nov.</td><td align="right">24</td><td align="right">30 @ 33c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>Dec.</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">30 @ 32c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">8</td><td align="right">32 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">15</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">22</td><td align="right">30c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">29</td><td align="right">28 @ 35c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+
+<tr><th colspan="4" align="center">1921</th></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left">Jan.</td><td align="right">5</td><td align="right">29 @ 38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">12</td><td align="right">28 @ 38c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">19</td><td align="right">28 @ 36c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">26</td><td align="right">27 @ 37c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Feb.</td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">28 @ 40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">28 @ 42c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">26 @ 28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mar.</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">25 @ 28c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">9</td><td align="right">20 @ 23c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">16</td><td align="right">18 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">23</td><td align="right">18 @ 22c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">30</td><td align="right">20 @ 23c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Apr.</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">17 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">13</td><td align="right">17 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">20</td><td align="right">17 @ 21c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">27</td><td align="right">16 @ 20c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">May</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">11</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">18</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"></td><td align="right">25</td><td align="right">15 @ 18c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Prejudice Against Roast Goose.</i> There exists on
+the part of some persons a prejudice against goose
+on the grounds that it is too greasy a dish. When
+improperly cooked, goose will prove to be too greasy
+to suit many fastidious palates but this condition is
+not so much the fault of the fowl as it is of the method
+of preparation and cooking. When dressed if the
+goose shows a large amount of abdominal fat, as it
+usually does and should, a large part of this should
+be removed. This fat when tried out is highly esteemed
+by many cooks and by other persons is treasured
+as an efficacious treatment for croup in children.
+Also while the goose is roasting, a part of the
+fat as it cooks out of the carcass should be removed.
+Treated in this way one need have no fear that the
+roast goose will prove too greasy but instead one
+will be pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which
+the roast goose possesses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Methods of Fattening Geese for Market.</i> Many
+geese are sent to market without any special treatment
+or effort to fatten them, being taken right off
+pasture in such condition as they happen to be or at
+best with only a half-hearted attempt to fatten them
+by feeding a little corn or some other grain for a
+short period. When a real effort is made to fatten
+geese for the market it is generally done in one of
+three ways. First is pen fattening which is the
+method best adapted to small lots of geese on the
+average farm. Second is by noodling which is only
+attempted in sections where the goose raisers are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+somewhat of specialists and where the effort is made
+to turn out geese of superior quality. Third is fattening
+in large flocks which is practiced only by a
+very limited number of farmers in scattered sections
+who take the unfattened geese raised on the general
+farms and finish them for market.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pen Fattening.</i> For this purpose the geese are put
+in pens large enough to hold them comfortably but
+without any yards. Not over 20 to 25 geese should
+be penned together for this purpose. To get the best
+results the geese should be kept as quiet as possible
+and to accomplish this the pens are partly darkened
+and the geese disturbed only at feeding time. The
+geese are fed three times daily; in the morning, at
+noon and at night, being given all they will clean up.
+One feed should consist of a moist mash composed
+of one part shorts and two parts corn meal. This
+mash should not be sloppy. The other two feeds consist
+mainly of corn with some oats or barley. Some
+roughage such as vegetables or hay should also be
+supplied. The pens should be deeply bedded with
+good oat straw. The geese will eat a considerable
+amount of this which thus helps to supply the roughage
+which they need. The straw also, of course,
+serves to keep the pen and the birds clean. A plentiful
+supply of good drinking water is also necessary.
+The usual period of fattening is three to five weeks
+and a gain of from 4 to 6 pounds per bird can be secured.
+This method of fattening is commonly used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+by goose raisers in Wisconsin and the geese from
+this state are noted for their fine quality.</p>
+
+<p>A less intensive form of pen fattening is often
+used by farmers where a small yard is provided in
+addition to the pen itself and where no effort is
+made to darken the pen. If no other means for fattening
+are available, a small yard can be built, a
+few boards arranged for a shelter at one end and
+the birds fed in this enclosure as described above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Noodling Geese.</i> Noodling geese is a method of
+hand feeding which has for its purpose the production
+of the best fattened geese. It is not employed to
+any extent except in the section about Watertown,
+Wisconsin, where the farmers specialize to some extent
+on goose fattening. It is a method requiring
+long hours and tedious labor and cannot be profitably
+carried on unless a special price can be obtained
+for the product.</p>
+
+<p>In noodling geese, 8 or 10 geese are placed in a
+pen about 8 by 12 feet which is heavily bedded with
+straw. A partition extends halfway across the pen
+and is utilized to keep the geese separate as they
+are fed. Young ganders and any old ganders or
+geese which are to be marketed are used for noodling.</p>
+
+<p>The pen is kept dark and the geese should be disturbed
+only at feeding time. The first feed is given
+at 5 o'clock in the morning and five feeds are given
+daily at about 4 hour intervals, the last feed coming
+at 11 p. m. However, when the geese are first put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+on feed they are noodled only 3 times a day this
+being gradually increased to 5 times. The feeder
+sits on a box or stool in a corner of the pen, grasps
+each goose in turn holding it between his legs to
+keep it from struggling as he stuffs it with noodles.
+The goose is handled by its neck, never by its legs
+which are easily injured, and is held with its back
+toward the feeder. The feeder usually wears gloves
+to protect his hands from the severe bites which the
+birds will inflict. The feeder must also handle the
+birds as carefully as possible, especially as killing
+time approaches for the flesh bruises easily and the
+discolored patches spoil the appearance of the
+dressed goose.</p>
+
+<p>The feeder at the start usually gives each goose
+from 3 to 5 noodles, gradually increasing this to 6
+or 7 noodles if the birds will stand it, the number of
+noodles fed depending upon the size and condition
+of each bird, the feeder being obliged to use his
+judgment in this matter. In general if any feed can
+be felt in the craw, no noodles are given until the
+next feeding time. Failure to observe this is likely
+to cause the bird to go off feed. If any geese are
+noticed which are off feed they should be taken out
+and marketed.</p>
+
+<p>The noodles are made of scalded corn meal,
+ground oats, ground barley and ground wheat or
+wheat flour, using equal parts of each. This material
+is thoroughly mixed and salted as one would
+bread and is then put through a sausage stuffer. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+product as it comes from the stuffer is cut into
+noodles about 2½ or 3 inches long and these are
+boiled for 10 or 15 minutes or until they float. A
+wash boiler with a wire rack forming a false bottom
+about 1½ inches above the boiler bottom is used for
+this purpose. When cooked the noodles are dipped
+in cold water and then rolled in flour to keep them
+from sticking together. A supply of noodles is made
+which will last for 2 or 3 days' feeding.</p>
+
+<p>Just before feeding, hot water is poured over the
+noodles to make them warm and slippery. The
+mouth of the goose is forced open and the noodles
+are put in, one at a time, and worked down by using
+the fingers on the outside of the neck. As each
+goose is fed it is placed on the other side of the partition
+until all in the pen have been fed. It is important
+that plenty of drinking water be kept before
+the geese.</p>
+
+<p>The feeding period where geese are noodled usually
+extends from 3 to 4 weeks. Gains of 6 to 10
+pounds per bird can be secured and often an increased
+price of 10 to 15 cents a pound can be secured
+for such specially fattened geese. Noodled
+geese will average about 25 pounds and some individuals
+have been made to weigh nearly 40 pounds.
+One man can noodle from 50 to 100 geese but has to
+put in long hours. Noodled geese should be dressed
+where fattened as they are soft fleshed and would
+shrink badly if shipped alive.</p>
+
+<p>Fattening methods similar to the noodling de<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>scribed
+are used in parts of Europe for the production
+of the enlarged goose livers which are employed
+in making "patte de fois gras".</p>
+
+
+<h4>Methods Used on Fattening Farms</h4>
+
+<p>As previously mentioned, a few farmers make a
+specialty of buying the geese in their section of the
+country in the fall when it is too late for serious
+trouble to develop from hemorrhagic septicemia, a
+disease similar to fowl cholera, and to fatten or finish
+them in large flocks for the Thanksgiving and
+Christmas markets. Methods are employed in different
+sections which differ quite widely.</p>
+
+<p>On a farm in the Middle West the geese are collected
+from the general farms where they are produced
+in small flocks and brought to the farm where
+they are kept in flocks as large as 1,000 or even
+more, and are allowed to run in a cornfield or orchard.
+They are fattened for about a month. Corn
+on the cob and plenty of water is kept before the
+geese all the time and if they are running in a cornfield
+they eat the leaves off the corn stalks for roughage.
+Roughage is supplied if not available otherwise
+and straw, hay or vegetables are utilized for
+this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>No shelter is provided during mild weather, the
+geese getting such protection as they can from the
+trees or corn stalks. If the weather turns unusually
+severe, the geese are generally driven into sheds or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+barns. When fattened the geese are usually shipped
+to some large market alive. Several farms in the
+neighborhood of Boston make a specialty of finishing
+geese each fall, and the methods used are quite
+different from those described above. No geese are
+raised on these farms, the operation being confined
+to the fattening or finishing of the geese and to killing
+and dressing them for the market. Some of
+these goose fatteners also have stalls or stands in
+the Boston markets where they are enabled to dispose
+of their fattened geese to the best advantage.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<a href="images/fig55.jpg"><img src="images/fig55_tn.jpg" width="350" height="229" alt=""
+title="Geese fattening in an orchard. Linked to larger image of figure 55." /></a>
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 55. Large flock of geese fattening in an orchard. (<i>Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture.</i>)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Fatteners.</i> In previous years these fatteners depended
+largely upon the geese produced on the
+Rhode Island farms for their supply. In the past few
+years, however, the supply from this source has
+dwindled greatly and the bulk of the geese for fattening
+are now shipped from Prince Edward Island,
+Canada, in carload lots. Such summer geese as are
+now fattened still come from Rhode Island and are
+brought in by truck. The fattening season begins in
+September and lasts until Christmas. Some early
+goslings are bought in June but there is not as good
+a profit from the summer geese, the demand and
+prices being adversely affected by the supply of
+spring ducklings available at that time.</p>
+
+<p>Experience and good judgment will benefit the
+goose fattener greatly when purchasing his supply
+of geese for fattening. What he wants are goslings,
+not older geese, which have made a good growth
+and which have a large frame but which are in poor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+flesh rather than fat. Such geese will make more
+rapid and more profitable gains. When geese are
+bought for shipment by the carload from Prince
+Edward Island, they should be penned and fed at
+the point of shipment for 3 or 4 days before they
+are loaded in the cars, so as to put them in shape
+to stand the journey well. On the farms from which
+they come, the goslings are not fed much and in consequence
+are not in shape to stand shipment.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Goslings</i> which are secured from the farms
+for fattening are mainly common geese of no particular
+breed. Some pure bred geese are also obtained
+as are some first crosses between the pure breeds.
+A class of geese which is obtained in some numbers
+from Prince Edward Island and which is much desired
+is the so-called "Mongrel" goose. These are
+obtained by breeding a Wild or Canadian gander to
+geese of dark plumage similar to the Toulouse or
+African. The mongrel geese much resemble the
+wild gander in type and color and are in demand on
+the market because of their wild or gamy flavor.
+They bring about 10 cents per pound more than
+common geese. The market, however, is somewhat
+limited. These geese will not breed although the
+females will lay eggs. Where the wild gander is
+mated with light colored or white geese the offspring
+will have more or less light colored feathers
+and will not as closely resemble the wild parent and
+for this reason are not as desirable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shipping.</i> The geese are loaded into stock cars<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
+into which three separate decks are built to accommodate
+them. From 1200 to 1400 geese can be
+loaded into a car thus arranged. The journey usually
+takes about 5 or 6 days and some fatteners send
+a man along with the car to feed and water the
+geese 2 or 3 times during the trip. If a man does
+not accompany the car, buckets of corn should be
+placed in the car for feed and some potatoes should
+also be supplied as these will serve in place of drinking
+water. If the car is not subjected to unusual delay,
+the geese should come through in good shape,
+but if much delayed there may be 25 to 100 geese
+dead when the car arrives at its destination.</p>
+
+<p>When the car arrives at the end of its journey,
+the geese are unloaded and driven to the farm where
+they are turned into the fields together in a large
+flock. The fields in which they are thus kept should
+have a supply of growing green feed or grass and a
+good supply of fresh drinking water. They are kept
+here until they are wanted for the fattening pens
+which may be from a week to 20 days after their
+arrival at the farm. While in this large supply flock
+they are fed on corn and grass which they can get
+for themselves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Summer Geese</i> to be fattened are placed only
+about 50 in a pen or enclosure; and are provided
+with a few boards set on posts to protect them from
+the hot sun. The later geese are fattened in lots of
+3 or 4 hundred or even more, depending upon how
+many pickers are available to be kept busy. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+for this reason also that the geese are not all put
+on the fattening ration at the same time, but are
+started at intervals so as to have a continuous supply
+coming along to keep the pickers busy. The geese
+not put in the fattening lots at the start are left in
+the fields to grow and develop until they are needed.</p>
+
+<p>The enclosures in which the geese are penned for
+fattening are small lots or fields enclosed by stone
+walls or board fences 2½ to 3 feet high. These lots
+should be dry and well-drained, a location on a side
+hill being good for this purpose. The fattening lots
+must be kept clean and stagnant water must not be
+allowed to stand in the lots as this is likely to cause
+sickness, especially diarrhoea. These yards should
+be plowed up each spring and planted to oats, corn
+or some other growing crop to sweeten them. No
+houses or shelters are provided for these geese but
+some yards are somewhat wooded which affords a
+measure of protection from the wind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feeding.</i> When the geese are placed in the fattening
+lots, some fatteners prefer to fast the geese
+for from 3 to 5 days, giving them no feed but plenty
+of water to drink. This gives them a good appetite
+and puts them in good shape for fattening.</p>
+
+<p>The geese are fed three times a day, in the morning,
+at noon and at night. The morning and night
+feed usually consists of a moist mixed feed fed in
+troughs; while the noon feed is whole corn thrown on
+the ground. The use of one feed of corn a day is supposed
+to check any tendency toward diarrhoea. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+very cold weather some fatteners feed the mixed
+feed at noon and the corn at night. At first the
+geese are not given all they will eat but are worked
+up gradually, increasing the amount each day until
+they are getting all they want. As a rule the geese
+will drop back a little in feed consumption after they
+reach the point where they get all they want and
+from this time on, the feeding must be very carefully
+watched to see that they are not given so much
+that they will leave some to sour which would cause
+diarrhoea. The morning and noon feeds are lighter,
+the heaviest feed being given at night. The bird's
+appetites will vary from day to day so that it is best
+to make the rounds twice in feeding to make sure
+that they have enough and that none is left. If any
+is left it must be gathered up and carried away.</p>
+
+<p>No provision is made for furnishing the fattening
+geese with green feed or roughage. The practice
+with respect to drinking water varies. Some fatteners
+keep a supply before the birds in troughs
+which must be washed out each day to keep them
+clean. Others furnish no water except that used in
+mixing up the feed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corn Meal</i> is the principal ingredient of the fattening
+mixture. To a sack of corn meal is added
+10% beef scrap and five good shovels of grit or medium
+sized gravel. In addition some fatteners
+add 10% of flour to bind the mixture together. This
+material should be thoroughly mixed up in a dry
+state as a better mix can be obtained in this way.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+It is then mixed up with water, the practice here
+varying. Some fatteners mix in a trough with boiling
+water a short time before feeding, while others
+mix it with cold water letting it soak over night and
+adding more water in the morning if it is too dry at
+that time. It should be mixed until it can be shoveled
+readily but should be quite solid, never in a sloppy
+condition as this is likely to cause diarrhoea. A
+little salt may be added, if desired, as an appetizer.
+While corn meal is generally used, hominy may take
+its place. After the geese are started on the fattening
+ration, this must be given throughout the fattening
+period. Changing to some other feed will throw
+the geese off feed and cause a loss.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feeding.</i> When the mixed feed is ready it is
+shoveled into boxes or barrels on a low wagon and
+driven to the fattening lots where it is shoveled into
+the troughs for the geese. Ordinary V-shaped
+troughs are favored instead of flat troughs as the
+latter afford hiding places for rats which may cause
+damage in addition to the feed which they eat by
+frightening the geese.</p>
+
+<p>Geese are easily frightened and must therefore
+be handled rather carefully and gently as a severe
+fright will interfere with the gains they will make.
+Some fatteners provide electric lights where the
+geese rest at night so that they can see and will not
+be so likely to become frightened.</p>
+
+<p>When the geese are ready to be killed they are
+driven up to the killing house and into a pen where<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
+they may be easily caught. Each goose as caught is
+examined to see whether it is in condition for killing.
+If it is not it is put back with a later lot for additional
+fattening. Good condition in a goose is
+judged by its weight when handled and also by the
+condition of its breast and the fat on its back. A
+good place to test geese for fat is on the side of the
+body just below the point where the wing joins the
+body. If fat can be seized between the thumb and
+finger at that point, the goose is in good condition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dry Picking.</i> All fattened geese for the Boston
+market are dry picked. The goose is held between
+the knees of the picker with the wings held fast
+against the sides of the body. The head is grasped
+by the left hand, the mouth forced open and the
+veins in the back of the throat just beyond the skull
+severed with a sharp knife for the purpose of bleeding
+the bird. If the bird is to be stuck, which is not
+always done, the point of the knife is then plunged
+through the roof of the mouth to the brain. The
+legs are then seized in the left hand, together with
+the ends of the wings to prevent the goose from
+struggling and the goose is struck once or twice
+sharply on the back of the head with a club held in
+the right hand. This is for the purpose of stunning
+the bird. The geese may also be bled by sticking
+the knife through the neck from the outside just below
+the head.</p>
+
+<p>The picker then takes his seat beside the feather
+box, holding the goose on his lap with the head held<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+between his knee and the outside of the box. He
+proceeds to pluck the feathers as rapidly as possible,
+removing all the feathers except the main wing
+feathers or those of the first joint of the wing and
+the feathers of the neck half way from the head to
+the body. All the soft body feathers are thrown in
+the box and saved. The coarser feathers are thrown
+on the floor. The down is removed by rubbing the
+moistened hand over the skin. To save the hands,
+ordinary rubber heels dipped in water are often
+used. Sharp knives are also used to shave off the
+pin feathers which cannot be plucked and any down
+not removed by rubbing.</p>
+
+<p>The dry picked goose presents a much better appearance
+than a scalded goose and the feathers are
+more valuable. The skin of a dry picked bird is
+not so likely to be rubbed off in removing the down.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Value of the Feathers</i> is sufficient to pay for
+the cost of the picking or perhaps a little more. The
+cost of picking in the fall of 1920 ranged from 15 to
+20 cents per goose where the picker was boarded
+and 24 cents without board. A good man can pick
+about 40 geese in a day. Women are not employed
+for this work as the geese are too big and too strong
+for them to handle.</p>
+
+<p>After the geese are picked, the blood is washed
+from the head and the feet washed if that is necessary.
+They are then thrown into barrels of cold
+water to cool and must be left there until the body
+heat is entirely removed. The wings are tied in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+place by means of a string or tape tied around the
+body and wings and the legs may also be crossed
+over the back and tied. The geese when ready for
+market are either shipped in by express or are
+taken in by automobile truck.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gain in Weight.</i> In fattening according to the
+methods described above a gain in weight is secured
+of from 6 to 8 pounds per goose. This does not represent
+the total gain in value, however, for the fattened
+geese will bring more per pound as a result of
+their finished condition. The fattened geese when
+ready for market will weigh from 12 to 20 pounds.
+Weights taken on two carloads of fattened geese
+showed an average weight of 14 pounds. On December
+2, 1920, fattened geese from these farms
+were bringing 42 cents per pound on the Boston
+market while the mongrel geese were worth 50 cents
+or a little better.</p>
+
+<p>The question may arise as to the size of farm
+necessary to carry on a business of this sort. Using
+the methods employed about Boston a farm of 30
+acres would be sufficient to handle 20,000 geese in
+a season. In selecting a farm for such a purpose, a
+location should be chosen where there are no close
+neighbors as the odor from the geese and yards is
+offensive to most persons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Selling Geese Alive.</i> Most farmers who raise only
+a few geese ship them alive, either sending them to
+some commission house or selling them to someone
+who makes a specialty of fattening. Such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+geese are often in poor condition and bring the lowest
+quotation. Large coops similar to those used
+for turkeys should be used in shipping geese.</p>
+
+<p><i>Killing.</i> Where geese are killed on the farm for
+shipment to market they are usually hung up by
+means of a cord about the legs. When geese are to
+be dry picked the veins in the throat just beyond
+the skull are first severed with a long bladed knife
+such as used for killing turkeys to cause good bleeding
+and the point of the knife is then plunged
+through the roof of the mouth to the brain performing
+the stick which serves to make the feathers come
+out more easily as with other classes of poultry.
+Since it is rather difficult to dry pick geese, they are
+usually scalded or steamed and where this is done,
+the stick is not made but after the veins in the throat
+are cut, the goose is stunned by a blow on the back
+of the head with a short club. A blood can or weight
+is then hooked through the lower bill which keeps
+the neck straightened out and prevents the blood
+from being thrown about the room or on the birds.
+The birds are allowed to hang until they are dead
+and thoroughly bled out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Picking.</i> When geese are dry picked, the feathers
+are removed just as soon as the birds are stuck for
+the longer the delay the harder the feathers pull.
+The wings are picked to the first joint and the feathers
+of the neck half-way to the head. The soft pin
+feathers and fine down may be removed by shaving<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+the skin or rubbing the body with moistened hands
+will partially remove them.</p>
+
+<p>Usually geese are scalded or steamed for picking.
+For steaming a wash boiler three-quarters full of
+boiling water and with a burlap sack tightly
+stretched over its top can be used. The goose is
+simply laid on the sack and the steam coming
+through the burlap steams the feathers and makes
+them easy to remove. The breast should be steamed
+first, then the back and then each side. Two or three
+minutes will be time enough to complete the steaming.
+The feathers are steamed until they pull out
+easily. The goose must be kept moving to prevent
+the flesh from becoming scalded and since the breast
+is especially tender it is usual to lay the head under
+the breast to prevent the latter from scalding. After
+steaming the body feathers are removed and the
+bird is then singed over a flame furnished by alcohol
+burned in shallow tin plates, in order to remove the
+down. The down may also be removed by sprinkling
+powdered rosin over the goose's body which is
+then dipped into hot water. The hot water melts
+the rosin which sticks to the down and the down and
+rosin can then be rubbed off together.</p>
+
+<p>Geese may also be steamed by scalding slightly in
+hot water and then wrapping tightly in burlap or
+some other cloth. They are kept wrapped for about
+five minutes which allows the steam to work thoroughly
+through the feathers which can then be
+plucked easily.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Exactly the same methods can and often are employed
+in dressing geese as are used with ducks.
+The reader is therefore also referred to the material
+in <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">Chapter VII</a>.</p>
+
+<p>There seems to be no great insistence on the part
+of most markets for dry picked geese. Some will
+pay slightly more for the dry picked birds but others
+make no difference.</p>
+
+<p><i>Packing for Shipment.</i> After picking, the geese
+are washed and then placed in cold water to cool.
+Ice water is best for this purpose and is essential in
+warm weather. The carcasses must be allowed to
+remain in the water until they are thoroughly
+cooled, which will take at least one to two hours. If
+any animal heat is left in the bodies, they will spoil
+very quickly. Often the carcasses are dipped in hot
+water, before being thrown in the cold water, to
+plump them. After they are thoroughly cooled, the
+geese are packed in barrels for shipping. If the
+weather is cool they may be packed in well ventilated
+barrels without ice, but if the weather is warm,
+cracked ice must be used in packing, proceeding in
+the same way as when packing ducks as described
+on page 109. It is always risky to pack without ice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saving the Feathers.</i> Goose feathers are valuable
+and should therefore be saved when the geese
+are plucked. The soft body feathers and the coarser
+feathers should be kept separate. The feathers
+should be cured by spreading them out in a thin layer
+on the floor of a loft or room, stirring them up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+occasionally until they are thoroughly dried out,
+when they can be sacked and sold. Failure to dry
+the feathers thoroughly will result in their heating
+and molding with the result that they will arrive
+at their destination in bad shape and will be worth
+less money. The soft body feathers of geese are
+practically all used in making beds and pillows
+while the quills are sometimes utilized in making
+toothpicks and cigarette holders. Prices for goose
+feathers in June 1921 were as follows:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Prices for kinds of goose feathers.">
+<tr><td align="left">Pure White</td><td align="center">dry picked</td><td align="right">75c</td><td align="center">per lb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Good average white</td><td align="center">" "</td><td align="right">65c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Largely gray</td><td align="center">" "</td><td align="right">55c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Largely gray</td><td align="center">scalded</td><td align="right">40c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Long goose quills</td><td align="center">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">5c</td><td align="center">" "</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>These prices were for good dry feathers.</p>
+
+
+<p>Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers</p>
+
+<p>In the days of feather beds and home-made pillows
+the practice of plucking live geese for their
+feathers was very common. Now, however, with
+the demand for goose feathers less and with the
+opinion of some breeders that plucking geese is both
+cruel and injurious, the practice seems to be decreasing.
+Many goose raisers in the South and a
+less number in the Middle West and North however
+still pluck the feathers from the live geese prior to
+the time of moulting. The frequency with which
+the picking is done varies greatly, some picking as
+often as every six weeks during the spring, summer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+and early fall while others pick twice, once in the
+spring and once in the fall, or once in the spring
+only. Geese should never be picked during the late
+fall or winter when the weather is cold or during
+the breeding season. Both young and old geese are
+plucked and the average yearly production of
+feathers per goose is about one pound. When the
+quills of the feathers are dry and do not contain any
+blood, the feathers are ripe for picking. In plucking,
+a stocking is placed over the head of the goose
+and the goose held on the lap and between the legs
+during the process.</p>
+
+<p>An assistant to hold the goose during the plucking
+simplifies the work greatly. In plucking, part
+of the soft feathers of the breast, sides, abdomen
+and back are taken but these sections should not be
+plucked clean. It is especially important that
+enough short feathers be left to support the wings.</p>
+
+<p>After plucking, the feathers must be cured before
+they are shipped. This may be done by spreading
+them out on a floor as described for the feathers
+taken from slaughtered geese or they may be placed
+loosely in burlap sacks and hung up in a garret or
+loft. Hanging in this way and in the loosely woven
+sacks, they are subjected to a good circulation of air
+and will dry out without heating. Sacks of feathers
+should not be piled or packed closely together, on
+top of one another or even be allowed to lie on the
+floor until they are thoroughly dry as otherwise they
+are almost sure to heat and mold.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="long" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h3>
+
+
+
+<ul>
+<li class="indent">A</li>
+
+<li>Absence of crest in Crested White Duck, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>African Goose, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,  <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+
+<li>Age of<ul class="nest">
+  <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,  <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+  <li>breeding geese, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>duck eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+  <li>ducklings for market, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>green geese, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+  <li>Muscovy duck, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Amount of feed<ul class="nest">
+  <li>per pound of market duck, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
+  <li>for noodled geese, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Amount of land<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for duck plant, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>for goose fattening farm, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Arrangement of cars for shipping live geese, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Arrangement of duck plant, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li>Artificial water yards for ducks, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li>Aylesbury duck, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<ul>
+<li class="indent">B</li>
+
+<li>Baby ducks, selling, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+
+<li>Bantam ducks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li>Bean,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>definition of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>black in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Bedding<ul class="nest">
+  <li>brood coop for goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+  <li>duck breeding houses, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+  <li>duck brooder houses, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  <li>goose breeding houses, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>pens for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Beef scrap, feeding, to ducks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Bib in<ul class="nest">
+  <li>Blue Swedish ducks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Bill,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>definition of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>black in, of Black East India, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Black East India duck, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li>Black in bean of<ul class="nest">
+  <li>Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>Crested White Duck, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>Pekin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Black bill in Black East India drakes, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li>Black<ul class="nest">
+  <li>head, greenish, in Buff drakes, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>head, in Fawn and White Runners, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+  <li>in face of Muscovy,  <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>plumage of Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>on head of young White Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>tail coverts, greenish, in Fawn and White Runners, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Bleeding<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Blue<ul class="nest">
+  <li>cast in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>Swedish ducks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>wing bar in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Body shape in breeding ducks, selecting for, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+</li>
+<li>Braining geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>
+</li>
+<li>Breaking up<ul class="nest">
+  <li>goose matings, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+  <li>broody geese, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Breast-bone as index of age in ducks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>
+</li>
+<li>Breeding<ul class="nest">
+  <li>drakes, securing, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>ducks, opportunity to produce, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+  <li>ducks, prices for, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li>season for ducks, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><ul class="nest">
+  <li>Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>broodiness of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>Buff, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>Call, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  <li>Cayuga, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li>common or puddle, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>Crested White, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li>East India, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>egg, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>egg production of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+  <li>Mallard, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Mandarin, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>meat, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>mule, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>Muscovy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>ornamental, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>Pekin, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+  <li>popularity of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>Rouen, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>Runner, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>size of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>Wood, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Breeds of geese, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><ul class="nest">
+  <li>African, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>Canadian, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>Chinese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>common, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+  <li>Egyptian, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+  <li>Embden, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>mongrel, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+  <li>Sebastapol, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+  <li>Toulouse, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>Wild, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Brood coop for goslings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>
+</li>
+<li>Brooder<ul class="nest">
+  <li>capacity on duck plants, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>houses for ducklings, <a href="#Page_80">80-90</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Brooders for goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>
+</li>
+<li>Broodiness of<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>geese, breaking up, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Brooding<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducklings, <a href="#Page_80">80-90</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+  <li>goslings, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><ul class="nest2">
+    <li>by artificial means, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+    <li>with geese, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+    <li>with hens, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+    <li>without artificial heat, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li></ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Brown Chinese goose, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>
+</li>
+<li>Brownish color in Cayuga ducks, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>
+</li>
+<li>Buff Ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>
+</li>
+<li>Button head in Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>
+</li>
+<li>Buying geese for fattening, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li class="indent">C
+</li>
+<li>Call ducks, 27
+</li>
+<li>Canadian goose&mdash;see Wild
+</li>
+<li>Capacity of<ul class="nest">
+  <li>car for geese, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>farm for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>incubator for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Capital,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>invested, for duck plant, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li>working, for duck plant, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Care of<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>goose eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  <li>growing goslings, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+  <li>hen sitting on goose eggs, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Carrying<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Caruncles on face of Muscovy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>
+</li>
+<li>Cases, shipping, for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>
+</li>
+<li>Catching<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Cayuga duck, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>
+</li>
+<li>Celery seed, feeding, to fattening ducks, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>
+</li>
+<li>Changing feed for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>
+</li>
+<li>Chestnut colored head in Buff drakes, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>
+</li>
+<li>Chilling of goslings by rain, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>
+</li>
+<li>Chinese goose, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>
+</li>
+<li>Chocolate colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>
+</li>
+<li>Claret in breast of Rouen drakes, deficiency of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>
+</li>
+<li>Classification of breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>
+</li>
+<li>Cleaning<ul class="nest">
+  <li>brood coops for goslings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li>duck<ul class="nest2">
+    <li>breeding houses, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+    <li>brooder houses, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+    <li>yards, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></li></ul></li>
+  <li>goose breeding houses, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Cleanliness of plumage as indication of health, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+</li>
+<li>Color of<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck eggs, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li>goose eggs, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Colored flights in<ul class="nest">
+  <li>Fawn and White Runners, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+  <li>Penciled Runners, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Colored Muscovy, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>
+</li>
+<li>Commercial duck farming,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>opportunity for, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+  <li>distribution of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Condition of<ul class="nest">
+  <li>breeding geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>ducks ready to kill, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+  <li>geese for fattening, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+  <li>geese ready to kill, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Conditioning exhibition ducks, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>
+</li>
+<li>Conditions for duck raising on the farm, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>
+</li>
+<li>Confining goslings to yards, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>
+</li>
+<li>Considerations, general, in making<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck matings,<a href="#Page_18"> 18-21</a></li>
+  <li>goose matings, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Consistency of feed for<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Construction of brooder houses for ducks, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>
+</li>
+<li>Cooking geese to overcome greasiness, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>
+</li>
+<li>Cooling duck<ul class="nest">
+  <li>carcasses, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Cooling goose<ul class="nest">
+  <li>carcasses, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+  <li>eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Coop, growing, for goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>
+</li>
+<li>Cooperative<ul class="nest">
+  <li>feed buying, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+  <li>marketing, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Copper colored head of Buff drakes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>
+</li>
+<li>Cost of picking<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Creaminess in plumage of<ul class="nest">
+  <li>Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>Pekin, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Crest,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>tendency toward, in the Pekin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+  <li>of Muscovy, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>of Crested White, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Crested White duck, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>
+</li>
+<li>Crippled ducks, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>
+</li>
+<li>Critical period with young ducks, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>
+</li>
+<li>Crooked back<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Crooked crest in Crested White, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>
+</li>
+<li>Crooked tail in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+</li>
+<li>Crossed feathers on neck of Pekin drake, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>
+</li>
+<li>Crossing African and Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>
+</li>
+<li>Curing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck feathers, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>goose feathers, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+<ul>
+<li class="indent">D</li>
+
+<li>Darkening pens<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>for noodling geese, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Dewlap in<ul class="nest">
+  <li>Toulouse geese, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+  <li>African geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Diarrhoea<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  <li>of goslings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Diseases<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of ducklings, <a href="#Page_98">98-100</a></li>
+  <li>of goslings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li>of mature ducks, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>prevention of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Dished bill in Rouen, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>Distinguishing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>sex<ul class="nest2">
+    <li>in ducks, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+    <li>in geese, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+</ul></li>  <li>young from old ducks, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Distribution of duck raising, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li>Dogs a source of loss in ducks, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li>Double crest in Crested White ducks, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Down, removing,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>from market ducks, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+  <li>from market geese, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Drake,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>definition of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>adult, meaning of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>young, meaning of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Drakerel, definition of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li>Drinking dishes<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Driving geese from railway to farm, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Drowning ducks, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+
+<li>Dry, keeping goslings, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+
+<li>Dry land duck farms, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li>Dry picking<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Duck,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>definition of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>adult, meaning of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>young, meaning of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Duck raising<ul class="nest">
+  <li>as a side line, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+  <li>distribution of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li>for egg production, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>for ornamental purposes, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li>kinds of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+  <li>on the general farm, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>opportunities for, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Ducklet, definition of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li>Duckling, meaning of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li>Ducks,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>number of,<ul class="nest2">
+    <li>in leading states, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+    <li>in U. S., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+</ul></li>  <li>value of, in U. S., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Dun colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li class="indent">E</li>
+
+<li>Egg class of ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Egg production,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck raising for, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>of breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+  <li>of breeds of geese, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+  <li>of Pekins on commercial plants, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+  <li>selection of breeders for, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Eggs, duck,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>color of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+    <li>for hatching,<ul class="nest2">
+    <li>age of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+    <li>care of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, 128</li>
+    <li>frequency of setting, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+    <li>packing and shipping, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+    <li>prices of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+    <li>selection of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+    <li>washing, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li></ul></li>
+  <li>marketing, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>size of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Eggs, goose,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>care of, for hatching, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  <li>color of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>size of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>washing for hatching, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Egyptian goose, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li>
+
+<li>Electric lights<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+  <li>for duck plants, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+  <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Embden goose, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+
+<li>Equipment of pens in duck brooders, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li>Examining<ul class="nest">
+  <li>geese to determine sex, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>fattened geese for market condition, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Extent of<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck industry, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li>goose industry, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Eye as indication of health in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">F</li>
+
+<li>Faded gray in Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+
+<li>Fading of color in<ul class="nest">
+  <li>Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>Cayuga ducks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  <li>Gray Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>Rouen ducks, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fasting geese before fattening, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li>Fattening farms for geese, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Fattening geese,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>by noodling, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>methods of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></li>
+  <li>on farms in the east, <a href="#Page_200">200</a></li>
+  <li>on farms in the middle west, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+  <li>on large fattening farms, <a href="#Page_199">199-208</a></li>
+  <li>pen, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fattening houses or sheds for ducklings, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li>Fattening summer geese, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Fawn and White Runner, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Fawn colored breasts in Rouen females, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li>Fawn on neck, too much, in Fawn and White Runner, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Feather eating in ducklings, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Feathered legs in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li>Feathers,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>saving duck, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>saving geese, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+  <li>plucking from live geese, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Feed, cooperative buying of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li>Feed cooker<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>cutter for ducks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>last, for market ducklings, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>mixer for ducks, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>storage for duck plant, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>troughs or trays for ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+  <li>troughs for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+  <li>wagon<ul class="nest2">
+    <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+    <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li></ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Feeding<ul class="nest">
+  <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+  <li>breeding geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>Call ducks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  <li>ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>geese during shipment, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+  <li>growing and fattening ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92-94</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>noodles to geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>show ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>show geese, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+  <li>supply geese on fattening farms, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>track on duck plants, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fences<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fertility of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+
+<li>Fireless brooding goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+
+<li>First feed<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Fish, feeding, to ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+
+<li>Fits in ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Flat breast in Aylesburys, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+
+<li>Flatiron shape in Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Folded feathers on neck of Pekin drake, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li>Foreign color in back of White Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Free range<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+  <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Freezing of ducks to the ground, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li>Frequency<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of plucking live geese for feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>of setting duck eggs, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Frightening<ul class="nest">
+  <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+  <li>ducklings, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+  <li>fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">G</li>
+
+<li>Gains in weight<ul class="nest">
+  <li>made by ducklings, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+  <li>secured in noodling geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>secured in pen fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+  <li>secured on goose fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Gander, definition of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li>Gapes in ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li>Geese as weed destroyers, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+
+<li>Goose eggs for hatching,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>care of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  <li>washing, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Goose fattening farms, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>
+</li>
+<li>Goose raising,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>as a business for farm women, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+  <li>as a side line, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>distribution of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>on general farms, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+  <li>opportunities for, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Goose septicemia, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>
+</li>
+<li>Gosling, definition of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>
+</li>
+<li>Grading growing ducklings, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>
+</li>
+<li>Grass yards for goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>
+</li>
+<li>Gray Call duck, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>
+</li>
+<li>Gray,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>faded, in Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>in plumage of Blue Swedish ducks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>stippling on Penciled Runner drakes, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Greasing heads of goslings for lice, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>
+</li>
+<li>Green bill<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>in Crested White ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>in Pekin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+  <li>in White Runner, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Green ducks, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>
+</li>
+<li>Green feed<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
+  <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Green geese, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>
+</li>
+<li>Grit<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Growing green feed for ducks, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>
+</li>
+<li>Growth of goslings, rapidity of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>
+</li>
+<li>Gypsy face in Muscovy ducks, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">H</li>
+
+<li>Handling<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+  <li>geese during noodling, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Hatches of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>
+</li>
+<li>Hatching duck eggs<ul class="nest">
+  <li>with an incubator, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>with hens, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Hatching eggs, duck, packing and shipping, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>
+</li>
+<li>Hatching goose eggs<ul class="nest">
+  <li>with chicken hens, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+  <li>with geese, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+  <li>with incubators, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Health,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>selection of breeding ducks for, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>indications of, in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Heating apparatus for duck brooder house, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>
+</li>
+<li>Heavy bottoms in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>
+</li>
+<li>Hemorrhagic septicemia of geese, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>
+</li>
+<li>Horse power required on a duck plant, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>
+</li>
+<li>House capacity<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening ducks, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Houses<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Hump back in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">I</li>
+
+<li>Identification of ducks by toe punching, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>
+</li>
+<li>Incubation, period of,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Incubator capacity on duck plants, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>
+</li>
+<li>Incubator cellar, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>
+</li>
+<li>Incubators, kinds of, for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>
+</li>
+<li>Injury<ul class="nest">
+  <li>to ducks, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+  <li>to goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Insect pests of ducks, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">K</li>
+
+<li>Keel, deep,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in Aylesbury, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>in Call, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>in Pekin, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+  <li>in Rouen, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Killing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+  <li>house for duck plants, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Knob on head<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of African geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  <li>of Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>of Muscovy drake, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+</ul></li></ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">L</li>
+
+<li>Labor required<ul class="nest">
+  <li>on duck plants, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>in noodling geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lameness<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+  <li>of goslings, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Land required for duck plants, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+
+<li>Laying ration<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Laying season<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+  <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lay-out of duck plant, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li>Length of time<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in brooder house for ducklings, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  <li>brooding necessary for goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lights<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+  <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Live ducks, shipping to market, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>Live geese,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>shipping to market, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>plucking for feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Location<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of duck plant, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li>of goose fattening farm, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lopped crest in White Crested ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+
+<li>Loss<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in ducklings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+  <li>in geese during shipment, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Lost, goslings becoming, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li>Lots, fattening, for geese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">M</li>
+
+<li>Making a start in duck raising, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li>Making new goose matings, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Mallard duck, <a href="#Page_10">10</a><ul class="nest">
+  <li>summer plumage of males, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mandarin duck, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li>Marketing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck eggs, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Markets for geese, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+
+<li>Marking<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducklings, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>goslings, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mating<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, general considerations in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li>geese, general considerations in, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Meat class of ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Mixing feed<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducks, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Moisture<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for duck eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li>
+  <li>for goose eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Molt of ducklings as indication of market condition, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li>Mongrel goose, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>Mortality<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+  <li>of geese during shipment, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Mosquito larvae, destruction of, by ducks, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li>Mule ducks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+
+<li>Muscovy duck, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">N</li>
+
+<li>Narrow shoulders<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>in Pekin ducks, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Nest, preparing the, for hatching goose eggs, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+
+<li>Nomenclature<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of ducks, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>of geese, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Noodles, making, for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>
+</li>
+<li>Noodling geese, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>
+</li>
+<li>Number<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of breeding ducks required, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>of ducklings marketed per breeding duck, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>of ducklings to a pen, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
+  <li>of ducks in leading states, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li>of ducks in U. S., <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+  <li>of ducks to a drake, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>of geese carried on fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>of geese in leading states, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>of geese in U. S., <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li>
+  <li>of geese noodled by one man, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>of geese to the acre, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>of times<ul class="nest2">
+    <li>ducklings are fed, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+    <li>geese are fed on fattening farms, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+    <li>noodled geese are fed, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+    <li>pen fattened geese are fed, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">O</li>
+
+<li>Objections<ul class="nest">
+  <li>to duck farms, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>to geese, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li>
+  <li>to goose fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Odor from goose fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>
+</li>
+<li>Opportunities<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for duck raising, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+  <li>for goose raising, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Ornamental<ul class="nest">
+  <li>purposes, ducks for, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li>class of ducks, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Output of duck plants, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>
+</li>
+<li>Oyster shell, feeding,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>to breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+  <li>to breeding geese, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">P</li>
+
+<li>Packing dressed<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks for shipment, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>geese for shipment, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Packing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck hatching eggs, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>goose hatching eggs, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pasturing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+  <li>goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Patte de fois gras, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li>Pay for picking<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pekin duck, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>
+</li>
+<li>Pekin duck on commercial plants, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>
+</li>
+<li>Penciled Runner duck, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>
+</li>
+<li>Penciling in<ul class="nest">
+  <li>Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>Fawn and White Runner females, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+  <li>Rouen females, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Penciling, lack of, in Penciled Runner females, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>
+</li>
+<li>Pen fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>
+</li>
+<li>Pens<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>for noodling geese, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>in brooder house for ducklings  <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Percent<ul class="nest">
+  <li>hatch of duck eggs set, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+  <li>loss<ul class="nest2">
+    <li>in ducklings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
+    <li>in goslings, <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Period of incubation<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>for goose eggs, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li>
+  <li>for Muscovy duck, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Period of feeding<ul class="nest">
+  <li>noodled geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+  <li>pen fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Picking house for duck plants, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>
+</li>
+<li>Picking<ul class="nest">
+  <li>market ducks, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+  <li>market geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pin feathers, removing, from ducks, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>
+</li>
+<li>Pinioning<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>wild geese, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pneumonia in ducklings, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>
+</li>
+<li>Popularity of breeds<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>of geese, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Pounds feed to produce pound of market duck, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>
+</li>
+<li>Prejudice against roast goose, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>
+</li>
+<li>Preparing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks for the show, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+  <li>geese for the show, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Prevention of disease in ducklings, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>
+</li>
+<li>Prices<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of duck breeding stock and eggs, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li>of duck feathers, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>of goose breeding stock and eggs, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+  <li>of goose feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>of market ducks, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+  <li>of market geese, <a href="#Page_188">188</a></li>
+  <li>of mongrel geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>of specially fattened geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Prince Edward Island geese, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>
+</li>
+<li>Production, yearly, of feathers from live geese, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>
+</li>
+<li>Profits from duck farming, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>
+</li>
+<li>Protecting feed of geese from other stock, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>
+</li>
+<li>Puddle ducks, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>
+</li>
+<li>Pulling broken feathers<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in ducks, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+  <li>in geese, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Purple barring in Black East India ducks, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>
+</li>
+<li>Purple rump in Rouen drake, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>
+</li>
+</ul>
+<ul>
+<li class="indent">Q</li>
+
+<li>Quilling in ducklings, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">R</li>
+
+<li>Range<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+  <li>for geese, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Rapidity of growth of goslings, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>
+</li>
+<li>Rations<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li>
+  <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+  <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>,  <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Rats as source of loss in ducklings, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>
+</li>
+<li>Red in plumage of Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>
+</li>
+<li>Removing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>baby ducks to the brooder, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+  <li>newly hatched goslings from the nest, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Reviving goslings chilled by rain, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>
+</li>
+<li>Rhode Island geese, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>
+</li>
+<li>Ribbon or wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>
+</li>
+<li>Ring, white,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>in Rouen, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>width of, in Rouen, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Roach back in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>
+</li>
+<li>Rouen duck, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>
+</li>
+<li>Roughage<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>in rations for geese, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Round head in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>
+</li>
+<li>Runner duck, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">S</li>
+
+<li>Sand, feeding,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>to breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+  <li>to ducklings, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+  <li>to goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Scalding market<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+  <li>geese, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Sebastapol goose, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li>
+
+<li>Selection of breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><ul class="nest">
+  <li>on commercial plants, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>on general farms, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Selection of breeding geese, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li>
+
+<li>Selection of duck eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li>Selecting the breed of ducks, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li>
+
+<li>Separating growing goslings from old stock, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+
+<li>Septicemia, goose or hemorrhagic, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+<li>Sex<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in ducks, distinguishing, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  <li>in geese, distinguishing, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Shade<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening summer geese, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li>
+  <li>for growing ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Sharp backs in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Shaving market geese to remove down, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Shelter<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>for growing goslings, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Shipping<ul class="nest">
+  <li>dressed ducks, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+  <li>dressed geese, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>hatching eggs,<ul class="nest2">
+    <li>duck, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+    <li>geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Shipping live geese for fattening, <a href="#Page_201">201</a></li>
+
+<li>Short legs in Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Shrinking in shipping ducks alive, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li>Size<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>of breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>of breeds of geese, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+  <li>of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>of duck farms, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>of flocks of breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>of flocks of ducks on general farms, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+  <li>of flocks of fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>of goose eggs, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>of male and female Muscovy, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>of mating in ducks, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+  <li>of mating in geese, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li>
+  <li>of sitting of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li>
+  <li>of sitting of goose eggs, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Slate on backs<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of young Embden geese, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+  <li>of young White Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Smooth head in Muscovy duck, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li>Sore eyes in ducklings, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li>Sorting<ul class="nest">
+  <li>growing ducklings, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+  <li>market ducklings, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Split crest in Crested White ducks, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Steaming<ul class="nest">
+  <li>ducks for picking, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+  <li>geese for picking, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Sticking or braining geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Stippling, gray, on Penciled Runner ducks, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Stunning geese, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li>
+
+<li>Summer geese, fattening, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+
+<li>Summer plumage of Rouen drakes, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li>Swimming, preventing goslings from, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li class="indent">T</li>
+<li>Temperatures, incubation,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for duck eggs, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+  <li>for goose eggs, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Temperatures, brooder,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Testing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck eggs, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>table for candling duck eggs, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Time of feeding<ul class="nest">
+  <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+  <li>geese on fattening farms, 203</li>
+  <li>noodled geese, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+  <li>pen fattened geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Time of first feed<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Time of laying<ul class="nest">
+  <li>with ducks, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+  <li>with geese, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Time<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of marketing breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+  <li>of plucking live geese for feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+  <li>to purchase<ul class="nest2">
+    <li>breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+    <li>breeding geese, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Toulouse goose, defects in, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li>
+
+<li>Tray, feed, for ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li>Triple crest in Crested White ducks, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li>Trough, feed, for ducks, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li>Turning<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+  <li>goose eggs during incubation, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Twisted wings in ducks, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li class="indent">U</li>
+
+<li>Uses<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for duck feathers, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+  <li>for goose feathers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul>
+<li class="indent">V</li>
+
+<li>Value<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of duck feathers, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
+  <li>of ducks in the U. S., <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li>of goose feathers, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Vegetables, feeding, to ducks, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
+
+<li>Ventilation<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+  <li>of brooder houses, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+  <li>of incubator cellars, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+  <li>of incubators when hatching, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Vigor, selection of breeding ducks for, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">W</li>
+
+<li>Washing<ul class="nest">
+  <li>duck eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li>
+  <li>goose eggs for hatching, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li>
+  <li>show ducks, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>show geese, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Water<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li>
+  <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li>
+  <li>for ducklings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a></li>
+  <li>for geese during shipment, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Water site for duck plants, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Water supply for duck plants, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li>Water yards<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+  <li>for growing and fattening ducklings, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Weed destruction by geese, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li>Weight<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of ducklings when ready for market, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+  <li>of geese from fattening farms, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></li>
+  <li>of goslings when ready for market, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li>
+  <li>of green geese, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></li>
+  <li>of noodled geese, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Weights<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of Black East India ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>of Call ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>of duck eggs, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>of goose eggs, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></li>
+  <li>of Mallard ducks, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>of standard breeds of ducks, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>of standard breeds of geese, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>White around eyes<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li>of Cayuga, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>White bib<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>in Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>White Call duck, description of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>White Chinese goose, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>White in breast<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of Black East India, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>of Cayuga, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>White in fluff of Rouen drake, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li>White in wings<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of African geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  <li>of Blue Swedish ducks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>of Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+  <li>of Buff ducks, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>of Gray Call ducks, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>of Rouen ducks, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>of Toulouse geese, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>White Muscovy duck,<ul class="nest">
+  <li>description of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>black on head of young, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>White on head of Colored Muscovy, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li>White on neck of Cayuga, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+
+<li>White Runner duck, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li>Wild or Canadian goose, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+
+<li>Windpipe as indication of age in ducks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li>Wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call females, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Wood duck, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul><li class="indent">Y</li>
+
+<li>Yards<ul class="nest">
+  <li>for breeding ducks, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+  <li>for breeding geese, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening ducklings, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+  <li>for fattening geese, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+  <li>for goslings, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Yellow bills<ul class="nest">
+  <li>in Blue Swedish, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li>in Rouen females, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Yellow, loss of, legs and bills of Pekin with laying, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+
+<li>Yellow on knob<ul class="nest">
+  <li>of African geese, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li>
+  <li>of Brown Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li>
+  <li>of White Chinese geese, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li>Yield of feathers from live geese, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<div class="trans-note">
+<a name="TN_detail" id="TN_detail"></a><p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Notes</b></p>
+
+<p>Preface (2nd page): "minumum" changed to "minimum" ( ...with the minimum of initial investment and of labor.)</p>
+
+<p>"Sebastapool" changed to "Sebastapol" in List of Illustrations (Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose)
+Figure 50 caption, and twice in the index. This is consistent with the use of "Sebastapol" in the text.</p>
+
+<p>Page 20: "neccessary" changed to "necessary" ( ...it becomes neccessary to mate a smaller number of females ...).</p>
+
+<p>Page 30: missing page reference added (See Page 14).</p>
+
+<p>Page 72: comma deleted after "Of" (Of course, eggs
+sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity ...)</p>
+
+<p>Fig 28 caption: "yords" changed to "yards" (Long brooder house and yards with feeding track.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 107: duplicate word "the" deleted (... hung in a steam box with the
+heads outside ...)</p>
+
+<p>Page 131: "chickens" changed to "chicken" (Ducklings can be brooded if
+desired by means of chicken hens.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 136: missing page reference added ( ...in accordance with the directions given on page 106)</p>
+
+<p>Page 137: missing page reference added (See page 119).</p>
+
+<p>Page 141: "1920" changed to "1910" (The census figures of 1920 compared with those for 1910 ...)</p>
+
+<p>Page 145: "in" changed to "is" (An objection to geese often expressed but without
+good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture for other stock.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 154: "Ameriacn" changed to "American" ( ...the American Standard of Perfection.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 155 Footnote: "standard" changed to initial upper case "Standard"
+(American Standard of Perfection).</p>
+
+<p>Page 163: missing page reference added (The same method of packing the
+eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described
+on page 137.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 165: "thoughout" changed to "throughout" ( ...green feed available throughout the summer and fall ...)</p>
+
+<p>Page 166: "penus" changed to "penis" ( ...the penis will protrude.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 182: "close" changed to "closed" (It should have a board floor and be capable of being closed ...)</p>
+
+<p>Page 194: "pleasanty" changed to "pleasantly" ( ...one will be pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which the roast goose possesses.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 211: missing page reference added ( ... in
+the same way as when packing ducks as described
+on page 109.)</p>
+
+<p>Page 222 (Index): "stipling" changed to "stippling" (Gray stippling on Penciled Runner drakes).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ducks and Geese, by 
+Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND GEESE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33029-h.htm or 33029-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/0/2/33029/
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner, La Monte
+H.P. Yarroll and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture
+(CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig01.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig01.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ea09567
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig01.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig01_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig01_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a3f2e7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig01_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig02.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig02.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cc2e8ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig02.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig02_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig02_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd3dc1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig02_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig03.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig03.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..39465b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig03.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig03_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig03_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..44f6c13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig03_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig04.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig04.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..56a7c12
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig04.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig04_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig04_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..62afdcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig04_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig05.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig05.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f46c41c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig05.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig05_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig05_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1ff787
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig05_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig06.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig06.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2e87e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig06.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig06_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig06_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b863b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig06_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig07.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig07.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cae3980
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig07.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig07_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig07_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75d88bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig07_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig08.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig08.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cd0563f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig08.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig08_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig08_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c193db5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig08_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig09.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig09.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..988f495
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig09.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig09_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig09_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10ea510
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig09_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig10.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig10.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81d0cec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig10.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig10_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig10_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d324d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig10_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig11.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig11.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6764082
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig11.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig11_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig11_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81bd5b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig11_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig12.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig12.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d268246
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig12.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig12_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig12_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b39dc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig12_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig13.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig13.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5304cf1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig13.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig13_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig13_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e81273
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig13_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig14.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig14.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c1b4b02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig14.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig14_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig14_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ea84e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig14_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig15.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig15.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15e81a0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig15.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig15_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig15_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..989d7bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig15_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig16.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig16.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..288ec84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig16.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig16_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig16_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f04ce93
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig16_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig17a.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig17a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0ab13b6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig17a.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig17a_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig17a_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0bd520a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig17a_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig17b.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig17b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0268391
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig17b.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig17b_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig17b_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c476709
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig17b_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig18.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig18.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7c14082
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig18.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig18_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig18_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..804717c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig18_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig19.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig19.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5c63d9d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig19.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig19_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig19_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f414101
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig19_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig20.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig20.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..73c5e57
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig20.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig20_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig20_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b2eb83c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig20_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig21.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig21.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d1b5414
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig21.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig21_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig21_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fdbea15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig21_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig22.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig22.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6886415
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig22.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig22_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig22_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c7ee2b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig22_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig23.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig23.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..250bc10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig23.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig23_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig23_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f77224a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig23_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig24.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig24.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e32e095
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig24.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig24_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig24_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7201601
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig24_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig25.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig25.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f0d8a65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig25.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig25_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig25_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..606c456
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig25_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig26.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig26.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4af18e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig26.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig26_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig26_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4c89277
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig26_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig27.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig27.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..58c6326
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig27.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig27_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig27_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7f1a80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig27_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig28.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig28.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e64800
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig28.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig28_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig28_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c4507a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig28_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig29.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig29.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8fb7b7e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig29.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig29_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig29_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9f0a72
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig29_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig30.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig30.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9465631
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig30.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig30_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig30_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f410ff7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig30_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig31.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig31.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a5abb74
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig31.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig31_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig31_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9fd10ac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig31_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig32.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig32.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..723c556
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig32.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig32_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig32_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a25d34f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig32_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig33a.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig33a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ee8fcd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig33a.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig33a_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig33a_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a8468a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig33a_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig34.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig34.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d11d1b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig34.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig34_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig34_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75e4403
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig34_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig35.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig35.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a082934
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig35.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig35_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig35_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..edd22ea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig35_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig36.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig36.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e0cd951
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig36.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig36_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig36_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..72386df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig36_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig37.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig37.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e72eef1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig37.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig37_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig37_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f5f883e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig37_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig38.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig38.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2aaf749
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig38.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig38_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig38_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..be6a094
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig38_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig39.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig39.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7a2349
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig39.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig39_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig39_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a3278e6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig39_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig40.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig40.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3a6476d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig40.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig40_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig40_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a8fea87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig40_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig41.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig41.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..759c659
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig41.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig41_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig41_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..09ced0c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig41_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig42.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig42.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fe5a6c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig42.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig42_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig42_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c55c4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig42_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig43.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig43.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ded801f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig43.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig43_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig43_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88ef60d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig43_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig44.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig44.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5cca4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig44.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig44_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig44_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..279078f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig44_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig45.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig45.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c01bceb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig45.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig45_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig45_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..55bab1d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig45_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig46.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig46.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6287509
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig46.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig46_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig46_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..81df365
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig46_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig47.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig47.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9dbdbf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig47.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig47_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig47_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ce8aa1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig47_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig48.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig48.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0df4928
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig48.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig48_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig48_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1d13e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig48_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig49.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig49.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ffde283
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig49.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig49_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig49_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05635c8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig49_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig50.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig50.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..370ca04
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig50.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig50_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig50_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..716fa92
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig50_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig51.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig51.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9dc2df4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig51.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig51_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig51_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f52a0e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig51_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig52.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig52.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ca6100
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig52.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig52_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig52_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..69b3c85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig52_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig53.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig53.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1494428
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig53.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig53_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig53_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63c0d18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig53_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig54.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig54.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d2f2211
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig54.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig54_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig54_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..960c45d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig54_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig55.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig55.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eeb5ea8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig55.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/fig55_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/fig55_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52ba884
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/fig55_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/frontispiece.002.jpg b/33029-h/images/frontispiece.002.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab81a43
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/frontispiece.002.jpg
diff --git a/33029-h/images/frontispiece_tn.jpg b/33029-h/images/frontispiece_tn.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..704e607
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029-h/images/frontispiece_tn.jpg
diff --git a/33029.txt b/33029.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9564679
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,7538 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Ducks and Geese, by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ducks and Geese
+
+Author: Harry M. Lamon
+        Rob R. Slocum
+
+Release Date: June 30, 2010 [EBook #33029]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND GEESE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner, La Monte
+H.P. Yarroll and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture
+(CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+This Plain Text version uses the Latin-1 character set.
+
+The figure captions have been retained in the same order of appearance
+as the plates in the original, but moved to follow the section which
+each illustrates.
+
+Minor inconsistencies in spelling have been retained as in the original.
+Where typographical errors have been corrected and missing references
+added, these are listed at the end of this book.
+
+Bold and small capital typeface in the original is represented in the
+Plain Text version by UPPER CASE. Italic typeface in the original is
+indicated in the Plain Text version by _underscores_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Illustration: _Frontispiece._ General view of water yards and ducklings
+on a large Long Island duck farm. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+
+
+                      DUCKS AND GEESE
+
+                            BY
+
+                      HARRY M. LAMON
+
+SENIOR POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES
+                DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+                           AND
+
+                      ROB R. SLOCUM
+
+    POULTRYMAN, BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY, UNITED STATES
+                DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
+
+                      _Authors of
+          "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry"
+                  and "Turkey Raising"_
+
+                      ILLUSTRATED
+
+                        NEW YORK
+              ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+                         LONDON
+        KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUeBNER & CO., LIMITED
+
+                          1922
+
+                  COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY
+            ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY
+                 _All Rights Reserved_
+
+                  PRINTED IN U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Of all lines of poultry keeping, duck raising is unique in that it lends
+itself to the greatest degree of specialization and intensification
+along lines which are purely commercial. On a comparatively small area
+thousands of ducklings can be reared and marketed yearly. The call for
+information concerning the methods used by these commercial duck raisers
+has been considerable, and since such information is not available in
+complete concise form the present book has been prepared partly to
+furnish just this information.
+
+The methods used by successful Long Island duck raisers differ widely in
+some particulars and since in the space at command, it has been
+impossible to describe all the methods used, the plan has been adopted
+of detailing in the main the methods of one successful grower. This it
+is believed will prove to be more helpful and less confusing than to
+attempt to give the method of several different men.
+
+Much space has been given to the operations of the commercial duck
+raisers but the fact is recognized that the great bulk of the ducks
+entering into the trade of the country is the product of small flocks
+kept on general farms. For this reason a chapter has been added dealing
+with duck raising on the farm, and attention is here called to the fact
+that most of the information given under commercial duck raising can be
+readily adapted to use in connection with the farm flock.
+
+Detailed, complete information on goose raising is even more fragmentary
+than is the case with ducks. Yet there is a fine opportunity to rear a
+few geese at a profit on many farms, and the need and call for
+information is quite general. It is for this reason that a section of
+this book has been devoted to goose raising and in that section all the
+good reliable information available on the subject is given. The special
+attention of the women of the farm is directed to the opportunity which
+goose raising offers to make a good profit on a small side line with the
+minimum of initial investment and of labor.
+
+The greatest care has been taken to make the information on both duck
+and goose raising as complete and clear as possible. However, the
+authors appreciate the unlimited value of good illustrations in making
+clear methods and operations which are more difficult to grasp from a
+word description, and have therefore assembled a set of illustrations
+for this book, the completeness and excellence of which have never
+before been approached in any book on the subject. The illustrations
+alone are an education.
+
+In preparing and presenting this book to the public, the authors take
+pleasure in acknowledging their deep indebtedness to the following
+persons for help and information furnished:
+
+Roy E. Pardee
+John C. Kriner
+Charles McClave
+Stanley Mason
+Dr. Balliet
+William Minnich
+George W. Hackett
+Dawson Brothers
+
+Particular acknowledgment is due Robert A. Tuttle for the manner in
+which he threw open his duck plant to the authors and for the most
+generous amount of time which he gave in furnishing information.
+
+Special acknowledgment is likewise due Alfred R. Lee, Poultryman, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture, for information secured from his Farmers'
+Bulletins on duck raising and goose raising.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+Preface
+
+List of Illustrations.
+
+
+PART I--DUCKS
+
+Chapter.                                                         Page.
+
+I.    Extent of the Industry--Opportunities                          3
+
+        Present Extent of the Industry--Different Types of Duck
+        Raising--Opportunities for Duck Raising--Prices for
+        Breeding Stock--Ducks for Ornamental Purposes.
+
+II.   Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+      Specimens--Preparing Ducks for the Show--Catching and
+      Handling                                                       9
+
+        Breeds of Ducks--Classification of Breeds--Marking the
+        Ducks--Nomenclature--Distinguishing the
+        Sex--Size--Popularity of Breeds--Egg Production--Size of
+        Duck Eggs--Color of Eggs--Broodiness--General
+        Considerations in Making the Mating--Making the
+        Mating--The Pekin--The Aylesbury--The Rouen--The
+        Cayuga--The Call--The Gray Call--The White Call--The
+        Black East India--The Muscovy--The Colored Muscovy--The
+        White Muscovy--The Blue Swedish--The Crested White--The
+        Buff--The Runner--The Fawn and White Runner--The White
+        Runner--The Penciled Runner--Preparing Ducks for the
+        Show--Catching and Handling Ducks--Packing and Shipping
+        Hatching Eggs.
+
+III.  Commercial Duck Farming--Location--Estimate of Equipment
+      and Capital Necessary in Starting the Business                42
+
+        Distribution--Stock Used--Location of Plant--Making a
+        Start in Duck Farming--Equipment, Capital, etc.
+        Required--Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant--Land
+        Required--Number of Breeders required--Housing Required
+        for Breeders--Incubator Capacity--Brooder
+        Capacity--Fattening Houses or Sheds--Feed
+        Storage--Killing and Picking House--Resident--Horse
+        Power--Feeding Track--Electric Lights--Water
+        Supply--Fences--Labor--Invested Capital--Working
+        Capital--Profits.
+
+IV.   Commercial Duck Farming--Management of the Breeding Stock     55
+
+        Age of Breeders--Distinguishing Young from Old
+        Ducks--Selection of Breeding Ducks--Number of Females to
+        a Drake--Securing Breeding Drakes--Houses and Yards for
+        Breeders--Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding
+        Houses--Cleaning the Breeding Yards--Water Yards for
+        Breeders--Feeding the Breeders--Egg Production--Time of
+        Marketing Breeders--Disease--Insect Pests--Dogs.
+
+V.    Commercial Duck Farming--Incubation                           70
+
+        Kinds of incubators used--Incubator Cellar--Incubator
+        Capacity Required--Age of Hatching Eggs--Care of
+        Hatching Eggs--Selecting the Eggs for
+        Hatching--Temperature--Position of
+        Thermometer--Testing--Turning the Eggs--Cooling the
+        Eggs--Moisture--Fertility--Hatching--Selling Baby Ducks.
+
+VI.   Commercial Duck Farming--Brooding and Rearing the
+      Young Stock                                                   80
+
+        Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder
+        House--Brooder Houses Required--Brooder House No.
+        1--Construction of House--Heating
+        Apparatus--Pens--Equipment of the Pens--Grading and
+        Sorting the Ducklings--Cleaning and Bedding the
+        Pens--Ventilation--Other Types of Brooder Houses--Length
+        of Time in Brooder House No. 1--Brooder House No.
+        2--Brooder House No. 3--Yard Accommodations for
+        Ducklings--Shade--Feeding--Lights for Ducklings--Pounds
+        of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck--Water for
+        Young Ducks--Age and Weight when Ready for
+        Market--Cripples--Cleaning the Yards--Critical Period
+        with Young Ducks--Disease Prevention--Gapes or
+        Pneumonia--Fits--Diarrhoea--Lameness--Sore Eyes--Feather
+        Eating or Quilling--Rats--Cooperative Feed Association.
+
+VII.  Commercial Duck Farming--Marketing                           102
+
+        Proper Age to Market--Weights at Time of Marketing--The
+        Last Feed for Market Ducks--Sorting Market
+        Ducklings--Killing--Scalding--Picking--Dry
+        Picking--Cooling--Packing--Shipping--Cooperative
+        Marketing Association--Prices for Ducks--Shipping Ducks
+        Alive--Saving the Feathers--Prices and Uses of Duck
+        Feathers--Marketing Eggs.
+
+VIII. Duck Raising, on the Farm                                    120
+
+        Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising--Size of
+        Flock--Making a Start--Selecting the Breed--Age of
+        Breeding Stock--Size of Matings--Breeding and Laying
+        Season--Management of
+        Breeders--Housing--Feeding--Water--Yards--Care of Eggs
+        for Hatching--Hatching the Eggs--Brooding and
+        Rearing--Feeding the Ducklings--Water for
+        Ducklings--Distinguishing the Sexes--Marketing the
+        Ducks--Diseases and Insect Pests.
+
+
+PART II--GEESE
+
+IX.   Extent of the Industry--Opportunities                        141
+
+        Nature of the Industry--Opportunities for Goose
+        Raising--Goose Raising as a Business for Farm
+        Women--Geese as Weed Destroyers--Objections to Geese.
+
+X.    Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+      Specimens--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and
+      Handling                                                     147
+
+        Breeds of Geese--Nomenclature--Size--Popularity of the
+        Breeds--Egg Production--Size of Goose Eggs--Color of
+        Goose Eggs--Broodiness--Size of Mating--Age of
+        Breeders--Marking Young Geese--General Considerations in
+        Making the Mating--Making the Mating--The Toulouse--The
+        Embden--The African--The Chinese--The Brown Chinese--The
+        White Chinese--The Wild or Canadian--The
+        Egyptian--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and
+        Handling Geese--Packing and Shipping Hatching
+        Eggs--Prices for Breeding Stock.
+
+XI.   Management of Breeding Geese                                 164
+
+        Range for Breeders--Number of Geese to the Acre--Water
+        for Breeding Geese--Distinguishing the Sex--Purchase of
+        Breeding Stock--Time of Laying--Housing--Yards--Feeding
+        the Breeding Geese.
+
+XII.  Incubation                                                   172
+
+        Care of Eggs for Hatching--Methods of Incubation--Period
+        of Incubation--Hatching with Chicken Hens--Hatching with
+        Geese--Breaking Up Broody Geese--Hatching with an
+        Incubator--Moisture for Hatching Eggs--Hatching.
+
+XIII. Brooding and Rearing Goslings                                178
+
+        Methods of Brooding--Brooding with Hens or Geese--Length
+        of Time Brooding is Necessary--Artificial
+        Brooding--General Care of Growing Goslings--Feeding the
+        Goslings--Percentage of Goslings Raised--Rapidity of
+        Growth--Diseases.
+
+XIV.  Fattening and Marketing Geese                                187
+
+        Classes of Geese Marketed--Markets and Prices--Prejudice
+        Against Roast Goose--Methods of Fattening Geese for
+        Market--Pen Fattening--Noodling Geese--Methods Used on
+        Fattening Farms--Selling Geese
+        Alive--Killing--Picking--Packing for Shipment--Saving the
+        Feathers--Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers.
+
+Index                                                              215
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    Frontispiece. Water Yards and Ducklings.
+
+ 1. Mule Ducks and Blue Swedish Ducks                               10
+
+ 2. Mallard Ducks                                                   11
+
+ 3. Goose, Duck and Hen Eggs                                        18
+
+ 4. Young Pekins for Breeders and Aylesbury Drake                   19
+
+ 5. Rouen Drake and Black East India Ducks                          24
+
+ 6. Rouen Drake in Summer Plumage and Rouen Duck                    25
+
+ 7. Cayuga Ducks                                                    26
+
+ 8. Gray Call Ducks                                                 27
+
+ 9. White Call Ducks                                                28
+
+10. Colored Muscovy Drake and White Muscovy Drake                   29
+
+11. Crested White Drake and Young White Muscovy
+      Showing Black on Head                                         32
+
+12. Wing of Blue Swedish Duck                                       33
+
+13. Pair of Buff Ducks                                              36
+
+14. Penciled Runner Drake and White Runner Drake                    37
+
+15. Methods of Carrying Ducks                                       40
+
+16. Power Feed Mixer                                                41
+
+17. Duck Houses                                                     58
+
+18. House for Breeding Ducks                                        59
+
+19. Another Type of Breeding House                                  62
+
+20. Feeding the Breeders                                            63
+
+21. Interior of Breeding House                                      74
+
+22. Incubator Cellar                                                75
+
+23. Interior of No. 1 Brooder House                                 82
+
+24. Watering Arrangement in Brooder Pens                            83
+
+25. Another Type of No. 1 Brooder House                             86
+
+26. Brooder House No. 2                                             87
+
+27. Brooder House No. 3                                             88
+
+28. Long Brooder House and Yards                                    89
+
+29. Pekin Ducklings 3 Days and 2 Weeks Old                          90
+
+30. Pekin Ducklings 3 Weeks and 6 Weeks Old                         91
+
+31. Interior of Cold Brooder House                                  92
+
+32. Yard Ducks                                                      93
+
+33. Duck Sheds                                                      94
+
+34. Feeding and Watering Arrangements                               95
+
+35. Green Feed for Ducks                                            96
+
+36. Feeding from Track                                              97
+
+37. Yard Ducks at Rest                                              98
+
+38. Artificial Water Yards                                          99
+
+39. Catching Pens for Fattening Ducklings                          104
+
+40. Carrying Ducklings to Slaughter                                105
+
+41. Hanging Ducklings and Cutting Throat Veins                     106
+
+42. Bleeding Ducklings                                             107
+
+43. Washing Heads                                                  108
+
+44. Ducklings Ready for the Pickers                                109
+
+45. Scalding                                                       110
+
+46. Picking Ducks                                                  111
+
+47. Dressed Duckling                                               112
+
+48. Weighing Out Ducklings for Packing                             113
+
+49. Curing Duck Feathers                                           148
+
+50. Egyptian Gander and Sebastapol Goose                           149
+
+51. Toulouse and Embden Ganders                                    154
+
+52. Canadian and African Ganders                                   155
+
+53. Brown and White Chinese Ganders                                158
+
+54. Methods of Handling Geese                                      159
+
+55. Geese Fattening in an Orchard                                  198
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DUCKS
+
+PART I
+
+
+
+
+Chapter I
+
+Present Extent of the Industry
+
+
+Duck raising while representing an industry of considerable value to the
+United States when considered from a national standpoint, is one of the
+minor branches of the poultry industry. According to the 1920 census
+there were 2,817,624 ducks in the United States with a valuation of
+$3,373,966. As compared with this the census for 1910 shows a slightly
+greater number of ducks, 2,906,525, but their value was considerably
+less being only $1,567,164. In the ten years between the census of 1900
+and that of 1910 there was a decrease in the number of ducks of nearly
+40%.
+
+According to the 1920 census the more important duck raising states
+arranged in their order of importance were Iowa, Illinois, Pennsylvania,
+New York, Missouri, Minnesota, Tennessee, Ohio, South Dakota, Indiana,
+Nebraska and Kentucky. The number reported for Iowa was 235,249 and for
+Kentucky 99,577. New England, the North Atlantic, the East North
+Central, the West North Central, the Mountain and the Pacific states
+showed an increase, while the South Atlantic, East South Central and
+West South Central states showed a decrease. In spite of the existence
+of quite a number of large commercial duck farms, the great bulk of
+ducks produced are those which come from the general farms where only
+small flocks are kept. Yet only a small proportion of farms have ducks
+on them. The comparatively small number of ducks is distributed over
+practically the entire United States, being more common in some sections
+than others, particularly along the Atlantic Coast and along the Pacific
+Coast, with fairly numerous flocks on the farms of the Middle West.
+
+_Different Types of Duck Raising._ The conditions under which ducks are
+kept and the purpose for which they are kept fall under four heads:
+First, commercial duck raising for the production of duck meat; second,
+duck raising as a by-product of the general farm; third, duck raising
+for egg production; fourth, duck breeding for pleasure, exhibition or
+the sale of breeding stock.
+
+_Opportunities for Duck Raising._ Undoubtedly the greatest opportunity
+for profitable duck growing lies under the first of these heads, namely,
+commercial duck raising. Where the conditions of climate, soil and land
+are favorable and where the location is good with respect to market
+there exists an excellent opportunity for one skilled in duck growing to
+engage in that business in an intensive manner for the purpose of
+putting on the market spring or green ducklings. Where these are in
+demand they bring a good price and since the output per farm is large
+they pay a good return even with a small margin of profit per pound.
+
+The second greatest opportunity undoubtedly consists of duck raising as
+a by-product of the general farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is
+to say, where there is a considerable amount of pasture land easily
+accessible, and particularly where there is a stream or pond to which
+the ducks can have access, a small flock of ducks, say 10 or 12 females,
+can be kept to excellent advantage on the farm. The cost of maintaining
+them will not be great and they will not only provide a most acceptable
+variety in the form of duck meat and duck eggs for the farmers' table
+but they will also produce a surplus which can be sold at a profit. It
+must be remembered, however, that where only a small flock is kept it is
+generally impracticable for the farmer to give his ducks the attention
+necessary to cater to the market for green ducklings. As a result he
+usually keeps them until fall and sells them on the market at a
+considerably lower price than is obtained by the commercial duck grower.
+
+There also exists an opportunity which has not been developed to any
+great extent to keep some one of the egg producing breeds of ducks such
+as the Indian Runner for the primary purpose of egg production. A few
+ventures of this sort seem to have been successful but it must be
+remembered that the market for duck eggs is not nearly so broad as that
+for hens' eggs and that in some quarters there exists considerable
+prejudice against duck eggs for table consumption. Before engaging in
+duck raising primarily for the production of market eggs it would
+therefore be necessary to investigate and consider carefully the market
+conditions in the neighborhood so as to know whether the eggs could be
+marketed to advantage. While the Runner ducks are prolific layers there
+is no advantage in keeping them in preference to fowls as egg producers.
+The eggs are larger in size but it takes more feed to produce them,
+while they cannot as a rule be disposed of at much if any higher price
+than can be secured for hens' eggs. For baking purposes duck eggs can be
+readily sold on account of their larger size.
+
+There is always an opportunity to produce fine stock of any kind,
+whether it be ducks, chickens, turkeys or geese. Ducks are not exhibited
+to the same extent as are chickens and the competition in the shows is
+not as a rule so keen. Nevertheless many persons are interested in
+producing and exhibiting good stock and there exists a very definite
+market for birds of quality.
+
+There is also a probability that a good business could be worked up by
+one who would pay special attention to producing a strain of ducks of
+early maturity, large size and good vigor in order to supply breeding
+drakes to many of the commercial duck farms. These farms usually secure
+drakes for breeding from sources outside their own flocks each year but
+the usual practice is to exchange drakes with some other commercial
+grower. While very good birds are to be found on these duck farms there
+is no greater opportunity to engage in any systematic breeding, the
+selection of the breeding stock being of rather a hurried nature during
+certain seasons of the year when the ducks are being marketed. Moreover,
+the long continued custom of exchanging drakes with the neighboring
+farmers has in most cases led to the blood being so largely confined
+within one circle that no great percentage of new blood is obtained by
+these exchanges. Of course, the opportunity along breeding lines for
+this purpose is limited to the Pekin duck as this is the breed which is
+kept upon all the large commercial duck farms in the United States.
+
+_Prices for Breeding Stock._ Duck breeders who make a specialty of
+selling breeding stock or eggs for hatching find a steady and quite a
+wide demand for their stock. The eggs are usually sold in sittings of 11
+and bring a price of from $3 to $5 per sitting depending on the quality
+of the stock. The prices received for the birds themselves depend of
+course upon their quality and may run anywhere from about $5 to $25 per
+bird.
+
+_Ducks for Ornamental Purposes._ On estates or in parks where natural or
+artificial ponds are included in the grounds, waterfowl are often kept
+for ornamental purposes. Any breeds may be used, and often the gay
+colored Wood Duck and Mandarin, or some one of the small breeds such as
+the Calls, Black East Indian or the Mallards are kept for this purpose.
+It is said that these small ducks will absolutely destroy the mosquito
+larvae in any such ponds or lakes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+Specimens--Preparing Ducks for the Show--Catching and Handling
+
+
+_Breeds of Ducks._ There are 11 standard breeds of ducks. All of these
+breeds with the exception of the Call, Muscovy and Runner consist of a
+single variety. The Call is divided into two varieties, the Gray and the
+White; the Muscovy consists of two varieties, the Colored and the White;
+and the Runner consists of three varieties, the Fawn and White, the
+White and the Penciled.
+
+Duck breeders, of course, whether raising the birds for fancy or for
+profit, keep one of the standard breads or varieties. Frequently, also,
+the farm flocks consist of standardbred ducks but on many farms,
+probably a great majority, the flock consists of the common or so-called
+"puddle" duck. In certain parts of the South there is a duck known as
+the "mule duck" which is a cross between the Muscovy and the common
+duck. This is a duck of good market quality but will not breed from
+which characteristic it gets its name. Most of the common or "puddle"
+ducks which are found on farms are of rather small size, are indifferent
+as layers, and do not make a desirable type of market duck. They have
+arisen simply from the crossing of standard breeds with resultant
+carelessness and indifference in breeding. Because of the care with
+which they have been selected and bred for definite purposes, the
+standard breeds are decidedly superior to the common "puddle" ducks and
+should by all means be kept in preference since they will yield better
+results and greater profits.
+
+In addition to the standard breeds and varieties flocks of Mallards are
+also kept to a limited extent. The Mallard is a common small wild duck
+which has lent itself readily to domestication and which thrives with
+proper care under confined conditions. In weight, the drakes will run
+from 2-1/2 pounds to 3 pounds or even a little larger. The ducks average
+about 21/4 pounds with a variation of from 1 pound 12 ounces to 2 pounds 8
+ounces. By selecting the large eggs for hatching and by liberal feeding,
+it is easy to increase the size of Mallards to such an extent that they
+resemble small Rouens rather than wild Mallards. The plumage of the
+Mallard is very similar to that of the Rouen but of a lighter shade.
+Another small wild duck known as the Wood or Carolina duck, which is a
+native of North America, has been domesticated and on account of the
+great beauty of its plumage is usually to be found wherever ornamental
+waterfowl are kept. The Mandarin duck is a small duck of about the same
+size as the Wood duck, is of beautiful plumage and like the Wood duck
+is generally kept for ornamental purposes. This duck is said to be a
+native of China.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. Upper--Pair of Mule Ducks. Lower--Pair of Blue
+Swedish Ducks. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Upper--Mallard Duck. Lower--Mallard Drake. The
+Mallard is a wild duck which is quite easily domesticated and which has
+a plumage color very similar to the Rouen. It is small in size.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+Classification of Breeds
+
+So far as the standard breeds and varieties are concerned they may be
+divided into three classes according to the purpose for which they are
+kept and for which they are best suited. First is the meat class which
+consists of the Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Buff, Cayuga and Blue
+Swedish. These breeds could well be termed general purpose ducks for
+they are quite good layers in addition to producing excellent table
+carcasses and are therefore well suited for general farm use. They are,
+however, kept more particularly for meat production.
+
+The second class is known as the egg class and consists of the three
+varieties of the Runner Duck, formerly known as the Indian Runner. The
+Runner Duck is much smaller in size than the birds of the meat class, is
+longer in leg and more active, and is not so well suited for the
+production of table ducks but is a very prolific layer. With proper
+feeding and management the Runner ducks will compare favorably with hens
+as egg producers.
+
+The third class is known as the ornamental class and is composed of the
+ducks which are kept and bred principally for ornamental purposes. This
+class consists of the Call duck with its two varieties, the Black East
+India duck and the Crested White duck. Both the Call and East India
+ducks are small in size being really the bantams of the duck family.
+While they make good table birds, their small size handicaps them as
+commercial meat fowl. The Crested White duck is of larger size,
+possesses a crest and is bred mainly as an ornamental fowl.
+
+_Marking the Ducks._ The duck raiser who is breeding his ducks for
+exhibition quality has need for knowledge of the breeding of the birds
+he may contemplate using in his matings. In order that this information
+may be available, the young ducks as they are hatched can be marked by
+toe punching them on the webs of their feet in the same manner that baby
+chicks are toe punched. A different set or combination of marks is used
+for each mating so that the breeding of the different ducks can be
+distinguished. Mature ducks can, if desired, be leg banded in order to
+furnish a distinguishing mark.
+
+
+Nomenclature
+
+Before taking up a description of the matings of the different standard
+breeds and varieties it is well to indicate the common nomenclature
+which is used in connection with these fowls and which differs from that
+used for chickens. The male duck is called drake, the female duck is
+termed duck, and the young duck of either sex is termed duckling. In
+giving the standard weights for the different breeds of ducks, weights
+are given for adult ducks and adult drakes, and for young ducks and
+young drakes. By adult duck or drake is meant a bird which is over one
+year old. By young duck or drake is meant a bird which is less than one
+year old. The horny mouth parts of the duck instead of being termed beak
+as in chickens are called bill, and the separate division of the upper
+bill at its extremity is termed the bean. Ducks do not show any comb or
+wattles as in chickens. In England use is made of the terms ducklet and
+drakerel. Ducklet is used to signify a female during her first laying
+season just as the word pullet is used in contrast to hen. Drakerel is
+used to signify a young drake as contrasted with an older drake just as
+the word cockerel is used in comparison to cock in chickens.
+
+_Distinguishing the Sex._ The sex of mature ducks can be readily told by
+their voices and also by a difference in the feathering. The duck gives
+voice to a coarse, harsh sound which is the characteristic "quack"
+usually thought of in connection with this class of fowl. The drake on
+the other hand utters a cry which is not nearly so loud or harsh but
+which is more of a hissing sound. Distinction of sex by this means can
+be made after the ducklings are from 4 to 6 weeks old. Before this age,
+both sexes make the same peeping noise.
+
+Mature drakes are also distinguished from the ducks by the presence of
+two sex feathers at the base of the tail. These are short feathers
+which curl or curve upward and forward toward the body of the bird. In
+ducks these feathers are absent.
+
+
+Size
+
+An idea of the size of the different standard breeds can best be
+obtained by giving the standard weights. They are as follows:--
+
+              Adult Drake.  Adult Duck.  Young Drake.  Young Duck.
+Pekin              9             8            8             7
+Aylesbury          9             8            8             7
+Rouen              9             8            8             7
+Cayuga             8             7            7             6
+Muscovy           10             7            8             6
+Blue Swedish       8             7            6-1/2         5-1/2
+Crested White      7             6            6             5
+Buff               8             7            7             6
+Runner             4-1/2         4            4             3-1/2
+
+There are no standard weights for the Call duck and for the Black East
+India duck but these are all small in size, being really bantam ducks.
+The drakes will weigh from 2-1/2 to 3 pounds and the ducks from 2 to 2-1/2
+pounds.
+
+
+Popularity of Breeds
+
+In the meat class by far the most popular duck in this country is the
+Pekin. It is the breed which is used exclusively on the large
+commercial duck farms. Next to the Pekin in this class probably comes
+the Muscovy which is quite commonly kept in some sections of the
+country, particularly in the South. The Aylesbury duck has never proved
+to be very popular in the United States perhaps due to its white bill
+and skin, although it is the popular market duck of England. The other
+breeds included in the meat class are kept more or less commonly but do
+not approach in popularity either the Pekin or the Muscovy. Any of the
+breeds in this class will prove to be satisfactory for a farm flock,
+although the Colored breeds and varieties are at a disadvantage when
+dressed due to their dark pin feathers.
+
+In the _egg_ class there is included only the Indian Runner and this of
+course is the breed which is kept wherever the production of duck eggs
+is the primary object. The Fawn and White is the most popular variety of
+this breed.
+
+In the ornamental class there is no particular outstanding breed, since
+the ducks belonging in this class are kept very largely to satisfy the
+pleasure of the owner and the selection of a breed is entirely a matter
+of personal preference.
+
+
+Egg Production
+
+While the conditions under which ducks are kept and the care they are
+given will affect their egg production greatly, there are certain
+rather definite comparisons that can be made between the different
+breeds. The Pekin is a good layer and will produce from 80 to 120 eggs.
+The Aylesbury and the Rouen are about alike in laying ability, neither
+being quite as good as the Pekin. The Cayuga is a good layer ranking
+with the Aylesbury and Rouen or between these and the Pekin. The Muscovy
+is an excellent layer being fully as prolific as the Pekin, especially
+if broken up when broody and not allowed to sit. The Blue Swedish is
+about equal to the Cayuga in laying ability. The Buff duck is an
+excellent layer comparing favorably with the Pekin or even with the
+Runner. The Runner ducks are the best layers of the duck family and if
+given proper care and good feed will compare favorably with hens in egg
+producing ability. The Crested White duck is not a particularly good
+layer. The Calls and the Black East India ducks will lay from 20 to 60
+eggs per year, approaching the latter number if the eggs are collected
+as laid and the ducks are not allowed to sit which will induce some of
+them to continue to lay for quite a portion of the year. Extremely large
+ducks of any breed do not lay as well as the more medium sized birds.
+
+_Size of Duck Eggs._ The eggs of the different meat breeds will run
+about the same in size with the exception of the Muscovy whose eggs run
+a little larger. Actual weights of eggs from representative flocks show
+Pekin, Rouen, Aylesbury and Cayuga eggs to average about 2-1/2 pounds per
+dozen although there is a tendency for the Rouen eggs to run somewhat
+larger and for Cayugas to run a little smaller. Muscovy eggs weigh about
+3 pounds per dozen with selected large eggs weighing as high as 3-1/4
+pounds. Eggs of the Runner duck are smaller but are considerably larger
+than average hens' eggs or about the size of large Minorca eggs. They
+weigh about 2 pounds per dozen. Eggs of the bantam breeds of ducks, the
+Calls and the Black East India, together with those of the Mandarin and
+Wood ducks will weigh from one pound to 1-1/2 pounds per dozen depending
+upon the size of the ducks themselves. Eggs of the Mallard duck will run
+from 26 to 32 ounces to the dozen. The size of eggs laid by ducks,
+especially the bantam breeds and the Mallard can be increased somewhat
+by liberal feeding. Average hens' eggs should weigh about 1-1/2 pounds per
+dozen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. Upper--Comparison of size of goose egg on the
+left a black egg of a Cayuga duck in the center and a hen egg on the
+right. Lower--Duck eggs--At the left is a Pekin duck egg, next a black
+egg laid by a Cayuga duck, third a Muscovy egg, fourth a duck egg of
+green color and on the extreme right the egg of a Runner duck.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Color of Eggs._ The color of duck eggs ranges from white to a polished
+black. Pekin eggs run mostly white although some show a decided blue or
+green tint. Aylesbury eggs run quite uniformly white. The color of Rouen
+eggs varies from white to a dark green. The Cayuga produces very few
+white eggs, most of them being green or black, some being as black as
+though polished. Muscovy eggs run from a white to a greenish cream in
+color. The eggs of the Blue Swedish and the Buff ducks usually run
+white. The Runner duck lays white eggs as a rule while the Crested White
+duck lays eggs which range in color from white to green. The eggs of
+the Call ducks run from white to green while the eggs of the Black East
+India, like the Cayuga, for the most part run from green to black.
+
+A peculiarity in regard to the egg color is that the same female may lay
+eggs which are widely different in color. It is likewise true that the
+color of the shell is influenced to some extent by the feed. Ducks on
+range will lay darker colored eggs than those which are yarded. There is
+also a tendency for the eggs to run darker in color when laying first
+begins and for the eggs to lighten as laying proceeds. A peculiarity in
+regard to duck eggs with a dark colored shell is that a thorough washing
+will lighten up the shell color decidedly.
+
+_Broodiness._ The Muscovy, the Call and the Black East India ducks are
+broody breeds. The ducks of these breeds will make their nests, hatch
+their eggs and are good mothers. All the other breeds are classed as
+non-broody breeds. Of course, a certain percentage of them will go
+broody and show a desire to sit but they do not make reliable sitters
+and mothers and are not as a rule used for this purpose.
+
+
+Considerations in Making the Mating[1]
+
+Since ducks are kept for different purposes there will of course be
+certain fundamental differences in the different classes in the
+selection of the individuals to make up the mating. Whatever the
+purpose, however, the first consideration in selecting the breeders must
+be to secure those which possess excellent vigor and general health and
+which meet insofar as possible the standard requirements for size. Where
+the Call duck and the Black East India are concerned the selection for
+size must be for smallness since that is a characteristic greatly
+desired. In the other breeds the selection for size must be to see that
+they come up to the standard weights for the particular breed in
+question. As in other classes of fowls the condition and cleanliness of
+the plumage and the general appearance and actions of the birds are good
+indications of their health and thriftiness. A bright eye is likewise a
+valuable indication of good health while a watery eye is usually a sign
+of weakness. It is necessary to guard against birds which show any
+tendency toward crooked or roach back, hump back, crooked tails, or
+twisted wings. Since all breeds of ducks should have clean or
+unfeathered legs it is likewise necessary to guard against any breeders
+which show down on the shanks or between the toes as this sometimes
+occurs.
+
+[Footnote 1: For a more detailed discussion of the principles of
+breeding as applied to chickens and which is equally applicable to
+ducks, the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by
+Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the Orange Judd
+Publishing Company, New York City.]
+
+In selecting the mating for any one of the meat breeds use birds which
+have good length, width and depth of body so that they will have plenty
+of meat carrying capacity. For breeders of market ducks, birds which
+are active, well matured and which are not extreme in size for the breed
+are preferable as the fertility is likely to run better than with the
+extremely large birds. Where birds are bred for exhibition purposes, it
+frequently happens that it is desirable to use large breeders and to
+hold them for breeding purposes as long as they are in good breeding
+condition. Where this is the case it becomes necessary to mate a smaller
+number of females to a drake than would be the case with smaller and
+younger breeders. Where old birds are used as breeders better results
+will be secured by mating old ducks to a young drake or vice versa than
+by mating together old birds of both sexes. While ducks of any of the
+meat breeds are kept primarily for meat production, it is essential that
+the egg production be good throughout the breeding season in order to
+raise as many ducklings and secure as great a profit as possible.
+Selection of the females as breeders should be made therefore on the
+basis of good egg production as well as good meat type if the conditions
+under which the ducks are kept are such as to make it possible to check
+this in any manner.
+
+In selecting the mating in the Runner breed it is necessary to keep in
+mind that the general type of body is quite different from that of the
+meat breeds, being much slimmer and much more upright in body carriage.
+For this mating select thrifty, healthy birds and those which are
+active. Some breeders trapnest their Runner ducks or have some other
+means of checking up the better layers. As in chickens, it is of course
+desirable to use these better layers as breeders since the purpose in
+keeping this kind of duck is primarily egg production.
+
+In selecting the mating in the Call and East India breeds it is
+necessary to use the smaller ducks since the object here is to keep the
+size small. In addition, with these breeds or with any other breeds kept
+and bred primarily for fancy or exhibition purposes, it is necessary to
+conform just as closely as possible to the standard requirements[2] both
+insofar as size and type are concerned, and also with respect to color.
+
+[Footnote 2: For a complete and official description and list of
+disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of ducks, the
+reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published by
+the American Poultry Association, and obtained by Orange Judd Publishing
+Company, New York, N. Y.]
+
+
+Breeds of Ducks
+
+_The Pekin._ While this variety wants to be of good size and to have
+length, breadth and depth of body it is somewhat more upstanding than
+some of the other meat breeds, showing a definite slope of body downward
+from shoulders to tail. The back line of the Pekin should show a slight
+concavity from the shoulders to the tail and the upper line of the bill
+is likewise slightly concave between the point where it joins the head
+and its extremity. The shoulders should be broad and any tendency
+toward narrowness at this point must be avoided. While a good depth of
+keel is desired, the standard does not call for so deep a keel as in the
+Aylesbury. As a matter of fact, however, the winning specimens as seen
+in the shows are not as a rule as erect in carriage as called for by the
+standard illustration, there being a tendency to get them almost if not
+quite as deep in keel as the Aylesbury. In fact, some breeders seem to
+strive for a low down keel approaching a condition where they are nearly
+as low in front as behind but this is not desirable Pekin type.
+
+Sometimes a drake will show a rough neck, that is, the feathers on the
+back of the neck will be crossed or folded over showing a tendency to
+curl. These birds should be avoided as breeders since there is a
+tendency for them to produce ducks having a crest. Sometimes a green or
+a greenish spotted bill will be encountered. Since the bill should be a
+clear yellow, breeders showing this defect should be avoided
+particularly as they are likely to produce birds having greenish or
+olive colored legs. The shanks and toes should be a clear deep orange.
+Black sometimes occurs in the bean. This may occur in birds of either
+sex but is more common in the ducks than in the drakes. In the drake
+black in the bean disqualifies but while it is undesirable and a serious
+defect in the duck it does not disqualify. The color of the plumage is
+white or creamy white throughout. Creaminess in this variety is not a
+serious defect as it is in white chickens. The use, however, of yellow
+corn and of foods very rich in oil tends to increase the creaminess of
+the plumage and should not be used to excess for birds which are to be
+exhibited.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. Upper--Young Pekins which on account of their
+size, thriftiness and rapid growth were selected out of a lot about to
+be killed for market and saved for breeders. Lower--Aylesbury
+Drake--Notice the depth and development of the breast. (_Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Aylesbury._ This breed is particularly noted for its deep keel. It
+differs from the Pekin in type in that it is more nearly level in body.
+There is a decided tendency for the Aylesbury to run too short in body
+which has probably come about by extreme selection for deep keel. It is
+well, therefore, in making the mating to select breeders with good
+length of body. Since the deep full breast and keel is characteristic of
+this breed it is necessary to avoid breeders which show any tendency
+toward a flat breast. As in the case of the Pekins avoid any birds which
+have green or olive colored bills. The back line of the Aylesbury should
+be straight, showing no tendency toward a slight concavity as in the
+Pekin. Birds showing this shape back should be avoided. As in the Pekin
+black on the bill or bean of the drake will disqualify and in the duck
+is a serious defect. The color of plumage should be white throughout and
+should show no tendency toward creaminess. The bill in this breed is
+flesh colored instead of yellow as in the Pekin. The Aylesbury is not
+quite as nervous a breed as the Pekin.
+
+_The Rouen._ The Rouen duck is a parti-colored breed and is therefore
+much more difficult to secure in perfection of color and marking than
+is the case with the white breeds. Moreover, the dark pin feathers make
+the ducks more difficult to dress than in white breeds. In type these
+birds are very level in body and are massive, carrying a great deal of
+meat. Avoid birds showing a lack of length of body or depth of keel or
+which are too flat in breast. The back of the Rouen should have a
+slightly convex or arched shape from neck to tail and it is necessary to
+guard against birds which have a flat or a concave back. The body of the
+Rouen should be carried practically horizontal. The upper line of the
+bill should be slightly dished or concave. The white ring about the neck
+of the drake is an important part of the marking. This should not be too
+wide but should run about a quarter of an inch in width. It should be as
+distinct and clean cut as possible but should not quite come together in
+the rear. Any approach to a ring in the female is a disqualification.
+White in the primary or secondary wing feathers is a serious defect
+since it constitutes a disqualification. It must therefore be carefully
+avoided. White feathers in the fluff of the drake is another color
+defect which must be guarded against.
+
+_Breast of Drake._ The farther the claret color on the breast of the
+drake extends down the better will be the females secured from the
+mating. Drakes which are deficient in the amount of claret on the breast
+should therefore be thrown out as breeders. A purple rump in drakes must
+be avoided as must black feathers over the rump as they tend to keep
+up too dark a body color in the female. On the other hand too bright or
+light a color in the male or exhibition female will produce females
+which are too light in color. Drakes with light olive colored bills must
+be avoided as these will have a tendency to produce offspring which show
+too much yellow in the females' bills, and clear yellow bills constitute
+a disqualification. In the females solid yellow bills, fawn colored
+breasts and absence of penciling must be avoided. Females which are dark
+or nearly black over the rump are good breeders as they tend to keep up
+the ground color of the body and tail.
+
+The Rouen shows some tendency to fade in color. This is evidenced first
+on the tips of the wings. The fading will also show in the fluff of
+drakes. The drakes of this breed and likewise of the Gray Call and the
+Mallard show a peculiar behavior with respect to the color of their
+plumage. About June 1 the drakes moult, losing their characteristic male
+adult plumage and the new plumage is practically that of the female.
+This female plumage is retained until about October when they gradually
+regain their normal winter male plumage. Young Rouens of both sexes have
+female plumage until the last moult which occurs at about four or five
+months of age, when the drakes assume the adult male plumage. The sex of
+the young Rouens can, however, be told by the difference in the color of
+the bills.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. Upper--Rouen Drake. Notice the low set, nearly
+horizontal body, the massive appearance and the arched back. Lower--Pair
+of Black East India Ducks. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. Upper--Rouen Drake showing summer plumage. At
+this season the Rouen drake assumes a plumage resembling quite closely
+that of the female. In the fall the drake again assumes the normal male
+plumage. Lower--Rouen Duck. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Cayuga._ The Cayuga is much like the other breeds of the meat
+class in general type or shape of body showing good length, breadth and
+depth. It is a very solid duck and weighs heavier than it looks. The
+body carriage is slightly more upright than the Rouen but not so much so
+as the Pekin. The back line should be straight and any tendency toward
+an arched back must be avoided. It is slightly smaller than the Pekin,
+Aylesbury and Rouen, averaging about a pound less.
+
+In making the mating, size is important and breeders should be selected
+which are up to standard weights if possible. While this breed is not
+kept very widely at the present time, nevertheless it is an excellent
+market duck, dressing out into a very plump yellow carcass in spite of
+its black plumage which is a disadvantage in dressing. The color should
+be a lustrous greenish black throughout, being somewhat brighter in the
+drake than in the duck. The duck is more likely to show a brownish cast
+of plumage, particularly as she grows older. It is hard to hold good
+black color with age. Moreover, white or gray is apt to occur in the
+breast of females. With age also a little white sometimes develops on
+the back of the neck, around the eyes and underneath the neck at the
+base of the bill. The white which occurs in breast is more likely to
+come in ducks and is not commonly found in the drakes. In the drakes on
+the other hand, there is a tendency for the white to come on the throat
+under the bill.
+
+Drakes as a rule run truer in color and hold their color better than
+do the ducks. Where the white mottling occurs in plumage with age one
+need not hesitate to breed from these birds if they were of good black
+color as young birds. The drakes of the best color do not as a rule fade
+or become mottled to any great extent with age. It is necessary to guard
+against birds as breeders which have a rusty brown lacing on the breast
+and under the wings, also those which have a wing-bow laced with brown.
+There is a tendency for the bill of drakes, which should be black, to be
+too light or olive in color and this tendency increases with age. Drakes
+with bills of this color should be avoided as breeders. When Cayugas are
+first hatched the baby ducks all show a white breast.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. Upper--Cayuga Duck. Lower--Cayuga Drake.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Call._ The Call ducks are the bantams of the duck race. There is
+always a tendency for them to grow too large and this is especially true
+when they have an opportunity to eat all they want as for example when
+they are fed with the larger ducks. They should not be fed too liberally
+and should be given wheat or some other solid grain rather than any
+mash. If there is a good pond of water to which the Call ducks can have
+access they do not need to be fed much of anything.
+
+In breeding, the smallest individuals which are suitable in other
+respects for breeders, should be selected in order to keep down the size
+and offset the tendency to breed larger in successive generations. In
+type the Calls are practically miniature Pekins except that they should
+have a very short, rather broad head and bill. The broad flat and short
+bill and the round short head give the head an appearance which is often
+described by the term "button headed". In this breed avoid birds which
+show arched backs. The body should have what is known as a flatiron
+shape, that is, should be broad at the shoulders and taper toward the
+tail. Too deep keels and narrow shoulders should be avoided as should
+also too long bills. Call ducks, together with East Indias and Mallards
+should have their wings clipped or be pinioned, that is, have the first
+joint of one wing cut off, to prevent them from flying away.
+
+_The Gray Call._ The plumage of the Gray Call is practically that of the
+Rouen although they are not quite as good in color as a breed. There is
+more of a tendency for some of the birds to run to dark and others,
+especially the males, to run too light in color. While they are likely
+to be well penciled the shade of color is apt to be wrong. White in the
+flights and under the wings must be guarded against as must also absence
+of ribbon or wing bar in females. The color of the plumage is likely to
+fade with age but after the birds moult and secure their new plumage,
+the color is usually higher again. In general the same color
+characteristics hold true as with the Rouen and the same defects must be
+guarded against.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. Upper--Gray Call Drake. Lower--Gray Call Duck.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture_.)]
+
+_The White Call._ This variety is, both in type and color, practically a
+miniature Pekin except for the short, rather broad head and bill.
+They breed very true in color and should be free from creaminess. The
+same general defects must be watched for and avoided as in the Pekin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. Upper--White Call Duck. Lower--White Call Drake.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Black East India._ This is a black breed which is small in size
+being a bantam duck like the Call. As a matter of fact it is a miniature
+Cayuga. The color should be black throughout and the same color
+characteristics hold true as in the case of the Cayuga. The same color
+defects must therefore be guarded against, the worst one being white in
+the breast of females especially. Avoid breeding from a drake with a
+black bill as in this respect the breed differs from the Cayuga since
+the bill of the duck should be black but that of the drake should be
+very dark green. Purple barring must be carefully selected against.
+
+_The Muscovy._ This breed differs in certain respects very markedly from
+the other standard breeds of ducks. They are long and broad in body
+which is carried in a horizontal position but are not so deep in keel as
+the Pekin, Aylesbury or Rouen. The longest bodied young ducks will make
+the largest individuals. The head should have feathers on the top which
+can be elevated at will to form a crest. Guard against breeders having
+smooth heads, or in other words, lacking a crest. The face is covered
+with corrugations or caruncles and should be red in color. At the base
+of the upper bill there is a sort of knob-like formation in the drake
+which serves as one of the distinguishing characteristics between the
+duck and drake of this breed. The more prominent the knob and the more
+wrinkled or corrugated the face the better is the specimen in this
+respect. The wings are long and strong and these birds fly very well.
+They will also climb fences. The drakes are quite pugnacious and fight
+one another badly at times. They are especially pugnacious when they
+have young.
+
+This breed of ducks will often roost on roosts like chickens or in the
+trees or on the barn. They do not quack like other ducks and unlike
+other domesticated breeds which moult two or three times a year, they
+moult only once, taking longer to do so, usually about 90 days, although
+the female may complete her moult a little sooner. The period of
+incubation for Muscovy eggs is longer, being from 33 to 35 days as
+compared to 28 days for other breeds. In size the male and female differ
+considerably as will be seen from the standard weights given (See Page
+14), the male being considerably larger. These ducks lay well, the
+fertility runs good, the eggs hatch well, and the little ducks are hardy
+and easily raised. They are a broody breed. The ducks will make their
+nests and hatch out their eggs if allowed to do so and are excellent
+mothers. Sometimes they will fly up and make their nests in a hollow
+tree. A Muscovy duck can cover properly about 20 eggs. In spite of the
+fact that they fly well they are easily domesticated. It takes about
+two years for the males of this breed to fully mature although the ducks
+get their full size when one year of age. The Muscovy is perhaps the
+best general purpose breed for a farm flock.
+
+The extent and intensity of the red of the face increases up to maturity
+and the redder the face the better. The plumage of the Muscovy is not as
+downy or oily as other breeds, the feathers being harder. For this
+reason the birds are more apt to become water soaked and to drown as a
+result when they have not been accustomed to water in which to swim.
+This is especially true of the drakes on account of their large size and
+long wing feathers. Muscovy ducks dress well, having a rich yellow skin,
+and therefore make a good market duck, although the difference in size
+of the duck and drake and the dark pin feathers of the Colored variety
+are disadvantages from a market standpoint. Select against breeders
+which run small in size as there is more or less of a tendency for this
+breed to decrease in size. The Muscovy is long lived, specimens having
+been known to breed until they were eight or ten years of age.
+
+_The Colored Muscovy._ Although the standard calls for more or less
+white in different sections of this variety, as a matter of fact
+breeders desire to get the birds as dark as possible except for a very
+small patch of white on the breast and a small patch of white on the
+center of the wing. Indeed, birds without the white on the breast and
+with very little on the wing are valuable breeders since there is a
+tendency for too much white to occur in the plumage. Occasionally all
+black birds occur and these can be used to advantage in breeding when
+there is a tendency toward too much white in plumage. Plumage more than
+half white is a disqualification. The dark plumage birds such as are
+wanted are very likely to show considerable black or gypsy color in the
+face which should be a good red. This must be selected against insofar
+as possible. The nearly black or the darkest birds are quite likely to
+show some white or grizzling on the head. Grizzled or brownish penciled
+feathers sometimes occur in various parts of the plumage and must of
+course be guarded against as the markings should be distinctly black and
+white. The baby ducks of this variety are quite apt to show considerable
+white although the best of them come yellowish black. This variety tends
+to run a little larger in size than the white variety although the
+standard weights are the same for both. Dun or chocolate colored ducks
+sometimes come from Colored Muscovies while Blue Muscovies can be
+produced by crossing the Colored and the white varieties.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. Upper--Colored Muscovy Drake. Notice the partly
+erect crest feather on top of the head. Lower--White Muscovy Drake.
+Notice the long, horizontal body and the rough or carunculated face.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The White Muscovy._ This variety should have pure white plumage
+throughout. Young Muscovies of both sexes often have a patch of black on
+top of the head up to the time they moult at maturity. Since black
+disqualifies it is impossible to show young ducks in this condition but
+these black feathers usually come in white after the moult and such
+birds need not therefore be discarded as breeders. When it is desired to
+show young White Muscovies which have black on the head it is customary
+to pluck these black feathers a sufficient time before the show so that
+the white feathers which come in their place will have time to grow out.
+There is little or no trouble with black or gypsy face in this variety.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. Upper--Crested White Drake. Lower--Young White
+Muscovy duck showing black on top of the head. This is not an unusual
+occurrence and the black is lost when the bird gets its mature plumage
+in the fall. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Blue Swedish._ In type and size this breed is about the same as the
+Cayuga although perhaps slightly more upstanding. In selecting the
+mating it is important to use birds which are close to standard weight
+as there is somewhat of a tendency for the size to be too small. As its
+name indicates the color is largely blue except for a white heart-shaped
+patch or bib which should be present on the breast. Sometimes this white
+extends along the underside of the body from the under-bill almost to
+the vent. Such birds are undesirable as breeders since they show too
+much white. On the other hand birds lacking a prominent white bib must
+also be avoided. Two of the flight feathers should be white and birds
+lacking these must be avoided. Guard against any red, gray or black in
+any part of the plumage. Sometimes, however, birds having more or less
+black throughout the plumage are used as breeders for the purpose of
+strengthening the blue color. Avoid any tendency toward a ribbon on the
+wing-bow and also birds that are too light, ashy or washed out in the
+blue color.
+
+Sometimes birds show lines of white feathers around the eyes and over
+the head and these should be selected against as breeders as they are
+likely to cause white splashing in the plumage. Yellow or greenish bills
+must likewise be avoided since the first of these is a disqualification.
+In general this variety in breeding behaves insofar as color is
+concerned, very much like the Blue Andalusian chicken.[3] The young
+ducks when hatched are yellow or creamy blue and from blue matings there
+are also produced black and white ducklings. As in other colored breeds
+and varieties, the dark pin feathers are somewhat of a disadvantage from
+a market standpoint.
+
+[Footnote 3: For a detailed discussion of the behaviour of the Blue
+Andalusian in breeding, the reader is referred to "The Mating and
+Breeding of Poultry" by Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by
+the Orange Judd Publishing Company, New York City.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. Blue Swedish duck showing white flight feathers.
+The Standard calls for only two white flights, but there is a decided
+tendency as shown here for more flights to be white. (_Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Crested White._ Although not so large, this breed is much like the
+Pekin but with body carried more nearly horizontal and with a crest on
+the head. The type varies considerably however, the principal selection
+practiced having been for crest. The plumage is white in color
+throughout. What is desired in the crest is to have as large a one as
+possible, round and perfect in form, and set squarely on the head. Not
+infrequently crooked crests occur and also double or split crests, that
+is to say, where the crest is parted or divided. In some cases the
+crests may even come treble, that is, split into three parts. Entire
+absence of crest is by no means uncommon. In fact, it is considered a
+pretty good proportion if one half of the ducks hatched have crests
+although the matings vary considerably in this, occasionally one
+producing practically 100% of the offspring with crests. Avoid as
+breeders birds with small crests, lopped crests, split crests or showing
+an absence of crest. Avoid also breeders showing mottled or green bills
+in females and black bean in the bill of drakes.
+
+_The Buff._ In type this breed is similar to the Swedish. As will be
+seen from the standard weights it is one of the medium sized breeds and
+makes a very nice market bird as it dresses out into a nice round fat
+carcass and is a good layer. In color the birds of both sexes should be
+as uniform a buff as possible except that the head and upper part of the
+neck in the drake should be seal brown when in full plumage. Color
+defects which are likely to be encountered and which should be avoided
+are the tendency for the head of the drake to run to a chestnut color
+and for his neck to be too light or faded out in color. Sometimes the
+head of the drake runs too dark in color approaching a greenish black
+like the head of the Rouen. This is of course undesirable. The wings of
+both sexes are apt to run to light or even in some cases, pure white
+flights. Blue wing bars are sometimes shown and these must be carefully
+avoided. Penciling such as is found in the Fawn and White Runner
+sometimes occurs and since it is a serious defect must be rigidly
+guarded against. Any tendency toward a white bib or a white ring around
+the neck of both sexes must likewise be avoided. Greenish or mottled
+bills must be avoided in ducks which are to be used as breeders. Not
+much trouble is experienced in the bill of drakes which as a rule comes
+good. Any blue cast in the feathers on the rump and back of both sexes
+must be selected against. As a rule the females of this breed tend to be
+better colored than the males. At certain periods of the moult the head
+coloring of the drakes becomes a good buff color and later when the
+moult is complete, it changes to a copper color. When hatched the
+ducklings are a creamy yellow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. Pair of Buff Ducks--Drake on the right
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Runner._ The type of this breed is quite different from that of the
+other breed of ducks and type is very important. The Runner wants to be
+decidedly upstanding and to be very reachy. It should have very slim
+slender lines. The neck should be straight and the head should be
+carried at right angles to the neck. The bill should be perfectly
+straight on top and on a line with the skull showing absolutely no
+tendency to be dished. The legs of this breed are longer than those of
+other ducks and this accounts for the fact that they run rather than
+waddle when they move about. It is from this fact that they get their
+name. They are very active and are troublesome about crawling through
+fences. They are good layers and non-sitters and they have often been
+called the Leghorns of the duck family. It must be remembered, however,
+that while they have the inherent ability to lay as well as hens they
+will do this only when they receive proper feed and care. It is quite
+useless to expect a high egg yield from them when they are carelessly
+fed and improperly housed and cared for. Avoid as breeders ducks of both
+sexes that are too heavy behind, or in other words, are too
+heavy-bottomed. Avoid birds which are too short in legs. Avoid crooked
+or sharp backs. Round heads must likewise be avoided.
+
+_The Fawn and White Runner._ In this variety the markings must be very
+distinct and definite. There is a tendency which must be avoided for the
+head to run to black instead of chestnut, especially in males. It is
+likewise necessary to avoid females which tend to show penciling on the
+sides of the breast or on the wing-bows. These defects are apt to be
+associated with colored flight feathers which is also a defect to be
+avoided. Guard against too much fawn extending up the neck from the body
+to the head as the neck should be white in color. Too dark tail coverts
+approaching a greenish black sometimes occur and are undesirable. In
+type this variety will not average quite as good as the White.
+
+_The White Runner._ This variety is best in type and it likewise runs
+good in color which should be white throughout. Sometimes foreign color
+will be shown in the back of females and this of course must be avoided.
+Also avoid birds as breeders with green or mottled bills.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. Penciled Runner Drake on left and White Runner
+Drake on right. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_The Penciled Runner._ In type this variety runs about the same as the
+Fawn and White. The color combination is rather difficult to breed as it
+is hard to get the good penciling desired in the female together with
+the white markings. In general, in breeding this variety there is a
+tendency to pay more attention to type than to color. The penciling is
+like that of the Rouen but lighter in color consisting of a brown
+penciling on a fawn colored ground. Avoid any grayish stippling on the
+breast of the drake and also on the wing-bows. These defects are likely
+to be associated with colored flights which are undesirable. The colored
+portion of the head of the drake is darker than that of the duck in this
+variety. Avoid lack of white on the neck in both sexes and avoid females
+which are lacking in penciling.
+
+_Preparing Ducks for the Show._ Aside from selecting the individuals
+which most nearly approach the standard requirements there is very
+little which can be done in the way of preparing the birds for the show
+as these fowls are practically self-prepared. For a period of at least a
+week or ten days before they are shipped to the show those intended for
+exhibition should be given access to a grass range and also if possible
+to running water. The grass range will keep them in good condition and
+the running water will allow them to clean themselves. Any broken
+feathers should be plucked at least six weeks before the birds are to be
+shown in order to allow the feathers time enough to grow out again. It
+must be remembered that most ducks after getting in a good condition of
+flesh do not tend to hold this for a very long period but soon grow
+thinner again and will not take on fat the second time for some little
+period.
+
+Often there will be a difference in weight as high as 3 pounds when a
+duck is in good condition and after it has thinned. In order to have the
+ducks in top form, therefore, it is necessary to bring them up to flesh
+at the proper time. In order to bring ducks which are to be exhibited up
+to standard weight, they should be fed twice daily, for at least 10 days
+before shipping, a grain mixture consisting of one part corn and two
+parts oats. Give them all they will eat of this mixture. With Runners
+and the small breeds of ducks there is a danger of their putting on too
+much weight if corn is used in the ration and it is therefore best to
+give them oats alone. When the birds are shipped to the show they are
+quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the journey. When this
+occurs fill a barrel about half full of water. Then as the ducks are
+taken out of the shipping coops take three of them at a time, put them
+in the barrel and cover it over, leaving them for a few minutes. When
+they are taken out they will usually be clean.
+
+
+Catching and Handling Ducks
+
+Ducks should never be caught by the legs which are short and weak and
+are very likely to be injured. For the same reason they should never be
+carried by the legs. Ducks should be caught by the neck, grasping them
+just below the head. They can be carried short distances without injury
+in this way but it is not advisable to carry fat ducks by the neck for
+any considerable distance. The best way to handle them is to catch them
+by the neck, then carry them on the arm with the legs in the hand just
+as one would carry a chicken. See Fig. 15. A scoop net about 18 inches
+in diameter and with a six foot handle can also be used to excellent
+advantage in catching ducks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. Two methods of carrying ducks. (_Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs
+
+Eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh as duck eggs tend
+to deteriorate in quality quite rapidly. They may be shipped fairly long
+distances. Shipment may be made either by express or by Parcel Post. In
+order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of the jar to which
+the eggs are subjected during shipment, they must be carefully packed.
+One of the best methods is to use an ordinary market basket. Line the
+basket well on the bottom and sides with excelsior. Wrap each egg in
+paper and then wrap in excelsior so that there will be a good thick
+cushion of excelsior between the eggs and they will not be allowed to
+come in contact with one another. Pack the eggs in the basket securely
+standing them on end so that they cannot move or shift around. Cover
+the top of the eggs with a thick layer of excelsior using enough so that
+it runs up well above the sides of the basket. Over the top sew a piece
+of strong cotton cloth. Instead of sewing the cloth it can be pushed up
+under the outside rim of the basket with a case knife, this being
+quicker and equally as effective as sewing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Location--Estimate of Equipment and Capital
+Necessary in Starting the Business
+
+
+_Distribution._ Commercial Duck farming is confined very largely to the
+sections within easy shipping distance of the larger cities. A great
+majority of these farms are located about New York City, particularly on
+Long Island. Some duck farms are located on the Pacific Coast and a few
+commercial plants are scattered about here and there throughout the
+country. The size of these farms ranges all the way from plants with an
+output of 5,000 or 10,000 ducklings up to those with an output around
+100,000 yearly.
+
+_Stock Used._ The stock used on the commercial duck plants of the United
+States consists exclusively of the Pekin. The reasons for the use of
+this particular breed are the fact that it has white plumage and
+therefore dresses out well, that it is of good size, that its egg
+production is good, and that it makes quick growth.
+
+_Location of Plant._ On Long Island the commercial duck plants are
+located along the streams, especially those on the southern shore of the
+Island, which empty into the various bays. Locations along these
+streams are not easy to secure at the present time owing to the fact
+that duck farms are not allowed in many sections where summer homes have
+been built. A water site of this sort is very valuable, although not
+absolutely essential, since it provides water yards for the breeding
+ducks and for the fattening ducklings if desired, and reduces the labor
+and cost of equipment materially since the ducks always have access to
+water and no additional provision need be made to provide them with
+drinking water. It also enables the ducks to keep their plumage clean.
+Usually these locations are on fresh water streams but some of them are
+further out toward the bay where the water is salty or at least
+brackish.
+
+The mature ducks thrive well on the salt water and do not have to be
+furnished with fresh drinking water in addition. For the young ducks,
+however, with a salt water location it is necessary to provide fresh
+drinking water. A few farms in other sections of the country are what
+are known as dry land farms, that is to say, they are not situated on
+the bank of a stream. In such locations running water is carried through
+the yards so that the ducks have an ample supply of drinking water and
+in some cases artificial ponds are constructed to provide water in which
+the breeding ducks can swim. Formerly the idea was universally held that
+swimming water was essential for the breeders in order to secure good
+fertility, and many duck farmers still believe that better results can
+be secured in this way. On some of the dry land duck farms, however,
+breeding ducks are successfully kept without such swimming places. The
+young market ducklings do not require water to swim in although some
+raisers prefer to have it and it is commonly allowed where readily
+available. On the dry land farms provision is made simply for a
+continuous supply of fresh drinking water for the fattening ducklings.
+Ducklings kept out of the water, do not take as much exercise and, in
+consequence, fatten a little more readily.
+
+
+Making a Start in Duck Farming
+
+Duck farms or plants are sometimes operated on a considerable scale at
+the beginning, the plans being carefully laid by some experienced duck
+man. In these cases, operations at the start may be of sufficient
+magnitude so that the output will amount to 15,000 or 20,000 ducklings
+in a year. In most cases, however, these places have been the result of
+a more gradual growth from a small beginning, a condition made necessary
+either by the inexperience of the grower or by lack of capital. Not
+infrequently men engaged in other forms of farming but possessing a
+suitable location will keep 200 or 300 breeding ducks and from this
+gradually build up a good sized duck plant.
+
+_Equipment, Capital, etc. Required._ The estimates given as to the
+amount of equipment and capital required are based on the assumption
+that a plant is to be operated of sufficient size to have a yearly
+output of about 30,000 ducklings. It must be understood in this
+connection that location and various other conditions or circumstances
+will influence the cost of different items of equipment and for this
+reason these estimates must not be considered as absolute but should
+rather serve as a guide or basis on which to figure. The figures here
+given contemplate the building up of an establishment which is efficient
+but which is in no particular elaborate, the buildings and other
+equipment being as simple and inexpensive as possible.
+
+_Lay-out or Arrangement of the Plant._ The plant must be carefully
+planned so as to make the best possible use of the land and particularly
+of the water frontage. It is particularly important to arrange the
+buildings in such a manner as to cut down labor as much as possible. If
+there is any expectation of enlarging the capacity at some future time,
+this must also be borne in mind in the arrangement of the various
+buildings and yards. The incubator cellar should be convenient to the
+No. 1 brooder house and the various brooder houses to one another. The
+brooder house must likewise be convenient to the growing and fattening
+houses and yards and these in turn to the killing house. The feed room
+should be centrally located so as to save labor as much as possible in
+feeding the ducks.
+
+_Land Required._ For a duck plant of the size indicated 10 acres of land
+should be ample. This, however, means that no effort would be made to
+grow any of the feed for the ducks or ducklings with the exception of
+green feed. In some cases where the lay of the land is unusually
+favorable so that the plant can be laid out to the very best advantage,
+a smaller amount of ground than this might be sufficient but it is not
+well to figure on less than 10 acres.
+
+_Number of Breeders Required._ With the usual methods of management and
+with good success, one may estimate that 40 young ducks can be marketed
+each year from each breeding female. This is a good average although in
+some good years duck raisers will do a little better than this. On the
+other hand in poor years they will not do so well. For a plant having an
+output of 30,000 market ducks there would therefore be needed in the
+neighborhood of 800 breeding ducks in addition to 100 drakes.
+
+_Housing Required for Breeders._ In figuring on the amount of housing
+required for this number of breeding ducks, it is necessary to figure on
+2-1/2 to 3 square feet of floor space per bird, 3 square feet being better
+than 2-1/2. This would require a housing space 20 feet deep by 120 feet
+long. However ducks are not usually housed in one building of this size,
+and in fact it is better not to do so since the smaller the flock of
+breeders kept together the better they will do. In no case should a duck
+raiser run more than 400 ducks in a flock and it is very much better to
+run them in pens of 100 each. In fact, some breeders do not place more
+than 25 to 50 breeding ducks in a pen.
+
+_Incubator Capacity._ Incubators are used exclusively for hatching the
+eggs. At the present time in practically all cases some form of hot
+water mammoth incubator is utilized for this purpose. An investment is
+required both in incubators and in a cellar in which to operate them. In
+figuring on the incubator capacity necessary to take care of a
+proposition of this size, it is necessary to base the estimate on the
+number of eggs produced during the season of flush production. The duck
+raiser figures on incubating all eggs suitable for the purpose rather
+than to sell any of them for other purposes as there is a greater profit
+in rearing and marketing the ducklings. For that reason he must have
+incubator capacity enough to take care of all the eggs laid at any time
+of the year. During the season of flush production the yield will
+ordinarily run in the neighborhood of 80%. The period of incubation is
+28 days but 2 days more should be added to this to allow for cleaning
+out the machines, etc., before starting another hatch. This means that
+there would be 30 days between hatches. Figuring on 800 ducks with an
+80% production for 30 days an incubator capacity of around 19,200 eggs
+would be required.
+
+_Brooder Capacity._ A brooder house capacity, where artificial heat can
+be supplied, sufficient to take care of about half of the total output
+of the plant at one time is necessary. This means there would have to
+be on this plant a heated brooder house capacity for 15,000 ducklings.
+About half of this number or 7500 would need accommodations in the
+number 1 or warmest brooder house where the heat can be kept up to 65 or
+70 degrees in the house itself, and warmer of course under the hover.
+The other 7500 ducklings capacity would be in the number 2 house, that
+is, a house where heat could be supplied in the early spring and where
+the temperature could be run up to 60 degrees. Hovers in such a house
+are not really needed but it is common to cover the hot waterpipes with
+a platform in order to provide a runway on which one can run a wheel
+barrow and thus simplify feeding. Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is
+needed in the number 2 brooder house. The young ducks are usually 2 to 3
+weeks old when they go into the number 2 house and they stay there for
+about 2 weeks depending on the weather. Heat for the brooder houses is
+supplied by means of hot water pipes and a coal burning stove such as
+are used in brooder houses for chickens. A number 3 or cold brooder
+house is also needed where ducklings can be housed and can be driven in
+at night and in cold weather after they have graduated from the number 2
+house. From the number 3 house a part of the ducklings are taken
+directly to the yards where they are housed in open front sheds.
+
+_Fattening Houses or Sheds._ In addition to the brooder houses, there
+are required fattening houses or sheds for the ducks when they are moved
+from the No. 3 brooder house to the yards. Suitable houses for this
+purpose are 16 feet deep by 24 feet long. In front they are 5 feet high
+and in the rear 3-1/2 feet. They are set on posts with a base board around
+to make them tight. The fronts are entirely open and provided with
+curtains which are used only in the winter to keep out the snow. The
+ducklings are shut in these houses when desired by means of wire panels
+which close the lower part of the front. Houses such as described are
+divided into two parts and each side will accommodate 200 ducklings.
+
+_Feed Storage._ Considerable feed storage room is necessary as it is
+very desirable to be able to buy feed in quantity and also to carry a
+considerable stock on hand in order to offset the possibility of not
+being able to secure feed at any time. There should be storage capacity
+for 4 cars of 30 tons each, in other words, for 120 tons of feed. Still
+greater capacity than this is desirable. In connection with the feed
+storage there should be a place where the feed can be mixed and where
+feed can be cooked. Two power operated feed mixers are required as one
+is not sufficient during the busy season to allow the mixing and feeding
+of the mash for both the breeders and the young stock at the same time.
+A feed cutter is necessary in preparing the green feed which is mixed in
+the mash. The usual type of kettle feed cooker is commonly used for
+boiling fish and preparing other cooked feeds but in its place a small
+four-horse steam boiler can be utilized to good advantage as this makes
+it possible to cook the feed right in the mixer by using a steam hose.
+
+_Killing and Picking House._ A killing and picking house where the ducks
+can be prepared for market is another necessary building but this need
+not be an expensive building. It must be located with reference to its
+convenience to the rest of the plant. It is also desirable to locate it
+over a spring if one is available for the spring water can be used to
+excellent advantage in cooling the dressed ducklings. When a spring is
+not available water must be piped to this building. The killing house is
+usually built with at least one side open or partly open. A place is
+provided outside the picking room where the ducks can be hung and bled.
+Inside room is required for six or eight pickers. A kettle for heating
+water to be used in scalding the ducks is necessary as are also tanks in
+which to place the ducks after they are picked. Additional room is
+needed where the ducks can be weighed and packed ready for shipment.
+
+_Residence._ In addition to the other buildings enumerated, a residence
+would of course be necessary. The size and elaborateness of this and
+consequently its cost depends entirely upon the owner's needs and
+wishes.
+
+_Horse Power._ One horse and wagon for the purpose of drawing the feed
+about the plant and for certain other necessary work would be required.
+If the owner desires to do his own hauling of the feed from the railroad
+and the other necessary trucking he would, of course, have to keep more
+horses, a team at least, or an automobile truck. Where only one horse is
+kept, this trucking must be hired done.
+
+_Feeding Track._ On many of the larger duck farms, a feed track is
+employed in feeding the stock. Such a track consists of a framework of
+sufficient strength to support a car filled with mash which is pushed
+along the track by hand. The track leads from the feed mixer across the
+various yards where the ducks to be fed are located, including both the
+breeding ducks, yard ducks and brooder ducks in yards. This involves a
+considerable amount of trackage which must be fairly level and which
+runs over the yard fences or along the ends of the yards so that the
+feed can be shoveled directly from the car into the feeding trays in the
+yards. The use of a feed track simplifies the feeding considerably but
+its construction is quite expensive. Where a track is not used, the feed
+as mixed is dumped into a low wagon which is driven along the yards, or
+through them by removing movable panels in the fences and the feed
+shoveled from the wagon to the feed trays.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. Power feed mixer. The feed is dumped into a low
+wagon from which it is shoveled to the ducks. (_Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Electric Lights._ Most duck farms at the present time are located where
+electric lighting is available. It is desirable and in fact almost
+necessary to have the various houses wired so that lights can be turned
+on when desired. In addition, lights are usually provided in the yards
+for fattening ducks and are used at night and especially during storms
+to keep the ducks from stampeding.
+
+_Water Supply._ An adequate water supply is essential. This will consist
+of a well or spring furnishing an ample amount of water, a power pump
+and a water supply tank. From the tank, the water must be piped to the
+incubator cellar, the brooder houses, the killing house, the feed house
+and to any of the yards where the ducks do not have access to a natural
+supply of good water. In addition, of course, the water from the same
+tank is usually used to supply the residence.
+
+_Fences._ Not a great deal of investment is necessary in fences since
+the yards are rather small and the fences are low. Two-foot fences of
+two-inch mesh wire are used for the yard ducks while for the little
+ducks 18-inch wire of one-inch mesh is used. The biggest items of
+expense connected with the fences are the cost of the stakes or posts
+used in their construction and the labor used in this work. The portion
+of the yards extending into the water are the most troublesome and most
+expensive to build. In some cases, rather elaborate wooden picket fences
+are used in the water yards. These are more permanent but are more
+expensive to build.
+
+_Labor._ For a plant of the size indicated there would be required in
+addition to an active working proprietor three other men. One man would
+be needed to operate the incubators, one man would devote his time to
+the brooder houses, one man would feed the yard ducks and the fattening
+pens, and one man would do the killing and packing, take care of the
+feathers, clean the yards, etc. Of course, there would be periods when
+these men would not have their entire time taken up with their
+particular duties and this would permit them to turn in and help with
+the miscellaneous work on the plant.
+
+In addition to the regular men employed, additional labor would be
+necessary to do the picking. For this purpose pickers are usually
+brought in and work by the piece. During the spring of 1920 these
+pickers received six cents per duck and they will average about 75 ducks
+a day, beginning work at 6 in the morning and finishing by noon or a
+little later. Some pickers will average as high as 100 ducks a day. In
+the busy season from 800 to 1200 ducks will be marketed per week and the
+usual practice is to kill and pick not over three days a week, usually
+during the first part of the week.
+
+_Invested Capital._ Investment in the business exclusive of working
+capital, that is to say, the money in the land and buildings and other
+equipment would require under present conditions about $1,000 for each
+thousand ducks marketed. In other words, in a plant of this size, close
+to $30,000 would be invested. The amount of invested capital depends to
+some extent upon location and upon the elaborateness of the buildings
+and other equipment but with a well laid out economical plant an
+investment of the size indicated should be sufficient.
+
+_Working Capital._ In addition to the capital invested in the plant
+there would be required a considerable amount of working capital. From
+the first of November to the beginning of the marketing of the ducks
+there would be required from $6,000 to $8,000 with which to purchase
+feed, meet the pay roll, and for other running expenses. Even after the
+marketing begins there would be a period of from a month to six weeks
+when the expenses will continue to be greater than the receipts so that
+some additional capital might be necessary. However, returns would begin
+to come in which could be used to take care of the more pressing current
+obligations so that additional working capital which might be needed
+over that indicated would not be large.
+
+_Profits._ The profits in commercial duck raising vary widely, as must
+be expected, depending upon the management, upon the season and upon
+prices received. After deducting all overhead charges and interest on
+the investment, the net return per duck should be at least 10 cents per
+duckling marketed. In fact the return should be 15 cents to provide much
+inducement to engage in the business. Some seasons the returns will run
+greater than this but on the other hand, there is always the chance of
+occasional big losses.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Management of the Breeding Stock
+
+
+_Age of Breeders._ On most large commercial duck plants the entire
+breeding stock is renewed each year. In other words, the breeders are
+kept only through their first laying season. This makes it necessary to
+select from the young stock reared and save for breeders as many head as
+it is desired to carry for the coming year. This practice is used for
+the reason that ducks lay best during their first year. Therefore, since
+it is desired to keep up the maximum egg production in order to raise as
+many market ducks as possible, young breeders are considered better.
+Some raisers, however, keep a part of their breeding ducks for two years
+and occasionally for 3 or even 4 years but this is not the usual
+practice. Recent comparison made between young and two year old ducks as
+breeders would seem to indicate that ducklings hatched from the eggs of
+the latter live a little better.
+
+_Distinguishing Young from Old Ducks._ In this connection it is of
+interest to know how young ducks can be readily distinguished from the
+older birds. The young ducks have bright yellow legs and bills while
+the old ducks after a period of laying, lose a considerable amount of
+the yellow from these sections. In addition, soon after the ducks begin
+to lay, their bills as a rule will begin to be streaked with black.
+Young ducks can also be told from the old ducks by feeling of the end of
+the breast bone which runs to a point at the abdomen. In the older ducks
+this is hard while in the young ducks it is gristly and bends easily.
+The windpipe of an old duck is hard and rather difficult to compress or
+dent while in the young duck it is softer and easily dented.
+
+_Selection of Breeding Ducks._ The breeders are usually selected from
+the ducklings which reach market age from the last week in June through
+July. As these lots become ready for market and are driven into the pens
+to be slaughtered each duck is handled and any especially good birds
+which the proprietor thinks will make good breeders are thrown out at
+this time.
+
+In making selection of breeders those are chosen which are healthy and
+thrifty and which have good wide, long and deep bodies. Ducks with
+crooked wings, crooked tails, hump backs or paddle legs are rejected for
+this purpose. After the young ducks for breeders are selected they are
+put in a yard or fattening pen until the number which the owner expects
+to keep is complete. These young breeders generally begin to moult soon
+after they are selected and from this time on they are fed whole corn
+and plenty of green feed until it is time to begin feeding the laying
+ration. Some of the breeding ducks will usually begin to lay about
+December 1 although they will not lay heavily at that time. The laying
+ration described later should be begun about that time or a couple of
+weeks earlier.
+
+_Number of Females to a Drake._ As a rule on commercial duck farms the
+birds are mated in the proportion of about one drake to seven ducks.
+This proportion will vary to some extent under different methods of
+management and weather conditions and may run all the way from 1 to 5 to
+1 to 8. The smaller number of drakes should be used late in the season
+while the larger number will give better fertility early in the breeding
+season.
+
+Since the drakes do not fight seriously, flock matings can be made.
+Better results will be obtained from smaller flocks than from large
+flocks and there will also be less cracked eggs and less very dirty eggs
+from the smaller flocks. Before the ducks are let out in the morning
+there is a tendency for them to run back and forth through the pens, and
+in this way they tramp over many of the eggs which are laid anywhere
+about the floor. The larger the flock the more cracked and dirty eggs
+will result. While the drakes do not fight each other they do at times
+injure and kill the ducks to some extent when three or four drakes may
+chase one duck. In this way they may injure the ducks' backs and often
+pick their eyes and necks. Whenever a duck is found which is injured she
+should be removed from the flock. Difficulty of this sort is most
+prevalent about the 1st of March. If the trouble gets very bad it can be
+stopped to some extent by cutting back the upper bills of the drakes
+about one-fourth of an inch with a tinsnip or by reducing the proportion
+of drakes.
+
+_Securing Breeding Drakes._ It is common practice on duck plants to
+avoid inbreeding by securing drakes from some other flock each year.
+This is usually accomplished by buying the drakes outright from some
+neighboring duck farmer. It may also be accomplished by purchasing a few
+eggs for hatching in order to secure new blood. In any particular
+community there is a tendency for the duck farmers to trade breeding
+drakes among themselves for a period of years with the result that they
+all have much the same blood and not a great deal of benefit is obtained
+from securing the drakes from some neighbor's flock. It is undoubtedly
+good practice to go farther afield occasionally for a supply of breeding
+drakes. In purchasing stock for new blood be sure that it is as good as
+the home stock and better if it can be found. It will do no good to
+purchase and use inferior stock and may do much harm.
+
+
+Houses and Yards for Breeders
+
+The breeding flocks are usually confined to breeding yards. The size of
+these yards depends upon the size of the breeding flock but large yards
+are not required. A yard for 200 breeders is not as a rule larger
+than 100 by 200 feet including the water part of the yard. Houses and
+yards should be located on sand if possible as this is easier to keep
+clean and therefore keeps the birds in better condition. Occasional
+flocks of breeding ducks are allowed their liberty but this is not
+common practice nor is it good practice unless the surroundings are
+clean and the ducks do not have access to stagnant mud or refuse in
+which they can work. If ducks work too much in this kind of material
+they will eat more or less of it which injures the eggs for hatching
+purposes.
+
+Many different styles of houses are used for breeders, some of which are
+decidedly more elaborate than is necessary. A very satisfactory
+economical house is one 20 feet deep, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet at
+back, with a shed roof. This can be constructed of tongue and groove
+material or may be made of unmatched stuff and covered with paper. A
+house of this proportion makes a good light house and it can be carried
+in length according to the size of the flock. For a breeding unit of 200
+ducks, which is a good unit to use, a house 20 feet deep and 30 to 40
+feet long is suitable. No floor is used in the house but it should be
+well filled up with dirt so that the water will not come in.
+
+One or more good sized openings are left in the front of the breeding
+house for ventilation, or windows may be placed in the front which can
+be used for this purpose. Good ventilation is necessary. Additional
+ventilation is secured from the doors. If the weather is mild the doors
+are left partly open, if cold they are nearly closed, while when the
+weather is hot they are left entirely open. A good scheme is to use a
+sort of Dutch door so that the bottom or top half can be opened
+independently. In this way the top part of the doors can be left open so
+as to let in the sunlight and still keep the ducks in the house or the
+top may be left closed and the bottom opened so as to allow the ducks to
+go in or out and still cut down the amount of ventilation. When the
+weather is warm the doors may be left entirely open except for a board
+18 inches to 2 feet wide inserted in the bottom of the door when it is
+desired to keep the ducks in.
+
+Shade is essential for the breeders and if not provided naturally by
+trees must be supplied by means of artificial shelters.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17. Upper--Rear and end view of house or shed used
+for fattening ducks. Lower--General view on a duck plant, showing open
+front fattening houses in the foreground and houses for breeders in the
+background. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18. A good house for breeding ducks. It is 20 feet
+deep, 40 feet long, 7 feet high in front and 4 feet in the rear and will
+accommodate 200 breeders. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Bedding and Cleaning the Breeding Houses._ Usually straw, meadow hay,
+or swale hay is used for bedding. Shavings make good material for this
+purpose if they do not contain too much sawdust. The principal objection
+to shavings is that it takes longer to bed with them. Often a few joists
+are laid at the back of the house on which to pile bales of straw or
+other bedding so that it will be kept dry and will serve as an emergency
+supply available for bedding the house in stormy days. The houses should
+be bedded fairly often in order to keep the floors clean and dry and so
+as not to allow the ducks' feet to get cold. The frequency with which
+bedding is necessary will depend upon the weather. In winter it may at
+times be necessary to bed every day. In May it may be necessary only
+twice a week and still later in the season only once a week. In wet
+weather the ducks track in lots of mud and water and frequent bedding
+helps to keep the eggs clean. The houses are cleaned out only once a
+year and this is usually done after the ducks have stopped laying. To
+clean out the houses while the ducks are laying would disturb them and
+tend to stop their egg production.
+
+_Cleaning the Breeding Yards._ The yards should be cleaned whenever they
+need it, that is, whenever they begin to get sloppy or sticky. It is a
+matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary. The character of
+the soil influences this, as sandy yards absorb the droppings better and
+do not need cleaning as frequently as heavier soils. In the yards for
+the breeding ducks, or the water yards, this will as a rule not be over
+2 or 3 times a season. In dry weather cleaning is accomplished by
+sweeping the yards with a broom. In wet weather the droppings spread
+over the yard and are packed down by the ducks' feet until they form a
+layer of putty-like material which cannot be swept off but is scraped
+off by means of a hoe.
+
+_Water Yards for Breeders._ Formerly it was the consensus of opinion
+that breeders needed water in which they could swim in order to keep in
+good breeding condition and to give the best results in fertility of the
+eggs. At present it is not considered necessary to have sufficient
+water to permit swimming although many breeders prefer to do this and
+feel that they get better results from it. However, breeding ducks have
+been and are being kept successfully in dry yards where water is
+supplied to them simply in an amount sufficient to allow them to drink
+and to clean themselves. Where water yards are provided this should not
+be on stagnant water but there should be some circulation of the water
+so as to keep it clean and fresh. Where the lay of the land is such that
+it is not possible to run all the yards down to a stream for this
+purpose it is sometimes possible to dig a canal or ditch from the stream
+to the yards so as to allow the ducks access to the water. Where the
+yards can extend into the water it saves a great deal of labor or
+considerable expense in equipment as it is not then necessary to provide
+the ducks with drinking water by means of some artificial arrangement
+such as a concrete gutter or ditch extending through the yards or by
+means of artificial ponds.
+
+If the water yards used freeze over in winter it is necessary to cut
+holes in the ice so that the ducks can get water for drinking purposes.
+Sometimes the ducks will go into these water holes and after getting
+their plumage wet will come out and sit down in the yard and freeze fast
+to the ground. During such weather conditions it is necessary to make
+the rounds of the yards frequently and to loosen any ducks that have
+frozen fast. If they are left in that condition they are apt to
+injure themselves in trying to pull free and if left too long will die.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. Another successful type of house for breeding
+ducks. It is 20 ft. by 40 ft. and is divided into two pens each of which
+will accommodate 100 breeders. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. Meal time for the breeders. (_Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Feeding the Breeders._ Breeding ducks are fed twice a day, in the
+morning and at night. It is usual practice to feed the breeders last in
+the morning and first at night. The reason for feeding them last in the
+morning is that they are usually fed in the yards rather than the house
+and they should be kept in until they are through laying which will be
+after daylight. A good breeding ration consists of the following, the
+proportions being given by measure in bushels.
+
+1 bushel bran.
+1 bushel low-grade flour.
+1 bushel corn meal.
+1 bushel green feed.
+1/2 bushel either raw or cooked vegetables.
+1 bushel in 10 of beef scrap.
+1/2 bushel in 10 of cooked fish.
+
+This ration will keep the breeding ducks in good flesh but there will be
+no difficulty in their getting too fat. It is also a good laying ration
+and will promote good egg production. The vegetables used in this ration
+usually consist of sugar beets, cow beets, potatoes, etc. However, if
+potatoes are used the amount of flour in the ration should be reduced a
+little so as not to make the ration too heavy. Beets, when used, are fed
+raw cut up and mixed in the feed. Small potatoes, boiled and mixed in
+the feed are more valuable as they have a greater food value than beets.
+Some duck growers feed fish entirely, using no beef scrap. This is done
+where a plentiful supply of fish can be secured by going out into the
+bay after them. However, this is not very good practice for a sufficient
+supply of fish may not always be available and the ducks are so fond of
+the fish that they will not eat well the beef scrap used as a substitute
+for the fish, until they have become used to it. Fish is prepared for
+feeding by boiling it thoroughly in a feed cooker.
+
+The available land on the plant is used to grow a supply of green feed.
+Rye is used for this purpose early in the spring as soon as it is high
+enough to mow. It is mowed the first time when it is like a lawn. At
+this stage it does not have to be cut up. Oats are used in the same way.
+During the summer fodder corn is used. This is the poorest crop for the
+purpose but is as a rule the only one available at that time. Rape is
+sowed in August and its use begun about the time of the first frost and
+kept up until the hard freezes come or until it is buried under the
+snow. Creek grass which is secured from the fresh water streams on Long
+Island by going out in a flat bottom boat and raking it off the creek
+bottom with a wooden rake, is very much relished by the ducks and is
+used whenever it is available. However, the supply of this material is
+not as plentiful as it was formerly and it is rather hard to get. When
+it is available it can be used either in winter or summer.
+
+Good field clover cut up and boiled with the potatoes or with the fish
+makes a good green feed. All of these green materials for use in the
+ration, unless they are already in short lengths, are cut up by means of
+a power feed cutter before they are mixed in the mash. When no other
+form of green feed is available ground alfalfa is used but only half as
+much of this material is mixed with the ration as is used of any of the
+other kinds of green feed. Wherever possible the various duck yards
+should be used to grow a crop of green stuff such as oats or rye as this
+not only helps out on the supply of green feed but also helps to sweeten
+the soil. The growing of a crop on the heavier types of soil used for
+ducks is especially important as such soils are more likely to become
+contaminated from the droppings.
+
+The ration for the ducks is mixed up in a power feed mixer which works
+much on the principle of a power dough mixer. In fact, dough mixers are
+used on some plants. In mixing the feed enough water should be added to
+bring the material to a consistency where it will hold together when
+squeezed in the hand. In fact, the consistency should be between crumbly
+and sticky, but should never be sloppy. The feed is dumped from the
+mixer into a low horse drawn wagon and driven around to the various
+yards where it is shoveled off on to the feed troughs or trays. On some
+large duck plants a track is provided which runs over the yards and over
+this a car loaded with feed is pushed and the feed shoveled into the
+feed trays.
+
+The breeders should be fed in the same place. If feeding is begun in the
+house this practice should be continued. If feeding is begun in the
+yards it should be continued there. To change disturbs the ducks and
+interferes with their egg production.
+
+Coarse ground oyster shell about as large as corn should be kept before
+the breeders all the time in boxes where they can help themselves. A
+flock of 700 or 800 breeders will eat upwards of 200 pounds a week of
+this material. Unless sand is available in the yards where they can get
+it, ducks should also have access to a supply of good sharp creek sand
+but when kept in sand yards no other form of grit need be furnished.
+
+The usual method of feeding is to utilize flat troughs on which the feed
+is shoveled. Only as much feed should be given at the regular feeding
+time as the ducks will eat up clean. This makes it necessary to watch
+the feeding carefully and to regulate the amount accordingly. It is good
+practice to gather up any feed that is left by the ducks so that it will
+not lie there to sour and spoil as such feed is bad for the birds.
+
+
+Egg Production
+
+The average egg production of Pekin ducks kept under commercial farm
+conditions will run from 80 to 125 eggs per head for the season. This
+will vary somewhat from year to year and also with the management and
+feed given the ducks. The laying begins to a small extent about December
+1 and gradually increases until the ducks are laying freely in February.
+As the hot weather of summer begins to come on the laying drops off
+until about July 1 and after this not enough eggs are produced as a rule
+to pay to hold the breeding ducks longer. Often many ducks will stop
+laying considerably before this, especially those which have started
+laying early and it may not pay to keep such pens later than May. Laying
+takes place early in the morning and practically all the eggs are laid
+soon after daylight. It is for this reason that the ducks are usually
+shut up at night so that all the eggs laid will be secured as some of
+them would otherwise be lost by their being laid around in the yard or
+in the water. In the spring the ducks can be let out about 6 a. m., as
+the laying will be pretty well over by that time, but in winter they
+must be kept shut up later in order to secure all the eggs. After the
+ducks start laying in the spring they are very regular and continuous
+layers and will miss fewer days than most hens.
+
+After the breeding ducks are first put in the breeding pens and shut in
+the houses at night it is common practice to use electric lights for the
+first 2 or 3 weeks in order to keep them from stampeding as ducks in
+strange surroundings are quite nervous and are quite likely to stampede
+and to run over one another thus causing cripples. Electric lights have
+also been used to some extent during the late fall and winter for the
+purpose of inducing egg production earlier than the natural season. As a
+rule the ducks can be started to laying about 4 weeks after turning on
+the lights but the average production under this system is not likely to
+run more than 60 eggs for the season as so handled they moult quite
+early in the spring. A single 25 watt light is sufficient for a house or
+pen 16 x 24 feet and the lights are left turned on all night.
+
+The object in feeding and caring for the breeding ducks is to keep them
+from moulting and to keep them laying as long as possible. It must be
+remembered that any radical change in feed or manner of feeding,
+shutting them up too closely, change of temperature, or other disturbing
+conditions are likely to cause moulting and to check egg production. Any
+change in feed must be made carefully and gradually, not suddenly. It
+must also be remembered that ducks are excitable birds and must be
+handled and driven carefully so as to disturb them as little as
+possible.
+
+
+Time of Marketing Breeders
+
+The breeders should be turned off to market whenever their egg
+production drops off so decidedly that it no longer pays to hold them.
+In most cases this will be about the 1st of July but it may range
+considerably earlier than this, especially with pens of ducks that have
+started laying early. When the ducks finish laying their eggs they begin
+to moult and it is at this time that they should be marketed. If
+marketing is delayed, the ducks will lose condition as the moulting
+progresses and will therefore be held at a loss.
+
+
+Diseases and Pests
+
+_Disease._ Old ducks, that is, mature ducks, are practically free from
+disease. Of course, there will be a certain amount of loss in the
+breeding stock from various causes but this should not run for the
+entire season more than 10% of the flock. Ducks do not become egg bound,
+but sometimes, especially during heavy laying, they become ruptured.
+
+_Insect Pests._ Ducks are remarkably free from lice and other insect
+pests and those which they do have do not trouble them much. It is
+unnecessary therefore to take any precautions in the way of treating the
+ducks to keep them free of insects.
+
+_Dogs._ Occasionally trouble may be experienced from dogs. If these
+animals get into the yards with the breeders or the fattening ducks,
+they may kill a good many and in addition will seriously injure the rest
+by chasing them and by the fright which the ducks are given.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Incubation
+
+
+The Pekin duck is essentially a non-broody breed. It, therefore, becomes
+necessary to resort to incubators for the purpose of hatching the eggs.
+Occasional ducks will sit if allowed to do so but it is not the practice
+on commercial duck farms to allow them to sit and hatch their young. No
+special means are taken to break them of broodiness other than not to
+allow them eggs to sit on.
+
+_Kinds of Incubators Used._ Both the smaller kerosene lamp heated
+incubators and the large or mammoth hot water heated incubators are used
+for hatching duck eggs. At the present time the mammoth hot water
+machines are those which are in principal use due largely to the
+lessened labor required to operate them.
+
+_Incubator Cellar._ It is necessary to provide some room in which the
+incubators can be installed and operated. This may take the form of a
+cellar, or the incubators may be operated in rooms above the ground.
+Many of the incubator cellars on duck farms are only partially under
+ground and not a few of them are built entirely out of ground. The
+particular size and shape of the cellar or incubator room will, of
+course, depend upon the number of incubators to be installed and upon
+their make and shape. Usually these buildings are constructed with
+rather thick walls so that the temperature of the room will fluctuate
+less with changes in outside temperature. Provision is also necessary by
+means of windows or other ventilating devices to provide for good
+ventilation in the room. The cellars are usually constructed with cement
+floors as moisture is used freely and wooden floors would rot out
+quickly.
+
+_Incubator Capacity Required._ The aim on commercial duck farms is to
+hatch all of the eggs produced which are suitable for the purpose.
+Practically no eggs are sold except the cracked eggs or those which
+would not give good results in the incubator such as too large or too
+small eggs. Occasionally, of course, there will be sales of duck eggs in
+comparatively large lots for incubation purposes where someone is
+starting a duck farm. Occasionally also duck farmers buy from each other
+a few eggs for incubation in order to secure new blood. On the whole,
+however, practically all of the eggs laid are incubated and it is
+necessary to have an incubator capacity sufficient to take care of the
+eggs as they are produced during the flush season.
+
+Since the egg production at this time will run around about 80% and
+since the period of incubation is 28 days and a couple more days must be
+allowed to take the ducklings out of the machines and to clean up the
+machines, it is necessary to figure on 30 days between hatches. To take
+care of the flush production at this time there would be required an
+incubator capacity of from 20 to 25 eggs per head of breeding ducks. The
+latter figure is a safer estimate than the former. Of course, eggs
+sufficient to fill the entire incubator capacity are not put in the
+machines at any one time but different lots are put in as soon as a
+sufficient number is obtained to make it worth while. There will be,
+therefore, eggs in various stages of incubation in different sections of
+the machines at the same time. While Pekin duck eggs will run about 1/2
+heavier in weight than hens' eggs they do not take up a proportionately
+greater amount of space in the incubator. An incubator tray will
+accommodate about 5/6 as many Pekin duck eggs as it will hens' eggs.
+
+_Age of Hatching Eggs._ Duck eggs should be set as often as enough are
+secured to fill one or more trays in the incubator or enough to produce
+a sufficient number of ducklings to utilize brooding space to advantage.
+Since duck eggs deteriorate more rapidly than hens' eggs they cannot be
+kept so long before they are set. It is best not to save them for longer
+than one week. During the season of flush production it is not, of
+course, necessary to save them that long since enough eggs will be
+secured to set each day if desired. The usual practice at this time is
+to set twice a week. During the early part of the season when the
+production of eggs is low and the temperature cool the eggs are often
+saved for as long a period as two weeks without noticeably bad results.
+
+_Care of Hatching Eggs._ Eggs for hatching should be kept in a cool
+place. Any place suitable for keeping hens' eggs for hatching is a
+suitable place for duck eggs. The temperature should be from 50 deg. to 70 deg.
+Fahrenheit. Where the eggs are not kept longer than one week, it is not
+necessary to turn them, especially if they are kept on end. If kept
+longer than this it is safer to turn them once a day or once in two
+days, handling them carefully so as not to crack any or to injure their
+hatching qualities.
+
+_Selecting the Eggs for Hatching._ Medium sized eggs are preferred for
+this purpose. Therefore, the extremely large eggs and the very small
+ones are thrown out. Rough shelled eggs or eggs with crooked or deformed
+shells are likewise thrown out since they are not likely to hatch well.
+Eggs that are badly soiled so that they cannot be tested easily are
+washed but the clean eggs are not. All the eggs intended for incubation
+purposes are sounded by striking them gently against one another in
+order to detect and remove the cracked eggs. No selection is made on the
+basis of color. The eggs may be white, creamy white or a blue, or bluish
+green in color. At the present time a considerably less proportion of
+the eggs show a blue tint than formerly. As the egg laying season
+advances the eggs laid by the ducks tend to get a little larger.
+
+_Temperature._ Up to the time of testing, that is, about the fifth day,
+the incubator is run at a temperature of from 101 to 102 degrees. After
+the fifth day the temperature is kept as near 103 as possible. The most
+sensitive period for a duck egg is during the first 3 or 4 days of
+incubation. If they are allowed to get too warm during this time the
+germ may be killed while if the temperature is too low, development will
+be retarded.
+
+_Position of the Thermometer._ In figuring on the proper temperature at
+which to run the incubator, the thermometer should be so placed that the
+bulb is on a level with the top of the eggs, preferably touching a
+fertile egg. If the thermometer bulb rests on an infertile egg the
+temperature recorded will be lower than the actual temperature of
+fertile eggs in the later stages of incubation, due to the animal heat
+of the developing embryos, with the result that the machine would be
+operated at too high a temperature.
+
+_Testing._ It is common practice to make only one complete test. This is
+done on the evening of the fifth day. Testing may be done by means of an
+ordinary candling device such as is used with hens' eggs, each egg being
+examined separately. To save time a piece of apparatus may be used which
+is simple in construction and which simplifies the process of candling
+considerably. This may be termed a testing table. It consists of a
+table the same width as an incubator tray and longer than the tray. In
+the table there is an opening the size of a row of eggs and beneath this
+are placed several electric light bulbs with reflectors back of them so
+as to throw the light up through the eggs. By sliding the tray along the
+table each row of eggs is brought over the lights and their condition
+can be quickly noted. At this test all the infertile eggs are taken out
+as well as any eggs in which the germs have died. The infertile eggs
+after a careful retest are then packed in cases and sent to market where
+they are usually sold to bakers as tested eggs. While no second test is
+made of the eggs left in the machines the experienced incubator operator
+is constantly on the watch for and is constantly removing any eggs which
+die at a later time. To the experienced eye the color of the egg
+indicates that it has died as it takes on a sort of pinkish or darkish
+tint. Duck eggs after they die will spoil very quickly and must be
+removed promptly as the odor which they throw off is very strong and
+will prove harmful to the other eggs. The inexperienced operator can
+readily locate dead eggs by smelling over the tray.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. Interior of house for breeding ducks. Notice the
+heavy bedding and the feeding track. (_Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. Incubator cellar on large duck plant. Trays of
+eggs set out to turn and cool. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Turning the Eggs._ The eggs are neither turned, cooled nor otherwise
+disturbed after they are put in the incubator until after they are
+tested on the fifth day. From this time on they are turned twice a day,
+morning and night, until they begin to pip.
+
+_Cooling the Eggs._ There is a considerable difference in the practice
+of incubator operators with regard to cooling. No cooling should be done
+until after the first test. After this some incubator men cool the eggs
+by dropping the doors of the machine. Others take the trays of eggs out
+and put them on top of the machine. Cooling is usually done once a day.
+The amount of cooling which the eggs require seems to vary greatly and
+here again the judgment of the operator comes into play. About the best
+general rule which can be given is that the eggs should be cooled until
+they do not feel warm to the face but they should never be cooled to the
+extent that they feel cold to the face or hands. The length of time to
+bring this about varies with the age of the eggs and the temperature of
+the room.
+
+_Moisture._ A good deal of moisture is used in incubating duck eggs. It
+is usual to begin to spray the eggs with water the next day after
+testing. However, this may vary anywhere from the sixth to the tenth
+day. They are sprayed quite thoroughly, some men using water enough so
+that it runs out of the bottom of the machine. No particular care is
+taken to see that the water used is warm. Ordinary water just as it
+comes from the pipes is commonly used and is applied by means of a spray
+nozzle attached to a hose. However, extremely cold water should not be
+used for this purpose. This spraying is done once or twice a day as the
+operator may think necessary until the eggs begin to hatch. In many
+cases even then if the ducklings seem to be drying too fast after they
+come out of the shell, or to be having difficulty to get out it is well
+to open the machines and wet the eggs down thoroughly.
+
+_Fertility._ The fertility varies with the season that is, with the
+weather. At the beginning of the laying season when the weather is cold
+the fertility usually runs rather low. This is likewise true at the end
+of the laying season when the heat of summer sets in. During the
+interval between these two times of low fertility there will usually be
+one or more periods during which the fertility will go down and then
+come back again. This seems to occur even though the weather remains
+about the same and though there is no change in the method of feeding.
+Fertility may be considered to be good when it runs about 85%. When the
+fertility is running poor the hatching of the eggs left in the machines
+after testing will usually be poor also.
+
+_Hatching._ It takes longer as a rule from the time that the ducklings
+pip the eggs until they hatch than it does with chicks. To retain the
+moisture which is so necessary during hatching, the machines are usually
+shut tightly and are not opened until the hatching is pretty well
+completed unless it becomes necessary to add more moisture as indicated
+above. The little ducklings should be left in the incubator until the
+hatching is over and they are thoroughly dried off. As soon as the
+hatching is completed, the ventilators in the machines are opened to
+hasten the drying process. If the ducklings open their bills and pant
+it is an indication that they are not getting enough ventilation and
+this should be supplied by fastening the machine door open a little way.
+If the ducks are not ready to be taken out of the machines by noon or
+soon after, it is best to leave them until the next morning before
+removing them to the brooder house. In the meantime, however, the old
+eggs and shells and other refuse should be taken out. Usually the hatch
+is completed in time so that the ducklings can be removed to the brooder
+house on the afternoon of the 28th day. As a rule the earlier the hatch
+is completed the better are the ducklings.
+
+Figures secured on results in hatching for the entire season on Long
+Island duck farms indicate that as a whole the duck raisers will not
+average much over 40% hatch of all eggs set. Some hatches may run as
+high as 60% or even more and in some seasons the average percentage will
+run higher than 40. Some especially skilled operators may also secure
+considerably better average results than this. It is quite a common
+practice on the part of duck farmers to pay their incubator man a bonus
+on all ducklings over 40% hatched during the season. This bonus may
+range anywhere from $1 to $5 per thousand ducklings. Such an arrangement
+serves to give the incubator man a greater incentive to give the
+machines good attention and to secure just the best results of which he
+is capable.
+
+_Selling Baby Ducks._ Within the last two or three years there has
+sprung into existence a small but increasing trade in baby ducks. They
+are handled and shipped about the same as baby chicks. Baby ducks are
+ready for shipment as soon as they are thoroughly dry, usually about 12
+hours after the hatch starts to come off. They are neither fed nor
+watered before shipment and are packed in cardboard boxes used in
+shipping baby chicks. As a rule the shipping boxes will accommodate
+about half the number of ducklings that they will chicks. Of course the
+outside temperature very largely governs the matter of the number to a
+compartment. In warm summer weather, a two compartment box intended for
+50 chicks will accommodate 26 ducklings if well ventilated at the sides
+and top. They are shipped by parcel post and can be sent anywhere within
+a radius of one thousand miles if the trip does not require more than 36
+hours. For best results the ducklings should not be allowed to go much
+beyond this length of time before they are fed. On receipt they should
+be placed immediately in a brooder already prepared for them.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Brooding and Rearing the Young Stock
+
+
+Young ducks are easier to brood than chicks. They seem to learn more
+quickly where the source of heat is and they are less likely to cause
+trouble from crowding. They are also less subject to disease.
+
+_Removing the Newly Hatched Ducklings to the Brooder House._ The
+ducklings should be left in the incubator until they are thoroughly
+dried off. Usually they will be dried so that they can be moved on the
+afternoon of the 28th day of incubation. If, however, they are not ready
+early in the afternoon it is best to leave them in the machine until the
+next morning. In moving the ducklings, place them in boxes, baskets or
+other suitable carriers and cover them with burlap or cloth to avoid any
+danger of the ducklings becoming chilled.
+
+_Brooder Houses Repaired._ There are many different types and styles of
+brooder houses which are used with success. For this reason only one
+type of each class of brooder house needed is described in detail. These
+particular houses have been in successful use for a considerable period
+of time and are given because they embody all the necessary requisites
+for such houses and at the same time utilize the space to good advantage
+and are economical in construction.
+
+In general there are required three different brooder houses. The first
+of these requires sufficient heating capacity so that the temperature of
+the house itself can be maintained at 65 to 70 degrees even in the cold
+weather of winter or early spring. In addition, hovers are required in
+this house under which a temperature can be maintained from 80 to 90
+degrees. For convenience this house will be spoken of as brooder house
+No. 1. A second brooder house which can be called brooder house No. 2
+will be required which is equipped with heating apparatus so that the
+temperature can be run up to 60 degrees when required. The third brooder
+house known as brooder house No. 3 is a cold brooder house or one
+without artificial heat. It furnishes shelter for the young ducks where
+they can be driven in at night and during the day in cold weather. As
+the ducklings pass out of the brooder house No. 3 they are housed in
+sheds or shelters with yards which usually extend into the water but
+which may not do so in all cases.
+
+
+Brooder House No. 1
+
+The length of this house determines its capacity, the required amount of
+which will depend upon the output of any particular plant. There should
+be brooder capacity in this house sufficient to care for approximately
+1/4 of the total output for the year at one time.
+
+_Construction of House._ A suitable house which has been in practical
+use for some time consists of one 20 feet wide and running east and west
+with windows in the south or front side. If the location were right such
+a house could be run north and south to good advantage and should then
+have windows on each side so as to let in the sunlight from both
+directions. The front wall of this house is 7 feet high, the back wall 4
+feet. The ridge of the house is about 2 feet in front of the center, the
+front slope of the roof having an eight inch pitch while the back slope
+has a 6 inch pitch. The roof rafters are 2 x 4's placed every two feet.
+The studs and plates are likewise 2 x 4. The walls are made of matched
+material. The roof is constructed of 1 x 2 inch strips placed every 4
+inches and these covered with shingles. Tie beams every 8 feet extend
+from front to rear plates. This particular brooder house is not ceiled
+but a good tight ceiling 8 feet above the walk or runway would make it
+easier to keep the house clean and would also render it somewhat easier
+in cold weather to maintain the temperature desired. The house is built
+on a concrete wall or foundation and a dirt floor is used but the dirt
+must be filled in well above the level of the ground outside so that
+there is no danger of water coming into the house or the floors becoming
+damp or sloppy. Windows are placed in the front wall, one to each pen.
+In every other pen there is a small door in the back of the house to
+facilitate cleaning out the pens. A window can be substituted for this
+door to good advantage as it makes the house lighter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. Interior of No. 1 brooder house showing walk and
+hover combined in the middle of the house and pens on each side.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Heating Apparatus._ Heat is furnished by means of a coal burning stove
+which heats water and causes it to circulate through pipes run the
+length of the house. The heater must always be placed in the windward
+end of the building as otherwise it is hard to get the heat down to the
+other end as the wind tends to drive it back. The hot water pipes are
+carried down the center of the house and the return pipes are located in
+the same place. A low partition is run lengthwise of the house dividing
+the pipes and thus forming double pens, half extending from the center
+to the front and half from the center to the rear of the house. The
+pipes and the partition between them is covered over with boards making
+a 4 foot walk or runway directly over the pipes, which comes into most
+convenient use as a place to convey, by means of a wheelbarrow, feed or
+other material needed in the house, and as a convenient place from which
+to care for the ducklings in the pens on each side. This board covering
+over the pipes also serves to hold the heat and thus forms hovers.
+
+It is advisable to partition off the first third of the house, that is,
+the portion in which the heater is located, with a solid partition. Then
+by having suitable valves in the pipes, the heat can be cut off from
+the rest of the house and only the smaller partitioned off end used as a
+separate and independent section of the brooder. This is especially
+useful when only a small number of ducklings are being hatched early in
+the spring when the weather is cold and it may be difficult to heat the
+whole building properly. It is also economical in fuel under such
+conditions.
+
+If, on the other hand, the number of ducklings hatched during the cold
+weather is so large that all or nearly all of the house capacity is
+needed to care for them, it will usually pay to install an additional
+heater, the pipes from which can be run along the rear wall of the
+building, in order to keep up a proper house temperature when the
+weather is severe.
+
+_Pens._ Having the hovers in the center of the house, makes it possible
+to have double sets of pens, one running from the center to the front
+wall and the other from the center to the rear wall. The pens are
+divided off by means of partitions made of one foot boards. These are
+high enough to confine the ducklings to their own pen and at the same
+time are easy to step over. In a house of this width, 20 feet, with 4
+feet in the center taken up by the double hovers or walk, each pen is 8
+feet long in the clear or 10 feet to the partition under the hover. The
+pens in the first third of the house are made 5 feet wide, in the next
+third 6 feet and in the last third 7 feet wide. When the ducklings are
+first brought from the incubator cellar they are placed in the pens
+nearest the heater as the temperature will run somewhat higher there
+than in the portions of the house more remote from the heater. These 5 x
+10 foot pens will accommodate 125 baby ducklings although better results
+will be obtained by placing only 100 in a pen if sufficient room is
+available. Some duck growers use boards which can be slipped into slots
+made of cleats nailed to the pen partitions at different distances from
+the hover and which serve to confine the baby ducklings close to the
+hover for the first few days or until they learn to go under the hover
+to get warm.
+
+As additional ducklings are hatched later and brought to the brooder
+house, the ducklings already there are moved along the necessary number
+of pens in order to accommodate the new-comers in the pens nearest the
+heater. For this purpose, a small door is made in each partition next
+the outside wall of the house through which the ducklings can be driven.
+A broom is a handy implement to use in driving the ducklings as they can
+be pushed along in front of it. It is best to drive the ducklings just
+after they have been fed as they are not so nervous and afraid at that
+time.
+
+The increased width of the pens in the second and third portions of the
+house is for the purpose of taking care of the growth of the ducklings
+as they are moved along the house. Pens of the same width as those in
+which they were started become too crowded as the ducklings increase in
+size.
+
+_Equipment of the Pen._ The equipment of the pens is quite simple. Water
+is piped through the house along both walls so that it is available to
+each pen. A spigot is provided in each pen and under this is placed the
+drinking dish, which consists of a round metal pan about a foot in
+diameter and 3 or 4 inches deep. A square pan should never be used as
+the ducklings are apt to get their bills caught in the corners. One
+quarter inch mesh wire netting is bent in a circle and placed in the
+drinking dish as a guard to keep the ducklings from getting into the
+pan. This guard should be made of such size that there is a space
+between the wire and the edge of the dish of about 1-1/2 inches all around.
+This guard should be about 8 inches high. The water pan itself is set
+upon a wire covered frame about 18 inches square under which is dug a
+pit 4 or 5 inches deep to drain away any water which the ducklings slop
+out of the pan. Such an arrangement keeps the pens from becoming sloppy
+and damp.
+
+Each pen must also have a flat metal dish on which to place the feed for
+the little ducks. Metal pans are better than wooden feeding trays as
+they are easier to keep clean.
+
+In each pen is provided a small hopper filled with fine sharp creek sand
+to which the ducklings have access at all times. Some duck growers
+prefer to mix the sand in the feed rather than to provide it in hoppers.
+After the ducklings are allowed to run in the yards, sand need not be
+furnished if the yards are sand as the ducklings will help
+themselves. If the land in the yards is not sand, however, it is
+necessary to continue to furnish this material.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. Watering arrangement in the brooder pens for
+young ducklings. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. Another type of No. 1 brooder house. Here the
+hovers are along the back of the house and the work is done from an
+alleyway along the front. The box with handles on top of the hover is
+used in carrying the newly hatched ducklings from the incubator cellar
+to the brooder house. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Grading and Sorting the Ducklings._ As the ducklings are moved from pen
+to pen through this house as well as the other houses, they are
+constantly graded for size and thriftiness, the smaller, less thrifty
+individuals being left with younger lots. Some ducklings do not grow as
+quickly as others, and these if left with ducklings larger than
+themselves will not get their share of the feed and will not do as well.
+In this connection it should be noted that when young ducks are not
+fairly clean it is a good indication that they are not doing as well as
+they should.
+
+_Cleaning and Bedding the Pens._ Careful attention must be given to
+keeping the pens and the ducklings themselves clean if they are to do
+well. Therefore the pens must be cleaned out as often as may be
+necessary to accomplish this purpose. The judgment of the brooder man
+must decide how often this is necessary but it will be at least once a
+week. When cleaning the pens the old bedding is thrown out from the
+front pens through the windows and from the back pens through the door
+provided in the rear wall for this purpose. Bedding the pens must be
+done more frequently, usually about every other day. Fresh bedding will
+help to absorb the droppings and will keep the pens from becoming sloppy
+or sticky. For bedding, straw, meadow hay, swale hay or any other
+suitable material available should be utilized.
+
+_Ventilation._ Plenty of ventilation is required in the brooder house in
+order to take out the ammonia odor which arises from the droppings.
+Properly managed, the doors and windows provide sufficient means of
+ventilation but some duck growers prefer to have roof ventilators in
+addition.
+
+_Other Types of Brooder Houses._ Many other types of brooder houses are
+used, some of them being shed roof construction and many of them being
+built narrower than this house, that is to say, 14, 16 or 18 feet wide
+with an alleyway along the front or rear side of the house from which
+the work is done. The hovers are placed at the back of the pens when the
+alley-way is in the front, otherwise, they are placed next to the
+alley-way. The disadvantages of these houses are that only single pens
+are provided and that valuable brooding space is used up by the
+alley-way. The advantages of the house described above lie in the fact
+that the hovers are in the center of the house with the pens on each
+side of this, thus doubling the capacity, and that by making use of a
+walk over the hover pipe no room is wasted in an alley-way. Having pens
+on each side also lessens the labor of taking care of the ducklings to
+some extent as the arrangement is more compact.
+
+
+Length of Time in Brooder
+
+_In House No. 1._ As a rule the ducklings are kept in the No. 1 house
+until they are from 2 to 3 weeks old, this of course depending somewhat
+upon the time of year and the weather and also upon the number of
+ducklings for which accommodations must be provided at any particular
+time. As the ducks are moved down through the house and eventually reach
+the last pens they are taken from this house and placed in brooder house
+No. 2.
+
+_Brooder House No. 2._ This is a heated house like brooder house No. 1
+but in which it is not necessary to maintain so high a temperature.
+Sufficient heating apparatus should be installed to make it possible to
+maintain the temperature at 60 degrees if this becomes necessary in the
+early spring.
+
+The particular brooder house described is 14 feet wide and has a shed
+roof. It is provided with a window in the front of each pen. No openings
+are required along the back since this is not a double pen house. The
+space in such a house could undoubtedly be used to better advantage if
+it were constructed as wide as the No. 1 house and the hot water pipes
+and walk put through the middle of the house so as to provide double
+pens. In this house the hot water pipes are run along the rear of the
+pens, and while hovers are not really necessary, a walk is constructed
+over the pipes in order to save space and provide a convenient place
+from which to do the work, and this forms hovers.
+
+Ordinarily after May 1 no heat is needed in the No. 2 house. The pens in
+this house are 12 feet wide and they are equipped with feeding and
+watering arrangements as in brooder house No. 1. As the ducklings are
+moved to this house from the No. 1 house from 150 to 200 are placed in
+each pen. They are moved through the house from pen to pen in the same
+manner as in the No. 1 house to make way for new arrivals. As a rule
+they stay in this house about two weeks depending somewhat on the
+weather and upon the number of ducklings being brooded. Yards are used
+in connection with this house which are the same width as the pens and
+50 feet in length. As in the No. 1 house the pens in this house should
+be cleaned at least once a week and they should be bedded with straw or
+other bedding material every other day. As soon as the ducks have been
+moved through this No. 2 house they are put in brooder house No. 3.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. Brooder house No. 2 and yards. The trees furnish
+fine shade for the growing ducklings. (_Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+Brooder House No. 3
+
+This is a shed roof house 16 feet wide equipped with single pens. No
+heat is required in this house. Yards of the same width as the pens and
+50 feet deep are used. Usually the ducks are fed outside the house from
+a wagon driven along a roadway just in front of the yards.
+
+The pens are 16 feet wide and the same number of ducks is used in them
+as in the No. 2 house. As a rule the ducks stay in this house about 2
+weeks and are then moved to the duck pens or shelters with the larger
+yards which may or may not have water. From this point on the ducks are
+termed yard ducks.
+
+In all three of the brooder houses the young ducks are supplied with
+their drinking water from pipes through the houses. They are not given
+access to water until they are moved to the yards.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. Brooder house No. 3. At the time this picture
+was taken there were no ducklings in the house and advantage was taken
+of this fact to give it a good cleaning by throwing out the bedding and
+droppings, which will be hauled away and spread on cropped land.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. Long brooder house and yards with feeding track.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. Upper--Pekin ducklings 3 days old. Lower--Pekin
+ducklings 2 weeks old. Duck egg used for size comparison. (_Photographs
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. Upper--Pekin ducklings 3 weeks old. Lower--Pekin
+ducklings 6 weeks old. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry,
+U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. Interior of a cold brooder house. The low
+partitions can easily be stepped over. (_Photograph from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Yard Accommodations for Ducklings
+
+As the ducklings get to be 8 weeks old they can stand ordinary weather
+conditions and it is not absolutely necessary to have houses for them.
+However, it is common and good practice to provide shelter where they
+can be housed at night and can take refuge from storms. A suitable house
+for this purpose consists of a building 16 x 24 feet divided into two
+parts with 200 ducklings to a side. This house is 5 feet high in front
+and 3-1/2 feet in back. It is set on posts with a baseboard around it to
+make it tight. It can be constructed of matched stuff or unmatched stuff
+covered with paper. The front is left open but curtains are placed on
+the front which can be used to close the openings so as to keep out the
+snow. These are used only in the winter. When the ducklings are first
+started in these sheds they are shut in when desired by means of wire
+panels fitted into the lower part of the open front. The ducklings are
+left in these yards and fed there until they are ready for market.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. Eat, drink and grow fat for tomorrow they die.
+Fattening or yard ducks with fattening house or shelter used.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Shade._ Shade is important for the ducklings as soon as the sun gets
+hot. Exposure to the sun without shade will cause quite a heavy loss in
+ducklings. If natural shade is not furnished by trees, some artificial
+means must be adopted to supply the shade. This may take the form of
+shelters or low frames covered with boards, brush or burlap.
+
+_Feeding._ The first feed and water is given as soon as the ducks are
+placed in the No. 1 brooder house or when 24 to 36 hours old. They are
+fed 3 times a day, in the morning about 6 a. m., at noon, and at night
+about 4:30 or 5 o'clock. The time of feeding should be regular, and
+fairly early in the morning but not any earlier in the afternoon than
+one can help so that the time between the evening and the morning feed
+will not be too long. Some growers prefer to feed 4 or 5 times daily for
+the first week or two. The birds are fed as much as they will clean up
+at each feeding and if any feed is left it should be gathered up so that
+it will not sour and cause digestive troubles.
+
+The first feed consists of the following:--One measure corn meal, one
+measure bran, one measure ground crackers, stale bread or shredded wheat
+waste, one measure in 10 of beef scrap or fish, one measure in 6 of
+creek grass or other very fine green stuff. Green rye or oats should
+never be used for this purpose after it becomes jointed. If the feed is
+mixed up with cold water about -1/2 measure of low-grade wheat flour should
+be used to cause it to stick together. If hot water is used in the
+mixing this is not needed.
+
+Sand must be fed either by mixing it in to the extent of about 3% of the
+ration or the sand can be fed separately in hoppers as previously
+described. This same mixture may be fed in the No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3
+brooder houses, or in other words, until ducklings go to the yards, or
+ration No. 2 given below may be substituted either at the start or after
+a week or ten days. After the ducklings go to the yards the following
+fattening ration is used: 200 pounds corn meal, 100 pounds low-grade
+flour, 100 pounds bran, 1 part in 10 of beef scrap and 2 tubs or bushels
+of green stuff. Some duck growers prefer to feed 300 pounds of corn meal
+instead of 200 pounds. This ration like the other is fed 3 times a day.
+Of course, there are many different rations in use with good results,
+every grower having more or less personal preferences in this matter. A
+proper proportion of animal feed, consisting of beef scrap or fish is
+very important as the ducklings will not grow and make normal gains if
+this is omitted or reduced in amount.
+
+Much has been written about the feeding of celery seed to fattening
+ducklings for the purpose of improving the flavor of the flesh and
+formerly ducklings were advertised and sold as "celery-fed". As a matter
+of fact, the amount of celery seed fed was small and it is questionable
+how much influence it had on the flavor of the birds. At the present
+time, celery seed is not used in fattening the ducklings on most of the
+large duck farms of Long Island.
+
+A comparison of gains made by ducklings on two different rations is
+shown in the following table. Ration No. 1 consists of the fattening
+ration given above. Ration No. 2 consists of 100 pounds bran, 100 pounds
+corn meal, 50 pounds rolled oats, 50 pounds gluten feed, 10% beef scrap.
+The ducks used were three days old at the first weighing and there were
+27 in each lot. After the second weighing the number in each lot was
+reduced to 24 ducks.
+
+                    Feed No. 1                    Feed No. 2
+              Total Weight  Average Weight  Total Weight  Average Wt
+August 14         4-3/4 lbs.        0.176         4-3/4    lbs.    0.176
+August 21        10      "          0.37          9-1/2     "      0.352
+August 28        16-1/2  "          0.687        17-1/2     "      0.729
+September 5      25      "          1.041        27         "      1.125
+September 13     44-1/2  "          1.854        48-1/2     "      2.02
+September 19     50      "          2.083        56-1/2     "      2.354
+September 27     64      "          2.666        67         "      2.62
+October 4        78-1/2  "          3.27         82-1/2     "      3.437
+October 11       99-1/2  "          4.145       103-1/2     "      4.312
+October 18      115-1/2  "          4.812       119         "      4.958
+October 25      126      "          5.25        135         "      5.62
+
+_Lights for Ducklings._ Often when the ducks are about one-third grown
+or about 4 weeks old they will stampede at night at any unusual noise or
+any other disturbance. In doing this, especially when they are in fairly
+large lots, they surge back and forth in the pens, running over one
+another with the result that their backs are torn and scratched while
+not infrequently more serious injuries result and may cause cripples.
+To keep them quiet it is common to use lights at night. Formerly
+lanterns were used but now on most duck plants electric lights are
+available for this purpose. For a house 140 feet long, six 15-watt
+lights scattered at equal intervals will be sufficient, and these can be
+used in like proportion for houses of other lengths. The lights are left
+on all night. Even when the ducks are half grown and may be out on the
+yards it is still necessary to use lights on stormy nights so that they
+will stay in and keep quiet and not get drowned in the rain. With a 16 x
+24 foot house such as described previously, a single 25 watt light is
+sufficient. Ducklings are especially likely to be stampeded during
+thunderstorms and if a storm is coming up it is well to turn on the
+lights and to shut the ducklings in their shelters when they are first
+placed in the yards. One should not carry a lantern when moving among
+the ducklings at night as this will cause moving shadows which are very
+likely to frighten and stampede the birds.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. Another type of duck shed used on Long Island.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. Convenient feeding arrangements. At the right of
+the feeding track runs a water pipe with spigots and pans at frequent
+intervals. At the left are the feeding trays. (_Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Pounds of Feed to Produce a Pound of Market Duck._ It is stated by long
+established duck growers that from 5 to 7 pounds of feed is required,
+this including the feed given to the breeding ducks for the season, to
+produce a pound of market duck.
+
+_Water for Young Ducks._ Drinking water is provided to the ducklings
+while in the brooder houses by means of a piped supply. The drinking
+pans are filled at each feeding time but at no other time. Water is not
+left before them continuously while they are in the brooder houses as
+they would be working in it all the time and this would keep them dirty
+and make the house sloppy. After they are put out on the yards they may
+or may not be provided with water in which they can swim. Most duck
+growers on Long Island allow them to have access to water. While it is
+undoubtedly true that swimming in the water induces them to take more
+exercise and thus tends to reduce somewhat the rapidity of fattening, at
+the same time it lessens the labor very materially as they do not need
+to be provided with a supply of drinking water other than the water in
+which they swim. Ducklings can be grown very successfully with only a
+limited amount of water, that is, only enough to drink and in which to
+wash themselves.
+
+_Age and Weight When Ready for Market._ Ducklings are usually marketed
+when they are 10 to 12 weeks old. A partial moult on the neck and breast
+occurs about this time giving them a somewhat rough look. This indicates
+that they are in proper condition to kill. If killing is not done within
+a week after this moult starts they will begin to lose flesh and it will
+be some time before they will fatten again. Ducks when ready to ship
+will average from 5 to 6 pounds. A majority will weigh nearer 5 than 6
+pounds. A pen of fattened ducks is driven up to the killing house and
+into a pen where each one is caught up and examined to see if it is in
+good condition. If the duck has a good smooth breast so that the
+breastbone is not felt when handled and is well fleshed on the back it
+is ready to kill. If it is not in this condition it is thrown out and
+these thin ducks are returned to the yards for further fattening or are
+utilized for shipping alive. Thin ducks are generally used for live
+shipments as they will not shrink as much as well fattened ducks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. An important part of rations for ducks. Green
+feed ready to be cut up into short lengths suitable for mixing in the
+feed. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. Feeding fattening or yard ducks from the feeding
+track. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department
+of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Cripples._ There will always be found in the flocks more or less
+crippled ducks and those with crooked backs, twisted wings, etc. As a
+rule ducks with twisted wings fatten well and are in good condition and
+can be killed about as soon as any of the others. The crippled ducks are
+sorted out into a lot by themselves where they are held until they can
+be put into condition to market. It is doubtful whether it pays the duck
+growers to bother with these ducks since they are rather difficult to
+condition and it would probably pay better to kill them. However, it is
+quite common practice to carry them until they can be marketed.
+
+_Cleaning the Yards._ The yards must be cleaned whenever they need it.
+It is a matter of judgment to decide when this is necessary but they
+must be cleaned whenever they get sticky or sloppy. The weather will
+have a considerable influence upon the frequency of cleaning which may
+be necessary once in two weeks, or in the yards of brooder houses Nos. 2
+and 3 may run as often as once a week. In dry weather the yards are
+cleaned by sweeping up the droppings and carting them away. In wet
+weather the ducks in running about over the yard pack down the droppings
+until they form a sort of putty-like layer which has to be scraped off
+with a hoe.
+
+_Critical Period with Young Ducks._ The critical period with young ducks
+is the first week of their existence. With good management after they
+have passed this point not many are lost. The loss in young ducks from
+the time they are hatched until they are ready for market will range all
+the way from 5 to 30%. When the loss does not average more than 10% for
+the season this is considered good. Undoubtedly many duck raisers lose a
+greater percent than 10.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37. Yard ducks at rest. (_Photograph from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry. U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38. On this plant, the lay of the land was such that
+not all of the yards could be run down to the stream. So a shallow canal
+was dug from the stream through the yards which were without natural
+water frontage. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+Disease Prevention
+
+Trouble from disease in young ducks is not severe although there is a
+greater loss from this source than in the case of mature ducks. The aim
+of the grower should be to use such methods of management and feeding as
+will keep the ducklings in good health and reduce the losses to a
+minimum. To accomplish this care must be taken to see that the brooding
+temperatures are correct, that the feed used contains what the ducklings
+need, that they are not overfed and that the house and yards are clean
+and dry and the feed and water dishes are clean. Remember that green
+feed and animal feed are essential ingredients in the ration.
+
+_Gapes or Pneumonia._ One of the principal troubles is a disease which
+is called "pneumonia" by some duck raisers and by others "gapes". It is
+not the same disease which is called gapes in chickens. In fact, it is a
+form of cold which approaches pneumonia. The little ducks stretch their
+necks up and breathe hard and usually die within a comparatively short
+time. This disease may affect either the baby ducks or ducks which are
+old enough to kill. All that can be done is to make sure that the
+housing and brooding conditions are such as to correct the trouble which
+causes the colds.
+
+_Fits._ In addition, the little ducks for the first 3 or 4 days may be
+more or less subject to a disease which is called "fits" by some duck
+growers. With this disease they simply keel over and soon die. It is
+probably a digestive difficulty of some sort. The feeding of plenty of
+green stuff or the turning of the ducks out on grass will usually stop
+this trouble.
+
+_Diarrhoea._ This is a fairly common trouble. It may be due to improper
+feeding, or to too high or low temperature in the brooder. The obvious
+treatment is to remedy the cause or causes of the trouble.
+
+_Lameness._ Not infrequently growers, particularly beginners, experience
+difficulty from a fairly large proportion of their ducklings becoming
+lame. This may grow worse until a considerable number of the birds will
+die. This trouble may be due to a lack of animal matter and mineral
+matter in the ration or may be due to digestive troubles caused by poor
+rations, by over feeding, by failing to gather up feed not eaten by the
+ducklings and leaving it to sour, or by lack of cleanliness of the feed
+and water dishes. Where the pens are allowed to become damp and sloppy
+this may also cause some lameness.
+
+_Sore Eyes._ Occasionally duck growers complain that their ducklings
+suffer from sore eyes. This may be due to a cold causing a discharge
+from the eyes or may be due to the use of too sloppy feed which adheres
+to the eyes and causes an irritation. Affected birds should be placed in
+a separate pen from the others and the eyes should be bathed with an
+antiseptic solution.
+
+_Feather Eating or "Quilling"._ This is a bad habit which is apt to
+cause more or less trouble when the ducklings are about two-thirds
+grown. It is much more likely to occur when the birds are kept in
+cramped quarters. It is usually started by one or a few individuals but
+when the feathers are injured so that they begin to bleed, which they
+will very quickly do, the vice will spread among the whole flock and
+serious damage will occur. It is therefore necessary to be on the
+lookout for this trouble, and as soon as detected, the birds responsible
+should be removed. If the culprits are placed with older birds which are
+already feathered, they will not trouble by trying to eat the feathers.
+It is the blood in the growing feathers which attracts them. If the
+habit has become general, it is more difficult to check. About the best
+thing that can be done, is to turn them out in a roomy yard, one with a
+growing green crop, if available, where they will be so busy as to stop
+the feather eating of their own accord.
+
+_Rats._--Rats are very destructive if they get into the brooder house. A
+single rat has been known to kill and drag off as many as 200 ducklings
+in one night. If a rat gets into the brooder house it is therefore of
+the utmost importance that it be hunted down and killed without delay.
+Otherwise serious losses will result.
+
+
+Cooperative Feed Association
+
+A very large proportion of the feed used on a duck plant is that which
+is fed to the market ducks. By purchasing feed in considerable
+quantities the duck grower is able to cut down the cost to some extent.
+A number of the duck raisers on Long Island have developed this idea
+further by forming a cooperative feed organization. Stock in this
+concern is held both by the duck growers and by outsiders but is
+controlled by the duck growers. The feed association maintains a feed
+warehouse, purchases feeds in quantity and does business both with the
+duck growers and with other persons in the market for feed. The
+existence of a cooperative feed purchasing association of this sort not
+only cuts down to some extent the cost of feed but likewise makes it
+possible for the duck growers to have greater assurance of securing the
+supply which is so necessary to them during the growing season.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+Commercial Duck Farming--Marketing
+
+
+On commercial duck farms, the business consists mainly of producing
+large quickly grown ducklings which are marketed before they are mature.
+Because of this immaturity, the ducks are quite commonly termed green
+ducks. The business has also become so highly specialized on Long Island
+and this is such a center of the industry, that the birds are commonly
+quoted on the New York market as Long Island ducklings.
+
+_Proper Age to Market._ It is important that the ducklings be marketed
+as soon as they have reached the proper age and stage of development.
+When the ducklings are about 10 to 12 weeks old they begin to shed their
+first growth of feathers. This is apparent first on the neck and breast,
+giving them somewhat of a rough appearance. The ducklings must be
+marketed within one week after they begin this moult. If they are
+allowed to go longer than this they will begin to get thin and as it
+will take them 6 weeks or more to grow a new crop of feathers it will be
+a considerable period before they get back in market condition again and
+any additional weight which they may attain will not be sufficient to
+pay for the feed eaten during this period.
+
+_Weights at the Time of Marketing._ Well grown ducklings should average
+in weight from 5 to 6 pounds at 10 to 12 weeks of age when they are
+ready to be marketed. A majority of the ducks will weigh closer to 5
+pounds than they will to 6. The vast majority of ducklings are marketed
+at this age as it does not pay to keep them past the time they reach
+prime market condition. On commercial duck farms practically the only
+ducks which are marketed at an older age than this are the breeders
+which are turned off at the end of the laying season and the ducklings
+which by reason of their being crippled or less thrifty are not in
+suitable market condition at this time and are held longer until they
+are in good condition. The ducklings are marketed from early spring
+until late fall. The time at which ducklings are first available for
+market in any quantity depends upon the earliness with which the
+breeders begin to lay and the end of the season depends upon how late
+the breeders continue to lay at a profitable rate.
+
+_The Last Feed for Market Ducks._ It is important in order to have the
+dressed ducklings appear to the best advantage and also in order to
+insure their keeping qualities as much as possible that they should have
+no feed in their crops when they are killed. This means that if they are
+to be killed in the morning, which is the usual practice, they should be
+fed for the last time the previous night. If, however, they are not to
+be killed until afternoon they can be fed lightly in the morning.
+
+_Sorting Market Ducklings._ When a pen of ducklings which are being
+fattened are deemed ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing
+house and a few of them at a time driven into a small pen where it is
+easy to catch and examine them. Each duck as it is caught is examined to
+make sure that it is in proper market condition. The examination
+consists of feeling of the duck's body to see that it has a good smooth
+breast so that the breast bone cannot be readily felt. If it is in that
+condition it is ready to kill. Ducks which do not show this condition
+are thrown out and returned to the yards where they are fed for a longer
+period unless it is desired to ship them alive.
+
+At the proper season of the year when breeders for the next season are
+to be selected, suitable birds for that purpose are picked out from the
+market lots as they are examined. In any lot of ducks there will be
+found some cripples. It is common practice to sort these out and group
+them together in a pen by themselves where they are held until they are
+in suitable condition for marketing. It is doubtful whether it pays to
+hold these cripples as they are hard to get in good condition and in
+many cases are probably kept and fed at a loss. Some ducklings will show
+twisted wings but as a rule they are thrifty and will fatten readily and
+be in good market condition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. Awaiting slaughter. The fattened ducklings are
+driven into these catching pens. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. Carrying the ducklings from the catching pen to
+the killing place. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U.
+S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Killing._ As the ducklings suitable for killing are selected, 10 or 12
+of them, depending upon the capacity of the killing room, are hung up by
+their feet, the head being fastened down by means of a hook or else
+weighted down by means of a blood can hung from a hook inserted through
+the bill. By means of a long, narrow bladed sharp knife the veins in the
+throat just beyond the skull are severed so as to cause free bleeding.
+The blood flows either into the blood can or into a trough above which
+the birds are hung. The birds are not stuck or brained unless it is
+desired to dry pick them nor are they as a rule stunned by hitting them
+on the head before bleeding. In some states, however, the law requires
+that all birds bled shall first be stunned in this manner. The bleeding
+of the ducks causes their death and they are allowed to hang until they
+are thoroughly bled out. They are then taken down, the blood washed off
+of their heads and placed on a table or on the floor convenient to the
+pickers, other ducks being hung in their places.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. The ducks are hung by the feet and the veins in
+the neck cut from inside the mouth to cause free bleeding. (_Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42. After the throat veins are cut, the ducks are
+allowed to hang until they are well bled out. The blood is caught in the
+trough below. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43. Ducks which have been bled, ready to have the
+blood washed from their heads and mouths before they are picked.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44. After they are bled and washed, the ducks are
+laid in the picking room ready for the pickers. (_Photograph from the
+Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Scalding._ The picker selects a duck from the table where they are
+placed after being taken down and carries it to a large kettle of water
+which is maintained at a temperature just below boiling. They are
+thoroughly soused in this water holding them by the head and feet so as
+to allow the water to penetrate into the feathers until they can be
+readily plucked. The picker tests the readiness with which the feathers
+come out by plucking a few from the breast or body and thus determines
+whether the scalding is sufficient or whether more is required. Care is
+taken not to dip the feet or head in the water as this might discolor
+these parts. Practically all market ducks from Long Island are scald
+picked at the present time. Dry picking which is demanded in some
+markets such as Boston makes a somewhat better looking carcass and also
+increases the value of the feathers, but is generally considered too
+slow and too highly skilled a process for use on the average duck farm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45. Holding the head in one hand and the feet in the
+other, the picker dips the duck in water heated nearly to the boiling
+point and souses well to work the water into the feathers until they
+pluck easily. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Picking._. After scalding the picker starts removing the feathers. In
+doing this the duck is held either on the lap or on a board nailed to
+the side of the feather box. The feathers on the breast are picked
+first, then working down toward the tail, pulling the feathers with the
+grain. The soft body feathers as plucked are thrown into the feather
+box, the coarser feathers being thrown on the floor. The main wing and
+tail feathers are left on as are likewise some of the feathers of the
+neck next the head.
+
+The most troublesome part of picking ducks is removing the down. This
+may be removed to some extent by rubbing with the hand although care
+must be taken not to bruise the skin severely. In some cases the down is
+shaved off with a sharp knife. In some of the commercial packing houses
+the duck's body is sprinkled with powdered rosin and then dipped into
+the hot water. This melts the rosin so that the down and rosin can be
+rubbed off easily with the hand leaving the body clean. Pin feathers
+are usually removed by grasping them between the thumb and a dull knife.
+
+In some packing houses, ducks are steamed before picking. Where this is
+done they are picked clean and the wing and tail feathers are pulled
+before steaming takes place. Six or eight ducks which have been bled are
+hung at the same time in the top of a steam box or barrel which can be
+made air-tight and the steam turned on until the soft feathers of the
+breast come off easily. The length of time to steam depends on the
+temperature of the steam itself and varies from one-half to 2 minutes.
+In some cases the ducks are hung in a steam box with the heads outside
+so as to prevent the steam from coming into contact with the heads,
+possibly discoloring them.
+
+On Long Island women are used very largely for picking and they secure
+for this service 6 cents per duck. A good picker should do 75 ducks or
+even more a day. The value of the feathers will slightly more than pay
+for the cost of picking.
+
+Picking usually begins early in the morning about 6 o'clock and is
+generally finished by noon or soon after. Most duck raisers figure on
+doing their killing and picking during the first half of the week and do
+not like to kill if they can help it during the latter days of the week.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46. Picking the ducks. (_Photograph from the Bureau
+of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Dry Picking._ Where the market requires it, the ducks must be dry
+picked. In doing this the procedure is the same as in dry picking
+chickens. After the cut is made to bleed the ducks, the point of the
+knife is plunged through the roof of the mouth until it reaches the
+brain when it is turned to cause a paralysis of the muscles which
+enables the feathers to be plucked more easily. The duck is then struck
+on the back of the head with a club to stun it and make it easier to
+handle when picking. The picker seats himself by the feather box, with
+the duck on his lap, holding the head pressed against the outside of the
+box and held there by the picker's leg. He then proceeds immediately and
+as quickly as possible to pluck the feathers. It is necessary to
+accomplish this without delay, for the feathers soon set and are then
+much harder to pluck and are more likely to result in tears in the skin.
+When removing the down, the hand is moistened when much of the down can
+be rubbed off. Pin feathers are removed by grasping them between the
+thumb and the edge of a dull knife and any which cannot be gotten in
+this way are shaved off with a sharp knife. After picking, the carcasses
+are cooled in cold water the same as the scalded birds.
+
+_Cooling._ After the birds are plucked they are thrown into cold water
+and are left there for several hours or until the body heat is entirely
+removed. It is most important that this be thoroughly accomplished for
+if any body heat is left in the carcasses they are almost sure to become
+green-struck when packed. The length of time that they must be left
+in the water depends upon the weather conditions. If the weather is warm
+so that the water is not very cool it is necessary to add ice in order
+to hasten the cooling and to accomplish it thoroughly. Cooling in water
+also serves to plump the carcasses somewhat.
+
+_Packing._ After the ducks are thoroughly cooled they are removed from
+the water and packed. Long Island ducklings are usually packed in
+barrels. Forty-five ducks will pack in a sugar barrel and 33 in a flour
+barrel. The proper number for the barrel used is placed on hanging
+spring scales and weighed before being packed. The best method of
+packing is to lay the ducks on their sides. If they are packed on their
+backs or bellies, the ice used between the layers is apt to cause a
+cutting or bruising of the soft abdomens and injure the appearance of
+the carcasses. Between each layer of ducks a scoopful of cracked ice is
+used although in cool weather it may only be necessary to use half a
+scoop of ice. After the barrel is packed it should be allowed to stand
+for a while to settle. Then the top of the barrel is piled up with
+cracked ice and covered with burlap. On the side of the barrel is marked
+the number of ducks and their weight. Later a card is tacked alongside
+of this showing the consignee's and the shipper's names as well as the
+number of ducks and their weight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. Dressed duckling. The main feathers of the tail
+and wings and the feathers of the neck part of the way from the head to
+the body are left on. The rest of the body is picked clean. (_Photograph
+from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. After thorough cooling a sufficient number of
+ducks to fill a barrel is weighed out and packed with or without ice
+depending upon the weather. (_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal
+Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Shipping._ The barrels should be packed and shipped the same evening.
+Shipping may be done either by express or by automobile truck. A good
+many of the Long Island ducklings are now shipped into New York City by
+truck.
+
+_Cooperative Marketing Association._ The duck growers on Long Island
+have formed a cooperative marketing association. This association
+maintains its own house in New York City and sells practically the
+entire output of Long Island ducklings, controlling probably 90%. During
+the year 1919 there were in the neighborhood of 800,000 head of ducks
+marketed through this house. Practically all of the capital stock of
+this concern is held by the duck growers and they are not allowed to
+sell any of their stock without first offering it to the association.
+
+_Prices for Ducks._ Early in the season the ducklings bring the best
+prices, that is to say from March 1 to May 1. Then as the output of
+ducks increases prices gradually drop. The heaviest shipments occur in
+June, July and August. In September as the output of ducks begins to
+drop off the price begins to climb a little. The following prices as
+quoted in the New York Produce Review show the range from March, 1920,
+to June, 1921.
+
+
+Long Island Ducklings--Fresh Dressed
+
+
+1920
+
+March 31            45c per lb.
+April 21            45c  "   "
+  "   28            38c  "   "
+May 5               35c  "   "
+ " 12               35c  "   "
+ " 26               35c  "   "
+June 2              35c  "   "
+ "   9              35c  "   "
+ "   16             35c  "   "
+ "   23             35c  "   "
+ "   30             35c  "   "
+July 7              35c  "   "
+ "   14             35c  "   "
+ "   21             35c  "   "
+ "   28             35c  "   "
+August 4            36c  "   "
+  "    11           36c  "   "
+  "    18           36c  "   "
+  "    25           36c  "   "
+September 1         36c  "   "
+    "     8         37c  "   "
+    "     15        37c  "   "
+    "     22        38c  "   "
+    "     29        38c  "   "
+October 6           38c  "   "
+   "    13          38c  "   "
+   "    20          39c  "   "
+   "    27          39c  "   "
+November 3          40c  "   "
+
+
+1921
+
+March 30            48c per  lb.
+April 6             46c  "   "
+  "   13            38c  "   "
+  "   20            38c  "   "
+  "   27            38c  "   "
+May 4               35c  "   "
+ " 11               32c  "   "
+ " 18               28c  "   "
+ " 25               28c  "   "
+June 1              28c  "   "
+
+The following quotations from the same source give the prices for frozen
+Long Island ducklings.
+
+
+1920
+
+January 7           41c per  lb.
+   "    14          41c  "   "
+   "    21          41c  "   "
+   "    28          41c  "   "
+February 4          41c  "   "
+    "    11         41c  "   "
+    "    18         41c  "   "
+    "    25         41c  "   "
+March 3             41c  "   "
+  "   10            41c  "   "
+  "   17            41c  "   "
+November 10         40c  "   "
+    "    17         40c  "   "
+    "    24         40c  "   "
+December 1          40c  "   "
+    "    8          40c  "   "
+    "    8          40c  "   "
+    "    15         40c  "   "
+    "    22         40c  "   "
+    "    29         40c  "   "
+
+
+1921
+
+January 5           40c per lb.
+   "    12          40c  "   "
+   "    19          40c  "   "
+   "    26          40c  "   "
+February 2          41c  "   "
+   "     9          41c  "   "
+   "     16         41c  "   "
+   "     23         41c  "   "
+March 2             41c  "   "
+   "  9             41c  "   "
+   "  16            41c  "   "
+   "  23            41c  "   "
+
+Quotations from the same source are given below to give some idea of the
+range in price of the live Long Island spring ducklings and likewise of
+live old Long Island ducks or breeders.
+
+
+Long Island Spring Ducklings--Live.
+
+
+1920
+
+March 3             50c per lb.
+  "   24            50c  "   "
+  "   31            55c  "   "
+May 5               40c  "   "
+ "  12              40c  "   "
+ "  19              36 @ 40c per lb.
+ "  26              40 @ 41c  "   "
+June 2              40c per lb.
+ "   9              36 @ 38c per lb.
+ "   16             36c per lb.
+ "   23             37c  "   "
+ "   30             38c  "   "
+July 7              38c  "   "
+ "   14             38c  "   "
+ "   21             40c  "   "
+ "   28             40c  "   "
+August 4            38c  "   "
+   "   11           34 @ 36c per lb.
+   "   18           38c per lb.
+   "   25           38c  "   "
+September 1         40c  "   "
+    "     8         42 @ 45c per lb.
+    "     15        45c per lb.
+    "     22        45c  "   "
+    "     29        40c  "   "
+October 6           42c  "   "
+   "    13          42c  "   "
+   "    27          42c  "   "
+November 3          42c  "   "
+    "    10         42c  "   "
+    "    17         44c  "   "
+    "    24         44c  "   "
+December 1          44c  "   "
+"        15         42 @ 46c per lb.
+
+
+1921
+
+March 2             55c  "   "
+  "   9             55c  "   "
+  "   16            52c  "   "
+  "   23            50c  "   "
+  "   30            55c  "   "
+April 6             50c  "   "
+  "   13            40c  "   "
+  "   20            45c  "   "
+  "   27            38 @ 42c per lb.
+May 4               38c  per lb.
+"   11              38c  "   "
+"   18              33c  "   "
+"   25              33c  "   "
+June 1              32c  "   "
+
+
+Long Island Old Ducks or Breeders--Live
+
+
+1920
+
+March 17            45c per lb.
+  "   31            45c  "   "
+May 19              30c  "   "
+"   26              35c  "   "
+June 9              30 @ 32c per lb.
+  "  16             32c per lb.
+  "  23             32c  "   "
+  "  30             35c  "   "
+July 7              35c  "   "
+  "  14             35c  "   "
+  "  28             30c  "   "
+August 4            35c  "   "
+April 6             42c  "   "
+  "   13            36c  "   "
+  "   20            39c  "   "
+  "   27            33 @ 37c per lb.
+May   11            33c per lb.
+  "   25            30c  "   "
+
+_Shipping Ducks Alive_. While the great majority of ducks are shipped
+dressed there is some shipment of live ducks. This is particularly true
+during the Jewish holidays in March and in September and October when
+the demand for live ducks and the price paid for them is excellent. As a
+rule it pays better to ship alive the ducks which are inclined to be a
+little thin rather than to ship those which are in top market condition.
+This is due to the fact that fat ducks will shrink very considerably
+when cooped and shipped alive, this shrinkage running from one-half to
+three-quarters of a pound per head where they are cooped not to exceed
+12 to 15 hours. The ducks which are in the fattest condition will shrink
+the most. At the season of the year when live ducks are in best demand
+it often pays to ship alive the ducklings which are sorted out as not
+being in the best condition rather than to hold them for further
+fattening.
+
+_Saving the Feathers._ The feathers from the ducks form quite an
+important source of revenue to the duck farmers. As stated before the
+value of the feathers will a little more than pay for the cost of
+picking and since this is a considerable item of expense the grower
+cannot afford to neglect the feathers. The soft body feathers are kept
+separate from the coarser feathers, the latter being thrown on the floor
+as they are plucked. These coarser feathers are later swept up and are
+commonly spoken of as sweepings. Feathers from dry-picked ducks are
+superior in quality and bring a better price but most of the duck
+feathers now marketed from commercial duck farms are scalded feathers.
+The feathers after each day's killing are gathered up and spread out in
+a loft where they can be placed in a layer not over 3 or 4 inches deep.
+This should be an airy place so as to give the feathers a good place to
+dry out. On the second day they are scraped up in a pile and then spread
+out again, thus turning them over and changing their position. They are
+then left until they are dry enough to sack which should be in a little
+over a week. Unless the feathers are thoroughly dried out they will heat
+when sacked and this will seriously hurt their market quality. When dry
+they are packed either in the large special feather sacks made for this
+purpose or in smaller sacks, about as big as two bran sacks, which will
+hold from 60 to 80 pounds of feathers. The feathers are shipped to
+regular feather dealers or manufacturers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49. A valuable by-product of duck plants. The
+feathers from a duck will pay for the cost of picking. (_Photograph from
+the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+_Prices and Uses of Duck Feathers._ The soft body feathers and the
+coarser feathers often called "sweepings" should be kept and sold
+separate. While scalded feathers are not worth as much as dry picked
+feathers, the former if properly dried out or cured will find a ready
+sale. Feathers packed before they are thoroughly dried out, are likely
+to arrive at their destination in a matted and musty or heated
+condition. This, of course, injures their quality and the price paid for
+them is discounted according to their condition.
+
+The soft body feathers of ducks are used almost entirely for bedding
+purposes, that is, are put in pillows and feather beds. White feathers
+are preferred and usually bring a somewhat higher price.
+
+The prices paid for the feathers vary quite widely at different times of
+the year, and in different sections of the country, and also of course
+with the condition of the feathers themselves. The quotations given
+below represent the prices paid in June, 1921.
+
+Duck Feathers               Cents     Per Pound
+Pure white, dry picked      50         "    "
+Stained and scalded white   40         "    "
+Dark or mixed, dry picked   33         "    "
+Dark or mixed, scalded      20 to 25   "    "
+
+_Marketing Eggs._ On commercial duck farms very few eggs are marketed.
+This is due to the fact that the duck growers find it more profitable to
+incubate all eggs suitable for that purpose and to rear and market the
+ducklings rather than to sell the eggs. There are always, however, a
+certain number of cracked eggs and others which may be too large or too
+small to use for hatching and which are therefore marketed. In addition
+the infertile eggs tested out on the 5th day are sold. The eggs may be
+packed in ordinary 30 dozen egg cases such as are used for hens' eggs,
+utilizing a special filler 5 cells square. With these fillers a case
+holds 20 5-6 dozen duck eggs. A special duck case, holding 30 dozen duck
+eggs may be used, the fillers in this case being 6 cells square like the
+fillers used for hens' eggs. The cells in these fillers are 2 inches
+square and 2-1/4 or 2-1/2 inches deep.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+Duck Raising on the Farm
+
+
+Duck raising as ordinarily conducted on the general farm consists of the
+keeping of a comparatively small flock purely as a side line. Ducks on
+the general farm may be kept for the production of meat and eggs, for
+egg production, or mainly as a breeding proposition where the idea is to
+produce birds of exhibition quality. On occasional farms ducks of the
+rarer breeds are kept mainly for ornamental purposes.
+
+_Conditions Suitable for Duck Raising._ A small flock of ducks on the
+farm can be kept to best advantage where they can be separated from the
+other poultry and where they can have access to a pasture or an orchard
+which will provide them with a plentiful supply of green feed. Ducks
+stand confinement quite well but if they are closely confined it is
+necessary to provide for them the green feed which they cannot secure
+for themselves. On many farms the flock of ducks is allowed to range at
+liberty and under these conditions the cost of maintaining them is much
+lower since they pick up a considerable part of their feed. An enclosed
+run or yard, however, should be available where they can be confined
+when desired. It is also necessary to provide a house or shed in which
+they can be shut at night and during the early morning. Otherwise, many
+of the eggs may be dropped anywhere about the place or in the water with
+the result that some of them will be lost. A pond or stream to which the
+ducks can have access and in which they can swim is a great advantage
+since it helps to keep them in good breeding condition. It is a common
+but mistaken idea that low, wet land is best suited for ducks.
+
+_Size of Flock._--The average farm flock of ducks is small, rarely
+running over 15 to 20 head. In many cases not over 10 or 12 ducks with
+one or two drakes will be kept. A flock of this size will furnish quite
+a large number of ducks for the farmer's table or for sale in addition
+to more or less eggs which can either be used at home or sold.
+
+_Making a Start._ In making a start with a farm flock of ducks it is
+probably best to figure on keeping only a few head. If the farmer begins
+with 4 or 5 ducks and one drake he can make his start at small expense
+and from this number he will be able to increase the size of his flock
+if he finds that results warrant it. Probably the best way to make a
+start is to purchase the desired breeding stock in the fall. This will
+give the ducks a chance to get settled and to be in good condition and
+accustomed to their quarters by spring so that they will begin to breed
+and lay.
+
+Eggs for hatching can be purchased if desired and the young ducklings
+hatched and reared with chicken hens. Baby ducks are rarely purchased in
+making a start as are baby chicks.
+
+_Selecting the Breed._ Any one of the breeds forming the so-called meat
+class will prove satisfactory for a farm flock. This class includes the
+Pekin, Aylesbury, Muscovy, Rouen, Cayuga, Buff and Blue Swedish. The
+birds of any of these breeds are of good size and therefore produce a
+suitable table fowl. At the same time they are layers and will produce
+eggs for the table or for market as well. Where the purpose in keeping
+the ducks is mainly that of producing eggs for market the Runner is
+undoubtedly the breed to select. While these ducks are smaller in size
+the ducklings will make good carcasses of broiler size for the table
+being killed for this purpose when about 2-1/2 to 3 pounds in weight. In
+addition, the Runner is the best laying breed and by many persons is
+considered to be equal in its egg producing qualities to any of the
+breeds of chickens.
+
+Selection of any breed or variety of the meat or egg classes and
+especially the selection of a breed or variety for ornamental purposes
+or for the pleasure of breeding will depend upon the individual
+preference of the owner for body shape, color of plumage and other
+characteristics. A pure breed of some kind should by all means be kept
+in preference to the common or so-called "puddle" duck. Not only will
+the pure breeds give greater uniformity in the carcasses produced but
+the results in egg production will likewise be better.
+
+_Age of Breeding Stock._ The best results in breeding are secured from
+ducks during their first laying season. Not only is egg production
+better but they are less likely to become so fat and large as to
+interfere with the fertility and hatchability of the eggs. In fact, on
+commercial duck farms the breeding stock is entirely renewed each year.
+However, ducks can be profitably kept until they are 2 or 3 years old,
+and it is common practice in a farm flock to hold over some of the
+breeders after they have finished their first year. Of course, where the
+duck breeder has some especially fine stock which will produce just the
+quality he desires in the offspring, he holds and utilizes these birds
+just as long as they are in good breeding condition. As a rule it is
+best not to hold breeding ducks after they have finished their second
+laying season.
+
+_Size of Matings._ The proper number of ducks which should be mated to a
+drake varies with the different breeds. Pekins and Aylesbury can be
+mated in the proportion of one drake to 6 to 8 ducks. In the Rouen mate
+4 or 5 ducks to a drake and in the Cayuga 5 or 6 ducks to a drake. In
+the Muscovy as high as 10 females may be mated with one male. In the
+Blue Swedish and Buff mate in the proportion of 6 or 7 ducks to one
+drake. In the Call and East India breeds from 5 to 8 ducks can be mated
+to one drake. In the Crested White use 5 or 6 ducks and in the Runner
+6 to 8 ducks to a drake.
+
+Where young drakes are used more ducks can be mated to them than is the
+case with old drakes. It is also true that where especially large
+exhibition birds have been reserved for breeding purposes it is
+necessary to reduce the number of ducks mated to a drake as otherwise
+the fertility is very likely to run lower with these older heavier
+ducks.
+
+_Breeding and Laying Season._ Under ordinary farm conditions where the
+ducks receive only fairly good care and feed the laying does not begin
+to any extent until February or March. With exceptional care the ducks
+will begin to lay in January and a few may even lay in December. The
+ducks lay very persistently and continue their laying until hot weather
+sets in or usually about the first of July. They gradually let up in
+their laying until it ceases almost entirely soon after that date. The
+breeding season is at its height in the months of April and May. At this
+time the fertility will run best and the results in hatching will be
+most satisfactory. However, it is possible to continue to hatch the duck
+eggs which are produced with fair results as long as the ducks continue
+to lay.
+
+
+Management of Breeders.
+
+_Housing._ Some sort of house or shelter must be provided for the
+breeding flock. Any available shed or a part of the poultry house may
+be utilized for this purpose. No special requirements are necessary
+except that the house should provide sufficient ventilation. This is
+best furnished by means of a window and in addition, an opening in the
+front of the house should be provided which can be closed by means of a
+curtain during severe winter weather. A board floor is not necessary if
+the dirt floor is filled up 6 or 8 inches above the ground level outside
+the house. The floors should be provided with an abundance of litter
+which is usually changed only once or twice during the year. As the
+litter tends to become dirty more litter must be added. No equipment is
+necessary in the houses as the birds rest on the floor and lay their
+eggs anywhere about the house or wherever they may make their nests. The
+house should be so arranged that the ducks can be shut in at night and
+can be kept there until they have finished laying in the morning. As
+most of the duck eggs are laid early in the morning they can be let out
+by 8 or 9 o'clock in the summer. If let out earlier than this they are
+likely to lay some of their eggs in the pond or stream to which they
+have access and these would be lost.
+
+_Feeding._ On many farms the breeding flock of ducks is fed on the same
+ration which is given the farm fowls. However, better results will be
+obtained if they are given special feeds. After the laying season is
+over the breeding ducks can be fed sparingly on a mash consisting of one
+part by weight corn meal, 2 parts bran, 1 part low grade wheat flour, 1
+part green feed, 8% beef scrap and 3% oyster shell. This mash is mixed
+up with water until it has a consistency just between sticky and
+crumbly. It should never be fed in a sloppy condition. A feed of this
+mash should be given in the morning and at night and during the long
+days of summer it is well also to give a light feed of cracked corn or
+mixed grains in the middle of the day. However, judgment must be used in
+feeding ducks especially if they have range over which they can roam
+where they can pick up more or less animal feed and other material. In
+this case it is not necessary to feed nearly so much. Another mash which
+may be used instead of the one given consists of 3 parts by measure of
+corn meal, 4 parts bran, 2 parts low grade wheat flour, three-fourths
+part beef scrap and 2 parts green feed with a supply of oyster shell.
+
+Along about December 1 the feed should be changed with the idea of
+inducing egg production. A feed consisting of one part by weight corn
+meal, 1 part low grade flour or middlings, 1 part bran, 15% beef scrap,
+15% vegetables or green feed together with oyster shell should be fed
+morning and evening and in addition a feed consisting of corn and wheat
+may be given at noon in a quantity of about one quart for each 30 ducks.
+As much mash should be given them at the morning and evening feed as
+they will clean up.
+
+Another good mash feed which may be used consists of 2 parts by weight
+of bran, 2 parts middlings, 2 parts corn meal, 1 part beef scrap, 1 part
+ground oats and one-tenth of the total weight sand. In addition, of
+course, green feed must be added to the ration if it is not available at
+all times in the yard. This mash is fed in the morning and in the
+evening. The noon feed consists of 1 part by weight of corn and 2 parts
+oats. Where green feed is not available and must be supplied, cut
+clover, alfalfa, rye, oats and corn may be utilized cut up into short
+pieces and mixed in the mash. The mash should be fed either to breeding
+stock or to ducklings on flat trays or boards rather than in troughs as
+the ducks can get at it better in this form. It must be kept in mind
+that while ducks are good egg producers during the laying and breeding
+season they will not lay any great number of eggs unless they are fed
+for this purpose. For rations used on commercial duck farms see Chapter
+IV.
+
+_Water._ It is important that a plentiful supply of drinking water be
+available to the ducks. A fresh supply must be provided at each feeding
+time before the feed is thrown to the ducks as they like to eat and
+drink alternately when feeding. Where the breeding ducks have access to
+a stream or pond of fresh water it is not necessary to provide any other
+supply of drinking water.
+
+Where water is available in which the ducks can swim it is essential to
+see that provision is made so that the ducks can get in and out of the
+water easily. If this is not done they may become exhausted and unable
+to climb out or they may become partially cramped when the water is very
+cold with the result that they will drown. If given access to water in
+which they can swim during cold weather it is necessary to be on the
+look-out to see that the ducks do not freeze fast to the ground when
+they come out of the water.
+
+_Yards._ Where yards are provided for ducks poultry netting about 2 feet
+high is ordinarily used. This will confine most of the breeds but higher
+fences even 5 or 6 feet high must be provided for the breeds which fly
+readily such as the Muscovy, Call, East India, Mallard, Wood and
+Mandarin. In some cases it is even necessary to cover over the tops of
+the yards in order to keep the birds from flying out or to pinion the
+birds, that is, to cut off the outermost joint of one wing. The netting
+used for yards should be strung on posts set in the ground and the lower
+edge should be pegged down so that the birds cannot get under it.
+
+_Care of Eggs for Hatching._ Duck eggs for hatching must be gathered
+each day and should be put in some cool place to be held until they are
+set. They should be turned daily, the same as hens' eggs and the general
+care is exactly similar. It does not, however, pay to keep duck eggs as
+long before setting them as they spoil more quickly than hens' eggs. In
+fact, it is best to set duck eggs when they are not over a week old if
+this can be arranged.
+
+_Hatching the Eggs._ The period of incubation for duck eggs ranges from
+26 to 28 days for all of the breeds except the Muscovy. In this breed it
+takes from 33 to 36 days for the eggs to hatch. Inasmuch as most of the
+commonly kept breeds are not very broody and therefore do not make
+reliable hatchers and mothers it is necessary to resort either to the
+use of chicken hens for this purpose or else to utilize incubators.
+Either one of these methods can be used with good success. With the
+small farm flock it is very common to utilize hens. The ordinary hen
+will be able to cover 9 to 11 duck eggs to advantage depending on her
+size and upon the season of the year. In cold weather the smaller number
+should be used rather than the larger number. Before setting the hen she
+should be thoroughly dusted with insect powder to free her from lice.
+Several hens can be set in the same room but they should be confined on
+their nests allowing them to come off only once a day for feed and
+water. Cracked corn makes an excellent feed for sitting hens. If desired
+Muscovy, Call, East India, Mallard, Wood or Mandarin ducks can be
+allowed to make their nests and to hatch their eggs as they are reliable
+sitters and good mothers.
+
+After the duck eggs first pip there usually elapses a longer period of
+time before the ducklings get out of the shell than is the case with
+chicks. For this reason it is well to take the hens off for feed and
+water when the first eggs are pipped returning them to the nest as
+quickly as possible and confining them there until the hatch is over.
+
+During the last week of incubation it is desirable to sprinkle the eggs
+daily with water using quite a liberal amount as duck eggs seem to
+require more moisture than hens' eggs in order to hatch well.
+
+All duck eggs which are at all badly soiled should be washed before they
+are set. Washing does not seem to injure their hatching qualities. In
+fact, some breeders prefer to wash all duck eggs whether dirty or not,
+feeling that this opens up the pores and causes a better hatch. This
+belief is based upon the idea that when ducks hatch their own eggs under
+natural conditions they have access to water in which they swim and in
+coming back on the nest their wet feathers serve to wash the eggs.
+
+Where an incubator is used for hatching the eggs are placed in the
+machine just as hens' eggs. For the first week the temperature is kept
+about 102 degrees and for the rest of the period is maintained as close
+to 103 degrees as possible, the bulb of the thermometer being on a level
+with the tops of the eggs. Often the temperature will run up a little
+higher than this at hatching time but this does not do any harm. An
+incubator will accommodate from four-fifths to five-sixths as many duck
+eggs as it will hens' eggs.
+
+About the fifth or sixth day the duck eggs are tested and all infertile
+and dead germs removed. From this time on eggs are turned twice a day
+and usually cooled once a day until they pip. A second test may be made
+about the fifteenth or sixteenth day when any eggs which have died are
+removed. If dead germ eggs are left in the machines they spoil very
+quickly and cause a strong odor which makes it necessary to remove them.
+During the last week or ten days and in some cases for a longer period
+than this incubator operators supply moisture daily to the machine. This
+is usually provided by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water which
+has been warmed to about the temperature of the machine. However, if
+warm water is not available, water of ordinary temperature may be used
+although it is not well to use extremely cold water. As a rule the eggs
+begin to pip about the twenty-sixth day. At this time the machine should
+be tightly closed up and left so until the hatching is over. In case
+moisture seems to be lacking and the ducklings are having a hard time to
+get out of the shell the machine can be opened and the eggs sprinkled
+again. If there seems to be sufficient moisture, however, the machines
+should not be opened or disturbed. As a rule it takes ducklings from 24
+to 48 hours to hatch after the pipping first begins. It is advisable to
+leave the ducklings in the incubator until they are well dried off
+before removing them to the brooder. As a rule the hatching will be
+entirely over by the twenty-eighth day.
+
+_Brooding and Rearing._ Ducklings can be brooded if desired by means of
+chicken hens. In this case the ducklings which the hen hatches should
+be given to her and she should be confined to some kind of a coop which
+will allow the ducklings to run at liberty. If the hen is given her
+liberty she goes too far and takes too much exercise for the little
+ducks. Where artificial brooders are used any type of brooding apparatus
+can be utilized which is used with success for chickens. It must be
+remembered, however, that ducklings do not require as high a degree of
+heat as do baby chicks and should be started off at a temperature of
+about 90 degrees under the hover. This can be reduced rather rapidly
+until it is down to 80 at about 2 weeks of age. The length of time that
+the ducklings require heat after this depends upon the season and the
+weather. Even in fairly cool weather they do not need any heat after
+they are 5 or 6 weeks old.
+
+It is necessary to keep the brooders clean and in order to do this they
+must be cleaned out frequently and new litter supplied. While the
+ducklings are small the brooders should be cleaned at least every other
+day and as they get larger, cleaning once a week with the addition of
+fresh litter between times will be sufficient.
+
+_Feeding the Ducklings._ Ducklings do not need to be fed until they are
+from 24 to 36 hours old. At this time they may be given a mixture
+composed of equal parts by measure of rolled oats and bread crumbs with
+3% of sharp sand mixed in the feed. This may be given them five times
+daily although some duck raisers feed only 3 times daily from the
+start. About the third day this feed is changed to equal parts of bread,
+rolled oats, bran and corn meal. After the seventh day the ration may
+consist of 3 parts bran, 1 part each of low-grade wheat flour and corn
+meal, 10% green feed, 5% beef scrap with about 3% of sand mixed in.
+
+The ducklings should be fed four times daily after the seventh day until
+they are two or three weeks old. After that time they need be fed only
+three times daily, morning, noon and night. The sand may be given to the
+ducklings either by mixing it in the mash or by feeding it in a hopper
+where they can help themselves. The mash feed which is prepared for the
+ducklings is mixed with water until it has a consistency a little wetter
+than crumbly but not exactly sticky. Sloppy feed should never be used.
+As the ducklings grow older the amount of beef scrap can be increased
+until it consists of 15% of the ration by the end of the third week. The
+proportion of corn meal can likewise be increased and simultaneously the
+amount of bran decreased until the ducklings are on a fattening ration.
+Unless they have a plentiful supply of green feed in the yards to which
+they have access it is necessary to provide this to the extent of about
+10% of the feed and it should consist of tender green stuff rather
+finely chopped and mixed in with the mash.
+
+About 2 weeks before the ducklings are to be marketed they should be put
+on a ration consisting of three parts by weight of corn meal, two parts
+low-grade flour or middlings, one part bran, one-half part beef scrap,
+10% green feed and about 3% oyster shell or sand. This mash is fed three
+times daily. Another ration which can be used for fattening purposes
+consists of 3 parts corn meal, 1 part low-grade wheat flour, 1 part
+bran, 5% beef scrap and 3% oyster shell with green feed and grit in
+addition.
+
+Where fish is available it can be substituted for the beef scrap but on
+most farms this is impractical. The fish where fed is boiled and mixed
+in the mash. However, no fish should be fed up to within 2 weeks before
+the ducks are killed as there is danger of giving a fishy taste to the
+carcass. For additional information as to feeding methods used on
+commercial duck farms which could be utilized to advantage for the farm
+flocks, see Chapter VI.
+
+Birds which are to be reserved for breeders should be selected out and
+taken away from the ducklings which are to be fattened. These breeding
+birds should be carried along on the ration which they have been
+receiving until about December 1 when they should be put on a laying
+ration.
+
+It is very necessary to see that the ducklings have a plentiful supply
+of drinking water. It is especially important to renew this supply just
+before the ducklings are fed so that they will have ample water while
+they are consuming their feed. The water should be given in dishes deep
+enough so that the ducks can immerse their entire bill as this enables
+them to wash the sand out of their nostrils.
+
+_Water for Ducklings._ In addition to the drinking water provided duck
+raisers sometimes allow the growing ducklings access to water in which
+they can swim. If it is desired to fatten the ducklings quickly and turn
+them off on the market as green ducks many raisers do not consider this
+advisable as it induces the ducklings to take more exercise and makes it
+more difficult to fatten them. However, access to water in which they
+can swim makes it unnecessary to provide any other supply of drinking
+water and for this reason lessens the work considerably. Unless it is
+easy for the ducklings to get in and out of the water there is danger of
+some of them drowning as they are likely to get tired and unable to
+climb out. Little ducklings allowed access to very cold water are
+subject to cramp and may be drowned as a result.
+
+_Distinguishing the Sexes._ It is difficult to distinguish the sexes of
+growing ducks until they begin to reach maturity. There is, however, a
+difference in their appearance. The drakes are coarser or thicker and
+more masculine in appearance showing this especially about the head and
+neck. Also as they secure their mature plumage the drake shows curled
+feathers on top of the tail which are often referred to as sex feathers.
+In addition, the voice of the duck is harsher and coarser than that of
+the drake.
+
+_Marketing the Ducks._ Most of the ducks produced on farms are marketed
+alive. This is because the farmer has no special market and he does not
+find that it pays him to dress and ship the ducks with the chance that
+they might spoil. In fact, most of the farm raised ducks are not turned
+off as green ducks at 10 to 12 weeks as is done on the commercial duck
+plants but are held until fall and then sold as spring ducks. They will
+weigh somewhat more at that time but as a rule the price received per
+pound will be lower than that obtained for green ducks during the spring
+and summer. Where there is a special demand for ducklings which the
+farmer can supply it will pay him to dress and deliver the ducks. If it
+is desired to dress the ducks, the directions given under Chapter VII
+can be modified to suit the farmer's needs. The soft body feathers
+should be saved in accordance with the directions given on page 106, as
+they can be used at home in making pillows or can be sold.
+
+Such eggs as are produced in surplus may either be utilized on the home
+table or sent to market. As a rule duck eggs are not in great demand
+except at certain seasons such as at Easter and during the Jewish
+holidays in the spring and fall when they bring somewhat higher prices
+than hens' eggs. The larger size of duck eggs, however, makes them
+favored by bakers and they can usually be sold at any time in a city of
+any size at prices as good as those received for hens' eggs.
+
+Eggs for market can be packed in the ordinary 30-dozen hen egg cases by
+using special fillers which hold 25 eggs instead of 36 as in the case of
+hens' eggs. See page 119. A farmer with a small flock of ducks will
+usually not have eggs enough to fill a case frequently and for this
+reason he usually finds it more convenient to market the few eggs he has
+by taking them into town in a basket.
+
+_Disease and Insect Pests._ Ducks are very little troubled by insect
+pests, nor are they greatly troubled by diseases. The usual difficulties
+encountered along this line are those discussed under this head in
+Chapter VI. Losses are often experienced as the result of predatory
+animals. Rats will cause a great amount of havoc among the young ducks
+if they are able to get at them. A single night's work on the part of
+one rat may practically clean out a small flock of ducklings. It is
+necessary to make sure that the ducklings are shut in at night so that
+rats cannot get at them.
+
+
+
+
+GEESE
+
+PART II.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+Extent of the Industry--Opportunities
+
+
+Geese can be raised successfully in practically all parts of the United
+States and are in fact scattered in small flocks over a considerable
+portion of the country being most abundant in the South and in the
+Middle West.
+
+The census figures for the year 1920 show Illinois with 195,769 geese to
+be the leading state in numbers, closely followed by Missouri, Arkansas
+and Iowa. Next in order of importance as goose raising states come
+Kentucky, Tennessee, Minnesota, North Carolina and Texas. The census
+figures of 1920 compared with those for 1910 show a decrease in the
+number of geese from 4,431,980 to 2,939,203. The only groups of states
+which showed an increase in the number of geese during this period were
+the North Atlantic and the Mountain states. Of the total farms in the
+United States only a small proportion, probably one-tenth, have any
+geese and the number of geese per farm would not average over 4 to 10
+depending on the section.
+
+_Nature of the Industry._ Geese are kept almost wholly in small flocks
+as a side line on general farms. The purpose of goose raising is
+primarily one of the production of meat although in the past flocks of
+geese have been kept to some extent, particularly in the south for the
+purpose of plucking them to secure the feathers. This practice of
+plucking live geese is decreasing and is much less common than formerly.
+The eggs of the geese do not enter to any extent into the egg trade of
+the country. As a rule all the eggs produced are hatched for the purpose
+of rearing young geese and it is only occasionally that goose eggs are
+used for culinary purposes.
+
+_Opportunities for Goose Raising._ Undoubtedly the greatest opportunity
+along the line of goose raising lies in the small flock kept on the
+general farm. Where conditions are suitable, that is to say, where there
+is an abundance of suitable pasture land together with some water to
+which the geese can have access, a small flock can be most profitably
+kept. They can be reared very cheaply as both the young and old geese
+will secure practically their entire living during the summer from
+pasture if an abundant supply of suitable green material is available.
+The cost of rearing them therefore is low. In addition both the young
+and old geese are very hardy and require comparatively little care. They
+are little subject to disease and therefore losses are small.
+
+Geese live and breed for a long time and this makes it possible to turn
+off to market a larger proportion of the young stock reared than is the
+case with most other classes of poultry. For all of these reasons,
+therefore, a small flock of geese will return a good profit to the
+farmer without having to supply any great amount of equipment or without
+having to feed very much in the way of expensive feeds. In addition to
+the geese which can be marketed, the maintenance of a small flock also
+helps to provide a variety in the farmer's diet by furnishing suitable
+birds for the holiday seasons such as Thanksgiving and Christmas.
+
+In addition to the opportunity for goose raising in small flocks on
+general farms there likewise exists a definite opportunity to specialize
+along this line somewhat more extensively. In certain places, notably
+the state of Wisconsin, goose raising becomes a more important activity
+on some farms than merely that of a by-product. Larger numbers are
+reared and special steps are taken in fattening and finishing them for
+market either by means of pen fattening or by means of hand fattening or
+noodling the geese. Geese so finished for market bring a special price
+and allow a good profit to the raiser for the time which he has put into
+them.
+
+An outgrowth of the goose raising industry which has been worked to a
+limited extent consists of the gathering together of the geese raised in
+any particular portion of the country on one farm and the feeding of
+them there in large flocks in the fields so as to fatten them for
+market. There are not many of these special fattening farms but several
+persons in different sections of the country who have made a practice
+of gathering together and marketing the geese in this way have found it
+very profitable. Probably a similar opportunity exists in certain other
+sections where goose raising on the farms in small numbers is common and
+where no one has yet made the effort to collect and fatten the geese
+before marketing them.
+
+While geese are not exhibited to the same extent as chickens, still
+there will always be found a market for birds of good quality, both for
+the purpose of exhibition and also as breeders to be used in improving
+the stock of other goose raisers.
+
+_Goose Raising as a Business for Farm Women._ Like turkey raising goose
+raising as a side line on the farm offers an excellent money making
+opportunity for the farm women. Without any great outlay of capital to
+get a start and without its being necessary to provide much in the way
+of buildings or other equipment, a flock of geese can be started which
+will allow a nice profit to the farm woman for the care and attention
+which she gives them. In this connection it should be remembered that
+while the opportunities for profit may not be so large as in turkey
+raising, yet the care required is much less and the chances of serious
+difficulties due to disease and to inability to raise the young stock
+are relatively small. Goose raising therefore offers a most profitable
+side line employment for the farm woman.
+
+_Geese as Weed Destroyers._ As stated before geese are close grazers. In
+fact, during the growing season of the year green vegetation forms most
+and in some cases practically all of their diet. The vegetation which
+they will eat readily is quite varied and in many cases geese will be
+found to be very valuable in ridding pastures or fields of troublesome
+weeds. In the southern states geese are often kept on farms where cotton
+is raised for the purpose of keeping the cotton fields free from weeds.
+
+
+Objection to Geese
+
+An objection to geese often expressed but without good foundation is
+that they will spoil the pasture for other stock. This is not true if
+the pasture is not overstocked with geese. Of course geese are very
+close grazers and if too many of them are kept on a field they will eat
+the grass down so close that there will be none for other animals to
+get. Similarly the idea that other animals will not eat grass grown
+where goose droppings have fallen is not true except where the birds are
+too thick so that the grass is soiled badly by the droppings.
+
+The fact that geese are noisy creatures makes them undesirable to some
+persons. It is true that they make a good deal of noise and that their
+cry is of a very hoarse, rasping character and to a person with bad
+nerves they may be annoying but this is no valid or weighty objection to
+the normal, healthy farmer. The Chinese geese are the noisiest and
+consequently the greatest offenders in this particular.
+
+A more valid objection to geese lies in the fact of their rather ugly
+disposition. Ganders, especially as they grow older and during the
+breeding season, are decidedly pugnacious and will not hesitate to
+attack human beings. They strike heavy formidable blows with their wings
+and with their strong bills they inflict most painful bites. Where there
+are children about the house it may be necessary to dispose of ugly
+ganders to safeguard the children from serious injury.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Breeds and Varieties--How to Mate to Produce Exhibition
+Specimens--Preparing Geese for the Show--Catching and Handling
+
+
+_Breeds of Geese._ There are six standard breeds of geese consisting of
+the following: Toulouse, Embden, African, Chinese, Wild or Canadian and
+Egyptian. All of these breeds consist of a single variety with the
+exception of the Chinese which is composed of two. The Toulouse is known
+as the Gray Toulouse, the Embden as the White Embden, the African as the
+Gray African, the two varieties of the Chinese as the Brown Chinese and
+the White Chinese, the Wild or Canadian as the Gray and the Egyptian as
+the Colored.
+
+The first four of these breeds are the ones which are commonly kept in
+domestication. In a general way it may be said that these breeds are
+meat breeds for the reason that they are kept mainly for the production
+of meat. The Wild or Canadian and the Egyptian are more in the nature of
+ornamental breeds since they are not so commonly kept and are
+principally to be found where ornamental water-fowls are maintained. The
+Chinese are sometimes classed as ornamental geese on account of their
+smaller size but they are much more commonly kept than either the
+Canadian or the Egyptian and make a good market fowl where the demand is
+not for such a large carcass.
+
+In addition to the standard breeds there are several other rare breeds
+among which is the Sebastapol which is kept purely as an ornamental
+breed by reason of its peculiar feathering. The Sebastapol is a white
+goose in which the feathers of the upper part of the body show a twisted
+or frizzled condition which gives it much the general effect of the
+feathers being curled. In addition to the standard breeds of geese there
+are kept on a great majority of farms ordinary common geese of no
+definite breed or variety. These geese in general are of smaller size
+than the larger standard breeds and have probably arisen as the result
+of the crossing of the standard breeds and the subsequent deterioration
+in size and color marking is due to careless breeding and selection.
+
+In some sections and for certain special purposes definite crosses of
+standard breeds are made for the production of table geese having
+certain desired qualities. For this purpose the African ganders are very
+popular used upon the Toulouse geese. To some extent there is produced
+and marketed a goose known as the mongrel goose. This has excellent
+table quality and is in good demand on account of its superior eating
+qualities and its rapid growth. It is produced by using the Wild or
+Canadian gander upon Toulouse, African or Embden geese. The result of
+this cross is a hybrid goose which has much the appearance of the Wild
+goose but which will not breed although the females will lay eggs. As a
+rule Toulouse or African females are used for the cross rather than
+Embden as from the latter there is a greater tendency to get a lighter
+cross which would not resemble its Wild father so closely and might not
+therefore be so readily recognized as genuine mongrel geese.
+
+_Nomenclature._ The term geese is used to indicate the birds of both
+sexes taken as a whole and also as a plural form for the word goose. The
+term goose is used to distinguish the female of the species. The male is
+given the specific name of gander to distinguish it from goose. The
+young of both sexes are termed goslings. In giving the standard weights
+for the different breeds of geese the birds are classified as adult
+ganders and young ganders and as adult geese and young geese. By adult
+goose or gander is meant a bird which is over one year old, by young
+goose or gander is meant a bird which is less than one year. Not
+infrequently in connection with market reports use will be made of the
+term "green geese". This indicates birds which are marketed when they
+are of large size but still young and immature, the green referring to
+this immature condition.
+
+_Size._ An idea of the size of the different standard breeds of geese
+can best be secured by giving the standard weights. They are as
+follows:
+
+Breed             Adult   Adult     Young   Young
+                 Gander   Goose    Gander   Goose
+
+Toulouse         26 lbs.  20 lbs.  20 lbs.  16 lbs.
+Embden           20  "    18  "    18  "    16  "
+African          20  "    18  "    16  "    14  "
+Chinese          12  "    10  "    10  "     8  "
+Wild or Canadian 12  "    10  "    10  "     8  "
+Egyptian         10  "     8  "     8  "     6  "
+
+_Popularity of the Breeds_. Of the different standard breeds kept the
+Toulouse is undoubtedly the most popular in this country probably due to
+its large size as well as to its quick growth. The Embden follows the
+Toulouse closely in popularity. The Chinese geese are probably third
+most numerous in numbers while the African ranks fourth. In certain
+sections the African seems to be very popular and one would expect to
+find more of this breed than seem to be present on farms. Neither the
+Canadian nor the Egyptians are to be found in any great numbers, the
+latter in particular being very rare.
+
+
+Egg Production
+
+It must always be remembered in speaking of the egg production of any
+breed of poultry that there will be a considerable variation in
+individuals within a breed and that egg production will also be affected
+very largely by the conditions under which the birds are kept. For this
+reason any attempt to give an average egg production for a breed is at
+best only an approximation. These approximations often serve, however,
+to show some well established contrast between the different breeds with
+respect to their egg laying ability. The Toulouse is a fairly prolific
+breed of geese and individuals should average from 12 to 36 eggs, the
+majority laying about 20 eggs. The Embden is very similar to the
+Toulouse in laying ability although probably on the whole not quite so
+good a layer. The African is generally considered a good layer and is
+said to average from 20 to 40 eggs. Some breeders state that the pure
+African are not as good layers as this, being about equal to the Embden
+and that the better laying Africans really have some Brown Chinese blood
+in them which has been introduced to increase prolificacy. The Chinese
+is the most prolific breed. The birds of either the White or Brown
+variety should average from 60 to 100 eggs. The eggs laid by the Chinese
+are smaller than those of the Toulouse, Embden or African. The Wild or
+Canadian and the Egyptian geese are small layers. They rarely lay more
+than one sitting during a season and the eggs will as a rule range from
+4 to 8 in number.
+
+_Size of Goose Eggs._ Goose eggs are decidedly larger than duck eggs.
+There is a considerable variation in size, depending upon the breed. The
+eggs of the Toulouse, African and Embden are of about the same size and
+will vary from 6-1/2 to 8 ounces each. The eggs of the Chinese are smaller
+and will weigh from 5-1/2 to 6 ounces each, while eggs of the Canadian and
+Egyptian are the smallest of the standard breeds, running from 5 to 5-1/2
+ounces each.
+
+_Color of Goose Eggs._ In general goose eggs are whitish in color but
+may shade to a gray or buff tinge. The Wild or Canadian sometimes lay
+eggs which are off the white, showing a considerable green tinge.
+
+
+About Geese and Matings
+
+_Broodiness._ All of the breeds of geese with the exception of the
+Toulouse may be classed as broody breeds, that is to say, they will make
+their nests and hatch their young if given a chance to do so. Not
+infrequently individuals of the Toulouse breed will do this also but as
+a rule they are not dependable for this purpose.
+
+_Size of Mating._ In making the mating it is usual in order to secure
+best results to use one gander with from two to four geese in the
+Toulouse, Embden and African breeds. In fact, better results will be
+secured in these breeds where not over 3 geese are used and in many
+cases the geese are mated in trios or even in pairs. In the Chinese
+geese a somewhat larger mating can be employed, one gander being used
+with 4 to 6 geese. The Wild or Canadian and the Egyptian geese in most
+cases pair only.
+
+_Age of Breeders._ Geese can be retained and will give good results as
+breeders for a longer period than most other classes of poultry. While
+the young geese will often lay during their first year the results from
+the eggs produced by them are not as a rule very satisfactory. It is
+sometimes claimed that the eggs of young geese will not hatch but this
+is untrue and goslings have been raised from such eggs. Canadian and
+Egyptian geese do not lay until they are 3 years old. Females may be
+kept for breeding purposes until they are 8 to 10 years old and should
+give good results during this time. If they continue to lay longer than
+this and are valuable breeding individuals they should of course be
+retained just so long as they lay at a profitable rate. Instances are
+reported where geese 15 to 20 years old were still giving good results
+as breeders. As a rule ganders cannot be successfully kept for breeding
+purposes as long as can the geese. Yearling ganders are often used but
+they are at their best for breeding purposes when from 3 to 5 years old
+and it is not generally wise to retain them after they are 6 or 7 years
+old. Egyptian and Canadian ganders will not breed before they are 2
+years old. In general it is good practice to mate young ganders to older
+geese and to mate younger geese with older ganders as this seems to get
+better results both in fertility and in hatching.
+
+_Marking Young Geese._ It is often desirable to mark young geese in some
+way so that their breeding can be told or so that a record can be kept
+of their age. This can be readily accomplished by punching various
+combinations of holes in the webs between the toes at the time the
+goslings are hatched.
+
+_Considerations in Making the Mating._[4] In making the mating in
+breeding geese it must be kept in mind that it is of primary importance
+to select the breeders first of all for size, prolificacy and vitality.
+Without these qualities no matter what else the breeding geese may be
+there is scant chance of satisfactory results. Having selected birds
+which are of suitable size and vitality those should then be utilized
+for breeding which approach most nearly both in type and color to the
+requirements as given in the American Standard of Perfection. As a rule,
+a new mating can be made by taking the birds selected and shutting them
+up together in a pen away from the other birds and out of sound of the
+voices of their former mates. As a rule about a month of this treatment
+will suffice to bring about the new matings desired and the birds can
+then be allowed to range at liberty.
+
+[Footnote 4: For a more detailed description of the principles of
+breeding as applied to poultry and which is equally applicable to geese,
+the reader is referred to "The Mating and Breeding of Poultry" by Harry
+M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum, published by the Orange Judd Publishing Co.,
+New York, N. Y.]
+
+Some ganders are very troublesome about mating. This is particularly
+true as they get older. In some cases it is impossible to get ganders to
+mate at all while frequently they will refuse to mate with more than one
+goose. As a rule, matings once made are permanent from year to year
+unless changed by the breeder on account of poor results. Where new
+matings are to be made or where changes are to be made this should be
+done in the fall so that the birds will have been mated for several
+months before the breeding season begins in order to insure good
+results. After the matings are made the geese can be allowed to run
+together in larger flocks but the practice is frequently employed of
+keeping the different matings in pens to themselves so as to avoid the
+fighting which will otherwise occur between the ganders. During the
+breeding season the ganders are quite savage and will fight fiercely.
+
+
+Breeds of Geese[5]
+
+_The Toulouse._ This breed is characterized by its very low down deep
+broad massive body. The body should come well down in front and should
+be so deep and full behind that it tends to drag on the ground when the
+bird walks. The skin of the rear portion of the body should have folds.
+The appearance or type of the Toulouse depends a great deal upon the
+condition of flesh which a bird may be in at the time as a fat well
+fleshed condition will improve type very materially. A dewlap, that is
+to say, a pendulous flap of skin on the throat, is desired but
+comparatively few birds show a well developed dewlap. It is more likely
+to appear with age than it is in the younger birds. In color the
+Toulouse breeds quite true. The principal difficulty which is
+encountered is the occasional appearance of one, two or three white
+flight feathers in the wing. These white flights constitute a
+disqualification and must of course be avoided in the breeding. It is
+necessary also to avoid any birds which lack in size, length, breadth or
+depth of body, particularly depth in front. Birds of this breed are of
+large size and make quick growth and for this reason are a fine market
+goose although the dark colored pin feathers are somewhat of a drawback
+from a market point of view.
+
+[Footnote 5: For a complete and official description and list of
+disqualifications of the standard breeds and varieties of geese, the
+reader is referred to the American Standard of Perfection published by
+the American Poultry Association, obtainable from Orange Judd Publishing
+Company, New York, N. Y.]
+
+_The Embden._ This breed is of good size but somewhat smaller than the
+Toulouse. It has not quite so long a keel or underline as the Toulouse
+and while deep in body it is not so baggy. There should be no dewlap in
+this breed. The plumage should be pure white throughout, the only
+difficulty of any importance occurring here being the occasional
+appearance of slate on the backs of young geese. This, however, is not
+serious as it almost invariably disappears with the first moult. Embden
+geese are rapid growers and mature early which together with the fact
+that their plumage is white makes them an excellent market bird.
+
+_The African._ In type the African is much the same as the Toulouse
+although not quite as large being about the size of the Embden. What is
+desired is a low down body which is flat in keel and without any folds
+of skin. The neck should be short. This bird unlike the Toulouse is
+characterized by a knob or protuberance extending out from the head at
+the base of the upper bill. This knob should be black in color and
+should show no tinge of yellow on the top or about the base. If the knob
+gets scarred or injured it is apt to turn yellow and freezing likewise
+is apt to cause it to turn yellow. Birds of this breed both young and
+old should show dewlaps, the absence of these in adult specimens
+constituting a disqualification. As in the Toulouse avoid any white
+flight feathers. The African makes an excellent market goose being like
+the Embden and Toulouse, quick growing and early maturing. The ganders
+are especially in favor for use in crossing with other varieties for the
+production of market geese. It seems probable that some Brown Chinese
+blood has been crossed into the Africans on various occasions probably
+for the purpose of increasing the prolificacy of the African as the
+Brown Chinese is an excellent layer. It is also true that crosses
+between the Brown Chinese and the Toulouse are sometimes shown for
+Africans but as a rule this cross results in too dark a bird and such
+crosses should never be used for breeding purposes since they would not
+continue to give the uniformity and other qualities obtained in the
+first generation.
+
+_The Chinese._ The Chinese is quite different in type from the three
+preceding breeds. It is much smaller and higher set on legs and has a
+body much more upright in carriage. The neck is long and slender and the
+head has a large knob. An important part about the type is to secure a
+very slender neck, another important point being to secure a very large
+knob; the larger this is the better. There is, however, a decided
+tendency for the knob to run small when the neck is slender and it is
+difficult to secure in perfection the combination of a very slender neck
+and a large knob. The Chinese geese should be in good condition but
+should not be too fat when shown as too good a condition of flesh
+injures the type materially. If fat there is a decided tendency for the
+birds to bag down behind which is undesirable. The Chinese geese are the
+best layers but the egg which they lay is smaller. On account of their
+smaller size they do not make as good market geese where large sized
+carcasses are desired but where smaller carcasses suitable for family
+use are in demand the Chinese make a satisfactory market breed.
+
+_The Brown Chinese._ In this variety the knob should be dark brown or
+black. As in the African, injury or freezing may turn the knob yellow
+which is undesirable. The plumage should be a rich brown shade of color,
+a faded gray color being very undesirable. The stripe down the back of
+the neck should be well defined and should be distinctly in contrast
+with the rest of the neck color. White feathers in the primaries or
+secondaries must be avoided.
+
+_The White Chinese._ The knob in this variety should be orange and any
+tendency toward yellow should be avoided. The plumage should be pure
+white throughout. Occasional young females may show slate in the back
+but this is not serious as it almost invariably disappears with the
+first moult.
+
+_The Wild or Canadian._ Contrary to expectation this breed when
+domesticated is very peaceable and very tame. There is often, however, a
+tendency for them to grow uneasy when the migratory season comes. To
+keep the birds from flying away it is necessary to clip the flight
+feathers of one wing or what is safer still to pinion the bird.
+Pinioning consists of cutting off the first joint of one wing. This may
+be done when the birds are small or may be done at any time and does not
+seem to bother them much. One of the best ways to accomplish this is to
+break the joint and then cut it off by using a chisel and hammer. Not
+much bleeding will result but it is well to put a little iodine on the
+cut. These birds breed very true in type and color and progress in the
+mating simply consists of continuing to select those birds for breeders
+which show markings in the greatest excellence. In type a Canadian goose
+is quite different from that of the other breeds mentioned. It is
+smaller, set much higher on legs and its body is neater and trimmer, and
+is oblong and carried in a horizontal position. The neck is long and
+slender. These birds mate only in pairs as a rule and the females do not
+mature and lay until they are three years old. The ganders often breed
+when they are two years old. Usually only a single sitting of eggs is
+laid consisting of from 4 to 8. Usually, however, all of these eggs will
+hatch and the young prove to be strong and easily reared.
+
+_The Egyptian._ This is the smallest of the standard breeds of geese. In
+type it more nearly approaches the Canadian than any other breed but it
+is somewhat longer in legs, showing more of the thigh beneath the body.
+The body is not carried in quite such a horizontal position as the
+Canadian but slopes downward slightly from the breast to the tail. The
+neck is neither so long nor quite so slender as that of the Canadian.
+This breed is the brightest colored of any of the geese and breeds
+fairly true in color and markings. Like the Canadian the Egyptian goose
+is likely to become uneasy at times and one wing should therefore be
+pinioned or the flight feathers clipped to keep the birds from flying
+away. Like the Canadian the Egyptians mate in pairs only and lay but one
+sitting during the year. The females do not lay until they are three
+years old.
+
+Neither the Egyptian nor the Canadian geese should be closely confined
+or no eggs will be laid. The goose should be allowed to make her own
+nest and hatch her eggs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50. Left--Egyptian Gander. Right--Sebastapol Goose.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51. Left.--Toulouse Gander. Right--Embden Gander.
+(_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52. Left--Wild or Canadian Gander. Right--African
+Gander. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53. Left--Brown Chinese Gander. Right--White Chinese
+Gander. (_Photographs from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S.
+Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Preparing Geese for the Show
+
+The preparation of geese for the show is comparatively a simple matter.
+It requires first of all that individuals shall be selected which
+approach nearest to the standard requirements both in type and in color.
+As to the actual preparation for exhibition the geese are practically
+self-prepared. For a period of at least a week or ten days before they
+are shipped to the show they should be given access to a grass range and
+to running water. The grass range tends to put them in good condition
+while the running water will give them an opportunity to clean
+themselves. Any broken feathers should be plucked at least six weeks
+before the birds are to be shown so as to give them an opportunity to
+grow in new ones.
+
+Since all of the common breeds of geese, with the exception of the
+Chinese, should be shown in a fat condition in order to give them their
+best type they should be given a grain mixture twice daily for a period
+of at least ten days before the show in order to get them in good flesh
+and to bring them up to standard weight. This ration should consist of
+one part corn and two parts oats. In Chinese geese where it is desired
+to have them in good condition of flesh but without showing any tendency
+toward bagginess, oats alone should be fed as they are apt to put on too
+much fat when corn is fed as well. When the birds are shipped to the
+show they are quite likely to get their plumage soiled during the
+journey. If this occurs fill a barrel about half full of water. As the
+geese are taken from the shipping coops place two of them at a time in
+the barrel, cover it over and leave them for a few minutes. Then take
+them out and they will usually be clean.
+
+
+Catching and Handling Geese
+
+Never catch geese by the legs which are weak and are easily broken or
+injured. For the same reason they should never be carried by the legs.
+In catching geese grasp them by the neck just below the head. Often a
+crooked stick is of value in getting hold of the birds by the neck.
+Geese can be carried short distances by the neck without injury but it
+is not advisable to carry them for any considerable distance in this
+manner, particularly if they are fat. The best way to handle the geese
+is to catch them by the neck, then place one arm over the shoulders and
+around the bird's body thus holding the wings in place while both legs
+are grasped with the hand. The neck should be held with the other hand
+to keep the bird from biting. In releasing the bird in a pen or shipping
+coop do not let go of the neck until the bird is placed where it is
+wanted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54--Proper manner of picking up and carrying geese
+with the head and neck under the arm. (_Photographs from the Bureau of
+Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture._)]
+
+
+Packing and Shipping Hatching Eggs
+
+Goose eggs for hatching must be shipped when they are fresh if they are
+to be received in good condition and are to give good results in
+hatching. They can be shipped long distances either by express or by
+parcel post. In order to prevent breakage and to lessen the effects of
+the jar to which the eggs are subjected during shipment they should be
+carefully packed in a market basket or other suitable receptacle. The
+same method of packing the eggs should be employed as with duck eggs
+described on page 137.
+
+
+Prices for Breeding Stock
+
+While the demand for breeding stock is not so broad with geese as it is
+with some other classes of poultry, there does exist a steady and
+profitable demand for this class of fowls. Goose eggs for hatching are
+usually sold in sittings of 5 and the price varies somewhat depending
+upon the variety. As a rule, Embden and Toulouse eggs will bring from 60
+cents to $1.20 each. Chinese goose eggs will bring from 40 cents to $1
+each while the eggs of the African goose will bring from $1 to $2 each.
+Of course the price of eggs for hatching like that of breeding birds
+depends on the quality of the stock. The prices for the birds themselves
+for breeding purposes will run anywhere from about $8 to $10 apiece for
+good birds suitable for breeding on farm flocks, to $25 or even $50 each
+of birds of especially fine quality.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+Management of Breeding Geese
+
+
+_Range for Breeders._ Since grass or other vegetation, when plentiful,
+will furnish practically the entire living both for breeding and growing
+geese, it is by all means desirable to have suitable range for the
+breeding stock. Aside from economy of production range is desirable from
+the fact that the breeders keep in better condition and better results
+in breeding and fertility are obtained. The range for breeding geese
+should therefore consist of grass land or pasture. Often rather low wet
+land can be used for this purpose, particularly if some higher land is
+also available to provide a more favorable kind of grass. Often geese
+can be ranged on the same pasture with horses or cattle. Later in the
+season after the harvest, both breeding and growing geese can be given
+the range of the stubble fields to good advantage as they will glean
+most of the shelled grain. The entire flock of breeders is generally
+allowed to run together but the flock may be divided if desired, or each
+mating may be kept in a colony by itself if the fighting of the ganders
+proves troublesome.
+
+_Number of Geese to the Acre._ The number of geese which can be kept or
+run to the acre depends of course upon the nature of the land available
+for the purpose. The better the pasture and therefore the more green
+feed available throughout the summer and fall, the more geese can be
+run. In general, the practice is to run from 4 to 25 geese to an acre;
+ten is a fair average under normal conditions.
+
+_Water for Breeding Geese._ While water to which the geese can have
+access for swimming is not absolutely essential for their well being,
+they like it and it is well to provide water if possible especially
+during the breeding season. It not only takes care of the problem of
+supplying drinking water, but in the opinion of many goose raisers,
+increases the fertility of the eggs laid. A natural water supply such as
+a stream or pond in the pasture is therefore desirable, but if none is
+available an artificial pond or tank can be furnished to good advantage.
+
+_Distinguishing the Sex._ It is difficult to distinguish the sex of
+geese. It is, of course, necessary to know the sex so as to provide the
+proper number of ganders and so as to know what birds to pen together in
+making a mating. Once the sex of a bird is determined it is well for the
+novice to mark it by means of a suitable leg band so that its sex can be
+easily distinguished in the future.
+
+It is more difficult to distinguish the sex of young than of old geese.
+The gander is generally slightly larger and coarser than the goose, with
+a longer, thicker neck and larger head. The gander also has a shriller
+cry than the goose whose cry consists of a harsher sound. Some goose
+raisers claim that they can distinguish the sex of mature geese by the
+body shape, the underline of the body of the gander from the tail to the
+point where the legs join the body being nearly straight, while in the
+goose this line tends to round out with the fuller development of the
+abdomen. This difference is more marked during the laying season than at
+other times. Considerable experience is necessary in order to
+distinguish sex by any of the means described and the really sure way is
+by an examination of the sexual organs or by observing the actions of
+the geese when mating.
+
+Upon examination the sphincter muscle which closes the anus of the
+female when stretched will be found to have a folded appearance. If the
+gander is placed upon his back and pressure applied around the anus, the
+penis will protrude. This test is more easily made on a mature than on
+an immature gander and is also easier to make during warm than during
+cold weather.
+
+_Purchase of Breeding Stock._ Geese when mated usually stay mated
+permanently. Matings are not, therefore, changed from year to year as a
+rule so long as they continue to give satisfactory results. If it
+becomes necessary to make new matings or to break up old matings, this
+should be done in the fall, so that the birds will be thoroughly used to
+the new order of things by the time the breeding season arrives, and
+the results in eggs laid and young stock grown will not, therefore, be
+adversely affected. For this reason, any breeding stock purchased should
+be secured in the fall rather than to wait until just before the
+breeding season opens. As a rule, also, a better selection of breeding
+stock to choose from is available to the purchaser in the fall.
+
+_Time of Laying._ Geese start laying in the early spring and continue to
+lay throughout the spring. With special attention given to the feeding,
+they should begin in the northeastern part of the United States about
+February 1 and should continue to lay until about June 1 when geese of
+the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse, African and Embden will
+generally be pretty well through. Some individuals will lay later than
+this and the Chinese geese also have a rather longer laying season
+extending further into the summer. The length of the laying season is
+also affected by whether the geese are broken up when they become broody
+or whether they are allowed to sit. The latter practice, of course,
+stops the layings. It must be remembered that the Canadian and Egyptian
+as a rule lay only a single small setting of eggs during the season.
+
+As a rule geese lay during the night or the forenoon. The frequency of
+laying varies, some geese laying every other day while others lay more
+or less often.
+
+_Housing._ Geese withstand the weather very well and do not need much in
+the way of houses or shelter except during winter and during severe
+storms. In the North it is the usual practice and good practice to
+provide shelter for the geese, which may take the form of a poultry
+house, or of any shed or barn available for the purpose. A shed with
+openings on the south side makes an ideal goose shelter or house. Most
+breeders in the South who give their flocks good attention also provide
+shelter for them during the winter although geese are also successfully
+kept in that section without shelter.
+
+The houses provided for the breeders must be kept clean and as dry as
+possible. The best way to do this is to bed them liberally with straw,
+shavings or some similar material, especially during the winter. As the
+bedding becomes soiled, more should be added and the house should be
+cleaned out from time to time and fresh litter put in.
+
+No equipment for the houses is necessary. The geese will lay their eggs
+in nests which they make on the floor and if plenty of clean bedding is
+provided, the eggs will not get badly soiled. Large boxes, barrels, or
+similar shelter provided with an abundance of nesting material may be
+scattered about the range to provide places in which the geese may make
+their nests.
+
+_Yards._ Usually no yards are provided for geese as they are allowed the
+range of a pasture or are allowed to roam at liberty about the farm. Any
+ordinary woven wire stock fence such as might be used to fence a pasture
+will serve to keep the geese confined as well as the other stock. If
+for any reason it is desired to confine geese to a yard, the effort
+should be made to provide yard enough so that the geese will have a
+constant supply of green feed. In a small yard this is impossible. A 2-1/2
+or 3 foot fence is high enough to confine any of the common breeds of
+geese and will also serve for Canadian and Egyptian geese if they have
+been pinioned which should always be done.
+
+_Feeding the Breeding Geese._ While the flock of geese may be allowed to
+pick most of their living from a good grass range during the summer and
+fall, it is necessary to feed them during the winter. In fact during the
+summer it may be necessary to feed them lightly on grain or wet mash if
+the pasture gets short. The quantity of feed necessary for this purpose
+depends upon the condition of the pasture and must be judged by the
+condition of the birds.
+
+During the winter, they must be fed regularly. The feed given them
+should consist of both grain and some form of roughage. It is necessary
+to be careful not to overfeed so that the geese will become too fat, for
+while they should be in good condition of flesh at the beginning of the
+breeding season, if they are too fat, poor fertility and poor hatches
+will result.
+
+_Feed._ Oats makes the best feed for breeding geese as it is not too
+fattening. Corn, wheat or barley fed alone is likely to prove too
+fattening but a limited quantity should be fed for variety. The grain
+should be fed twice a day throughout the winter and should be given
+rather sparingly, depending on roughage to make up the bulk of the feed.
+Vegetables, clover or alfalfa hay, chopped corn stover or silage make
+good roughage for this purpose. Corn silage is a fine feed if it is not
+moldy and does not contain so much corn as to be too fattening.
+
+About three weeks or a month before it is desired to have the geese
+commence laying, which should be at such a time that the first goslings
+hatched will have good grass pasture, a mash should be added to the feed
+to stimulate egg production. This mash is generally fed in the morning
+with the vegetables or roughage and may consist of three parts bran or
+shorts, one part corn meal and one-fourth part meat scrap. If available
+buttermilk or skim milk can be used to mix the mash and replace the meat
+scrap. Another mash for this purpose consists of corn meal one-fourth
+part, bran two parts, and ground oats one part, mixed up with skim milk
+or buttermilk.
+
+Grit and oyster shell should be kept where the geese can help themselves
+particularly during the laying season. Drinking water must be available
+at all times and if a natural supply is not available, must be given in
+drinking fountains or dishes which should be so arranged that the geese
+cannot get their feet into the water. When they can get into the
+drinking water, they will quickly get it into a filthy condition.
+
+When the geese are running in a field with horses or cattle a small
+enclosure should be fenced in to which the geese can gain access by
+means of suitable openings but which will keep the other stock out. In
+this should be placed the drinking fountain for the geese and in this
+enclosure the geese should be fed. Otherwise the cattle or horses will
+get most of the feed intended for the geese and in addition, some of the
+geese may be stepped on or kicked and injured when the stock crowds
+around at feeding time.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+Incubation
+
+
+_Care of Eggs for Hatching._ Since egg production usually begins early
+in the spring while the weather is still cold, it is necessary to gather
+the eggs at frequent intervals to prevent their freezing or becoming
+chilled. Later in the season daily collection will be satisfactory. The
+eggs as collected should be kept in a cool place and where the
+evaporation of the egg contents will not be too great. If set at fairly
+frequent intervals, there will be no difficulty on this score. If they
+are to be kept for some time, they may be stored in bran to prevent
+evaporation. It is well to mark the eggs as gathered with the date they
+are laid so as to overcome the possibility of saving too long any eggs
+for hatching.
+
+Some goose raisers think that it is best to wash goose eggs before
+setting them. This belief is based on the fact that when a goose makes
+her own nest and has access to water in which to swim she comes on the
+nest with her feathers wet. It is to simulate this condition that the
+eggs are washed. Certainly any dirty eggs should be washed.
+
+_Methods of Incubation._ The most usual methods of hatching goose eggs
+are by means of the chicken hen and the goose. Incubators may also be
+used but do not as a rule seem to give as good results as they do with
+hen or duck eggs. Turkey hens may also be utilized for this purpose but
+are not commonly available although they make good mothers. Probably the
+most common method of hatching is the use of chicken hens. Next common
+is to allow the goose to hatch her own eggs. Goose eggs hatch well under
+hens or geese. During the height of the season nearly every fertile egg
+should hatch if the breeding geese are managed and fed so that they are
+in good condition. Early in the season the eggs may not run as fertile
+or hatch as well as later.
+
+_Period of Incubation._ The period of incubation of goose eggs is
+approximately 30 days, but may vary from 28 to 33 or occasionally even
+35 days.
+
+_Hatching with Chicken Hens._ Chicken hens are used very commonly to
+hatch goose eggs both because they give good results and are readily
+available and also because it is desirable to take the first eggs laid
+by the geese away and not to let them get broody and sit so that they
+will lay more eggs. For the latter reason practically all the eggs laid
+early in the season are hatched by chicken hens.
+
+The nest can be prepared for the hen either in a suitable place in a
+poultry house or in a shed or other building or in a box or barrel on
+the ground. As soon as the hen shows that she is ready to sit by staying
+on the nest, in which has been placed a nest egg or two, for a couple of
+nights in succession, she may be given a sitting of eggs. Four to 6
+goose eggs will constitute a sitting for a common hen. The hen should be
+confined to the nest being let off only once a day for exercise, feed
+and water.
+
+The sitting hen must be given good care, being even more particular in
+this respect than when she is sitting on hens' eggs as the period of
+incubation is longer. In addition to being careful to see that the hen
+comes off her nest for food and water she should be dusted 2 or 3 times
+during the hatch with some good insect powder to keep her free from lice
+and therefore contented to stay on the nest. Two or 3 days before the
+goslings hatch she should be dusted with especial care so that the
+goslings will be free from vermin.
+
+On account of the large size of the eggs the hen should not be depended
+upon to turn them and this should be done by hand once or twice daily.
+
+_Hatching with Geese._ All breeds of geese will hatch their eggs
+although some are more persistently broody than others while there is a
+considerable difference in individuals in this respect. Toulouse and
+Chinese are perhaps the least broody of the breeds and are sometimes
+termed non-broody. The eggs laid by geese are generally gathered as
+laid. If this were not done they will become broody and stop laying
+quicker than they do under this treatment.
+
+The goose should be allowed to make her own nest. Often she will do this
+in a barrel, box or other shelter if these are conveniently available.
+When she shows that she is broody and has stopped laying she should be
+given a sitting of eggs which will consist of 10 or 11. Geese are often
+difficult to manage when they have young.
+
+Wild and Egyptian geese should always be allowed to make their own nests
+which they like to do on dry ground near the water, using straw leaves
+or similar material to make the nest. They should not be disturbed as
+they are ugly during this time. They will hatch practically every egg.
+
+_Breaking Up Broody Geese._ A goose which shows a desire to sit, can be
+broken up quite easily by confining her to a slat-bottomed coop without
+any feed, but with plenty of water to drink, for from 2 to 4 days. After
+being broken up she will generally commence laying again after an
+interval of a few days.
+
+_Hatching with an Incubator._ While it is more difficult to hatch goose
+eggs in incubators than it is hen or duck eggs, this can be done by an
+experienced operator with a fair degree of success. The incubator should
+be operated at a temperature of 101.5 to 102.5 degrees F., with the
+thermometer so placed that the bulb is on a level with the top of the
+eggs. Beginning with the third day, the eggs should be turned twice a
+day as with hens' eggs. Beginning about the tenth day, the eggs should
+be cooled once a day, and they need more cooling than hens' eggs
+require. They should be cooled down to a temperature of about 80 to 85
+degrees. All goose eggs whether in incubators or under hens or geese
+should be tested once during the hatch. The best time to do this is
+sometime between the tenth and fourteenth days, when any infertile eggs
+or dead germs should be thrown out.
+
+_Moisture for Hatching Eggs._ Where eggs are being hatched in an
+incubator, there is need for the use of considerable moisture. It should
+be added first at about the end of the first week of incubation and
+should be repeated a couple of times during the second week. This can
+best be done by sprinkling the eggs liberally with water heated to about
+100 degrees. Beginning with the 15th day and until 2 or 3 days before
+the eggs are ready to hatch soak them in warm water for from one-half a
+minute to a minute once every 2 or 3 days. For the last 2 or 3 days do
+this daily.
+
+When the eggs are being hatched by chicken hens or geese in nests
+indoors or in boxes or barrels and in dry weather, moisture should be
+added in the same manner and with the same frequency and amount as in
+the incubator. When the nest is on damp ground, it is not necessary to
+use any moisture on the eggs.
+
+_Hatching._ Goslings as a rule hatch rather slowly and somewhat
+unevenly, especially when under hens. For this reason it is well to
+remove each gosling as it hatches from under the hen or goose and place
+it in a covered, cloth-lined box or basket and keep near the stove
+until the hatch is completed. As soon as the hatch is over, the goslings
+that have been removed from the nest can be put back under the hen or
+goose which is to be allowed to assume the duties of motherhood.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Brooding and Rearing Goslings
+
+
+When the hatch is completed all the goslings which have been removed
+from the nest should be returned; and the hen or goose removed to the
+coop which she is to occupy while brooding them. At this time, if
+hatched with a hen the goslings should be examined carefully on the head
+and neck to see whether there are any head lice present. If any are
+found the heads and necks of the goslings must be greased with a little
+lard or vaseline. Not too much grease should be used as it may prove
+harmful to the goslings.
+
+_Methods of Brooding._ The most common methods of brooding goslings are
+the use of geese, of chicken hens or of artificial means. Geese make the
+best mothers but are not always available especially during the early
+hatches. Geese may also prove rather unruly when they have young and for
+this reason are not in favor with some goose raisers. When hatching is
+done simultaneously with geese and hens it is the practice of some
+raisers to give all the goslings hatched to the geese to rear.
+
+Hens can be used very successfully for rearing goslings especially if
+they are confined to a coop for the first week or two so that they
+cannot range too far and too fast and tire the goslings out. Not over 6
+or 8 goslings should be given to a hen to brood.
+
+Artificial methods are very successful with goslings much more so in
+fact than are artificial methods of hatching the eggs. Some goose
+raisers prefer to use artificial means of brooding, especially if they
+have only a few goslings and are brooding at the same time some chicks
+or ducklings.
+
+_Brooding with Hens or Geese._ A suitable roomy coop should be provided
+to which the goslings with their mother, either hen or goose, can be
+moved when the hatch is completed. The coop should be so constructed by
+means of a slatted front or otherwise, that the hen can be confined and
+the goslings allowed to range. It is very desirable to get the goslings
+out on grass as soon as possible. A goose with goslings is often allowed
+to have her liberty but many raisers prefer to confine her to a coop the
+same as when a hen is used. The coop should have a board floor well
+bedded with straw, shavings or similar material. This will not only help
+to keep the goslings dry but will also serve to protect them from their
+enemies during the night. For this same reason the coop should be so
+constructed that it can be closed at night by means of a wire covered
+door so as to shut out marauders, and at the same time allow plenty of
+ventilation. The coop must be cleaned often so as to keep the goslings
+clean and dry.
+
+_Length of Time Brooding Is Necessary._ The time that goslings need
+brooding will, of course, depend upon the weather. During mild weather
+10 days is usually sufficient, after which they can do without any
+brooding. Early in the season, brooding must be extended over a longer
+period. This may mean anywhere from 2 to 4 weeks or even longer.
+
+_Artificial Brooding._ For this purpose any brooder utilized for chicks
+or ducks can be used for goslings. To start with they should have a
+temperature of about 100 degrees but this can be reduced in a few days
+until in a week or ten days it is only 70 to 80 degrees or if the
+weather is mild artificial heat may be dispensed with entirely. Where
+there are only a few goslings they may be put with a brood of ducks as
+long as they need heat. It does not work so well to put them with chicks
+both because they do not require a high temperature so long as the
+chicks and also because they are so large as to be likely to tread on
+and injure some of the chicks. Brooders should be well bedded with
+straw, shavings or some similar material and should be cleaned out every
+2 or 3 days so as to be kept clean and dry. Do not crowd the goslings;
+give them plenty of room.
+
+Some goose raisers do not depend upon heated brooders at all, especially
+when only a few goslings are to be brooded. For the first day or two the
+goslings are kept in a covered basket or box in the house near a fire
+and after this are put out during the warmth of the day but brought into
+the house and put in the basket or box at night until they are two or
+three weeks old. The same practice should be followed with goslings
+reared in brooders, these being used only during the night after the
+first 2 or 3 days, the goslings being put out-doors during the day in
+good weather.
+
+When goslings which are being artificially brooded are put out during
+the day on the grass, they should be confined at first. This can be
+easily accomplished by building a triangular enclosure, formed of 3
+boards, 1 foot wide or wider, placed up on edge. This enclosure can be
+easily shifted to a new position each day thus giving the goslings fresh
+ground and fresh grass.
+
+
+General Care of Growing Goslings
+
+Goslings should be kept dry and for this reason should be kept shut up
+until the dew is off the grass in the morning. For the same reason they
+should not be allowed access to water in which to swim until they are at
+least 3 or 4 weeks old. When allowed to swim, care should be taken to
+see that they can get out of the water easily.
+
+Goslings caught in a cold rain will often be overcome and apparently
+dead. Frequently they can be revived and saved by wrapping them in a
+heated cloth and placing them near a warm fire. While they are still
+young, goslings should be driven under shelter whenever a rain storm
+comes up.
+
+When allowed to run at liberty, goslings must be kept track of to some
+extent. They may become lost and have to be driven back to their shelter
+at night. Or they may fall into holes or get caught in fences and
+corners and must be released. When allowed to run with larger stock they
+are more or less liable to injury from being stepped upon or kicked.
+
+A growing coop or shelter of some sort should be provided for the
+growing goslings although this is not always done after they are pretty
+well feathered out. Such a coop should be large enough so that the
+goslings are not crowded, and should be well ventilated. It should have
+a board floor and be capable of being closed so as to protect the
+goslings from their enemies, but without cutting off ventilation.
+
+If natural shade is not available where the goslings range, artificial
+shade of some sort must be provided during the hot weather. Growing
+goslings are quite susceptible to extreme heat and will not make as good
+growth if not provided with shade. Artificial shade of boards or brush
+can be easily provided.
+
+If for any reason it is necessary to confine growing goslings, they
+should be provided with good grass yards or runs and their coops or
+shelters should be moved to a fresh location frequently.
+
+It is better, if possible, to keep the growing stock separate from the
+old breeding stock as they will do better and make more rapid growth
+under these conditions. Usually, however, where only a few geese are
+reared each year, old and young stock are allowed to range together.
+
+_Feeding the Goslings._ Like chicks or ducks, goslings do not need to be
+fed as soon as hatched, the yolk of the eggs providing all the
+nourishment they need for at least 36 hours. They should, however, be
+furnished water to drink as soon as the hatch is completed.
+
+The first feed should consist of stale bread, soaked in milk or water.
+With this material should be mixed boiled eggs chopped up fine. The
+goslings should be fed 3 or preferably 4 times daily until they are 2 or
+3 weeks old. Chopped grass or some other green feed should be added to
+the feed, the quantity fed being increased steadily. It is important to
+get the goslings out on grass as soon as possible, which should be after
+the first 2 or 3 days if the weather is good, so that they will be able
+to graze for themselves. Five per cent of fine grit or sharp sand should
+likewise be added to the feed. Some growers prefer to feed the grit or
+sand in a hopper to which the goslings have constant access and from
+which they can help themselves. A constant supply of fresh drinking
+water is essential and this should be provided in drinking fountains or
+dishes such that the goslings cannot get their feet or bodies in them.
+
+When a good grass range is available, the goslings, after they are 2 or
+3 weeks old, will need only one light feed of mash daily in addition to
+the grass they eat. Such a mash will consist of 2 parts shorts and 1
+part corn meal, ground oats or ground barley. Where the pasture is good
+many goslings are raised from the age of 2 or 3 weeks until they are
+ready to be fattened without any other feed than the grass and other
+material which they get for themselves. However, the feeding of one
+light feed of mash a day is advantageous as it insures adequate feed for
+their need and promotes quicker growth. After the goslings are 6 weeks
+old, if they are still fed, the mash should be changed to equal parts
+shorts, corn meal and ground oats with 5% meat scrap. This same mash can
+be continued until fattening time. Whole grains are not generally fed to
+goslings until they are well feathered and often not until it is desired
+to fatten them.
+
+_Percentage of Goslings Raised._ Goslings are for the most part quite
+hardy and are comparatively easy to brood. This coupled with the fact
+that they are relatively free from disease and are not much troubled
+with insect pests makes it possible to raise a large per cent of the
+thrifty goslings hatched. With good care and with good strong healthy
+stock, it should be possible to raise in the neighborhood of 90% of the
+goslings hatched.
+
+_Rapidity of Growth._ Goslings make a very rapid growth. When marketed
+as green geese they are usually turned off at from 12 to 16 weeks of
+age. At this age they should weigh from 9 to 12 pounds, depending upon
+the breed and upon the rapidity of growth. Many, probably most, young
+geese are not marketed at as early an age as this but are held until the
+Christmas season or later and marketed at heavier weight. The best grown
+Toulouse goslings should attain a weight of 16 to 18 pounds by Christmas
+or when 6 to 8 months old. Other breeds will weigh proportionately less.
+Special attention or special feeding will, of course, increase the
+weight over that attained without such feeding.
+
+As a rule the heavier breeds such as the Toulouse do not get their full
+growth until they are about 18 months old. After this as geese of both
+sexes grow older, they will, of course, fill out more and attain greater
+weight.
+
+_Disease._ Goslings are remarkably free from disease and a very large
+percentage of all strong goslings hatched should be reared. One of the
+principal difficulties is diarrhoea. This is usually caused by faulty
+feeding. It may be due to feeding too great a quantity of soft feed or
+to giving soft feed in too sloppy a condition. Access to stagnant water,
+unclean enclosures or unclean drinking dishes may also cause diarrhoea.
+When partly grown goslings which are being given soft feed are troubled
+with diarrhoea, this may sometimes be checked by substituting a light
+feed of corn daily for a part of the soft feed.
+
+Goslings are sometimes troubled with lameness. This is usually caused by
+faulty feeding also, particularly by feeding a ration which is lacking
+in something needed, such as some form of animal feed like beef scrap
+which may cause a lack of mineral matter in the ration. If the goslings
+cannot secure it for themselves a supply of grit or gravel should be
+placed at their disposal.
+
+There is an infectious disease of geese which sometimes causes trouble
+known as goose septicemia or hemorrhagic septicemia. This is a disease
+similar to fowl cholera and may attack either young or mature geese. It
+is not often found on farms where the geese are raised in small lots,
+but sometimes proves troublesome on farms where a large number of geese
+are gathered together for fattening. The geese are often found dead when
+one goes to feed them without having shown much preliminary sickness.
+The disease is usually fatal. Shortly before they die the affected geese
+may acquire an uncertain gait and may twist the head about and burrow it
+in the dirt. Treatment is of no avail. If the disease occurs in a flock,
+the affected birds should be removed and killed, while the rest of the
+flock should be moved to new ground if possible. The ground which they
+previously occupied should be plowed and any houses, shelter, feed
+troughs, and drinking vessels should be thoroughly disinfected.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+Fattening and Marketing Geese
+
+
+_Classes of Geese Marketed._ The market geese consist principally of the
+surplus young ganders not required for breeding purposes and such of the
+old geese of either sex as it may be considered desirable to get rid of.
+Some young females, when the number raised is in excess of the number
+required for breeders also find their way to market. While these geese
+are marketed in the largest numbers during the Thanksgiving and
+Christmas holiday season, particularly the latter, some geese of course
+find their way to market practically throughout the year. There is also
+a rather limited trade in "green geese" which corresponds to the trade
+in spring or "green" ducklings. Green geese are goslings about 12 to 16
+weeks old, generally of the larger breeds, which are forced for rapid
+growth and are made to weigh in the neighborhood of 10 pounds at that
+age. These bring a good price and yield a good profit where there is
+demand for this class of geese.
+
+_Markets and Prices._ As with most classes of poultry, the large cities
+offer the best market for geese. Especially the cities which have a
+large foreign population make good markets as many foreigners are more
+in the habit of using geese for a holiday dish than are native
+Americans. The most favorable market usually occurs at Christmas when
+roast goose and apple sauce is in considerable favor. Considerable
+numbers of geese are also used at Thanksgiving time and in recent years
+as the price of turkeys has steadily increased there has been an
+increasing tendency to substitute goose for turkey on that day.
+Following are prices paid for various classes of geese on the New York
+wholesale market from May 1920 to June 1921 as reported by the New York
+Produce Review. Quite a wide variation in price will be noted in many
+cases which reflects the difference in condition of the geese as
+received. In the case of express receipts of live geese where a wide
+variation in prices occurs the high quotations represent the receipt of
+especially fattened geese from nearby farms.
+
+WESTERN GEESE, FROZEN
+
+1920
+May   5      25 @ 31c per lb.
+     12      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     19      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     26      25 @ 31c  "  "
+June  2      25 @ 31c  "  "
+      9      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     16      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 31c  "  "
+     30      23 @ 29c  "  "
+July  7      23 @ 29c  "  "
+     14      21 @ 27c  "  "
+     21      21 @ 27c  "  "
+     28      21 @ 27c  "  "
+Aug.  4      20 @ 25c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan. 26      26 @ 34c  "  "
+Feb.  2      26 @ 34c  "  "
+      9      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     16      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     23      26 @ 36c  "  "
+Mar.  2      26 @ 36c  "  "
+      9      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     16      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     30      25 @ 35c  "  "
+Apr.  6      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     13      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     20      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     27      25 @ 35c  "  "
+May   4      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     11      25 @ 35c  "  "
+
+FRESH DRESSED GEESE
+
+1920
+Nov. 17      34 @ 43c per lb.
+     24      30 @ 38c  "  "
+Dec.  1      25 @ 36c  "  "
+      8      30 @ 36c  "  "
+     15      30 @ 39c  "  "
+     22      30 @ 40c  "  "
+     29      30 @ 40c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan.  5      30 @ 37c  "  "
+     12      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     19      25 @ 34c  "  "
+     26      25 @ 34c  "  "
+
+
+FRESH DRESSED GEESE
+
+1921
+Feb.  2      25 @ 34c per    lb.
+      9      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     16      26 @ 36c  "  "
+     23      26 @ 36c  "  "
+Mar.  2      26 @ 36c  "  "
+      9      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     16      25 @ 35c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 35c  "  "
+
+LIVE GEESE--VIA FREIGHT
+
+1920
+May   5      18 @ 20c per  lb.
+     12      22c       "  "
+     19      20 @ 22c  "  "
+     26      20 @ 22c  "  "
+June  2      20 @ 22c  "  "
+      9      20 @ 22c  "  "
+     16      20 @ 22c  "  "
+     23      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     30      18 @ 20c  "  "
+July  7      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     14      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     28      25c       "  "
+Aug   4      25c       "  "
+     18      25c       "  "
+     25      25c       "  "
+Sept. 1      25c       "  "
+     22      26c       "  "
+     29      26c       "  "
+Oct. 20      25 @ 28c  "  "
+     27      27 @ 30c  "  "
+Nov.  3      32c       "  "
+     10      32c       "  "
+     17      32c       "  "
+     24      28 @ 32c  "  "
+Dec.  1      28 @ 30c  "  "
+      8      30 @ 34c  "  "
+     15      28 @ 35c  "  "
+     22      25 @ 30c  "  "
+     29      27 @ 32c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan.  5      26 @ 32c  "  "
+     12      26 @ 30c  "  "
+     19      25 @ 29c  "  "
+     26      25 @ 29c  "  "
+Feb.  2      27 @ 33c  "  "
+      9      28 @ 33c  "  "
+     16      26 @ 32c  "  "
+     23      25 @ 26c  "  "
+
+LIVE GEESE--VIA FREIGHT
+
+1921
+Mar.  2      25c  per lb.
+      9      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     16      18 @ 20c  "  "
+     23      20c       "  "
+     30      20c       "  "
+Apr.  6      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     13      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     20      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     27      15 @ 18c  "  "
+May   4      14 @ 16c  "  "
+     11      14 @ 16c  "  "
+     18      14 @ 16c  "  "
+     25      14 @ 16c  "  "
+June  1      14 @ 16c  "  "
+
+LIVE GEESE--VIA EXPRESS
+
+1920
+Nov. 24      30 @ 33c per lb.
+Dec.  1      30 @ 32c  "  "
+      8      32 @ 35c  "  "
+     15      30c       "  "
+     22      30c       "  "
+     29      28 @ 35c  "  "
+
+1921
+Jan.  5      29 @ 38c  "  "
+     12      28 @ 38c  "  "
+     19      28 @ 36c  "  "
+     26      27 @ 37c  "  "
+Feb.  9      28 @ 40c  "  "
+     16      28 @ 42c  "  "
+     23      26 @ 28c  "  "
+Mar.  2      25 @ 28c  "  "
+      9      20 @ 23c  "  "
+     16      18 @ 22c  "  "
+     23      18 @ 22c  "  "
+     30      20 @ 23c  "  "
+Apr.  6      17 @ 20c  "  "
+     13      17 @ 20c  "  "
+     20      17 @ 21c  "  "
+     27      16 @ 20c  "  "
+May   4      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     11      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     18      15 @ 18c  "  "
+     25      15 @ 18c  "  "
+
+_Prejudice Against Roast Goose._ There exists on the part of some
+persons a prejudice against goose on the grounds that it is too greasy a
+dish. When improperly cooked, goose will prove to be too greasy to suit
+many fastidious palates but this condition is not so much the fault of
+the fowl as it is of the method of preparation and cooking. When dressed
+if the goose shows a large amount of abdominal fat, as it usually does
+and should, a large part of this should be removed. This fat when tried
+out is highly esteemed by many cooks and by other persons is treasured
+as an efficacious treatment for croup in children. Also while the goose
+is roasting, a part of the fat as it cooks out of the carcass should be
+removed. Treated in this way one need have no fear that the roast goose
+will prove too greasy but instead one will be pleasantly surprised at
+the rich taste which the roast goose possesses.
+
+_Methods of Fattening Geese for Market._ Many geese are sent to market
+without any special treatment or effort to fatten them, being taken
+right off pasture in such condition as they happen to be or at best with
+only a half-hearted attempt to fatten them by feeding a little corn or
+some other grain for a short period. When a real effort is made to
+fatten geese for the market it is generally done in one of three ways.
+First is pen fattening which is the method best adapted to small lots of
+geese on the average farm. Second is by noodling which is only attempted
+in sections where the goose raisers are somewhat of specialists and
+where the effort is made to turn out geese of superior quality. Third is
+fattening in large flocks which is practiced only by a very limited
+number of farmers in scattered sections who take the unfattened geese
+raised on the general farms and finish them for market.
+
+_Pen Fattening._ For this purpose the geese are put in pens large enough
+to hold them comfortably but without any yards. Not over 20 to 25 geese
+should be penned together for this purpose. To get the best results the
+geese should be kept as quiet as possible and to accomplish this the
+pens are partly darkened and the geese disturbed only at feeding time.
+The geese are fed three times daily; in the morning, at noon and at
+night, being given all they will clean up. One feed should consist of a
+moist mash composed of one part shorts and two parts corn meal. This
+mash should not be sloppy. The other two feeds consist mainly of corn
+with some oats or barley. Some roughage such as vegetables or hay should
+also be supplied. The pens should be deeply bedded with good oat straw.
+The geese will eat a considerable amount of this which thus helps to
+supply the roughage which they need. The straw also, of course, serves
+to keep the pen and the birds clean. A plentiful supply of good drinking
+water is also necessary. The usual period of fattening is three to five
+weeks and a gain of from 4 to 6 pounds per bird can be secured. This
+method of fattening is commonly used by goose raisers in Wisconsin and
+the geese from this state are noted for their fine quality.
+
+A less intensive form of pen fattening is often used by farmers where a
+small yard is provided in addition to the pen itself and where no effort
+is made to darken the pen. If no other means for fattening are
+available, a small yard can be built, a few boards arranged for a
+shelter at one end and the birds fed in this enclosure as described
+above.
+
+_Noodling Geese._ Noodling geese is a method of hand feeding which has
+for its purpose the production of the best fattened geese. It is not
+employed to any extent except in the section about Watertown, Wisconsin,
+where the farmers specialize to some extent on goose fattening. It is a
+method requiring long hours and tedious labor and cannot be profitably
+carried on unless a special price can be obtained for the product.
+
+In noodling geese, 8 or 10 geese are placed in a pen about 8 by 12 feet
+which is heavily bedded with straw. A partition extends halfway across
+the pen and is utilized to keep the geese separate as they are fed.
+Young ganders and any old ganders or geese which are to be marketed are
+used for noodling.
+
+The pen is kept dark and the geese should be disturbed only at feeding
+time. The first feed is given at 5 o'clock in the morning and five feeds
+are given daily at about 4 hour intervals, the last feed coming at 11 p.
+m. However, when the geese are first put on feed they are noodled only
+3 times a day this being gradually increased to 5 times. The feeder sits
+on a box or stool in a corner of the pen, grasps each goose in turn
+holding it between his legs to keep it from struggling as he stuffs it
+with noodles. The goose is handled by its neck, never by its legs which
+are easily injured, and is held with its back toward the feeder. The
+feeder usually wears gloves to protect his hands from the severe bites
+which the birds will inflict. The feeder must also handle the birds as
+carefully as possible, especially as killing time approaches for the
+flesh bruises easily and the discolored patches spoil the appearance of
+the dressed goose.
+
+The feeder at the start usually gives each goose from 3 to 5 noodles,
+gradually increasing this to 6 or 7 noodles if the birds will stand it,
+the number of noodles fed depending upon the size and condition of each
+bird, the feeder being obliged to use his judgment in this matter. In
+general if any feed can be felt in the craw, no noodles are given until
+the next feeding time. Failure to observe this is likely to cause the
+bird to go off feed. If any geese are noticed which are off feed they
+should be taken out and marketed.
+
+The noodles are made of scalded corn meal, ground oats, ground barley
+and ground wheat or wheat flour, using equal parts of each. This
+material is thoroughly mixed and salted as one would bread and is then
+put through a sausage stuffer. The product as it comes from the stuffer
+is cut into noodles about 2-1/2 or 3 inches long and these are boiled for
+10 or 15 minutes or until they float. A wash boiler with a wire rack
+forming a false bottom about 1-1/2 inches above the boiler bottom is used
+for this purpose. When cooked the noodles are dipped in cold water and
+then rolled in flour to keep them from sticking together. A supply of
+noodles is made which will last for 2 or 3 days' feeding.
+
+Just before feeding, hot water is poured over the noodles to make them
+warm and slippery. The mouth of the goose is forced open and the noodles
+are put in, one at a time, and worked down by using the fingers on the
+outside of the neck. As each goose is fed it is placed on the other side
+of the partition until all in the pen have been fed. It is important
+that plenty of drinking water be kept before the geese.
+
+The feeding period where geese are noodled usually extends from 3 to 4
+weeks. Gains of 6 to 10 pounds per bird can be secured and often an
+increased price of 10 to 15 cents a pound can be secured for such
+specially fattened geese. Noodled geese will average about 25 pounds and
+some individuals have been made to weigh nearly 40 pounds. One man can
+noodle from 50 to 100 geese but has to put in long hours. Noodled geese
+should be dressed where fattened as they are soft fleshed and would
+shrink badly if shipped alive.
+
+Fattening methods similar to the noodling described are used in parts
+of Europe for the production of the enlarged goose livers which are
+employed in making "patte de fois gras".
+
+
+Methods Used on Fattening Farms
+
+As previously mentioned, a few farmers make a specialty of buying the
+geese in their section of the country in the fall when it is too late
+for serious trouble to develop from hemorrhagic septicemia, a disease
+similar to fowl cholera, and to fatten or finish them in large flocks
+for the Thanksgiving and Christmas markets. Methods are employed in
+different sections which differ quite widely.
+
+On a farm in the Middle West the geese are collected from the general
+farms where they are produced in small flocks and brought to the farm
+where they are kept in flocks as large as 1,000 or even more, and are
+allowed to run in a cornfield or orchard. They are fattened for about a
+month. Corn on the cob and plenty of water is kept before the geese all
+the time and if they are running in a cornfield they eat the leaves off
+the corn stalks for roughage. Roughage is supplied if not available
+otherwise and straw, hay or vegetables are utilized for this purpose.
+
+No shelter is provided during mild weather, the geese getting such
+protection as they can from the trees or corn stalks. If the weather
+turns unusually severe, the geese are generally driven into sheds or
+barns. When fattened the geese are usually shipped to some large market
+alive. Several farms in the neighborhood of Boston make a specialty of
+finishing geese each fall, and the methods used are quite different from
+those described above. No geese are raised on these farms, the operation
+being confined to the fattening or finishing of the geese and to killing
+and dressing them for the market. Some of these goose fatteners also
+have stalls or stands in the Boston markets where they are enabled to
+dispose of their fattened geese to the best advantage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55. Large flock of geese fattening in an orchard.
+(_Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of
+Agriculture._)]
+
+_Fatteners._ In previous years these fatteners depended largely upon the
+geese produced on the Rhode Island farms for their supply. In the past
+few years, however, the supply from this source has dwindled greatly and
+the bulk of the geese for fattening are now shipped from Prince Edward
+Island, Canada, in carload lots. Such summer geese as are now fattened
+still come from Rhode Island and are brought in by truck. The fattening
+season begins in September and lasts until Christmas. Some early
+goslings are bought in June but there is not as good a profit from the
+summer geese, the demand and prices being adversely affected by the
+supply of spring ducklings available at that time.
+
+Experience and good judgment will benefit the goose fattener greatly
+when purchasing his supply of geese for fattening. What he wants are
+goslings, not older geese, which have made a good growth and which have
+a large frame but which are in poor flesh rather than fat. Such geese
+will make more rapid and more profitable gains. When geese are bought
+for shipment by the carload from Prince Edward Island, they should be
+penned and fed at the point of shipment for 3 or 4 days before they are
+loaded in the cars, so as to put them in shape to stand the journey
+well. On the farms from which they come, the goslings are not fed much
+and in consequence are not in shape to stand shipment.
+
+_The Goslings_ which are secured from the farms for fattening are mainly
+common geese of no particular breed. Some pure bred geese are also
+obtained as are some first crosses between the pure breeds. A class of
+geese which is obtained in some numbers from Prince Edward Island and
+which is much desired is the so-called "Mongrel" goose. These are
+obtained by breeding a Wild or Canadian gander to geese of dark plumage
+similar to the Toulouse or African. The mongrel geese much resemble the
+wild gander in type and color and are in demand on the market because of
+their wild or gamy flavor. They bring about 10 cents per pound more than
+common geese. The market, however, is somewhat limited. These geese will
+not breed although the females will lay eggs. Where the wild gander is
+mated with light colored or white geese the offspring will have more or
+less light colored feathers and will not as closely resemble the wild
+parent and for this reason are not as desirable.
+
+_Shipping._ The geese are loaded into stock cars into which three
+separate decks are built to accommodate them. From 1200 to 1400 geese
+can be loaded into a car thus arranged. The journey usually takes about
+5 or 6 days and some fatteners send a man along with the car to feed and
+water the geese 2 or 3 times during the trip. If a man does not
+accompany the car, buckets of corn should be placed in the car for feed
+and some potatoes should also be supplied as these will serve in place
+of drinking water. If the car is not subjected to unusual delay, the
+geese should come through in good shape, but if much delayed there may
+be 25 to 100 geese dead when the car arrives at its destination.
+
+When the car arrives at the end of its journey, the geese are unloaded
+and driven to the farm where they are turned into the fields together in
+a large flock. The fields in which they are thus kept should have a
+supply of growing green feed or grass and a good supply of fresh
+drinking water. They are kept here until they are wanted for the
+fattening pens which may be from a week to 20 days after their arrival
+at the farm. While in this large supply flock they are fed on corn and
+grass which they can get for themselves.
+
+_Summer Geese_ to be fattened are placed only about 50 in a pen or
+enclosure; and are provided with a few boards set on posts to protect
+them from the hot sun. The later geese are fattened in lots of 3 or 4
+hundred or even more, depending upon how many pickers are available to
+be kept busy. It is for this reason also that the geese are not all put
+on the fattening ration at the same time, but are started at intervals
+so as to have a continuous supply coming along to keep the pickers busy.
+The geese not put in the fattening lots at the start are left in the
+fields to grow and develop until they are needed.
+
+The enclosures in which the geese are penned for fattening are small
+lots or fields enclosed by stone walls or board fences 2-1/2 to 3 feet
+high. These lots should be dry and well-drained, a location on a side
+hill being good for this purpose. The fattening lots must be kept clean
+and stagnant water must not be allowed to stand in the lots as this is
+likely to cause sickness, especially diarrhoea. These yards should be
+plowed up each spring and planted to oats, corn or some other growing
+crop to sweeten them. No houses or shelters are provided for these geese
+but some yards are somewhat wooded which affords a measure of protection
+from the wind.
+
+_Feeding._ When the geese are placed in the fattening lots, some
+fatteners prefer to fast the geese for from 3 to 5 days, giving them no
+feed but plenty of water to drink. This gives them a good appetite and
+puts them in good shape for fattening.
+
+The geese are fed three times a day, in the morning, at noon and at
+night. The morning and night feed usually consists of a moist mixed feed
+fed in troughs; while the noon feed is whole corn thrown on the ground.
+The use of one feed of corn a day is supposed to check any tendency
+toward diarrhoea. In very cold weather some fatteners feed the mixed
+feed at noon and the corn at night. At first the geese are not given all
+they will eat but are worked up gradually, increasing the amount each
+day until they are getting all they want. As a rule the geese will drop
+back a little in feed consumption after they reach the point where they
+get all they want and from this time on, the feeding must be very
+carefully watched to see that they are not given so much that they will
+leave some to sour which would cause diarrhoea. The morning and noon
+feeds are lighter, the heaviest feed being given at night. The bird's
+appetites will vary from day to day so that it is best to make the
+rounds twice in feeding to make sure that they have enough and that none
+is left. If any is left it must be gathered up and carried away.
+
+No provision is made for furnishing the fattening geese with green feed
+or roughage. The practice with respect to drinking water varies. Some
+fatteners keep a supply before the birds in troughs which must be washed
+out each day to keep them clean. Others furnish no water except that
+used in mixing up the feed.
+
+_Corn Meal_ is the principal ingredient of the fattening mixture. To a
+sack of corn meal is added 10% beef scrap and five good shovels of grit
+or medium sized gravel. In addition some fatteners add 10% of flour to
+bind the mixture together. This material should be thoroughly mixed up
+in a dry state as a better mix can be obtained in this way. It is then
+mixed up with water, the practice here varying. Some fatteners mix in a
+trough with boiling water a short time before feeding, while others mix
+it with cold water letting it soak over night and adding more water in
+the morning if it is too dry at that time. It should be mixed until it
+can be shoveled readily but should be quite solid, never in a sloppy
+condition as this is likely to cause diarrhoea. A little salt may be
+added, if desired, as an appetizer. While corn meal is generally used,
+hominy may take its place. After the geese are started on the fattening
+ration, this must be given throughout the fattening period. Changing to
+some other feed will throw the geese off feed and cause a loss.
+
+_Feeding._ When the mixed feed is ready it is shoveled into boxes or
+barrels on a low wagon and driven to the fattening lots where it is
+shoveled into the troughs for the geese. Ordinary V-shaped troughs are
+favored instead of flat troughs as the latter afford hiding places for
+rats which may cause damage in addition to the feed which they eat by
+frightening the geese.
+
+Geese are easily frightened and must therefore be handled rather
+carefully and gently as a severe fright will interfere with the gains
+they will make. Some fatteners provide electric lights where the geese
+rest at night so that they can see and will not be so likely to become
+frightened.
+
+When the geese are ready to be killed they are driven up to the killing
+house and into a pen where they may be easily caught. Each goose as
+caught is examined to see whether it is in condition for killing. If it
+is not it is put back with a later lot for additional fattening. Good
+condition in a goose is judged by its weight when handled and also by
+the condition of its breast and the fat on its back. A good place to
+test geese for fat is on the side of the body just below the point where
+the wing joins the body. If fat can be seized between the thumb and
+finger at that point, the goose is in good condition.
+
+_Dry Picking._ All fattened geese for the Boston market are dry picked.
+The goose is held between the knees of the picker with the wings held
+fast against the sides of the body. The head is grasped by the left
+hand, the mouth forced open and the veins in the back of the throat just
+beyond the skull severed with a sharp knife for the purpose of bleeding
+the bird. If the bird is to be stuck, which is not always done, the
+point of the knife is then plunged through the roof of the mouth to the
+brain. The legs are then seized in the left hand, together with the ends
+of the wings to prevent the goose from struggling and the goose is
+struck once or twice sharply on the back of the head with a club held in
+the right hand. This is for the purpose of stunning the bird. The geese
+may also be bled by sticking the knife through the neck from the outside
+just below the head.
+
+The picker then takes his seat beside the feather box, holding the goose
+on his lap with the head held between his knee and the outside of the
+box. He proceeds to pluck the feathers as rapidly as possible, removing
+all the feathers except the main wing feathers or those of the first
+joint of the wing and the feathers of the neck half way from the head to
+the body. All the soft body feathers are thrown in the box and saved.
+The coarser feathers are thrown on the floor. The down is removed by
+rubbing the moistened hand over the skin. To save the hands, ordinary
+rubber heels dipped in water are often used. Sharp knives are also used
+to shave off the pin feathers which cannot be plucked and any down not
+removed by rubbing.
+
+The dry picked goose presents a much better appearance than a scalded
+goose and the feathers are more valuable. The skin of a dry picked bird
+is not so likely to be rubbed off in removing the down.
+
+_The Value of the Feathers_ is sufficient to pay for the cost of the
+picking or perhaps a little more. The cost of picking in the fall of
+1920 ranged from 15 to 20 cents per goose where the picker was boarded
+and 24 cents without board. A good man can pick about 40 geese in a day.
+Women are not employed for this work as the geese are too big and too
+strong for them to handle.
+
+After the geese are picked, the blood is washed from the head and the
+feet washed if that is necessary. They are then thrown into barrels of
+cold water to cool and must be left there until the body heat is
+entirely removed. The wings are tied in place by means of a string or
+tape tied around the body and wings and the legs may also be crossed
+over the back and tied. The geese when ready for market are either
+shipped in by express or are taken in by automobile truck.
+
+_Gain in Weight._ In fattening according to the methods described above
+a gain in weight is secured of from 6 to 8 pounds per goose. This does
+not represent the total gain in value, however, for the fattened geese
+will bring more per pound as a result of their finished condition. The
+fattened geese when ready for market will weigh from 12 to 20 pounds.
+Weights taken on two carloads of fattened geese showed an average weight
+of 14 pounds. On December 2, 1920, fattened geese from these farms were
+bringing 42 cents per pound on the Boston market while the mongrel geese
+were worth 50 cents or a little better.
+
+The question may arise as to the size of farm necessary to carry on a
+business of this sort. Using the methods employed about Boston a farm of
+30 acres would be sufficient to handle 20,000 geese in a season. In
+selecting a farm for such a purpose, a location should be chosen where
+there are no close neighbors as the odor from the geese and yards is
+offensive to most persons.
+
+_Selling Geese Alive._ Most farmers who raise only a few geese ship them
+alive, either sending them to some commission house or selling them to
+someone who makes a specialty of fattening. Such geese are often in
+poor condition and bring the lowest quotation. Large coops similar to
+those used for turkeys should be used in shipping geese.
+
+_Killing._ Where geese are killed on the farm for shipment to market
+they are usually hung up by means of a cord about the legs. When geese
+are to be dry picked the veins in the throat just beyond the skull are
+first severed with a long bladed knife such as used for killing turkeys
+to cause good bleeding and the point of the knife is then plunged
+through the roof of the mouth to the brain performing the stick which
+serves to make the feathers come out more easily as with other classes
+of poultry. Since it is rather difficult to dry pick geese, they are
+usually scalded or steamed and where this is done, the stick is not made
+but after the veins in the throat are cut, the goose is stunned by a
+blow on the back of the head with a short club. A blood can or weight is
+then hooked through the lower bill which keeps the neck straightened out
+and prevents the blood from being thrown about the room or on the birds.
+The birds are allowed to hang until they are dead and thoroughly bled
+out.
+
+_Picking._ When geese are dry picked, the feathers are removed just as
+soon as the birds are stuck for the longer the delay the harder the
+feathers pull. The wings are picked to the first joint and the feathers
+of the neck half-way to the head. The soft pin feathers and fine down
+may be removed by shaving the skin or rubbing the body with moistened
+hands will partially remove them.
+
+Usually geese are scalded or steamed for picking. For steaming a wash
+boiler three-quarters full of boiling water and with a burlap sack
+tightly stretched over its top can be used. The goose is simply laid on
+the sack and the steam coming through the burlap steams the feathers and
+makes them easy to remove. The breast should be steamed first, then the
+back and then each side. Two or three minutes will be time enough to
+complete the steaming. The feathers are steamed until they pull out
+easily. The goose must be kept moving to prevent the flesh from becoming
+scalded and since the breast is especially tender it is usual to lay the
+head under the breast to prevent the latter from scalding. After
+steaming the body feathers are removed and the bird is then singed over
+a flame furnished by alcohol burned in shallow tin plates, in order to
+remove the down. The down may also be removed by sprinkling powdered
+rosin over the goose's body which is then dipped into hot water. The hot
+water melts the rosin which sticks to the down and the down and rosin
+can then be rubbed off together.
+
+Geese may also be steamed by scalding slightly in hot water and then
+wrapping tightly in burlap or some other cloth. They are kept wrapped
+for about five minutes which allows the steam to work thoroughly through
+the feathers which can then be plucked easily.
+
+Exactly the same methods can and often are employed in dressing geese as
+are used with ducks. The reader is therefore also referred to the
+material in Chapter VII.
+
+There seems to be no great insistence on the part of most markets for
+dry picked geese. Some will pay slightly more for the dry picked birds
+but others make no difference.
+
+_Packing for Shipment._ After picking, the geese are washed and then
+placed in cold water to cool. Ice water is best for this purpose and is
+essential in warm weather. The carcasses must be allowed to remain in
+the water until they are thoroughly cooled, which will take at least one
+to two hours. If any animal heat is left in the bodies, they will spoil
+very quickly. Often the carcasses are dipped in hot water, before being
+thrown in the cold water, to plump them. After they are thoroughly
+cooled, the geese are packed in barrels for shipping. If the weather is
+cool they may be packed in well ventilated barrels without ice, but if
+the weather is warm, cracked ice must be used in packing, proceeding in
+the same way as when packing ducks as described on page 109. It is
+always risky to pack without ice.
+
+_Saving the Feathers._ Goose feathers are valuable and should therefore
+be saved when the geese are plucked. The soft body feathers and the
+coarser feathers should be kept separate. The feathers should be cured
+by spreading them out in a thin layer on the floor of a loft or room,
+stirring them up occasionally until they are thoroughly dried out, when
+they can be sacked and sold. Failure to dry the feathers thoroughly will
+result in their heating and molding with the result that they will
+arrive at their destination in bad shape and will be worth less money.
+The soft body feathers of geese are practically all used in making beds
+and pillows while the quills are sometimes utilized in making toothpicks
+and cigarette holders. Prices for goose feathers in June 1921 were as
+follows:
+
+Pure White          dry picked  75c per lb.
+Good average white   "    "     65c  "   "
+Largely gray         "    "     55c  "   "
+Largely gray         scalded    40c  "   "
+Long goose quills                5c  "   "
+
+These prices were for good dry feathers.
+
+
+Plucking Live Geese for their Feathers
+
+In the days of feather beds and home-made pillows the practice of
+plucking live geese for their feathers was very common. Now, however,
+with the demand for goose feathers less and with the opinion of some
+breeders that plucking geese is both cruel and injurious, the practice
+seems to be decreasing. Many goose raisers in the South and a less
+number in the Middle West and North however still pluck the feathers
+from the live geese prior to the time of moulting. The frequency with
+which the picking is done varies greatly, some picking as often as every
+six weeks during the spring, summer and early fall while others pick
+twice, once in the spring and once in the fall, or once in the spring
+only. Geese should never be picked during the late fall or winter when
+the weather is cold or during the breeding season. Both young and old
+geese are plucked and the average yearly production of feathers per
+goose is about one pound. When the quills of the feathers are dry and do
+not contain any blood, the feathers are ripe for picking. In plucking, a
+stocking is placed over the head of the goose and the goose held on the
+lap and between the legs during the process.
+
+An assistant to hold the goose during the plucking simplifies the work
+greatly. In plucking, part of the soft feathers of the breast, sides,
+abdomen and back are taken but these sections should not be plucked
+clean. It is especially important that enough short feathers be left to
+support the wings.
+
+After plucking, the feathers must be cured before they are shipped. This
+may be done by spreading them out on a floor as described for the
+feathers taken from slaughtered geese or they may be placed loosely in
+burlap sacks and hung up in a garret or loft. Hanging in this way and in
+the loosely woven sacks, they are subjected to a good circulation of air
+and will dry out without heating. Sacks of feathers should not be piled
+or packed closely together, on top of one another or even be allowed to
+lie on the floor until they are thoroughly dry as otherwise they are
+almost sure to heat and mold.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+A
+
+Absence of crest in Crested White Duck, 34
+
+African Goose, 156,  157
+
+Age of
+  breeding ducks, 55,  123
+  breeding geese, 152
+  duck eggs for hatching, 72
+  ducklings for market, 96, 102,  136
+  green geese, 187
+  Muscovy duck, 31
+
+Amount of feed
+  per pound of market duck, 95
+  for noodled geese, 197
+Amount of land
+  for duck plant, 46
+  for goose fattening farm, 208
+
+Arrangement of cars for shipping live geese, 202
+
+Arrangement of duck plant, 45
+
+Artificial water yards for ducks, 62
+
+Aylesbury duck, 23
+
+
+B
+
+Baby ducks, selling, 78
+
+Bantam ducks, 27, 29
+
+Bean,
+  definition of, 13
+  black in, 22, 23, 35
+
+Bedding
+  brood coop for goslings, 180
+  duck breeding houses, 60
+  duck brooder houses, 87
+  goose breeding houses, 168
+  pens for fattening geese, 195
+
+Beef scrap, feeding, to ducks, 64
+
+Bib in
+  Blue Swedish ducks, 33
+  Buff ducks, 36
+
+Bill,
+  definition of, 13
+  black in, of Black East India, 29
+
+Black East India duck, 29
+
+Black in bean of
+  Aylesbury, 23
+  Crested White Duck, 35
+  Pekin, 22
+
+Black bill in Black East India drakes, 29
+
+Black
+  head, greenish, in Buff drakes, 35
+  head, in Fawn and White Runners, 37
+  in face of Muscovy,  32
+  plumage of Blue Swedish, 33
+  on head of young White Muscovy, 32
+  tail coverts, greenish, in Fawn and White Runners, 37
+
+Bleeding
+  ducks, 105
+  geese, 206, 209
+
+Blue
+  cast in Buff ducks, 36
+  Muscovy, 32
+  Swedish ducks, 33
+  wing bar in Buff ducks, 35
+
+Body shape in breeding ducks, selecting for, 19
+
+Braining geese, 206, 209
+
+Breaking up
+  goose matings, 154
+  broody geese, 175
+
+Breast-bone as index of age in ducks, 56
+
+Breeding
+  drakes, securing, 58
+  ducks, opportunity to produce, 6
+  ducks, prices for, 7
+  season for ducks, 124
+
+Breeds of ducks, 9
+  Aylesbury, 23
+  Blue Swedish, 33
+  broodiness of, 18
+  Buff, 35
+  Call, 27
+  Cayuga, 25
+  common or puddle, 9
+  Crested White, 34
+  East India, 29
+  egg, 11
+  egg production of, 15
+  Mallard, 10
+  Mandarin, 10
+  meat, 11
+  mule, 9
+  Muscovy, 29
+  ornamental, 11
+  Pekin, 21
+  popularity of, 14
+  Rouen, 23
+  Runner, 36
+  size of, 14
+  Wood, 10
+
+Breeds of geese, 147
+  African, 156
+  Canadian, 159
+  Chinese, 158
+  common, 148
+  Egyptian, 160
+  Embden, 156
+  mongrel, 148
+  Sebastapol, 148
+  Toulouse, 155
+  Wild, 159
+
+Brood coop for goslings, 179
+
+Brooder
+  capacity on duck plants, 47
+  houses for ducklings, 80-90
+
+Brooders for goslings, 180
+
+Broodiness of
+  ducks, 18
+  geese, 152
+  geese, breaking up, 175
+
+Brooding
+  ducklings, 80-90, 131
+  goslings, 178
+    by artificial means, 180
+    with geese, 179
+    with hens, 179
+    without artificial heat, 180
+
+Brown Chinese goose, 158
+
+Brownish color in Cayuga ducks, 26
+
+Buff Ducks, 35
+
+Button head in Call ducks, 28
+
+Buying geese for fattening, 200
+
+
+C
+
+Call ducks, 27
+
+Canadian goose--see Wild
+
+Capacity of
+  car for geese, 202
+  farm for fattening geese, 208
+  incubator for duck eggs, 130
+
+Capital,
+  invested, for duck plant, 53
+  working, for duck plant, 54
+
+Care of
+  duck eggs for hatching, 73, 128
+  goose eggs for hatching, 172
+  growing goslings, 181
+  hen sitting on goose eggs, 174
+
+Carrying
+  ducks, 39
+  geese, 162
+
+Caruncles on face of Muscovy, 29
+
+Cases, shipping, for duck eggs, 119, 137
+
+Catching
+  ducks, 39
+  geese, 162
+
+Cayuga duck, 25
+
+Celery seed, feeding, to fattening ducks, 93
+
+Changing feed for fattening geese, 205
+
+Chestnut colored head in Buff drakes, 35
+
+Chilling of goslings by rain, 181
+
+Chinese goose, 158
+
+Chocolate colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, 32
+
+Claret in breast of Rouen drakes, deficiency of, 24
+
+Classification of breeds of ducks, 11
+
+Cleaning
+  brood coops for goslings, 179
+  duck
+    breeding houses, 60
+    brooder houses, 87
+    yards, 61, 97
+  goose breeding houses, 168
+
+Cleanliness of plumage as indication of health, 19
+
+Color of
+  duck eggs, 17
+  goose eggs, 152
+
+Colored flights in
+  Fawn and White Runners, 37
+  Penciled Runners, 38
+
+Colored Muscovy, 31
+
+Commercial duck farming,
+  opportunity for, 4
+  distribution of, 42
+
+Condition of
+  breeding geese, 169
+  ducks ready to kill, 96
+  geese for fattening, 200
+  geese ready to kill, 206
+
+Conditioning exhibition ducks, 38
+
+Conditions for duck raising on the farm, 120
+
+Confining goslings to yards, 181
+
+Considerations, general, in making
+  duck matings, 18-21
+  goose matings, 154
+
+Consistency of feed for
+  ducks, 65, 126, 133
+  fattening geese, 205
+
+Construction of brooder houses for ducks, 82
+
+Cooking geese to overcome greasiness, 194
+
+Cooling duck
+  carcasses, 108
+  eggs during incubation, 75, 131
+
+Cooling goose
+  carcasses, 207, 211
+  eggs during incubation, 175
+
+Coop, growing, for goslings, 182
+
+Cooperative
+  feed buying, 101
+  marketing, 110
+
+Copper colored head of Buff drakes, 36
+
+Cost of picking
+  ducks, 107
+  geese, 207
+
+Creaminess in plumage of
+  Aylesbury, 23
+  Pekin, 23
+
+Crest,
+  tendency toward, in the Pekin, 22
+  of Muscovy, 29
+  of Crested White, 34
+
+Crested White duck, 34
+
+Crippled ducks, 97, 104
+
+Critical period with young ducks, 98
+
+Crooked back
+  in ducks, 19
+  in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Crooked crest in Crested White, 34
+
+Crooked tail in ducks, 19
+
+Crossed feathers on neck of Pekin drake, 22
+
+Crossing African and Brown Chinese geese, 157
+
+Curing
+  duck feathers, 117
+  goose feathers, 211, 213
+
+
+D
+
+Darkening pens
+  for fattening geese, 195
+  for noodling geese, 196
+
+Dewlap in
+  Toulouse geese, 155
+  African geese, 157
+
+Diarrhoea
+  of ducklings, 99
+  of goslings, 185
+
+Diseases
+  of ducklings, 98-100
+  of goslings, 185
+  of mature ducks, 69
+  prevention of, 98
+
+Dished bill in Rouen, 24
+
+Distinguishing
+  sex
+    in ducks, 13, 135
+    in geese, 165
+  young from old ducks, 55
+
+Distribution of duck raising, 3
+
+Dogs a source of loss in ducks, 69
+
+Double crest in Crested White ducks, 34
+
+Down, removing,
+  from market ducks, 108
+  from market geese, 207, 210
+
+Drake,
+  definition of, 12
+  adult, meaning of, 13
+  young, meaning of, 13
+
+Drakerel, definition of, 13
+
+Drinking dishes
+  for ducklings, 86
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Driving geese from railway to farm, 202
+
+Drowning ducks, 31, 128, 135
+
+Dry, keeping goslings, 181
+
+Dry land duck farms, 44
+
+Dry picking
+  ducks, 107
+  geese, 206
+
+Duck,
+  definition of, 12
+  adult, meaning of, 13
+  young, meaning of, 13
+
+Duck raising
+  as a side line, 120
+  distribution of, 3
+  for egg production, 5
+  for ornamental purposes, 7
+  kinds of, 4
+  on the general farm, 5
+  opportunities for, 4, 120
+
+Ducklet, definition of, 13
+
+Duckling, meaning of, 12
+
+Ducks,
+  number of,
+    in leading states, 3
+    in U. S., 3
+  value of, in U. S., 3
+
+Dun colored ducks from Colored Muscovy, 32
+
+
+E
+
+Egg class of ducks, 11
+
+Egg production,
+  duck raising for, 5
+  of breeds of ducks, 15
+  of breeds of geese, 150
+  of Pekins on commercial plants, 66
+  selection of breeders for, 21
+
+Eggs, duck,
+  color of, 17
+  for hatching,
+    age of, 72
+    care of, 73, 128
+    frequency of setting, 72
+    packing and shipping, 40
+    prices of, 7
+    selection of, 73
+    washing, 130
+  marketing, 118
+  size of, 16
+
+Eggs, goose,
+  care of, for hatching, 172
+  color of, 152
+  size of, 151
+  washing for hatching, 172
+
+Egyptian goose, 160
+
+Electric lights
+  for breeding ducks, 67
+  for duck plants, 51
+  for ducklings, 94
+  for fattening geese, 205
+
+Embden goose, 156
+
+Equipment of pens in duck brooders, 86
+
+Examining
+  geese to determine sex, 165
+  fattened geese for market condition, 206
+
+Extent of
+  duck industry, 3
+  goose industry, 141
+
+Eye as indication of health in ducks, 19
+
+
+F
+
+Faded gray in Brown Chinese geese, 158
+
+Fading of color in
+  Buff ducks, 35
+  Cayuga ducks, 27
+  Gray Call ducks, 28
+  Rouen ducks, 25
+
+Fasting geese before fattening, 203
+
+Fattening farms for geese, 199
+
+Fattening geese,
+  by noodling, 196
+  methods of, 194
+  on farms in the east, 200
+  on farms in the middle west, 199
+  on large fattening farms, 199-208
+  pen, 195
+
+Fattening houses or sheds for ducklings, 48
+
+Fattening summer geese, 202
+
+Fawn and White Runner, 37
+
+Fawn colored breasts in Rouen females, 25
+
+Fawn on neck, too much, in Fawn and White Runner, 37
+
+Feather eating in ducklings, 100
+
+Feathered legs in ducks, 19
+
+Feathers,
+  saving duck, 117
+  saving geese, 207, 211
+  plucking from live geese, 212
+
+Feed, cooperative buying of, 101
+
+Feed cooker
+  for ducks, 49
+  cutter for ducks, 49
+  last, for market ducklings, 103
+  mixer for ducks, 49
+  storage for duck plant, 49
+  troughs or trays for ducks, 66
+  troughs for fattening geese, 205
+  wagon
+    for ducks, 65
+    for geese, 205
+
+Feeding
+  breeding ducks, 63
+  breeding geese, 169
+  Call ducks, 27
+  ducklings, 92, 132
+  fattening geese, 195, 196, 203
+  geese during shipment, 202
+  goslings, 183
+  growing and fattening ducklings, 92-94, 132
+  noodles to geese, 198
+  show ducks, 39
+  show geese, 161
+  supply geese on fattening farms, 202
+  track on duck plants, 51, 65
+
+Fences
+  for ducks, 52, 128
+  for fattening geese, 203
+  for geese, 168
+
+Fertility of duck eggs, 20, 77
+
+Fireless brooding goslings, 180
+
+First feed
+  for ducklings, 92
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Fish, feeding, to ducks, 63, 92, 134
+
+Fits in ducklings, 99
+
+Flat breast in Aylesburys, 23
+
+Flatiron shape in Call ducks, 28
+
+Folded feathers on neck of Pekin drake, 22
+
+Foreign color in back of White Runner ducks, 37
+
+Free range
+  for ducks, 120
+  for geese, 168
+  for goslings, 182
+
+Freezing of ducks to the ground, 62, 128
+
+Frequency
+  of plucking live geese for feathers, 212
+  of setting duck eggs, 72
+
+Frightening breeding ducks, 67
+  ducklings, 94
+  fattening geese, 205
+
+
+G
+
+Gains in weight
+  made by ducklings, 94
+  secured in noodling geese, 198
+  secured in pen fattening geese, 195
+  secured on goose fattening farms, 208
+
+Gander, definition of, 149
+
+Gapes in ducklings, 99
+
+Geese as weed destroyers, 145
+
+Goose eggs for hatching,
+  care of, 172
+  washing, 172
+
+Goose fattening farms, 199
+
+Goose raising,
+  as a business for farm women, 144
+  as a side line, 141
+  distribution of, 141
+  on general farms, 142
+  opportunities for, 142
+
+Goose septicemia, 186
+
+Gosling, definition of, 149
+
+Grading growing ducklings, 87
+
+Grass yards for goslings, 182
+
+Gray Call duck, 28
+
+Gray,
+  faded, in Brown Chinese geese, 158
+  in plumage of Blue Swedish ducks, 33
+  stippling on Penciled Runner drakes, 38
+
+Greasing heads of goslings for lice, 178
+
+Green bill
+  in Aylesbury, 23
+  in Buff ducks, 36
+  in Crested White ducks, 35
+  in Pekin, 22
+  in White Runner, 37
+
+Green ducks, 102
+
+Green feed
+  for breeding ducks, 64
+  for breeding geese, 169
+  for ducklings, 92, 133
+  for fattening geese, 204
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Green geese, 149, 187
+
+Grit
+  for breeding geese, 170
+  for fattening geese, 204
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Growing green feed for ducks, 64
+
+Growth of goslings, rapidity of, 184
+
+Gypsy face in Muscovy ducks, 32
+
+
+H
+
+Handling
+  ducks, 39
+  geese, 162
+  geese during noodling, 197
+
+Hatches of duck eggs, 78
+
+Hatching duck eggs
+  with an incubator, 70, 130
+  with hens, 129
+
+Hatching eggs, duck, packing and shipping, 40
+
+Hatching goose eggs
+  with chicken hens, 173
+  with geese, 174
+  with incubators, 175
+
+Health,
+  selection of breeding ducks for, 19
+  indications of, in ducks, 19
+
+Heating apparatus for duck brooder house, 83
+
+Heavy bottoms in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Hemorrhagic septicemia of geese, 186
+
+Horse power required on a duck plant, 50
+
+House capacity
+  for breeding ducks, 46
+  for fattening ducks, 48
+
+Houses
+  for breeding ducks, 59
+  for breeding geese, 167
+
+Hump back in ducks, 19
+
+
+I
+
+Identification of ducks by toe punching, 12
+
+Incubation, period of,
+  for ducks, 47, 129
+  for geese, 173
+
+Incubator capacity on duck plants, 47, 71
+
+Incubator cellar, 70
+
+Incubators, kinds of, for duck eggs, 70
+
+Injury
+  to ducks, 57, 62
+  to goslings, 182
+
+Insect pests of ducks, 69
+
+
+K
+
+Keel, deep,
+  in Aylesbury, 23
+  in Call, 28
+  in Pekin, 22
+  in Rouen, 24
+
+Killing
+  ducks, 105
+  geese, 206, 209
+  house for duck plants, 50
+
+Knob on head
+  of African geese, 157
+  of Chinese geese, 158
+  of Muscovy drake, 29
+
+
+L
+
+Labor required
+  on duck plants, 52
+  in noodling geese, 198
+
+Lameness
+  of ducklings, 99
+  of goslings, 185
+
+Land required for duck plants, 46
+
+Laying ration
+  for ducks, 126
+  for geese, 169
+
+Laying season
+  for ducks, 66, 124
+  for geese, 167
+
+Lay-out of duck plant, 45
+
+Length of time
+  in brooder house for ducklings, 88
+  brooding necessary for goslings, 180
+
+Lights
+  for breeding ducks, 67
+  for ducklings, 94
+  for fattening geese, 205
+
+Live ducks, shipping to market, 116
+
+Live geese,
+  shipping to market, 208
+  plucking for feathers, 212
+
+Location
+  of duck plant, 42
+  of goose fattening farm, 208
+
+Lopped crest in White Crested ducks, 35
+
+Loss
+  in ducklings, 98
+  in geese during shipment, 202
+
+Lost, goslings becoming, 182
+
+Lots, fattening, for geese, 203
+
+
+M
+
+Making a start in duck raising, 121
+
+Making new goose matings, 154
+
+Mallard duck, 10
+  summer plumage of males, 25
+
+Mandarin duck, 10
+
+Marketing
+  duck eggs, 118, 136
+  ducks, 102, 135
+
+Markets for geese, 187
+
+Marking
+  ducklings, 12
+  goslings, 153
+
+Mating
+  ducks, general considerations in, 18
+  geese, general considerations in, 154
+
+Meat class of ducks, 11
+
+Mixing feed
+  for ducks, 65
+  for fattening geese, 204
+
+Moisture
+  for duck eggs during incubation, 76, 131
+  for goose eggs during incubation, 176
+
+Molt of ducklings as indication of market condition, 102
+
+Mongrel goose, 148, 201
+
+Mortality
+  of breeding ducks, 69
+  of geese during shipment, 202
+
+Mosquito larvae, destruction of, by ducks, 8
+
+Mule ducks, 9
+
+Muscovy duck, 29
+
+
+N
+
+Narrow shoulders
+  in Call ducks, 28
+  in Pekin ducks, 22
+
+Nest, preparing the, for hatching goose eggs, 173
+
+Nomenclature
+  of ducks, 12
+  of geese, 149
+
+Noodles, making, for fattening geese, 197
+
+Noodling geese, 196
+
+Number
+  of breeding ducks required, 46
+  of ducklings marketed per breeding duck, 46
+  of ducklings to a pen, 85, 90
+  of ducks in leading states, 3
+  of ducks in U. S., 3
+  of ducks to a drake, 57
+  of geese carried on fattening farms, 208
+  of geese in leading states, 141
+  of geese in U. S., 141
+  of geese noodled by one man, 198
+  of geese to the acre, 164
+  of times
+    ducklings are fed, 92
+    geese are fed on fattening farms, 203
+    noodled geese are fed, 197
+    pen fattened geese are fed, 195
+
+
+O
+
+Objections
+  to duck farms, 43
+  to geese, 145
+  to goose fattening farms, 208
+
+Odor from goose fattening farms, 208
+
+Opportunities
+  for duck raising, 4
+  for goose raising, 142
+
+Ornamental
+  purposes, ducks for, 7
+  class of ducks, 11
+
+Output of duck plants, 42, 45
+
+Oyster shell, feeding,
+  to breeding ducks, 66
+  to breeding geese, 170
+
+
+P
+
+Packing dressed
+  ducks for shipment, 109
+  geese for shipment, 211
+
+Packing
+  duck hatching eggs, 40
+  goose hatching eggs, 162
+
+Pasturing
+  geese, 164
+  goslings, 183
+
+Patte de fois gras, 199
+
+Pay for picking
+  ducks, 107
+  geese, 207
+
+Pekin duck, 21
+
+Pekin duck on commercial plants, 42
+
+Penciled Runner duck, 37
+
+Penciling in
+  Buff ducks, 35
+  Fawn and White Runner females, 37
+  Rouen females, 25
+
+Penciling, lack of, in Penciled Runner females, 38
+
+Pen fattening geese, 195
+
+Pens
+  for fattening geese, 203
+  for noodling geese, 196
+  in brooder house for ducklings  84, 89
+
+Percent
+  hatch of duck eggs set, 78
+  loss
+    in ducklings, 98
+    in goslings, 184
+
+Period of incubation
+  for duck eggs, 129
+  for goose eggs, 173
+  for Muscovy duck, 30
+
+Period of feeding
+  noodled geese, 198
+  pen fattening geese, 195
+
+Picking house for duck plants, 50
+
+Picking
+  market ducks, 106
+  market geese, 206
+
+Pin feathers, removing, from ducks, 107
+
+Pinioning
+  ducks, 28
+  wild geese, 159
+
+Pneumonia in ducklings, 99
+
+Popularity of breeds
+  of ducks, 14
+  of geese, 150
+
+Pounds feed to produce pound of market duck, 95
+
+Prejudice against roast goose, 194
+
+Preparing
+  ducks for the show, 38
+  geese for the show, 161
+
+Prevention of disease in ducklings, 98
+
+Prices
+  of duck breeding stock and eggs, 7
+  of duck feathers, 118
+  of goose breeding stock and eggs, 163
+  of goose feathers, 212
+  of market ducks, 110
+  of market geese, 188
+  of mongrel geese, 208
+  of specially fattened geese, 208
+
+Prince Edward Island geese, 201
+
+Production, yearly, of feathers from live geese, 213
+
+Profits from duck farming, 54
+
+Protecting feed of geese from other stock, 171
+
+Puddle ducks, 9
+
+Pulling broken feathers
+  in ducks, 38
+  in geese, 161
+
+Purple barring in Black East India ducks, 29
+
+Purple rump in Rouen drake, 24
+
+
+Q
+
+Quilling in ducklings, 100
+
+
+R
+
+Range
+  for fattening geese, 199
+  for geese, 164
+
+Rapidity of growth of goslings, 184
+
+Rations
+  for breeding ducks, 63, 125
+  for breeding geese, 169
+  for ducklings, 92, 132
+  for fattening geese, 195, 197,  203
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Rats as source of loss in ducklings, 101
+
+Red in plumage of Blue Swedish, 33
+
+Removing
+  baby ducks to the brooder, 80
+  newly hatched goslings from the nest, 176
+
+Reviving goslings chilled by rain, 181
+
+Rhode Island geese, 200
+
+Ribbon or wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call, 28
+
+Ring, white,
+  in Buff ducks, 36
+  in Rouen, 24
+  width of, in Rouen, 24
+
+Roach back in ducks, 19
+
+Rouen duck, 23
+
+Roughage
+  for fattening geese, 195, 199, 204
+  in rations for geese, 170
+
+Round head in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Runner duck, 36
+
+
+S
+
+Sand, feeding,
+  to breeding ducks, 66
+  to ducklings, 86, 93
+  to goslings, 183
+
+Scalding market
+  ducks, 105
+  geese, 209
+
+Sebastapol goose, 148
+
+Selection of breeding ducks, 19
+  on commercial plants, 56
+  on general farms, 134
+
+Selection of breeding geese, 154
+
+Selection of duck eggs for hatching, 73
+
+Selecting the breed of ducks, 122
+
+Separating growing goslings from old stock, 182
+
+Septicemia, goose or hemorrhagic, 186
+
+Sex
+  in ducks, distinguishing, 13, 135
+  in geese, distinguishing, 165
+
+Shade
+  for breeding ducks, 60
+  for fattening summer geese, 202
+  for goslings, 182
+  for growing ducklings, 92
+
+Sharp backs in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Shaving market geese to remove down, 209
+
+Shelter
+  for fattening geese, 199, 203
+  for growing goslings, 181
+
+Shipping
+  dressed ducks, 109
+  dressed geese, 208
+  hatching eggs,
+    duck, 40
+    geese, 162
+
+Shipping live geese for fattening, 201
+
+Short legs in Runner ducks, 37
+
+Shrinking in shipping ducks alive, 116
+
+Size
+  of breeding ducks, 19
+  of breeds of ducks, 14
+  of breeds of geese, 150
+  of duck eggs, 16
+  of duck farms, 42, 44, 46
+  of flocks of breeding ducks, 46
+  of flocks of ducks on general farms, 121
+  of flocks of fattening geese, 195, 196, 199, 202
+  of goose eggs, 151
+  of male and female Muscovy, 30
+  of mating in ducks, 20, 123
+  of mating in geese, 152
+  of sitting of duck eggs, 7, 129
+  of sitting of goose eggs, 163, 174
+
+Slate on backs
+  of young Embden geese, 156
+  of young White Chinese geese, 159
+
+Smooth head in Muscovy duck, 29
+
+Sore eyes in ducklings, 100
+
+Sorting
+  growing ducklings, 87
+  market ducklings, 104
+
+Split crest in Crested White ducks, 34
+
+Steaming
+  ducks for picking, 107
+  geese for picking, 210
+
+Sticking or braining geese, 206, 209
+
+Stippling, gray, on Penciled Runner ducks, 38
+
+Stunning geese, 206, 209
+
+Summer geese, fattening, 202
+
+Summer plumage of Rouen drakes, 25
+
+Swimming, preventing goslings from, 181
+
+Temperatures, incubation,
+  for duck eggs, 74
+  for goose eggs, 175
+
+Temperatures, brooder,
+  for ducklings, 81
+  for goslings, 180
+
+Testing
+  duck eggs, 74, 130
+  table for candling duck eggs, 75
+
+Time of feeding
+  breeding ducks, 63, 126
+  geese on fattening farms, 203
+  noodled geese, 196
+  pen fattened geese, 195
+
+Time of first feed
+  for ducklings, 92
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Time of laying
+  with ducks, 67
+  with geese, 167
+
+Time
+  of marketing breeding ducks, 68
+  of plucking live geese for feathers, 212
+  to purchase breeding ducks, 121
+    breeding geese, 166
+
+Toulouse goose, defects in, 155
+
+Tray, feed, for ducks, 66
+
+Triple crest in Crested White ducks, 34
+
+Trough, feed, for ducks, 66
+
+Turning
+  duck eggs during incubation, 75
+  goose eggs during incubation, 174, 175
+
+Twisted wings in ducks, 19
+
+
+U
+
+Uses
+  for duck feathers, 118
+  for goose feathers, 212
+
+
+V
+
+Value
+  of duck feathers, 117
+  of ducks in the U. S., 8
+  of goose feathers, 207
+
+Vegetables, feeding, to ducks, 63
+
+Ventilation
+  for goslings, 179
+  of brooder houses, 88
+  of incubator cellars, 71
+  of incubators when hatching, 77
+
+Vigor, selection of breeding ducks for, 19
+
+
+W
+
+Washing
+  duck eggs for hatching, 130
+  goose eggs for hatching, 172
+  show ducks, 39
+  show geese, 162
+
+Water
+  for breeding ducks, 61, 127
+  for breeding geese, 165
+  for ducklings, 96, 135
+  for fattening geese, 195, 198, 204
+  for geese during shipment, 202
+  for goslings, 183
+
+Water site for duck plants, 42
+
+Water supply for duck plants, 52
+
+Water yards
+  for breeding ducks, 61
+  for growing and fattening ducklings, 96, 135
+
+Weed destruction by geese, 96, 103
+
+Weight
+  of ducklings when ready for market, 96, 103
+  of geese from fattening farms, 208
+  of goslings when ready for market, 185
+  of green geese, 184, 187
+  of noodled geese, 198
+
+Weights
+  of Black East India ducks, 14
+  of Call ducks, 14
+  of duck eggs, 14
+  of goose eggs, 151
+  of Mallard ducks, 10
+  of standard breeds of ducks, 14
+  of standard breeds of geese, 150
+
+White around eyes
+  of Blue Swedish, 34
+  of Cayuga, 26
+
+White bib
+  in Blue Swedish, 33
+  in Buff ducks, 36
+
+White Call duck, description of, 28
+
+White Chinese goose, 159
+
+White in breast
+  of Black East India, 29
+  of Cayuga, 26
+
+White in fluff of Rouen drake, 24
+
+White in wings
+  of African geese, 157
+  of Blue Swedish ducks, 33
+  of Brown Chinese geese, 159
+  of Buff ducks, 35
+  of Gray Call ducks, 28
+  of Rouen ducks, 24
+  of Toulouse geese, 156
+
+White Muscovy duck,
+  description of, 32
+  black on head of young, 32
+
+White on head of Colored Muscovy, 32
+
+White on neck of Cayuga, 26
+
+White Runner duck, 37
+
+Wild or Canadian goose, 159
+
+Windpipe as indication of age in ducks, 56
+
+Wing bar, absence of, in Gray Call females, 28
+
+Wood duck, 10
+
+
+Y
+
+Yards
+  for breeding ducks, 58, 128
+  for breeding geese, 168
+  for fattening ducklings, 91
+  for fattening geese, 203
+  for goslings, 181
+
+Yellow bills
+  in Blue Swedish, 34
+  in Rouen females, 25
+
+Yellow, loss of, legs and bills of Pekin with laying, 56
+
+Yellow on knob
+  of African geese, 157
+  of Brown Chinese geese, 158
+  of White Chinese geese, 159
+
+Yield of feathers from live geese, 213
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Apart from minor changes to formatting, table alignment and punctuation,
+the only changes made to the text from the original are as follows:
+
+Preface (2nd page): "minumum" changed to "minimum" (... with the minimum
+of initial investment and of labor.)
+
+"Sebastapool" changed to "Sebastapol" in List of Illustrations (Egyptian
+Gander and Sebastapol Goose) Figure 50 caption, and twice in the index.
+This is consistent with the use of "Sebastapol" in the text.
+
+Page 20: "neccessary" changed to "necessary" (... it becomes neccessary
+to mate a smaller number of females ...).
+
+Page 30: missing page reference added (See Page 14).
+
+Page 72: comma deleted after "Of" (Of course, eggs sufficient to fill
+the entire incubator capacity ...).
+
+Fig 28 caption: "yords" changed to "yards" (Long brooder house and yards
+with feeding track.)
+
+Page 107: duplicate word "the" deleted (... hung in a steam box with the
+heads outside ...)
+
+Page 131: "chickens" changed to "chicken" (Ducklings can be brooded if
+desired by means of chicken hens.)
+
+Page 136: missing page reference added (... in accordance with the
+directions given on page 106).
+
+Page 137: missing page reference added (See page 119).
+
+Page 141: "1920" changed to "1910" (The census figures of 1920 compared
+with those for 1910 ...)
+
+Page 145: "in" changed to "is" (An objection to geese often expressed
+but without good foundation is that they will spoil the pasture for
+other stock.)
+
+Page 154: "Ameriacn" changed to "American" (... the American Standard of
+Perfection.)
+
+Page 155 Footnote: "standard" changed to initial upper case "Standard"
+(American Standard of Perfection).
+
+Page 163: missing page reference added (The same method of packing the
+eggs should be employed as with duck eggs described on page 137.)
+
+Page 165: "thoughout" changed to "throughout" (... green feed available
+throughout the summer and fall ...)
+
+Page 166: "penus" changed to "penis" (... the penis will protrude.)
+
+Page 182: "close" changed to "closed" (It should have a board floor and
+be capable of being closed ...)
+
+Page 194: "pleasanty" changed to "pleasantly" ( ...one will be
+pleasantly surprised at the rich taste which the roast goose possesses.)
+
+Page 211: missing page reference added ( ... in the same way as when
+packing ducks as described on page 109.)
+
+Page 222 (Index): "stipling" changed to "stippling" (Gray stippling on
+Penciled Runner drakes).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ducks and Geese, by
+Harry M. Lamon and Rob R. Slocum
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUCKS AND GEESE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33029.txt or 33029.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/0/2/33029/
+
+Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Simon Gardner, La Monte
+H.P. Yarroll and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture
+(CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/33029.zip b/33029.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f37e28d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33029.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d790d0f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #33029 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33029)