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diff --git a/32809.txt b/32809.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..141ab07 --- /dev/null +++ b/32809.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10054 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899], by +James Rodway + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899] + +Author: James Rodway + +Release Date: June 14, 2010 [EBook #32809] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST INDIES *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Gibbs, Jane Hyland and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + The Story of the Nations. + + THE WEST INDIES. + +[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY ARAWAKS. + +(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)] + + THE WEST INDIES + + AND THE + + SPANISH MAIN + + BY + + JAMES RODWAY + + _SECOND IMPRESSION_ + + London + + T. FISHER UNWIN + + PATERNOSTER SQUARE + + MDCCCXCIX + + COPYRIGHT BY T. FISHER UNWIN, 1896 + (For Great Britain). + + COPYRIGHT BY G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 1896 + (For the United States of America). + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The story of the West Indies and Spanish Main is one to stir the hearts +of many nations. The shores of the Caribbean Sea have been the scene of +marvellous adventures, of intense struggles between races and peoples, +of pain, trouble, and disaster of almost every description. No wonder +that the romance writer has laid his scenes upon its beautiful islands +and deep blue waters, for nowhere in the world, perhaps, could he find +such a wealth of incident. From "Robinson Crusoe" to Marryat's genial +stories, and down to "Westward Ho!" and "Treasure Island," old and young +have been entranced for many generations with its stories of shipwrecks, +pirates, sea-fights, and treasure-seekers. Yet with all this the field +has not been exhausted, for hardly a year passes without a new romance +dealing more or less with the "Indies." + +Under this name of the Indies the islands and continent were first known +to the Spaniards, and it was not until some years had passed that the +mainland received the name of _Terra Firma_. The string of islands +facing the Atlantic were the Antilles, so called from a traditional +island to the west of the Azores, marked on maps and globes of the +fifteenth century. This "Bow of Ulysses," as Froude called the islands, +was divided into the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the latter being also +known as the Caribbees, from their original inhabitants. Other divisions +were made later into Windward and Leeward Islands, but these differed so +much in the descriptions of different nations that it would be as well +to leave them out of the question. Perhaps the best way would be to name +the whole the Antilles or West Indian Islands and divide them, in going +from north to south, into the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the +Caribbees. + +When we think of these beautiful islands and shores they recall those of +that other "Great Sea" which was such a mighty factor in the development +of Greece and Rome, Phoenicia and Carthage, Venice and Genoa. As Ulysses +and AEneas wandered about the Mediterranean, so the early voyagers sailed +along the coasts of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico in fear of +anthropophagoi, amazons, giants, and fiery dragons. As the Indies were +the scene of struggles between great nations and the raids of +buccaneers, so also was the Mediterranean a battlefield for Christian +and Turk, and a centre for piracy. + +Reports of golden cities, pearls and emeralds in profusion, and wealth +that passed all description, led the Spaniards to explore every island +and river, until the cannibals became less alarming. Yet their +sufferings were terrible. Hurricanes sunk their frail craft on the sea +and earthquakes wrung their very souls on land. Starvation, with its +consequent sickness and death, destroyed one party after another, but +they still went on. The discovery of the riches of Mexico and Peru led +them to look for other rich nations, and to travel thousands of miles on +the mainland, guided by the reports of the Indians. Undaunted by +suffering and failure, they would often try again and again, perhaps +only to perish in the attempt at last. + +The treasures of the Indies made Spain the greatest nation in Europe. +With her riches she could do almost anything. Other nations bowed down +before her, and she became sovereign of the seas and mistress of the +world. No matter how it was obtained, gold and silver flowed into her +coffers; what did she care that it was obtained by the bloody sweat of +the poor Indians? + +Then came envy and jealousy. Why should Spain claim the whole of the New +World? England, Holland, and France began to dispute her supremacy and +determined to get a share of the good things. The "invincible +domination" of Spain led her to declare war against England, with the +result that the hardy sea-dogs of that time began to worry the fat +galleons at sea, and to pillage the treasure depots on the Main. + +And here we must mention that there were two important places in the +Indies where Spain was most vulnerable--the Mona Passage between +Hispaniola and Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien. Through the first +came the outward fleets with supplies, and on their return with gold and +silver, while on the Isthmus was the depot for merchandise and the great +treasure store. At these two points the enemy congregated, either as +ships of war, buccaneers, corsairs, or pirates, and in their +neighbourhood some of the most bitter struggles took place. There was no +peace in the Indies, whatever might nominally be the case in Europe. +Englishmen's blood boiled at the atrocities of the Spaniards, but we are +afraid it was not love for the oppressed alone that made them massacre +the Spaniards whenever they got an opportunity. The poor Indian received +but a scant measure of justice from these very people, when as a matter +of convenience they required possession of the Caribbee islands. + +Other nations took possession of smaller islands, unoccupied by Spain, +and from these centres continued their raids, as privateers in war, and +as pirates at other times. Sometimes they were united among themselves +against the common enemy, sometimes at war with each other. France and +Holland against England, England and Holland against France--nothing but +quarrels and fighting. Now an island changed hands, and again it was +restored or recaptured. The planters were never sure of being able to +reap their crops, and often had literally to superintend the estate +work, armed with sword and arquebuse, while their black and white slaves +cultivated the soil. + +Now the West Indies became the great training ground for three maritime +nations--England, France, and Holland. Spain lost her prestige, and the +struggle lay among her enemies for over a century. At first the three +disputants for her place were equally matched; then Holland dropped +behind, leaving England and France to fight it out. The struggle was a +very close one, which only ended with the fall of Napoleon, and it was +in the Caribbean Sea where the great check to France took place. Here +Rodney defeated De Grasse, and here Nelson and many another naval +officer gained that experience which served them so well in other parts +of the world. + +Here also was the scene of that great labour experiment, the African +slave-trade. The atrocities of the Spaniards caused the depopulation of +the Greater Antilles, and led to the importation of negroes. Whatever +may be said against slavery, there can hardly be any question that the +African has been improved by his removal to another part of the world +and different surroundings. True, he has not progressed to the extent +that was expected by his friends when they paid such an enormous sum for +his enfranchisement; still, there are undoubtedly signs of progress. + +The white colonists in the West Indies never settled down to form the +nucleus of a distinct people. Since the emancipation the islands have +been more and more abandoned to the negroes and coloured people, with +the result that although the government is mostly in the hands of the +whites, they are in such a minority as to be almost lost. In Cuba there +appears to be such a feeling of patriotism towards their own island that +probably we shall soon hear of a new republic, but elsewhere in the +islands our hopes for the future must lie in the negroes and coloured +people. + +On the mainland the original inhabitants were not exterminated as in the +large islands, and consequently we have there a most interesting +process in course of accomplishment--the development of one or more +nations. Here are the true Americans, and as the Gaul was merged in the +Frank, and the Briton in the Saxon, so the Spaniard has been or will +ultimately be lost in the American. At present the so-called Spanish +republics are in their birth-throes--they are feeling their way. Through +trouble and difficulty--revolution and tyranny--they have to march on, +until they become stronger and more fitted to take their places among +other nations. Out of the struggle they must ultimately come, and it +will be a most interesting study for those who see the result. + +In Hispaniola we have also a nation in the course of development--an +alien race from the old world. More backward than the Americans, the +Africans of Haiti are struggling to gain a position among other nations, +apparently without any good result. The nation is yet unborn, and its +birth-throes are distressing. We look upon that beautiful island and +feel sad that such a paradise should have fallen so low. As a race the +negro has little of that internal power that makes for progress--he must +be compelled to move on. Some are inclined to look upon him as in the +course of degenerating into the savage, but we, on the contrary, believe +him to be progressing slowly. + +In the islands belonging to European nations the influence of the +dominant power is visible in the negro even when he has no trace of +white blood. The French, English, or Dutch negro may be recognised by +his manners, and even features. In some places East Indians and Chinese +have been imported, but these stand alone and make little impression. +They are aliens as yet, and take little part in the development of the +colonies. + +Latterly the West Indies have sunk into neglect by Europe. Except for +the difficulties of the planters their history is almost a blank sheet. +Few know anything about the beautiful islands or the grand forests of +the mainland. Even the discovery of gold in Guiana, which goes to +confirm the reports of Ralegh, three centuries ago, is only known to a +few. Ruin and desolation have fallen upon them since the peace of 1815 +and the emancipation. Even the negro--the _protege_ of the +benevolent--is no longer the object of interest he once was. Cane sugar +is being gradually ousted by that from the beet, and hardly anything has +been done to replace its cultivation by other tropical products. + +Yet the islands are still as lovely as they were four centuries ago, and +on the continent is a wealth of interest to the naturalist and lover of +the beautiful. Now and again a tourist goes the round of the islands and +publishes the result in a book of travel; but the countries are out of +the track of civilisation and progress. Possibly if the Panama or +Nicaragua Canal is ever finished things may be a little better, but at +present the outlook is very dismal. + +In attempting to compress the story of the West Indies and Spanish Main +within the covers of one volume we have undertaken a task by no means +easy. Every island and every province has its own tale, and to do them +all justice would require a hundred books. Every West Indian will find +something missing--some event unmentioned which is of the greatest +importance to his particular community. This is only to be expected, yet +we believe that the reader will get a fairer idea of their importance +when they are comprehended in one great whole. The photo block +illustrations are from negatives prepared by Mr. Thomas B. Blow, F.L.S. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + I. + PAGE + THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS 1-22 + + The native Americans--The Arawak and the Carib--Their independent + spirit--Their country--The character of the Spaniard--He wants to + convert the natives to Christianity--"A ton of gold"--First Spanish + settlers in Hispaniola--They ravage the island and are entirely cut + off--The second colony oppresses the Indians--Repartimientos--Cruelties + to the Indian slaves--Decrease of the population--Slave-hunting in + other islands and on the Main--Resistance of the cannibals--Decline of + Hispaniola. + + II. + + THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO" 23-47 + + Treasure-seeking and its dangers--Alonzo de Ojeda--The proclamation to + the Indians--Disastrous voyage of Valdivia--A cannibal story--"El + Dorado," the gilded one--The German knights--Ambrosio de + Alfinger--George of Spires--Nicholas Fedreman and others--Pedro de + Ursua and Lope de Aguirre--Pedro de Acosta--Diego de Ordas and Juan + Martinez--The quest and its dangers. + + III. + + "SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD" 48-67 + + The Papal Bull of partition--English and French seamen in the + Indies--Raids on the Spanish possessions--Master William Hawkins goes + to Brazil--The Caribs friendly to the enemies of Spain--John Hawkins + carries negroes from Africa--Francis Drake's attack on Nombre de + Dios--The Simaroons--Drake captures the Panama train--John + Oxenham--Andrew Barker--Drake's second voyage--He captures St. Domingo + and Carthagena--Last voyage of Drake and Hawkins--Death of + Drake--Exploits of other adventurers. + + IV. + + RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES 68-89 + + "Letters Patent" to Ralegh--"El Dorado" again--Ralegh's first voyage to + Guiana--Keymis and Berrie--The Dutch in Guiana--Charles Leigh founds a + settlement--Robert Harcourt's colony--Ralegh's imprisonment--He is + released to again visit Guiana--Disastrous results--Roger North's + colony--King James's want of policy--Changes after his death--St. + Christopher's and Barbados--North's colony again--The Bahamas--The + French and Dutch settlements--Rise of the Dutch--The French and English + at St. Christopher's. + + V. + + BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES 90-112 + + The buccaneers of Hispaniola--Tortuga--Bay of Campeachy--Privateers + turning pirates--Pierre Legrand--Captains de Basco and Brouage--Captain + Lawrence--Montbar the "Exterminator"--Lolonois--Morgan storms and + captures Panama--He settles down in Jamaica--Van Horn--Raid on the + South Sea--Lionel Wafer's journey across the Isthmus. + + VI. + + WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES 113-136 + + Spanish raids--Effects of the "Great English Revolution"--The Caribbee + Islands in revolt--Cavaliers and Roundheads in Barbados--Charles the + Second declared king--Lord Willoughby arrives with a Commission from + the fugitive--Persecution of the Roundheads--Sir George Ayscue sent out + with a fleet to reduce Barbados--The island blockaded--Its + surrender--Surinam held for the king--Cromwell and Spain--The + Expedition to St. Domingo--Capture of Jamaica--Colonisation of the + island--The Council for foreign plantations. + + VII. + + THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES 137-159 + + First adventurers not agriculturalists--Slaves wanted--Negroes + imported--Sugar--Cotton--Tobacco--First plantations--Kidnapping-- + Prisoners transported--English slave-trade--Comparative cost of negroes + and whites--Rebels--Story of Henry Pitman--Condition of the + bond-servants--Life of the planter--Dangers of the + voyage--Jamaica--Slavery in Africa--Treatment of the West Indian slave. + + VIII. + + THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 160-183 + + Trade disputes between England and Holland--War--The buccaneers + employed--Repulse of De Ruyter at Barbados--Capture of Dutch colonies + by English--The French drive the English from St. Kitt's--Abortive + attempts for its recapture--Peace of Breda--The value of the buccaneers + to Jamaica--Character of the three nations now contending for + supremacy--Case of Surinam--English refused permission to leave with + their slaves--War again--Peace of Westminster and the exodus from + Surinam--Case of Jeronomy Clifford--Sir Henry Morgan represses + buccaneering--Another war--Du Casse and the Corsairs--Jacques + Cassard--Curious position of Berbice--Cassard takes Curacao--His + downfall. + + IX. + + THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE 184-206 + + Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs--The trade of the Isthmus--The + joint-stock mania--William Paterson and the Darien scheme--Caledonia + and New Edinburgh founded--Destruction of the colony--The _Assiento_ + contract--The Great South Sea Bubble--Vain attempts of the English to + obtain free trade with the Spanish provinces--Attacks on the logwood + cutters of Campeachy--War with Spain--Contraband traders and their + losses--Captain Jenkins' ear--Another war with Spain--Admiral Vernon + takes Porto Bello--His failure at Carthagena--English exploits. + + X. + + SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES 207-236 + + Sufferings of the planters from war--Barbados alone as having never + fallen to the enemy--Internal difficulties--Ferocity of slaves and + cruelty of their punishments--The Maroons of Jamaica and bush negroes + in Guiana--Slave insurrections--Abortive plots in Barbados--Troubles in + Jamaica--Revolt in Antigua--The great slave insurrection in + Berbice--The whites driven from the colony--Haunts of the Guiana bush + negroes--Surinam in continual fear of their raids--Expeditions sent + against them--Treaties--Great insurrection in Jamaica and suppression + of the Maroons. + + XI. + + THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS 237-255 + + Downfall of Spain--England and France--Contraband traffic of the Dutch + and Danes--Advantages of neutrality--The Jews in the islands--They + support the buccaneers--The great war--England against the + world--Admiral Rodney--His abortive fights with De Guichen--The + training of his fleet--He captures St. Eustatius and confiscates + private property--Capture of Demerara--Outcry against Rodney--British + disasters--Rodney appears again--His decisive victory over De + Grasse--Peace and its results--The great struggle with France and her + allies--British supremacy--Peace of Amiens--War again--Nelson in the + West Indies--The American war--Decline of the plantations from the + abolition of the slave-trade. + + XII. + + DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA 256-275 + + Results of the French Revolution--The friends of the blacks--The rights + of man--Civil disabilities of free coloured people--Agitation in the + French colonies--James Oge--Demand of the coloured people for equal + rights--Civil war in Hispaniola--"Perish the colonies"--Great slave + insurrection--The whites concede equal rights, but the Convention + revokes their original decree--Truce broken--The struggle + renewed--Devastation of the colony--The British expedition and its + failure--Toussaint L'Ouverture--Slavery abolished--It is re-established + by Napoleon--Treachery to L'Ouverture and the negroes--Dessalines and + Christophe declare the independence of Hayti--Massacre of the + whites--The Empire and Republic. + + XIII. + + EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN 276-288 + + Influence of the French Revolution on Spanish America--Miranda vainly + attempts to rouse Venezuela--Revolution at Caracas--Simon + Bolivar--Struggle for independence--Atrocities of both parties--Bolivar + proclaims extermination to the Royalists--Spanish successes--The + British Legion--Devastation of the country--The Columbian + Republic--Guatemala. + + XIV. + + ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 289-313 + + Agitation against slavery by the Quakers--Abolition of the African + slave-trade--Effects of this on the plantations--Condition of the + slave--Registration--Rising in Barbados--The Protestant missionaries + arrive--Opposition of the planters--Ordinance against preaching and + teaching slaves passed in Jamaica--The anti-slavery party in + England--Amelioration of the condition of the slave--Insurrection in + Demerara--Prosecution and conviction of the Rev. John + Smith--Emancipation in the British colonies--Its effect on colonies of + other nationalities--Insurrection at St. Croix--Total abolition of + slavery in the West Indies. + + XV. + + RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION 314-345 + + Ruin of the planters--Difficulty of procuring labour--Abolition of the + differential duties--Immigration--Barbados an exception when ruin fell + on the other colonies--Labour laws in French, Danish, and Dutch + colonies--Another insurrection in St. Croix--Race prejudice causes + riots in Demerara--Insurrection at Jamaica--Confederation riot at + Barbados. + + XVI. + + THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES 346-364 + + Nelson's expedition to the San Juan--Miranda's project--Importance of a + canal--Central America--Effects of the discovery of gold in + California--The Panama railway--Canal projects--Darien again--The + _Times_ and the Nicaragua project--Ship railway--Lesseps and the Panama + Canal--Difficulties of the work--Its downfall--Character of + Lesseps--The Nicaragua Canal. + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + PAGE + + 1.--Reception of Spaniards by Arawaks. From Gottfried's + "Reisen" _Frontispiece_ + + 2.--Reception of Spaniards by Caribs. From Gottfried's + "Reisen" 5 + + 3.--A corner of Paradise. The Victoria Regia 8 + + 4.--_En route_ to the goldfields of Guiana. Passing the rapids + of the Essequebo 10 + + 5.--Worrying the natives with dogs. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 13 + + 6.--A modern alluvial gold washing 16 + + 7.--Suicides. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 17 + + 8.--A Guiana river. The Tumatamari falls 26 + + 9.--Inhabitants of the Spanish Main. From Colijn's "Reisen" 28 + + 10.--"El Dorado." From Gottfried's "Reisen" 37 + + 11.--Negro woman returning from market 53 + + 12.--Negro barber 54 + + 13.--Negro family on holiday 55 + + 14.--Negresses gossiping 56 + + 15.--Ralegh in Trinidad. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 71 + + 16.--Gold hunting. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 80 + + 17.--Carib attack on a settlement. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 89 + + 18.--St. Kitt's. From Andrews' "West Indies" 118 + + 19.--A Surinam planter. From Stedman's "Surinam" 138 + + 20.--A negro festival. From Edwards' "West Indies" 140 + + 21.--Voyage of the sable Venus. From Edwards' "West Indies" 142 + + 22.--Slaves landing from the ship. From Stedman's "Surinam" 144 + + 23.--Map of _Terra Firma_. From Gottfried's "Reisen" 197 + + 24.--A rebel negro. From Stedman's "Surinam" 209 + + 25.--The execution of breaking on the rack. From Stedman's + "Surinam" 212 + + 26.--March through a swamp. From Stedman's "Surinam" 224 + + 27.--Trelawny town. From Edwards' "West Indies" 231 + + 28.--Pacification of the Maroons. From Edwards' "West Indies" 234 + + 29.--View of part of Hispaniola. From Andrews' "West Indies" 258 + + 30.--La Guayra on the Main. From Andrews' "West Indies" 280 + + 31.--The First of August. From Madden's "West Indies" 308 + + 32.--A relic of the slavery days--old slave buying fish 310 + + 33.--Negress, Guiana 315 + + 34.--Negress fish-sellers, Guiana 316 + + 35.--Chinese wood-carrier 317 + + 36.--East Indian coolie 318 + + 37.--East Indian coolie family 319 + + 38.--Coolie barber 320 + + 39.--East Indian coolie girl 321 + + 40.--Coolie women, British Guiana 322 + + 41.--Coolie vegetable sellers, British Guiana 323 + + 42.--East Indian coolies, Trinidad 324 + + 43.--East Indian coolie, Trinidad 325 + + 44.--Trinidad coolies 326 + + 45.--Barbados. From Andrews' "West Indies" 330 + + 46.--St. Lucia. From Andrews' "West Indies" 331 + + 47.--Atlantic entrance to Darien Canal. From Cullen's "Darien + Canal" 348 + + 48.--Europe supported by Africa and America. From Stedman's + "Surinam" 363 + +[Illustration] + + + + +THE WEST INDIES. + + + + +I. + +THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS. + + +When the early writers spoke of America as the new world, _mundus +novus_, they could hardly have appreciated the full meaning of the name. +True, it was a new world to them, with new animals, new plants, and a +new race of mankind; but the absolute distinctness of everything, +especially in the tropical regions, was not understood. With our fuller +knowledge the ideas of strangeness and novelty are more and more +impressed, and we are ready to exclaim, Yes! it is indeed a new world. + +Unlike those of the eastern hemisphere, the peoples of the West are of +one race. Apart from every other, the development of the American Indian +has gone on different lines, the result being a people self-contained, +as it were, and unmodified until the arrival of the European. The +American is perhaps the nearest to the natural man, and his character is +the result of nature's own moulding. When compared with the European or +Asiatic he seems to be far behind, yet the civilisation of Peru and +Mexico was in some respects in advance of that of their conquerors. This +was brought about by a dense population which forced men into collision +with each other--in other parts of the continent and on the islands they +were more isolated and therefore less civilised. + +In the forest region of the Spanish Main, and on the West Indian +islands, the communities were, as a rule, very small and isolated one +from another. A kind of patriarchal system prevented much communication, +and inter-tribal disputes were a bar to union. Every community +distrusted every other, and even when one tribe fought against its +neighbour there were few attempts to bring the sections together against +the common enemy. + +On the coasts and islands of the Caribbean Sea, at the time of their +discovery, lived two distinct peoples, the Arawaks and the Caribs. There +were also a few other tribes of minor importance, such as the Warrows, +but these made little impression, and may therefore be left out of +consideration. The remnants of the two great stocks still exist in +Guiana and at the mouth of the Orinoco, living to-day in much the same +manner as they did when the country was first discovered by the +Spaniards. + +Four centuries ago the Greater Antilles were exclusively inhabited by +Arawaks, and the Lesser by Caribs. The Arawak, as his name implies, was +more or less an agriculturalist--a meal-eater, a cultivator of +vegetables, mainly cassava. From the poisonous root of this plant +bread, drink, and a preservative sauce for meat, were prepared, so that, +with game or fish, it formed the staff of life. The probable course of +his migration was from Yucatan or Mexico to the south-east, terminating +in Guiana, and from thence north through the whole of the Antilles. When +Columbus arrived people of this stock filled the larger islands and the +Bahamas, but along the coast and in the island of Trinidad they disputed +the occupation of the territories with the Caribs. In Porto Rico also +the Caribs had become aggressive, and even in Hispaniola the Arawaks had +to defend their shores against that warlike people. If we believe the +accounts of the Spaniards the inhabitants of the Greater Antilles were +not altogether a savage people. Whether they had destroyed all the +larger game, or whether they found none on their arrival, the fact +remains that they were agriculturalists rather than huntsmen. They were, +however, expert in fishing, and built great canoes with sails, in which +they carried on their operations even in comparatively rough water. +Their provision grounds were highly praised by the Spaniards in language +that could hardly apply to little clearings like those in the Guiana +forest. In them were grown, besides cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, and +maize, while other things such as cotton and tobacco were also largely +cultivated. The natives had also acquired several arts besides that of +canoe building, which, when we consider their want of proper implements, +was almost wonderful. Cotton was spun and woven into cloth for their +scanty garments, gold cast and hammered into figures and ornaments, and +wood and stone idols and weapons were also carved. All this was done +with stone implements, even to the work of hollowing great logs for +their canoes, and shaping planks. We read of axe-heads made of _guanin_, +an alloy of gold and copper, and also of attempts to make similar tools +of silver, but these were very rare, and could hardly have been utilised +to any good purpose. When we appreciate the labour and pains taken in +excavating a large canoe, with only fire and the stone adze, we can see +that these people were by no means idle. Nor were they altogether +wanting in appreciation of art, for the figures on their baskets and +pottery were beautifully true geometrical patterns, and their so-called +idols, although grotesque and rude, often striking. + +On the mainland the Arawaks lived in small communities, only electing a +war-chief as occasion required--in Haiti the Cacique seems to have been +leader and ruler as well. And here we must mention the most striking +characteristic of the American Indian--his utter abhorrence of anything +like coercion. Even in childhood his parents let him do as he pleases, +never attempting to govern him in any way. It followed therefore that +neither war-captain nor Cacique had any real power to compel them to a +course they disliked, and that discipline was entirely wanting. The +traveller in Guiana at the present day can thoroughly understand this +trait of character, for he has to take it into account if he wishes to +get their assistance. They must be treated as friends, not as servants, +and the greatest care taken not to offend their dignity, unless he +wishes to be left alone in the forest. + +[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY CARIBS. + +(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)] + +They quarrelled little among themselves, and only fought against the +Caribs; they were peaceable, kind, and gentle, so hospitable to +strangers that Columbus could hardly say enough in their favour. "A +better race there cannot be," he declared to his sovereigns, and this +opinion was confirmed by all who came into contact with them. In fact if +you do nothing to offend him, the Arawak of to-day is the same quiet and +gentle fellow who met the voyagers on their arrival at Guanahani. + +The Caribs were a stronger race, and had probably followed the same +track as the Arawaks in a later migration. At the time of the discovery +they appear to have driven the more gentle race from the smaller islands +south of Porto Rico, and had taken their women as wives. All along the +coast the two tribes fought with each other, but on account of the +greater stretch of country there was nothing like the extermination +which took place in the Lesser Antilles. The Arawaks retired up the +rivers and creeks, leaving their enemies to take possession of the +coast, which they did to such good purpose that the Spaniards were +unable to get a footing in Guiana. All the early writers agree that the +Caribs were man-eaters--in fact the word cannibal seems to have been +derived from their name. In the smaller islands they had eaten all the +men of the gentler tribe, and now made periodical raids on the larger, +from whence they carried off prisoners to be cooked and devoured at +leisure. These raids led to combinations on the part of the inhabitants +of Haiti and Porto Rico, and hitherto they had been successful in +preventing anything like an occupation of these islands by their +enemies. Whether these successes would have continued is doubtful; the +arrival of the Spaniards upset everything. + +The Carib was not so entirely dependent on the produce of the soil as +the meal-eater. He was a hunter and fisherman, but above everything else +a warrior. His women had provision grounds like those of the Arawak, +possibly because they came from that stock. The Carib's hunting grounds +were circumscribed and poor, and his craving for meat could only be +appeased in one way--by eating his enemies. Probably this made him all +the more fierce and bloodthirsty, as a flesh diet is certainly more +stimulating than one of fish and starchy tubers. + +If the Arawak was impatient of control, the Carib was even more +independent. The former would pine away and die under coercion, the +latter refused absolutely to be a slave. He would die fighting for his +liberty, but never admit that he was conquered. It was not he who +welcomed the Spaniards to the West Indies--on the contrary, he did +everything possible to prevent their landing on his shores. His +so-called treachery caused many difficulties to the new-comers, but +taken altogether he was much respected by them as a foe worthy of their +steel. + +These two peoples lived in a country which Columbus described as a +veritable paradise--in fact he thought he had discovered the site of the +Garden of Eden. Into this beautiful world he let loose a band of +robbers and murderers, to depopulate and make it a wilderness. They were +the product of an entirely different environment--a continent in which +every man's hand was against that of his neighbour. For a long time +Spain had been a battlefield, on which the most warlike instincts of +mankind came to the front. Her soldiers understood the advantages of +discipline, and would follow their leaders wherever anything was to be +gained, yet at the same time they were individuals, and as such fought +for their own hands as well. + +[Illustration: A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA.] + +Like the rest of Christendom Spain was very religious, and after +treasure-seeking, the adventurers of that nation meant to convert the +heathen. The cross was erected everywhere on landing, and religious +services held to pray for help in their undertakings. If the cruelties +that followed were not quite in accordance with Christ's teachings we +must put it down to the manners and customs of the age. Ignorance was +really the great characteristic of that period, and the brilliancy of +the few only shone out the brighter because of the dark background. The +majority were steeped in superstition, and almost entirely dominated by +their passions. + +Columbus was continually harping upon the desirability of making the +natives of the new world Christians. "Your Highness," he said, in one of +his letters, "ought to rejoice that they will soon become Christians, +and that they will be taught the good customs of your kingdom." He took +nine of them to Spain, on his return from the first voyage, who were +baptized and taught the Spanish language. The king and queen told him to +deal lovingly with those in the Indies, and to severely punish any who +ill-treated them. More were sent to Spain and allowed to go back for the +purpose of "gaining souls." Columbus, however, did not altogether agree +with his sovereigns--his project was to send enough as slaves to pay the +expenses of his expeditions, and he actually shipped four lots for that +purpose. But Ferdinand and Isabella would not have this, and even went +so far as to prohibit the deportation of the Caribs notwithstanding the +admiral's argument that they were unworthy of the royal clemency, +because they ate men and were enemies of the friendly Arawaks. + +[Illustration: EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELDS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE RAPIDS +OF THE ESSEQUEBO.] + +How the new world was discovered in 1492 has been told so often that it +is hardly necessary to repeat the story. Haiti, named Hispaniola or +Little Spain, was chosen from the first as the island on which a +settlement should be planted. Here Columbus left thirty-nine colonists +under the command of Diego de Arana, and under the protection of the +great Cacique Guacanagari. He "trusted to God" that on his return he +would find a ton of gold and a large quantity of spices, with the +proceeds of which his sovereigns might undertake the conquest of +Jerusalem from the infidels. + +A ton of gold! This was the whole end and aim of his expedition. +Everything else was subordinate to this. He had seen the natives wearing +gold ornaments, and found that the precious metal could be gathered from +certain streams on the island. But, could he estimate the amount of +labour required to procure such an enormous quantity, by people who had +no other appliances than baskets? This alone was enough to bring trouble +upon the peaceful island. + +But this was not all. The colonists quarrelled among themselves, +interfered with the Indian women, went hunting for gold all over the +country, took it wherever it could be found, and stole provisions when +their friends did not bring them enough. Not satisfied with the district +of the friendly Cacique, they ravaged that of Caonabo, the Carib +chieftain of another clan, a man of a different stamp. He resented the +insults at once by attacking the Spaniards, who, notwithstanding the +assistance of their allies, were utterly exterminated. When Columbus +arrived, instead of a ton of gold, he found nothing but the blackened +ruins of the fort and houses. + +This should have been a lesson to the Spaniards, but unfortunately it +only led to further quarrels. The new-comers did not intend to cultivate +the soil; their main object was treasure, and they expected the natives +to provide them with food. And here we must mention the fact that the +people of tropical climes _never_ have any store of provisions laid +up--this is only necessary where winter prevails for half the year. It +follows therefore that however liberal they may feel towards strangers, +their supplies being restricted to their own wants leave little to give +away. Up to a certain point the Indian gives freely, but when this means +privation to himself he withholds his hand. The want of a full +appreciation of this fact caused great trouble in many of the early +settlements, and in some cases led to their destruction. The natives +promised food supplies; but when they found themselves starving, +naturally withheld further assistance. The settlers considered this a +breach of faith, and made incursions on the provision grounds, taking +what they wanted, and seriously injuring the crops. This the Indians +resented, and deadly quarrels ensued, which ended in their driving out +the colonists or deserting the place altogether. In the latter case the +food supply was necessarily cut off, and often led ultimately to the +abandonment of the colony. + +To the kindly people of Hispaniola the new-comers were gods, and their +horses and cattle preternatural creatures. While wondering and admiring, +they were at the same time frightened at these out-of-the-way men and +animals, especially when the soldiers exhibited themselves on horseback. +At first they thought them immortal, and were disagreeably surprised +when they fell before the army of Caonabo. But even the proverbial worm +will turn, and soon the oppressions of the second colonists drove the +poor Haitians to resist. To labour in the field was beneath the dignity +of the adventurous treasure-seekers--the natives must supply them with +provisions. What they had brought from Spain was soon spoilt in such a +hot climate--no one had yet learned how to pack for long voyages. They +must get food, and what was the good of having thousands of people, and +acres of cultivated land in their neighbourhood, if the natives did not +bring in as much as was required? At first they were supplied willingly, +but when the results of this profuse hospitality began to tell upon +themselves, the poor Haitians withheld their hands. Then the Spaniards +began complaining to the Cacique, who, however, had no real authority +over his people in a matter of this kind, and therefore could do +nothing. Driven by want the Spaniards made incursions on the provision +grounds, where they spoilt as much as they took away, and left a waste +behind. Sometimes they met with resistance, and the defenders were cut +down without mercy. The spoilers only wanted an excuse for fleshing +their swords; they were even anxious to show their powers, and make the +natives feel that at last they had masters. + +[Illustration: WORRYING THE NATIVES WITH DOGS. + +(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)] + +Before two years had passed the Spaniards were beset with difficulties. +The Indian looked despairingly at his wasted fields, and refused to +cultivate them any longer. Why should he plant for others when he +himself was starving? Some fled into the mountains and forests of the +interior, others died of want. This naturally told upon the white men, +who had not yet learnt that they must cultivate the soil if they wanted +its produce. They could not demean themselves to this, but must have the +power to compel the inhabitants and owners of this beautiful island to +work for them. + +The home authorities knew what was going on, and did their best +according to their lights to provide a remedy. At first they gave large +tracts of land to the settlers, _repartimientos_ as they were called, +but what was the use of these if their owners could get no labourers? +Then to every grant was allotted a certain number of Indians as slaves, +and thus the cruel system that ultimately depopulated the Greater +Antilles and the Bahamas was introduced. + +Those who were not allotted as slaves were compelled to pay tribute. In +the neighbourhood of the gold-washings this was to consist of a little +bellful of gold; in other places of an arroba (28 lbs.) of cotton, once +a quarter for every person above the age of fourteen. Metal tokens to +hang upon the neck were given as receipts, and when these were absent +the people were severely punished. Thus this gentle and independent race +was enslaved. + +[Illustration: A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING.] + +Even with modern appliances and the use of quicksilver, gold-washing is +a most precarious business; what then could it have been here with +nothing but a basket and gourd? Columbus had such exaggerated ideas +that, when he saw the gold-washings of Cibao, he came to the conclusion +they were the Ophir of the Bible; from his reports the king and queen +thought nothing of demanding this small tribute. To the Indian, however, +the gleaning of the tribute meant the labour of days and weeks, and when +there were so many seekers it was found utterly impossible for each to +gather his amount. Then they ran away, and were hunted with dogs, +brought back, and compelled to wash the gravel under surveillance, +subject to the pricks of a sword if they were not active enough. But, +even with all this, the returns were not equal to what was expected, and +the tribute had ultimately to be abandoned. However, it was stated +that as much as the value of a million crowns per annum was extracted +during the best years, at a cost of pain and suffering awful to +contemplate. + +[Illustration: SUICIDES. + +(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)] + +The cotton tribute had also to be abandoned, and even the +_repartimientos_ were not a success. If they had been willing, the +natives could hardly have performed steady work, and as slaves they were +almost valueless. In their natural condition they laboured when they +chose, wasting time as we should say with little good result. Now their +masters demanded heavy tasks which prevented their working on their own +provision grounds, and yet provided little or nothing in the way of +rations. Hundreds died of starvation; thousands committed suicide. Some +jumped from high precipices; they hanged, stabbed, drowned, and poisoned +themselves; mothers destroyed their babes to save them from the misery +of living. If caught in such attempts they were flogged, had boiling +water or melted lead poured over them, and were otherwise tortured until +death came to their relief. Their cruel masters, however, rarely wished +to kill them outright--they were too valuable. No, they must break down +this dogged, stubborn spirit--treat them as horses and mules, until they +bent themselves to the yoke. + +It was left for bands of soldiers on foraging expeditions to kill in +mere wantonness. A company would be travelling through the island and +come upon a village, where perhaps they stopped for a short rest. The +people looked on, admiring their shining armour and weapons, wondering +what sort of creatures these were that so quietly cropped the grass and +shrubs. One of the soldiers would take out his sword, feel its keen +edge, and think what a pity it was that the weapon should be used so +little. Behind him comes a little boy. The temptation is great; in a +moment the sharp weapon flashes and the child lies dead. The Indians +fly, and the whole party follows, chasing and slaughtering to their +heart's content, not knowing nor caring why. In a few minutes fifty are +killed, the soldiers return to their bivouac, and if they inquire into +the matter at all pass it off as a good jest. + +Is it any wonder that the population decreased to a wonderful degree in +a few years? The sugar-cane had been introduced by Columbus on his +second voyage, and labour was soon required for cultivating this and +other crops. As long as slaves were procurable the planters throve, and +as by that time Hispaniola had become the great centre of the Indies, +the settlers were in a fair way to make fortunes. But the decrease in +the population became alarming, and something had to be done; then, new +settlers were continually arriving who also wanted slaves. It followed, +therefore, that some of the more audacious of the adventurers took up +the trade of kidnapping the Indians from other islands and the mainland. +A host of disappointed treasure-seekers had ransacked every shore, and +were now well prepared for the business of man-hunting. + +The first people to suffer were those who so kindly welcomed Columbus on +his arrival--the gentle inhabitants of the Bahamas. They were even more +peaceful than the Haitians, because they had not suffered from Carib +invasions. When the slave hunters told them to come to the south and +live with their ancestors, they willingly allowed themselves to be +carried off to suffer like their neighbours. Some ran away and got to +the northern shores of Hispaniola, where they stretched out their hands +to their beautiful homes and then died of grief. + +Having entirely depopulated the smaller islands, and being prevented +from kidnapping the people of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, by the +settlers on those islands, they tried the Caribbees. Here they met their +match. No longer was it the gentle Arawak whom they encountered, but the +ferocious cannibal. Like his foes he had been trained in war for many +generations. Not only did he refuse to work for the stranger, but even +went so far as to oppose his landing. On his islands was little to +attract the treasure-seeker, and if he would not submit to be a slave, +nothing was to be gained by interfering with him. This the Spaniard +found out by bitter experience. A few vessels were wrecked on these +inhospitable shores, the crews of which escaped to land only to be +killed and eaten, after being tortured with all the ingenuity of the +savage. Even a landing for fresh water had to be made in the most +cautious manner, and the carriers protected by a strong guard. No doubt +the Caribs had heard of the white man's cruelties from their Arawak +prisoners, and were therefore all the more ready to repel their +invasions. This was particularly noticeable later when the English and +French arrived and found them by no means so ferocious as the Spaniards +had reported. Possibly they knew these people to be enemies to their +foes, and were therefore all the more ready to be friendly as long as no +attempts were made to oppress them. + +Hispaniola rose to some importance very quickly, and almost as quickly +declined. The settlers depopulated the island, and then complained of +the want of labourers. The gold-seekers went elsewhere, and Mexico and +the isthmus of Darien became of more importance. Some writers have +attempted to give the number of Indians exterminated in the early years +of the sixteenth century, but little reliance can be placed on their +statistics. Generally, they range from one to three millions, but it is +doubtful whether even the lowest figure is not too high. Yet, when we +read the statement of Columbus that crowds of people (in one place two +thousand) came forth to meet him, and his description of the large area +of cultivated land, as well as the broad and good roads, it is not +difficult to conceive that a million people lived in these great +islands. + +With the destruction of the labourers down fell the plantations. Cattle +had been introduced and throve wonderfully; now they ran wild over the +islands, especially Hispaniola, until they became innumerable. On the +abandoned provision grounds of the Indians they found a virgin +pasturage. Hogs also took to the woods, and increased even faster than +the cattle. At first there were neither huntsmen nor carnivorous animals +to check this wonderful development. The once domesticated animals +recovered some of the powers and capacities of their wild ancestors, +and only required enemies to assist in bringing out other latent +characters. And these were not long wanting. Large and powerful hounds +had been imported from Spain to hunt the runaway Indians, and now that +their occupation was gone, they also took to the woods and savannahs. +Like their ancestors and cousins, the wolves, they combined into packs +and fought the cattle and hogs. Both hunters and hunted became stronger +and fiercer--the dogs learnt how best to attack, and their prey to +defend themselves. It was a struggle like that between the cannibals and +meal-eaters--nature's method of preserving the balance of life. This +equalisation no doubt would have been the result had not man interfered; +how this happened we must leave to another chapter. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +II. + +THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO". + + +Ophir was not found in the islands, and the bands of adventurers went +over to _terra firma_ or the mainland to continue the search. Along the +coast of Guiana and Venezuela they again came across the gentle Arawak +and ferocious Carib, the latter making himself respected everywhere, +while his poor-spirited fellow-countryman was alternately caressed and +plundered. In every place the Spaniards found gold ornaments, and every +tribe told them that the precious metal was only obtainable in some far +distant country. The Haitians sent Columbus to the south in search of +the _guanin_ country, and it was there he discovered the coast of Paria +and the delta of the mighty Orinoco. But he was not fated to come across +the treasure cities of the Indies. + +Others followed to at last conquer Mexico and Peru, but even then it was +generally believed that nations existed who had more riches to be +plundered than those of the Inca and Montezuma. To find these golden +regions the voyagers wandered in every direction, contributing much to +the knowledge of the coasts and rivers, but always coming back +disappointed. + +The horrors of this search can hardly be appreciated nowadays. The ships +were so small and ill-found that we should hardly care to use them for +coasters, yet in them these pioneers crossed the Atlantic and +encountered the hurricanes of the West Indies. Decked only at bow and +stern, the waves dashed into the hold and wetted the provisions, while +the sun poured down upon the water casks and burst their wooden hoops. +The butter and cheese stank, the flour in sacks became mouldy, and the +bacon and salt fish putrid. Then the hull of the vessel was unprotected, +and the teredo, or ship worm, bored it through and through, until +nothing but careening and caulking could save the poor craft from +sinking. When we understand the privations and dangers of this +navigation we are not surprised that the adventurers often came to +grief, but rather wonder that any of them survived. + +Living in the West Indies, we have often thought of the pain and +suffering it would produce if we were compelled to walk or sit in the +burning sun armed as were the soldiers at that period. We can hardly +believe that they wore steel body armour, yet the evidence is too strong +to be refuted. True, they gave it up afterwards in favour of quilted +cotton, but before they did so how hot they must have felt! We can fancy +the sentry standing exposed to the full blaze of the sun, his helmet and +breastplate burning hot and his woollen underclothing saturated with +perspiration. Then there would be the open boat ascending a river. The +occupants dared not row in the shade for fear of cannibals shooting at +them with poisoned arrows from the thicket, and out in the river they +must have felt as if in a furnace. Even with our white clothing and +light hats a long journey in an open boat when the sun is high often +ends in fever, and almost invariably in a headache. The neck and backs +of the hands get blistered, and become sore, the glare on the water +dazzles the eye, and we feel faint. + +In one of the accounts of such a boating expedition on a river in Guiana +we read of the men finding some yellow plums floating on the water, and +of their being much refreshed by them. We also have come across these +hog-plums when almost exhausted by a long exposure on the open river, +and when even our negro steersman was nodding as he held the paddle. +Suddenly we came to our destination, the mouth of a creek, and were +under an arcade of vegetation, beneath which the plums floated on the +cool dark water. + +The men of the sixteenth century must have been stronger than ourselves, +or they could hardly have endured such pain and privation. They lay down +on the bare earth night after night, and on board ship went to sleep on +naked planks. As they could endure pain and discomfort, so also could +they inflict it on others. The rough seamen learnt to bear hardships +which blunted their feelings of humanity and made them inclined to +torture others. When in the hands of the cannibals they were almost as +stoical as the savage himself, their ruling passion being a desire for +revenge. If cruelly treated by one tribe they retaliated on others; in +the same way the Indians killed one party of Spaniards to avenge the +insults of their countrymen. This led to a great deal of trouble and +made the voyages of the treasure-seekers dangerous to all. However free +from blame one party might be, they were liable to suffer for previous +wrong-doings and they in turn left behind them injuries to be avenged +on the next comers. + +[Illustration: A GUIANA RIVER. THE TUMATAMARI FALLS.] + +And then, how very audacious these adventurers were! Alonzo de Ojeda was +perhaps the most striking example of utter recklessness in face of +danger. In 1509 he entered the harbour of Carthagena in spite of a +warning that its shores were inhabited by a ferocious tribe who fought +with palm-wood swords and poisoned arrows. It was even stated that the +women mingled in the battle, and could use the bow and a kind of lance. + +These people had been irritated by another party of Spaniards, and on +sight of the vessels were up in arms at once. However, Ojeda was +undaunted, and landed at once with his men and some friars, who had been +sent to convert the Indians. In front stood the enemy brandishing their +weapons, and prepared for the first hostile movement. Yet, even under +these critical circumstances, he ordered the usual proclamation to be +read to the Indians in a language of which they knew nothing. He, Alonzo +de Ojeda, servant of the most high and mighty sovereigns of Castile and +Leon, conquerors of barbarous nations, notified them that God had given +St. Peter the supreme power over the world, which power was exercised by +the Pope, who had given all that part of the world to these sovereigns. +They were called upon to acknowledge this sovereignty at once, which, if +they refused to do, he would bring upon them the horrors of war, +desolation to their houses, confiscation of their property, and slavery +to their wives and children. + +[Illustration: INHABITANTS OF THE SPANISH MAIN. + +(_From Colijn's "Reisen."_)] + +While one of the friars read this address the savages stood on the +defensive, no doubt wondering what the delay meant. Ojeda knew not their +language, and they took little notice of his signs of amity. As they +still brandished their weapons, the intrepid adventurer led on an +attack, calling the Virgin to his aid, and in a few minutes put them to +flight, killing a few and taking others prisoners. Not content with +this, he followed them through the forest to their village, and after a +deadly fight, drove them out and burnt their dwellings. Still undaunted, +he went on to another village, which he found deserted, but while his +men were searching for plunder he was attacked by the enemy in +overwhelming numbers. All his followers were killed, and he himself +wounded with a poisoned arrow, yet he managed to escape into the forest +to suffer hunger and thirst in addition to the pain of his wound. + +Meanwhile his men on board the ships were wondering what had become of +their leader and his party. They were afraid to venture far into the +woods on account of the yells and shouts of the Indians, who were +celebrating their triumph. At last, however, they commenced a search, +and found their captain in a mangrove swamp, lying on a tangle of roots, +speechless and dying of hunger, yet still clutching his naked sword and +bearing his buckler. Notwithstanding all this, he ultimately recovered, +to go on as eagerly as ever in making fresh conquests. + +Later, the proclamation to the Indians was interpreted to them, +sometimes eliciting replies very much to the point. When the Bachelor +Enciso went in search of the country of Zenu, where gold was so +plentiful that it could be collected in the rainy season in nets +stretched across the river, he was opposed by two Caciques, to whom the +paper was read. They listened courteously, and, when it had been +expounded, said they were quite willing to admit that there was one God, +the ruler of heaven and earth, whose creatures they were. But as to the +Pope's regency and his donation of _their_ country to the king of Spain, +that was another thing altogether. The Pope must have been drunk when he +gave away what was not his, and the king could only have been mad to ask +him for the territory of others. They, the Caciques, were the rulers of +these territories, and needed no other sovereign: if their king came to +take possession they would cut off his head and stick it on a pole, as +they did the heads of their other enemies, at the same time pointing to +a row of grisly skulls impaled close by. Their arguments, however, were +useless, for Enciso attacked, routed them, and took one of the Caciques +prisoner. + +The accounts of the early voyagers are full of such examples of audacity +as well as of endurance of suffering. The perils of the sea were as +great as those of the land, but few voyages were as disastrous as that +of Valdivia, who in 1512 sailed from Darien for Hispaniola. When in +sight of Jamaica, his vessel was caught in a hurricane and driven upon +some shoals called the Vipers, where it was dashed to pieces. He and his +twenty men barely escaped with their lives in a boat without sails, +oars, water, or provisions. For thirteen days they drifted about, until +seven were dead and the remainder helpless. Then the boat stranded on +the coast of Yucatan, and the poor wretches were captured by Indians, to +be taken before their Cacique. They were now put into a kind of pen to +fatten for the cannibal festival. Valdivia and four others were taken +first, and the horror produced on their comrades led them to risk +everything and break out of their prison in the night. Having succeeded +in reaching the forest, they were almost as badly off, for no food could +be had, and they dared not run the risk of going near the villages. +Almost perishing with hunger, they at last reached another part of the +country, to be again captured, and kept as slaves. Finally they all died +except two, one of whom at last escaped to tell the tale almost by a +miracle. + +One of the stories is suggestive of "Robinson Crusoe." In 1499 Nino and +Guerra sailed from Spain in a bark of fifty tons, and, while exploring +the Gulf of Paria, came across eighteen Carib canoes filled with armed +men. The savages assailed them with flights of arrows, but the sudden +boom of the cannon frightened them away at once. One canoe, however, was +captured, in which they took a Carib prisoner, and found an Arawak +captive lying bound at the bottom. On being liberated, the Arawak +informed the Spaniards, through their interpreter, that he was the last +of seven who had been taken by the cannibals. The other six had been +killed and eaten one after another, and he had been reserved for the +next evening meal. The Spaniards, incensed against the man-eater, gave +him into the hands of the Arawak, at the same time handing him a +cudgel, leaving his enemy unarmed. Immediately the Arawak sprang upon +him, knocked him sprawling, trod his breath out of his body, and at the +same time beat him with his fist until nothing but a shapeless corpse +remained. But, not yet satisfied, he tore the head off and stuck it on a +pole as a trophy. + +After the conquest of Mexico and Peru had rewarded Cortez and Pizarro, +others wished to be equally fortunate. From the Indians came reports of +golden countries in the interior, and land expeditions were projected. +These reports grew into shape, and at last a quest as romantic as that +for the Holy Grail, led one adventurer after another on and on, to +starvation, sickness, and death. + +The germ of the story of "El Dorado," the lake of golden sands, and the +glittering city of Manoa, appears to have first arisen in New Granada. +Here was the Lake of Guatavita, and before the arrival of the Spaniards +this was the scene of an annual religious festival. To the genius of the +lake the Cacique of the neighbouring district offered a holy sacrifice +on a certain day. In the morning he anointed his body with balsam, and +then rolled himself in gold dust until he became a "gilded king." Then, +embarking in a canoe with his nobles, he was paddled to the centre of +the lake, crowds of people thronging its shores and honouring him with +songs and the din of rude instrumental music. Offerings to the god of +the lake were made from the canoe, gold, emeralds, pearls, and +everything precious being scattered upon the water. Finally, the Cacique +jumped in himself and washed the gold from his body, while the people +shouted for joy. To wind up the festival a great drinking bout was held, +when canoesful of piwarree, the Indian's beer, were drunk, and every one +made merry. + +Such was the tradition--for the ceremony had been discontinued half a +century before--which had so impressed itself over the northern shores +of South America, as to be told from the Amazon to the isthmus of +Darien. "El Dorado" was gilded every morning, and his city was full of +beautiful golden palaces. It stood on the edge of the great salt lake +Parima, the sands of which were composed of the precious metal. Some +went so far as to say that they had seen the glittering city from a +distance, and were only prevented from reaching it by the peculiar +difficulties of the way. Not to mention tigers and alligators, +starvation and sickness, there were "anthropophagoi and men whose heads +do grow beneath their shoulders," besides amazons and fiery dragons. +Wherever the story was told the golden city was located at a far +distance, and it seemed ever to recede before the eager seekers. They +sought it in the forest and on the savannah, over the lofty peaks of the +Andes, and along the banks of the mighty rivers. The whole of the +Spanish Main was explored, and places then visited which have hardly +been seen again by the white man down to the present date. + +The quest began in New Granada, and from thence it shifted to Venezuela. +The most daring seekers were German knights, the Welsers of Augsburg. +They had received charters from Charles the Fifth, under which they +were empowered to found cities, erect forts, work mines, and make slaves +of the Indians. One of their representatives, Ambrosio de Alfinger, set +out in 1530, accompanied by two hundred Spaniards, and a larger number +of Indians, laden with provisions and other necessaries. On the journey +the party committed such brutalities upon the poor natives that the +reports afterwards helped to fire the blood of Englishmen, and make them +bitterly cruel. To prevent the bearers from running away they were +strung together on chains, running through rings round their necks. If +one of them dropped from sickness or exhaustion, his head was cut off, +the ring loosened, and thus the trouble of interfering with the chain +saved. If he were to be left behind, it did not matter whether he was +alive or dead. At one place on the river Magdalena the frightened +natives took refuge on some islands, but the Spaniards swam their horses +across and killed or took prisoners the whole of them. From their +Cacique Alfinger got booty to the value of sixty thousand dollars, with +which he sent back for further supplies. But, although he waited for a +year his messengers did not return, and the company were reduced to such +straits that many died for want of bare food. But the Indians fared much +worse, for their provision grounds were utterly destroyed, and what with +murders and starvation the surrounding country was quite depopulated and +desolate. + +Even Alfinger had to give up waiting for his supplies and move on at +last, for these had been utilised by his lieutenant on an expedition of +his own. The party eked out a bare subsistence with wild fruits and +game. If they found a village they plundered it of everything it +contained, dug up the provisions from the fields, and left the survivors +of the massacre to starve. Not that they themselves were in a much +better plight; fever, the result of want and exposure, carried them off +in continually increasing numbers. At last they got into a mountain +region, and the poor naked bearers were frozen to death. Descending +again they encountered stronger and fiercer tribes, by whom they were +defeated, the cruel Alfinger himself dying two days afterwards from his +wounds. A small remnant only returned after two years' absence, leaving +a track of pain and suffering to make their memory accursed for many +generations. + +George of Spires now fitted out a great expedition of three hundred +infantry and two hundred cavalry, which started in 1536. They also went +a long distance into the interior, braving hardships and dangers almost +incredible. Jaguars carried off their horses, and even went so far as to +attack and kill several of the Indian bearers and one Spaniard. Like +their predecessors, they also encountered savage Indians, and died of +starvation and sickness. After journeying fifteen hundred miles from the +coast they had to return unsuccessful; but as their leader was less +cruel than Alfinger, the losses of the party were not so great. Instead +of dying on the journey he lived to become Governor of Venezuela. + +Nicholas Fedreman followed the last party with supplies, but took them +to go treasure-seeking on his own account. He wandered about for three +years, and at last returned with some wonderful stories which induced +others to continue the search. Herman de Quesada also travelled about +for a year, and returned like his predecessors. Then Philip von Huten, +who had gone already with George of Spires, fitted out a great +expedition. His party was at one time so utterly famished that they had +to eat ants, which they captured by placing corn cobs near the nests of +these little creatures. They travelled in a great circle without knowing +where they went, and at the end of a year came back to the place from +whence they had started. Hearing, however, of a rich city called +Macatoa, Von Huten started again, and found streets of houses with about +eight hundred inhabitants, but no treasure. The people here sent him on +farther, with their tales of the Omaguas, a warlike people living away +in the south. On he went for five days, and at last came upon what he +thought must be the golden city. It stretched away as far as the eye +could reach, and in the centre was a great temple. But, although the +little party charged gallantly down a hill and into the town, the +Omaguas came out in such force that they had to retreat, bearing their +wounded leader in a hammock. Continually harassed by Indians, they at +last got back, to tell such stories of the dangers of the quest that the +Omaguas seem to have been afterwards left alone. + +Our account of the search for "El Dorado" is necessarily short and +imperfect, as it would be impossible even to enumerate all the +expeditions. There is one, however, that was so tragic and awful, that, +although it was fitted out in Peru, it must yet be mentioned in the +story of the Spanish Main. + +[Illustration: "EL DORADO." + +(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)] + +Notwithstanding the enormous quantities of gold and silver found in +Peru, the crowds of needy treasure-seekers who went to that country gave +some trouble to the Viceroy, who appears to have been willing to get rid +of them at any cost. Whether he purposely sent them on a "wild goose +chase," or whether he really believed the "El Dorado" story, is +doubtful, but it is certain that he thought it prudent to give them +employment in some way, to prevent mischief in his province. + +The expedition was put in command of Pedro de Ursua, and was intended to +go down the Amazon in search of treasure cities. Embarking on the river +Huallaga, in the year 1560, they had hardly passed the mouth of Ucayali +before Ursua found he had a most unprincipled gang of scoundrels under +his command. A little farther down the river they mutinied, under the +leadership of Lope de Aguirre, and murdered Ursua and his lieutenant, +appointing Guzman as captain. Being dissatisfied, however, with their +new commander, they also killed him a little later, together with most +of his adherents. + +Now Aguirre became leader--a ruffian whose character was of the +blackest. Father Pedro Simon delineates his features and character, +making him out to be a very devil. He was about fifty years of age, +short of stature and sparsely built, ill-featured, his face small and +lean, his beard black, and his eyes as piercing as those of a hawk. When +he looked at any one he fixed his gaze sternly, particularly when +annoyed; he was a noisy talker and boaster, and when well supported very +bold and determined, but otherwise a coward. Of a very hardy +constitution, he could bear much fatigue, either on foot or horseback. +He was never without one or two coats of mail or a steel breastplate, +and always carried a sword, dagger, arquebuse, or lance. His sleep was +mostly taken in the day, as he was afraid to rest at night, although he +never took off his armour altogether nor put away his weapons. Simon +said he had always been of a turbulent disposition; a lover of revolts +and mutinies; an enemy to all good men and good actions. + +Such was the Tyrant or Traitor Aguirre--virtually a madman--who now +became the leader of a band of wretches like-minded to himself. They +journeyed down the mighty river, now and again murdering one or another +of the party, on the least suspicion of their dislike to their +proceedings, and ill-treating the natives everywhere. + +Aguirre was not ashamed to boast that he had murdered a woman--not an +Indian, but a beautiful Spanish lady, who had accompanied her lover on +this arduous journey. Donna Inez de Altienza, a young widow, fell +passionately in love with Ursua, who was brave, generous, and handsome; +and loath to part with him, she undertook the hitherto unheard-of +journey of thousands of miles in a strange and savage country. No fears +or terrors daunted this devoted woman until after the death of her +lover. Aguirre then picked a quarrel on the ground that her mattress was +too large for the boat, and she also was murdered. The Spanish poet, +Castellanos, thus laments the cruel deed:-- + + "The birds mourned on the trees; + The wild beasts of the forest lamented; + The waters ceased to murmur; + The fishes beneath the waters groaned; + The winds execrated the deed + When Llamoso cut the veins of her white neck. + Wretch! wert thou born of woman? + No! what beast could have such a wicked son? + How was it that thou didst not die + In imagining a treason so enormous? + Her two women, 'midst lamentation and grief, + Gathered flowers to cover her grave, + And cut her epitaph in the bark of a tree-- + 'These flowers cover one whose faithfulness + And beauty were unequalled, + Whom cruel men slew without a cause.'" + +Whether Aguirre reached the mouth of the Amazon is doubtful--the +evidence is in favour of his getting out of that river into the Rio +Negro, and from thence into the Orinoco. However this may have been, he +arrived at last in the Gulf of Paria and proceeded to the island of +Margarita. Here, true to his character, he and his men commenced to +plunder and kill the inhabitants, going so far as to defy the local +authorities and even the king of Spain himself. To even enumerate the +deeds of this band of outlaws would fill a chapter, but we cannot omit +giving an extract from Aguirre's letter to his king, one of the most +curious productions ever written:-- + +"I firmly believe that thou, O Christian king and lord, hast been very +cruel and ungrateful to me and my companions for such good service, and +that all those who write to thee from this land deceive thee much, +because thou seest things from too far off. I and my companions, no +longer able to suffer the cruelties which thy judges and governors +exercise in thy name, are resolved to obey thee no longer.... Hear me! O +hear me! thou king of Spain. Be not cruel to thy vassals.... Remember, +King Philip, that thou hast no right to draw revenues from these +provinces, since their conquest has been without danger to thee. I take +it for certain that few kings go to hell, only because they are few in +number; if they were many, none of them would go to heaven. For I +believe that you are all worse than Lucifer, and that you hunger and +thirst after human blood; and further, I think little of you and despise +you all; nor do I look upon your government as more than an air +bubble.... + +"In the year 1559 the Marquis of Canete entrusted the expedition of the +river of Amazons to Pedro de Ursua, a Navarrese, or, rather, a +Frenchman, who delayed the building of his vessels till 1560. These +vessels were built in the province of the Motilones, which is a wet +country, and, as they were built in the rainy season, they came to +pieces, and we therefore made canoes and descended the river. We +navigated the most powerful river in Peru, and it seemed to us that we +were in a sea of fresh water. We descended the river for three hundred +leagues. This bad governor was capricious, vain, and inefficient, so +that we could not suffer it, and we gave him a quick and certain death. +We then raised Don Fernando de Guzman to be our king.... Because I did +not consent to their evil deeds they desired to murder me. I therefore +killed the new king, the captain of his guard, his lieutenant-general, +four captains, his major-domo, his chaplain who said mass, a woman, a +knight of the Order of Rhodes, an admiral, two ensigns, and five or six +of his servants. I named captains and sergeants, but these men also +wanted to kill me, and I hanged them. We continued our course while this +evil fortune was befalling us, and it was eleven months and a half +before we reached the mouths of the river, having travelled for more +than a hundred days over more than fifteen hundred leagues. This river +has a course of two thousand leagues of fresh water, the greater part of +the shores being uninhabited, and God only knows how we ever escaped out +of that fearful lake. I advise thee not to send any Spanish fleet up +this ill-omened river, for, on the faith of a Christian, I swear to +thee, O king and lord, that if a hundred thousand men should go up, not +one would escape.... + +"We shall give God thanks if, by our arms, we attain the rewards which +are due to us, but which thou hast denied us; and because of thine +ingratitude I am a rebel against thee until death." + +He and his band of outlaws ravaged the settlements of Venezuela for some +time, until at last, on a promise of pardon, all left him save Llamoso, +the murderer of Lady Inez. Aguirre had a daughter, a girl of twelve to +fourteen, and when he found that all was lost he resolved to kill her. +They were living at a country house, and when Llamoso brought the news +of the desertion of his men, he snatched up a loaded arquebuse and +rushed into his child's room, saying, "Commend thyself to God, my +daughter, for I am about to kill thee, that thou mayest not be pointed +at with scorn, nor that it be in the power of any one to call thee the +daughter of a traitor." A woman snatched the weapon from his hand, but, +drawing his poniard, he stabbed the girl in the breast, saying, "Die! +because I must die!" Rushing then to the door, he found the house +surrounded by Spanish soldiers, who compelled him to surrender, and +almost immediately took him out to be shot. + +This put an end to treasure-seeking on the Amazon, but the search for +"El Dorado" had been going on and was still continued along the banks of +the Orinoco. The first attempt to reach the golden city by this river +appears to have been made by Pedro de Acosta about the year 1530, but +after most of his men had been killed and eaten by the cannibals, he was +compelled to abandon his project. After him came Diego de Ordas, the +following year, whose expedition became afterwards famous. He, however, +found nothing himself, although he went as far as the mouth of the +Caroni--it was from one of his men that the "El Dorado" story was +gleaned. By some accident the whole of the gunpowder was exploded, and +this being attributed to the negligence of the munitioner, Juan +Martinez, he was sentenced to be put in a canoe, without paddles or +food, and allowed to drift at the mercy of the current. + +What became of the culprit was not known, but some months afterwards a +strange white man was brought by some Indians to Margarita. He was +wasted by sickness, naked, and apparently destitute, but, through the +kindness of a ship-captain, he got a passage to Porto Rico, and was +there placed in a religious house, under the care of some Dominican +friars. Here he became worse, but when on the point of death he +presented his friends with two gourdsful of gold beads to pay for the +repose of his soul; he also declared himself to be Juan Martinez, and +told the wonderful story of his adventures. + +After being cast adrift, the canoe floated down the stream until +evening, when it attracted the attention of some Indians, who paddled +out from the shore and rescued Martinez from his perilous situation. +These were Guianians, who had never before seen a white man, and +therefore resolved to take him to their king as a curiosity. He was, +however, blind-folded to prevent his seeing the direction they were +taking, and led on and on, through forest and over mountain, for fifteen +days, until a great city was reached. Arriving here at noon, his bandage +was taken off, and Martinez feasted his eyes upon a great plain covered +with houses, the roofs of which glittered in the sun as if made of gold. +As far as his eye could reach stretched this marvellous assemblage of +palaces. In the centre dwelt the great king, but, although the party +travelled the whole of that and the next day, they did not reach the +palace until evening. + +Here Martinez was well treated, and allowed to walk about the city, but +not beyond it. He remained for seven months, saw the great lake on the +shore of which the city of Manoa stood, and handled its golden sands. +However, he was not content to remain, and after repeated petitions to +be allowed to depart, was at last furnished with guides and as much +gold as they could carry. Arrived at the Orinoco, the cannibals fell +upon the party, stole all the treasure save that hidden under some +provisions in the two gourds, and left them destitute. After enduring +many privations Martinez, however, got a passage in an Indian canoe to +Margarita, from whence he expected to go to Spain and report his +discovery to the king. + +What amount of truth, if any at all, was contained in the story is +doubtful. It does not appear to have been told at once, but gradually +leaked out, becoming more marvellous as it spread over the West Indies. +Adventurers flocked to the Orinoco, and at least a score of expeditions +went in search of "El Dorado." Under the command of bold adventurers one +party after another entered into the forest, some never to return or to +be heard of again. The remnant sometimes came back starving, and broken +down with sickness. We read of one Juan Corteso that he marched into the +country, but neither he nor any of his company did return again. Gaspar +de Sylva and his two brothers sought El Dorado, but fell down to +Trinidad, where all three were buried. Jeronimo Ortal, after great +travail and spending all his substance, died on a sudden at St. Domingo. +Father Iala, a friar, with only one companion and some Indian guides, +returned with gold eagles, idols, and other jewels, but when he essayed +to pass a second time was slain by Indians. Alonzo de Herera endured +great misery, but never entered one league into the country; he also was +at last slain by Indians. Antonio Sedenno got much gold and many Indian +prisoners, whom he manacled in irons, and of whom many died on the way. +The tigers being fleshed with the dead carcases assaulted the Spaniards, +who with much trouble hardly defended themselves from them. Sedenno was +buried within the precincts of the empire of the gilded king, and most +of his people perished likewise. Augustine Delgado came to an Indian +Cacique, who entertained him with kindness and gave him rich jewels, six +seemly pages, ten young slaves, and three nymphs very beautiful. To +requite these manifold courtesies he took all the gold he could get and +all the Indians he could lay hold on, to sell for slaves. He was +afterwards shot in the eye by an Indian, of which hurt he died. + +And so we might go on to tell of the thousands of people murdered and +tens of thousands carried off as slaves; Every gold ornament was stolen, +provision grounds destroyed, and the forest tracks strewn with the +corpses of those who had been massacred, and marked out by the graves of +their murderers. Sometimes treasure and slaves were recaptured and no +one left to tell the tale, but more often a few escaped to fight over +the booty and perhaps be hanged as mutineers on their return. + +The men of that age were undoubtedly great--great warriors, great +ruffians, great villains. Only here and there can we distinguish a good +man like Las Casas, who did his very best for the Indians against the +opposition of the settlers and the lukewarmness of the Spanish Court. He +was horrified at the atrocities in the Indies, but the kings wanted +their tithes and cared little how they were obtained. "Get it honestly +if you can, but get it," seems to have been their motto, and it was not +for many years that anything like humanity was shown, and then only by a +few priests. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +III. + +"SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD." + + +On the discovery of the Indies, Ferdinand and Isabella at once applied +to Pope Alexander the Sixth to secure the rights of Spain in the new +countries against every other nation, but more especially against +Portugal. Accordingly, the celebrated "Bull of partition" was issued on +the 4th of May, 1493, giving, conceding, and assigning for ever, to them +and their successors, all the islands and mainlands already found or +that might be discovered in future, to the west of a line, stretching +from the north to the south poles, a hundred leagues from the Azores or +Cape de Verde Islands, provided they were not in the possession of any +other Christian prince. The sovereigns were commanded to appoint +upright, God-fearing, skilful, and learned men to instruct the +inhabitants in the Catholic faith, and all unauthorised persons were +forbidden to traffic on or even approach the territories. If they did so +they would incur the indignation of Almighty God and of the blessed +Apostles Peter and Paul. + +Such was the gist of the document under which the enormities mentioned +in the preceding chapters were committed. Portugal, except for some +disputes about Brazil, accepted this arrangement, but the other great +nations of Europe, especially England, disputed it from the very +beginning. Nevertheless, the governments, as long as they were at peace +with Spain, took no active part in the matter, but left the work to +individuals, even going so far in some instances as to disclaim their +responsibility for piracies committed beyond the seas. + +English and French seamen, hearing of the treasure continually imported +into Spain, soon found their way to the new world, and as early as the +year 1526 precautions had to be taken against them. Orders were sent to +build castles on the coasts and strong houses, not only for defence +against the cannibals, who continued to ravage the larger islands, but +to protect the settlements from French corsairs who had already +commenced their depredations. The tract of the Spanish fleets led them +first to St. Domingo, and thence on to the isthmus of Darien or Panama, +where at first the chief port was Nombre de Dios. At these two points it +was of great importance that fortifications should be erected, and this +was done in the first half of the sixteenth century. + +An English merchant named Thomas Tison seems to have been the first of +our nation who went to the West Indies, but he got his goods sent from +Bristol to Spain. In 1527 King Henry VIII. fitted out the _Dominus +Vobiscum_ and another vessel for those parts, but little is known of +their course. It was, however, reported that they went to Porto Rico, +and got there a cargo of brazil wood, and then proceeded to St. Domingo, +where permission was asked to trade. After waiting for the license two +days the Spanish batteries fired upon them, driving them off to go back +to Porto Rico, where the inhabitants were more friendly. + +From this time the corsairs and rovers became more numerous and +audacious every year. Some went trading among the Indians of the +mainland, others, more bold, forced their goods upon the Spanish +settlements under threats of pillage. In 1536 the inhabitants of Havana +paid seven hundred ducats to a French corsair to save the city, and +because later the pirate was chased by three Spanish vessels, which he +captured, he returned and exacted a second ransom. + +In 1538 there was a gallant fight in the harbour of Santiago de Cuba, +between a Spaniard and a French corsair. The two vessels fought with +each other the first day until sunset, when a truce was agreed to, and +civilities exchanged between the captains. They sent each other presents +of wine and fruit, were very friendly, and mutually agreed to fight only +by day with swords and lances. Artillery, they agreed, was an invention +of cowards--they would show their valour, and the one who conquered +should have the other's vessel. The second day they fought again until +evening without either being conquered, and again they exchanged +courtesies. That night, however, the Spanish captain, Diego Perez, sent +to the people of the city asking if they would compensate him for the +loss of his ship if the corsair got the better of him; if they agreed +to do this he would risk his life in their service. Were he not poor and +without any other property, he would not have asked them, and as they +would be gainers by his victory, he did not think his request at all +extravagant. But the authorities refused to pledge themselves to +anything, leaving Perez to fight for his own honour, life, and property. +The battle continued the whole of the third day, each giving the other +time for rest and refreshment, yet neither was conquered, although many +had fallen on both sides. After similar courtesies the fight went on +next morning, and when evening came the Frenchman promised to continue +it next morning. Feeling, however, that the Spaniard was likely to get +the better of him, he slipped his cable in the night and made off, +leaving Perez to grieve at the drawn battle. + +The same year Havana was sacked and burnt, and three years later both +English and French did great injury to the Spanish trade. Even Portugal +did not escape, but when complaints were sent to the king of France, he +said he intended to follow those conquests and navigations which by +right belonged to him. In 1545 five French vessels captured the +pearl-fishing fleet near the Main, which the owners were compelled to +ransom; at the same time they were forced to buy seventy negroes from +the captors. The Frenchmen then took Santa Martha and got a thousand +ducats as ransom. + +One raid after another took place until the Spaniards were at their +wits' ends. Forts were built, _guarda-costas_ stationed, and other +precautions taken, but the depredations and forced traffic still +continued. They cruelly punished all who fell into their hands, and this +led to retaliation, not only for their own injuries, but to avenge the +slaughter of the innocent natives. + +About the year 1530 Master William Hawkins made three long and famous +voyages in the ship _Paul_. Hakluyt said he went to Brazil--a thing very +rare in those days to our English nation. He became so friendly with the +Indians that one of their kings came to England in his vessel, and was +exhibited to King Henry, who marvelled to see this savage representative +of royalty. Unfortunately the poor fellow died on the return voyage, +which made Hawkins fear for the white hostage he had left behind. +However, his explanation was accepted, and his man given back +unharmed--a result all the more pleasing, as he knew so little of the +language, and might easily have been misunderstood. + +This is an example of the good feeling of these people towards +Englishmen and all who treated them fairly. Even the cannibals became +more gentle under good treatment, and would allow the enemies of Spain +to land on their shores without opposition. By this time the natives of +the Greater Antilles were gone, and with them the thousands of captives +from the mainland. Then began the importation of negroes, first from +Spain, where the Portuguese had sold a fair number during the previous +century, and then from Africa. Spain could not send and fetch the +negroes on account of the Papal Bull, which reserved the savage +countries east of the line to Portugal. It followed, therefore, that, as +Spain claimed the Indies, so her sister country claimed the whole of +Africa--a claim as little respected by other nations as that of her +neighbour. + +[Illustration: NEGRO WOMAN RETURNING FROM MARKET.] + +Hearing that there was a good market for negroes in the West, Captain +(afterwards Sir) John Hawkins, in 1563, got up an expedition to supply +this demand. With three vessels of 120, 100, and 40 tons respectively, +he sailed to Sierra Leone, and partly by the sword and partly by other +means, got three hundred slaves, whom he carried to Hispaniola. Here he +had a reasonable sale, probably forced, for he trusted the Spaniards no +farther than he thought prudent, considering his strength. His returns +were so good, however, that he not only loaded his own vessels with +hides, ginger, sugar, and some pearls, but also freighted two hulks to +send to Spain. + +[Illustration: NEGRO BARBER] + +[Illustration: NEGRO FAMILY ON HOLIDAY.] + +This success induced him to make another venture on a larger scale with +the _Jesus_ of Lubeck, of 700, and three other vessels of 140, 50, and +30 tons. He sailed for Africa in October, 1564, to kidnap slaves, yet +all the time he was very religious in a way. His orders concluded with +the commands to "serve God daily; love one another; preserve your +victuals; beware of fire; and keep good company"--_i.e._, do not stray +from others of the fleet. At several places he took negroes by force, +losing a few of his men in the fights, and with a good number set off +for the West Indies. Fortunately, he said, although they were in great +danger from a gale on this voyage, they arrived without many deaths of +either the negroes or themselves. For "the Almighty God, who never +suffereth His elect to perish, sent us, on the 16th of February (1565), +the ordinary breeze." + +[Illustration: NEGRESSES GOSSIPING.] + +The first land they sighted was Dominica, where they watered, and then +went on to Margarita, the Governor of which island refused them +permission to trade. They then tried several other places, including +Hispaniola and Cumana, but also without success. At Barbarota they +forced the people to traffic, and here they were joined by Captain +Bontemps, a French corsair, with whom they went to Curacao, and forced a +hundred slaves upon the inhabitants. Finally they went to Rio de la +Hacha and defeated a body of Spanish troops, after which the remainder +of Hawkins' cargo was freely sold. + +In his third voyage, on which he started in October, 1567, Hawkins was +accompanied by Francis Drake and several other gentlemen adventurers. He +took a similar course to that of his former voyages, joined some African +chiefs in storming a town, and received, as his share of the booty, five +hundred prisoners, with whom he again sailed for the Indies. The alarmed +Spaniards dared not refuse to trade, and consequently he soon sold his +negroes at a good profit. On his return, however, he was caught in a +storm near the coast of Florida and had to take shelter in the harbour +of Vera Cruz, where at first his vessels were taken for a Spanish fleet +then daily expected. Under this mistake several influential persons came +on board, two of whom were retained as hostages. + +Next day the Spanish fleet, consisting of thirteen sail, arrived, and on +board one of them was the new Viceroy of Mexico. From this high +authority Hawkins got permission to repair his ships, victual, and +refit, provided the English kept themselves to a small island in the +harbour, for the due performance of which they gave twelve hostages. + +But the Spaniards were not prepared to let their enemies off so easily, +and made preparations for a surprise. Hawkins, becoming suspicious, sent +to inquire about certain shady transactions, and was at once attacked by +something like a thousand men. The Spaniards sunk three of his vessels, +seriously damaged the fourth, and left him with only one leaky ship in +which to find his way home. A great number of his men were killed and +others captured, the prisoners to be taken to Mexico and there cruelly +used. Two of them--Miles Philips and Job Hortop--managed to escape and +return to England, where they gave long accounts of their sufferings, +the latter comparing himself to his namesake the patriarch. As for +Hawkins, in speaking of his return voyage, he said, that "if all the +miserable and troublesome affairs of this sorrowful voyage should be +perfectly and thoroughly written, there should need a painful man with +his pen, and as great a time as he had that wrote the lives and deaths +of the martyrs." + +This disaster put an end to Hawkins' slave-trading, but made no +impression on the other adventurers to the Indies. Francis Drake now +took up the quarrel, and in the year 1572 "singed the Spaniard's beard" +to some purpose. Knowing already something of the state of affairs near +the isthmus, he resolved to gain his spurs in that direction. He cared +not for a forced trade in negroes, but virtually went in for piracy, for +although the relations of the mother countries were at that time +somewhat strained, war had not yet been declared. + +Drake sailed straight for Nombre de Dios, the treasure port, arrived +suddenly before the inhabitants had any warning, and landed a hundred +and fifty men in the night. Suddenly the town was roused to the fact +that the enemy were in possession, and as the people ran off to the +forest, they asked each other what was the matter. Unfortunately for +Drake, however, through a misunderstanding, the English were alarmed and +took to their vessels, so that all the advantage of the surprise was +lost. Undaunted by this failure, he determined to attempt something even +more audacious--the capture of the Panama train. + +We have already seen that African slaves had been imported in +considerable numbers; we have now to mention that on the continent they +often escaped into the forest. Here they lived like the Indians, and +were often in friendship with them, going under the name of Simerons, or +afterwards Maroons. Always at enmity with the masters whom they had +deserted, they were a terror to the settlers on account of their +continual raids on the plantations. + +Drake determined to get the assistance of these people, which was freely +given, and he was enabled to traverse the pathless forest and to lie in +wait for the train of mules carrying gold and silver from Panama to +Nombre de Dios. This he captured, but, on account of the difficulties +of the way, was obliged to leave the silver behind, and content himself +with the gold. Then he attacked some merchants, burnt their goods to the +value of two hundred thousand ducats, and got safely back to his ships +just as the dilatory Spaniards sent out three hundred men for his +capture. It was on this excursion that he saw the Great South Sea, and +determined to carry English ships into that immense Spanish preserve. +How he carried out his resolve, and appeared suddenly off the Peruvian +coast five years later, is a story we must leave, as it belongs to +another part of the new world. + +When Drake returned to Plymouth the news of his adventures, and the more +substantial evidence of the gold he had brought, roused others to follow +his example. Among them was one John Oxnam, or Oxenham, who has been +immortalised by Kingsley in "Westward Ho!" Arriving at the isthmus in +1575, in a vessel of 140 tons, he went to an out-of-the-way river, and +hid his bark among the great trees. Landing with his seventy men, he +went in search of the Simerons, who took him to a river which flowed +into the South Sea, where a pinnace was built. In this the English +pulled down to the Pacific, with the intention of capturing one of the +treasure ships coming to Panama. They succeeded so far as to get sixty +thousand dollars in gold from one bark, and a hundred thousand from +another. Not yet satisfied, they went to the Pearl Islands, attacked the +negro divers, and took a few pearls, with which they at last returned up +the river. + +Unfortunately for Oxenham the negroes of the Pearl Islands carried the +news of his presence to Panama, and in two days four boats with a +hundred men were sent in pursuit. They found the two barks, which had +been released, and from their captains learnt where the Englishmen had +gone. Following up the river they were at a loss when they came to three +branches, but spying some freshly plucked feathers floating down one of +the streams, they followed that until they came upon the pinnace. Six +men were on guard, one of whom was killed, but the other five escaped +and gave the alarm to their comrades. Pursuing their track through the +forest the Spaniards found the store of treasure hidden away under +boughs of trees. With this they would have gone back had not Oxenham +attacked them with two hundred Simerons before they reached their boats. +Being more skilful in bush fighting than the English, the Spaniards +repulsed the party, killing eleven and taking seven prisoners, from whom +they learnt that the delay was caused by the difficulty of transporting +the treasure. + +Now the news was sent to Nombre de Dios, and the authorities there found +the English vessel and brought her away, thus cutting off the means of +escape for those still lurking in the forest. Then an expedition was +sent in search of them, and they were found building canoes. Some were +sick and could make no resistance, the others fled and took refuge with +the negroes, by whom they were ultimately betrayed and taken to Panama. +Here Oxenham was interrogated as to his authority for the raid, and was +obliged to admit that he had not his Queen's license. All except five +boys were executed, the men at once, and the officers a little while +afterwards at Lima. + +Thus ended one of the most audacious attacks on the Spaniards which only +failed through a little want of calculation. Hakluyt, who wrote the +account, said the enemy marvelled much to see that although many +Frenchmen had come to these countries, yet never one durst put foot upon +land; only Drake and Oxenham performed such exploits. When the news +reached Spain the king was so alarmed that he sent out two galleys to +guard the coast, which in the first year after their arrival took six or +seven French vessels, and put a stop to their piracies for a time. + +There was another class of raids in the Indies, of which that of Andrew +Barker, of Bristol, was an example. He, and one Captain Roberts, going +to trade in the Canary Islands, had their goods confiscated, and were +put in prison, from which Roberts escaped and Barker was ultimately +discharged. To recoup his losses and revenge himself, Barker fitted out +several vessels in 1576, in which he went trading to the Main, and +afterwards committed acts of piracy. He took a small vessel off +Margarita and a frigate near Carthagena, from which he got five hundred +pounds' weight of gold and some emeralds. Now, following the example of +Drake, he landed on the isthmus to get help from the Simerons, but could +find none. Then, from the unhealthiness of the climate, most of his men +fell sick, and eight or nine died, which made him give up this part of +his project. Embarking again he took another Spanish vessel with some +gold, but after that the party got into difficulties. Barker quarrelled +with his ship-master, and one of the vessels became so leaky that they +had to let her sink, first removing the cargo into the last Spanish +prize. They, however, captured another vessel with a hundred pounds of +silver and some provisions, but after that the crews mutinied and put +Barker ashore with some others, where they were attacked by Spaniards, +and nine, including the captain, killed. The mutineers then went on to +Truxillo, which they surprised, but could find no treasure, and were +soon driven to flight by a Spanish vessel. On their way home the Spanish +vessel sunk, carrying down two thousand pounds' worth of their booty, +and on their arrival at Plymouth they were imprisoned as accessories to +their captain's death. Although none were executed, yet, says the worthy +Hakluyt, "they could not avoid the heavy judgment of God, but shortly +after came to miserable ends." + +Open war soon came, and culminated in the invasion of England by the +"Invincible Armada" of 1588. No longer could there be any question of +the Queen's license, and in 1585 Drake, now Sir Francis, fitted out a +great fleet to cripple the power of Spain in the Indies. The Spanish +authorities were no longer unprepared, but ready to give him a warm +reception all along his expected course. The fleet consisted of +twenty-five vessels, with two thousand three hundred men, among whom +could be found many whose names are famous in the annals of Queen +Elizabeth. At the Cape de Verde Islands they burnt the town of Santiago +in revenge for the murder of a boy, and after this baptism of fire, +proceeded to the island of St. Christopher's, where they landed the +sick, cleaned their vessels, and spent Christmas. Leaving at the end of +December, on the 1st of January, 1586, they arrived off Hispaniola with +the intention of attacking St. Domingo. The English landed about ten +miles distant from that city, marched upon the Spaniards unawares, and +took it by surprise, notwithstanding every preparation that had been +made, and the careful watch for enemies from the sea. + +Drake demanded a large ransom, and because it was not paid at once, +commenced to demolish the buildings, which brought the inhabitants to +their senses and made them offer the sum of 25,000 ducats (about +L7,000), which he accepted. From thence the fleet sailed to Carthagena, +where no opposition was made until the troops landed, when a great +struggle took place in the streets. The Spaniards had erected +barricades, behind which they succeeded in doing some execution, but +only delayed the surrender for a short time. After a portion of the town +had been burnt, 110,000 ducats were paid as ransom for the remainder, +and after a few less brilliant exploits, the fleet went back to England, +being thus hurried on account of sickness among the men. Otherwise, +Drake had intended to capture Nombre de Dios and Panama, but from this +disability had to be content with booty to the amount of L60,000, which +would mean something like a quarter of a million at the present value of +money. He arrived in time to help in repelling the Armada, and this +invasion kept most of the English about their own shores for a year or +two. + +In 1595, when there were no longer any fears of a Spanish landing, Drake +determined on another voyage, and this time with Sir John Hawkins. +Getting together six of the Queen's ships and twenty-one other vessels, +they arrived safely at the Caribbee Islands, where Hawkins became sick +and died. Drake then went on to Porto Rico and attacked the capital, but +could do nothing more than capture a few vessels from under the guns of +the forts. Going to the Main he captured Rio de la Hacha and a fishing +village named Rancheria. These he held for ransom, but was dissatisfied +with the number of pearls offered by private persons, the Governor +refusing to give anything, and burnt both town and village. Santa Martha +was also taken, and then Nombre de Dios, but he found that the treasure +had been removed, the inhabitants taking to the forest when they heard +his fearful name. Sir Thomas Baskerville took seven hundred and fifty +men to go over to Panama, but returned much discouraged by the +difficulties of the road. Drake finally burnt Nombre de Dios and every +vessel in the harbour down to the smallest boats. + +After that, sickness began to tell upon the expedition, and Drake +himself was stricken with dysentery. When on the point of death he rose +from his bed, put on his full dress of admiral, called his men and gave +them a farewell address, then, sinking down exhausted he died +immediately afterwards. Several captains and other important officers +also died, and they even lost the chief surgeon; after that, nothing was +left but to return home. Off Cuba they were attacked by a Spanish fleet +of twenty vessels, sent out to intercept them, with which they kept up +a running fight until the enemy were left behind. + +On their arrival in England in May, 1596, the sad news of the death of +Drake overshadowed all the glory of the expedition. In Spain, however, +it was published for general information, and the people congratulated +each other that at last their enemy was gone. Henry Savile, in his +"Libel of Spanish Lies," said "it did ease the stomachs of the timorous +Spaniards greatly to hear of the death of him whose life was a scourge +and a continual plague to them." No wonder that the news was so +grateful, for none was so daring, and no name like that of Drake ever +came to be used as a bogey with which to frighten their children. + +Yet there were many gallant adventurers in the Indies at that very time. +Sir Robert Dudley and Sir Walter Ralegh were both at Trinidad in 1595, +and for several years before and after the English rovers were plentiful +in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1591 the _Content_ was successfully defended +against six Spanish men-of-war, and the galleons were obliged to sail in +large squadrons. What with the dangers of storms and the enemy, it was +stated that of a hundred and twenty-three vessels expected in Spain +during that year, only twenty-five arrived safe. + +The number of rovers became at last so great that plunder was difficult +to obtain. The Spanish settlers were in continual fear, and naturally +took every precaution against their enemies, hiding the treasure on the +least alarm, and taking to the forest. The French corsairs were not far +behind the English, although as yet they had no proper licenses, and +only fought for their own hands. Latterly, also, the Dutch and Flemings +had arrived, and although mainly occupied in trading, they did not +hesitate to fight on occasion, especially when attempts were made to +prevent their traffic. While under the rule of Charles the Fifth they +had been free to go to and from the Indies, and no doubt use the +knowledge thus gained to further their own interests since their revolt. +Like the English, they were at enmity with Spain, but there was also +another bond of union--both were Protestant. Queen Elizabeth assisted +Holland in gaining her independence, and therefore at this period the +relations between English and Dutch were very cordial. But the +fellow-feeling of enmity to Spain made even the French corsair unite +with the two others, so that pirates, privateers, and traders all +combined against the common foe. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +IV. + +RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES. + + +The first grant made by Queen Elizabeth for a settlement in America was +given to Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1578, but the father of English +colonisation was Sir Walter Ralegh. Although considered a rover, or +pirate, by the Spaniards, he was of a different type to Drake, Hawkins, +and the other adventurers of the sixteenth century. Not only was he +famous as a brave warrior, but at the same time as one of the most +learned men of his time; as enterprising in the arts of peace as on the +battlefield. + +The "Letters Patent" to Walter Ralegh, Esquire, dated the 25th of March, +1584, may be considered as the first charter of the English colonies. +Under them he was empowered to discover, occupy, and possess barbarous +countries not actually in the possession of any Christian prince, or +inhabited by Christian people, on condition that he reserved to Her +Majesty a fifth of all the gold and silver found therein. He was also +given all the rights of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and empowered +to govern and make laws as long as these laws did not conflict with +those of the mother country, or with the true Christian faith of the +Church of England. Under this charter the first settlement in Virginia +was undertaken, and thus England threw down the gauntlet in the face of +Spain. + +However, Ralegh did not confine himself to North America--there were +other countries not in the actual possession of any Christian prince, +the most notable being Guiana. Ralegh had heard the story of "El Dorado" +and of the failures of the many German and Spanish knights. He would +succeed where they had failed. Englishmen had displayed their mettle in +the Indies--if the treasures of Peru and Mexico had raised their enemy +to be "mistress of the world" and "sovereign of the seas," why should +not he also find other golden countries for the benefit of his virgin +queen and country? Because two rich provinces had been discovered, it +did not follow that there were no others; on the contrary, the rumours +of "El Dorado" were so many that they could not be treated with +contempt. And then the natives of the "Great Wild Coast," although +cannibals, were friendly to the English, who had always treated them +fairly, and there they had the advantage over Spain. The country was +open to them, although strictly guarded against their rivals. + +The stories had been lately revived by the expeditions of Antonio de +Berrio, Governor of Trinidad and Guiana, who had made explorations of +the river Orinoco, and possibly exaggerated his reports for the purpose +of getting settlers. Captain Popham took some letters from a Spanish +vessel in 1594, wherein were found accounts of the "Nueva Dorado," +which were spoken of as incredibly rich. Ralegh saw these, and was +induced by their reports and his own knowledge of the Indies, which he +had gained in working at his colonisation schemes, to go out and look up +the matter. + +The occupation of Guiana, he said, had other ground and assurance of +riches than the voyages to the West Indies. The king of Spain was not so +impoverished as the English supposed by their taking two or three ports, +neither were the riches of Peru or New Spain to be picked up on the +sea-shore. The burning of towns on the coast did not impoverish Spain +one ducat, for it was within the country that the land was rich and +populous. Therefore England should endeavour to get possession of this +yet unspoiled country, instead of wasting her energies on adventures +that were of no real benefit, and that hardly touched the real source of +her enemy's greatness. + +Ralegh arrived at Trinidad in March, 1595, and as a matter of precaution +captured the Spanish town of St. Joseph, and the Governor, De Berrio, +from whom he heard more stories of El Dorado. Here also he began those +conciliatory measures with the natives which characterised all his +dealings. He released five chiefs, who had been imprisoned in chains and +tortured by dropping melted fat on their bodies, and thus gained their +friendship. Unlike other adventurers he thought it necessary to excuse +himself for burning St. Joseph, which he did in rather quaint language. +Considering that if he entered Guiana by small boats and left a +garrison of the enemy at his back, he "should have savoured very much of +the ass," he took the place, and at the instance of the natives set it +on fire. + +[Illustration: RALEGH IN TRINIDAD. + +(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)] + +Now began a weary voyage up the Orinoco, first through the delta, which +is such a maze that they might have wandered for months without getting +into the main river had they not secured an Indian pilot. Exposed +alternately to burning sun and drenching showers in open boats, they +toiled against the powerful stream. Ralegh everywhere tried his best to +ingratiate himself with the Indians, succeeding so well that his name +became known over the whole of Guiana. He told them that he had been +sent by a great queen, the powerful Cacique of the north, and a virgin, +whose chieftains were more numerous than the trees of the forest. She +was an enemy to the Spaniards, had freed other nations from their +oppression, and had now sent to rescue them. To confirm his statement he +gave each Cacique a coin so that they could possess the queen's +likeness, and these were treasured and even worshipped for a century +afterwards. + +Everywhere he heard of El Dorado, but it was always receding farther and +farther, until his men became so disheartened that he had to rouse them +by saying that they would be shamed before their comrades if they gave +up so easily. However, after reaching the mouth of the Caroni and +getting specimens of gold ore, he had to return without doing more than +locating the city of Manoa several hundred miles to the east of his +farthest point. This was done in so exact a manner that the great lake +of Parima, as large as the Caspian Sea, was retained upon the maps of +South America down to the beginning of the present century. His ore was +probably stream quartz, and in representing it as taken from the rock he +probably reported what the Indians had told him. When, therefore, he +said that the assay gave its value as L13,000 a ton, there is no reason +to suppose a mistake or untruth, for pieces quite as valuable may still +be picked up. His "Discoverie of Guiana" is such a mixture of close and +accurate observation with the hearsay of the Indians, that it is +difficult in some cases to separate truth from fiction. Yet, although +historians have charged him with wilful lying, there can be no doubt of +his good faith. It has been left to the present century to prove that +gold-mines exist on the site of the fabled El Dorado, for it is there +that the well-known Caratal diggings are situated. + +Ralegh asked the people of England to judge for themselves. He had spent +much time and money, with no other object than to serve his queen and +country. When they considered that it was the Spaniard's gold which +endangered and disturbed all the nations of Europe, that "purchaseth +intelligence, creepeth into councils and setteth bound loyalty at +liberty," they would see the advantage of these provinces he had +discovered. Guiana was a country that had never yet been sacked, turned, +or wrought. The face of the earth had not been torn, nor the virtue and +salt of the soil spent by manurance; the graves had not been opened for +gold, the mines not touched with sledges, or the images pulled down +from the temples. It was so easily defensible that it could be protected +by two forts at the mouth of a river, and thus the whole empire be +guarded. The country was already discovered, many nations won to Her +Majesty's love and obedience, and those Spaniards who had laboured on +the conquest were beaten, discouraged, and disgraced. If Her Majesty +took up the enterprise, he doubted not that after the first or second +year there would be a Contractation House for Guiana in London, with +larger receipts than that for the Indies at Seville. + +Such was Ralegh's dream. Another Peru to be conquered, and England to be +raised to the highest point of wealth and importance. But unfortunately +he could get no assistance to carry out the grand project. Yet he was +undoubtedly sincere, for did he not send out two expeditions under +Captains Keymis and Berrie the following year, to assure the Indians +that he had not forgotten them? Keymis found one tribe keeping a +festival in honour of the great princess of the north, and anxiously +waiting for the return of Gualtero, which name, by the by, was similar +to their word for friend. They made fires, and, sitting in their +hammocks, each man with his companion, they recounted the worthy deeds +and deaths of their ancestors, execrating their enemies most spitefully, +and magnifying their friends with all the titles of honour they could +devise. Thus they sat talking and smoking tobacco until their cigars +(their measure of time) went out, during which they were not to be +disturbed, "for this is their religion and prayers which they now +celebrated, keeping a precise fast one whole day in honour of the great +princess of the north, their patron and defender." + +The explorations of Ralegh and his captains were published all over +Europe, with the result that attention was generally drawn to Guiana. +Already some Dutchmen had been trading on the coast for many years, and +it was even reported that they had established a post in the river +Pomeroon, the centre of the province of Caribana. As early as 1542 +Flemings had settled at Araya on the coast of Venezuela, where they +collected salt and were left undisturbed as long as the Netherlands +belonged to Spain. Ralegh seems to have purposely ignored the presence +of these people in Guiana, probably to prevent any question of prior +rights on the part of a friendly nation. But, after all, the Dutchmen +could only have been there on their own responsibility, and their +temporary occupation had no meaning from a national point of view. + +Now that Guiana was made known, vessels of other nationalities went +trading along the coast, everywhere meeting with a hearty welcome from +the Indians as long as the visitors were not Spanish. They were only so +many additions to their friends--their enemies were confined to Trinidad +and the Orinoco, leaving the whole coast of Guiana to its rightful +owners. In fact, the Spaniards could no more subdue the Caribs of the +Main than they could those of the islands. Only in Trinidad, where the +Arawak was employed against the cannibal, was a settlement made +possible. + +Ralegh was unable to carry out his great project, but others were not +backward in attempting to settle in the country. First came Charles +Leigh, who in 1604 founded a colony in the river Oyapok, which failed +partly from the lack of assistance from England and partly from too +great a dependence on the promises of the Indians to supply food. +Sickness followed on starvation, Leigh died, and a mutiny took place, +after which the survivors got back to Europe in a Dutch trader, which +fortunately arrived when all hope of succour had been abandoned. Robert +Harcourt followed to the same river in 1609, like Leigh, getting +promises of assistance from the Indians by using the name of Ralegh. +With their consent he took possession of the country, "by twig and +turf," in the name of King James. This ceremony was performed by first +cutting a branch from a tree, and then turning up a sod with the sword, +thus claiming everything in and on the earth. + +Harcourt's colony lasted several years, and in 1613 he received from +James the First a grant of all that part of Guiana lying between the +rivers Amazons and Essequebo, on the usual condition of the fifth of all +gold and silver being handed over to the king. In the same year the +Dutch trading factory at Kyk-over-al on the river Essequebo was +established, and this was probably the reason why the English grant made +that river the boundary of their possessions, leaving the Hollander to +establish himself between the Essequebo and the Orinoco. + +Meanwhile, in 1603, poor Ralegh had been tried on a charge of aiding and +abetting the plot to raise Arabella Stuart to the throne of England, on +the death of Queen Elizabeth. Any one who reads the account of his +trial will perceive at once the absurdity of the charge, yet Ralegh was +convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. However, +even with all his hatred for the knight, King James dared not carry out +the sentence, but instead, kept him imprisoned in the Tower. + +Here Ralegh still hankered after the treasures of Guiana, and in 1611 he +made a proposition to the Government to send Captain Keymis to find the +rich gold mine which had been pointed out to him by an Indian. If Keymis +should live to arrive at the place and fail to bring half a ton or more +of that rich ore of which he had shown a sample, Ralegh himself would +bear all the expense of the journey. "Though," said he, "it be a +difficult matter of exceeding difficulty for any man to find the same +acre of ground again, in a country desolate and overgrown, which he hath +seen but once, and that sixteen years since--which were hard enough to +do upon Salisbury Plain--yet that your lordships may be satisfied of the +truth, I am contented to adventure all I have (but my reputation) upon +Keymis's memory." + +This proposition was rejected, and the poor knight lingered on in the +Tower, attended during part of the time by two Guiana Indians, Harry and +Leonard Regapo. In 1616, however, he at last recovered his liberty on +condition that he went to Guiana and brought back gold, but at the same +time the king refused to pardon him. Nevertheless he took up the matter +with an amount of enthusiasm which showed his entire confidence in its +ultimate success. All his own money and as much of his wife's as could +be spared was spent in fitting out the expedition, and he also got +contributions from many of his friends. The king even went so far as to +give him a commission to undertake a voyage to the south parts of +America, or elsewhere in America, inhabited by heathen and savage +people, with all the necessary rights of government and jurisdiction; +yet with all this the old sentence hung over his head. + +The expedition of fourteen vessels started in March, 1617, but even from +the commencement the voyage was disastrous. First a gale was +encountered, which drove the fleet to take refuge in Cork Harbour, where +it lay until August. This seems to have put a damper on the commander, +who now began to realise how much depended on his success. He was +twenty-two years older than when he went on his first voyage to Guiana, +and most of those years he had spent in captivity. Is it any wonder that +when the excitement attendant on his release had gone off he became sick +and utterly prostrated? Such was his condition when the fleet arrived at +Cayenne, where he went to look for his Indian boy Harry, who had gone +back to his people and was now wanted as interpreter. + +So low was Ralegh's condition that he had to be carried ashore, and +although he soon became a little better under a course of fresh meat and +fruits, he never wholly recovered. So great was his weakness, both of +mind and body, that he deputed Keymis to lead the party up the Orinoco, +while he rested at Cayenne; in a few days he would go on to Trinidad and +wait there until they returned. Keymis accordingly went on, accompanied +by young Walter Ralegh, a number of other gentlemen, and four hundred +soldiers. They arrived at the site of the supposed gold mine without +accident, but found that since the first expedition some Spaniards had +built "a town of sticks, covered with leaves," and this stood in the way +of their approach to the mine. Possibly Keymis now thought of his +master's expression in regard to St. Joseph, and did not care to "savour +of an ass" by leaving the enemy to interfere with his work. He therefore +attacked this town of St. Thome, and set it on fire. Unfortunately young +Ralegh was killed in the fight, and the thought of how he could tell +this bad news preyed upon the mind of Keymis until all relish for +gold-seeking was lost. The Spaniards took to the bush, from whence they +sallied forth on any small party of the English, and ultimately put them +into a state of confusion. The mine could not be found, the adventurers +began to complain that they had been fooled, and Keymis was so troubled +that he seemed neither to know nor care anything about treasure-seeking. + +Ralegh had meanwhile arrived in the Gulf of Paria, where he received the +news of the burning of St. Thome and the death of his son from some +Indians. Presently Keymis arrived, utterly dejected, to find his master +broken down and more woe-begone than himself. Ralegh said he was undone, +and that Keymis was entirely to blame. Not even a sample of ore--the +king would believe him a liar and a cheat. Then, this attack on a +Spanish town! Did not Keymis remember that these were not the days of +the virgin queen, when to "singe the Spaniard's beard" was worthy of +praise? Did he not know that James was friendly with the king of Spain +and wanted to get from him a princess for his son Henry? + +[Illustration: GOLD HUNTING. + +(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)] + +Keymis had been the intimate friend of Ralegh through all his troubles. +He had remained faithful even when threatened with the rack at the time +of the trial. As a kind of steward he had administered the prisoner's +estate, and was a trusted friend and confidant of the family. He had +seen young Walter grow up to manhood, and now through his fault the +youth had been killed. For the first time the bereaved father was angry +with his captain; perhaps if Keymis died the whole blame would be laid +upon his shoulders, and Ralegh be exonerated. He went to the cabin +allotted to him, loaded a pistol, shot himself, and then, as he feared +the wound was not mortal, finished the suicide by driving a long knife +into his heart. + +Thus died poor Keymis, but unfortunately this did not make any +difference to his master. If Ralegh had been prepared to throw all the +responsibility on his lieutenant, the king could only be satisfied with +treasure. Even if James had been inclined to over-look the affair, the +Spanish ambassador would not condone such an offence. He is said to have +rushed into the royal presence with the cry of "Piracy! piracy! piracy!" +at the same time demanding the immediate capture and punishment of the +raiders. It followed, therefore, that Ralegh was arrested immediately on +his return, and finally executed under the old sentence, but by +decapitation instead of hanging. + +His last days were passed with resignation and fortitude. His old spirit +was entirely broken, and although he petitioned the king for grace and +pardon, he did so in a hopeless way. He had many sympathisers, and to +satisfy them the king's printers issued a little book entitled "A +Declaration of the Demeanour and Carriage of Sir Walter Raleigh," +obviously inspired by the king himself. Here was a thing unheard of +before or since; a sovereign excusing himself for his actions! If +anything were required to prove the prisoner's innocence, this was +sufficient. Did James want to salve his own conscience, or was it +intended to satisfy those who clamoured on account of the injustice of +the execution? No doubt many of the old sea dogs who had served under +Drake and Hawkins were still living, and remembered when Plymouth bells +rang at the news of fresh arrivals from the Indies. "But now, forsooth, +you must not burn down a thatched hovel without a great to-do being +made." If Spain wanted peace, why did her people murder a ship's company +in cold blood a little while before? Out upon it! The good old days had +passed and England was going to ruin. + +However, even King James's sneaking friendship for Spain could not keep +back colonisation altogether. Something like moderation was introduced, +and only pirates pure and simple kept up the old traditions. As for the +king he hardly knew how to steer, what with the petitions for reprisals +from English seamen on the one hand, and complaints of the Spanish +ambassadors on the other. The result of this want of policy is well +shown in the case of Roger North one of the adventurers in the last +expedition of Ralegh, who, in 1619, wished to re-establish the colony in +the Oyapok, which had virtually sunk to nothing. An association called +the Amazon Company was formed, and, notwithstanding Spanish protests, +the king granted "Letters Patent," under which North got up an +expedition in four vessels. Then the Spanish ambassador began to storm, +and the weak king revoked the patent, calling upon the members of the +Company to renounce their rights. North, who had been warned that +something was going on, hurried up his preparations, and was off so +quickly that he sailed on the 30th of April, 1620, fifteen days before +the proclamation revoking his license was published. + +On his return in January following he was arrested and sent to the +Tower, where he remained until July. Meanwhile his cargo from Guiana was +seized on the ground that it had been obtained from Spanish possessions, +but with all his willingness to oblige Spain the king could not get the +case proven. It followed, therefore, that North was released, and his +goods restored, but as the cargo was mainly tobacco it had become much +damaged by neglect. + +This detention of North, and the consequent delay in sending out +supplies to the Oyapok, led to the downfall of the infant colony. +Hearing nothing from England the settlers became disheartened, and if it +had not happened that Dutch traders arrived there occasionally they +would have been starved. Even as it was one left after another until few +remained, and when, six years later, "the Company of Noblemen and +Gentlemen of England for the Plantation of Guiana" was formed, the +settlement had to be commenced anew. However, some of those who left +carried the English flag to the island of St. Christopher's, where a +settlement was commenced in 1624 by Thomas Warner. Thus, as Ralegh was +the father of English colonisation, so his beloved Guiana became the +parent of the British West Indies. + +James the First died in March, 1625, and with him went the English +subservience to Spain, never to be restored. During his reign British +enterprise had been kept back; now it broke down all obstructions. True, +New England and Bermuda were settled during his reign, but they owed +little to him or his government. As soon as the Royal obstructionist was +dead, colonisation schemes came to the front. Before even a month had +passed, on the 14th of April, John Coke came forward with a proposition +to incorporate a company for the defence and protection of the West +Indies, for establishing a trade there, and for fitting out a fleet to +attack the Spanish settlements. About the same time, also, the +Attorney-General made some "notes" on the advantages derived by the +Spaniards and Dutch from their West Indian trade, showing that it was +neither safe nor profitable to England for them to remain absolute lords +of those parts, and suggesting that the new king should entertain the +matter and openly interpose, or else permit it to be done underhand; +then if it prospered he could make it his own at pleasure. + +What was done in these particular cases does not appear, but that a new +policy was introduced is certain. In September following the case of +St. Christopher's was brought before the Privy Council, which apparently +confirmed what had been done, in taking possession of the island. In the +"information" laid over it was stated that Thomas Warner had discovered +that island, as well as Nevis, Barbados, and Montserrat, and had begun +the planting and colonising of these islands, until then only inhabited +by savages. King Charles was asked to take them under his royal +protection and grant Thomas Warner their custody as his lieutenant, with +the usual powers of jurisdiction. + +The result was not altogether to the liking of the petitioners, Ralph +Merrifield and Thomas Warner, for in July, 1627, a grant of all the +Caribbees was made to the Earl of Carlisle. This was sweeping enough, +however, to suit those who wanted English colonies, however it ignored +the rights of the first settlers in St. Kitt's and Barbados, which +latter island had been settled a few months after the first. + +Now, also, Roger North came forward with his story and got the revoked +patent renewed, so that he could go on with the settlement in the +Oyapok. For a time it did very well, but the tide had turned in favour +of the islands, and Guiana was soon abandoned to the Dutch and French. + +The most important of the two islands first colonised was Barbados, +which, fortunately for her comfort, never suffered from such calamities +as befel the sister island of St. Christopher's. As far as the English +were concerned Barbados was discovered by a vessel going out to Leigh's +settlement, in Guiana, in 1605. A pillar was erected with the +inscription, "James, King of England and this island," but nothing was +done in the way of a settlement until immediately after Warner commenced +planting in St. Kitt's. The most intimate connection existed between +Barbados and Guiana from the earliest times, as in fact it does to the +present day, for Captain Powell, the commander of the little company of +pioneers, sent to his Dutch friend, Groenwegel, in Essequebo, for a +party of Arawak Indians to teach the new-comers how to plant provisions, +cotton, and tobacco. + +In 1630 another group of islands was added by the granting of a patent +to the "Governor and Company of Adventurers for the Plantation of the +Islands of Providence, Henrietta, and the adjacent islands." Under this +charter possession was taken of the Bahamas, but little was done in the +way of settling them for about a century. Thus West Indian colonisation +was commenced, and claims made to all the smaller islands on behalf of +England. + +But it is not to be supposed that France and Holland were going to let +everything go by default--on the contrary, they soon began to settle in +some of the very islands which had been granted to the Earl of Carlisle. +The Dutch, as we have seen, were traders from the beginning, preferring +the so-called contraband traffic with the natives and Spanish colonists +to anything like the raids of English or French. Yet, in their plodding +way they went on steadily, and as early as the year 1600 took possession +of the island of St. Eustatius. When the Spaniards awoke to the fact +that the Dutch were injuring their trade, they began to enforce all the +old prohibitions and seized the smugglers. But the Hollander commenced +to feel his power, and gave his enemy several lessons, which made him +feel that the United Provinces with their symbol of a bundle of darts +were not to be despised. + +In 1615 the Dutch took the capital of Porto Rico, and in 1621 their West +India Company was formed with territorial and trading rights over all +the unoccupied countries of Africa and America. Suddenly as it were the +despised Hollander became a power in the West Indies, and the Company +was soon strong enough to conquer Brazil, which it must be remembered +was, with Portugal and all her colonies, then in the hands of Spain. +About the year 1627 Piet Heyn destroyed a Spanish fleet in Mataca Bay, +Cuba, the booty from which was something enormous. Altogether, the West +India Company was said to have captured 547 vessels, mainly off the +coast of America, the prize money from which amounted to thirty million +guilders (L2,500,000), while the damage to Spain was at least six times +as much. + +Now also the French began to claim their share. In 1625 Mons. d'Enambuc +went on a piratical expedition to the Caribbean Sea, but without any +intention of founding a colony. However, off the Cayman's islands he was +attacked by a Spanish galleon of much superior force, and although he +succeeded at last in driving her off, his vessel was so crippled that he +had to put into St. Christopher's for repairs. Here he found Warner +already established, and with him a few Frenchmen. On account of his +condition and the beauty of the island, he became inclined to settle, +and as the English and French were then on good terms, Warner saw no +objection. The consequence was that St. Kitt's became divided between +the two nationalities, with results in the future most disastrous to +both. + +At first, however, the assistance of the French was very welcome. The +Caribs were still a power in the smaller islands and gave a great deal +of trouble to the young colony. At first they were friendly, but when +the settlers wished to oppress them by taking away their lands and +compelling them to supply provisions, open war began. Hearing from an +Indian woman that a conspiracy was forming to destroy all the white men, +Warner determined to be beforehand with them. He massacred a hundred and +twenty of the men, took the women as slaves, and drove the remainder off +the island. But these powerful savages were by no mean conquered, for +those who escaped soon came back with three or four thousand of their +friends from neighbouring islands, and at first it appeared as if the +whites would have been utterly exterminated. By a supreme effort of both +French and English, however, this great invasion was repelled, the +defenders killing about two thousand, and capturing fifteen large +periaguas, with a loss to themselves of about a hundred, most of whom +died from poisoned arrows. This was a bond of union between French and +English, and Warner and d'Enambuc amicably divided the island between +them. + +[Illustration: CARIB ATTACK ON A SETTLEMENT + +(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)] + +[Illustration] + + + + +V. + +BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES. + + +Now that settlements were commenced the old system of piracy was +somewhat discountenanced by the home governments, and many of the +adventurers began to become a little more civilised. But there was still +a large number of them who became known as buccaneers, filibusters, +freebooters, marooners, and brethren of the coast, who continued to +worry the Spaniards, and even to attack other nationalities on occasion. +They had taken to the trade, and, when no longer able to carry it on in +a quasi-legitimate manner, did so on their own lines. + +The claim of Spain to the whole of America was the great cause of +offence. Had she been content with what her people could occupy, there +would have been little trouble, but the "dog in the manger" policy could +hardly be recognised by other nations. It followed, therefore, that when +complaints were made to France and England of the ravages on the Spanish +coasts, the sovereigns told the king of Spain to protect his own shores, +disclaiming on their own parts any responsibility whatever. + +The earliest accounts of the buccaneers are confused with those of the +French corsairs, of which mention has been already made. They sailed +along the coast from one island to another, trading a little, capturing +Spanish vessels, fighting the guarda-costas, and now and again repairing +to some out-of-the-way place to put their ships in order or even to +assist the Caribs in their raids. The advantages of combination were +soon felt, and with these also the necessity for places of rendezvous. +Even the English adventurers became accustomed to obtain wood and water +from Dominica, but this island was not conveniently situated for the +French corsairs. They wanted an uninhabited place near enough to +Hispaniola and the track of the Spanish vessels for them to be quickly +pounced upon and for the corsairs to as quickly escape. Then there must +be a food supply, and on the great island of Hispaniola were countless +herds of wild cattle which ranged over a wilderness utterly depopulated. + +The palmy days of the Hispaniola planter were over, and although he +imported negro slaves to some extent, he was virtually ruined. One after +another left for the newly discovered countries on the Main, and for +Peru and Mexico, leaving the island to a few merchants and wealthy +planters, who found it to their interest to remain. Hispaniola was +little more than a house of call on the road to the treasure countries, +which meant that although the port of St. Domingo was fortified, the +greater portion of the island was open to any one who chose to occupy +it. + +Salt was a scarce commodity in those times, but it could be obtained in +some of the smaller islands, notably Tortuga, which for that reason +became the resort of the buccaneers. But the Indians had learnt how to +preserve meat without this useful substance, by smoking it over a fire +of green branches and leaves. Even Europeans knew something of this +process, although we believe they never preserved their beef and bacon +entirely without salt as did the Indians their game. The process was +very simple. Four sticks with forked ends were pushed into the ground, +and on these uprights a sort of rack of other sticks was laid to make an +open platform, where the pieces of meat were laid above a fire until +well dried and impregnated with smoke. This stage was called a boucan, +or barbecue, and from their using it to prepare supplies for their +voyages the corsairs became known as buccaneers. + +There were no tinned provisions in those days, nor had the proper means +of keeping food on long voyages been yet perfected. It followed, +therefore, that a food supply in the Indies had to be provided, and the +Spaniards unintentionally did good service to their enemies by placing +hogs on most of the islands to breed and be available in emergencies. + +It is obvious that the hunting of semi-wild animals and curing their +meat required time, and for that reason a division of labour was +initiated. While one party went cruising in search of Spanish vessels, +another ranged the country to capture and prepare the supplies against +their return. Thus a rendezvous became necessary, and in time +plantations were established in this neighbourhood to gradually develop +into a settlement. Now and again the Spaniards discovered these places, +but as they were generally of little value, their loss was of no +importance; if destroyed the buccaneers could easily escape to another +locality. When the enemy burnt their vessels, they easily built canoes +with which they soon captured others and became as strong as before. The +hunters grew to like their hardy life with its perfect liberty, and +became so inured to the climate and open air as to be utterly unlike the +effeminate planters. They were even little subject to the diseases of +the country, and could live for months at a time on nothing but meat. As +for clothes, they made these from the skins of animals, and all they +really required from outside was powder and lead for their firearms. + +They became known as the brethren of the coast from their custom of each +choosing one comrade as a bosom friend and brother. Everything gained by +either was common to both, and the company were very strict in enforcing +their law against unfaithfulness in a companion, or unfair dealing in +any way among themselves. Sometimes they marooned a culprit by leaving +him alone on some small island to die of hunger, or perhaps to become a +"Crusoe" for many years. The wounded received compensation according to +a fixed tariff, from the common stock or from contributions; thus the +loss of an arm was valued at five hundred crowns, and other mutilations +at corresponding rates. + +As the attacks of the Spaniards became more common, the small bands +united, and division of labour became more exact. Some were hunters of +wild boars, others of cattle, a few became planters, but the main body +were always sea rovers. At first the hunters were on good terms with the +Spanish planters and entered into engagements to supply them with meat. +A party would go off into the interior and stay away for months at a +time, eventually returning with large supplies borne on the backs of +their horses. During all this time they lived in rough shelters which +could be erected in an afternoon, and were much exposed to the +vicissitudes of the weather. Now they made up for their long term of +privation by carousing to their hearts' content, and when drunk, often +fought and killed each other. In the settlements there were generally a +few women, and these often became the cause of contentions; there were +also bond-servants who were treated most cruelly. + +Sometimes they made incursions on the Spanish settlements, which led to +stronger efforts for their extermination that at last considerably +reduced their numbers. In fact, had it not been for the continual +accessions they would soon have died out, or have given up their trade +and settled down as planters. Hispaniola became at last almost +untenable, for the Spaniards, unable to find any other way of putting +them down, organised several hunting parties with the view to utterly +destroy the wild cattle and thus deprive them of their means of living. +Not that this was easily done, for it took many years, during which the +hunting parties from both sides fought and killed each other, committing +enormities which made the quarrel all the more bitter. + +About the year 1632 a party of buccaneers captured the island of Tortuga +from the Spaniards, the garrison of twenty-five men surrendering without +a blow. Here was now the grand rendezvous of the French, for which it +was perfectly suitable from its proximity to the food supply and the +track of the Spanish vessels. It was situated on the north of the +western portion of Hispaniola, and not very well suited for plantations, +although good tobacco was grown there. There were, however, plenty of +sea fowl and turtle to be had, as well as their eggs, which formed a +large portion of the diet of the inhabitants. + +This island became a veritable pandemonium--the sink of the West Indies. +It was the place of call for rovers of all nations, the market for their +booty, and the storehouse for everything in the way of supplies. The +merchants pandered to the tastes of their customers, and drinking and +gambling went on continually. But in 1638 it was surprised by the +Spaniards, who began to be alarmed at this nest of pirates at their very +doors. They chose a time when most of the rovers were away on a cruise, +and the buccaneers gone hunting in Hispaniola. All they captured were +killed--even those who surrendered being hanged as pirates. Only a few +escaped by hiding among the rocks and bushes to come forth after the +enemy had left, which they did without leaving a garrison. + +A grand attempt to expel the hunters from the main island was now +organised, in which a corps of five hundred lancers ranged the island in +bands of fifties. Many of the buccaneers were killed, but the remainder +combined together under an Englishman named Willis and again took +possession of Tortuga. + +From this rendezvous near Hispaniola the main passages between the +islands were under observation, but a similar station was required near +the Isthmus, and this was established about 1630 in the Bay of +Campeachy. Like that at Tortuga its beginnings are lost in obscurity. At +first one or more of the small islands or keys was used on +occasion--later fortifications were erected, and a watch always kept for +the enemy. The excuse for the settlement was the logwood trade, but this +did not become of much importance until after the English conquest of +Jamaica. + +Like the true buccaneers these pirates were fond of hunting, but their +game was principally Indians, whom they attacked and carried off from +the Main, the men to sell to the plantations and the women to keep for +themselves. When they arrived after a cruise and sold their booty, they +would have a jolly time with drinking, gambling, and firing of guns, +until the island would seem to be the habitation of devils rather than +human beings. + +There were also other pirate resorts, notably the Virgin Islands and the +Bahamas, but these were generally used only by one company, and never +rose to the position of general resorts. It is to these that most of the +romances refer, but the stories of Pirate and Treasure islands rarely +have much foundation in fact. + +How privateers became pirates is well shown by a case that occurred in +the latter half of the seventeenth century. A vessel went cruising from +the Carolinas, and after being out for eighteen months had gained so +few prizes that the crew began to complain. After discussing the +situation, they resolved to try the South Sea, where they hoped to find +the Spaniards less prepared. Meeting with very bad weather at the +entrance of the Strait of Magellan, they were, however, obliged to turn +back, and then the majority decided to become pirates. Eight men who +refused to agree were marooned on the island of Fernando Po, their late +comrades leaving them a small boat in which they expected to be able to +get to some English colony. + +The vessel left, and commenced her piratical work at once by capturing a +Portuguese ship larger than herself, the crew being brought and landed +on the same island. In the night the Portuguese made off, taking with +them the Englishmen's boat as well as their own, leaving the eight +privateers to do the best they could. However, they were not easily +daunted, and at once began to cut down trees and build a sloop of four +tons, which they finished in six weeks, meanwhile living on sea fowl and +their eggs, which were plentiful. Finally they sailed for Tobago, but +missing that island got to Tortuga, where they arrived almost perishing +with hunger and thirst, having had nothing to eat or drink for six days. +Even then they were not discouraged, but after resting awhile, set sail +in the same boat for New England, passing along the Spanish islands, +often unable to land for water on account of the enemy, and lying under +cover of the mangroves, to be almost devoured by mosquitoes. Even with +all this care they were taken at last, stripped, thrust down in the +hold of a Spanish _guarda-costa_, and finally kept as slaves in the +island of Cuba. + +In the early years of the seventeenth century few of the adventurers had +any commissions, but as the mother countries began to establish +settlements, letters of marque were granted when there was a war. The +corsairs and pirates then became privateers, only to go back to their +old trade when peace was nominally restored. Some played fast and loose +with these commissions, sometimes having both French and English at the +same time, either to be used according to circumstances. The French +Governors went so far as to sell these documents signed and sealed, but +without names, so that they passed from hand to hand ready to be filled +up when the pirate wished to escape the yard-arm. The young colonies +were too weak to incur their displeasure--in fact they were glad to +encourage their visits, as the settlers could always pick up good +bargains when they sold their booty. Yet, with all that, there was a +dread of them, even among their own countrymen, which prevented that +feeling of safety which best consists with the progress of a colony. + +We can say little of individuals, as there were so many, but we may +mention a few of the most striking characters and their daring exploits. +They inspired such dread among the Spaniards that at last the latter +hardly dared to defend themselves against them, but on their approach +immediately surrendered. If the cargo was rich, quarter was granted, but +if otherwise, or anything was found secreted, the whole company, +officers, crew, and passengers, were forced to leap overboard. Pierre +Legrand with his twenty-eight men once attacked a great Spanish galleon, +and before going alongside scuttled his own vessel so that it sunk as +the pirates leapt on to the enemy's deck. With no possibility of retreat +the men fought like devils and quickly got possession of the galleon, +with the usual result. + +When other nations had compelled respect from Spain their vessels were +sometimes chartered to carry rich cargoes, which thus sailed under the +protection of another flag. But the pirates were not to be cheated so +easily, for they had their spies on the look-out, and often managed to +glean information. On one occasion Captains Michael de Basco and Brouage +heard of two Dutch vessels leaving Carthagena with treasure and at once +followed, attacked and captured them. Exasperated at being beaten by a +force much smaller than their own, the Dutch captains told Michael that +he could not have overcome them if he had been alone. "Very well," said +the audacious Frenchman, "let us begin the fight again, and Captain +Brouage shall look on. But if I conquer I will not only have the Spanish +silver you carry, but your own ships as well." The Dutch were not +inclined to accept this challenge, but made off as soon as they could +after the treasure had been taken into the pirate vessels, fearing they +might otherwise lose their opportunity. + +Captain Lawrence was once unexpectedly overtaken by two Spanish +sixty-gun ships, the crews of which numbered fifteen hundred. Addressing +his men, he said--"You have experience enough to be aware of your +danger, and too much courage to fear. On this occasion we must avail +ourselves of every circumstance, hazard everything, and attack and +defend at the same time. Valour, artifice, rashness, and even despair +itself must now be employed. Let us fear the disgrace of a defeat; let +us dread the cruelty of our enemy; and let us fight that we may escape +him." After he was applauded with loud cheers, Lawrence took aside one +of the bravest of his men, and in the presence of all, gave him strict +orders to fire the gunpowder at a given signal, thus telling them +plainly they must fight or be blown up. Meanwhile the enemy had +approached very close, and Lawrence, ranging his men on both sides of +the vessel, steered between the two great monsters, firing a broadside +on either hand as he passed, which they could not return for fear of +damaging each other. He did not succeed in capturing them, but they were +so demoralised by his determined attitude, and the number of killed and +wounded, that they were glad to make off. + +Montbar was a Frenchman who had heard of the atrocities of the Spaniards +and the exploits of the buccaneers, and determined to go out to the West +Indies to join in the fray. On his voyage from France he met a Spanish +vessel which he attacked and boarded with a sabre in his hand. Passing +twice from bow to stern, he carved his way through the enemy, entirely +reckless of danger, and by his example animated his comrades until the +vessel was taken. Then standing apart while the spoil was being +divided, he gloated with savage pleasure over the corpses that lay on +the deck. + +Arrived at Hispaniola he heard from the buccaneers that they could do +little in the way of planting because of the continual attacks on their +settlements. "Why then," said Montbar, roughly, "do you tamely submit to +such insults?" "We do not!" they answered; "the Spaniards have +experienced what kind of men we are, and therefore take advantage of the +time when we go hunting. But we are going to join with some of our +companions, who have been even worse treated than ourselves, and then we +shall have hot work." "If such be the case let me lead you," said +Montbar, "not as a commander, but first in the post of danger." + +They were quite willing to have him as leader, and the very same day he +went at the head of a party to find the enemy. Meeting a small body of +Spaniards he rushed upon them with such fury that hardly one escaped, +and this at once justified them in their choice. He afterwards became +such a terror all over the West Indies as to be known as "the +Exterminator." + +Lolonois was another ruffian, who commenced his career by taking a +Spanish frigate with only two canoes and twenty-two men. This vessel had +sailed from Havana especially to put down the buccaneers, and had on +board a negro executioner who was engaged to hang the prisoners. Hearing +this from the negro, Lolonois ordered all the Spaniards to be brought +before him, and going down the line, he struck off one head after +another, licking his sword after each blow. He afterwards went to Port +au Prince, where four vessels were fitting out for his capture. These +he took and threw all their crews into the sea, except one man, whom he +sent to the Governor of Havana with the news, and a warning that he +would treat the Governor himself in the same way if he had the +opportunity. + +After this he ran the best prizes aground and sailed for Tortuga in the +frigate, where he joined Michael de Basco. With four hundred and forty +men this worthy pair sailed for the Main, where they plundered the coast +of Venezuela, set fire to Gibraltar, and held Maracaybo for ransom. They +carried off all the crosses, pictures, plate, ornaments, and even bells +from the churches, with the intention of using them in a great cathedral +to be erected on Tortuga. + +Although the buccaneers were mostly French they were not confined to +that nationality. The famous or notorious Captain Morgan was a Welshman, +who began his career in the West Indies as a bond-servant. One of his +greatest exploits was the capture of Porto Bello, which had taken the +place of Nombre de Dios after that town had been burnt by Drake. He even +out-did Drake and every other adventurer before him by storming Panama, +from whence he obtained a very rich booty. Here he fell in love with a +Spanish lady, who, however, threatened to stab herself rather than yield +to his embraces. Even when he tried the gentlest measures which such a +ruffian could think of, she still refused to yield, so that he had +ultimately to comply with the wishes of his companions and leave her. +Panama was burnt, the retreat across the isthmus safely performed +without any serious misadventure, and Morgan sailed away to Jamaica +with the lion's share of the plunder. + +In this great expedition the buccaneers of all nations united to form a +combination hitherto unknown. But, as this was the first time that such +a thing had occurred, so also was it the last. As for Morgan his career +was ended; his comrades charged him with treachery and made it unsafe +for him to come within their reach. He therefore settled down in +Jamaica, made himself right with the authorities there and in England, +was knighted by King Charles the Second, and professed now to have a +great dislike to piracy. On two occasions Sir Henry Morgan became acting +Governor of Jamaica, and in that capacity did his best to discountenance +buccaneering. + +In 1683 a great expedition was organised at Tortuga by Van Horn, a +Fleming, noted for his courage and ferocity. In the heat of an +engagement he would pace the deck, and urge his men to fight by shooting +any one who even flinched from a ball. He thus made himself a terror to +cowards and the admiration of the brave; like Montbar, gaining the +respect and confidence of his followers. Like the French leader also, he +was careless about his own share of the booty, leaving everything to his +men, which naturally increased his popularity. With twelve hundred men +in six vessels he sailed for Vera Cruz, and surprised the town at night. +Most of the inhabitants took refuge in the churches, and the buccaneers +posted sentries with barrels of gunpowder in front of each, giving +orders to blow up the buildings on the least sign of an attempt to +escape. After plundering the houses they demanded about half a million +pounds from the prisoners as ransom for their lives and liberties. This +was not obtained, however, for while waiting the collection a large body +of troops was seen approaching from the interior, and a fleet of +seventeen vessels came into the harbour from Spain. Yet the buccaneers +were determined to get something towards the ransom, and to this end +seized fifteen hundred slaves, with which they quietly sailed away in +defiance of the enemy, promising to call again for the balance of the +ransom. The Spanish fleet let them pass without firing a single gun, and +they went back to Tortuga, there to spend a year in rioting and +carousing. + +When their money was all spent they resolved to try the most arduous of +adventures, a raid on the ports of the Great South Sea. And it happened +curiously that at that very time the English pirates were getting ready +for a similar venture, without either having knowledge of that of the +other party. About four thousand men were engaged, some going by way of +the Straits of Magellan and others across the isthmus. The English and +French met, and at first agreed to work together, but for want of one +leader who could command and be respected by both parties, the +expedition proved almost a failure. Possibly also the French had not +forgotten Morgan's treachery, and this caused distrust and prevented any +cordial feeling. + +Those who travelled across the isthmus stole boats on the other side, +and with them captured larger vessels, until this little frequented sea +became almost as dangerous to Spanish ships as the Caribbean. Most of +the smaller ports were surprised, and even Guayaquil was captured, +mainly because they were not provided with forts and other defences. In +fact, the people were so unacquainted with war and so wrapped up by the +supposed security of their position, that even when the alarm was given +little could be done. Silver became so common that nothing but gold, +pearls, and precious stones would satisfy the spoilers, yet with all +their easy conquests they got little real benefit. Some died of +sickness, and many from the results of drunkenness and debauchery. The +storms of Cape Horn and the Straits wrecked several vessels, and drowned +both spoil and spoilers, while those who attempted to return by land +were equally unfortunate. They died in the bush of fever and dysentery, +or were cut off by ambuscades of the enemy, often losing their booty if +they escaped with their lives. + +What a journey across the isthmus really meant at that time is well +exemplified in the case of Lionel Wafer. In 1681 he was a surgeon on +board an English vessel under Captain Sharp, one of those privateers who +went cruising in the South Sea. After spending some time there the party +divided, one portion deciding to cross overland, and the other to +continue the cruise. + +Wafer went with those who intended crossing the isthmus, the whole +numbering forty-four white men and three Indians. They marched from the +Pacific shore one afternoon, and towards night arrived at the foot of a +hill, where they put up several rough sheds. Rain had already begun to +fall--such rain as is only known in the tropics--and they had to crouch +under these imperfect shelters until midnight, with streams of water +running down their backs and rivulets flowing about their feet. By +morning they felt less discomfort and were glad to warm their chilled +limbs by walking up the hill. Here they came upon an Indian path which +led to a village, where they were gratified with food and a drink made +of Indian corn. After resting awhile they agreed with one of the Indians +to guide them on the next day's journey, and that night rested in the +village. + +Next morning they went on again, and at mid-day arrived at an Indian +hut, the owner of which was so morose and surly that at first he refused +to have anything to do with them. After they had spoken kindly and asked +him to guide them on their journey, he roughly answered that he was +prepared to lead them to the Spanish settlements. This of course would +never do, and they offered him beads, money, axes, and knives to gain +his good-will, but all without effect, until a sky-blue petticoat was +dangled before the eyes of his wife. This turned the scale, for her +persuasions being added to theirs, he at last consented to procure a +guide, excusing himself from the task on the plea that he was lame from +a cut. He wished to detain them with him for the day, as it still +rained, but they were in so great a dread of being discovered by the +enemy that, having obtained the guide, they marched three miles farther +before stopping for the night. + +On the fourth morning the weather was fairer, and they travelled for +twelve miles over hills and through slushy morasses, crossing one river +after another to the number of about thirty. Rain poured down again in +the afternoon and during the greater part of the night, so that they had +much ado to keep their fires from going out. What with the discomforts +of their situation, the want of proper food, and the chilliness +preceding intermittent fever, they even forgot for the time their fears +of the Spaniards. However, as the sun rose they went on again until, +after travelling seven miles through the forest, they reached the hut of +a Spanish Indian, who supplied them with yams, sweet potatoes, and +plantains, but no meat except the flesh of two monkeys, which they gave +to the weak and sickly. + +While resting here Wafer met with an accident. One of the company, in +drying some gunpowder on a silver plate, carelessly placed it near the +fire where he was sitting, with the result that it exploded and tore the +skin and flesh from one of his thighs, rendering him almost helpless. He +had a few medicines in his knapsack and dressed the wound as well as he +could under the circumstances, but rest and proper food were needed, and +these he could not have. The consequence was that, after struggling +along with the others until he sank down exhausted and suffering from +excruciating torture, he was left behind with two sick men at an Indian +village, where they were presently joined by two others who had broken +down. + +Observing the condition of Wafer's wound, the Indians treated it with a +poultice of chewed herbs on a plantain leaf, and in twenty days it was +healed. Nevertheless, although they did him this kindness, they were +not over civil, but on the contrary treated the five white men with +contempt, throwing them their refuse provisions as if they were dogs. +One young Indian proved kinder, and got them some ripe bananas now and +then, but the others were annoyed because the main body had compelled +some inhabitants of the village to go with them as guides against their +will. The weather was then so bad that even the Indians considered +travelling almost impossible, and this annoyed them all the more, +especially when the guides did not return. + +Day after day passed, and the Indians becoming more incensed at the +non-arrival of their people, began to think of avenging themselves on +Wafer and his comrades. Thinking that the guides had been murdered, they +determined to burn them to death, and even went so far as to erect a +great pile of wood for the purpose. But almost at the last moment their +chief interposed, and offered to send away the Englishmen in charge of +two guides. + +Accordingly they set out, their only food supply a little dry Indian +corn, and their only resting-place at night the wet ground, still +exposed to drenching rains which fell every day. The third night they +went to sleep on a low mound, and in the morning woke to find it a +little island with water extending as far as their eyes could reach. To +add to their trouble, the Indian guides had disappeared, leaving them to +remain here without shelter and almost starved for three days. Then the +waters fell and they commenced the weary work of steering to the north +by means of a pocket compass--a task the difficulty of which can only +be appreciated by one who has attempted it. + +However, they soon reached the bank of a deep river, the stream of which +was rushing along like a mill race. Here a lately-felled tree lying +across showed them where their comrades had passed, and they commenced +to climb over astride as the trunk was so slippery. One of the party was +so weak and so overburdened by four hundred pieces of eight (silver +dollars) that he fell, and was immediately carried down the stream out +of sight. + +Giving him up as lost, the four survivors went wandering about, looking +for the footprints of their comrades, but could find no trace of them, +probably on account of the floods. Fearing a mistake, they again crossed +the river and recommenced the search on the other side, where they were +surprised to come upon their lost companion sitting on the bank, which +he had managed to gain by grasping the bough of a tree as he was borne +swiftly past. Finding no signs of a trail, they again went on working +with the compass as before. On the fifth day they had nothing to eat but +a few wild berries, and the day following arrived at another great river +where not even a tree lay across to give them a passage. They had only +their long knives, but with them they set to work and cut down bamboos, +with which rafts were made by binding the sticks with bush-ropes. They +had just finished and were resting awhile, when a terrible storm came +on. The rain fell as if from a cascade, thunder rolled and lightning +flashed, accompanied by a sulphurous odour which almost choked them. +There was no shelter but the trees of the forest, and the fire was put +out at once, leaving these half-starved wretches to shiver and shake +with ague all through the afternoon and up to midnight. + +Then the waters began to rise, and in the darkness--that total absence +of light under the canopy of foliage, where two men sitting together +only know of each other's presence by feeling, for the din of the +elements is absolutely deafening--Wafer began to appreciate the fact +that the swirl of the flood had reached his feet. With no possibility of +communicating with the others, he felt his way to a hollow silk-cotton +tree, into which he crawled, and climbed upon a heap of debris that +stood in the centre. Here he fell asleep from sheer exhaustion, or more +probably, perhaps, fainted. When he awoke he said it was impossible for +words to paint the terrors that overwhelmed his mind. The water reached +to his knees, notwithstanding that the mound was five feet above the +ground level, and he was afraid it would reach still higher. However, as +the sun rose the flood went down, and presently he was glad to crawl out +and stretch his chilled limbs. But he was all alone, and at first +thought his comrades had been drowned. He shouted, but no answer came +back, except the echo of his own voice. Giving way to despair, he threw +himself on the buttress of a tree, from which condition he was roused by +the appearance of first one and then another, until the little company +was again complete. They also had found similar refuges and now came to +look after their rafts. + +But the bundles of canes had become water-logged and useless, so they +resolved to retrace their steps if possible to the Indian village. On +their way they unfortunately missed shooting a deer which lay beside the +path, and had nothing to eat but macaw berries and the pith of a tree. +Seeing the track of a wild hog they followed that, and ultimately came +upon two provision fields. But even with this prospect of food they were +so much depressed that, although perishing with hunger, they were afraid +to venture near the Indian huts, and lingered about for some time. +However, at last Wafer summoned enough courage to go into one of them, +when almost immediately he was so affected by the close atmosphere and +the odour of some meat cooking over the fire, that he fainted. + +The kindly Indians assisted in his recovery, and gave him something to +eat, when he was pleasantly surprised to find there the very same guides +on whose account he and his comrades had been nearly roasted to death. +On telling them where the others were, the Indians went out and brought +back three, but had to carry food to the fourth before he could gain +enough strength to walk the short distance. Here they were treated with +the greatest humanity and tenderness, and after resting a week they +again started with four guides, to reach the same river that had before +checked their progress, in one day. Here, finding a canoe, they +proceeded up stream until, arriving at the dwelling of the chief who had +saved them from torture, they were told it was impossible to go on in +such weather. + +Wafer and his companions stopped here for several months--in fact the +chief wished to retain them altogether. As a physician, Wafer was +respected and loved; but at last, wishing to depart, by repeated +importunities and the promise to come back with some good hunting-dogs, +and then to marry the chief's daughter, he was at last furnished with +guides. Over high mountains, along the edges of precipices, and through +dense forests they toiled until they came to a river flowing north, on +which they embarked, and reached the shores of the Gulf of Darien two +days later. Here they were overjoyed to find an English vessel, the crew +of which gave them a hearty welcome, making up to some extent for their +long and perilous journey. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +VI. + +WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES. + + +At the beginning of the seventeenth century Spain was nominally at peace +with the other great powers, except the Netherlands, which had not yet +come to the front. By the treaty of 1604 Queen Elizabeth made up the +English quarrel, and in 1609 even Holland was conceded a truce for nine +years. + +Thus amity was supposed to exist, and the raids of licensed privateers +came to an end. Yet there was "no peace beyond the line." Not to mention +corsairs and pirates, the English were as determined on their part to +get a share of America as were the Spaniards to keep them out if +possible. The founders of Virginia were resolute to lose their lives +rather than abandon so noble a colony. Even King James dared not give it +up, although in 1612 and the following year there was a hot contention +with the Spanish Secretary of State on the matter. Spain was +discontented that the colony should have the royal sanction, and at the +same time demanded its removal, accompanying this with a threat to drive +out the settlers, as well as those in the Bermudas. But James could not +admit the Papal Bull, and as the English were firm, the claimants of +the whole of America contented themselves with protests. + +In the West Indies, however, Spain went farther. Here she had +undoubtedly the right by discovery, although not by actual possession, +save in the Greater Antilles. The weak English king who succeeded the +strong-minded Tudor princess was not prepared to contest the Spanish +supremacy here, but simply answered the complaints against English +adventurers by disclaiming all responsibility. Neither England nor +France had officially taken the ground that only actual possession +created territorial rights, but many Englishmen were clamouring loudly +to that effect. We have already noticed in another chapter James's +policy, or want of policy, and the change which took place a few weeks +after his death--we have now to deal with the results of that +alteration. + +In 1621 hostilities were renewed between Spain and the Netherlands, but +even during the nominal truce the Dutch invaded Margarita, and +demolished the fort, but without, however, taking actual possession. +When the truce was over hostilities were recommenced with a vigour that +rather astonished Spain, for in the interval the Netherlands had +progressed wonderfully. In 1625, the year of his accession, Charles the +First entered into a treaty, offensive and defensive, with the United +Provinces, which of course brought England into collision with Spain, +and open war began again in the West Indies. In 1629 a fleet of +thirty-five vessels under Don Frederic de Toledo conquered the island of +St. Christopher's and removed most of the English settlers, only a few +of whom managed to escape to the mountains, while the French got off in +two of their vessels. The French refugees suffered a great deal from the +want of preparation for their hurried flight, and arrived at the island +of St. Martin's perishing with hunger and thirst. Here they dug holes in +the sand and obtained a supply of brackish water, which was so +unwholesome that some died from drinking it in excessive quantities. +After the Spaniards left they returned to St. Christopher's to find a +few English, who, annoyed at their desertion, wanted to keep the island +to themselves, but the French were too numerous and soon took possession +of their old quarters. + +In 1632 the Dutch took possession of Tobago, and two years later of +Curacao, which latter island soon became their great stronghold in the +West Indies, and the principal depot for the contraband traffic with +Venezuela. At that time no Spanish vessels went to this part of the +Main, but finding that the trade was of some importance to the Dutch, +the authorities now granted licenses to drive their rivals out of the +market. But the Spanish traders could not compete with the Hollanders, +and this so annoyed the authorities that they determined to extinguish +smuggling at any cost. This they were unable to do by catching the +delinquents, but they could punish those who dealt with them. The result +was the infliction of heavy fines and confiscation, with disgraceful +punishments, from which many were ruined. Yet with all that the trade +was so lucrative to both parties that neither was inclined to give it +up--the Dutch took care of themselves, while cheap commodities could +generally command a market, whatever the risk. The fact was the mother +country imposed so many restrictions, and exacted such heavy fees for +licenses, that the cost of an article was doubled or trebled as compared +with that of the Hollander. + +In 1627 a French Association was incorporated under the title of "The +Company of the Islands of America." They appointed the Sieurs d'Enambuc +and du Rossy to settle the islands of St. Christopher's and Barbados as +well as others situated at the "entrance of Peru." Nothing was done at +Barbados, as the English were already in possession, but in 1634 +examinations of Dominica, Martinique, and Guadeloupe were made, which +ended in the two latter islands becoming French colonies in 1635. + +Meanwhile, in November, 1630, a treaty was signed at Madrid between +England and Spain, after which peace was supposed to again prevail. +Nothing was said about the West Indies, probably because Spain knew that +further protests were useless. Hardly had this been settled before, in +1635, France declared war against the common foe, and her corsairs could +now legally carry on their work of pillage and destruction. In 1638 the +island of St. Martin's, which had been partly occupied by French and +Dutch, was captured by Spaniards, who expelled the inhabitants and +replaced them by a strong garrison. In the same year Colonel Jackson, +with a force from the English islands, captured Santiago de la Vega in +Jamaica, and plundered it of everything valuable, after which, in +retaliation, the island of New Providence, one of the Bahamas, was +captured by Spain. Neither place was, however, occupied by the captors, +who only did as much damage as they could and then left. + +Almost from the commencement of their settlements the French had +quarrelled among themselves, but until the struggle which ended in the +execution of Charles the First, there had been few difficulties in the +English islands. The Barbadians, it is true, protested against the claim +of the Earl of Carlisle, in which they were joined by the people of St. +Kitt's, but this was settled without disturbance. Now, however, the +effects of "the great rebellion" began to be felt across the seas, and +disaffection towards the Parliament, and loyalty to the king, were +promoted by a number of Royalists who had fled from the disturbance in +the mother country. + +In 1650 the West Indies were virtually in revolt against the Parliament, +and on the 10th of September an embargo was declared in England against +vessels bound for the Caribbee Islands, Bermuda, and Virginia. This was +followed on the 27th by an Act prohibiting all commerce with these +colonies because of their rebellion against the Commonwealth. Virginia +and the Bermudas had declared for King Charles the Second after the +execution of his father, and sent emissaries to Barbados for the purpose +of inciting them to join in the revolt. + +[Illustration: ST. KITT'S. + +(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)] + +At the commencement of that year Barbados was in a state of ferment, +waiting only for the spark which would plunge the island into civil war. +Even at this early period the inhabitants of Little England, as it is +called, were very loyal, and had something of the conceit which has +characterised them ever since. True, there were "Roundheads" on the +island, but hitherto party differences had been put in the +background--now they were brought into prominence. When the agent of the +Bermudians asked that Barbados should declare for the king, the majority +were in favour of the project, but, as a matter of course, the others, +who were of considerable importance, refused. At first the Royalists +went so far as to advocate the banishment of their opponents, but were +unable to find any reasonable excuse for such a high-handed proceeding. +However they brought in an Act to imprison all who went to a +conventicle, or who seduced others from repairing to the Public +Congregation or from receiving the Holy Sacrament. For a second offence +the penalty was forfeiture of all lands, goods, chattels, and debts by +those whom they called "the enemy to the peace of the island." + +This was to have been published on April 15, 1650, and kept secret until +proclaimed, to prevent trouble. But it appears that Colonel Codrington, +a member of the Assembly, divulged it in his cups, for which he was +fined twenty thousand pounds of sugar, and banished from the island. A +deputation of Parliamentarians then waited upon the Governor, to enter +their protest against the new law, and were asked to leave the matter in +his hands, as he had to deal with "violent spirits." Finally, the +proclamation was delayed, on the ground that there were many errors in +the copy, and the two parties stood at bay. + +On the 23rd of April the Roundheads petitioned the Governor to issue +his writ for a new Assembly, on the ground that the present body had sat +for its full term. This he agreed to do, and thus alienated the +Cavaliers, who said he was a most emphatic Roundhead and enemy to the +king. Handbills and posters now began to be circulated calling attention +to the "damnable designe" of the Independents, of which, they said, +Colonel Drax, "that devout zealot (of the deeds of the Devil, and the +cause of that seven-headed Dragon at Westminster), is the Agent." One of +the writers declared that he should think his best rest but disquiet +until he had sheathed his sword in the bowels of the same obnoxious +personage. + +The Cavaliers were still adding to their numbers by the arrival of more +refugees, while Colonel Drax and his friends fell into the background. +The new-comers had mostly been ruined by the civil war, and were +naturally desirous of doing something to retrieve their fortunes; it +followed, therefore, that anything that led to the confiscation of the +estates of the obnoxious party would be to their advantage. The +Cavaliers set to work to rouse the island by going about on horseback, +fully armed, everywhere challenging those they met to drink the health +of Charles the Second and confusion to the Independent dogs. This, with +the rumours of a Roundhead plot and the various manifestoes, induced the +Governor to issue a proclamation declaring that in future if any persons +spread such scandalous papers they would be proceeded against as enemies +of the public peace, at the same time forbidding any one to take up arms +in a hostile manner. + +This produced little effect, for the leader of one of the roving bands, +Colonel Shelley, refused to disband. On this the Governor issued +commissions to raise a militia for the preservation of order, but by the +time that a hundred men had been collected an alarm went forth that the +Cavaliers were advancing on Bridgetown. This was the 1st of May, and by +that time the Cavaliers were prepared to act. Their leader was Colonel +Walrond, who, on being sent for by the Governor, and saying they had no +evil intention, was allowed to depart. However, they took possession of +the town, and then came forward with the demand that all Independents +and other disturbers of the peace should be at once disarmed. To this +the Governor agreed, provided the well-affected should vouch for their +safety. They also stipulated that the magazine on the bridge should be +put under their protection, that those who obstructed the peace and +laboured to ruin the loyal colonists should be punished, that twenty +persons whose names they gave should be forthwith arrested, and that the +Governor should speedily call together the Assembly to try them; +meanwhile they refused to disperse until these things were done. The +Governor could do nothing but accede to these demands, but even then +there was something more which they considered the climax--"that our +lawful soveraigne Charles the Second be instantly in a solemn manner +proclaimed king." + +This staggered the Governor, who said it was a matter for the General +Assembly, in which opinion he got them at last to agree. However, they +were not yet content, but insisted that at the dissolution of the +present Assembly only such men as were known to be well-affected to His +Majesty and conformers to the Church of England should be chosen and +admitted. After that they must be promised an "Act of oblivion" for the +lawful taking up of arms, safe-conduct for all officers on legislative +business, and, finally, that the Governor must come to them without the +companionship of any disaffected person and put himself under their +care. + +All this was perforce agreed to, and on the 3rd of May Charles the +Second was declared king of England, &c., as well as of Barbados, and at +the same time the Book of Common Prayer was proclaimed to be the only +pattern of true worship. + +Behind all this was a fact which no one mentioned, but which probably +everybody knew--on the 29th of April Lord Willoughby had arrived in the +harbour, bearing a commission as Governor of the Caribbee Islands, from +the fugitive King Charles and the Earl of Carlisle. No doubt the whole +demonstration was got up on his account, the Cavaliers wanting to have +the king proclaimed first, so that there should be no difficulty about +the commission. Everything was ready now, and nothing was heard but +uproarious drinking of His Majesty's health, the Cavaliers going from +house to house and compelling others to follow their example. As for +Lord Willoughby, he left the Governor to carry out the stipulated +measures, while he went to look after the other islands under his +jurisdiction. + +Now the Royalists of Barbados began to persecute the leaders of the +obnoxious party, beginning with the twenty they had named to the +Governor. Some, seeing their danger, had got off to England, but those +who remained were sentenced to pay a million pounds of sugar and to be +banished. Then nearly a hundred others were indicted and ordered to +leave before the 2nd of July, while all their commissions of the peace +or in the militia were cancelled. Wives were banished with their +husbands, and unless the estate-owners humbly submitted, paid their +fines, and appointed well-affected persons as attorneys, their +properties were confiscated. Yet with all that, when an attempt was made +to get to the bottom of the rumoured plot, no trace of it could be +found. Some of the more moderate of the Royalists even began to doubt +whether they were not going too far, but they salved their consciences +by saying that everything was done in the interest of the king. + +When the news arrived in England it created a great stir. In November +some merchants and planters interested in the island asked for +permission to make reprisals on their own account. They wanted licenses +to trade there with five or six able ships, and letters of marque to use +in case of obstruction, or a refusal to comply with certain demands. +These demands were to repeal all Acts dishonourable to the Commonwealth, +to renounce obedience to Charles Stuart, to acknowledge the supreme +authority of the Parliament, to banish certain "active incendiaries in +the late troubles," and, finally, to recall those who had suffered, so +that they might enjoy the same rights as the other inhabitants. A +further petition asked for the removal of Lord Willoughby in favour of +Edward Winslow, a man of approved fidelity to the Commonwealth. + +The Parliamentary Government did not adopt these proposals, as they +intended to reduce the island in a regular manner. In January, 1651, a +fleet was made ready for this purpose, but being employed in the +reduction of the Scilly Islands, it could not be got ready for the West +Indies until June following. + +Meanwhile Lord Willoughby had returned, and was doing his best to +conciliate the Barbadians of both parties. He did not altogether approve +of what had been done, but repealed the Acts of sequestration, thus +putting the inhabitants in good spirits for the expected invasion. It +was rumoured that Prince Rupert was coming out from Marseilles, and this +made things appear brighter, encouraging them to put their forts in +order. + +The English fleet did not actually leave Plymouth until the 5th of +August. It was under the command of Sir George Ayscue, who took six or +seven merchant vessels under convoy, probably those referred to in the +petition. He reached Barbados on the 15th of October, when as yet no +news had been heard of Prince Rupert; in fact, that great seaman had +been dissuaded from crossing the Atlantic. Fourteen Dutch vessels were +captured in Carlisle Bay, the sudden arrival of the fleet preventing +their escape. + +Willoughby had some six thousand foot and four hundred horse stationed +at different parts of the island, and was determined to hold it for the +king, looking forward daily to see Prince Rupert arrive. He had heard +from a Dutch vessel that the king was marching on London with an army of +Scots: this also tended to make his resistance all the more stubborn. +From a few Roundheads, who managed to come off in the night, Ayscue +learnt this, but he was as equally determined to subdue the island as +Willoughby was to defend it. + +On being called upon to surrender the island for the use of the +Parliament of England, the Governor replied that he acknowledged no +supremacy over Englishmen save the king and those having commissions +from him, directing the letter to the admiral on board His Majesty's +ship the _Rainbow_. He also said that he had expected some overtures of +reparation for the hostile acts upon the ships in the bay. After this +defiance nothing was left but to prepare first for a strict blockade, +and then to effect a landing. The strength on shore was too great for +any open attack, and Ayscue managed to send a proclamation addressed to +the freeholders and inhabitants, urging them to accept in time his +offers of peace and mercy. In answer to this the Assembly met and passed +a declaration to "sticke to" Lord Willoughby and defend the island to +the utmost. + +In England a great deal of interest was felt in the struggle, and the +demand for news of the expedition created a supply giving circumstantial +accounts of what had _not_ taken place. One of them was headed, "Bloody +news from the Barbados, being a true relation of a great and terrible +fight between the Parliament's Navie, commanded by Sir George Ayscue, +and the King of Scots' Forces under the command of the Lord Willoughby; +with the particulars of the fight, the storming of the Island, the +manner how the Parliament's Forces were repulsed and beaten off from +Carlisle Bay and the Block House, and the number killed and wounded." +And all this before any attempt had been made beyond the blockade! + +On the receipt of the news of the battle of Worcester, Ayscue sent +another flag of truce to give Willoughby the information, saying that he +did so as a friend rather than as an enemy. He was acting in that +quality, by stating the true condition of England, and leaving him and +his friends to judge of the necessity for due obedience to the State of +England; otherwise they would be swallowed up in the destruction so +shortly and inevitably coming upon them. + +In reply, Willoughby said he had never served his king so much in +expectation of prosperity as in consideration of duty, and that he would +not be the means of increasing the sad affliction of His Majesty by +giving up that island. To this Ayscue rejoined, that if there were such +a person as the king, Willoughby's retention of that place signified +nothing to his advantage, and therefore the surrender could be small +grief to him. He well knew the impossibility of the island subsisting +without the patronage of England, and the admiral's great desire was to +save it from ruin and destruction. + +As Willoughby refused to surrender, Ayscue determined to attack the Hole +or James's Town, which he did on the 2nd of November, beating off its +defenders, taking thirty prisoners, and spiking the four guns of the +fort. On the 1st of December the fleet which had been sent to reduce +Virginia arrived, and on the temporary addition of this force, Ayscue +again sent to Willoughby, as he stated, for the last time. In reply he +was told that the Assembly would consider the matter in two or three +days, but this reply did not please the admiral, so he tried to hurry up +the decision by landing at Speight's Town. Against the stubborn +opposition of twelve hundred men he stormed and took the fort, which he +held for two days, ultimately retiring, however, after burning the +houses, demolishing the fortifications, and throwing the guns into the +sea. + +After that the correspondence was continued, Ayscue entreating +Willoughby to spare the good people of the island the horrors of war. To +this the Governor replied, that they only took up arms in their own +defence; the guilt of the blood and ruin would be at the doors of those +who brought force to bear. Then the Virginia fleet sailed for its +destination, and Ayscue recommenced hostilities by again occupying +Speight's Town. + +By this time, however, there was a party on the island in favour of +peace, and they began to bestir themselves, thus making the Royalists +more determined. They put forth a proclamation inviting the inhabitants +to endure the troubles of war for a season, rather than by base +submission to let the deceitful enemy make them slaves for ever. But the +Roundheads now began to assemble under Colonel Modiford at his house, to +the number of six hundred men, who declared for the Parliament, and +threatened to bring Willoughby to reason, the admiral going so far as +to visit them surreptitiously to read his commission. Hearing of this, +Willoughby got two thousand four hundred men together and appeared near +the house, but did not venture to attack it, as by this time he had +become somewhat disheartened. + +This brought things to a crisis, and on the 10th of January arrangements +were made for a commission from both sides to make arrangements for +terms. After a great deal of hesitation on the part of the admiral, the +capitulation was at last signed, the articles being exceedingly +favourable both to the inhabitants and Lord Willoughby. So lenient were +they that Ayscue had to excuse himself to the home authorities for fear +that he might have been misunderstood. They were, in short, liberty of +conscience, continuation of the old government, and of the old Courts of +Justice, no taxation without consent of the Assembly, no confiscations, +all suits to be decided on the island, no acts of indemnity, no oaths +against their consciences, a temporary cessation of all civil suits, and +finally that Lord Willoughby should retain all his private property in +the islands as well as in Surinam, with full liberty to go to England. +These articles were signed on the 11th of January, 1652, and the "storm +in a teapot" came to an end, the Barbadians proudly boasting that they +had been able to defy the mighty power of the Commonwealth. Most of the +leaders were banished from the island, some going to Surinam, where a +colony had been established by Lord Willoughby soon after his arrival in +Barbados. Among them was Major Byam, who became Governor, and virtually +held the settlement for the king until he came to his own again. This +is all the more curious because Cromwell knew the circumstances, yet +made no effort to bring the people under submission. At first the +settlers established a little Commonwealth of their own, with Major Byam +as president, but when his term had expired, instead of giving place to +another he declared he had a commission as Governor from the king, +although he refused to show the document to any one. With enough +Royalists to back him, he thus held office until the Restoration, +notwithstanding the complaints of the Parliamentary faction and their +requests to the home authorities for redress. + +Meanwhile, early in 1652 England went to war with the Dutch, and this +seriously interfered with the trade of that nationality in the West +Indies. The Navigation Act was another blow to them, although it could +not yet be enforced altogether. Cromwell made himself respected in such +a manner that peace with Holland was restored in April, 1654, thus +leaving him free to carry out his designs against the old enemy--Spain. + +Since Queen Elizabeth's time the English Governments had done little in +the way of worrying the Spaniards, although pirates had been busy almost +without intermission. Now, however, Cromwell was at liberty, and he +began to see that they wanted a little correction to prevent their +having too much of their own way in America. The Spanish ambassador was +cringing enough when he saw what a powerful leader had arisen, and did +his best to avert the impending storm. It is even stated that he assured +the Protector of his master's friendship, and declared that if he took +the Crown of England Spain would be first in her approval. Cromwell was +not to be mollified by soft speeches; he had got peace at home, and was +determined to have it across the seas as well. He was quite willing to +arrange for a treaty, but it must be on his own terms, not at the +dictation of Spain. A commission was appointed to meet the ambassador +and discuss the grounds of the agreement, and they began at once with +the West Indies. A long list of depredations was produced for which the +English demanded satisfaction before going farther. The English had been +treated as enemies wherever the Spaniards met them in the West Indies, +even when going to and from their own plantations, notwithstanding the +former treaty, and the Commission insisted on a proper indemnity. The +English must be free to trade everywhere--in fact the old claim of Spain +to the whole of America must be finally abandoned. + +The Spanish ambassador replied that the inquisition and trade to the +West Indies were his master's two eyes, and that nothing different from +the practice of former times could be permitted. On hearing this +Cromwell, seeing that neither indemnity for the past nor promises of +amendment in the future could be obtained, prepared for war, and +commenced by fitting out an expedition to conquer Hispaniola. + +In December, 1654, we find the first mention of a special service under +the command of Generals Penn and Venables, and early in the following +year the fleet sailed for Barbados. With five thousand men from England, +and as many from the West Indies, the expedition arrived near St. +Domingo on the 13th of April, 1655, frightening the inhabitants so much +that they fled to the woods on its approach. However, the affair was so +badly managed that no benefit accrued from following the example of +Drake, which appears to have been the object of the leaders. Like the +great Elizabethan hero, they landed at a distance from the town with the +intention of marching along the shore, but instead of landing ten miles +off they went as far as thirty. For four days the troops wandered +through the mangrove bushes, without guides, and even without +provisions, thus giving the runaway Spaniards time to rally from their +fright and come out after them. Weary, entangled in the swamps, and +utterly unfit to cope with an enemy, the English became an easy prey; +the slaughter was considerable, and it was even stated that those killed +were mostly shot in the back while trying to escape. + +Unwilling to attempt anything further in Hispaniola, Penn and Venables +took off the dispirited remnant and sailed for Jamaica, hoping to do +something there to prevent failure altogether. Not that there were any +laurels to be gained in that direction, for the inhabitants only +numbered three thousand, and half of these were negro slaves. A few +shots were fired, and then the inhabitants took to flight, leaving the +English in possession of the island. A capitulation was agreed upon with +the old Spanish Governor, who was brought in a hammock to sign it, but +many of the people took to the woods with their slaves, and refused to +be bound by the articles. A body of two thousand men was then sent to +scour the interior and bring them back, but they could find nothing +save great herds of wild cattle. Afterwards, in pure wantonness, the +churches and religious buildings were demolished, the cattle killed or +driven far away, and the provision grounds devastated, with the result +that the invaders were soon starving. In less than a month two thousand +were sick, many had died, and the remainder had become mutinous. +Altogether the whole affair was so badly managed that Cromwell became +almost mad at the news, and sent both commanders to the Tower on their +return. + +However, Jamaica was captured, and for the first time in the history of +the West Indies a Spanish possession went into the hands of another +nation. Some thought the island of no importance as compared with +Hispaniola--it was certainly of little value to the Spaniards. However, +a few English people foresaw something of its future importance, and did +their best to develop the island. In October Cromwell issued a +proclamation offering certain advantages to settlers from the other +islands, or from England, so that it might be occupied as soon as +possible. It stated that by the providence of God Jamaica had come into +the possession of the State, and that they were satisfied of its +fertility and commodiousness for trade; it had therefore been resolved +to plant it. To this end it was made known to the people of the English +islands and colonies the encouragements offered to those who removed +their habitations there within two years from the 29th of September, +1656. Twenty acres of land would be granted to every adult, and ten for +each child, they would have freedom to hunt wild cattle and horses, be +given the privilege of mining except for gold and silver, and freedom +from taxes for three years. + +It resulted from this that many planters from Barbados and St. Kitt's +went over, and in a very few years Jamaica was more prosperous than it +had ever been while in the possession of Spain. In November, 1656, +Cromwell ordered the Scotch Government to apprehend all known idle +masterless robbers and vagabonds, male or female, and to transport them +there, and at the same time the Council of State ordered that a thousand +girls and as many young men should be enlisted in Ireland for the same +purpose. As for the adventurers who went with the expedition, they were +reported as being so lazy "that it could not enter into the heart of any +Englishman that such blood should run in the veins of his +countrymen"--they were so unworthy, slothful, and basely secure, out of +a strange kind of spirit desiring rather to die than live. As for +planting, little was done by them, although every possible inducement +and encouragement was given. + +Meanwhile letters of marque were issued to privateers for the West +Indies, which drove the Spaniards to send their treasure from Peru to +Buenos Ayres, a route that had been abandoned since the time of Queen +Elizabeth. Now also they began to make efforts for the recovery of +Jamaica, and in May, 1658, thirty companies of infantry, under the +command of the late Governor, landed on the north side of the island. +Here in a small harbour they entrenched themselves, and built a little +fort before their presence became known to the English. However, +Governor D'Oyley at last heard of the invasion, but it was nearly two +months after their arrival before he could proceed to approach them by +sea. When he arrived, however, with seven hundred and fifty men, he at +once stormed their fortress and drove them to their vessels, in which +they fled to Cuba. This put an end to the matter; but the old Governor +returned, and lived with the remnant of the Spaniards and their slaves +in the mountains. + +Now at last even the Pope had to acknowledge other sovereignty than that +of Spain, and this he did in a letter to Father Fontaine, of the +Dominican Mission, on the 25th of July, 1658. Therein he acknowledged +the king of France as ruler of the conquests and colonies his subjects +had made in the American islands. Thus was the Bull of partition at last +cancelled by the successor of its original promulgator, and the ground +for the exclusive claim to America cut away. At this time France was +also at war with Spain, but the following year a treaty was signed, and +in 1660, on the restoration of Charles the Second, peace was restored +with England. + +At the first private audience of the Spanish ambassador with the king, +he delivered a memorial demanding the restoration of Jamaica to his +master, on the ground that it had been taken by his rebel subjects, +contrary to the treaty between the two Crowns. Instead of doing this, +however, Charles despatched a vessel with letters to the Governors of +the Caribbee islands, asking them to encourage all persons willing to +transplant themselves to the larger islands. At the same time the Royal +African Company, the great slave-trading corporation of that time, was +asked to make Jamaica its headquarters for the sale of negroes. Then it +was arranged to send women from England to be wives for the planters, +Newgate and Bridewell to be spared as much as possible, so that poor +maids might have a chance, with whom it was stated that few English +parishes were unburdened. + +On the 1st of December, 1660, King Charles the Second made a move which +must be considered as of the greatest importance to the development of +the British Colonial Empire--he founded the "Council for foreign +plantations," which later developed into the Colonial Office. This +Council were to inform themselves of the state of the plantations and of +how they were governed, keeping copies of all grants in a book. They +were to write to every Governor asking for exact accounts of their +proceedings, the nature of their laws and government, as well as +statistics. They must establish a correspondence with the colonies, so +that the king might be informed of all complaints, their wants, what +they cultivated, their commodities, and their trade, so that all might +be regulated upon common grounds and principles. They must adopt means +for rendering them and England mutually helpful, and bring them into a +more uniform government, with a better distribution of justice. Especial +care was to be taken for the execution of the Navigation Act, and +consideration given to the best means of providing servants, to which +end care was to be taken that no persons were forced or enticed away by +unlawful means. Those willing to be transported were, however, to be +encouraged, and a legal course was to be settled for sending over +vagrants and others who were noxious and unprofitable in England. +Learned and orthodox ministers were also to be sent, and instructions +given for regulating and repressing the debaucheries of planters and +servants. The Council were also to consider how the natives and slaves +might be invited to, and made capable of, baptism in the Christian +faith, and finally to dispose of all matters relating to the good +government, improvement, and management of the plantations. + +Thus England commenced her great career of colonisation, the results of +which we see to-day. While taking all due account of Virginia and New +England, we cannot but note that it was in the West Indies where the +"prentice hand" was first tried. Jamaica was the main object of these +provisions--to that island the king's attention had been specially +directed, and it was here that many difficulties had to be encountered +before it could be made a worthy appendage of the Crown. Most of the +other islands were in the hands of private persons or companies, while +this was under the control of the State. No matter that the island had +been annexed by rebels, Charles the Second was determined to hold it +fast for England, in spite of all the protests of Spain. + +[Illustration] + + + + +VII. + +THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES. + + +When the first European adventurers went to the West Indies, serfdom was +still common in Spain. The peasantry were, as a rule, bound to the soil, +and could neither be taken away by their lords nor remove at their own +will. The consequence was that only soldiers, mariners, and free men +from the towns took part in the first expeditions. The townsmen had +mostly been brought up to the trades of their fathers, and were hardly +fit to cultivate the land even in Spain, much less, therefore, were they +suited to the tropics. They could not demean themselves by performing +anything so servile, but must get their land cultivated by others. As +the serfs were not available, first Indians and then negro slaves and +white bond-servants were employed. + +We have seen how the Indians were exterminated, and how the first +planters in Hispaniola were ruined by the want of labour. Even the +Spanish priests could see that the poor Arawak's nature was quite +distinct from that of the European peasant. The serf had been kept under +subjection for centuries; his father and grandfather had worked in the +fields, and he must do the same. The armourer, the mason, and the +weaver carried on their trades, because they had been born into the +respective guilds as it were. The Indians, on the contrary, were free, +and had always been so; yes, more free than any people in the old world. +They died, and the planter had to look elsewhere for his labour supply. +Then commenced the cry which has been continually rising from the +plantations ever since--More servants! More slaves! More coolies! + +[Illustration: A SURINAM PLANTER. + +(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)] + +For many years the Portuguese had been kidnapping negroes on the west +coast of Africa. By their connection with Morocco they had learnt that +the natives of the interior were brought to and openly sold in the +Moorish towns--possibly they themselves had purchased some of them. To +bring home a number after every voyage to the coast was therefore +nothing strange, nor was it anything novel to sell them in Portugal to +help pay the expense of the voyage. From Portugal to Spain this negro +slavery spread, until it became fairly common in both countries. + +When the cry for labourers came over the Atlantic--even before the +extermination of the natives--a few negroes were sent out. Finding them +more docile and better able to endure hard labour than the Indians, more +were called for, the benevolent priests also urging the matter to save +the remnant of the Arawaks. The demand created a supply, and soon the +Portuguese found themselves embarked in a lucrative trade, of which they +commanded the monopoly. Thus began a traffic which has been unreservedly +condemned by the most enlightened of humanity, and praised alone by +those whose very livelihood depended upon it. + +[Illustration: A NEGRO FESTIVAL. + +(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)] + +On his second voyage Columbus carried the sugar cane, which was destined +to have such an influence for good and evil on the West Indies. Its +produce was at first known as a kind of honey, and recognised as an +expectorant and comforting medicine. Now it had made its way into the +kitchens of the great, where it was considered as one of the spices, and +with them became more and more used every year. In early times the cane +was cultivated on the warmer shores of the Mediterranean, and, after +their discovery, in the Canary and Cape de Verde islands. At the period +of the discovery of America sugar was sold at about eightpence a pound, +equivalent to something like three shillings nowadays. As the demand +continued to increase large plantations were laid out in Hispaniola, +until it became the staple product of the colony. + +Cotton was known in the old world, but as yet had hardly come into use +in Europe. In the West Indies it was generally cultivated in a small way +by every native, and on being forwarded to Spain, the "tree wool," as it +was called, soon came into use. Then came another product, tobacco, +which was quite new at that time, although probably known in the far +East. It seemed strange to the new-comers that people should carry +firebrands in their mouths, and at first they took tobacco-smokers for +juggling fire-eaters, until they also learnt the sustaining power of the +"weed." This soon took place, and by the year 1550 tobacco was well +known in Spain and Italy. Probably also the Dutch knew it quite as +early, for it was in the Netherlands that it became more quickly +appreciated than in any other country, probably on account of its +particularly comforting properties in marshy districts. Soon afterwards +Jean Nicot introduced it into France, and probably Master Hawkins +brought samples into England from Brazil, although Ralegh is stated to +have been the first English smoker. Towards the end of the sixteenth +century its use became so common all over Europe that Popes and +Churchmen thundered their curses against the "filthy habit," and later +poor King James wrote his "Counterblast to Tobacco," which only had the +effect of making it better known. + +[Illustration: VOYAGE OF THE SABLE VENUS. + +(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)] + +Here at the beginning were two commercial products which grew well in +the West Indies, with a doubtful third to come to the front as soon as +it became known. As yet coffee had not been introduced--this followed in +the next century. Notwithstanding the large profit on sugar the Spaniard +would not labour in the field, and in the end the plantations became +fewer and fewer until only one or two were left. This falling off tended +to keep up the price, and although the Dutch bought much cotton and +tobacco from the Indians of the Main, and the Portuguese began to grow +sugar in Brazil, the supply was always limited. + +There was room for more plantations, and the first people to take +advantage of this opening were the English. Their many different +colonies in Guiana all commenced planting with tobacco: Virginia and the +Bermudas did the same. All through the reign of James the First, +however, the trade was obstructed in so many ways that a great deal of +their produce was sent to the Netherlands and thus escaped the English +duties. Probably also the smuggling of tobacco, so notorious at a later +period, began at this time, as the Dutch were always noted free-traders, +not only on the Spanish Main, but in Europe as well. + +[Illustration: SLAVES LANDING FROM THE SHIP. + +(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)] + +Like the Spaniards, the English adventurers were soldiers and sailors, +and therefore did not work in the field. Subject to the raids of the +European claimants of the territory as well as the incursions of +ferocious cannibals, they went about literally with pistols in their +belts and swords at their thighs. Now they had to show a good face to +some buccaneer company, and anon to fight the French or Dutch when war +broke out. Later, when there was no fear of enemies from without, they +had a continual dread of slave insurrections. It followed, therefore, +that the planter was always on the alert, and, even if he felt inclined, +could do little in the way of cultivation. + +In England serfdom had virtually come to an end, and the agricultural +labourer might go where he pleased. But the love of country, the unknown +but magnified perils of a sea voyage, and stories of cruel Spaniards and +man-eating Caribs, prevented many from going to the Indies, +notwithstanding the great inducements offered. The English planters +found it difficult to get negroes, as their enemy controlled the trade. +As for the Indians, they had to deal with cannibals whose women +cultivated small clearings, but resented anything like coercion, while +no labour whatever could be got from the men. Something had to be done. +If the English labourer would not come willingly, he might be kidnapped, +and the carrying out of this work led to the organisation of bands of +ruffians, who went sailing along the coasts, especially of Scotland and +Ireland, to pick up likely fellows wherever they found opportunity. +However, this caused such an outcry that extraordinary efforts were made +on the part of the Government to put down "spiriting," as it was called. + +In June, 1661, the Council for foreign plantations considered the best +means of encouraging and furnishing people for the colonies, and they +thought that felons condemned for small offences, and sturdy beggars, +might be sent. They had several complaints of men, women, and children +being spirited away from their masters and parents, and later the Mayor +of Bristol and the Lord Mayor of London petitioned the king for +authority to examine ships, with the view of finding out whether the +passengers went of their own free will. It was stated that husbands +forsook their wives, wives fled from their husbands, children and +apprentices ran away, while unwary and credulous persons were often +tempted on board by men-stealers. Many who had been pursued by hue and +cry for robberies, burglaries, and breaking prison, also escaped to the +plantations. Certain persons, called spirits, inveigled, and by lewd +subtleties enticed, away young persons, whereby great tumults and +uproars were raised in London, to the breach of the peace and the hazard +of men's lives. + +These abuses led to an Order in Council, published in September, 1664, +for registering persons going voluntarily, and commissions were given to +the Lord High Admiral and the officers of the ports to establish +registration offices and give certificates. Yet the spiriting still went +on, for in April, 1668, Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper was asked to move the +House of Commons to make the offence capital. His petitioner, said he, +had found one lost child, and after much expense and trouble, freed him, +but there were several others in the same ship, and other ships in the +river at the same work. Even if the parents found their children, they +could not recover them without money, and he was sure that if such a law +were passed the mercy to these innocents would ground a blessing on +those concerned in introducing it. This Act was finally passed on the +1st of March, 1670, punishing the spirits with death without benefit of +clergy. + +There were, however, other means of procuring servants. In 1649, when +Cromwell took Drogheda by storm, about thirty prisoners were saved from +the massacre to be shipped to Barbados, and in 1651 seven or eight +thousand Scots, taken at the battle of Worcester, were reserved for a +similar fate. After the Restoration, however, there was an intermission +in such supplies, and the planters began to look to Newgate and +Bridewell for their labour supply. + +The supply was by no means equal to the demand, for the agents in London +of the planters of Virginia, Barbados, St. Christopher's, and other +islands were equally clamorous for their share. As for King Charles the +Second, he granted the prisoners as a privilege to his favourites, and +even mistresses, who generally sold it to the highest bidder. The agent +must have had influence to get into the presence of the holder, say of a +hundred prisoners sentenced to transportation, and this was only +obtainable by largess to door-keepers and servants. Then came the +trouble of obtaining delivery from the prison authorities, and here +again fees were demanded. In one case that is recorded the amount paid +to the gaoler of Newgate was fifty-five shillings a head. But even now +the trouble was only beginning. The prisoners were supposed to be +delivered at the door of the gaol, and the planter was under a heavy +bond not to allow one to escape. He must account for each by a +certificate of death on the voyage or of landing in Barbados, on penalty +of five hundred pounds for every one missing. It followed, therefore, +that a sufficiently strong guard had to be provided, and provision made +for attempts at rescue by the prisoners' friends. Even this was not all, +for the concession simply granted a certain number, and it rested with +the gaoler to palm off the old, weak, and infirm on those who were at +all wanting in liberality. Then, at the best the prisoners were hatters, +tailors, and haberdashers, rather than agricultural labourers, many of +whom ultimately proved valueless. If a large number was available, and +there were several applicants, the competition became quite +spirited--every one wanted his pick before the others, and the gaoler +made the best of the occasion, leaving those to whom he allotted the +refuse to curse their evil fortune. + +Up to the passing of the Navigation Act the Dutch had been free to trade +with English colonies, and had brought a fair number of negroes; and +afterwards the king established the Royal African Company to prevent the +supply being cut off. The average price of the African was then about +L16 or 2,400 pounds of sugar, but the Dutch sold their slaves for a +little less, which led the planters to evade the Navigation Act when +they had opportunities. + +The white bond-servant was valued at about 2,200 pounds of sugar, very +little less than the slave for life, although he had generally but five +years to serve. The cost of transport was about L5 per head; it +followed, therefore, that if the London agent got his prisoners cheap he +made a good profit. There was also another way of making money in this +business. Some of the gaol-birds had friends who were willing to pay +good sums on consideration that the convict should be virtually freed on +his arrival. Many a sum of fifty pounds was obtained in this way, +sometimes without helping the bond-servant in the least. How were the +relations to prove that the promise had not been fulfilled, and if they +did so what redress could be obtained? They certainly could not go to +law, as the whole transaction was illegal. + +We have seen how Charles the Second tried to people Jamaica with free +settlers, but this did not prevent the transportation of criminals. In +1665 four young men, who had been convicted of interrupting and abusing +a preacher, were whipped through the streets of Edinburgh and afterwards +sent to Barbados, and in 1684 some of the Rye House plotters were +reprieved on condition that they served ten years in the West Indies. +When these plotters arrived in Jamaica, the Governor, "by His Majesty's +command," directed the Assembly to pass an Act "to prevent all +clandestine releasements or buying out of their time," so that their +punishment should not be evaded. But it was after the Monmouth +rebellion, in 1685, that the greatest deportation took place. The +miserable followers of the duke were executed by Judge Jeffreys until +even his thirst for blood was somewhat slackened, when the remainder +were sent to the plantations. The story of one of these unfortunates +gives such a graphic picture of the life of a bond-servant that we +cannot do better than give an outline of the "Relation of the great +sufferings and strange adventures of Henry Pitman, surgeon to the late +Duke of Monmouth." + +Having been taken prisoner after the battle of Sedgemoor, he was +committed to Ilchester Gaol, had his pockets rifled, his clothes torn +off his back, and was remanded until the Wells assizes. While in gaol he +was inveigled into telling all he knew, by promises of pardon, and then +his acknowledgments were treated as a confession. Those who pleaded not +guilty on the first day of the trial were convicted and executed the +same afternoon; others who confessed were equally condemned. After two +hundred and thirty had been hanged the remainder were ordered to be +transported to the Caribbee islands, of whom Pitman was one. With some +others, including his brother, he was disposed of to an agent who took +L60 from his friends to set him free on his arrival at Barbados. + +The Legislative Assembly of that island, however, in consequence of the +"most horrid, wicked, and execrable rebellion," lately raised, and +because many of the rebels had been transported for ten years, passed a +special Act, under which they were bound to serve, notwithstanding any +bargain to the contrary. If they attempted to escape they were to be +flogged, and burnt in the forehead with the letters "F.T.," meaning +"Fugitive Traitor." + +By this law Pitman's hopes were frustrated, and, utterly disheartened, +he was not inclined to work at his profession for the master to whom he +had been sold. Although the status of a surgeon was not then as high as +it is now, it was yet a great downfall to practise the profession on +rations of five pounds of salt beef or fish per week, with nothing else +but corn meal. As for the fees, which were large, the master pocketed +them, leaving Pitman to endure the discomforts of a tropical residence +and semi-starvation as best he could. On one occasion he refused to go +on with his work, and for this he was beaten by his master until the +cane used was broken in pieces. Then the master became bankrupt, and, +with his brother, Pitman was sent back to the merchant to whom they had +been first consigned. + +Here his brother died of the hardships he had experienced, and Pitman +resolved to escape, notwithstanding the risk of attempting such a thing. +Having made the acquaintance of a poor man who was willing to help, he +got a consignment of goods from his friends in England, with which to +raise the means. A boat was purchased for twelve pounds; but this led +to inquiries, as the buyer was known to be poor, and his creditors began +to come down upon him. However, Pitman contributed enough to satisfy +them, meanwhile postponing his departure until suspicion had been +lulled. + +On the evening of the 9th of May, 1687--this being a holiday, when most +of the people were revelling--he and seven other bond-servants got +safely off in their open boat, with a small supply of provisions and +water, a few tools, a compass, and a chart. They intended to make for +the Dutch island of Curacao, six hundred miles distant; but even before +they were out of Carlisle Bay their frail craft began to leak, and they +had to tear up their clothes to stop the gaping seams. At sunrise they +were out of sight from the land, but so enervated by sea-sickness that +some would willingly have gone back. However, they went on as best they +could, with nothing but their hats to bale out the water, which still +continued to trickle into the boat. They were a little more comfortable +as the sun rose, but when night came a gale arose which kept them +employed baling for their lives. To add to their difficulties the rudder +broke, and they had to steer with an oar. + +Five days passed in this manner, the refugees hardly able to get an +hour's rest for the baling and continual fear that the boat would sink +if left alone. On the sixth morning they saw Margarita, but could not +land on account of the rocky shore, which nearly wrecked them on their +making the attempt. Sheering off, they next day sighted Saltatudos +island, one of the Dry Tortugas, where they met a boat manned with +privateers, who treated them very kindly, and wanted them to join their +company. To this, however, Pitman and his companions would not agree, +and this annoyed the privateers, who burnt their boat and virtually kept +them as prisoners. When they went on a cruise the refugees were left in +charge of four men, and had much ado to find enough turtle to keep them +from starving. After remaining here for three months an English +privateer arrived, and, at their request, took them on to New +Providence, to which the inhabitants had just returned after being +driven off by Spaniards. Pitman at last got to Amsterdam, and from +thence to England, where the revolution had just taken place, and his +friends had succeeded in obtaining a free pardon. + +The white bond-servant, being under a short engagement, was generally +worked to his utmost capacity. No matter if he died before the end of +his term as long as he paid for the expense incurred. But Englishmen +were no more inclined to be slaves then than they are now, and the +planters of St. Kitt's found them so troublesome to manage that they +soon became afraid of buying, and showed a preference for negroes. Some +of the English servants committed suicide, and it is recorded that a +pious master told one of them, who had expressed his intention of +destroying himself, that he trusted that God would give him more grace, +than, for a short term of trouble in this life, to precipitate himself +into hell. + +Even in the earliest times some of the planters were absentees, living +in England. The system was always more or less fortune-hunting, the +whole end and aim being to get rich and return to the old country. There +were, as we have seen, many difficulties and dangers to encounter, and +not the least of the drawbacks was the want of good society. We who live +in an age when there is daily communication with the whole world, can +hardly conceive how entirely these pioneers were cut off from their +friends. The long voyage was full of discomfort, and at the best +uncertain as to its termination. The words still found on bills of +lading, "the act of God or the queen's enemies," had a meaning then +hardly appreciable by the present generation. Barbary pirates and French +corsairs ranged the Channel; in the broad Atlantic storms shook the +crazy vessels to pieces; and when they escaped these dangers, it was +often to fall into the hands of the buccaneers when in sight of their +destination. Then there were hurricanes on both sea and land, and +earthquakes on some of the islands. Vessels were sunk in harbour, houses +blown away, and sugar buildings torn down. As for the negro huts, they +were carried off altogether, and the crops injured so as to become +useless. Then, perhaps, when the planter had strained himself to the +utmost to put things straight, another tornado would put him in a worse +plight than before. + +Yet with all this the planter struggled on, generally doing his best to +carry the traditions and fashions of the mother country into his new +home. We have already noticed Barbados, and how it was affected by the +"great rebellion." Many other examples might be noted had we sufficient +space. The planter was nearly always a gentleman, even if he had begun +his career as a transported rebel. Some were gallants, and dressed in +the extreme of London fashion, often living beyond their means. Others +were merchants, trading with their own vessels, and selling their +surplus goods for produce to make up cargoes. With their own sugar, and +as much as they could procure from others, they filled their ships for +the homeward voyage, and in return got enough merchandise for trading. +These were the fortune-hunters, who were always looking forward to that +happy time when, with money in their pouches, they could once more +settle down in Merry England. The old country was always "home," as it +is still for the West Indian, although perhaps neither himself nor his +parents ever saw it--then it was the will-o'-the-wisp that drove him to +endure all the discomforts of a life in the tropics, often to die of +fever before his work was hardly begun. + +While Jamaica was under the dominion of Spain little was done to develop +the island. The Indians were exterminated, as in Hispaniola, to be +replaced by wild cattle and horses, and fifteen hundred negroes were +introduced to cultivate provision grounds. From these, passing vessels, +which called in on their way to Mexico, got their supplies. As yet it +was not a rendezvous for buccaneers, and taken altogether it was quite +insignificant. Thousands of white men and tens of thousands of negroes +were required before it became the important island which ultimately +rivalled Hispaniola. However, although the Spaniard was driven out he +left his sting behind in the shape of his slaves, who took to the +mountains, to be afterwards known as Maroons, and to worry the English +colonists for over a century. + +And here, as we are dealing with the planter and his labour supply, we +must say something of the negro slaves, to whom the West Indies were +indebted for their very existence as European colonies. Unlike the +American, the African had known slavery for ages. Prisoners taken in war +were kept in servitude as a matter of course; debtors were slaves to +their creditors, and even children were sold by their parents. Yet there +were great differences between the tribes--the Coromantees, for example, +were particularly troublesome, and the Foulahs often dangerous. The +first slave-traders took their cargoes from the more northern coasts, +and from this cause, perhaps, as well as the want of proper supervision +in the Indies, runaways, or Simerons, were mentioned at very early +periods. Later, the trade was carried on in a particularly judicious +manner, and the more docile tribes selected, to be sold in the colonies +as "Prime Gold Coast Negroes." + +In their native countries these people were all virtually slaves to +their chiefs, and as such were liable to be sold at any time. The +authority was unlimited; the slightest offence meant slavery; death was +the only alternative. Often when, for some reason or other, the negro +was rejected by the trader, he was executed at once. Adultery was +punished by the sale of both offenders, and debtors could be sold by +their creditors. Bryan Edwards, author of a history of the West Indies, +took much pains to procure information from the slaves themselves, +through an interpreter; and as they had no reason to misrepresent their +cases, we can safely give the outlines of one. + +The most interesting story is, perhaps, that of the boy Adam, a Congo, +about fourteen years of age when he was brought to Jamaica. His country +was named Sarri, and was situated a long distance from the coast. While +walking one morning through a path, about three miles from his native +village, the boy was captured by one of his countrymen. With his +prisoner the man hid himself in the woods during the whole of the day, +and at night stole away from the neighbourhood, going on like this for a +whole month. Then he came to the country of another tribe, where he sold +the boy for a gun, some powder and shot, and a little salt. His new +owner afterwards sold Adam for a keg of brandy to another black man who +was going about collecting slaves, and when twenty had been collected +they were taken to the coast and sold to a Jamaica captain. + +Of the five-and-twenty interrogated by Bryan Edwards, fifteen frankly +declared that they had been born in slavery, and were sold to pay the +debts, or bartered to supply the wants, of their owners. Five were +secretly kidnapped in the interior, and sold to black merchants; the +other five fell into the hands of the enemy in some of those petty wars +which were continually going on, when, if there had been no market for +their sale, they would almost certainly have been killed. + +It is hardly necessary to state that in giving these statements we are +not attempting the impossible task of vindicating slavery either of the +black or white man. It would be well, however, if, in mitigation of the +offence against the negro, his former condition were taken into +consideration, and the undoubted fact that he was better treated by the +West India planter than by his own countrymen. His lot was by no means +so hard as slavery had been to the Indian and white bond-servant. He did +not sink under the hardships of a life of toil in the burning sun, but +was happy in his way, and in most cases better off than his descendant, +the West Indian peasant of to-day. He was certainly treated as a +domestic animal, but his value was always high enough to prevent +anything like ill-usage. There were certainly people who could be cruel +to their negroes, as there are yet men so low as to brutally flog +valuable horses, but that such were common is a statement utterly +without foundation. As a well-kept animal, the planter took a pride in +him, fed and doctored him, patted him on the back, and proudly showed +him to his friends. All this appears very degrading to humanity, but +after all the negro did not see it in that light. On the contrary, he +took a pride in exhibiting his strong muscles and in showing the +"buccras" what a fine nigger massa had got. + +The slave of the rich planter, like the horse of the English gentleman, +was undoubtedly very comfortable. First, he was a picked lot--the +healthiest, strongest, and most suitable for his work--one of those +"pieces d'India," as the best negroes were called by the traders. Then, +as an expensive chattel, everything was done to make him still more +valuable, and to prevent his deteriorating. But unfortunately there was +another class--the miserable, broken-down creatures sold cheap as refuse +lots to poor white men or even to slaves. Yes, the slaves bought their +diseased fellow-countrymen, to work on their own allotments, treating +them as the costermonger sometimes does his donkey. Half-starved, +hard-worked, and covered with sores, they lingered in misery until death +came to make them free. Some were so disfigured with yaws, or leprosy, +that none but a negro could bear the sight of them; these were kept out +of the way and treated worse than mangy dogs. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +VIII. + +THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY. + + +By the time of the Dutch war of 1665 the pretensions of Spain to the +exclusive possession of the Indies had been entirely ignored. Now began +the great struggle of other nations for supremacy, and the position of +"sovereign of the seas," the islands and Guiana becoming scenes of +contention between English, French, and Dutch. To these struggles is +greatly due the positions the naval powers of the world hold to-day, and +especially that of Britain. + +As it was mainly a demand for free trade which led to so many attacks on +the Spanish possessions, so it was now the same question which led to +the struggle between the two great mercantile nations which succeeded +Spain and Portugal, as these had followed Venice and Genoa. In the West +Indies there was no line of demarcation between these new powers, and +consequently their interests often clashed, but on the whole the +colonists were favourable to the Dutch, and did all they could to evade +the Navigation Act. + +Early in 1665 preparations were made in Barbados to repel an expected +invasion by the Dutch. Vessels were ordered to keep together and +protect each other, and men-of-war were sent out to afford convoy. +Already the English buccaneers had been somewhat discountenanced by the +home government, although they were generally encouraged by the +colonies, especially Jamaica, which derived considerable advantage from +their sales of booty. Now that there was a demand for all the forces +that could be gathered together, the Governor of that island gave the +rovers letters of marque, under which they were empowered to ravage the +Dutch colonies. At St. Eustatius they succeeded in carrying off +everything portable, including nine hundred slaves, and even such heavy +articles as sugar coppers and stills. De Ruyter made an attempt on +Barbados on the 20th of April, but the people there made such a stand +that he had to retire. He commenced the attack at ten o'clock in the +morning with his fourteen vessels, but by three in the afternoon the +fleet was so much damaged that he was forced to move away his own ship, +with a hole in her side "as big as a barn-door." He then went on to +Montserrat and Nevis, where he captured sixteen ships, but did not take +either of the islands. + +In Guiana, the English from Barbados captured the Dutch trading factory +in the river Essequebo, as well as the young sugar colony in the +Pomeroon, and in retaliation the Dutch took Surinam. In January, 1666, +France joined the Netherlands, and an English fleet was sent out to +protect Barbados, which now began to feel alarmed at the possible result +of such a powerful combination. + +Then came the critical period for the island of St. Kitt's, which, as we +have before stated, had been divided between English and French, the +former holding the middle portion with the enemy on either side. As soon +as the news of the declaration of war arrived, the relations between the +two nationalities, which had often before been much strained, became +ruptured. The English Governor, Watts, gave his rival three days' +notice, and prepared to attack him, with the assistance of five hundred +men from Nevis, and two hundred buccaneers. General de la Salle, on the +French side, asked and obtained forty-eight hours' longer grace, and +took advantage of this to steal into the English territory with a large +body of horse and foot, as well as a mob of negroes armed with bills and +hoes. The slaves also carried firebrands, and were said to have been +promised, in return for their assistance, freedom, English women as +wives, and the liberty to plunder and burn. At the town of St. Nicholas +a gentlewoman with three or four children, on trying to escape, was +forced back into her blazing house and kept there until the whole family +were burnt to death. A party of English, who advanced to check their +progress, was overwhelmed by the number of the enemy and driven back, +thus leaving them to advance over the island with fire and sword. + +Governor Watts took things so coolly, that Colonel Morgan (not the +famous Sir Henry), who led the buccaneers, went to rouse him, and found +he was lounging about in dressing-gown and slippers. Presenting a pistol +to his breast, Morgan called the Governor a coward and a traitor, at +the same time swearing he would shoot him dead if he did not at once +take his place at the head of the forces. The contingent from Nevis had +already gone over to the French quarter near Sandy Point, and, after a +hard struggle, had taken the post, when the Governor at last followed +behind. Coming up late his men fired on the mingled French and English, +indiscriminately slaughtering both. After that everything was confused, +neither party distinguishing friend from foe, with the result that the +Governor, Colonel Morgan, several other officers, and most of the +English, were killed. After that the main body of the French arrived, +driving before them a confused mob of women and children, who ran +shrieking to their friends for help. Nothing remained for the English +now but to fly or sue for quarter, and the French became masters of the +whole island, with a body of prisoners twice as numerous as themselves. + +In 1667 a petition was forwarded to Charles the Second on behalf of +several thousand distressed people, lately inhabitants of St. +Christopher's. In this it was stated that the island had been one of the +most flourishing colonies--the first and best earth that ever was +inhabited by Englishmen among the heathen cannibals of America. They +prayed that a colony so ancient and loyal, the mother island of all +those parts, the fountain from whence all the other islands had been +watered with planters, might not remain in the hands of another nation. +Since the surrender they had been continually oppressed, until thousands +had left for other parts. Many had sold their estates for almost +nothing, and had been stripped and plundered at sea of the little they +had saved. If the inhumanities of the French nation were examined, their +bloody and barbarous usage of the Indians, their miserable cruelties to +prisoners of war, all nations would abhor their name. They would make +Christians grind their mills instead of cattle, leave thousands to +starve for want, and send other thousands to uninhabited lands. + +In 1666 Lord Willoughby, who had gone back to Barbados on the +restoration of Charles the Second, fitted out an expedition to recapture +St. Kitt's, but his fleet encountered a hurricane, and neither his +vessel nor one of his company was ever heard of again. The following +year his nephew, Henry Willoughby, made an unsuccessful attempt for the +same object. On the 10th of May of the same year a fight took place +between the English and French fleets off Nevis. On the English side +were ten men-of-war and one fire-ship, while the enemy had more than +double that number. One of the English vessels was blown up, but, +undaunted by this disaster, they drove the enemy before them to the very +shores of St. Kitt's, where they took shelter under the guns of +Basse-terre. + +Peace was signed at Breda in July, 1667. The gains of territory by any +one of the three nations were not considerable, and the result went to +prove that England could hold her own against the only two powers who +were able to dispute her supremacy. During the war she had captured New +Amsterdam (now New York) from the Dutch, and they in turn had taken +Surinam. As it was agreed with Holland that both parties should retain +what was then in their possession, Surinam was virtually exchanged for +what is now the capital of the United States. Antigua and Montserrat, +which had been taken by the French, were now restored to England, and +St. Christopher's returned to its former condition, but without the +least prospect of the two nationalities ever being again on friendly +terms. + +Now that the war was over the trade of the privateers came to an end, +and further efforts were made to make them settle down. Having received +orders to discountenance them, the Governor of Jamaica deputed Colonel +Cary to report on the matter. Cary thought they should not be +discouraged, as already harm had been done to Jamaica by such attempts, +and in the future the want of their help might be prejudicial. On the +news that the commissions against the Spaniards were called in, several +English privateers resolved never to return to Jamaica, unless there was +a war, but in future to carry on their operations from Tortuga. To +divert them from injuring the Spaniards, the Governor had, during the +late war, appointed Cary to treat with them for the reduction of +Curacao, to which they at first consented, but afterwards disagreed. If, +said Cary, they had two of His Majesty's nimble fifth-rate frigates, +they would be able to keep the privateers to their obedience, observe +the enemy's movements, and guard their own coasts from rovers. There was +no profitable employment for the privateers against the French and +Dutch; these fellows, being people that would not be brought to plant, +must prey upon the Spaniard, whether they were countenanced at Jamaica +or not. There was such an inveterate hatred of the English in those +parts by the Spaniard, that he would not hear of trade or +reconciliation, but, on the contrary, inhumanly butchered any of the +islanders he could cowardly surprise. The French interest daily +increased in the Caribbees, Hispaniola, and Tortuga, and if this was +suffered to grow it would in a short time prove of dangerous +consequence. + +Here we have plain speaking. It was not to the interest of England for +the pirates to become too closely connected with the French, as they +would then be helping to build up the prosperity of a nation that might +any day become our enemy. As for the rovers themselves, they cared +little or nothing for the interests of their country; they were willing +to plunder the Spanish possessions because they got something worth +having; with those of the French and Dutch it was another thing. It is +evident that Cary troubled himself but little as to how a cargo was +obtained as long as Jamaica profited by the transaction. + +We may here also call attention to the differences between the +characters of the nations which now commenced a great struggle for +mastery in these parts. The Dutch were, above everything else, an +association of traders, and although they could fight on occasion, they +hardly ever went out of their way to pick a quarrel. Their wars with +England were brought about by mercantile disputes, the first two, as we +have already seen, mainly on account of the Navigation Acts. The +English, "the nation of shopkeepers," were naturally rival traders, but +they did not altogether confine themselves to traffic, being rather +inclined to alternate or mix it up with something like piracy. Such +transactions as those of Hawkins were not carried on by any other +nation, the Hollander being more inclined to take advantage of the +swiftness of his fly boat than the metal of his guns. The French were +rarely traders, for even their plantations were largely supported by +buccaneering. When, after a peace, some of the rovers settled down for a +time, they were always ready to abandon their fields at the first rumour +of a war. England thus stood between the two others as a +stumbling-block; she interfered with the trade of the one and offended +the dignity of the other; thus coming in for many blows, which only made +her all the more able to resist and conquer. + +The character of the Dutchman is well shown in the curious difficulty +which hastened a third breach of the peace with England in 1672. In 1667 +a fleet from the Netherlands captured Surinam, and forced the +authorities of the colony to capitulate on favourable terms. By these +articles the inhabitants were at liberty to sell or transport, when or +where they pleased, all or any part of their possessions. After the +peace, a few went to Barbados, but the majority found it difficult to +dispose of their plantations, and therefore remained in hopes of a +better market on the arrival of new Dutch settlers. At that time the +Dutchmen were few and mostly poor; they had been ruined by the war, and +in many cases driven from their settlements by the English. It followed, +therefore, that there were no buyers, and the plantation owners, +trusting to the capitulation, decided to wait rather than abandon their +flourishing properties. + +In June, 1669, the Dutch Governor issued a proclamation calling upon all +the English who intended to leave to give notice within six months, +after which a like term was given them to dispose of their goods, when +they might leave for English colonies under free passes from the +authorities of both nations. In case they were unable to sell their +slaves, the Governor would take them over at the market price, but only +those negroes who had been in their possession at the rendition of the +colony could come under this arrangement. + +At first sight this looked very fair, but the English saw at once that +something was wrong. In the first place they understood that under the +capitulation they were free to take away all their property, including +slaves, and at the then market prices they saw that a forced sale would +be a serious loss. Although not expressly intimated, they also +understood that the Governor meant they were not to carry them away, and +this at once caused much dissatisfaction. Things were, however, in such +a critical state that little notice was taken of the proclamation; in +fact, the people had not as yet made up their minds what to do. Such a +sacrifice as was required from those who had flourishing properties, +naturally made them hesitate; and when the English Government inquired +about the matter, they were told by the Dutch authorities that the +people were so well satisfied that they intended to remain. + +Such was, however, not the case, and when the year of grace had expired, +and they were virtually prevented from leaving with or without their +negroes, they sent memorials to King Charles the Second asking for his +interference. It was another case of Egyptian bondage; the Dutch would +not let the people go--except a few of the poorest. It can easily be +understood that it was not very pleasant to lose the best colonists and +have nothing left but a lot of abandoned plantations. This would have +been a poor exchange for New York, and it is evident that the Dutch knew +very well what they were doing, and had the welfare of Surinam at heart. +But, in face of the capitulation, they were undoubtedly wrong, and when +they began to oppress the English for claiming their rights, they went a +great deal too far. + +When Major Bannister, who had been acting Governor under the English, +protested against this, he was arrested and transported to Holland, +where he obtained his release only by the intervention of the English +ambassador. Then complaints were made to the Dutch Government, but it +was two years before permission was granted for commissioners from +England to go out and transport those who wanted to leave. Even then +secret orders were sent to put every possible obstruction in their way, +which was done by bringing suits for debt, and otherwise putting the +English in positions which made it impossible for them to wind up their +affairs. It followed, therefore, that only a few more went away, +carrying with them the prayers of the more important to be delivered +from such bondage. + +Matters now came to a crisis. Other questions had arisen between the two +powers, notably some in connection with the Eastern trade, and the +refusal of Holland to honour the English flag. War broke out in 1672, +and this time the French joined England against the Dutch, who had to +stand alone. French and English buccaneers were let loose to plunder the +colonies, and they made the seas so dangerous that hardly one of the +enemy's vessels could show herself in the West Indies. The Dutch +colonies were thus cut off, and even the settlements of Essequebo and +Berbice had to go without their usual supplies. This deprivation caused +much dissatisfaction among the garrison of the latter colony, and led to +a mutiny, which resulted in the incarceration of the Governor, who was +not released until next year, when the belated supplies arrived. + +Spain was also involved in the war the following year, and thus all the +nations interested in the West Indies were fighting at once--Holland and +Spain against France and England. The French buccaneers had already +gained a footing on Hispaniola; now they attempted to get possession of +the whole island, but could not succeed. However, they went on to +Trinidad, which had always been a Spanish island, and plundered it of a +hundred thousand dollars. + +The Spanish and Dutch colonies suffered greatly, but Englishmen by no +means escaped altogether. As an example of their treatment by the +enemy, the case of John Darbey is interesting. In April, 1674, he and +six others were taken by a Dutchman from a small English vessel, while +sailing from St. Thomas to Antigua, and carried to Havana. There they +were kept in irons for five weeks, and then set to work as slaves on the +fortifications. After enduring great misery for three months, they were +removed to work on board a ship, which was captured by the French off +St. Domingo, when they were of course released, and finally carried to +Jamaica. Here they told of the sufferings they had endured and +witnessed--the story of which more and more embittered the English +feeling against Spain. On one occasion Darbey had seen eight men brought +in from a New England bark, who afterwards attempted to escape. They +marched along the shore hoping to attract the notice of some friendly +vessel, but the Governor sent a party of soldiers in pursuit, and they +were all murdered at once save the master, who was brought back, +executed, and his head stuck on a pole. He also saw the commander of a +man-of-war bring in a New England vessel and hang five men at the +yard-arm, where the corpses were used as targets by him and his +officers. The same captain wanted himself and several other Englishmen +to sail with them, but because they indignantly refused, he deliberately +stabbed one of them with his sword, killing him at once. + +In February, 1674, a treaty was signed at Westminster in which there was +a special clause bearing on the English in Surinam. To the intent that +there might be no more mistakes, the States General agreed that the +articles of capitulation should not only be executed without any more +prevarication, but also that His Majesty of Great Britain should be free +to depute commissioners to examine into the condition of his subjects +and agree with them as to the time of their departure. Also that no +special laws should be made to hamper them in any way in the sale of +their lands, payments of their debts, or barter of their goods, and that +vessels should be as free to go to Surinam, as they and their servants +should also be free to depart. + +Accordingly, in March, 1675, three commissioners were instructed to +proceed there, and were enjoined to see that the provisions of the +treaty were properly carried out, to press for debts owing to the +English, and to endeavour to get over the difficulty of their +obligations to the Dutch. Vessels were provided to carry the settlers +wherever they wished, and provision made for victualling them on the +voyage, as well as for a short time after their landing in their new +homes. + +Now at last it might be presumed that the exodus could be freely +managed; yet even then the Dutch authorities tried to put obstructions +in the way. Among the servants of the English were many Indians, some of +whom were nominally free, and these the Dutch Governor demanded should +be put ashore, to prevent the mischiefs and cruelties of the heathen, +their friends, who might avenge themselves for the deportation on those +who remained in the colony. The English claimed that these people went +of their own free will, and that some of them were much attached to +their white masters, which was probably true. Besides these, most of +whom were got off against the Governor's protests, there were ten Jews +with 322 slaves, in preventing the departure of whom he was more +successful. They were not, strictly speaking, British subjects, although +they had lived under the flag for many years, and the commissioners did +not insist on their admission. + +Finally, three vessels sailed away for Jamaica in September, 1675, +carrying 1,231 people, including thirty-one Indians, and more negroes +than whites. On arriving at that island they were granted lands in St. +Elizabeth, afterwards known as Surinam quarters, and thus Guiana again +became a factor in the development of the English islands. As for the +Jews, even they were afterwards allowed to depart when they memorialised +the king and got him to press the matter. + +Even yet, however, the last had not been heard of this detention, for it +cropped up again in the case of Jeronomy Clifford, one of those who +actually left with the others for Jamaica. He was then a lad, and went +off with his father, returning again to the colony as the second husband +of an Englishwoman who had property there. It appears that, as surgeon +of a Dutch vessel, he was so kind to a dying planter named Charles +Maasman, that his widow went to London and married him in August, 1683. + +Not getting on very well in Surinam, Clifford and his wife resolved to +sell out and take their slaves with them to Jamaica, but in this they +were frustrated. The Dutch felt very sore about the former migration, +especially when Jamaica plumed herself on her great acquisition, and +taunted them with the fact that they got little by the transfer of the +colony. When, therefore, Clifford made known his intention, the Governor +told him he could not remove his wife's property because she had +inherited it from a Dutch subject. Clifford had some of that doggedness +which has been observed so often in Englishmen, and was determined to +obtain what he considered his rights. Under the capitulation he might +leave at any time, and he did not consider that this right had been in +any way forfeited. + +However, the Dutch Governor said otherwise, and, to prevent the +alienation or removal of his property, put it in trust, and then +endeavoured to set his wife against him so that she might refuse to +leave. By some tittle-tattle about a female cousin of Clifford, her +jealousy was aroused, and she petitioned for a divorce on the grounds of +cruelty and adultery. However, when she found out the object of the +traducers of her husband, she asked that her petition be annulled and +made void, because she had been misled and drawn away by the ill advices +of others--now she was sorry, and well satisfied and content with him. +This having been read before the Court of Justice, a council of Dutch +planters, they showed their animus by deciding that Mrs. Clifford was a +weak and silly woman, and that it appeared to them that her husband, to +the prejudice of his wife and that land, had endeavoured to remove his +goods, which they would willingly prevent. They therefore ordered the +plantation to be appraised and put in commission, forbidding either +Clifford or his wife from diminishing, removing, or making away with the +estate, but only to enjoy the interest and produce as long as they lived +and corresponded well with each other. They also wished the wife much +joy of her reconciliation, and condemned her to pay the costs both +present and future. Finally, considering her frowardness and ill-nature, +and for an example to all other like-natured women, they condemned her +to pay a fine of five thousand pounds of sugar. + +Clifford, who yet stood by what he considered his right, was now +subjected to a number of petty persecutions. His wife went to England, +leaving him her attorney, and he began to pester the Governor to remove +the illegal arrest on his estate. At last this importunity led to his +arrest, and he was sentenced by this same Court of Justice to be hanged, +as a mutineer and disturber of the public peace. But, being "more +inclined to clemency than to carry things to the utmost rigour of +justice," they commuted this sentence to imprisonment for seven years, +with a fine of a hundred and fifty thousand pounds of sugar. + +As may be supposed, this arbitrary judgment only made Clifford more +exasperated. He still went on petitioning and protesting that he was not +a Dutch subject, as he had refused to take the oath of allegiance, and +that therefore he was only standing up for his rights. However, he was +imprisoned in the fort, where every effort was made to prevent his +communicating with England or the English colonies. Notwithstanding +these precautions he managed to send several letters, meanwhile +threatening the Court that if they kept him any longer he would be +forced to use such means of relief as he should be advised. After some +delay his communications reached Barbados, Jamaica, and New York, from +whence they at last reached King William, who soon got him released. But +even then Clifford could not get back his estate, and although he went +to London and petitioned the king, who directed inquiry of the +ambassador at the Hague, he could never get any redress. For seventy +years he, and his heirs after his death, kept up a stream of petitions +and memorials, without result, in the end claiming for illegal +detention, damages, and interest, over half a million pounds. + +During the short peace which followed the treaty of Westminster +attention was again directed to the buccaneers, who were now called +pirates, and treated as such even in Jamaica, with the result that many +of them settled down. It has been stated that Charles the Second shared +in their gains even after he had issued proclamations against them, but +this sort of thing now came to an end. The French continued their +depredations up to the year 1680, when the king issued a proclamation, +forbidding the further granting of commissions, and recalling those +which had been issued, at the same time ordering that those who +persisted in the trade should be hanged as pirates. This tended to bring +the less audacious to settle down, but even to the beginning of the +present century piracy was still known in the West Indies. + +While Sir Henry Morgan was Acting Governor of Jamaica, in 1681, Everson, +the Dutch pirate, came to Cow Bay on that island, but Morgan captured +him and his crew and sent them off to Carthagena, to be punished by the +authorities there for the ravages they had committed on the Spanish +coasts and shipping. During the ex-buccaneer's administration he also +got an Act passed to restrain privateers, and keep inviolable all +treaties with foreign states. Any British subject who treated a foreign +prince or State in a hostile manner should be punished with death as a +felon. + +Peace did not last long, however, for in 1688 the French began to move +against Holland, and the year following King William was also bound to +declare war. Almost immediately the English were again driven out of St. +Kitt's, the French, as on the former occasion, committing outrages quite +unjustifiable among civilised nations even in war. They also took St. +Eustatius from the Dutch. + +As if there were not enough pirates in the West Indies, the French +brought some more from their own coast--the celebrated corsairs, who had +held a position in Europe during the wars similar to that of the +buccaneers in America. Some rovers, who had lately settled in Cayenne, +were agreeably surprised at the beginning of the year 1689 by the +arrival of Du Casse, who soon enrolled them under his banner and started +to pillage the Dutch and English colonies. + +The first attack was made upon Surinam with nine vessels, but after +three days' fighting the Dutch obliged the corsairs to retire, leaving +one ship aground to be captured. Two of the squadron were, however, +more successful in Berbice, which, after the enemy had destroyed one or +two plantations, was obliged to pay a ransom of twenty thousand guilders +(L1,666), which was settled by a draft on the proprietors in Amsterdam, +and which curiously enough appears to have been afterwards paid. Another +privateer destroyed the small settlement in the Pomeroon river, and +obliged the few inhabitants to fly to Essequebo, and to afterwards +abandon the place altogether. Du Casse then went on to the islands, +where he did much damage to both Dutch and English, finally, in 1697, +Spain being also on the other side, joining De Pointis to attack and +capture Carthagena. + +The corsairs were privateers with proper commissions, authorised by the +French Government to pillage and destroy and divide the plunder among +themselves after setting aside the king's share. Up to the present +France could hardly be said to have a navy, and these private +adventurers to some extent filled its place. True, there were a few +king's ships, but the treasury was often so bare that they could not be +properly armed or manned without assistance from outside. Then, perhaps, +one or more would be put at the disposal of a renowned corsair, on +condition that the State should be put to no expense. Courtiers, +ministers, and merchants would come forward and form a joint stock +company, equip the ship or fleet as the case might be, and share the +plunder. + +Du Casse settled down as Governor of the French part of Hispaniola, +which by this time had been taken over, and he appears to have +encouraged the buccaneers on account of their assistance to the colony. +When that great corsair, Jacques Cassard came out, he was therefore +enabled to supply him with as much help as he required. + +Cassard, in 1712, was supplied by the merchants of Marseilles with a +large fleet, with which he sailed to the West Indies, beginning, as Du +Casse had done, with Surinam, where he arrived on the 8th of October, +with eight large and thirty small vessels. The Dutch were not so +fortunate this time, for he sailed up and down the river for three +weeks, burning, pillaging, and carrying off slaves, until most of the +inhabitants took to the bush. Among other exploits he is said to have +broken open the Jewish synagogue, killed a pig within the sacred +precincts, and sprinkled its blood over the walls and ornaments. He was +ultimately bought off for over L50,000, which, in the absence of enough +coin, was paid in sugar, negro and Indian slaves, cattle, merchandise, +provisions, stores, jewellery, and a very little cash. + +While remaining in Surinam Cassard sent three vessels to Berbice, which +was easily captured, and for which a ransom of three hundred thousand +guilders (L25,000) was demanded. But this settlement was far worse off +than Surinam, and had neither goods nor money to pay such a large +amount, which was out of all proportion to that of her neighbour. After +raising 118,000 guilders in various ways, the balance was accepted in a +bill of exchange on the proprietors, two of the leading planters of the +colony being taken as hostages and security. Not satisfied with this, +the corsairs insisted on a further sum of ten thousand guilders in +cash, as ransom for the private estates, on the ground that they had +been paid only for the fort and properties of the Government. There was +not so much money in the whole river, and after collecting every bit of +plate and jewellery they possessed, to the value of six thousand +guilders, the enemy had to take the balance in sugar and stores. + +Now came the most curious part of this transaction. The two hostages +died, and the proprietors refused to pay the draft--in fact, they said +Berbice was not worth so much. Nevertheless the colony could not be +taken over as a French possession, and even when the peace of Utrecht +was signed in 1713, nothing could be done. Here was an anomaly--a Dutch +settlement in the hands of French merchants as security for a debt. On +account of trade restrictions its produce might not be brought to +France, and the owners of the draft neither knew what to do with the +document nor its security. The Dutch proprietors were equally at a loss, +for they knew very well that, if they ignored the claim of the corsairs, +revenge would be taken on the first opportunity--during the next war, if +not before. At last one of the Marseilles merchants was deputed to go to +Amsterdam, and after a great deal of haggling he sold the draft to a +third party at a reduction of about forty per cent. + +Meanwhile Cassard had captured St. Eustatius, and exacted a large +ransom. From thence he resolved to proceed to Curacao, the great +stronghold of the Dutch, and the depot for goods used in the contraband +traffic with the Spanish colonies. Here there were many Jews, who had +large stocks of merchandise, and as the booty would be certainly great, +Cassard resolved to risk everything on such an exploit. On his arrival +he sent a boat ashore with a demand for the surrender of the island, to +which the Governor sent a jeering reply, as he considered the place +impregnable. However, the corsair fleet stood in for the harbour, but +were greeted with such a heavy fire that Cassard was forced to retire +and call a council. The balance of opinion was against going any +farther. The officers said the Dutch guns were of heavier metal than +theirs, the currents round the island rendered a landing almost +impossible, and the entrance to the harbour was so narrow that it could +easily be commanded by the two forts. However, Cassard himself and a few +others were in favour of the attempt, and it was ultimately resolved to +carry it out on the morrow. + +To deceive the Dutch, Cassard sent part of his fleet on a cruise round +the island, while he with the remainder commenced to bombard the forts, +keeping this up during the day as if that were his line of attack. The +following night, however, he embarked most of his men in small craft, +and keeping the lights on his ships burning, managed to land under cover +of the darkness. Fortunately for him, this manoeuvre was not perceived +by the Dutch, for he had quite enough to do in contending with a strong +current and in avoiding sunken rocks, which made the landing so perilous +that it is doubtful if even these hardy fellows would have attempted it +during the day, when the dangers would be conspicuous. However, they +got ashore without serious accident, and at once erected a breastwork +for the light guns they had brought. + +Morning broke, and Cassard expected to see the second half of the +squadron returned from its cruise, and ready to support him, instead of +which it was visible several miles to leeward. To add to his +difficulties, the Dutch had discovered the landing, had erected a +powerful battery a mile away, and were preparing to attack him before +his reinforcements could come up. Yet in face of all this he was +undaunted. He must, however, attack at once, and this was done, with the +result that the forts were taken. Cassard was wounded by a musket ball +in the foot, yet he did not relinquish the command, but followed this +first success by turning the guns of the forts on the town. At the same +time he sent a flag of truce to the Governor, declaring, that if the +place were not at once surrendered at discretion he would bombard it. In +reply, the Dutch attacked the forts, but were repulsed with great loss, +and at last terms were discussed, with the result that the ransom was +fixed at 600,000 louis d'ors. This amount was considered so reasonable +that the merchants hastened to pay it over and get rid of him, which +they did in three days. + +On his arrival in Martinique, Cassard found he had been superseded in +the command, and that the fleet was ordered home. Giving the buccaneers +their share of the booty, he sailed for Brest, and on the way met an +English squadron. The French admiral signalled his vessels not to +fight, but Cassard, turning to his second in command of the vessel, said +his duty to his king was above that to his admiral--he would fight His +Majesty's foes wherever he met them. On that he bore down upon the +English and captured two small craft before nightfall, afterwards making +his voyage to Brest alone. + +This want of subordination so incensed the admiral that he preferred +several charges against him, one being that he had retained more than +his share of the booty. Whether this charge was true or not, the "Hero +of Nantes," as he was called, fell into disgrace, followed by great +poverty. Almost a beggar, he was at last sent to prison for importuning +a cardinal and king's minister too much, by claiming what he considered +his rights. There he ultimately died, and, like some others who have +been as badly treated in life, has now a statue erected to his memory in +his native town. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +IX. + +THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE. + + +Carthagena and Porto Bello were the great trading stations for the +Spaniards in the Indies. The latter had taken the place of Nombre de +Dios, since that town had been destroyed by Drake, and was now the port +to which the treasures of Peru were brought overland from Panama. The +galleons from Spain, after calling at St. Domingo, went on to +Carthagena, where the first great fair of the year was held. Here the +traders from the inland provinces of New Granada came to get their +supplies from Europe, which they paid for in gold, silver, emeralds, and +produce. For the short time the vessels remained, the people of the town +woke up from their year's inactivity, and made the most of the occasion. +Stores were in demand, and lodging-houses required for the visitors, so +that the cost of living went up by leaps and bounds. Those who had +slaves got enormous profits by their hire, and even the negroes +themselves made large sums beyond the amounts they had to pay their +masters. The whole place lost its air of desertion and became the scene +of such bustle and confusion as would hardly be conceivable to those +who saw it as a "sleepy hollow" during the _tiempo muerto_, the dead +time, as it was called. + +Having done with Carthagena, the galleons went on to Porto Bello, the +beautiful haven, said to have been the most unhealthy place on the Main. +By reason of its noxious air and barren soil there was a scarcity of +provisions, which led to its desertion at ordinary times. In +anticipation of the fleet, however, it woke up and became even more +lively than Carthagena. The only reason for its existence was the trade +across the isthmus, otherwise it would have been deservedly abandoned. +Here was held the great fair, that at the other port being petty in +comparison. The concourse of people was so great that a single chamber +for a lodging during the busy time sometimes cost a thousand crowns, +while a house would be worth five or six times as much. As the galleons +came in sight, the people began to erect a great tent in the _Plaza_ to +receive their cargoes, where they were assorted and delivered to the +various consignees or their representatives. The crowd of men and +animals soon became so great that movement was difficult. Droves of +mules came over the isthmus loaded with cases of gold and silver, which +were dumped down in the open streets or in the square, for want of +storehouses. Yet, with all the confusion, it is said that theft was +unknown, and losses through mistakes very rare. But not only were there +thousands of mules and their drivers, but small vessels continually +arrived from different parts of the coast, bringing goods and people, +to increase the hubbub. Here was a cargo of cinchona bark, there +another of cacao, and further on, by no means the least important, were +boat-loads of fresh vegetables and fruits to supply the great assembly. +This went on for forty days, after which the port was deserted and the +town resumed its poverty-stricken air. Then two persons in the streets +formed a crowd and half a dozen a mob. Solitude and silence reigned, +where so lately the bustle and noise had been rampant, and the _tiempo +muerto_ ruled until the following year. + +It can be easily understood that the influence of the Porto Bello fair +was not only felt on the Gulf side, but on the shores of the Pacific as +well. Panama was largely dependent on the transport business, which +employed a great number of mules and slaves. Even in the absence of +buccaneers and pirates the road was always difficult, and sometimes even +dangerous. Heavy rains caused great floods, which delayed the traffic +for days, and left the tracks on the hills so slippery that even that +sure-footed animal the mule was often carried over a precipice. Then +there were cannibal Indians and Simarons always lurking in the forest, +ready to cut off stragglers. On the rumour of a buccaneer landing on the +coast--it might be a hundred miles away--the traffic was at once stopped +and the merchants began to "fear and sweat with a cold sweat," as Thomas +Gage very quaintly puts it. + +The Spanish merchants no doubt deplored this state of things, and would +have been thankful for a good road instead of such an unutterably +worthless bridle track. There was, however, a side to the question +which probably influenced them--a way that would be easy for them would +also be more accessible to their enemies. Then, again, a good road +should have been the work of the Spanish Government rather than of the +settlers, but it was useless to expect anything from that direction. +Nevertheless, a good road and even a canal were mooted before the end of +the sixteenth century, thus anticipating the Panama railroad and canal +of our own time. But, although the advantages were patent, the +difficulties were so many as to be practically insurmountable, and +nothing whatever was done. + +Towards the end of the seventeenth century came a sudden craze for +carrying out gigantic schemes of various kinds, practicable or +impracticable, useful or worthless, Utopian or utterly absurd. Among +them was the Mississippi scheme in France and the South Sea Bubble in +England, of which the latter was intimately connected with the Indies. +The time had arrived when people began to think of trading on credit or +pledges, and of combining together for carrying on banks and other +commercial operations. Private banks had existed for several centuries, +and more or less public establishments in the great commercial centres, +such as Venice, Amsterdam, and Hamburg, but up to the present there was +no Bank of England. In fact the great principle that allows an enormous +trade to be carried on without the actual interchange of specie or +commodities had just been discovered, and the people of France and +England went mad over it. + +The pioneer of the system in England was William Paterson, who seems to +have been acquainted with Dampier and Wafer, both of whom knew the +isthmus of Darien very well. He is also said to have travelled in the +West Indies himself, and even to have visited the Porto Bello fair, but +this is not quite certain. + +Paterson first came into prominence by bringing forward a scheme which +ultimately led to the establishment of the Bank of England on the 27th +of July, 1694. From this he appears to have derived no actual benefit, +however, although he was one of the first directors, upon a +qualification of L2,000 stock, which he sold out after the first year, +and thus withdrew. Probably he wanted his money to carry out the new +project for a settlement on the isthmus of Darien. + +In the course of this history we have advisedly used the word "English" +instead of "British," in speaking of our nation, because as yet +Scotchmen were little concerned in colonisation schemes. In fact, except +as transported rebels or convicts, they had hardly any interest in the +plantations. This was the result of Navigation Acts, which debarred +Scotch merchants and vessels from trading, by ordering that all traffic +with the colonies should be carried on in English vessels and from +English ports. + +Paterson's idea was to take possession of the isthmus of Darien, +establish a Scotch colony at a convenient harbour on the Gulf side, and +then open up a proper road by which the trade would be so much +facilitated that it would become the great highway. Seated between the +two vast oceans of the universe, he said, the isthmus is provided with +excellent harbours on both sides, between the principal of which lie the +more easy and convenient passes. If these ports and passes were +fortified, the road could easily be secured and defended, thus affording +the readiest and nearest means of gaining and keeping the command of the +South Sea--the greatest and by far the richest side of the world. With +the passes open, through them would flow at least two-thirds of the +produce of both Indies. The time and expense of the voyage to China and +Japan would be lessened more than half, and the consumption of European +commodities soon doubled, and annually increased. + +He contended that Darien possessed great tracts of country up to that +time unclaimed by any European, and that the Indians, the original +proprietors, would welcome the honest and honourable settler to their +fertile shore. The soil was rich to a fault, producing spontaneously the +most delicious fruits, and required the hand of labour to chasten rather +than stimulate its capabilities. There crystal rivers sparkled over +sands of gold--there the traveller might wander for days under a canopy +of fruit-laden branches, the trees bearing them being of inestimable +value as timber. The waters also abounded in wealth. Innumerable shoals +of fish disported themselves among the rocks, and the bottom was strewn +with pearls. From the dawn of creation this enchanted country had lain +secluded from mortals--now it was revealed and opened to Scottish +enterprise. Let them enter and take possession of this promised land, +and build a new city--a new Edinburgh, like Alexandria of old, which +grew to prodigious wealth and power from its position on another +isthmus--to soon become famous as the new emporium of a new world. + +The reader who has seen our account of Lionel Wafer's miserable journey +will be able to discount these florid statements, but the Scotch people +seem to have taken everything for gospel. Now, at last, they would have +a colony--a plantation of more value than any of those that the English +had begun to boast of. They were enthusiastic, and although poor, did +their very best to contribute, actually promising the large sum of +L400,000. England also subscribed to the extent of L300,000, and Holland +and Hamburg L200,000. Everything looked bright, and at last a concession +was obtained for the "Company of Scotland, trading to Africa and the +Indies." + +Strange to say, Paterson entirely ignored the claims of Spain, although +he must have known that she would strenuously object to such a +settlement. It was all very well to say the place belonged to the +Indians, but the very fact of its vicinity to the great trading centre +and channel of communication with the Pacific coast should have made him +anticipate trouble. Even if he argued that the buccaneers were +practically unmolested along the Mosquito shore, he must also have known +that their position was by no means secure, and even had this been the +case, that it would have afforded to argument in favour of his project. + +To be successful he must also have had the support of the English +Government, but unfortunately this was denied. Jealousy and envy between +the two countries led to representations adverse to the scheme being +made to King William, with the result that the Company was +discountenanced, and that most of the promised subscriptions outside of +Scotland were withdrawn. Then came dissensions among the leaders +themselves, and this lost them half the amount from their own county. +Yet with all that Paterson was undaunted, and, notwithstanding the +diminished funds at command, he still resolved to go on. + +On the 26th of July, 1698, twelve hundred men in five ships sailed for a +place near the entrance of the Gulf of Darien, a hundred miles to the +east of Porto Bello. It was afterwards stated that the vessels were +rotten and ill-found, although gaily decked with flags on the day of +departure, which hid some of their deficiencies. The provision supply +was bad, and, to crown all, the captains were coarse, brutal, and +ignorant, continually quarrelling with each other. Through envy, +Paterson had been prevented from having any voice in the arrangements, +and although he went with the expedition, he entered the ship as +ignorant of her equipment as any other passenger. But he evidently had +his doubts, for he asked for an inspection of the stores, only to have +his request treated with contempt. + +On the 27th of October the fleet came to anchor in a fair sandy bay +three leagues west of the Gulf of Darien, now known as the Port +D'Escoces. It was an excellent harbour surrounded by high mountains, +and capable of holding a thousand sail in security from wind and +tempest. The settlers named the district Caledonia, and considered it to +be fertile and even healthy. They commenced at once to erect a fort, to +which they gave the name of St. Andrews, and a cluster of houses for the +town of New Edinburgh. These labours gave them little time for planting, +and it naturally followed that they had to live on the provisions +brought from Scotland, which, bad at the beginning, were now almost +worthless. Paterson sent emissaries to the neighbouring Spanish +settlements to ask for their friendship, and went himself into the +interior to arrange treaties with the Indians, so that the Scotch might +have a good title to the land. In this latter object he was successful, +and it was agreed that peace should be kept between the natives and the +colonists, "as long as rivers ran and gold was found in Darien." + +After six days' absence he returned to find a great change in the +settlement. A spirit of mutiny and discontent had broken out, those who +worked hard being naturally dissatisfied with others who did nothing. +Then the provisions became rotten, and even then were so reduced in +quantity that the people suffered from want and its consequent sickness. +Four months passed, and nothing but daily discouragements were +encountered; not even a little gold to enliven their spirits. Hard work +under a tropical sun began to tell upon them, and although the friendly +natives brought a little game, it was almost useless among so many. +Every day, however, the number was reduced by death, fevers, and +dysentery playing sad havoc, until those who remained were utterly +dispirited. + +To add to their troubles they were refused supplies from Jamaica, King +William having sent instructions to the Colonial Governors to +discountenance the colony in every way. Paterson sent to Jamaica to get +food for the starving people, and instead, his empty vessel brought +copies of the Proclamation that had been issued in that island. This +stated that as His Majesty knew nothing of the intentions and designs of +the Scots at Darien, and as their settling on the isthmus was contrary +to the peace of Spain, every one was commanded not to hold any +communication with them, and not to supply arms, ammunition, provisions, +or anything whatsoever, on their peril. + +In this desperate condition they awaited supplies from Scotland, but +these did not arrive, for the ship had foundered on her way, and even +Paterson began to be discouraged when day after day passed without +relief. Even the reduced number could no longer exist, and with heavy +hearts they prepared to leave. They had a ship, but no provisions for +the voyage, and on account of the prohibition were prevented from +victualling at one of the islands. At last, however, they got together +as much barbecued fish and game as the Indians could procure, with a few +fruits, and sailed away. But even now fate was against them. Hardly had +they got out of the harbour before they were becalmed off this deadly +shore for many days, their scanty supply of food diminishing when it was +so much wanted for the long voyage. However, the remnant of about +thirty, survivors of the twelve hundred, at last arrived at +Charlestown, Carolina, in a most miserable condition. Paterson was +himself so worn out that he lost his senses for a time, becoming quite +childish, yet he recovered, to go back to Scotland and ask the Company +for another expedition. + +This he urged on the ground that the first had failed simply through the +want of supplies and the action of the English Government. Some were in +favour of still carrying out the project, and these drew up a petition +to the king, giving it for presentation to Lord Hamilton. William the +Third, however, refused not only to receive the petition, but even to +grant an audience to its bearer. Lord Hamilton would not be put off, +however, but watched for his opportunity, and found it one day as the +king was mounting his horse. He laid the petition on the saddle, which +made His Majesty cry out, "Now, by heaven, this young man is too bold," +adding in a softer tone, "if a man can be too bold in the service of his +country." With that he threw the document from him and rode off, +afterwards, when memorial after memorial came from Scotland, issuing a +Proclamation against the worry of such petitions. + +Notwithstanding this refusal, another expedition was sent out, the +management of which was as bad as that of the first. But this time the +Spaniards were on the alert, and hardly had the settlers begun to put +things in order before the enemy was upon them in force. Famine and +sickness again fell upon New Edinburgh, added to the horrors of a siege, +which ultimately led to a capitulation on fair terms. But so weak were +they as the Spaniards allowed them to embark, that their late enemies +out of pity helped to heave their anchors and set their sails. + +It was long before the Scotch people forgot or forgave their sister +kingdom for her action in thus frustrating their darling project. +Besides impeding the Union, it is said to have strengthened the Jacobite +feelings in the rebellions of 1715 and 1745. Even as late as the year +1788, when it was proposed to erect a monument in Edinburgh to King +William the Third and the "glorious revolution," the affair was +remembered, and some one suggested that the pedestal should have on the +one side a view of Glencoe, and on the other the Darien colony. Queen +Anne, in 1702, tried to pacify her Scotch subjects by an autograph +letter, stating that she regretted the Company's losses and +disappointments, but this did not kill the ill-feeling. As for Paterson, +in 1715 the English House of Commons voted him the sum of L18,241 as +some indemnity for his losses, but as the bill was thrown out by the +House of Lords, he got nothing. + +Thus ended one of the most disastrous of British attempts to colonise +the Indies. From beginning to end it was an example of the Dutch caution +of William of Orange, as contrasted with the recklessness of Queen +Elizabeth's time or the sturdy defiance of Cromwell. The king was not +prepared to risk war for an idea, yet at the same time he would not +prohibit the expeditions. + +From 1702 to 1713 there was war between England and Holland on the one +side, and France and Spain on the other. By the treaty of Utrecht, +which again brought peace, the English received the concession for the +exclusive supply of negro slaves to the Spanish colonies for thirty +years. This _Assiento_ contract was given to the Great South Sea +Company, which resulted from one of those joint-stock manias, now +epidemic in France, England, and even Holland. + +The Company was projected by the Earl of Oxford in 1711, and, like the +Mississippi scheme in France, was intended to assist the Government, +which was virtually bankrupt. As yet there was no funded national debt, +but large sums were owing to the army and navy, which had been +provisionally settled by debentures, that could be discounted only at a +serious loss to the owners. Down to the establishment of the Bank of +England in 1693 no public loan existed, but this was commenced by +borrowing the capital of that institution. At the peace of Ryswick, in +1697, the public debt amounted to twenty millions, but by the time the +South Sea Company was started the arrears of pay made it half as much +again. Part of the great scheme was to advance this amount on security +of English customs duties amounting to L600,000 per annum, and a +monopoly of the Spanish trade in the Indies as far as the _Assiento_ +contract would permit. + +Whether the whole affair was a fraud from the commencement is doubtful; +there were certainly misrepresentations in the prospectus, either wilful +or possibly in good faith. Spain was to allow free trade to England in +four ports on the Pacific, and three vessels besides slavers were to go +to the isthmus every year--concessions never promised nor intended by +Philip the Fifth. The slave trade was a fact, and according to the +statements it would give fabulous profits. + +[Illustration: MAP OF TERRA FIRMA. + +(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)] + +Visions of boundless wealth now floated before the eyes of the English +people, and they at once began to rival the French in their madness, as +they had in their colonisation. The English Government was ready to make +every possible concession because it wanted to be rid of the incubus of +thirty millions, and therefore did nothing to check the Company. As the +stock was issued it was at once bought up, and then sold again at a +considerable advance. Everybody expected to make fortunes, therefore +they must get shares at any price. Rumours of peace with Spain, and +great concessions that would bring all the riches of Peru and Mexico +into their coffers, roused them still more. Gold would soon be as +plentiful as copper, and silver as iron. The shareholders would be the +richest people the world ever saw, and every share would give dividends +of hundreds per cent. per annum. The bill making the Government +concessions was passed in April, 1720, when the stock was quoted at L310 +for a hundred pound share. Strange to say, it then began to fall, but +the projectors put forth a rumour that England was about to exchange +Gibraltar for a port in Peru, and confidence was restored at once. So +great was the increased demand that another million was issued at L300 +per L100 share, and these were so much run after that the fortunate +owners were at once offered double what they had paid. Then another +million was offered at L400, and in a few hours applications were +received for a million and a half. + +People were so eager to invest their money that they swallowed almost +any bait thrown to them. Hundreds of bubble companies hovered on the +outskirts of the parent, among them one for settling the barren islands +of Blanco and Sal Tortugas, another to colonise Santa Cruz, and a third +to fit out vessels for the suppression of piracy. But perhaps the most +absurd was "a company for carrying on an undertaking of great advantage, +but nobody to know what it is." + +Near their highest point the South Sea Shares were sold at L890, but so +many wanted to sell at that price that they soon fell to L640. This put +the directors again upon their mettle, and they set to work with fresh +rumours and pushed them up to L1,000, from which they suddenly went +down, with a few fluctuations, until utterly worthless. The treasurer of +the Company ran away to France when the blow fell, but the directors +were arrested and their estates ultimately confiscated. Thousands of +people were ruined, and the public credit received a blow from which it +took many years to recover. + +Meanwhile the South Sea Company had not been altogether idle. Besides +the slave vessels they were entitled to send _one_ ship annually to the +Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs, this being called the _Navio de +permisso_. It was not to be larger than five hundred tons, yet the +Company picked out the biggest they could find and filled it with goods, +to the exclusion of food and water, which were carried in small store +vessels that waited outside the harbour. This caused a great deal of +dissatisfaction, as the English brought so much that they could +under-sell the Spanish merchants in their own market. In 1715 the +_Bedford_, nominally of six hundred tons, was seized at Carthagena on +the ground that her burden was excessive. By the Spanish measurements +the cargo was said to have amounted to 2,117-1/2 tons, and the excess +was confiscated and ordered to be sold. However, the English protested, +at the same time passing over some valuable presents to the authorities, +with the result that a remeasurement was ordered, which made the amount +only 460 tons. + +In 1716 the Spaniards took Campeachy and sixty English logwood vessels, +which occasioned another war. The English claimed that they had an +undoubted right to cut logwood at that place, and that former kings had +always maintained them in this. For a long time they had quietly +possessed a part of Yucatan, uninhabited by Spaniards, and they claimed +not only the privilege of wood-cutting, but of settlement as well. +Probably the little notice taken of their attack on the Darien colony +made the Spanish authorities think England ready to bear any insult, but +they soon found out their mistake. War was declared in 1718, and all the +property of the South Sea Company, including debts, was confiscated, the +whole amounting to L850,000. This would have been a great blow to the +Company had it been genuine, but as we have seen, its mercantile +transactions were secondary considerations. + +Peace was restored by the Treaty of Madrid in June 1721, when the +_Assiento_ contract was renewed in favour of the Royal Company instead +of that of the South Sea. So much dissatisfaction had been created by +the concession for a trading ship, however, that the English did not +insist upon its continuance, and therefore only slave vessels were to be +permitted to visit the Indies in future. Everything that had been seized +from the South Sea Company was to be restored, or its equivalent value +paid, but the amount actually received only came to L200,000, which did +not go far to help the unfortunate shareholders. + +Thus, this small measure of free trade with the Spanish Indies came to +an end, and things went on much the same as before. English, Dutch, and +French vessels still carried on the contraband traffic, doing all they +could to evade the law, often with the assistance of the local +authorities. The Spanish settlers got their supplies so much cheaper in +this way than through the usual channels, that they were not likely to +give up buying as long as the smugglers ran the risk. At last, however, +the authorities received very strict orders to enforce the law, with the +result that vessels were often captured, their cargoes confiscated, and +crews imprisoned. Then the Spanish _guarda-costas_ claimed the right to +search vessels of other nationalities, and to confiscate them if they +found produce from their colonies on board, or other evidence that they +were carrying on illicit trade. + +This led to another dispute with England, which claimed compensation for +such seizures and the abolition of the right of search. English vessels +had always resented this overhauling, and latterly several had fought +the _guarda-costas_ rather than submit, with the result that, when +captured, their crews were treated with a severity often amounting to +cruelty. In 1739 several petitions were presented to the British +Parliament, complaining of such outrages, and asking the Government to +obtain redress. Among them was one from Captain Jenkins, the master of a +Scottish vessel, who was examined by the House. His story was that he +had been boarded by a _guarda-costa_, the Spaniards from which searched +his vessel without finding anything contraband. Apparently enraged at +their discomfiture, and possibly annoyed by the jeers of the English, +they cut off one of Jenkins' ears and told him to carry it to his king +with the message that they would do the same to him if he came near the +Main. Finally, according to Jenkins' statement, he was further tortured +and threatened with death. "What did you think when you found yourself +in the hands of those barbarians?" asked a Member of the House; to which +the captain replied, "I recommended my soul to God and my cause to my +country." The severed ear he exhibited in Parliament as he had done +elsewhere whenever he told the story. + +It was then stated that the losses from Spanish depredations by +plundering and the taking of fifty-two vessels, since 1728, amounted to +L340,000. In every case the masters and crews were brutally treated, and +in some cases murdered. The English demand for compensation was met by +the reply that the king had ordered inquiries to be made, and that if +any of his subjects were found guilty they would be punished according +to their deserts; also that orders would be given to conform exactly to +the treaties. It was, however, claimed that the treaty of 1667 did not +contain any clause bearing on the navigation and commerce of the Indies, +and that the English had been wrong in supposing they had a right to +sail and trade there; they were only permitted to sail to their own +islands and plantations, and were therefore subject to confiscation if +they changed their course to make for the Spanish possessions without +necessity. There were then in Havana fifteen British vessels which had +been detained on one pretext or another, and about the same time the +_Success_ from London to Virginia was captured off Montserrat, and her +captain and crew set adrift in an open boat to find their way ashore as +best they could. + +In January, 1739, a convention between Great Britain and Spain was +arranged, under which the latter agreed to pay L95,000 on account of +these demands, less the value of certain vessels which they agreed to +restore. This did not satisfy the West India merchants, and they +petitioned against it. The indemnity was to be paid on the 10th of July, +but that date having passed without a settlement, Great Britain issued +letters of marque and ordered all Spanish vessels in her waters to be +seized. Spain commenced reprisals the following month, and war was +actually declared by Great Britain on the 19th of October. The +declaration stated that for several years past unjust seizures and +depredations had been carried on, and great cruelties exercised. The +British colours had been ignominiously insulted, against the laws of +nations and solemn treaties, and Spain had lately ordered British +subjects from her dominions within a shorter period than had been +covenanted by express stipulation in those treaties. + +In July previous a fleet under Admiral Vernon had sailed from Spithead, +and after a short cruise off the Spanish coast, went over to the West +Indies, arriving at Antigua the 27th of September. Going on to Jamaica, +Vernon prepared for a grand raid on the Spanish settlements, leaving for +Porto Bello on the 5th of November with six vessels and 2,500 men. They +arrived on the 21st, and bombarded the forts, which made a stout +resistance; but while this was going on, the British landed and took the +town, thus compelling the forts to capitulate. Two warships and several +other vessels were captured, as well as specie to the amount of ten +thousand dollars, but the town was not pillaged, although the guns were +either taken away or rendered useless, and the forts as far as possible +demolished. This was virtually the end of that stronghold, as it was +afterwards allowed to fall into decay, to be ultimately replaced by +Chagres, Grey Town, and Colon. Later, also, the treasure from Peru had +much diminished, and the isthmus sunk in importance, especially after +the way round Cape Horn and through the Straits of Magellan was adopted +more and more. + +As the dispute with Spain had arisen from her action in the Indies, so +retaliation on the part of Great Britain was greatest on the Main. In +February, 1740, Vernon again sailed from Jamaica, and on the 6th of +March bombarded Santa Martha, but did not capture it. After repairing +damages at Porto Bello he went on to Chagres, took a Spanish man-of-war +from under the guns of the fort, captured the place, and demolished it. +In January, 1741, Sir Chaloner Ogle came out from England with a fleet, +and joined him, making a force of 12,000 men in twenty-nine +sail-of-the-line besides smaller vessels. + +This great fleet sailed for Hispaniola in hopes of encountering that of +Spain and France, but not finding it went on to Carthagena. This, the +other great stronghold on the Main, was guarded by two powerful +batteries, a boom across the entrance to the port, and four Spanish +men-of-war just inside. After a long cannonading the batteries were +silenced, a landing accomplished at night, and a passage made by which +the fleet entered the harbour. Here, however, further progress was +checked by sickness and disagreements among the commanders, with the +result that the siege was raised and partial success ended in miserable +failure. This was followed by another check at Santiago de Cuba, which +virtually terminated all hopes of further great exploits, although +attempts were made on La Guayra and Puerto Cabello. + +Yet with all this the Spaniards undoubtedly received a great lesson. +Their men-of-war were captured from under their fortresses, and small +English or colonial vessels performed such deeds of daring as had hardly +been equalled since the Elizabethan age. The old spirit still existed +although it might lie dormant for a time--the men were there when the +hour came. In 1740 Captain Hall in a New England privateer came to an +anchor under the fort of Puerto de la Plata, pretending to be a Caracas +trader. He wanted to land in the night and surprise the town, but found +that the inhabitants kept such a good watch that he had to give up that +idea. However, the Governor was sick and sent to ask the loan of Hall's +surgeon, and here was the opportunity he wanted. The surgeon, +quartermaster, and an interpreter visited the Governor, and at the same +time seven of Hall's crew landed and surprised the fort, dismounted the +guns, marched into the town and plundered it, finally escaping with the +loss of only one man. + +Peace was at last concluded on the 7th of October, 1748, but nothing was +said in the treaty of the right of search. The _Assiento_ contract was +confirmed, and one English trading ship allowed as formerly; free trade +with the Indies, however, was still one of those things which could +never be conceded. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +X. + +SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES. + + +With war almost continuously raging at their very doors the West Indian +planters not only risked their fortunes but their lives. During the +seventeenth century England spent something like thirty-five years in +fighting her enemies, and in the eighteenth, forty-six. As long as the +quarrel was with Spain alone the colonists cared but little, but when +France turned against them the struggle was much fiercer. The French +were always most audacious in their assaults, and the consequences were +all the more disastrous because they were such near neighbours. We have +already spoken of St. Kitt's and the difficulties produced on that +island by its division between the two nationalities. These were only +terminated by its entire cession to England, which did not take place +until the peace of Utrecht in 1713. Meanwhile, besides the two defeats +of the English already mentioned, they were driven out in 1689, to +return the following year and expel the enemy, retaining entire control +until the peace of Ryswick gave France again her share. Then in 1702 +England once more held full possession until the island was assured to +her entirely. + +Barbados, alone among the British West Indian islands, stands in the +proud position of a colony that has never fallen into the hands of +another nation. It has never even been seriously attacked beyond the +attempt of De Ruyter. And yet the island was poorly fortified, as +compared with the great strongholds of the West Indies such as +Carthagena and Curacao. Possibly "the game was not worth the candle," +for on the one hand there was little plunder to be had, and on the other +a strong force of hardy Englishmen to be encountered. We have seen +already how the Parliamentary fleet was kept at bay, and what an amount +of trouble the islanders gave before they capitulated. Even then they +were not actually conquered, although there could be no question as to +the ultimate result. + +But not only had the colonists to stand up against the enemy from +outside, but there was another danger which lay within their plantations +and dwellings from which even Barbados was not free. The slaves had to +be kept under subjection, and the planters must always be on the alert +to anticipate riots and insurrections. For although the negro in most +cases was submissive, at times he recovered that savage nature which had +only been suppressed by force and discipline. + +When we read of flogging to death and other horrible cruelties of the +planters and authorities, we are inclined to sympathise with the African +and look upon his masters as worse than brutes. But to appreciate the +full significance of these punishments we must judge them by the codes +in existence at the time, remembering that nothing was ever done to the +blacks that had not also been endured by whites for similar crimes. +True, these punishments were retained for slaves after they had become +obsolete for Europeans, but then the negro was undoubtedly stubborn and +less amenable to persuasion than any other race. Like a mule he had to +be broken in and trained, and like that stubborn animal he often gave +great trouble in the process. There were differences of opinion as to +various ways of teaching the negro, and it was only a long experience +that ultimately led to gentle conciliation instead of flogging. + +[Illustration: A REBEL NEGRO + +(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)] + +The slaves often ran away, and had to be hunted for and brought back. In +the larger islands and on the Main they hid in the forest and swamp, +where they formed communities, to which other runaways flocked until +they became strong enough to hold their own. From these recesses they +often came forth to pillage the plantations, murder the whites, and get +the slaves to go off with them in a body. If the buccaneer was ferocious +he had at least some method in his madness; the poor ignorant African, +on the contrary, let his passions dominate him entirely. In revenge for +fancied tyrannies he would commit the most atrocious crimes, torturing +his prisoners by cutting them to pieces or even flaying while they still +lived. + +Is it any wonder that when caught the bush negro or maroon was severely +punished, and that the utmost rigour of the law was exercised? As for +flogging, every one knows how common that was at the beginning of the +present century. Some of us can even look back to a time when the use of +the rod and whip on delicate children was a matter of course. Even fine +ladies took their little ones to see executions that now horrify us to +think of; in a similar way the planter's wife stood at her window to see +the punishment of her house-servant. + +We could tell of negroes burnt to death, where a downpour of rain put +out the fires and left them to linger in torment for hours, of taking +pieces of flesh from the unhappy criminals with red-hot pincers, and, +most horrible of all, breaking on the wheel. These punishments often +took place in the middle of a town, but only on one occasion have we +seen any mention of the horror of the scene, and this referred to the +smell of burning flesh. Yet the criminals--for it must be remembered +that they had been legally convicted and sentenced--showed a stoical +indifference to pain almost incredible. As savages they gloried in +showing their ability to endure torture, only craving sometimes for a +pipe of tobacco to hold between their teeth until it fell. + +[Illustration: THE EXECUTION OF BREAKING ON THE RACK. + +(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)] + +The maroons or bush negroes began to form communities on the Main and in +the larger islands from very early times. In Jamaica they were the +remnant of the Spanish slaves who ran away on the arrival of the +English, with accessions from deserters at later periods; in Surinam +some of those who had been sent into the forest to prevent their capture +by French corsairs. In both places they maintained their independence, +and ultimately made treaties with the colonial authorities, greatly to +their own advantage. In Essequebo and Demerara they were kept down by +subsidising Arawak Indian trackers, who hunted them from savannah to +forest, and from forest to swamp, killing and capturing them almost as +fast as they ran away. In the smaller and more settled islands the +runaways were generally recaptured at once and severely punished as a +warning to others. There the more daring plotted insurrections which +often caused much trouble for a few days until suppressed. They did not +last long, for the negroes were wanting in the power of combination, +because they all wanted to be leaders. Then there was generally some +faithful slave or white man's mistress to give the warning, which +sometimes caused such prompt action that the outbreak did not occur at +all. Yet with all that the danger was serious, and one that could hardly +be coped with by forts and batteries. + +As early as the year 1649 a plot for a general rising in Barbados was +discovered through the information of a bond-servant. All the whites +were to have been murdered, but fortunately the ringleaders were +arrested before the time fixed and eight of them condemned to death. +Then in 1676, under the leadership of a Coromantee, it was arranged that +on a certain fixed day, at a signal to be given by blowing shells, all +the cane-fields should be set on fire, the white men killed, and their +women retained by the negroes as their wives. This also was frustrated +by information received from a house negress. Hearing two men talking +of the matter, she made inquiries, and learnt of the plot in time to +inform her master. Six of the prisoners were burnt alive and eleven +beheaded, while five committed suicide by hanging themselves before the +trial. The story was told in a pamphlet entitled, "Great Newes from the +Barbados, or a true and faithful account of the great conspiracy." Yet +again in 1693, after a fearful epidemic had much reduced the number of +the whites, a third conspiracy was set on foot. The Governor was to have +been killed, the magazine seized, and the forts surprised and taken. +When the plot was nearly ripe two of the leaders were overheard +conversing about it and instantly arrested. They were hung in chains for +four days without food or drink, promises of pardon being made if they +revealed their accomplices, which they did at the end of that time, with +the result that some were executed and others cruelly tortured. We might +go on to tell also of the abortive insurrection of 1702 and several +others, but as there were never any very serious risings in Barbados, we +must proceed to other colonies. + +In Jamaica several abortive attempts at general insurrections were made, +some of them assisted by the maroons, who continually received +accessions to their numbers from desertion. These people also made +incursions on their own account, which led the Government to offer L5 a +head for every one killed, the reward being payable on the production of +his ears. In 1734 they destroyed several plantations and killed a +hundred and fifty white men, which led to an attempt at suppressing +them altogether. Captain Stoddart therefore took a detachment of +soldiers into the mountains to the maroon town of Nanny. Arriving at +night he planted a battery of swivel guns on a height that commanded the +collection of huts, before the negroes were aware of his coming. They +were rudely awakened from their sleep to find the place surrounded, and +in alarm many flung themselves over precipices in their hurry to escape. +Some were killed, a few captured, and the town utterly destroyed. About +the same time a party of maroons from another place were so bold as to +attack the barracks at Spanish Town. + +Two years later, under Captain Cudjo, the maroons became so formidable +that two regiments of regular troops besides the island militia were +employed to reduce them. The Assembly also ordered a line of +block-houses or posts to be erected as near as possible to their haunts, +at which packs of dogs were to be kept as part of the garrison. Then +they sent to the Main for two hundred Mosquito Indians whom they engaged +as trackers. This brought matters to a crisis, and Captain Cudjo was +compelled to sue for peace, which was granted. A treaty was therefore +made with them in 1738 at Trelawny town, by which they were to be +considered as free on condition that they captured runaway slaves, +assisted in repelling invasions, and allowed two white residents to +remain in their towns. Thus peace was restored for a time, and the +Mosquito Indians were allowed to go back to their country. + +However, Jamaica was not to be free from slave insurrections apart from +the maroons, for in May, 1760, at St. Mary's, the slaves of General +Forrest's plantation fell suddenly upon the overseer while he was at +supper with some friends, and massacred the whole company. They were +immediately joined by others, and commenced a career of plundering and +burning all the plantations in the neighbourhood. Business in the island +was at once suspended, martial law proclaimed, and every white man +called out to assist in putting down the revolt. The negroes, however, +tried to avoid an open conflict, trusting to hide in the forest, where, +however, a large body was discovered and defeated. The maroons had been +sent for, but did not arrive until this action had taken place, when +they were sent in pursuit of the flying rebels. This they pretended to +do, and in a few days returned with a collection of ears which they said +had been taken from those whom they had slain, and for which they were +paid. The story was found out afterwards to have been a falsehood, as +instead of pursuing the fugitives they had simply cut off the ears of +those who had been slain before they arrived. This led the authorities +to think the maroons in league with the revolted slaves and afterwards +to look upon them with distrust. However, by the aid of a body of free +negroes, the rebels were at last captured, to be punished in the cruel +manner so characteristic of the time. Some were burnt, some hung alive +on gibbets, and about six hundred transported to the Bay of Honduras. +Two were hung alive on the parade at Kingston, one to linger for seven +days and the other for nine, during which time it was said "they behaved +with a degree of hardened insolence and brutal insensibility." In the +course of the whole insurrection about sixty whites and four hundred +negroes were killed, and damage done to the amount of one hundred +thousand pounds. + +In 1736 a slave revolt took place at Antigua, or rather it was +discovered and anticipated. Five negroes were broken on the wheel, six +hung in chains and starved to death, one of whom lived for nine days and +eight nights, fifty-eight were burnt at the stake, and about a hundred +and thirty imprisoned. These horrible punishments were intended as a +warning to the others, and no doubt they had such an effect on that +generation. + +Few of the early insurrections met with any success, notwithstanding +that the negroes largely outnumbered the whites in every colony. At the +most the blacks had a few days' liberty to murder, burn, and pillage, +after which came the terrible retribution. There was, however, one +conspicuous exception: poor Berbice was actually taken over, and every +white man driven from the plantations. + +The Dutch were noted nigger drivers, and although the English were +unable to boast much of their humanity, they stigmatised the Hollander +as a cruel master. If a negro was obstinate, the Englishman threatened +to sell him to a Dutchman or Jew, but the worst threat of all was to +give him to a free negro. Whether this bad character was deserved or not +is doubtful, but it is quite certain that the criminal law of the +Netherlands permitted "the question" when a prisoner would not admit his +guilt. This, however, was applicable to white as well as black, there +being no particular slave code in the Dutch colonies. + +What was the immediate cause of the great rising of 1763, in Berbice, +was never exactly ascertained, but vague complaints were made of +ill-treatment by certain planters. It commenced on the 27th of February, +on an estate in the river Canje, and from thence spread like wildfire +over the whole colony. The population consisted of, besides the free +Indians, 346 whites, 244 Indian slaves, and about 4,000 negro slaves. +The garrison was supposed to consist of sixty soldiers besides officers, +distributed at several forts and posts, but owing to sickness only about +twenty were fit for duty when the rising took place. + +An epidemic of fever and dysentery had prevailed for two years among +both whites and slaves, weakening the former in such a manner that they +had no courage to contend with the revolted negroes, but mostly ran away +to Fort Nassau when they heard of the rising. Almost out of their senses +from fright, they urged Governor Hoogenheim to abandon the fort and +colony at once. Only one of the councillors stood by the Governor, and +it was as much as these two could accomplish to prevent even the +soldiers from running away. As for moving against the rebels, this was +impossible, for not one of the colonists would follow Councillor +Abbinsetts in his attempt to do something. Their fright even affected +the officials and soldiers in such a manner that the Governor could +hardly escape their importunities to be allowed to leave. + +Four vessels lay in the river, two merchant ships and two slavers, but +even their crews were sick, and the captain of one so utterly broken +down that he could not attend to his duties. The Governor tried to get +them to go up the river and do something, but they were almost as +frightened as the colonists. Only in one place were the negroes opposed; +a few whites taking refuge in the block-house at Peereboom, some +distance above the fort, where their way of escape was cut off. But for +want of a little assistance they were compelled to make terms with the +negroes. Under the agreement the whites were to be allowed to go down to +the fort in their own boats, but as soon as they began to embark the +negroes fell upon them, men, women, and children, massacred some and +took others prisoners, a few only managing to get across the river. + +Among the fugitives was a lad named Jan Abraham Charbon, whose story +gives a graphic picture of the alarm and consternation produced by the +insurrection, and of its results on himself. + +He was the son of a planter, and the alarm was brought to the estate at +night by a faithful slave. The plantations below were all in the hands +of the rebels, who were burning and murdering on both sides of the +river. The whites from several neighbouring estates gathered together +and decided to make a stand at Peereboom, hoping for assistance from +Fort Nassau. They got to the block-house early in the morning, to the +number of thirty whites, with a body of faithful slaves, who had not +yet deserted them, although they did so later. + +Soon after their arrival the insurgents surrounded the house and +attacked it, the whites making a successful defence until seven o'clock +in the evening. Then one of Charbon's slaves came forward and asked if +they wanted peace. On receiving a favourable reply the leaders on both +sides came to the agreement above-mentioned. Next morning the whites +were fired upon as they went to embark, and Charbon was wounded. +However, he jumped into the river and swam across, hiding himself in the +jungle, where he came upon another fugitive named Mittelholzer. + +For eight days the two wandered about the forest, losing their way and +almost dying from hunger and thirst. They dared not approach the river +for fear of the negroes. Once they came upon the back of a plantation +and hurriedly gathered a few cobs of Indian corn, immediately afterwards +running back into the bush to eat them. While lying down a negro with a +sabre passed quite close without seeing them, but presently another with +a gun peeped into the bushes and caught sight of them. On this +Mittelholzer ran out with his drawn sabre and so furiously attacked the +rebel that he cut off one of his hands, captured his gun, and put him to +flight. However, this audacity did not save him, for he was captured +soon afterwards, Charbon managing to escape into the forest. Alone the +boy wandered about for six or seven days, until, again becoming +desperate from hunger, he returned to the same plantation, to fall into +the hands of the negroes. He was stripped of his clothes, put in the +stocks, flogged, and threatened with death, but was finally spared on +account of his youth, and because the rebel chief, "King" Coffee, wanted +a secretary to write letters to Governor Hoogenheim, proposing terms. + +Meanwhile the poor Governor hardly knew what to do. He sent to Surinam +and Demerara for assistance, but while awaiting this the military +officers informed him that the fort was untenable against even a single +assault. The wooden palisades were so rotten that a strong man could +pull them down easily, and then the building was of wood and could +easily be fired. He was ultimately obliged to destroy it and retire down +the river, where he at first took possession of the lowest plantation, +Dageraad, hoping to remain there until assistance arrived. But even here +the rumours of an attack by the rebels made the people clamorous to be +allowed to leave, and Hoogenheim had to retire to the mouth of the +river, where there was a small guard-house, or signal station, near the +site of what is now New Amsterdam. Thus the last hold on the plantations +was given up, and the whole colony abandoned to the negroes. + +A month passed before the first arrival from Surinam. All that time the +Governor and a few whites waited day after day, sometimes almost in +despair. The vessels had, at the request of their captains, been allowed +to leave, carrying with them some of the people, while others had gone +off to Demerara. This desertion was almost necessary, as the food supply +was very limited and of a poor quality--cowards were useless, and +therefore no objection was made to their departure. Hoogenheim was at +last somewhat relieved by the arrival of the English brigantine _Betsy_ +with a hundred soldiers from Surinam, and with this small contingent he +at once began to retrace his steps with a view to recover the colony. He +went back to Dageraad, and in a day or two after was attacked by seven +hundred negroes, who fought from early morning to noon, when they +retired after suffering a great loss in killed and wounded. It was after +this battle that young Charbon arrived with a letter bringing "greetings +from Coffee, Governor of the negroes of Berbice." The rebel chief said +that as the negroes did not want war, he would give His Honour half the +colony, while he himself would govern the other half and go up the river +with his people, who were determined never again to be slaves. No notice +was taken of this, and Charbon, who had been warned to bring back an +answer at his peril, was too pleased to get back to his white friends to +again wish for his post of secretary. + +Even now the Governor's situation was not only perilous, but most +pitiful. St. Eustatius sent two vessels, but almost as soon as they +arrived the men were attacked by sickness, and instead of being a help +they had to be nursed, even the Governor himself taking his part in the +necessary attendance. At one time there were not enough healthy soldiers +to relieve guard, but fortunately Coffee had no means of knowing this, +or all would certainly have been over with them. + +It was not until December that a fleet arrived from the Netherlands, and +then a horrible vengeance overtook the rebels. There was not much +difficulty in subduing them, especially when a large contingent of +Indians was sent overland from Demerara to drive them from the forest. +In March, 1764, the trials began with a hundred ringleaders, fifty of +whom were sentenced to death. Fifteen of these were burnt, sixteen +broken on the wheel, and twenty-two hanged. The following month they +executed in similar ways thirty-four, and later again thirty-two. The +chiefs were burnt at slow fires, punishment which they bore with the +utmost stoicism. One named Atta, however, told the bystanders that he +only suffered what he deserved. Finally, in December a general amnesty +was proclaimed, which made the negroes cry out with joy, _Dankje! +Dankje!_ + +Berbice was of course utterly ruined for a time. The plantations were +overrun with weeds, the buildings in ruins, and many of the slaves +missing. Of the whites only 116 remained; the rest were dead from +sickness, had been killed by the negroes, or had fled from the colony. +The loss in killed was small, as the general fright prevented any show +of resistance. What would have happened if the whites had fallen into +the hands of the rebels was shown in one or two flagrant cases. One of +the colony surgeons was said to have been flayed alive on the ground +that he had poisoned the slaves by forcing them to take medicine. One +poor girl who had been captured at Peereboom was compelled to submit to +the embraces of King Coffee and driven mad, while another committed +suicide to prevent a similar degradation. About eight hundred slaves +were missing, most of whom had been killed, as very few managed to +escape to the bush. + +[Illustration: MARCH THROUGH A SWAMP. + +(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)] + +Behind the coast of Guiana is a long stretch of swamp, which in slavery +times was the general resort of runaways. For miles extends a grassy +plain like a meadow, the sedges entirely covering the two to four feet +of water which would otherwise give it the appearance of a great lake. +Except through the various streams that drain it, access is almost +impossible during the rainy season, and even the Indians care little to +explore its recesses beyond fishing in the canal-like creeks. However, +here and there are little islands or sand reefs, and on these the +runaway slaves took refuge. First, perhaps, a murderer would escape and +hide himself for a time until the hue and cry had abated, returning now +and again to the plantation at night for the purpose of getting +provisions from his friends. Then others would follow, until a party of +twenty to a hundred, with their wives, had established a little village. +Towards the end of the last century a number of these communities of +bush negroes had been formed in Demerara, and their depredations became +so common that regular expeditions were sent against them, guided by +Indian trackers. In 1795 they joined with the slaves to raise a general +insurrection, but special measures were taken so that they were almost +suppressed for a time. + +Before this they had formed a line of stations for seventy miles from +the river Demerara to the Berbice. Every camp was naturally surrounded +by water, and by driving pointed stakes in a circle, and leaving the +entrance to wind through a double line under water, they were made +almost impregnable. To reach them the attacking party had to wade up to +their middles through perhaps a mile of ooze and water, to be cut with +razor grass, and all the time at the mercy of the negroes. Only during +the dry season was anything like success possible, and even then the +negroes generally saved themselves by flight. + +Many of the slaves were friendly with the runaways, but they were much +feared by the more timid. On one occasion a negro went to cut wood at +the back of a plantation in Demerara and came suddenly upon the outpost +of a camp, probably the entrance to the concealed path which led to the +little sand reef. In walking along he stepped upon a bush-rope, and +immediately after heard a bell ring above his head. Before he could get +away a ferocious bush negro stood before him and demanded his business, +but the poor slave was so frightened that he ran home and reported the +occurrence to his master. Some of the slaves went so far as to enjoy +hunting runaways--in fact, there was little love lost between the two +parties. One of these was offered his freedom as a reward for the +assistance he had given in an expedition, the Government engaging to +purchase him of his owner provided they both consented. Tony, however, +did not wish to leave a good master, and refused, stipulating, however, +that he should retain the right to accept the kind offer at some future +period. When his master ultimately left Demerara, some years afterwards, +Tony claimed his promised freedom and got it. + +While the bush negroes in other parts of Guiana were kept within +reasonable bounds, those of Surinam, like the maroons of Jamaica, had +never been conquered. Treaties were agreed to by them in 1749 and 1761, +but disputes continually occurred, with the result that the colonists +were always more or less in fear of their raids. Then they carried off +most of the slaves whenever they attacked a plantation, until their +number became so great as to be a real danger. In 1773 the authorities +in the Netherlands resolved to make a special effort to conquer them, +and for this purpose raised a corps of all nationalities which was put +under the command of Colonel Fourgeaud. + +That soldiers should be brought from Europe for such a service shows the +utter ignorance of the Dutch authorities. If the colonists themselves +could not put down the bush negroes, how could it be expected that this +would be effected by fresh troops from a cold climate, who had no +knowledge of the country, the mode of fighting, or the difficulties of +travelling through the bush and swamp? + +Commissioners had visited them at different times to arrange the +treaties, but there was generally something wrong with the presents +(virtually blackmail), or else they were given to the wrong parties. In +1761 the chief Araby had insisted on the commissioners binding +themselves by his form of oath. This was done by each party tasting the +blood of the other. With a sharp knife a few drops were drawn from the +arm of each person into a calabash of water with a few particles of dry +earth. After pouring a small quantity of this mixture on the ground as a +libation, the calabash was handed round from one to another until all +the company had taken a sip. Then the gadoman (priest) took heaven and +earth--exemplified by the water and clay--to witness the agreement, and +invoked the curse of God upon the first who broke it, the company and +crowd of negroes around calling out _Da so!_ (that is so, or amen). + +Yet, after all this solemnity, quarrels soon arose again. One chief with +his sixteen hundred people had come to terms, but these did not bind his +neighbour, who perhaps had half as many. The different chiefs were not +united in any way, and it followed, therefore, that, after thousands of +guilders had been spent on one, the others made incursions to get a +share of the good things for themselves. To the colonists they were all +bush negroes, but among themselves they were as distinct as if they had +been different nations. Even when at peace, and when the chiefs had +received gold-headed canes as symbols of authority, they would often +call at the outlying plantations and demand rum or anything else they +fancied, which the whites dared not refuse. + +The immediate occasion for the special corps from the mother country was +an insurrection of the slaves in 1772, who, after plundering and burning +some of the plantations, and murdering their owners, fled in great +numbers to join the bush negroes. The whole colony was a scene of horror +and consternation--the colonists expected the rising to become general, +and took refuge in Paramaribo, thus leaving their plantations +unprotected. However, it was soon checked, mainly by raising a body of +three hundred free negroes, called rangers, who were expert +bushfighters, and therefore thoroughly well fitted to cope with the +rebels. + +One of the chiefs named Baron had settled on an island in the swamp, +such as we have described, where he defied the whole colony. There were +no means of communication except hidden tracks under water, and in +addition to the palisades the chief had erected a battery of swivel guns +which he had stolen from the plantations. Thus triply defended by water, +stakes, and guns, it is no wonder if he thought his position +impregnable. However, he was discovered by a party of rangers, and +assaulted by them and a large body of white soldiers. Camping first on +the edge of the swamp about a mile away, they could see Baron's flag +waving in defiance on the little island, while they were at their wits' +ends to find a means of getting at him. A great many shots were wasted +by both sides before they found the distance was too great, even for the +swivel guns, and then the rangers began to act. Several weeks were +passed in attempting to make a causeway by sinking fascines, but when +the workers had come within range, so many were killed that it had to be +abandoned. In despair of ever effecting anything, they were about to +retire, when some of the rangers discovered the hidden pathway under +water. A feint was now made of attacking one side by one party, while +another crept along the track, and thus at last the fortress was +stormed. A terrible hand-to-hand fight took place, in which many were +killed on both sides, but even then Baron managed to escape with a good +number of his followers. + +This defeat made little impression, for soon afterwards the slaves on +three plantations killed their white masters, and, like the others, went +off to join the bush negroes. It was now felt that something must be +done or the colony would have to be abandoned. The bush negroes had to +be hunted from their recesses, however difficult the task might be, +otherwise there would be no safety even in the town itself. The +expeditions could only move in Indian file, exposed to ambushes in the +most difficult parts of the track, and firing from behind trees +everywhere. There was no possibility of bringing the party together if +attacked; it followed, therefore, that the long string of men went +forward with the utmost caution. In front came two powerful blacks with +machetes or cutlasses to clear the way, and immediately behind them the +vanguard. These were followed by the main body alternating with +ammunition bearers, and, finally, a long line of carriers with food, +medicines, utensils, and kill-devil (rum) with the rearguard. Sometimes +the party would flounder through a swamp for hours, holding their +firearms above their heads to keep them dry. Then drenching showers +would fall, and give the greatest trouble to prevent the powder from +becoming useless. Creeks had to be passed on fallen trees, or the party +would be detained until a trunk was felled and trimmed to afford a +passage. Exposed to malaria, mosquitoes, bush ticks, and maribuntas, +they went on day after day, only to find, on reaching the village of the +bush negroes, that they had gone elsewhere, to perhaps turn up at some +unprotected plantation. The European troops died off in great numbers, +while the enemy were in their element. It followed, therefore, that +little was done, and that the old system of conciliation had to be +adopted, with the same unsatisfactory results. Finally, by utilising +their mutual jealousies, about 1793 they were driven so far away from +the settlements as to become almost harmless. Their descendants still +exist almost as savages, with curious manners and customs, partly +inherited from their African forefathers, and partly adopted from their +neighbours the Indians. + +[Illustration: TRELAWNY TOWN. + +(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)] + +We must now return to the maroons of Jamaica, who had not been +conquered, although a nominal treaty existed, and the white residents +remained at their posts. In July, 1795, two of them were flogged for +pig-stealing, and this was considered a disgrace on the whole community. +On the return of the pig-stealers to Trelawny they raised a great +outcry, and the resident was at once ordered to leave on pain of death. +Efforts were made to pacify them, but they sent a written defiance to +the magistrates who had ordered the flogging and declared their +intention to attack Montego Bay. The militia were called out and +soldiers applied for, but before the preparations were completed, a body +of maroons appeared and asked for an interview with four gentlemen whom +they named. + +Hoping the matter might be prevented from going farther, these and +several other whites went to the rendezvous, where they were received by +three hundred armed men. The maroons complained of the disgrace on the +whole body, through the flogging having been performed by a negro +overseer in the presence of felons, and demanded reparation. They +wanted, first, an addition to their lands, and, second, a dismissal of +the then resident in favour of one they had formerly. Promising to +forward their requests to the Governor, the gentlemen left, the maroons +appearing as if pacified. + +However, this interview was only applied for to gain time, and +especially to allow the departure of the British fleet which was then on +the point of leaving, and might be detained if they moved too quickly. +On the report that there was a probability of a settlement of the matter +the fleet left, when the maroons immediately began to plot with the +slaves for a general rising. Reports of this had been received by the +Governor before, but just after the men-of-war had departed more +definite news arrived, which induced him to send a fast-sailing boat to +bring them back. Fortunately this was successfully accomplished, and at +once confidence drove out the fear of murders, fires, and plundering +which had alarmed the inhabitants. The slaves were correspondingly +disheartened and left the maroons to fight alone. + +But even the maroons themselves became divided in opinion on the return +of the military and naval force. The Governor taking advantage of this, +issued a proclamation calling upon them to submit, but only thirty-eight +old men came forward, the others being determined to fight. They set +fire to their own town and commenced hostilities by attacking the +outposts. This led to a pursuit in which the whites fell into an +ambuscade, many being killed, without as far as was known doing any harm +whatever to the enemy. Now commenced a series of raids on the +plantations, in which even infants at the breast were massacred. + +[Illustration: PACIFICATION OF THE MAROONS. + +(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)] + +The matter becoming serious, the General Assembly resolved to hunt the +rebels with dogs, as had been intended before the treaty. They +accordingly sent over to Cuba for huntsmen with their powerful +blood-hounds, the descendants of those which had once worried the poor +Indians, and afterwards assisted the buccaneers. Times had changed +however, and a feeling grew up that hunting men with savage beasts was +not quite the thing. This led to some expressions of opinion adverse to +the action of the executive, but they excused themselves on the ground +that the safety of the island demanded extreme measures. If war was +justifiable at all, any and every means, they said, was allowable; in +fact, "all was fair in war." + +Meanwhile the maroons had been driven to their strongholds in the +mountains, where they had little to eat, and were virtually compelled to +ravage the plantations for food. On the arrival of forty _chasseurs_ +with their hundred dogs, however, they became alarmed, and began to sue +for mercy. It does not appear that there was any real necessity for +using the animals, their presence being enough for the purpose. They +were led _behind_ the troops, and on their appearance the maroons +surrendered in great numbers, this putting an end to the insurrection. + +Now came the question of what was to be done with them. It was argued +that no country could suffer people to live in it unless they could be +controlled by law, and that obedience could not be expected from these +people. To expect it was entirely out of the question; it was therefore +resolved to transport them from the island. Accordingly, in June, 1796, +six hundred were sent to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where lands were granted +them and a subsistence allowed until crops could be raised. Not liking +the climate, they were ultimately established in Sierra Leone, where +they became the nucleus of the present colony. Those who had submitted +remained in Jamaica, where their descendants are still well known. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +XI. + +THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS. + + +By the middle of the eighteenth century Spain had fallen behind, and +even Holland had lost her prestige. It followed, therefore, that the +only Power that could rival Great Britain was France, and she was an +enemy that could never be despised. The struggle in the West Indies +between these two Powers now became, if possible, more intense; and if +the result gave the sovereignty of the seas to Britons, they have mainly +to ascribe it to their naval training in this part of the world. The +mistakes of Admiral Vernon were lessons which, being borne in mind by +later admirals, tended to prevent similar disasters in the future. + +There was a short intermission in the struggle between 1748 and 1756, +when the "Seven Years' War" commenced; but before the actual declaration +hostilities had commenced between the two rivals in India and North +America. Now arose one of England's great admirals, Rodney, who gained +his laurels in the Caribbean Sea, and was mainly instrumental in putting +France in the background as a naval power. He first came to the front in +1759, when he bombarded Havre, and later, with that other great seaman, +Sir Samuel Hood, he became a "household word" in the West Indies. + +Before they appeared, however, the British captured Guadeloupe, and +commenced a general raid upon the French shipping. But, as usual, our +gallant foes were by no means despicable, for in 1760 they claimed to +have taken 2,539 English vessels, against a loss of only 944. On the 5th +of January, 1762, Rodney sailed from Barbados for Martinique, in command +of eighteen ships of the line, and on the 4th of the following month the +island capitulated. Then Grenada was taken, to be followed by Dominica, +Tobago, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia, thus giving the whole of the French +Caribbees into the possession of Great Britain. Spain being also +involved, Admiral Pococke attacked Havana in May, and, after a siege of +twenty-nine days, took the Morro Castle, a fort hitherto considered +impregnable. A fortnight later the Governor of Cuba was compelled to +capitulate, thus giving the town also into the hands of the British. +These exploits made France and Spain sue for peace, which was signed at +Paris in February, 1763, when Grenada, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago +were ceded to Great Britain, the other captures being restored. + +After this war positive orders were sent to the British West Indies to +break off all trade and intercourse with the French and Spanish +settlements, with the result that contraband and other traffic was +thrown into the hands of the Dutch and Danes. Then the Dutch islands of +Curacao and St. Eustatius began to flourish more and more, and those of +the Danes, St. Thomas and St. John, became free ports. During the wars +these islands rose to a pitch of prosperity hardly possible to any of +those belonging to the combatants, on account of their neutrality. +Naturally they were almost barren and of little account as plantations; +but as _entrepots_ they were exceedingly useful, not only to their +owners, but to the belligerents as well. Here alone could French, +Spanish, and British ships meet without fighting, and for them they +could run when pursued by the enemy. + +The island of St. Thomas was first colonised in 1666, but for a long +time it made little progress. It became useful to the pirates, however, +mainly from its being a safe place at which to dispose of their +captures. Then merchant vessels found it sometimes convenient to go in +to escape these rovers, perhaps to be followed by them, and yet remain +safe until an opportunity occurred for escaping their vigilance. Prizes +were brought here and sold, the prospect of good bargains leading to the +settlement of a number of rich merchants, and especially Jews. What with +all this, and a little contraband traffic, the people of St. Thomas did +very well, and soon the harbour became one of the busiest in the West +Indies. + +And here we must mention that the Jews were a very important factor in +the development of the early settlements. It will be remembered that +large numbers of these people were driven from Spain after the conquest +of Granada, and how they went to Portugal and the Netherlands. A large +number also went to Brazil, where at first they had a measure of +freedom in the exercise of their religion not granted in the mother +country. When the Dutch captured Brazil, perfect freedom followed; but +after Portugal took her own again, this was withdrawn, and in +consequence many left for Surinam and the West Indian islands. Here they +were joined by some of their co-religionists from Holland, and in time +became a powerful body of planters, but more especially traders. To them +were due many improvements in the manufacture of sugar, and even the +introduction of the cane into some places. In every colony there was a +small community, often with a synagogue, and their connection one with +another, as well as their virtual neutrality, made their transactions +more safe than those of other traders. As may be supposed, they had no +love for the Spaniard, and consequently were the main financiers, not +only of privateers, but even pirates. + +St. Thomas, Curacao, and St. Eustatius lived by the misfortunes of +others. No longer could the jolly buccaneer sell his prizes and booty at +Jamaica; he must go elsewhere, and let other places reap the advantage +of his free and easy bargains. For it was "easy come, easy go" with him, +and the fortune he made was soon wasted in riotous living. This was all +to the advantage of the wily Jew, who first haggled about the price of a +cargo, and then got his money back by charging enormous profits on the +supplies. The rover was as careless as the proverbial "Jack ashore," and +could easily be induced to spend his last piece of eight on the luxuries +so temptingly laid before him, utterly regardless of the consequences. +He had only to go out and capture another vessel to be able to return +and renew his jollification. + +In war time these harbours were crowded with the shipping of all +nations, and many a fortune was made that enabled the merchant to go to +Europe as a West Indian nabob. Then there was a great demand for neutral +vessels, in which goods could be transhipped for conveyance to colonies +where the belligerent flag might bring a crowd of privateers before the +vessel got safely into harbour. Even physicians and surgeons made their +piles, for there was always more or less sickness on board the vessels, +and a hundred dollars a visit was a common fee. + +In 1774 began the dispute with the American colonies of Great Britain, +and four years later France joined them, thus bringing trouble again +upon the West Indies. The first important move was made by the French, +who, in September, 1778, took Dominica, on which the English retaliated +by capturing St. Lucia. Then a fleet was sent out from England under +Admiral Byron, and another from France under Count de Grasse. The French +took St. Vincent and Grenada, and every island of either nation was in a +state of alarm and consternation. In July, 1779, Spain joined the others +against England, on the ground that her flag had been insulted. To this +it was replied that she harboured American privateers, and furnished +them with false documents, under which they carried Spanish colours. +Thus England had her hands full, for the Yankees alone gave her quite +enough work, without the addition of these old rivals. + +As yet Rodney had not come out, but in the years 1778 and 1779 he +pressed his claim on the Government to have a command in the West +Indies. The seas were well known to him, and he had his views as to the +proper mode of carrying out operations; but for some time his +application was refused. Finally, however, in October, 1779, he was +appointed to replace Admiral Byron, with supreme control over the +operations in the Caribbean Sea, as well as freedom to intervene if +necessary on the American coast. + +Rodney was at last satisfied, and he left in December with a convoy, the +whole fleet numbering three hundred. In the centre were transports and +merchant vessels, and on either side men-of-war. Off Cape Finisterre he +captured a convoy of sixteen Spanish vessels, and beyond Cape St. +Vincent fought with another squadron, and captured four men-of-war, +including the admiral. On then to the relief of Gibraltar, from whence +he sent part of the fleet into the Mediterranean, and where he remained +until February 13, 1780, when he sailed for the West Indies. + +Arriving off St. Lucia on the 28th of March, he came upon the French +fleet under De Guichen, which he attempted to engage, but was prevented +from the want of skill in his captains. The result was that both fleets +sailed away from each other without much damage to either, both stating +that the other refused to fight. As, however, the French had thirty +vessels to the English seventeen, they could have compelled an action; +so that, although the affair was not creditable to either, it was +perhaps a little more disgraceful to the larger fleet. Rodney was in a +great rage. He attributed his failure to the incompetency of his +subordinates, who had not been properly trained to make combined naval +evolutions. Every captain, he said, thought himself fit to be Prime +Minister of Britain. + +However, he continued his cruise, barring the way of the French, and +driving De Guichen to St. Eustatius to refit. Now he began to teach his +captains those naval manoeuvres in which he considered them so much +wanting, which his assistant admiral, Sir Hyde Parker, did not +altogether like. Rodney, it appears, treated all his subordinates as if +they were raw recruits, and, while he gained obedience, created a great +deal of ill-feeling. But, with all their training, they could not bring +De Guichen to fight, even when they encountered him a second time; yet +we may presume that the training was by no means wasted. + +As if Great Britain had not enough enemies, in December, 1780, she +declared war with the Dutch, on the ground that they assisted the +American colonies. What a formidable array--the Colonies, France, Spain, +and Holland! Yet, somehow or other, she managed to cope with the whole. + +St. Eustatius was the great offender among the Dutch colonies. +Notwithstanding that the home Government had sent out strict orders to +all her settlements not to honour the flag of the revolted British +colonies, or to supply them with contraband of war, there is no doubt +that they were very loose in inquiring into such transactions. As we +have said already, this and other islands were very useful to the +belligerents; and, as we have just stated, De Guichen went to St. +Eustatius to escape Rodney and refit. This was no doubt a sore point +with the British admiral, who barred the enemy's passage to his own +islands only to see him get what he needed from the Dutch. + +When the news of the declaration of war came out, Rodney was ready at +once to pounce upon the offender; and on the 3rd of February, 1781, +before the authorities of St. Eustatius had heard the news, he appeared +in the harbour. The Governor could hardly believe his ears when an +officer appeared to demand the surrender of the island to His Majesty of +Great Britain, but being entirely unprepared, and quite unfitted to cope +with such a force, he was obliged to surrender at discretion. + +Here was the opportunity for revenge, and Rodney embraced it. Even his +best friends could hardly excuse the arbitrary doings which followed, +and which were stigmatised as unworthy and almost dishonourable to a +British admiral. Being determined to root out this nest of +contrabandists, he confiscated all the property of the inhabitants, and +ordered them to quit the island. The harbour was filled with shipping, +and the stores with goods, the vessels numbering two hundred and fifty, +and the contents of the stores worth about three million pounds. Here +was indeed a disaster to the Jews, not only of St. Eustatius, but even +of British islands, for they were all in correspondence. Rodney went so +far as to say that many of the English merchants ought to have been +hanged, for it was through their means, and the help of this neutral +port, that the enemy were able to carry on the war. + +The people were astonished at such unheard-of treatment. Never before +had such a thing happened, except in the raids of buccaneers and +pirates. The Jews petitioned Rodney and General Vaughan to rescind their +decision. They had received orders to give up the keys of their stores +and inventories of the goods in them, as well as household furniture and +plate; then they were to prepare themselves to quit the island. Such +orders from British commanders, whose principal characteristics were +mercy and humanity, had distressed them in the extreme, so that their +families were absolutely in despair. + +This appeal had no effect, even when it was supported by some of the +British officers, and such an auction now began as was never known +before. The news reached Barbados and the other islands, and down came a +horde of speculators, prepared to make their fortunes at once if +possible. Such a haul did not occur every day, and they intended to take +advantage of it. Thousands of bales of goods were brought out and sold, +without either seller or buyer knowing anything of their contents. They +might contain rich silks and velvets or the cheapest slave clothing. It +was a grand lottery in which every bidder got a prize, although they +were in some cases of little value. No one needed to despair of a +bargain, however, for there was so much to sell as compared with the +number of purchasers, that everything went cheap. Some few got bitten, +but in the end hardly a tithe of the value of the goods was obtained. + +While this was going on at St. Eustatius, some Bristol privateers got +information of the outbreak of hostilities, and pounced upon Demerara +and Berbice, where they levied blackmail and captured most of the +shipping. As usual with these plunderers, they had no authority to +capture the colony, nor had they in this case even commissions against +the Dutch. However, they put the inhabitants in a state of +consternation, until, a few days later, two men-of-war arrived from +Barbados to receive the capitulation, which was demanded on the same +terms as that of St Eustatius, although neither party knew what these +terms were. Nothing was left but submission, although the authorities +protested against such an unheard-of manner of dictating unknown terms. +The Governor of Barbados had heard from one of the inhabitants of that +island that the Directeur-General of Demerara had expressed, at his +dinner-table, his fears that in case of a war the river would be +plundered by privateers, and of his preferring to surrender to one of +the king's ships: for this reason he had sent the men-of-war. This was +considered a bit of "sharp practice" by the Demerarians, but perhaps +turned out for the best. + +Two commissioners were appointed by the colony to go in one of the +English vessels to St. Eustatius and arrange the articles of +capitulation, which were fortunately on altogether different lines from +those of that island. Surinam, St. Martin's, Saba, and St. +Bartholomew's also surrendered on the same unknown terms, but the +admiral said that he and General Vaughan thought they ought to be put on +a different footing. They would not treat them like the other, whose +inhabitants, belonging to a State bound by treaty to assist Great +Britain, had yet nevertheless assisted her public enemies and the rebels +to her State, with every necessary and implement of war as well as +provisions, thus perfidiously breaking the very treaties they had sworn +to maintain. + +The treatment of St. Eustatius caused a great stir, not only in the West +Indies, but in England as well. A remonstrance was sent to Rodney by the +merchants of St. Kitt's, who claimed that a large quantity of their +goods had been seized. Some of these were insured in England, and they +considered their Excellencies responsible for their losses, for which +they would seek redress by all the means in their power. It was +impossible, they said, for many of them to be more utterly ruined than +they then were, and they asked that certificates in reference to their +property should be sent to England, in demanding which they were +claiming a right rather than a favour. In reply, Rodney said he was +surprised that gentlemen who called themselves subjects and merchants of +Great Britain, should, when it was in their power to lodge their effects +in the British islands to windward, under the protection of British +laws, send them to leeward to St. Eustatius, where, in the eyes of +reason and common sense, they could only be lodged to supply their +king's and country's enemies. The island, he continued, was +Dutch--everything in it was Dutch--all was under the Dutch flag. As +Dutch it should be treated, and this was his firm resolution as a +British admiral, who had no view whatever but to do his duty to his king +and country. + +Two merchants from St. Eustatius went to London, where they were +examined by the Attorney and Solicitor-Generals. They clamoured for +justice, and got it, for one of them was committed on a charge of high +treason for corresponding with the American agent at Amsterdam, and for +furnishing the Americans with military stores and ammunition. Several +attempts were made to injure Rodney with the king, but the blow on the +enemy was so severe that His Majesty would not listen to the detractors. +It is said that a cry of rage went up from the French and American +colonies, and that Rodney gloried in his triumph. He was undoubtedly +inclined to ride rough-shod over everybody and everything, but as long +as he was successful, only the enemy complained. + +But the trouble was not yet over, for the merchants of St. Kitt's sent +lawyers to file their claims in the Admiralty Courts. Then St. Eustatius +was recaptured for Holland by the French, and the tide turned against +the admiral. Now was the time to attack him, and his enemies took +advantage of it. The mob that threw up their caps and shouted for joy at +the glorious news of the capture, now lifted their hands in horror at +Rodney's misdeeds. Even his friend Hood was guilty of the meanness of +charging his comrade with carrying off vast sums of money, and never +accounting for them. Rodney was recalled to England, where he arrived +on the 19th of September, 1781, in ill-health, and rather downspirited. +In December Burke moved the House of Commons for a committee to inquire +into the affair, but although he pressed the motion with all his powers +of oratory it was rejected. + +Meanwhile the French were turning the tables upon the late victors and +having their revenge for the disasters which had fallen upon them. This +led to Rodney being again consulted, with the result that on the 19th of +February, 1782, he arrived in Barbados with twelve ships of the line. +This was the most critical period during the whole war. On the 19th of +October previous, Lord Cornwallis had surrendered to the Americans at +Yorktown, and this disaster was followed not only by the loss of the +West Indian captures, but of the British colonies of St. Kitt's, Nevis, +Montserrat, Dominica, and St. Vincent. It was by the special request of +the king that Rodney had been again sent out, and before his departure +he declared that either the French admiral or himself should be +captured. Lord Sandwich, to impress him the more, on the eve of his +departure said: "The fate of this Empire is in your hands, and I have no +wish that it should be in those of any other." + +Meanwhile the Count de Grasse was at Martinique, preparing a large fleet +for the final reduction of the British by conquering Jamaica. He was +expecting large reinforcements of French vessels and troops, which +Rodney tried unsuccessfully to cut off. On the 8th of April the French +were reported as having sailed for Hispaniola, where they were to be +joined by a Spanish contingent, and Rodney at once sailed in pursuit. +The result was that, at last, on the 12th, a decisive victory was gained +off Dominica. Admiral de Grasse was captured, many of his fleet +destroyed, and the whole expedition broken up. The British West Indies +were thus saved, and the people of Jamaica erected a statue to the +gallant admiral. Rodney, in concluding his despatch giving the account, +said it was his most ardent wish that the British flag should for ever +float in every part of the globe, and there is no doubt that this +triumph conduced to such an end. It stands prominently forth as the +greatest sea fight of the age, and was only eclipsed by those of Nelson, +who we may state received much of his naval training in the West Indies. + +In January, 1783, peace was again restored. Great Britain lost her +American colonies, restored those she had taken from France and Holland, +and got back her own, except the island of Tobago, which was ceded to +France. From Spain she got the right to cut logwood between the rivers +Hondo and Belize, on the understanding that all other places on the +coasts of Central America should be abandoned, and that no forts be +erected on the concession. + +For ten years there was peace, and during that time the planting +colonies were developed to a wonderful extent, while those dependent on +the contraband traffic became much depressed. The English settlements +increased in value so much, that in 1788 they were calculated to have +under cultivation two million and a half acres, with five hundred and +sixty thousand slaves. These were the palmy days of the slave-trade, +when the importations leapt up year after year, with a corresponding +increase in the export of produce. The property was valued at over +eighty-six millions sterling, Jamaica coming first, but nearly every +other island flourishing to an extent hardly credible to those who have +only seen them after their downfall. + +What Jamaica was to the English, the western portion of Hispaniola +became to the French, and even Spain increased her productions, now that +things had become settled, and treasure seeking less remunerative. +Altogether, the period from this time, to the end of the century, may be +considered as the planter's best days, and the "good old times" of which +we hear so much but find it so difficult to precisely indicate. + +On the 1st of February, 1793, peace was again broken by the French +Convention, the declaration of war being made against England and +Holland. Thus began that struggle which seemed interminable at the time, +and which actually lasted twenty-two years. As usual the West Indies +suffered, but this time they were not quite so much the scene of +contention as they had been formerly. Tobago was captured from the +French on the 15th of April, but during the remainder of the year little +was done. In January, 1794, however, Admiral Sir John Jervis arrived at +Barbados, and in the following month took Martinique after a severe +struggle. Then he went on to St. Lucia, which also surrendered, and +before the end of April Guadeloupe fell. Then came reverses; a French +fleet arrived, and all were recaptured. + +Meanwhile France had invaded Holland, and established a sister republic +on her own lines, rendering it necessary for the Stadtholder, the Prince +of Orange, to fly off to England. From Kew, where the king had given him +a residence, he wrote letters to all the Dutch colonies, asking the +authorities to place them in the hands of the British, and treat people +of that nationality as friends and allies. With these despatches British +fleets were sent to all the possessions of Holland, but only one or two +obeyed the command, the result being that the others had to be taken by +force, until hardly a Dutch colony existed in any part of the world. + +In October, 1796, Spain joined France on the ground that the British, in +their operations against the enemy, had injured her in several ways. One +of the reasons given was so absurd that we can hardly conceive it to +have been put forth seriously. Great Britain had captured Demerara, and +this put her in a situation to possess positions of greater importance. +Spain, however, got nothing by her taking up the quarrel, for her trade +was absolutely swept from the seas, and communication with America +almost cut off. This state of things became so troublesome that for the +first time in her history neutral vessels were permitted to trade in her +American colonies. She also lost the island of Trinidad, which had +remained in her possession since the days of Ralegh. + +Soon the whole of the West Indies and Spanish Main were virtually under +the control of Great Britain, little opportunity being given to her +enemies of crossing the Atlantic. No longer could the Caribbean Sea be +the scene of the great struggle--the forces of the combatants were +wanted nearer home. Now again came the harvest of the little island of +St. Thomas, until Denmark was also numbered among the enemies of the +"Queen of the Seas." Then the United States came to get her pickings as +a neutral, which gave such an impetus to her ship-building and commerce, +that later the seamen trained under such auspices became formidable +rivals to the British. + +The colonists did not altogether dislike this great war. True, freights +and insurances were very high, but then the prices of produce were high +also. There was a spice of danger in every voyage, but after all the +risk was not so very great until the vessels came into the Channel. Then +there was a convoy to protect them, and they might even get prize money +by capturing traders of the enemy. Every vessel went armed, and many a +privateer of the enemy got severely beaten by a gallant body of merchant +seamen and passengers. This was a glorious time for the British navy, +but the fleets in the West Indies had little to do after the beginning +of the war. There was a great disturbance on the island of Hispaniola, a +riot in Grenada, troubles in the French islands, and a few skirmishes +here and there, but nothing of much consequence to the British. + +There were many small difficulties of course, and the navigation laws +had to be relaxed generally in favour of neutrals, as otherwise +provisions would have been scarce. The Dutch were not altogether +displeased with British rule, for Curacao, which had not been conquered, +was captured from its French garrison in 1800, at the request of the +inhabitants, whose trade had been entirely stopped. Then the Spanish +colonies came to an arrangement by which much of their produce went +through British hands, and this prevented the neutrals from getting +everything. + +In 1802 the peace of Amiens gave France a rest for about ten months, +when she got back her own and the Dutch colonies, leaving Trinidad as an +addition to those of Great Britain. Hardly, however, had they taken +possession, when the treaty was broken, and the British were again in +their midst. A great deal of the work which had been undone by the peace +had now to be undertaken afresh, but it was ultimately accomplished, so +that things went on much the same as before. + +The year 1805 was notable for Nelson's trip across the Atlantic in +search of the French fleet, which however fled before him and got back +to Europe. The same year also saw the heroic defence of "H.M.S." Diamond +Rock, which however was not a ship, but an improvised fortress, which +after a long struggle was obliged to capitulate. Hundreds of gallant +exploits were performed in the West Indies by both English and French, +and thus the war went on year after year, until it became something to +be calculated for in commercial transactions. People began to look upon +it almost as a natural state of things, and fathers told their children +that they had peace on one occasion long ago for as many as ten years. + +The British had undoubtedly become very arrogant. Their position on the +sea was so supreme that they did much as they pleased with the few +neutrals. This sort of thing did not suit the North American traders, +who were Englishmen also, and like their forefathers resented any +interference whatever. It resulted, therefore, that the United States +declared war in January, 1813, and made the planters understand what +took place "when Greek met Greek." Almost immediately every colony was +pestered and worried by a number of fast-sailing schooners, as dangerous +in a sense as had once been the fly-boats of the buccaneers. The heavy +sugar boats going from plantation to port were captured in great +numbers, and some of the harbours actually blockaded by the "Saucy +Jack," the "Hornet," and other audacious Yankee craft with names as +suggestive of their characters. Then, indeed, the West Indies were +roused from their apathy--war was actually at their doors. However, +peace came at last, and after 1815 it might be expected that the islands +would go on prospering and to prosper. + +Such, however, was not the case. In 1807 a great difficulty had come +upon them by the abolition of the slave-trade, which at once put a stop +to all extensions, either in the way of new plantations or of the +acreage under cultivation. This was the first great check, and with the +fall in prices, which ensued when Britain became the consignee of almost +every settlement, caused a cry of "Ruin!" to arise, which has continued +with short intermissions down to the present day. + +[Illustration] + + + + +XII. + +DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA. + + +Before the abolition of the slave-trade had affected the British islands +the French colonies were distracted by the results of their great +revolution. Hispaniola, or rather that portion now known as Hayti, had +become, as we before said, the most important colony; we must now give +the story of its downfall. If this had happened by the fortune of war it +would perhaps not have been so deplorable, but to be utterly ruined as +it was, until even now, after the lapse of a century, it is behind its +neighbours, is very sad. + +But, in the struggle for existence the straining after liberty has to be +reckoned with, and although the process causes intense suffering to both +lord and serf--master and slave--the fight is sure to come at some time +or other. Miss Martineau uses the title, "The hour and the man," for her +romance of the liberation of this once flourishing island. The hour had +come, but we are afraid _the man_ has not yet appeared on Hispaniola. + +When the French people took the government from the hands of their king +and summoned the States General, revolutionary ideas had already come +to a head, and the matter of slavery received much consideration. In all +the colonies were numbers of free coloured persons, who had been +manumitted by their fathers, and in many cases sent to Europe for their +education. In Paris they were brought into communication with a kind of +anti-slavery society, called _L'Amis des noirs_, before which they had +opportunities of ventilating their grievances. These consisted of civil +disabilities which kept mulattoes in the background, and prevented their +taking what they believed to be their proper positions in society. The +time was fitted for such an agitation, the people were there, and it was +only to be expected that their complaints would come in the long +catalogue of charges against the aristocrats, among whom were included +the West Indian planters. However, although there was little sympathy +with the colonists, nothing particular was done as yet, except the issue +of the celebrated declaration that all men were born, and continued to +be, free and equal as to their political rights. It might be said, +perhaps, that this alone gave freedom to the slave and civil equality to +the mulatto, but as it did not specially apply to them, little trouble +ensued. The planters, however, were sufficiently acute to see the +logical outcome of the declaration, and were correspondingly troubled, +as they felt that if published among the negroes it might convert them +into implacable enemies, and bring on dangerous insurrections. They were +soon pacified, however, by orders to convene provincial assemblies, and +send representatives to Paris: this they thought would prevent +mischief, as their interests could be made known and promoted in +France. + +[Illustration: VIEW OF PART OF HISPANIOLA. + +(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)] + +The free coloured people soon heard the news, and at once began to claim +their rights as citizens, which the planters were by no means prepared +to grant. On this refusal they began to arm themselves, and make +demonstrations in various parts of Hayti, but at first were easily put +down by the authorities. As yet there was little ill-feeling; the +demonstrations were only alarming from their significance and their +possible consequences. It followed, therefore, that little was done +beyond a demand for submission, the mulattoes being allowed to disperse +on promising to keep the peace. A few whites, however, who had been +leaders in the agitation, were severely punished, and when a certain +Mons. Dubois not only advocated the claims of the coloured people, but +the slaves as well, he was banished from the colony. + +Mons. de Beaudierre, a _ci-devant_ magistrate, also helped to add to the +trouble. He was enamoured of a coloured woman, who owned a valuable +plantation, and wanted to marry her, but at the same time wished to see +her free from all civil disabilities. Accordingly he drew up a memorial +to the committee of his section, claiming for the mulattoes the full +benefit of the national declaration of rights. This roused the +authorities, who at once arrested him, but so strong was the feeling of +the whites that they took the prisoner from gaol and put him to death. + +The agitation in Hayti as well as in Martinique led to petitions and +remonstrances to the National Assembly, and on the 8th of March, 1790, +the majority voted that it was never intended to comprehend the internal +government of the colonies in the constitution of the mother country, or +to subject them to laws incompatible with their local conditions. They +therefore authorised the inhabitants of each colony to signify their +wishes, and promised that, as long as the plans suggested were +conformable to the mutual interests of the colonies and the metropolis, +they would not cause any innovations. + +This of course raised a clamour among the friends of the blacks and +mulattoes, who considered it as sanctioning the slave-trade, which they +wanted to put down. In Hayti the General Assembly met and made some +radical changes, which were opposed by many of the old colonists, and +this brought discord among the whites. The Governor dissolved the +Assembly, but this only brought more trouble, for the subordinate +Western body took the part of the General Assembly, and went so far that +the Governor tried to suppress it by force. But the members put +themselves under the protection of the national guard who resisted the +troops sent against them, and after a short skirmish drove them off. +Thus all authority was put at defiance by the whites, when if they +wanted to keep down the coloured and black people, it was of the +greatest consequence that union should exist. The General Convention +called the colony to arms, but, before actually commencing hostilities, +they resolved to proceed to France, and lay the whole matter before the +Convention. Accordingly to the number of eighty-five they sailed on the +8th of August, 1790, the authorities also agreeing to await the result. + +Among the coloured residents in France was a young man named James Oge, +the son of a mulatto woman by a white man, whose mother owned a coffee +plantation. He was a regular attendant at the meetings of the friends of +the blacks, where, under such men as Lafayette and Robespierre, he had +been initiated into the doctrine of the equal rights of men. On hearing +of the vote of non-interference with the colonies, Oge, maddened by the +thought that the civil disabilities of people of his colour would be +continued, resolved to go himself to Hayti. He was confident that the +people there would join him, and going out by way of the United States +he obtained there a good supply of arms, with which he arrived in +October of the same year. + +Six weeks after his arrival he wrote to the Governor, demanding that all +the privileges of the whites should be extended to every other person, +without distinction. As representing the coloured people he made this +request, and if their wrongs were not at once redressed, he said, they +were prepared to take up arms. He had already been joined by his two +brothers, and they were busy calling upon their friends to insist, +assuring them that France approved of their claim. But with all his +efforts he could get but few followers, the same difficulty cropping up +here as in most of the slave insurrections--a want of the power of +combination under one of their own race. However, he at last got +together two hundred, and, receiving no answer from the Governor, they +commenced a series of raids on the plantations. Oge cautioned them +against bloodshed, but the first white man that fell into their hands +was murdered, and others soon met with the same fate. Even mulattoes, +who refused to join the insurgents, were treated the same way; one man +who pointed to his wife and six children, as a reason for his refusal, +being murdered with them. + +The Governor now sent out a body of troops and militia to suppress the +revolt, with the result that Oge was defeated, and obliged to take +refuge with the remnant of his followers in the Spanish colony of St. +Domingo. The whites were now roused, and began to cry out for vengeance +upon the coloured people in general, whether they had sympathised with +Oge or not. In self-defence they had to take up arms in several places, +but by conciliation on the part of the authorities a general +insurrection was averted for the time. A new Governor now arrived, and +one of his first acts was to demand the extradition of Oge by the +Spaniards, which, being done, he was executed by breaking alive upon the +wheel. In his last confession he is said to have stated that a plot was +then hatching for the destruction of all the whites, but little notice +was taken of this information. The whites believed that now the leader +was dead things would go on in the old way, but, unfortunately for them, +they were mistaken. + +Meanwhile the delegates had arrived in France, where they were +honourably received. After an interview with a Committee of the +Convention, however, they were informed that their decrees were +reversed, the Haytian Assembly dissolved, and they themselves under +arrest. This, when the news reached the colony, put the whites into a +state of consternation, and for awhile it appeared as if Hayti would be +the scene of a civil war. Captain Mauduit, who had led the force against +the assembly, was murdered by his own troops, and preparations were made +to resist the authorities. + +The planters thought these arbitrary measures of France very oppressive, +but they had yet to learn how far the revolutionists might go. In May, +1791, the matter of equal rights for the coloured people came up before +the National Convention, and their claim was strongly advocated by +Robespierre and others. It was now that the words, "Perish the colonies +rather than sacrifice one of our principles," were uttered by that +bloodthirsty revolutionist, to afterwards become a stock quotation of +the extremist in every country. The result of the discussion was the +decree of May the 15th, that the people of colour resident in the French +colonies, and born of free parents, should be allowed all the privileges +of French citizens; to have votes, and be eligible for election to the +parochial and colonial assemblies. + +This brought on a crisis in Hayti. The coloured people were determined +to obtain their rights, and the planters equally resolved that they +should remain as before. The Governor was so much alarmed that he at +once sent to France for further assistance, at the same time asking for +the suspension of the obnoxious decree. Hearing of this, the mulattoes +began to assemble and take up arms, and the Governor hardly dared to +take action pending the result of his application. + +On the morning of the 23rd of August, 1791, the people of Cape Francois +were alarmed by reports that the slaves in the neighbourhood were in +open revolt, plundering the plantations and murdering the whites. The +disturbance had commenced with the hewing in pieces of a young white +apprentice on Pin. Noe, which murder was followed by a general massacre +of every white man, except the surgeon, who was spared that he might +become useful. From one estate to another the revolt spread, until the +whole neighbourhood was a scene of murder, fire, and rapine. The white +townspeople put their women and children on board the ships, and then +united for a stubborn defence, but the coloured men wanted to remain +neutral. This roused such a strong feeling that even at that critical +time the whites had to be prevented by the authorities from murdering +the mulattoes. By thus protecting the mulattoes their good-will was +gained, and they volunteered to go out against the rebels. + +Amidst the glare of a hundred conflagrations a strong body of men was +collected and sent against the negroes. They defeated one body of four +hundred, but accessions were continually made to the side of the rebels, +until their overpowering numbers compelled the whites to retreat, and do +their best to save the town. The revolt had been continually spreading, +and now extended over the whole country, coloured people joining the +negroes in their work of destruction. One planter was nailed to a gate, +and then had his limbs cut off, one after another; a carpenter was sawn +asunder, on the ground that this mode of execution suited his trade; and +two mulatto sons killed their white father, notwithstanding his prayers +and promises. White, and even coloured children, were killed without +mercy at the breasts of their mothers, and young women were violated +before the eyes of their parents. Here and there the horror was relieved +by kind actions on the part of faithful slaves, who, while joining in +the revolt for their own safety, saved their masters and mistresses. + +The inhabitants of the town did all they could by sorties, but this was +very little. The rebels would run away at the first onset, but only to +return in overpowering numbers. A few were taken and broken on the +wheel, others fell in the skirmishes, but the insurrection still went +on. It spread to the neighbourhood of Port au Prince, but, on the +inhabitants of that town agreeing to enforce the obnoxious decree, the +rebels retired. This action was at last followed by those of Cape +Francois, and a partial truce ensued. In two months, it was said, a +thousand plantations were destroyed, and ten thousand blacks and two +thousand whites killed. + +The news of this great disaster caused a revulsion of feeling in Paris, +and the decree which had caused so much trouble was annulled on the 24th +of September, before the results of the insurrection and the truces were +known. The arrangement had been come to at Port au Prince on the 11th of +the same month, and on the 20th at Cape Francois. Thus almost at the +time when it was being repealed the colonists were promising to see it +enforced. + +It is hardly necessary to say what could be the only result of the +arrival of this revocation. The struggle was renewed, and all hopes of +reconciliation were at an end. The coloured party charged the whites +with treachery and duplicity; now they would fight until one or the +other was exterminated. They captured Port St. Louis, but got a severe +repulse from Port au Prince. Both sides were desperate, and although +there were fewer massacres in cold blood the rebels fell in thousands. +But as they were so numerous this slaughter made little impression. +Even when the prisoners were tortured with a refinement of cruelty +hardly credible, no good resulted from such examples. The time for all +that had passed, yet the whites nailed one poor mulatto by the feet in a +cart, and had him driven round the neighbourhood as a spectacle, before +breaking him on the wheel. + +In January, 1792, three commissioners arrived from France to attempt a +reconciliation, which they commenced by publishing the decree revoking +the rights of the coloured people. Then they proclaimed a general +amnesty for all who should surrender within a given time. Such utter +ignorance as was thus shown has hardly been equalled in any age; we can +only ascribe it to the fact that the scum had risen to the top. The +mulattoes were roused to fury, and the whites equally exasperated. At +Petit Goave the rebels held thirty-four white prisoners, and at once +they were brought forth to be broken on the wheel, previous to which the +proclamation of amnesty was read to them, their executioners mockingly +claiming it as a pardon for the cruelties they were exercising. + +This sort of thing, however, could not go on very long. Most of the +plantations and provision grounds had been destroyed, and both parties +felt the want of food. Unless something were done they would all be +starved; for without means of buying supplies even the whites could +hardly exist, while the blacks did nothing to raise further crops in +place of those they had eaten or destroyed. France again made an attempt +to put matters straight by declaring, on the 4th of April, 1792, that +the people of colour and free negroes ought to enjoy equal political +rights with other citizens. New assemblies were to be called, in the +election of which they should be allowed to vote; a new Governor of +Hayti was appointed, and new commissioners sent out to inquire into the +whole matter. + +The Governor and the commission arrived at Cape Francois on the 13th of +September, and finding everything in confusion, they sent the late +administrator to France as a prisoner, and called a new assembly. Then +the commissioners put themselves in communication with the rebels, which +made the whites think them about to emancipate the slaves. This was +followed by a dispute between them and the Governor, and the appointment +of yet another head, who arrived in May, 1793. He refused to recognise +the commissioners, but they were not so easily set aside, for having the +whole power of the colony under control, they took possession of Port au +Prince, Jacmel, and Cape Francois, afterwards ordering the Governor to +leave. This led to another war, in which the coloured rebels and even +negroes were utilised by the commissioners, who thus, in a way, +sanctioned the revolt. Similar atrocities to those formerly enacted were +renewed, and again the colony was distracted in every part. + +The ruined planters now lost all hope, and began to leave for the United +States, Jamaica, and other colonies. Some went to England, especially +those Royalists who attributed all their disasters to the revolution. +Here they began to urge the British to conquer Hayti, although as yet +war had not been declared with France. In September, 1793, an +expedition was sent from Jamaica, and on its arrival at Jeremie the +British were apparently welcomed by the whites. But the colony was so +utterly distracted that little could be done, and although they took +Port au Prince they were repulsed at Cape Tiberon. Then sickness fell +upon them--"Yellow Jack"--and this, with the delay of reinforcements, +made all prospects of success quite hopeless. With a foreign enemy at +hand the commissioners did all they could to reconcile the parties, and +to this end, just before the landing of the British, proclaimed complete +emancipation of all the slaves, which was ratified in Paris on the 4th +of February, 1794. This brought the whole body of rebels together, and +the position of the enemy became untenable. Finally came the cession of +the Spanish part of the island to France, and now it might be supposed +that something could be done to restore peace. + +This repulse of the British was greatly due to the influence of a very +remarkable personage, Toussaint L'Ouverture, a pure negro, and lately a +slave. He had joined the revolt from its commencement, and had succeeded +in gaining such an influence over his race as had hitherto been unknown +in any slave insurrection. As soon as the general emancipation had been +declared, he was so grateful that he joined the French, heart and soul, +drove out the British, put down the mulattoes, and was appointed +Commander-in-chief of the united forces. In 1801 he became virtually +Dictator of the whole island, and was made President for life, with the +result that many plantations were re-established, and the colony was +making slow progress towards recovery. + +Napoleon Buonaparte has been much lauded for his diplomacy, but he +certainly knew nothing of the West Indies. After the peace of Amiens he +had a little time to look after the colonies, and Hayti was among the +first to receive attention. Toussaint was then almost at the height of +his power, and had prepared a Constitution which was laid before +Napoleon, on reading which the First Consul said it was an outrage on +the honour of France, and the work of a revolted slave, whom they must +punish. It was true that the black President was virtually independent. +He lived in the palace at St. Domingo, and, with his councillors of all +colours, enacted the part of a little sovereign. To crown his audacity, +he, in July, 1801, proclaimed the independence of the island, and +himself as supreme chief. + +This roused the anger of Napoleon, who retaliated by a proclamation +re-establishing slavery in the island--a measure so foolish that even +the planters themselves saw the impossibility of carrying it out. To +reduce the negroes again to servitude was utterly impossible, even with +all the power France could then bring into the island. However, it was +attempted with a force of thirty thousand men and sixty-six ships of +war. When this immense fleet arrived at Cape Francois the town was +commanded by the negro Christophe, who, finding himself unable to cope +with such a force, burnt the palace and withdrew. The French landed and +sent two sons of Toussaint, who had been sent to France for their +education, and to whom they had given a passage to their father, +bearing a letter from Napoleon, offering him great honours if he would +declare his allegiance. All that Toussaint said in reply was that he +would be faithful to his brethren and his God, and with that he allowed +his sons to return. + +As yet the declaration that slavery was to be re-established had not +been published, and the negroes were working the plantations on a share +of the crop, with penalties for idleness. The French tried to put the +negroes against Toussaint, in which they succeeded to some extent, the +result being that civil war was renewed, and that the power of the black +chieftain was broken. Then the general thought it time to issue the +proclamation, which fell upon his negro allies like a thunder-clap, and +made them again rally round Toussaint. Thus almost everything which had +been gained was utterly and for ever lost. + +Now the French tried a little double-dealing. The general stated in a +new proclamation that ignorance had led him hastily to fall into error, +and that to prevent anything of the same kind, and to provide for the +future welfare and liberty of all, he convened an assembly of +representatives of all the inhabitants, regardless of colour. This won +over the leaders, and finally peace was concluded with Toussaint. The +fallen president wished to retire to his estate and into private life, +but having been cordially invited to meet the general to discuss with +him the welfare of the colony, he was seized at the interview and put on +board a French frigate, which immediately sailed for France. Here he +was imprisoned for life without trial, and finally allowed to starve by +withholding food and water for four days. + +The negroes again rose, and the soldiers were by this time so weakened +by yellow fever, which even carried off the Governor, that little could +be done against the rebels. Yet everything possible was attempted. +Bloodhounds were brought from Cuba to worry the rebels to death; they +were shot and taken into the sea to be drowned in strings. Dessalines +had now become their leader, and on the 29th of November, 1803, he with +Christophe and Clervaux, the other rebel chiefs, issued the St. Domingo +declaration of independence. Restored to their primitive dignity the +black and coloured people proclaimed their rights, and swore never to +yield them to any power on earth. "The frightful veil of prejudice is +torn to pieces, and is so for ever; woe be to whomsoever would dare +again to put together its bloody tatters." The landholders were not +forbidden to return if they renounced their old errors and acknowledged +the justice of the cause for which the blacks had been spilling their +blood for twelve years. As for those who affected to believe themselves +destined by Heaven to be masters and tyrants, if they came it would be +to meet chains or to be quickly expelled. They had sworn not to listen +to clemency for those who dared to speak of the restoration of slavery. +Nothing was too costly a sacrifice for liberty, and every means was +lawful to employ against those who wished to suppress it. Were they to +cause rivers and torrents of blood to flow--were they to fire half the +globe to maintain it--they would be innocent before the tribunal of +Providence. + +This declaration was followed on the 30th of March, 1804, by an address +of Dessalines, in which he said that everything that reminded them of +France also reminded them of the cruelties of Frenchmen. There still +remained, he said, Frenchmen on their island--creatures, alas! of their +indulgence; when would they be tired of breathing the same air? Their +cruelty, when compared with the patient moderation of the blacks--their +difference in colour--everything said that they were not brothers, and +would never become so. If they continued to find an asylum, troubles and +dissensions would be sure to continue. "Citizens, inhabitants of Hayti, +men, women, girls, children, cast your eyes upon each point of the +island! Seek in it, you, your wives; you, your husbands; you, your +sisters!" Their ashes were in the grave, and they had not avenged their +deaths. Let the blacks learn that they had done nothing if they did not +give the nations a terrible but just example of the vengeance of a brave +people, who had recovered liberty, and were jealous to maintain it. + +They were again roused, and from the 29th of April to the 14th of May an +indiscriminate massacre of the whites took place, as many as 2,500 being +killed during the fifteen days. On the 28th of April Dessalines issued a +manifesto congratulating them on their success. At length, he said, the +hour of vengeance had arrived, and the implacable enemies of the rights +of man had suffered the punishment due to their crimes. His arm had too +long delayed to strike, but at the signal, which the justice of God had +urged, they had brought the axe to bear upon the ancient tree of slavery +and prejudice. In vain had time and the infernal politics of Europe +surrounded it with triple brass. They had become, like their natural +enemies, cruel and merciless. Like a mighty torrent their vengeful fury +had carried away everything in its impetuous course. "Thus perish all +tyrants over innocence and all oppressors of mankind!" Where was that +evil and unworthy Haytian who thought he had not accomplished the +decrees of the Eternal by exterminating those bloodthirsty tigers? "If +there be one, let him fly--indignant nature discards him from our +bosom--let him hide his shame far from hence! The air we breathe is not +suited to his gross organs--it is the pure air of liberty, august and +triumphant." Yes, they had rendered war for war, crime for crime, +outrage for outrage. He had saved his country--he had avenged America. +He made this avowal in the face of earth and heaven--it was his pride +and glory. Black and yellow, whom the duplicity of Europeans had +endeavoured to divide, now made but one family--he advised them to +maintain that precious concord and happy harmony. In order to strengthen +the tie let them call to remembrance the catalogue of atrocities--the +abominable project of massacring the whole population, unblushingly +proposed to him by the French authorities. Let that nation which was mad +enough to attack him, come--let them bring their cohorts of homicides. +He would allow them to land, but woe to those who approached the +mountains! "Never again shall a colonist or a European set his foot +upon this territory with the title of master or proprietor." + +On the 8th of October the writer of these bloodthirsty addresses was +crowned as Jacques the First, Emperor of Hayti. + +In 1808 an attempt was made on the part of Spain to regain her old +colony on the eastern part of the island, where France still maintained +a nominal supremacy. Spain was now an ally of Great Britain, and, with +the aid of British troops, she took St. Domingo and retained this part +of the island until 1821, when a revolution took place and it became +independent, to be almost immediately united with its sister republic. + +Meanwhile the Emperor Jacques did not long enjoy his throne in peace, +for he was murdered by his coloured soldiers on the 17th of October, +1806. A republic followed, under the presidency of General Petion, who +was at the head of the mulattoes, but did not agree with the blacks. +This led to a division, the north, with Cape Francois as the capital, +coming into the hands of the negro Christophe, who got himself crowned +as the Emperor Henry the First; the southern district, with Port au +Prince, forming a republic under President Petion. + +Henry was a man of good common sense, but like most negroes, much +inclined to ape the whites. One of his toasts at a dinner was +characteristic: "My brother, the king of Great Britain, and may he be +successful against Buonaparte, and continue the barrier between that +tyrant and this kingdom." He created a legion of honour, called the +Order of St. Henry, built a palace, and began to acquire a fleet; he +gave balls and encouraged operas, had a great seal, gave titles of +nobility, and procured a set of regalia and jewels, with velvet robes +and all other appendages of royalty. Under his rule the country +flourished, for he would have no idlers. Yet he was a tyrant, and at +last, in 1820, he was attacked by his own guard, and committed suicide +to prevent falling into their hands. President Boyer, who had succeeded +Petion, now took advantage of the confusion to incorporate the two +districts, and two years later he added the revolted Spanish portion, +thus bringing the whole island under one rule, the presidency of which +he held for twenty-two years. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +XIII. + +EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN. + + +The influence of the French Revolution was felt in most of the other +islands, but nowhere did it lead to such disasters as befel Hispaniola. +In 1795 there was an insurrection in the island of Grenada, where the +coloured people, under French influence, nearly drove the English out of +the colony. Even when defeated they held their own in the mountains for +about a year, committing many atrocities on the whites who fell into +their hands. In most of the French islands there were insurrections more +or less dangerous, some of which were put down by the British +conquerors, who thus helped to keep the peace. It could not be expected, +however, that small places like Martinique and Guadeloupe would ever +have made such stubborn resistance as the great island of Hispaniola. + +A very great impression was made on the Spanish colonies, who during the +war, owing to the distracted condition of the mother country, attained +to a degree of freedom hitherto beyond their reach. This led to +unfavourable comparisons between past and present, and the feeling that +grew up was fomented by the British, who now had many opportunities +from the measure of free trade which resulted from the peculiar +circumstances of that period. Secret societies were then common all over +Europe, and in Spain they were not wanting. In the early years of this +century one of the most energetic members was Francisco Miranda, a +native of Caracas, who had been a soldier under Washington, and had +distinguished himself by his prominence in many of the revolutionary +projects of the time. He was the prime organiser of the Creoles of South +America, and under his auspices the "Gran Reunion Americana" was founded +in London. Bolivar and San Martin were initiated into this society, and +took its oath to fight for the emancipation of South America. Miranda +did his best to ensure the co-operation of Great Britain and the United +States, but failing in this, determined to get up one or more +insurrections without their assistance. + +On the 27th of March, 1806, he sailed with three vessels and two hundred +men from Jacmel, Hayti, and on the 11th of April arrived at the Dutch +island of Aruba, from whence the little company proceeded to Puerto +Cabello. The demonstration, however, was nipped in the bud, for two of +his vessels being almost immediately captured by the Spaniards, Miranda +was obliged to fly in the other to Barbados. Here he met Admiral +Cochrane, with whom he entered into an arrangement for British +assistance. Conceiving that it might be mutually advantageous to Great +Britain and the Spanish provinces that the latter should be freed from +the yoke of Spain, the admiral agreed to support him in a descent on +Venezuela, between the coasts opposite Trinidad and Aruba. The only +stipulation was for free trade with Great Britain as against her +enemies, and with that Miranda went off to Trinidad. + +Here he hoped to gain recruits from among the Spanish people of the +island, to whom he issued an address. The glorious opportunity, he said, +presented itself of relieving from oppression and arbitrary government a +people who were worthy of a better fate, but who were shackled by a +despotism too cruel for human nature longer to endure. Groaning under +their afflictions they hailed with extended arms the noble cause of +freedom and independence, and called upon them to share the God-like +action of relieving them. + +This stirring address made little impression, and consequently few +followers were enrolled. However, he got eight armed vessels and two +traders, and sailed from Trinidad on the 25th of July, 1806, for Coro on +the Main. The fort and city were taken, but the people, instead of +joyfully welcoming their deliverers, ran away and could not be induced +to return. Miranda, finding the place untenable, went over to Aruba, of +which he took possession as a basis for further operations. But the +British authorities looked upon his scheme as impracticable, especially +as it tended to injure their trade, and in November Miranda was +compelled to disband his little company of less than three hundred at +Trinidad. + +The time for a revolution had not yet arrived, but it was fast +approaching. It could not be expected that Great Britain would assist +filibustering against her ally, which Spain now became, and without some +outside assistance Miranda found it impossible to do anything. However, +the people themselves were at last aroused, and on the 19th of April, +1810, the city of Caracas deposed the captain-general and appointed a +Junta to rule in the name of the king. This body invited the other +provinces to join and form a league for mutual protection against the +French, who now had virtual possession of the mother country. Other +provinces took the Government side and prepared to suppress the revolt, +which led Caracas to ask the assistance of Great Britain and the United +States. + +Among the Venezuelans was Simon Bolivar, who afterwards became the most +important personage in the struggle for independence. Like Miranda, he +was a native of South America, and like him had imbibed revolutionary +ideas in Paris. He was a planter, and had taken no part in the overthrow +of the captain-general, but from his principles being well known, he was +appointed with others to proceed to London in the interests of the +Junta. On their arrival they were answered cautiously, the authorities +not wishing to commit themselves under the circumstances. Here Bolivar +met Miranda, and took the oath of the "Gran Reunion," promising to work +for the independence of South America, notwithstanding his nominal +position as an advocate of the king of Spain against Napoleon. + +Meanwhile the Spanish Regency had proclaimed the leaders of the movement +to be rebels, declaring war against them and blockading their ports. +The Central Junta responded by raising an army, which was defeated with +considerable loss at Coro and had to retire on Caracas. This caused some +discouragement, but Miranda now arrived, was welcomed with an ovation, +and appointed lieutenant-general of the army. He was also asked to draw +up a constitution and to become one of the deputies at the first +congress of Venezuela to be held in March, 1811. + +[Illustration: LA GUAYRA ON THE MAIN. + +(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)] + +No longer was there any question of the French, the struggle was for +entire independence. A civil war began, which raged with varying +fortunes for twelve years, in the course of which were enacted scenes +more worthy of the days of buccaneers than the beginning of the +nineteenth century. In 1812 Caracas was destroyed by an earthquake, and +in another locality perished the greater portion of a thousand men, +marching against the Spaniards. It was reported that those provinces +where the revolution had most influence suffered greatest, while those +more loyal almost escaped. This was due to the fact that the mountainous +region, in which Caracas is situated, felt the full effect of the +earthquake, but the priests, who were mostly loyalists, told the +ignorant peasantry that it was a judgment on the Patriots. The result +was that large bodies deserted, until the whole Patriot army became +disorganised. Miranda was captured and sent to Spain, where he died in +prison in 1816, but Bolivar managed to escape. + +New Granada had revolted before Venezuela and was more successful. It +was to this province that Bolivar retired after the downfall of the +Patriot cause in Venezuela. Then the Spanish captain-general, +Monteverde, who was called "the Pacificator," commenced his work by +imprisoning so many Patriots that the gaols were choked, and many died +of hunger and suffocation. In the country districts he let his troops +ravage and plunder like hordes of banditti. Even his superiors were at +length compelled to recall him on account of the numerous complaints and +petitions. At last the people were again fairly roused, until there came +a war of extermination, in which both parties tried to outvie the other +in murder and rapine. + +Off the peninsula of Paria lay the small island of Chacachacare, and on +it forty-five fugitives took refuge, where they consulted as to the +renewal of the war. With only six muskets and some pistols, they landed +on the coast on the 13th of March, 1813, surprised the guard of Gueiria, +took their arms and marched into the town, where they were joined by the +garrison, making their number two hundred. Thus began the second war, in +which the Patriots, assisted by the return of Bolivar and a body of +troops from New Granada, again took possession of a large part of the +province. On the 15th of June Bolivar proclaimed extermination to the +Royalists, and named the year, the third of independence and first of +the war to the death. This severity created many enemies in Venezuela, +as well as in other countries, and even Bolivar himself afterwards said +that the proclamation had been issued in a delirium. However, the result +was that both sides became more ferocious than ever, especially when the +Indians were induced to join the Patriots. + +On the 6th of August Bolivar entered Caracas in triumph. The bells rang, +cannons roared, and the people cheered him as their liberator. His path +was strewn with flowers, blessings were called down upon his head, and +beautiful girls, dressed in white and the national colours, led his +horse and crowned him with laurel. The prison doors were opened, the +Patriots set free, and, in spite of his proclamation, no act of +retaliation sullied his triumph. Two days later he re-established the +republic and proclaimed himself Dictator as well as liberator. + +There were now two Dictators in Venezuela, Marino in the east and +Bolivar in the west, but the Spaniards were by no means conquered. +Bolivar published another decree on the 6th of September, that all +Americans who were even suspected of being Royalists were traitors to +their country, and should be treated as such. Ten days later twelve +thousand men arrived from Spain, and Bolivar, who had been besieging +Puerto Cabello, was forced to retire. This encouraged the Royalists, who +got the llaneros of the Orinoco on their side by promises of freedom to +kill and plunder in the cause of the king, and threats of punishing by +death all who disregarded the call to arms. + +Bolivar was captain-general, but he shared his power with Marino, the +rights of both resting on force alone. To put an end to this, an +assembly of notables was convened at Caracas, to whom he resigned his +office, and then accepted it again at their request. But the Patriots, +even when united, were as yet unable to stand before the Spanish army, +and very shortly afterwards their flag was only visible on the island +of Margarita. Bolivar again took refuge in New Granada, where he was +elected captain-general, and entitled Liberator and Illustrious +Pacificator. He, however, quarrelled with the Governor of Carthagena, +and was forced to fly to Jamaica, saying before his departure that +Carthagena preferred her own destruction to obedience to the federal +government. + +In 1815, after the great peace, Marshal Morillo came out with 10,600 men +selected from the army that had fought against Napoleon. He was to +reduce the whole of the Main from Spanish Guiana to Darien, dealing +first with Margarita. In the course of a year he did this, committing +such atrocities as made his name a byword over the whole of South +America. In the siege of Carthagena, which lasted about three months, +the Patriots suffered greatly, hundreds dying of starvation; but at +last, on the 6th of December, 1815, it was captured. An amnesty was +proclaimed, but in spite of that four hundred old men, women, and +children who surrendered were all killed, while most of the stronger men +who survived managed to escape. + +The remnant of the Patriots was now scattered over the country as +guerillas, and while Morillo was subduing New Granada a fresh signal for +a general revolt was given. The Royalist Governor, in November, 1815, +ordered the arrest of Arismendi, who had been pardoned, and at once the +Margaritans rose, took possession of a part of the island, captured the +fort, and killed the whole garrison. At the same time the guerillas +united under Paez, who now came to the front as a llanero and leader of +his class. Thus the struggle was resumed with all its former virulence. + +Bolivar, when he heard of the fall of Carthagena, went over to +Hispaniola to meet President Petion, who was an ardent supporter of the +revolution. Here he received assistance of arms and money, with which he +began to fit out an expedition to recover his lost position. There were +many refugees from the Main on that island, but they were not altogether +friendly with the late Dictator, however Petion managed to secure their +co-operation. It followed, therefore, that on the 16th of March, 1816, +three hundred Patriots left for Margarita, where they captured two +Spanish vessels and united with their fellow-countrymen under Arismendi. +Going over to the Main they soon got together a powerful force which +overran the whole country and ultimately achieved its independence. + +But before this happened the Patriots met with many reverses. Sometimes +it appeared as if they would be utterly exterminated; then the tide +turned in their favour and they were again successful. The country was +devastated by both parties, until cultivation was abandoned in many +districts. Provisions for the armies were often unattainable, and this +drove the soldiers to plunder wherever there was an opportunity, no +matter that the sufferers were of their own party. + +The struggle was watched with sympathy by the people of England, and +Canning went so far as to make a declaration of neutrality favourable to +the Patriots. Then came a systematic attempt to raise British +volunteers, and, as there were many officers and men who had been +disbanded since the great peace, a considerable force was raised. +Carried away by enthusiasm they would hear nothing of the difficulties +and dangers they had to encounter, but rushed to fight in the ranks of a +people striving to liberate themselves from the grossest oppression. The +country was represented as a perfect paradise, and the officers were +promised grants of land in this delightful Eden, while the men had +offers of double the pay of the British army. A similar call was also +made in Germany with good results, and it was expected that what with +the British Legion and this other contingent the result would be no +longer doubtful. + +On their arrival at Margarita, however, they at once began to perceive +that poverty reigned everywhere, and that no provision whatever had been +made for them. The Patriots foraged for themselves, and anything like a +commissariat was virtually unknown; but British soldiers were not +accustomed to such a state of things. Then the food supply was at the +best only live cattle, which they had to kill for themselves, cassava +bread, and a few roots such as yams. The rations were so irregular, that +one or two days would pass without any supply whatever, and this +ultimately led to complaints and something like a mutiny, which was put +down with the "cat." + +After some delay the British Legion was sent on to the Main, where they +were worse off than in Margarita. Instead of welcoming them, the +Patriots seemed to be jealous, and did not even give them the +opportunity of fighting as they wished. When posted before Cumana they +were exposed to the burning sun and drenching rains, without tents or +any other shelter; their drinking water was stagnant and brackish, and +for rations had only a pound of beef per day for each man, from oxen +which they had to butcher. They were also greatly shocked at the +enormities of the Patriots, who carried on the struggle in a manner +suggestive of the Middle Ages rather than modern days. Prisoners were +indiscriminately massacred, their murderers enjoying the work as if it +were a recreation. It is true that in the then condition of the country +large bodies of prisoners could neither be fed nor guarded; still the +British could not but feel that the cause they had joined was not +altogether what it had been represented. Want of proper food led to +sickness, and soon they became quite broken down. Many died of fever and +dysentery, some deserted and got away as best they could, the general +result being that little benefit was derived from the British Legion by +Venezuela. + +If such was the experience of the foreigners, what must have been that +of the Patriots? They were certainly more used to the country and its +food, and therefore suffered less from sickness; but this advantage was +lost when it came to actual starvation. With the men engaged in the +struggle, only the women and children were left to cultivate enough +cassava to keep body and soul together. Even this little was often +stolen by a foraging party, who did not hesitate to murder the whole +family if any objection was made. Fugitives, if not cut off, made their +way in canoes to Trinidad and Demerara, often arriving almost dead from +the privations they had endured. Delicate Spanish ladies and little +children sometimes arrived--their pitiable condition causing an outflow +of sympathy from the planters, and a feeling of detestation for their +persecutors. + +At the commencement of the year 1820 the Columbian Republic had become +an accomplished fact, and on the 25th of November an armistice was +concluded between Morillo and Bolivar, which virtually ended the +struggle. The United States had looked upon it with favour, and +Lafayette in France said that opposition to the independence of the New +World would only cause suffering, but not imperil the idea. In 1823 the +celebrated Monroe doctrine was formulated, and Canning said in the same +year that the battle was won and Spanish America was free. + +Central America had not suffered like Venezuela and New Granada. From +Mexico to Panama was the old captain-generalship of Guatemala, but +little interest was taken in the province, Spain leaving it almost +entirely in the hands of the Catholic Missions. It was not until +Columbia had gained her independence that Guatemala moved in the same +direction, although there were slight disturbances in Costa Rica and +Nicaragua from 1813 to 1815. At first there was a project to found a +kingdom, but this gave way to the proposal for union with Mexico under +the Emperor Iturbide, which was carried out, but did not last long. In +1823 Central America established a Federal Republic, and at once +abolished slavery and declared the slave-trade to be piracy--a decision +to which the other revolted colonies came about the same time. + +[Illustration] + + + + +XIV. + +ABOLITION OF SLAVERY. + + +Negro slavery, although it formed the sinews and backbone of the +plantations, was, as we have seen, considered unjust by the French +republicans and immoral by a large section of the benevolent in Great +Britain and the United States. In both countries the Society of Friends, +or Quakers, commenced to influence public opinion against its +continuance as early as about 1770, and had it not been for the French +Revolution it is probable that emancipation would have taken place early +in this century. The premature and inconsiderate action of the French in +Hayti lost to France her most valuable plantation, for some years giving +such an example of what might happen were emancipation to be granted +elsewhere, that those in favour of the system could always point to it +with the finger of warning. Yet with all that the friends of the slave +were undaunted; and as a beginning, in 1807, they procured the abolition +of the slave-trade as far as Great Britain and her colonies were +concerned, and then went on to get the traffic prohibited by other +nations. Denmark had led the van by declaring it unlawful as early as +1792, but little impression was made until the nation most concerned +took action. + +This was a great blow to the British West Indies. The labour question +had always been of the first importance, and to put a sudden stop to the +supply meant a check to all progress. For twenty years before a great +impetus had been given to planting, which was much assisted by the +downfall of Hayti and consequent reduction of her produce to such an +extent that she no longer affected the market. Now that the planters +could get no more negroes, anything like enlargement of the acreage +under cultivation was impossible. Latterly, also, produce had diminished +in price, which made cheap labour all the more important. They had great +difficulty in making their estates pay, and when sugar fell to half its +former value a cry of "Ruin!" went forth all over the West Indies. It is +interesting to note that the panacea which they expected would save them +was free trade. At that time the British warehouses were filled with +sugar and other tropical produce, while every continental port was +closed by Napoleon, and the United States by the navigation laws. Not +only did Great Britain store the produce of her own colonies, but that +from those of the French and Dutch as well. In 1812 it was stated that +the sugar consumption of Great Britain amounted to 225,000 hogsheads, +while the production of her colonies was 150,000 in excess of this. The +Southern States had just taken up cotton cultivation, and brought the +price of that article too low for the West Indian planter, and, as if +that were not enough, coffee also fell in price to an alarming extent. + +Sugar paid best, and was therefore fostered to the exclusion of the +other products; and now began the plantation system which became so +obnoxious to the anti-slavery party. Hitherto, with a full supply of +labour, the negroes did little work as compared with their +capabilities--now something like the factory system of the mother +country was introduced. The old methods would no longer enable the +planter to get a profit, and he must make the best of his labour supply. +Great administrative ability, more careful management, attention to +economy, and concentration, were all necessary to prevent losses, and +that these were not wanting can easily be seen from the results. The +slaves were driven into the field in gangs, and kept at work by the +threat of the driver's whip, while the overseers and manager gave most +careful attention to the whole system. + +Not only did the negroes work, but the whites also; in fact, on the part +of the latter there was a continual strain after a fortune on which to +retire from this tiresome and harassing work of nigger-driving. Where +one succeeded, ten failed; many died of the exposure and of the +_anti-malarial_ drinks they imbibed so plentifully. So great was the +mortality that the colonies became proverbial for their number of +widows, some of whom, however, were not above managing their own +plantations. It was a race for wealth, to which everything else was +secondary. + +The slaves diminished every year in the absence of additions from +outside, as the whites would have done under similar circumstances. +That there was no natural increase was mainly due to the fact that the +sexes were unequal, and then, again, maternal affection was sadly +wanting in the women, who seemed to care less for their children than +some domestic animals. This state of things was mainly the outcome of +the system, which was undoubtedly immoral, but the mental disabilities +of the race must also be taken into consideration. The anti-slavery +party considered that environment was everything; if they could only +free the negro from compulsory servitude he would at once become an +industrious labourer. Yes, in their opinion, if he had the incentive of +wages, it would make him a credit to himself and his community. The +slaves, they said, were worked to death, yet as free men they would do +more and perform their tasks better. Their experience with free workmen +led to these conclusions, but this could not apply to the West Indies +nor to the negro race. + +The anti-slavery party was very strong, and although it is not stated +that they took "Perish the colonies!" for their motto, it is very +certain that they cared little about the future of either white or black +as long as they carried their object. To this end every possible case of +oppression and ill-treatment was exaggerated, and spoken of as if it +were common, notwithstanding that the case only came to their notice +through the trial and punishment of the offender. The fact was the +planter could not afford to ill-treat his slave--no other animal of his +live stock was of so much value. If a valuable horse were killed +another could be obtained to replace him, but this was almost impossible +in the case of the negro. Formerly, when he cost about L20, it might +have paid to work him to death; now that his price was five or six times +as much, self-interest alone prevented ill-treatment. There was a strong +public opinion in every colony which prevented cruelty, and there were +societies in some which gave prizes to those in charge of estates who +raised the greatest number of children in proportion to their negroes. +This breeding of negroes was necessarily very slow work, and did little +to make up for the stoppage of importation. It followed, therefore, that +every year the amount of available labour became less. + +In 1815 the anti-slavery party commenced a further agitation in favour +of the negro, with the result that a Registrar of slaves was appointed +for each colony, and ultimately a Protector. By obtaining an annual +census they hoped to have some check on the decrease, and at the same +time see if any Africans were surreptitiously imported. In some places +there was already a slave registration for the purpose of adjusting the +head-tax; here the planters did not oppose the measure, although they +resented interference. Others, like Barbados, protested against the +innovation as something quite unnecessary, or even if desirable, not to +be imposed upon them from outside. This led to a great deal of +discussion at the planters' tables, where the slave waiters listened to +what was said, and from thence carried garbled reports to the others. + +In every colony were numbers of free negroes and coloured people, some +of whom were loafers and spongers on the slaves, while others went about +the country peddling. Having nothing to do, they became the +news-carriers and circulators of garbled reports. In 1815 there lived in +Barbados a free coloured man named Washington Franklin, who, like many +negroes, was possessed of a good memory and a great power of +declamation. Getting hold of the English and colonial newspapers, he +would read the speeches of Wilberforce and others, and after putting his +own construction on them, retail them in language tending to rouse the +slaves. To him was due an impression that prevailed in Barbados, +probably from a misunderstanding of the Registry Bill, that they were +all to be free at the beginning of the year 1816. When New Year's Day +had passed they became dissatisfied, believing that their masters had +received orders to set them free, but would not execute them. They had +heard of the successful rising in Hayti, and were determined to attempt +a similar revolt in Barbados. + +After waiting for the expected freedom until the 14th of April, they +determined on that day to have a general rising, which was signalled by +burning heaps of cane-trash in the parish of St. Philip. Soon the fields +were set on fire, and frenzied mobs, continually increasing in numbers, +went from one plantation to another seeking arms. This went on for two +days, but on the arrival of the militia they dispersed, leaving a waste +behind. As usual a great many of the negroes were executed, although it +does not appear that any whites got killed in the revolt. However, the +Registry Act was delayed for two years, to be ultimately passed in +January, 1817. + +Towards the end of the last century a new class of men appeared in the +West Indies--the Protestant missionaries. Catholic missions had been +established in the Spanish possessions since the time of Columbus, but +hitherto, with the exception of a few Moravians, no other Church had +done anything to convert the slaves in the British colonies. Between +1780 and 1790, Methodist societies were established in most of the +islands, notwithstanding the opposition of the planters, who in some +cases appear to have thought that baptized Christians could no longer be +held in slavery. This vulgar error, however, was not the real cause of +the antagonism to these teachers, but rather the feeling natural to a +master which makes him resent any outside interference between himself +and his servants. The best and kindest were the first to feel this. The +slaves were their children, and to them they applied, in all their +troubles and difficulties, as to a great father. It followed, therefore, +that when the missionaries came and proclaimed themselves friends to the +slaves, giving them advice in secular as well as religious matters, the +cordial feeling was broken. "Massa" was much put out, for he liked to +hold the position of a little god to these poor ignorant creatures over +whom he held such power. The slaves were sometimes whipped as bad +children when they did wrong, and as children they cared little for a +flogging. It is easily conceivable that a humane missionary might feel +more pain at witnessing such a punishment than the culprit himself, but +it is a fact that cruel punishment was never mentioned by the slaves as +an excuse for a revolt. + +The missionaries were shocked at the apparent nakedness and destitution +of the negroes, as a visitor to the West Indies will be even now. They +did not remember that their clothing and houses were well suited to the +climate, and that a home in the English sense of the word would not have +been appreciated by them. These things were reported to the societies at +home, the members of which knew no more about the tropics than the +merchant who once sent a consignment of warming-pans to Barbados. Those +who wanted to raise a cry of cruelty to the poor slave, circulated these +facts, and put their own construction upon them, one going so far as to +state that there were no chimneys to the houses, as if this omission +were a slave disability or oppression, although any visitor to the +colonies could have told him that these conveniences were hardly found +anywhere. + +The negro willingly listened to his friend the missionary, and felt +eager to perform the rites and ceremonies of the little congregation. +The Established Church was that of England, and although in some places +there were special services for the blacks, in others "slaves and dogs" +were refused admission. This exclusiveness threw the slaves into the +hands of the Moravians, Baptists, Methodists, and the agents of the +London Missionary Society. The Church government of some of these was in +the hands of the congregation, and as this was a sort of playing at +"Massa," the slave took to them all the more readily. + +No doubt these ministers were very good men, and animated by a great +love for the negroes, but this did not prevent their being misunderstood +by both master and slave. Then many of them were connected with the +anti-slavery society, and however careful they might be not to offend +local prejudices, by speaking against the obnoxious system, as +conscientious men they could not help showing their bias. The +established clergymen, on the contrary, when they preached to the +slaves, told them to "be subject to the powers that be," and to remain +content in the condition where Providence had placed them. + +At first most of the planters only sneered at these attempts to convert +the slaves, but when they saw what an attraction the chapels became, +they opposed them openly. Gangs of young fellows would attend, and +sometimes break up the meetings by jeering at the preacher. In 1807 an +ordinance was passed in Jamaica "for preventing the profanation of +religious rites and false worshipping of God, under the pretence of +preaching and teaching, by illiterate, ignorant, and ill-disposed +persons, and of the mischief consequent thereupon." Considering it the +first duty of all magistrates to encourage the solemn exercise of +religion, and whereas nothing tended more to bring it into disrepute +than the pretended preaching and expounding of the Word of God by +ignorant persons and false enthusiasts, to persons of colour and slaves, +it was enacted that, after the 1st of July, no unauthorised person +should presume to teach, preach, offer public prayer, or sing psalms to +any assembly of these people, on pain of a fine of a hundred pounds, +imprisonment for six months, or whipping. Similar punishments were also +to be inflicted on any one preaching in an unlicensed building, as well +as on the owner of a house or yard in which it had been permitted. + +Another way of stopping the assembly of slaves was to pass a law against +their meeting at night, and punish them if they left the estate without +a written permission. There were always excuses for this apparent +harshness, as plots had been arranged at nocturnal meetings, some of +which had given a great deal of trouble. Even if a pass were granted to +attend chapel, the estate's authorities could hardly be expected to +follow and see that the slave did not go elsewhere. The missionaries +took it that all this was done to hamper their work, but such was not +the case altogether. + +The anti-slavery party became very strong about the year 1820, and every +obnoxious regulation was a text for discourses on the infamy of the +whole system. If a planter were punished, the case was trumpeted over +the country to promote a greater antagonism. How absurd this really was +could only be seen by the West Indians themselves, and if they attempted +to say anything they were put down as liars, becaused they were biassed +in favour of the other side. One writer pertinently remarked that, among +the hundreds of military and naval officers stationed in the West +Indies, not one had borne out the statements of the missionaries, and we +may call attention to the curious fact that Captain Marryat, who was +well acquainted with every colony, speaks always of the negro as a happy +fellow. The genial novelist does not mince matters when he speaks of +oppression on board ship, and it is not to be supposed that he would go +out of his way to screen the planters. + +Some of the colonies passed laws against indiscriminate manumissions, +and these were declaimed against as tyranny. Yet their wisdom was so +patent that, under the system, they could only be heartily approved by +every one competent to judge. There is one little fact that stands out +most prominently as a redeeming point, if such a thing be +possible--under slavery there was no poverty--there were no tramps nor +beggars. The owner of the plantation had to feed his people in sickness +and in health, in childhood and old age. If manumissions could be given +by the mere stroke of a pen, many a poor sick or broken-down creature +would have been cast adrift to become a burden upon the community. Now +and again we yet hear some old woman complain that if this were slavery +time, she would not be half-starved as she is to-day, notwithstanding +the poor relief. + +It may perhaps be thought that we are attempting the defence of slavery; +we only wish to show that it was not quite so black as it has been +painted. It had its dark side; but, on the other hand, many a bright +gleam can be perceived by those who have seen some who were born into +servitude and heard their stories. They were well fed, had as much +clothing as they really required, were as a matter of policy well +treated as a rule, and were quite as happy as they are to-day. +Magistrates, policemen, and gaols were almost unknown; the planter gave +the negro a slight flogging now and then, and this ended the tale of +his misdemeanours. A bad master might be cruel as a bad husband may be +also, but we should not condemn marriage on account of its abuses. The +great argument against slavery was the degradation it produced on the +minds of both parties. However, we are not writing the history of +slavery, but the story of the West Indies, and must apologise for the +digression. + +In 1823 the House of Commons, on a motion of Fowell Buxton, "that the +state of slavery is repugnant to the principles of the British +Constitution, and of the Christian religion," resolved to ameliorate the +condition of the slave by giving him civil rights and privileges. As a +result of this, orders were sent out to abolish the flogging of women, +and discontinue the use of the whip in the field. + +Already the West Indian planters were alarmed at the interference of the +British Government, and the overriding of colonial laws by Orders in +Council. In 1819 they had petitioned against being compelled to manumit +their slaves in cases where they wished to buy their freedom, but their +protests went for nothing. Now also they had to submit, although they +did so with a bad grace. The British Government left the carrying out of +the provisions of the resolutions to the colonial legislatures, but at +the same time giving them to understand that there was no option. + +In 1811, when the Governor and Court of Policy of Demerara neglected to +issue a proclamation allowing negroes to attend chapel in the evening, +they received a sharp reprimand, and the Governor was superseded; now +they knew that nothing was left but to obey orders. + +When, therefore, the despatch containing these resolutions arrived in +Demerara, a meeting of the legislature was at once convened to prepare +the necessary ordinance. There was no attempt to evade this duty or +delay compliance, but such a radical change required great +consideration, especially in regard to the control of females without +the use of the whip. Negresses were, as a rule, less amenable to +discipline than the men, and it was thought that something must be done +to prevent insubordination. Several meetings took place from the 21st of +July, 1823, to early in August, at which the ordinance was prepared and +passed, but up to the 18th of the latter month it had not been +published. Such a delay, however, did not imply any intention of evading +the duty, for three or four weeks often elapse from the time of passing +to the publication of a Bill. + +Meanwhile the negroes got an idea that something had been done in +England for their benefit. Like the slaves in Barbados and other +colonies, they heard discussions at their masters' tables, and supposed +that the something which had taken place meant their total emancipation. +"The king had freed them, but the planters refused to carry out the +order." On the East Coast of Demerara there was then a small chapel +belonging to the London Missionary Society, under the charge of the Rev. +John Smith. This chapel was a rendezvous for the negroes of the +neighbouring plantations, who not only came to service, but met +afterwards for a little gossip. Some who could read gave their ideas of +what they had gleaned from their masters' newspapers, while others told +what had been said at the dinner-tables. It does not appear that Mr. +Smith had told them anything of the new resolutions, nor is there +evidence that the deacons of the chapel knew of them. It followed, +therefore, that all the information they had was these garbled reports +of their own people. + +On Sunday, the 17th of August, a number of the bolder spirits met after +service and discussed a plot which had been already under consideration, +for a general rising at eight o'clock next evening. Their idea was to +put their masters in the stocks, arm themselves, and, when the Governor +came, demand their supposed rights. + +On Monday morning a coloured servant informed his master of the plot, on +which he at once rode off to Georgetown and interviewed the Governor. +Warnings were sent to most of the planters, and preparations made to +suppress the revolt if it took place, but such reports were not +uncommon, and although the whites looked after their weapons they did +not feel much alarm. As a matter of policy it was better to assume +indifference, as anything like desertion of the estates, even so far as +the sending away of women and children, would have encouraged the +negroes. + +The signal was given by a fire near the chapel, on which the slaves +assembled in great mobs, over-powered their masters, put them in the +stocks, and took all the firearms and other weapons they could find. The +Governor was already in the neighbourhood with a small party of +cavalry, and on seeing the signal proceeded to inquire into its meaning. +On the way he was met by an armed mob, who, on being asked what they +wanted, answered, "Our right!" He told them of the new law, and promised +a full explanation on the morrow if they would disperse and come to him +at a neighbouring plantation. There was a slight hesitation for a few +moments, but presently, with cries of "No! no!" and the blowing of +shells, they drowned his voice. Then some of the more moderate advised +him to go away, which he was obliged to do, as his whole company +numbered hardly a dozen. + +Bearing in mind the disasters of the Berbice insurrection, the people of +Georgetown were much alarmed. Placing their women and children on board +vessels in the river, the men prepared to resist to the death. Martial +law was proclaimed, and every person, without distinction, called upon +to enrol at once in the militia, all exemptions being cancelled. They +responded heartily, and soon the town put on an appearance as if +deserted, except at those places where guards were stationed. The stores +were closed, the slaves kept indoors, and, save for the arrival and +departure of mounted orderlies, not a sound could be heard. Even the +negroes themselves, in their kitchens and outbuildings, were overawed, +and hardly spoke above a whisper. + +The Methodist ministers came forward and enrolled themselves in the +militia, but they were not called upon to perform any duty. The Rev. +John Smith, however, took no notice of the proclamation, although he +admitted having seen it. On the evening of the revolt he went for a walk +with his wife, and on his return found that the manager's house was +being attacked by a mob of slaves. He succeeded by expostulation in +preventing their doing much injury, and even rescued the manager from +their hands, but instead of sending notice of the rising to the +neighbouring estates he went quietly home. As far as he knew no one had +been warned of the revolt, and he was certainly remiss in his duty when +he did nothing whatever. When, on the following day, he was visited by a +militia officer, and ordered to enrol himself in accordance with the +Governor's proclamation, he refused on the ground of his exemption, +although he knew that all exemptions had been cancelled. + +As usual the rebels had no proper leaders, and for some reason or +other--the missionaries ascribed it to religious teaching--they did not +burn the houses or destroy the crops. One or two whites who resisted +were wounded, one at least fatally, but here again the insurgents were +forbearing. Fortunately they were soon suppressed, and this no doubt +prevented such atrocities as had been committed elsewhere. What with the +soldiers, the militia, and crews of vessels in the river, the force +brought against them was overwhelming. Only one attempt was made to +fight, but the first volley of the troops sent the rioters scattering +into a cotton field. In about two days the insurrection was over, and +then came the hunt for fugitives, who as usual took to the swamp at the +back of the estates. A large body of Indians was employed, and in the +end most of them were captured, some to be hanged at once and others +after sentence by court-martial. + +Mr. Smith's behaviour was considered as something more than +suspicious--he was believed to have had knowledge of the plot, and +charged with an intention to side with the negroes if he saw any +prospect of their success. On his refusal to take part in the defence of +the colony he was taken prisoner, and after the negroes had been tried +and sentenced, his case was brought before a court-martial. He was +charged with promoting discontent among the slaves, conspiring to bring +about a revolt, knowing of the plot the day before and not reporting it, +and holding communication with one of the leaders after it had broken +out without attempting to capture him. The case created a great stir, +public opinion being universal that he was the prime mover in the whole +affair. + +His trial lasted over a month, at the end of which he was found guilty +and sentenced to be hanged. This sentence, however, seems to have been +given to satisfy the people; it was not published, nor was it intended +to be executed without reference to the home Government. This is proved +by the report in the "Royal Gazette" of the colony, which stated that +the trial was over, but the nature of the proceedings was such as to +render it imperative on the Governor to transmit them for His Majesty's +consideration. The public were not informed of the verdict, but it is +not to be supposed that they were ignorant of the result of the trial; +on the contrary, the sentence met with their approval, and they +complained of the delay in carrying it out, as compared with the hasty +executions of the negroes. Mr. Smith was ultimately reprieved, on the +understanding that he removed himself from the West Indies, and engaged +never to come back to Guiana or go to any of the islands. But the poor +missionary was sick, and under treatment before the insurrection, and it +may be presumed that the worry of the trial hastened his end. He died in +prison before the king's answer arrived, and was buried at night to +prevent a hostile demonstration. + +We have been thus particular in giving the facts of the Demerara East +Coast Insurrection, because it made such an impression in England. The +anti-slavery party used the case of the "Martyr" Smith as a watchword, +and it was a prime factor in hurrying on emancipation. The immediate +result was an Order in Council to enable slaves to contract legal +marriage, to hold property, to buy their freedom on a valuation by +disinterested parties, and to put them under a Protector, whose duty was +to see that their rights were not infringed. They were now citizens, +their only civil disabilities being compulsory labour and a tie to the +plantation or their masters. + +This, however, did not satisfy the anti-slavery party, and they went on +with their struggle for total emancipation, in which they at last +succeeded. In 1833 an Act of Parliament was passed, by which, after the +1st of August, 1834, slavery was to give place to an apprenticeship of +four or six years, according to the status of the slave, the former +term for house-servants and the latter for labourers on the +plantations, or "predials." Every child born after that date was to be +entirely free, and here came in one of the greatest blemishes of the +law. These poor infants belonged to nobody; their mothers cared little +for them, and it could not be expected that the planters would pay to +keep up the old system of superintendence. Even those who had been +instrumental in getting the law passed now began to make comparisons +between the position of the child-bearing woman under the old and new +systems. Hitherto they were unable to find words harsh enough to use in +condemning slavery--now they began to find that it had its good points. +Then the new system required new administrators, and, to prevent any +suspicion of bias, magistrates were brought from England. Yet these very +same unbiassed gentlemen ordered flogging for the men and the treadmill +and dark cell for the women. The Quaker delegates sent out to inspect +the result of their work were horrified. They said that the cat was +worse than the old whip, and that the apprenticeship system caused ten +times more suffering than slavery. + +And such was really the case. The negroes could no longer be kept under +subordination--they even claimed entire freedom at once. Several +disturbances took place before they could be made to understand that +they had to work seven and a half hours every day, to pay for their +homes, provision grounds, and other allowances. In Demerara the Governor +addressed them as erring children, telling them that they could not +all be masters, and that every one must work. They had never seen a +white man handle the shovel or the hoe--he was free--now they had +attained to the same condition, the same coveted freedom from hard +labour must be theirs also. True, there were free negroes, some of whom +had learnt trades, but even they were above working in the field. Why +should free negroes work? Certainly not for their wives and children. +The women got their allowances, and the planter had hitherto looked +after the children. The negro had no house rent to pay, his two suits of +clothing came regularly every year, and if he was sick the doctor +attended to him. Except to deck himself with finery, he had no use for +money; a few would work overtime when they wanted something of that +sort, but the majority did as little as possible. + +[Illustration: THE FIRST OF AUGUST. + +(_From Madden's "West Indies."_)] + +In 1838, when the house servants were to be freed, while the predials +must serve two years longer, the difficulties of such an arrangement +became insurmountable. A daughter or wife might be entirely free, and +the father or husband an "apprentice." Then came the difficulty of +classification, which the commissioners appointed to arrange the +divisions necessarily decided against the opinion of one or the other +disputant, driving him to appeal. All this rendered a continuance of the +system impossible, and slavery was terminated altogether on the 1st of +August, 1838, the planters receiving from the British people twenty +millions sterling as compensation, being about one-third of the +estimated value of the slaves. + +The French had received such a lesson from the revolt of Hayti that +they did little for their negroes. However, after the downfall of Louis +Philippe in 1848, the revolutionary Government abolished slavery +throughout the colonies, without compensation. + +[Illustration: A RELIC OF THE SLAVERY DAYS--OLD SLAVE BUYING FISH.] + +After freedom had been secured in the British colonies the slaves in +neighbouring places naturally became discontented. There were not many +desertions from the islands, but in Guiana, where the Dutch negroes were +slaves on one side of the river Corentyne, and the British free on the +other, the runaways from the former caused a great deal of trouble to +the Dutch. Whenever an opportunity occurred, a party of slaves stole a +boat and made off to the British side, until the Surinam planters became +much alarmed. Ultimately a Dutch gunboat was stationed at the boundary +river, and this put an end to the migration. + +Some of the islands were much affected, especially those of the Danes, +which were frequented by British vessels, and were largely English in +their sympathies. Here the negroes soon learnt what had happened, and +began to express dissatisfaction with their own position. However, +Denmark saw that something had to be done, and in 1847 enacted laws for +gradual emancipation in her islands. From the 28th of July of that year +all children born of slaves were to be free, and at the end of twelve +years from that time slavery was to cease altogether. + +This did not satisfy the negroes, who became more discontented, and in +1848 an insurrection took place on the island of St. Croix. On the 2nd +of July it was rumoured that the slaves would refuse to work next day, +and in the evening the whites were alarmed by the ringing of bells and +blowing of conch shells. At first it was considered as an alarm of fire, +but on inquiry the whites found that the negroes had revolted, and were +demanding their freedom. Later, people came in from the country +districts with the news that there were noisy demonstrations, but that +as yet no actual violence had been committed. So little alarm was as yet +felt that no precautions were taken, although some persons became +uneasy. + +Next morning the negroes streamed into Christiansted in great numbers, +and commenced to demolish the police office. An officer coming into town +was attacked by a woman with an axe, which fortunately missed him, but +the crowd was so good-humoured that, on his treating the matter coolly +he was allowed to pass: this apparent good feeling made the authorities +hesitate in taking extreme measures, even when the mob came round the +fort, shouting and calling for freedom. Now, however, they began to +collect trash for the purpose of setting fire to a house, and the +Stadthauptman and a Roman Catholic priest went among them to try +remonstrances. All the answer they got was that the slaves could not +fight the soldiers, but they intended to burn and destroy everything if +freedom were not given them. One of the mob carried a British flag as an +emblem of liberty, and several English sailors were reported as forming +part of the crowd. Soon all their good-humour was gone, and they +commenced plundering the stores, the whites running away to vessels in +the harbour. + +About three o'clock in the afternoon the Governor arrived from St. +Thomas, and went among the crowd telling them that they were free, at +the same time ordering them to disperse quietly. For a few hours there +was a lull, but next morning they reassembled in the country districts +as if in doubt whether the Governor really meant what he had said. Some +planters now brought their families to town, leaving their houses to be +plundered. Parties of soldiers were sent out, and hundreds of prisoners +were taken, the mobs, which in some cases numbered two or three +thousand, dispersing at their appearance. Martial law was declared, +Porto Rico sent six hundred Spanish troops, the insurrection was at last +quelled, and peace restored. The Governor stood his trial in Denmark, to +be acquitted, and to have his declaration of complete emancipation +confirmed. + +Slavery still continued in the Dutch possessions until 1863, and even +then it was only replaced by compulsory labour for ten years, leaving +the final emancipation until 1873. Yet with all that there were no +disturbances to hurry on the process or cause trouble. In Cuba a law was +passed in 1870 to give freedom to all above the age of sixty, as well as +to children born after the passing of the Act. This, however, was not +enforced on account of internal dissensions, and although Porto Rico +gave her slaves their liberty on the 23rd of March, 1873, the Cuban +Emancipation Bill was not passed by the Spanish Senate until February, +1880, and under that law slavery only came to an end on the 6th of +October, 1886. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +XV. + +RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION. + + +The slave emancipation was a terrible blow to the West Indies, and one +from which many of the islands have not yet recovered. It was, the +planters said, the second attempt to ruin them, the first having been +the abolition of the slave-trade. The party who brought it about looked +to see their _protegees_ become a contented, hard-working peasantry, in +place of driven cattle, as they called them. The planters, on the +contrary, were morally certain that as free men they would not work, and +without a labour supply their estates would be utterly ruined. The +British taxpayer grumbled at having to pay twenty millions, but this was +a mere sop for the estate owners. With the loss of their human chattels +the plantations in many cases became utterly valueless; for the negroes +congregated round certain centres, leaving most of the outlying places +without enough people to keep up the cultivation. Labour had been +degraded by the system, and now the full effects of such influence began +to be felt. + +[Illustration: NEGRESS, GUIANA.] + +[Illustration: NEGRESS FISH-SELLERS, GUIANA.] + +The compensation money, in many cases, went towards paying off mortgages +and other claims, the holders of which saw the impending ruin and +hastened to save themselves as far as possible. But it was not enough +even for that, for many plantations had liens of half the appraised +value of the land, buildings, and slaves. The last security being +entirely gone the others became worthless, and, as no one cared to +advance money on such risks, the nominal owners could not even get as +much as to pay wages. A plantation valued at perhaps L60,000 a few years +before, and easily mortgaged for half that amount, received L16,000 for +compensation with which to pay off the claim, and then wanted cash to +carry on as well. Banks were established, but only solvent estates could +get help from them, and consequently hundreds were abandoned in the +larger colonies, and hardly one, with the exception of those in +Barbados, could produce as much sugar as formerly. West Indian Nabobs, +who had been getting their ten thousand a year and living in England, +went out to see what could be done. Their incomes were entirely gone, +and with them all hopes for the future. Widows and children lost their +only means of support, and ruin fell on hundreds of families in England +as well as in the West Indies. But not only did this downfall affect the +owners and their relations, but merchants as well. Old firms shook to +their very foundations, while many became bankrupt, to bring suffering +to the homes of thousands who had hardly known of the sugar colonies +beyond the invectives of the anti-slavery society. Many who had been +strong advocates of emancipation now wished they had never said anything +about it, but the die was cast, and there could never again be anything +like the shilly-shallying of the French at Hayti. + +[Illustration: CHINESE WOOD-CARRIER.] + +[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE.] + +The negroes would not work, and there were no means of forcing them to +do so. The anti-slavery party still had their delegates in the West +Indies to see that the "poor negro" was not oppressed in any way, and +their representatives in Parliament to call the Government to account if +they allowed any vagrancy laws, or even the shadow of a coercive measure +in the colonies. One ordinance after another for this purpose was +disallowed, until every planter was in despair. + +[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE FAMILY.] + +[Illustration: COOLIE BARBER.] + +To retain their labourers was a matter of life or death. Some continued +the old slave allowances to put them in good humour, but as these made +the negroes independent of wages, the privilege was abused. They took +everything and did nothing in return. Some went so far as to say that +the Queen had promised that their late masters should supply them as +usual, entirely regardless of the amount of work they did. This made the +planters sore. What with one trouble and another the few who survived +the wreck hardly knew how to act. They must not do anything to drive +their people away, for there were many inducements offered by others in +the same predicament. The negro was master, and he knew it. So much +depended on him that he was enticed to labour, by high wages and greater +privileges, until this bidding of one against another produced the very +result which it was intended to avoid. + +[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE GIRL.] + +[Illustration: COOLIE WOMEN, BRITISH GUIANA.] + +Something had to be done. First, the allowances of those who would not +work were stopped; then their houses and provision grounds were taken +away. Thousands of fruit-trees were destroyed to prevent their living on +mangoes and bananas during the season. Then the planters attempted to +combine to bring wages to a paying level, and this led to strikes of +the negroes. Everything tended to further estrangement until employer +and labourer drifted far apart. In British Guiana the negroes bought +some of the abandoned plantations and established villages; in some +cases they even attempted to carry them on as sugar estates, but as all +wanted to be masters they in every case failed. + +[Illustration: COOLIE VEGETABLE SELLERS, BRITISH GUIANA.] + +[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIES, TRINIDAD.] + +As if this were not enough, the British Government went in for free +trade, and allowed foreign slave-grown sugar to compete with that of the +colonies. It seemed as if the French revolutionary cry of "Perish the +colonies!" had now been introduced into the British Parliament. From one +point of view the planters had been amply paid with the compensation +money. Some went so far as to say that twenty millions could have bought +all the estates in the West Indies, implying that the colonists had no +further claim upon them. Even the anti-slavery party would not see that +they were encouraging the slave system in other countries by opening +their markets. This completed the ruin begun by emancipation, but as +long as the principles were adhered to it did not matter. + +[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE, TRINIDAD.] + +Most of the remaining plantations now fell into the hands of those who +had liens upon them, and they, not liking to lose their money +altogether, commenced the uphill work of again bringing them into +cultivation. Even a few colonists continued the struggle in hopes of +better times. In Demerara there were two cases where eminent +lawyers--the legal profession, by the bye, doing well when everything +else was on the verge of ruin--spent all their profits in keeping their +sugar estates from utter abandonment. One of these got so heavily in +debt that at one time he could not pay his house rent, and as the +landlord dared not sue him, he had metaphorically to go on his knees and +beg him to quit. + +[Illustration: TRINIDAD COOLIES.] + +However, the sturdy English spirit survived in a few, and they set to +work to obtain labourers from other parts of the world. At first they +thought of Africa, but the anti-slavery party would not hear of +immigration from the "dark continent," for fear of abuses. Then India +was tried, with the result that a few coolies were brought over by +private parties, notably to Demerara by John Gladstone. But again the +cry of slavery went forth, due to the managers leaving the new-comers in +the hands of their headmen or sirdars. It was charged against them that +they beat their underlings, and of course the planters had to bear the +responsibility. The result was that East Indian immigration was +prohibited for a time. After a hard struggle on the part of the planters +it was renewed, and in the end prevented Trinidad and British Guiana +from utter abandonment. + +Besides Hindoo coolies, Chinese were also imported, as well as Maltese, +Madeirans, and a few Germans. At first the negro thought little of this +competition, but when he gradually dropped into the background, with his +missionary friends, he commenced to protest against it. His friends +said, and it was the truth, that there was enough labour in the colonies +to carry on the estates, but the difficulty was that it could not be +depended upon. Then the wages demanded by the negroes was entirely +beyond the means of the planters--the price of sugar would not admit of +them. It was a case of cheap labour or the alternative of giving up the +struggle, and with the East Indians, British Guiana, and Trinidad +recovered from the brink of ruin to become more flourishing in some +respects than in the years immediately preceding emancipation. Jamaica, +the greatest of the British colonies, suffered the most as she got but +few immigrants, and it is only during the last decade that she has again +begun to hold up her head. Without healthy competition with other races, +the negroes sunk back, until they became even more degraded than those +of British Guiana and Trinidad. + +In Barbados, on the contrary, the population was so dense that the +freedman must either work or starve. There were no waste lands and few +absentee proprietors, nor were any of the estates abandoned. Labour was +plentiful and cheap; it followed, therefore, that the island soon +recovered from the check and went on prospering. The compulsion of the +whip gave way to the force of circumstances, and the struggle for +existence which ensued has made the Barbadian negro the most industrious +in the West Indies. Not only is he this, but he is, like his former +masters, intensely loyal to Great Britain and "Little England." All the +black, coloured, and white people in the other islands call themselves +Creoles, but he is "neither Crab (Carib) nor Creole, but true Barbadian +born." + +In the French, Danish, and Dutch colonies labour laws were enforced +after emancipation, and generally with good results. They felt the +change, but not to such an extent as their neighbours, and recovered all +the sooner. Then they were not utterly disheartened by the unhealthy +competition of slave-grown products like the English. Possibly, however, +the British freedman would not have borne coercion, for even the Danes +resented it. + +We have seen already that the negroes of the island of St. Croix were by +no means willing to submit to what they considered injustice, and how +they forced on their own emancipation. However, down to 1878 they were +bound to the soil as it were under annual engagements, from which they +were not released without proper notice, even after the term had +expired. They had houses, provision grounds, allowances, and very low +wages, and were bound to work five days a week. The engagement expired +annually on the 1st of October, and on that day those who did not renew +their contract assembled in the two towns of the island for a +jollification, where something like the old "mop" or hiring fair of +England took place. + +In 1878 they somehow got the impression that the labour law was about to +be relaxed, but there does not seem to have been any combination among +them to obtain such an end; they were dissatisfied, and that was all. +About the same time the Government were so assured of their peaceable +disposition that they reduced the garrison of Christiansted, the +capital, to sixty men. When the 1st of October arrived the negroes +assembled as usual in Frederiksted, round the rum shops, appearing +good-humoured, although noisy, as such a crowd always must be. Nothing +particular happened until, at about three o'clock in the afternoon, a +cry went up that one of their number had been beaten by a policeman, on +which they attacked the peace officers, and drove them into the fort, +which was police-station and barracks. Some of the principal whites came +out and remonstrated with them, and at first they seemed as if they +would disperse, but just then the police-master, his assistant, and two +soldiers rode into their midst, brandishing swords and ordering them to +move off at once. Infuriated by this, the mob attacked the horsemen with +stones, and drove them back into the fort, which they now stormed. The +British Vice-Consul then went among them, and, after a little parleying, +induced them to go with him to the outskirts of the town. Here he got a +statement of their grievances, which were--first, that their wages were +too low (only ten cents a day); second, that the annual contract was +slavery; third, that the manager of the estate could fine them at will; +and fourth, that if they wanted to leave the island they were +obstructed. Having promised to do all he could for them, the Vice-Consul +begged them to disperse. + +[Illustration: BARBADOS. + +(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)] + +[Illustration: ST. LUCIA. + +(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)] + +They were apparently leaving the town, when a woman came running up with +the report that the man who had been beaten by the police had just died +in the hospital. This made them furious, and all further hopes of their +pacification had to be given up. They invaded the hospital, knocked down +the sick-nurse and a patient who inquired their business, and demanded +to see the murdered man. They were informed that he was not dead but +only dead drunk, and would soon recover if left alone. On being +convinced of this, they again went off and attacked the fort. The +defenders, when assailed with stones, fired over their heads, but this +only made them all the more violent. The outer gate was broken down and +some of the negroes were shot. Just at that moment a planter came up, +intending to enter the fort, and at once they beat him with sticks until +he was nearly killed. + +However, the bullets checked them, but only to throw the attack on other +parts of the town. Stores were pillaged and set fire to, until a great +portion of the town was in flames. From some of the stores they took +weapons in the shape of cane-bills, and in one were alarmed for a few +moments by an explosion of gunpowder. The whole of Bay Street was soon +in flames, and like troops of fiends the negroes went dancing round the +fires, in some places pouring on them cans of petroleum if the houses +did not blaze up fast enough. Then the rum casks began to burst, and +streams of burning spirit ran down the gutters, adding to the horror of +the scene. The women were always the most reckless--they danced and +howled with mingled joy and rage. The men added to the din by clashing +their sticks together or against the burning stores, some blowing shells +as a sort of rallying signal. "Our side!" was the watchword, and all who +could not or would not repeat it were severely beaten. Most of the +whites, however, had fled, leaving them entirely unchecked in their +destructive work. + +Meanwhile the police-master had sent to Christiansted for assistance, +and while he waited the mob again assailed the fort and again without +success. All through the night the disturbance continued, and it was not +until six o'clock in the morning that a small band of twenty soldiers +arrived. At their first volley the mob dispersed, flying precipitately +from the town to carry the riot all over the island. Two soldiers left +in charge of a waggon were killed; and on learning this the soldiers +were roused to a state of fury almost as great as that of the rioters. +They hunted them from one plantation to another, invaded their huts, +stabbed through the mattresses, and killed every negro who came in their +way, without taking the trouble to inquire whether they had been +concerned in the affair or not. Three hundred prisoners were taken, and +on the 5th of October a proclamation was issued calling on all the +negroes to return to their houses or be treated as rebels, after which +the disturbance was quelled. Twelve hundred were sentenced to death, and +a Commission of Inquiry was sent out from Denmark, the result of their +report being that the obnoxious labour law was repealed. + +We have been thus particular in our account of this riot, because it +exemplifies the character of the negro and is a type of such +disturbances in other colonies. There is generally some ill-feeling at +the bottom, but as a rule no conspiracy beforehand. When the +dissatisfaction reaches a certain point, little is required to raise the +passions of the black man, and that little thing is almost sure to +occur. Unlike the European, he does not proclaim his grievances, except +in a general way, among his own people--he has not yet arrived at that +stage where civilised man uses the platform and press. It follows, +therefore, that his passions smoulder for weeks and months, until some +trifle--often a misunderstanding--brings them to the surface. + +At St. Croix there does not appear to have been anything like race +prejudice, or that envious feeling which makes the negro think himself +down-trodden by his rivals; but that is a characteristic of most riots, +and is strikingly exemplified in two that have taken place in Demerara. + +After the emancipation the negro in British Guiana became of less and +less importance as more and more immigrants arrived, until he grew quite +sore. No longer could he demand extortionate wages, for the labour +market was virtually governed by the current rates paid to the coolies. +These people, however, were quite able to hold their own, and the negro +knew this; it followed, therefore, that he vented his spite upon the +most inoffensive people in the colony. + +The Portuguese from Madeira came to British Guiana absolutely destitute +just after the failure of the vines on their island. They found the +negro more prosperous than perhaps he has ever been since, for this was +the time when, if he worked, he could always save money if he chose. In +fact, many did so, and bought land which is still in the hands of some +of their descendants, on which houses much superior to those now in +existence were erected. The Portuguese could not endure the hard labour +of sugar-planting, but soon found openings as small shopkeepers or +pedlars. Hitherto there was little competition in these businesses, but +the few who carried them on were negroes or coloured persons. These were +soon ousted out, and the Portuguese became almost the only small trader +in the colony. This was a grievance to the negro, who could not see that +he himself reaped the benefit--certainly he took advantage of the +reduced prices while abusing the sellers. + +At the beginning of the year 1856 the negroes of Georgetown were excited +by the arrival of an anti-Popery agitator, who had become notorious in +England, Scotland, and the United States. John Sayers Orr, known as "the +Angel Gabriel," because he blew a trumpet to call the people together, +was a native of Demerara, and soon found out what a strong antipathy to +the Portuguese existed among the people. This suited his ideas exactly, +for were they not Roman Catholics--the very body which he had been +declaiming everywhere against? + +Soon his horn-blowing brought crowds into the market square every +Sunday, where his harangues roused his hearers to such a pitch of fury +that the authorities became alarmed. He was therefore arrested, brought +before a magistrate, charged with convening an illegal assembly, and +committed for trial. This committal of the popular hero was the spark +which set all the negroes' passions in a blaze, but, strange to say, +they did not attack the authorities. Their spite was against the +Portuguese, and soon almost the whole colony was the scene of a general +raid upon their shops. Hardly any escaped, but one after another was +broken open and the goods either carried away or destroyed. Some went so +far as to use the Governor's name, as if he had authorised the raid, and +in this way got ignorant people in the country districts to help them to +seize boats, provisions, and even the produce of the farms of the +obnoxious Portuguese. + +The riot was ultimately quelled, but not before the damage amounted to +over a quarter of a million dollars. Hundreds of prisoners were +captured, but beyond the shooting of one policeman there does not appear +to have been any serious casualties, neither were there any executions. +It is interesting to note that the idea of poisoning, which is connected +with Obeah superstition, was conspicuous here as in the Berbice slave +insurrection. One black man charged a Portuguese with threatening to +poison his customers with the provisions he sold them; but all the +satisfaction the negro got was a reprimand from the magistrate. + +The second great riot in Georgetown is notable for its similarity to +that at St. Croix. The feeling of antipathy to the Portuguese still +continued, and the negro had a special grievance on account of the +reprieve of a murderer of that nationality. If he had been black he +would have been hanged, they said--it was colour prejudice. However, no +disturbance took place for several months, and even then it only came +about through a misunderstanding. A black boy buying a cent roll of +bread in the market, snatched one of the penny rolls instead, when the +Portuguese stall-keeper struck him down with a stick. The boy was taken +up senseless and carried to the hospital, while his assailant through +some misunderstanding was not arrested. At once there was a cry of +"Portugee kill black man; Binney (the clerk of the market) let he go," +and they began to assail the clerk with sticks and stones. + +The police arrived, dispersed the mob, and shut up the market, but this +only led to their scattering throughout the city. The report that the +black boy was dead was carried into every yard, and at once swarms of +women and boys, with comparatively few men, began to smash the +Portuguese shops. The authorities did next to nothing, beyond sending +out a few special constables, armed only with sticks, to fight against +overpowering crowds better provided with weapons than themselves. The +consequence was that for two days Georgetown was in the power of +thousands of negroes, and damage resulted to the amount of nearly fifty +thousand dollars. The disturbance was finally checked by arming the +police, and issuing a proclamation that they were authorised to fire on +the rioters. Not a single shot was fired, however; the threat was quite +sufficient for the purpose. + +It will be seen from these cases that of late years the negroes have +not perpetrated such massacres as once characterised their +insurrections, but the insurrection at St. Thomas-in-the-East in Jamaica +seems to show that the old spirit was not dead in 1865. + +For several years previous Jamaica had been much depressed--in fact, she +had hardly begun to recover from the ruin which followed emancipation. +Then came a two years' drought, which caused some distress among the +people, who had no other means of support than what was derived from +their small provision fields. The Baptist connexion was very strong in +the island, and Dr. Underhill, the Secretary of its Missionary Society, +went out, and on his return published reports blaming the Government for +the distress, which he appears to have highly exaggerated. This tended +to produce more dissatisfaction and to give the negroes an object on +which they could vent their feelings. In one of Dr. Underhill's letters +he said the people seemed to be overwhelmed with discouragement, and +that he feared they were giving up their long struggle with injustice +and fraud in despair. Thus a feeling was produced which only required +some little incident to bring on a serious disturbance. + +On the 7th of October a black man was brought up for trial before the +Custos of St. Thomas-in-the-East, when a somewhat orderly mob marched +into the town to, if possible, release the prisoner. They crowded round +the court-house and made such a disturbance that one of them was taken +in charge, only, however, to be rescued at once by his friends. Nothing +more was done on that day, but warrants having been issued for the arrest +of the leaders, their execution was forcibly resisted. The negroes now +seem to have planned a general rising and issued notices calling their +people to arms. "Blow your shells, roll your drums; house to house take +out every man! War is at us; my black skin, war is at hand. Every black +man must turn at once, for the oppression is too great." They were, they +said, ground down by an overbearing and oppressive foreigner, and if +they did not get justice would burn and kill. + +On the 11th of October a mob assembled at the same court-house, and +being resisted by a small body of volunteers, they killed the Custos, +and every white man who opposed them, to the number of twenty-eight, +released all the prisoners and burnt the building. Immediately +afterwards there was a general rising in the district, which spread for +about fifty miles. + +Governor Eyre, when he heard the news, at once determined to suppress +the insurrection before it affected the whole island. Martial law was +declared, a body of maroons employed, and within a few days the riots +were suppressed. Many of the negroes were shot as they tried to escape, +others taken and hanged at once, their villages burnt to the ground, and +altogether they received such a lesson as effectually put a stop to +anything of the kind in the future. It was stated that 439 people were +killed and 600 flogged; a thousand houses were burnt and a great deal of +property destroyed by both parties. + +The severity of Governor Eyre caused a great outcry in England, +especially among the Baptists. Among those who were executed was Mr. +Gordon, a member of the Assembly, who no doubt fell a victim to the +feeling aroused among the whites. He was charged with being a prime +instigator of the revolt, but it does not appear that he went beyond +what is generally allowed to a political agitator. Such agitation, +however, amongst ignorant people, who are easily excited, is +particularly dangerous, and likely to recoil on the heads of those who +initiate it, who must be prepared to risk the consequences. + +Governor Eyre was recalled, and prosecuted without success. He +undoubtedly saved the island, and, although such executions as were +committed can hardly be excused, yet when we consider the alarm and +excitement, we must make some allowances. And, after all, it must be +remembered that the loss of life would probably have been much greater +had not the insurrection been nipped in the bud. + +Barbados is unique in several respects, and as may be supposed there is +something remarkable even about her riots. The patriotism of the +inhabitants, both black and white, is proverbial all over the West +Indies. There is no place in the world to equal Barbados--no colony but +what has been conquered by the enemy at some time or other. "Little +England" was said to have offered an asylum to King George the Third +when Buonaparte intended to invade England, and no doubt if such an +offer was ever made it was done in all sincerity. Barbadians are proud +of their constitution, and jealous of its infringement in the slightest +degree. This feeling led to a disturbance in 1876, which was the +nearest approach to an insurrection on that island in late years. + +It has often been suggested that a confederation of the British West +Indies would be advantageous in many ways, and in 1876 the Secretary of +State was of opinion that a closer union of Barbados and the other +Windward Islands was desirable. The Governor of all the islands was then +Mr. Pope Hennessy, who had lately been appointed, and who had been +directed to obtain the consent of Barbados to a partial union. The +measures proposed were of little importance, consisting only of the +amalgamation of the prisons, lunatic asylums, and lazarettos, and the +extension of the powers of the Chief Justice, Auditor-General, and the +police force to cover the whole of the islands. + +An outsider would suppose that there was nothing offensive in these +changes, but that, on the contrary, they would be beneficial in many +ways, but most of the Barbadians opposed them strongly. Barbados, they +said, was solvent, while some of the islands were on the verge of +bankruptcy--their island should not be taxed to support paupers. They +held meetings at which six points were agreed to, and on which the +leaders harangued crowds throughout the island. These were, first, that +their Court of Appeal would be abolished; second, that all the mad +people from other islands would have to be supported by them; third, +that all the lepers would come there; fourth, that the officials of +other islands would live on them; fifth, that the power would be taken +from the people and given to the Governor; and sixth, that as the House +of Assembly had always been faithful they resented any interference with +it. + +The Governor was desirous of carrying his project, and possibly went +farther than was consistent with his instructions, which were to bring +about the arrangement in an amicable manner. He did all he could to +create a party in its favour, and was charged by the other side with +using underhand means to this end. The main point, however, on which he +laid stress, and which seems to have caused the trouble, was the +advantage to the Barbadians of having the other islands so close as to +become virtually like their own parishes, so that the surplus population +would be able to take up lands that were then useless, and lying waste. + +Barbados is densely populated. All the lands are occupied, and it is +very difficult to procure even a small lot--this makes the people all +the more eager to get possession of a little freehold. Yet, with all +this, they will not settle in other islands, where they can get a piece +of ground for next to nothing. + +Somehow or other the more ignorant people seem to have got the notion +that the Governor was promising them land in Barbados, and this made +them enthusiastic for his project. Something like communism would, they +thought, follow if the Confederation Act were passed, and this was the +reason in their opinion why the other party fought against it. The +planters spoke as if Mr. Hennessy had laid himself open to such a +misunderstanding, and that made them all the more virulent against him. + +The anti-Confederation party said that it had always been the pride and +glory of Barbados to have a separate political existence, and if under +their own institutions they had achieved a success which made them the +envy of their neighbours, why should they change? The majority of the +House of Assembly were on their side, and it is difficult to understand +why the Governor pressed the matter in the way he did. The opposition +was no doubt foolish, but still, if the people chose to be silly, he +could not overcome their prejudices. Party feeling ran high, only the +mob shouting for Hennessy and Confederation. Those on one side would +hiss him as he appeared--the others took the horses from his carriage +and drew him along in triumph. It was reported that he never went out +without a guard, and that even his wife lived in continual fear. She had +been threatened with the abduction of her child, and one ruffian went so +far as to pelt the little one as he was driven along the street, for +which he was prosecuted. + +At last, on the 18th of April, 1876, when the party feeling had existed +over six weeks, matters came to a crisis. A man went into the yard of +Byde Mill plantation, flourishing a cane-cutter, and bearing a red flag. +He was, he said, a Confederation man, had just come from the Governor, +and wanted some liquor (cane juice). Getting nothing he went out and +brought his brother who bore a sword, and the two quarrelled with the +man in the boiling-house, the one with the sword attempting to stab him. +They defied a constable who came to arrest them, and one blew a shell +which brought a mob of women and children, who went into a field of +sweet-potatoes and began to carry them off. Three mounted police +arrived, but they were pelted with stones, and one who attempted to +arrest the man with the sword got wounded. A magistrate then came and +read the Riot Act, but the mob refused to disperse. As usual there were +grievances, some complained that their pay had been stopped, which the +manager said was because they could not work the mill full time for want +of wind. + +Two cane-fields were now set on fire, and the disturbance spread, its +great characteristic being raids upon the potato fields. In several +places live stock were killed, dwellings broken into, and everything +chopped or broken to pieces. A few shots were exchanged, but no one +appears to have been killed, although many got wounds and bruises from +sticks and stones. Everywhere the mob declared they had the authority of +the Governor for what they were doing, and the sufferers from their +depredations charged Mr. Hennessy with delay in putting down the +disturbance. This, however, was probably due to the effect of the +persecution of Governor Eyre, which has made every West Indian Governor +hesitate before going to extremes. However, when the people from the +country districts began to fly to Bridgetown he sent out a few soldiers +who very quickly dispersed the mobs. A sensational telegram to London +stated that five hundred prisoners had been taken, forty people killed +and wounded, rioting was suspended, but their position was threatened, +and that confidence in the Government had entirely gone. This was highly +exaggerated, but a great deal of property was destroyed or injured, +fifty estates pillaged, and probably over fifty persons received more or +less serious blows. + +Quite a storm fell upon Hennessy, who on the 26th of April had to issue +a proclamation threatening to direct the law officers to take prompt +measures against those who libelled him, by saying that he had sent +emissaries through the island to mislead the people, and that he +countenanced and abetted the disgraceful and lawless acts of the +marauders. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration] + + + + +XVI. + +THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES. + + +By the second half of the last century the supply of gold and silver +from Peru had much diminished, and the road across the isthmus almost +fell into disuse. In 1780, during the great war, the British appear to +have had some vague notion that it would be good policy to secure the +track across Nicaragua, for which purpose an expedition was fitted out. +Early in that year Nelson sailed from Jamaica with five hundred men, and +after getting a number of Indians from the Mosquito shore and a +reinforcement of British troops, the party made the difficult ascent of +the San Juan river, and captured the fort of the same name. But, through +ignorance, the whole affair proved disastrous--the fort was useless, and +the losses through sickness very great. Of eighteen hundred men only +three hundred and eighty survived, and Nelson himself nearly lost his +life. He was obliged to go home to recruit, and it was only after +spending two or three months at Bath that he recovered to continue that +glorious career which made him so famous. + +However, it was not long afterwards that a project for utilising the +isthmus was brought under the consideration of the British Government by +General Miranda, of whom we have spoken in another chapter. He wanted +Pitt to assist him in his projects for the emancipation of the Spanish +colonies, and, as a means to this end, in 1790, proposed that the +British should take possession of Darien, and thus further their +commerce in the Pacific. Nothing was done at that time, and a few years +later Miranda made a second proposition that the United States should +join with Great Britain, and open roads and canals for both nations. + +Mr. Pitt seems to have agreed to this, and was only prevented from +attempting to carry it out by the delay of President Adams. The United +States were to furnish ten thousand men, and Great Britain money and +ships. In 1801, under Lord Sidmouth, an expedition was actually set on +foot, only to collapse at the Peace of Amiens. Again, in 1804, Pitt +tried to carry out the project with Miranda, but the condition of Europe +stood in the way of expeditions to the Spanish Main. + +[Illustration: ATLANTIC ENTRANCE TO DARIEN CANAL. + +(_From Cullen's "Darien Canal."_)] + +In enumerating the advantages likely to accrue from the emancipation of +South America, a writer in the _Edinburgh Review_ of January, 1809, laid +great stress upon a passage across the isthmus. It was the most +important to the peaceful intercourse of nations of anything that +presented itself to the enterprise of man. So far from being a romantic +and chimerical project, it was not only practicable, but easy. The river +Chagre, about eighteen leagues westward of Porto Bello, was navigable as +far as Cruzes, within five leagues of Panama. But there was even a +better route; at about five leagues from its mouth the Chagre received +the river Trinidad, which was navigable to Embarcadero, from which +Panama was only distant thirty miles through a level country. The ground +had been surveyed, and not the practicability only, but the facility of +the work _completely ascertained_. Further north was the grand lake of +Nicaragua, which by itself almost extended the navigation from sea to +sea. The Governor of St. John's Castle (Fort San Juan) had been +instructed by the king of Spain to refuse permission to any British +subject desirous of passing up or down this lake, "for if ever the +English came to a knowledge of its importance and value they would soon +make themselves masters of this part of the country." + +But not only had the best places for a canal been selected at this early +time, but the many advantages to be derived from its construction had +been well considered. The same writer went on to say that from this +splendid and not difficult enterprise, not merely the commerce of the +western shores of America would be brought, as it were, to their doors, +but that of the South Sea whalers, who would be saved the tedious and +dangerous voyage round Cape Horn. Then the whole of the vast interests +of Asia would increase in value to a degree that was then difficult to +conceive, by having a direct route across the Pacific. It would be as +if, by some great revolution of the globe, they were brought nearer. +Immense would be the traffic which immediately would begin to cover the +ocean--all the riches of India and China moving towards America. Then +also the commodities of Europe and America would be carried towards +Asia. As a result of this, vast depots would be formed at the two +extremities of the canal, to soon develop into great commercial cities. +Never before had such an opportunity been offered to a nation as Great +Britain had then before her, owing to a wonderful combination of +circumstances. + +Mr. Robinson, a United States merchant, in 1821, said that the most +ardent imagination would fail in an attempt to portray all the +important and beneficial consequences of such a work, the magnitude and +grandeur of which were worthy the profound attention of every commercial +nation. The powers of the old and new world should discard all selfish +considerations, and unite to execute it on a magnificent scale, so that +when completed it might become, like the ocean, a highway of nations, +the enjoyment of which should be guaranteed by all, and be exempt from +the caprice or regulation of any one kingdom or state. + +Such were the views promulgated at the beginning of this century, but +nothing was done until about 1850, when the pressure of circumstances +again brought the isthmus into note. + +Darien and Panama are in the Republic of New Granada, but north of these +come the small states of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador, +and Guatemala. All of these are inhabited by true Americans--native +races who have to a considerable extent absorbed the slight admixture of +European blood introduced by their conquerors. Some places are so +inaccessible as to be virtually outside the pale of civilisation. The +roads are nothing but mule tracks, full of quagmires where the animals +have to wade up to their girths in mud--in fact, little better than the +paths so well described by Lionel Wafer. The rivers are numerous, and, +on account of the heavy rainfall, their currents are very strong, and +all the more dangerous from the numerous sandbanks and rapids which +obstruct their course. Since the states gained their independence they +have passed through so many changes of government that at the beginning +hardly a month passed without a revolution in one or the other. This +went on until 1848 without interference from outside, but with the +discovery of gold in California came an invasion of ruffians of all +nations. + +The old freebooters almost seemed to have come to life again. Hardy +adventurers from all parts of the world rushed off to the new "El +Dorado," woke the sleepy Nicaraguans on the San Juan river, and roused +the people of Chagres. Over the isthmus of Panama or through the +Nicaragua lake they flocked by thousands, necessitating the +establishment of Transit Companies to provide them with mules, boats, +and steamers. The easiest, although longest, route was through +Nicaragua, which was controlled by the Vanderbilt Company, and during +the time the "rush" lasted they took over two or three thousand per +month. The Company had steamers on the lake to meet the throng of +diggers as they arrived, and they passed through at regular intervals +like a tide. The overland part of the route presented a strange +spectacle, with their pack mules and horses. Men of all nationalities, +armed with pistols and knives, which they were prepared to use on the +Greasers (natives) at the slightest provocation, put these altogether in +the background. A traveller has spoken of them as a string of romantic +figures that could not be matched in any other part of the world. Some +glowed with fervent passion, as if on fire, others were hard, cold, and +rugged as the rocky passes they traversed, while a few were worn, old, +and decaying, under the effects of the hardships and reverses of their +stormy existence. Every line in their faces had a meaning, if it could +only have been interpreted, telling of sin and suffering--of adventures +more terrible than were ever portrayed by the pen of the romantic +writer, and of experiences as fascinating as they had been dangerous. + +Among the results of this rush through Nicaragua was the expedition of +William Walker, the great filibuster of this century. With fifty-five +men he went forth from California to conquer Central America, and in the +end nearly succeeded. He got himself elected President of Nicaragua, but +ultimately raised such a storm that he was brought to bay by some forces +from Honduras and Costa Rica, and had to surrender to the captain of a +British man-of-war, by whom he was handed over to his enemies to be +shot. + +With this wonderful traffic across the isthmus arose the old canal +schemes, as well as a new one for a railway. Easy and rapid transit must +be obtained in some way or other, and this time being in the age of +steam, it naturally followed that the project for a railway gained +immediate support. It was commenced in 1850, at which time the terminus +on the Gulf side was settled, and the foundations of the new town of +Aspinwall or Colon laid a few miles east of Chagres. The difficulties +were enormous, on account of the marshy ground and the number of rivers +to be crossed. The wooden bridges were almost immediately attacked by +wood ants, floods carried away the timbers, but more distressing than +all was the loss of life through sickness. Chinese labourers were +imported in great numbers, only to fall victims to the same deadly +climate which had given Porto Bello and the isthmus generally their evil +reputation. However, the railway was completed in 1864, at the enormous +cost of $7,500,000, although its length is only 47-1/2 miles. Thus one +part of the great project was carried out, and a good road provided for +passengers and light goods, the annual value of which latter is now +about L15,000,000. + +But those in favour of a canal were not sleeping all this time. The old +routes were again mooted, that through Lake Nicaragua being put down at +194 miles in length, while the other, since known as the Panama, was +only 51. Dr. Edward Cullen, however, in 1850 went out and made some +surveys, with the result that he advocated the old Darien line as the +shortest and most practicable. He would start from the same Port de +Escoces that witnessed the downfall of William Paterson's scheme, and +which he said was a most commodious harbour for the terminus of a canal. +The isthmus was here only 39 miles across, and free from many of the +difficulties which beset the other routes. + +As a result of Dr. Cullen's reports, in 1852 it was proposed to +establish "The Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company," with a capital of +fifteen millions sterling. The prospectus stated that the period had +arrived when the spread of commerce and the flow of emigration to the +western shores of America, Australasia, and China, demanded a passage +more direct than those by way of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn. +Various projects had been formed for uniting the two oceans, but all +these were open to the objection that they fell short of supplying a +continuous channel from sea to sea, for vessels of all dimensions, by +which alone transhipment could be obviated. Sir Charles Fox, Mr. John +Henderson, Mr. Thomas Brassey, and Dr. Cullen had received a concession +of territory from New Ganada to the extent of 200,000 acres, on +condition that a deposit of L24,000 be made within twelve months. It was +believed that the work could be completed for twelve millions. + +The _Times_ spoke disparagingly of the new Company, and this probably +prevented its acceptance by the financial world. The line, it said, had +not been actually surveyed, but only superficially examined, and, after +all, if it were finished, it could only come into competition with the +Nicaragua Canal, every foot of which had been the subject of precise +estimates, and which would only cost _four millions_. Several letters +from the projectors and supporters of the Company followed, with other +leaders, the result being that the Darien Canal never went beyond a +project. Presently also the rush for California abated, and the railway +met the wants of the passengers; all the canal schemes were therefore +again shelved for a time. + +Then came an almost Utopian project for a ship railway, the cars of +which would run down into the water, take up the largest vessel, and +carry it over without trouble or difficulty. This met with little +encouragement, and was soon dropped. + +In 1879 Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had achieved such a glorious success +with the Suez Canal, took up the matter of a canal between the two +oceans, and summoned a congress of savants, engineers and seamen, to +inquire into and discuss the questions of its possibility, and of the +most suitable place for its excavation. A number of projects were +considered, among them that of Dr. Cullen, brought forward by M. de +Puydt, which, however, did not receive much attention, as there was a +difference of opinion as to the reliability of the figures. + +The schemes were ultimately reduced to two--those for the Nicaragua and +Panama routes. The position of the great lake caused the former to be +thoroughly discussed; but there were several almost insurmountable +difficulties in the way of its adoption. To clear the San Juan river, +and make it into a great canal, would entail great labour and expense, +and then seven or eight locks would be required. On the Pacific side +locks would also be required for the Rivas, while the harbours of +Greytown on the Gulf side, and Brito on the Pacific, were quite unsuited +as termini for a canal. The total length would be 182-1/2 miles, and the +time occupied in the passage four and a half days. There was also +another great draw-back: Nicaragua was and is subject to earthquakes, +which would be likely at times to interfere greatly with such heavy +works as were required. It followed, therefore, that notwithstanding the +powerful support of the Americans, this line was abandoned in favour of +that from Port Simon to Panama, not far from the railway. + +Two French officers, MM. Wyse and Reclus, had explored the country, and +proposed to carry the canal through the Chagres river, and thence, by +means of a great tunnel, into the valley of the Rio Grande; but, on +consideration, the tunnel was abandoned in favour of a deep cutting, +which would not exceed 290 feet. The great objection to this was the +floods of the Chagres river, which sometimes rose twenty-five feet in a +single night; but this was got over by arranging for a separate bed for +the canal. There were a few other difficulties, but propositions were +made to obviate them; and at last the sub-commission reported that "the +Panama Canal on the level technically presents itself under the most +satisfactory conditions, and ensures every facility, as it gives every +security, for the transit of vessels from one sea to another." + +Now came the question of cost. The Nicaragua Canal was estimated at +L32,000,000, and that at Panama L40,000,000. (The reader will compare +these with former estimates, especially that of Nicaragua as stated by +the _Times_.) The former was rejected absolutely, on account of the +necessity for locks, and all further discussion was concerned with the +latter. It was then calculated that, with transit dues of fifteen francs +per ton, the net annual profit would be L1,680,000. + +M. de Lesseps was elected to the Academy in 1885, when M. Renan said he +had been born to pierce isthmuses, and that antiquity would have made +him a god. Carried away by enthusiasm, the great projector saw no +difficulties; he had already completed a work which had been declared +almost impossible, now he would carry out a project similar to that +proposed by William Paterson. However, Panama was not Suez, a rainless +desert, but a place where floods, marshes, and quagmires took the place +of almost level sands. + +M. Wyse had vainly tried to start a Company; but when Lesseps, with all +the prestige of his Suez Canal, joined him, there was comparatively +little difficulty. Personally, Lesseps seems to have known little of +Panama--all his knowledge was gained at second hand. The first public +subscription was invited in July, 1879, the capital being 400,000,000 +francs (L16,000,000), in 800,000 shares at 500 francs each. This large +sum, however, was not obtained at once, only L3,200,000 being applied +for. However, Lesseps was not discouraged, but determined to go on with +the work, trusting that money would flow in as it was wanted, which +ultimately proved to be the case, until the project appeared hopeless. +He visited the isthmus, and made a triumphal progress over the line; he +even witnessed one of the great floods of the Chagres river, which rose +forty feet and covered the railway. Undaunted by this, he went over to +Panama, and on the 5th of January, 1880, inaugurated the great canal +with a ceremony and _fete_. He then stated that success was assured, and +declared, upon his word of honour, that the work would be much easier on +the isthmus than in the desert of Suez. + +In March following he visited New York, where he was but coldly +received, on account of American jealousy of European influence. The +President said that the capital invested in such an enterprise by +corporations or citizens of other countries must be protected by one or +more of the great Powers, but no European Power could intervene for such +protection without adopting means which the United States would deem +inadmissible. This did not damp his enthusiasm; if other countries would +not assist, all the credit would go to France. The Company had a +concession from the Columbian Republic for twelve years, and the United +States would not be likely to interfere. + +It will be interesting here to compare the estimates for the canal by +different persons and at different times within two years:-- + + M. Wyse, 1879 L17,080,000 + The Paris Congress, 1879 41,760,000 + The Lesseps Commission, February, 1880 33,720,000 + M. de Lesseps himself, " " 26,320,000 + Rectified estimate, September, 1880 21,200,000 + +Lesseps said he had an offer from a contractor to complete the work for +twenty millions. Backed by the press and the deputies, the Company's +shares sold freely, and on the 3rd of March, 1881, it was fully +established. It was promised that in the course of that year the line of +the canal should be cleared, and dredging commenced. Lesseps expected to +finish in 1887, but in 1884 and the two following years he was obliged +to advance the time to 1890. The canal was to be 47 miles long, 70 feet +wide at the bottom, and 29 feet deep. + +Little was done in 1881, but the work was divided into five sections, +and in the following year dredging and excavating were commenced. But, +even thus early, it was found to be more difficult than had been +expected. Up to March, 1883, only 659,703 metres had been excavated, +which was reckoned to be about 1/130th of the whole. This would not do, +as it meant that over a century would pass before its completion. About +seven thousand labourers, mostly Jamaica negroes, were employed at that +time, and this number was increased until, in 1888, there were 11,500. +In 1884 the average amount excavated was 600,000 metres per month, +against Lesseps' estimate of two millions. Yet, with all that, it was +calculated that in this year only 1/180th of the material had been taken +out. + +The difficulties were enormous. First, there was trouble to find dumping +places, where the earth would not be again washed into the excavations +by heavy floods. Then came the rank vegetation, which was continually +stretching from either side to choke the clearing. Weeds grew six to +eight feet high in a rainy season, and these, with the straggling vines, +kept a little army at work to clear them away from the embankments and +tracks. The workmen suffered greatly from yellow and other fevers, and +L600,000 was spent on hospitals and their appurtenances. Money was spent +profusely on such things as grand offices and a magnificent house to +lodge the President, if he should ever come to inspect the works. All +along the route were ornamental bungalows, and the director-general at +Panama had a salary of L20,000, besides a house and other allowances. +Even he suffered from fever, and his wife and daughter died of it. + +Up to 1888 about fifty millions sterling had been spent, and hardly a +fifth of the work was finished. Then financial difficulties led to an +arrangement for merging it in a new Company, which proposed to complete +the canal on a new plan. Notwithstanding all the objections to locks, it +was now proposed to save such an immense work of excavation by erecting +four on either side, thus bringing the highest water level to 123 feet. +Eighteen and a half miles were said to have been completed, of which +five were on the Pacific side and the remainder on the Gulf. To carry +out the new plan, L36,000,000 more were required, but, as a matter of +fact, only a third of the work necessary for this revised scheme had +been done. + +Then came the downfall, which has been compared to that of the South Sea +Bubble. When the Company went into liquidation, scores of shady +transactions came to light. Editors of newspapers and deputies had been +bribed to gain their support, and money had been wasted in almost every +possible manner. In February, 1893, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps and four +other directors were prosecuted, with the result that he, MM. C. de +Lesseps, Fontaine, and Cottin, were convicted of breach of trust and +swindling, the two former being sentenced to five years' imprisonment +and 3,000 francs fines each, and the latter two years and 20,000 francs +fines. M. Eiffel, the architect of the great tower of Paris, was found +guilty of breach of trust, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment and +a fine of 20,000 francs. Nine persons were then charged with receiving +bribes, one of whom, M. Baihaut, admitted that he got 375,000 francs. +Three were found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, fines, and to pay +the liquidators of the company the amount of M. Baihaut's bribe. Charles +de Lesseps appealed against the charges of swindling, and these were +quashed on the ground that the transactions had occurred more than five +years before, thus getting the longer terms of imprisonment and fines of +the three principals reduced. + +Ferdinand de Lesseps hardly knew what was going on; he was old, feeble, +and in a state of apathy and stupor. Pity for his condition prevented +the carrying out of the sentence as far as he was concerned, and he died +on the 7th of December, 1894. The _Times_, in noticing his death, said +the story was a most pitiful one. The blame of the Panama affair must be +laid upon the people and the public temper. Bribery and corruption were +symptoms of a thoroughly unhealthy state of things. An infatuated public +provided enormous sums; when these were spent, more went the same way, +and to get these contributions everything possible was done. Lesseps was +no engineer, but a diplomatist, planning great schemes and the means of +carrying them out. He was the man of the moment in France. He was +neither a financier nor an engineer, neither an impostor nor a swindler. +He was a man of great originality, of indomitable perseverance, of +boundless faith in himself, and of singular powers of fascination over +others. + +Meanwhile several attempts had been made to get money to carry on the +work, one of which was by means of a lottery. But the French people were +discouraged, and were no longer prepared to throw good money after bad. +It followed, therefore, that although in 1894 a new company, with a +capital of sixty-five million francs, was proposed, and that it was +announced in August that eight hundred workmen were engaged, it does not +appear that anything is being done. If, as has been stated, only a third +of the work has been accomplished for, say, thirty millions, allowing +for waste of money, it can hardly be expected that double this amount +will ever be obtained. What with the heavy floods and rank vegetation, a +great deal will have to be done to recover lost ground; in fact, some of +the excavations must be filled up by this time. Those who know the +country can easily understand that the handsome bungalows, hospitals, +and workmen's houses must be overrun by wood-ants, and that the +machinery is mostly spoilt by rust. Even if the canal is ever finished +with locks, it is doubtful whether it could pay a dividend, as the work +of keeping it open by dredging would be very expensive. No doubt it +would be a boon to the world if it were finished, but capitalists expect +profit, and will hardly be inclined to assist without such expectations. + +[Illustration: EUROPE SUPPORTED BY AFRICA AND AMERICA. + +(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)] + +The Nicaragua canal has been in course of excavation for several years +past by an American Company. As finally adopted, it is to have a total +length of 169.4 miles, of which 56-1/2 will be through the lake, and 641/2 +through the San Juan river. There are to be three locks on either side, +which may cause trouble in case of a violent earthquake; and then, +again, the length of the journey will be against it as compared with +that of Panama. It has been attempted in the United States to make it a +national work, and the sum of a hundred million dollars is asked from +the American Government, or at least a guarantee on the issue of bonds +to that amount. We believe that very little enthusiasm for the project +has been shown. In August, 1893, the Company was unable to meet its +obligations, and a receiver was appointed, since which time we believe +the work is being continued, and that it has been decided to complete it +as soon as possible. M. de Varigny, in _L'Illustration_ of June the 1st, +1895, gives the following opinion on the work and its political +importance:-- + +"That the Washington statesmen take account of the fact that the cutting +of the isthmus is difficult, costly, and, in case of a rupture with +England, dangerous, we cannot doubt. But such is the fascination of +great enterprises, of grand words and grand theories, that senators and +representatives hesitate to oppose the current of opinion that is +bearing along the masses. + +"The work has begun, and we can only hope that it will succeed. There +cannot be too many gates of communication between different peoples. The +United States undertake to open this. Can they do it, and doing it, will +they give up the advantages they will thereby acquire? The future will +show." + +[Illustration] + + + + +INDEX. + + + Acosta, Pedro de, explorer of the Orinoco, 43 + + African slavery, 157 + + Aguirre the Tyrant, 38 + + Alfinger, Ambrosio de, searches for "El Dorado," 34 + + Altienza, Donna Inez de, murdered by Aguirre, 39 + + Amazon Company, 83 + + Amazon, expedition of Ursua and Aguirre, 38 + + American Indian, his character, 1 + + _Amis des Noirs_, 257 + + "Angel Gabriel," John Sayers Orr, rouses the negroes of Demerara, 335 + + Antigua, 165 + + Anti-slavery party, 289, 298 + + Apprenticeship, negro, 306 + + Araby, a leader of bush negroes, 227 + + Arawaks, + their character, 2; + Columbus tries to enslave them, 9; + the Spanish sovereign's good feeling for them, 9; + their treatment by the first colonists, 11; + did not lay up provisions, 12; + thinks Spaniards gods, 12; + refuse to be slaves, 18; + die off in great numbers, 18; + in Guiana, 23, 75 + + Araya, Dutch at, 75 + + Armada, Spanish, 63, 64 + + Aruba, 277 + + Aspinwall, 352 + + _Assiento_ contract to supply slaves, 196 + + Ayscue, Sir George, reduces Barbados for the Parliament, 124 + + + Bahamas, + natives kidnapped, 19; + settled by English, 86; + resort of buccaneers, 96; + captured by Spaniards, 117 + + Baihaut, M., bribed by Panama Canal Company, 361 + + Bannister, Major, English Governor of Surinam, 169 + + Barbados, + first colonised, 85; + protests against grant to Earl of Carlisle, 117; + result of the English revolution, 117; + Charles II. proclaimed king, 122; + Sir George Ayscue arrives to subdue the island, 124; + attack on Hole Town, 126; + the island surrenders, 128; + sufferings of a bond-servant in, 151; + De Ruyter driven off from, 161; + its unique position, 208; + negro plots, 213; + anti-slavery insurrection, 293; + result of emancipation, 328; + confederation disturbances, 341 + + Barker, Andrew, a rover, 62 + + Baron, a bush negro chief, 229 + + Basco, Michael de, a buccaneer, 99, 102 + + Baskerville, Sir Thomas, a companion of Drake, 65 + + Beaudierre, Mons. de, a sympathiser with the coloured people of + Hayti, 259 + + Berbice, + supplies cut off during war, 170; + captured by French corsairs, 178, 179; + great slave insurrection, 218 + + Belize, 250 + + Berrie, one of Ralegh's captains, 74 + + Berrio, Antonio de, Spanish Governor of Trinidad, 69 + + Bolivar, Simon, Liberator of Venezuela, 279 + + Bond-servants, 149 + + Boyer, President of Hayti, 275 + + Brethren of the coast, 93 + + British Guiana, 328, 334 + + British Legion in Venezuela, 286 + + Bull of Partition, + its terms, 48; + disputed, 49; + practically revoked, 134 + + Bush negroes, 225 + + Buxton, Fowell, 300 + + Byam, Major, Governor of Surinam, 128 + + Byron, Admiral, 241, 242 + + + Caciques of the Indians, their position, 4 + + California rush, 351 + + Campeachy, Bay of, 96, 200 + + Cannibals, 20, 31 + + Canning's declaration of neutrality, 285 + + Caribana, 75 + + Caribbee Islands, 20, 85 + + Caribs, + their character, 6; + cannibalism, 20, 31; + hatred of Spaniards, 20; + in Guiana, 23, 75; + in St. Kitt's, 88 + + Carlisle, Earl of, Grantee of Caribbee Islands, 85, 122 + + Carthagena, + taken by French, 178; + great fair, 184; + attacked by Admiral Vernon, 205 + + Cary, Colonel, favours the buccaneers, 165 + + Casas, Las, 46 + + Cassard, Jacques, + the corsair, 179; + captures St. Eustatius, 180; + Curacao, 181 + + Cattle, wild, 21 + + "Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" in Barbados, 119 + + Central American Republics, 288 + + Chagres, 352 + + Charbon, Jan Abraham, 219 + + Charles I. and the Colonies, 114 + + Charles II. + declared king in the Bermudas and Virginia, 117; + Barbados, 122; + his interest in the plantations, 135 + + Chinese labourers introduced, 327 + + Christianity forced on the natives, 8, 27 + + Christophe, a Haytian leader, 269, 274 + + Clervaux, a Haytian leader, 271 + + Clifford, Jeronomy, case of, 173 + + Cochrane, Admiral, 277 + + Codrington, Colonel, 119 + + Coffee, 143 + + Coffee, leader of rebel slaves in Berbice, 221, 223 + + Coke, John, 84 + + Colon, 352 + + Colonies, Spanish, in Hispaniola, 11, 14 + + Coloured people in Hayti, 257 + + Columbian Republic, 288 + + Columbus' opinion of the natives, 6 + + Confederation in Barbados, 341 + + Contraband trade with Spanish colonies, 53, 57, 201 + + Convict labour, 147 + + Coolies, East Indian, 327 + + Cooper, Anthony Ashley, 147 + + Corsairs, 49, 177 + + Corteso, Juan, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45 + + Costa Rica, 288 + + Cottin, M., 360 + + Cotton, 15, 18, 141 + + Council for Plantations, 135, 146 + + Cromwell and the West Indies, 129 + + Cudjo, a maroon chief, 215 + + Cuba, 20 + + Cullen, Dr. E., projector of the Darien Canal, 353 + + Curacao, 115, 152, 165, 180, 238 + + + Darbey, John, an English prisoner in Cuba, 171 + + Darien Canal, 353 + + Darien scheme, 188 + + Delgado, Augustine, an "El Dorado" seeker, 46 + + Demerara, 213, 246, 252, 301 + + Dessalines, + a chief in the Haytian insurrection, 271; + crowned emperor, 274 + + Dogs, + hunt Indians, 16; + run wild, 22; + hunt maroons, 235; + hunt rebel negroes, 271 + + Dominica, 91, 116, 238, 241, 249 + + _Dominus Vobiscum_, one of the first English vessels in the West + Indies, 49 + + D'Oyley, Governor of Jamaica, 134 + + Drake, Sir Francis, + voyage with Hawkins, 57; + raid on Nombre de Dios, 59; + great expedition to the West Indies, 63; + captures St. Domingo, 64; + last voyage, 65; + death, 65 + + Drax, Colonel, 120 + + Du Casse, a French corsair, 177 + + Dudley, Sir Robert, 66 + + Dutch, 67, 75, 84, 86, 115, 129, 166 + + + Edwards, Bryan, 157 + + Eiffel, M., 360 + + "El Dorado," + the quest for, 23; + dangers, 24; + germ of the story, 32; + Martinez' report, 44 + + Elizabeth, Queen, 67 + + Emancipation, + Great Britain, 289; + France, 310; + Denmark, 312; + Holland, 313; + Spain, 313 + + Enambuc, M. d', first French settler, 87-8, 116 + + Enciso, Bachelor, 29 + + English and Dutch, 67, 68, 114 + + Essequebo, 213 + + Everson, a Dutch pirate, 177 + + Eyre, Governor of Jamaica, 339 + + + Fedreman, Nicholas, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35 + + Ferdinand and Isabella, + kind feelings towards the Indians, 10; + grant from the Pope, 48 + + Fontaine, Father, a Catholic missionary, 134 + + Fontaine, M., a Panama defaulter, 360 + + Fourgeaud, Colonel, 227 + + Franklin, Washington, 294 + + Free trade, 324 + + French, + in the West Indies, 49-51, 87; + company for settling the islands, 116; + character of, 167; + revolution, its influence on Hayti, effect on the Spanish Main, 276 + + + George of Spires, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35 + + German knights in Venezuela, 33 + + Gold-hunting, 11, 15, 23, 29, 73 + + Gordon, Mr., a Member of the Jamaica Assembly, executed, 340 + + Grasse, Count de, 241, 249 + + Grenada, 238 + + Groenwegel, Commander of Essequebo, 86 + + Guadeloupe, 238, 251 + + _Guanin_, 23 + + Guatavita, Lake of, 32 + + Guatemala, 288 + + Guiana, 23, 69 + + Guianians, 44 + + Guichen, Admiral de, 241, 249 + + Gueiria, 282 + + Guzman, Fernando de, 38 + + + Haiti, Hayti, or Hispaniola, + its inhabitants, 3; + colonised, 11; + gold found, 11; + almost ruined by becoming depopulated, 21; + a resort of buccaneers, 91; + under the French, 251; + downfall, 257; + British invasion, 268; + republics and empires, 274 + + Hall, Captain, exploit of, 206 + + Harcourt, Robert, in Guiana, 76 + + Harry, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77, 78 + + Hartop, Job, a prisoner in Mexico, 58 + + Havana, + ransomed, 50; + sacked and burnt, 51 + + Hawkins, Sir John, + first voyage, 53; + second, 54; + third, 57; + final trip with Drake, and death, 65 + + Hawkins, William, voyage to Brazil, 52 + + Hennessy, Governor John Pope, of Barbados, 341, 345 + + Henri I. (Christophe), Emperor of Hayti, 274 + + Henry VIII. of England sends an expedition to the West Indies, 49 + + Herera, Alonzo de, 45 + + Hogs naturalised in Hispaniola, see Haiti + + Hondo river, 250 + + Hood, Sir Samuel, 238 + + Hoogenheim, Wolfert Simon van, Governor of Berbice, 218 + + Huten, Philip von, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36 + + + Iala, Father, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45 + + Indian, character of, 1 + + + Jackson, Colonel, captures Santiago de la Vega, 116 + + Jacques I. (Dessalines), Emperor of Hayti, 274 + + Jamaica, + Valdivia wrecked off the coast, 30; + attacked by Colonel Jackson, 116; + captured by English, 131; + Spanish attempt to recapture, 133; + the first real British colony, 136; + progress of, 155; + authorities refuse help to the Darien colony, 193; + slave revolts, 214; + serious negro insurrection, 338 + + James I., + friendship for Spain, 82, 114; + dispute with Spain about the West Indies and Virginia, 113 + + Jeffreys, Judge, sends prisoners to Barbados, 150 + + Jenkins, Captain, and his ear, 202 + + Jervis, Admiral Sir John, 251 + + Jews in the West Indies, 239, 245 + + + Keymis, Captain, a follower of Ralegh, 74, 77-9, 81 + + Kyk-over-al, Dutch fort in Essequebo, 76 + + + Labour difficulties, 14, 137, 321 + + Lafayette, 260 + + Lawrence, Captain, an English pirate, 99 + + Legrand, Pierre, a French pirate, 99 + + Leigh, Charles, first English settler in Guiana, 76 + + Lesseps, Ferdinand de, and his Panama scheme, 356 + + Lolonois, the great pirate, 101 + + + Macatoa, reported a very rich city, 36 + + Madeirans imported into British Guiana, 327 + + Maltese imported into British Guiana, 327 + + Manoa, city of, fabulous residence of "El Dorado," 44 + + Margarita, 114, 152 + + Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, 283 + + Maroons or Simarons, 59, 211, 232 + + Martinez, Juan de, his report of "El Dorado," 43 + + Martinique, 116, 182, 238, 251, 259 + + Mauduit, Captain, murdered in the Haytian revolt, 262 + + Merrifield, Ralph, one of the first settlers in St. Kitt's, 85 + + Methodists, 295 + + Miranda, Francisco, leader of the revolution in Venezuela, 277, 347 + + Missionaries, Protestant, 295, 327 + + Montbar, the French pirate, 100 + + Montserrat, 161, 165, 249 + + Morgan, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry), the English buccaneer, 102, 177 + + Morgan, Colonel, 162 + + Morillo, Marshal, Spanish leader in Venezuela, 284 + + + _Navio de permisso_, 199 + + Negro slavery, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210 + + Negroes, free, difficulties with, 329 + + Nelson, Lord, + flying trip to the West Indies, 254; + his expedition to Nicaragua, 346 + + Nevis, 161, 249 + + New Edinburgh, 192 + + New Granada, 32, 33, 281, 288 + + New World, 1 + + Nicaragua and the canal scheme, 288, 346, 351, 355, 362 + + North, Roger, a settler in Guiana, 83, 85 + + _Nueva Dorado_, 70 + + + Ojeda, Alonzo de, 27 + + Omaguas, reported a rich nation, 36 + + Ophir, 15, 23 + + Ordas, Diego de, explores the Orinoco, 43 + + Orders in Council, 300 + + Orr, John Sayers, "the Angel Gabriel," creates a disturbance in + Demerara, 335 + + Ouverture, Toussaint L', leader of the Haytian negroes, 268 + + Oxenham or Oxnam, John, crosses the Isthmus, 61 + + Oyapok, English colonies in the, 76, 83 + + + Panama, 186, 347, 350 + + Panama Canal, 347, 353, 355 + + Panama Railway, 352 + + Parima Lake, 33 + + Paterson, William, and the Darien scheme, 188 + + Penn and Venables, Generals, expedition to the West Indies, 130 + + Perez, Diego, a gallant Spaniard, 50 + + Petion, President of Hayti, 274, 285 + + Philips, Miles, an English prisoner in Mexico, 58 + + Pirates in the West Indies, 49, 90 + + Pitman, Henry, a bond-servant, 150 + + Pitt, in favour of a Panama Canal, 347 + + Plantations, 143, 154, 291 + + Pointis, de, a leader of buccaneers, 178 + + Pomeroon, 75, 161 + + Pope, The, + issues Bull of Partition, 48; + acknowledges French rights in the West Indies, 134 + + Popham, Captain, captures Spanish letters, 69 + + Porto Bello, + its fair, 185; + captured by Vernon, 204 + + Porto Rico, 20, 49 + + Prince of Orange in England, 252 + + Privateers, 96, 98 + + Proclamations to the Indians, 27, 30 + + Providence Island, 86 + + Puerto Cabello, 277 + + + Quesada, Herman de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36 + + + Ralegh Sir Walter, + at Trinidad, 66; + his "Letters Patent," 68; + his interest in Guiana, 69; + captures Trinidad, 70; + searches for "El Dorado," 72; + sent to the Tower, 76; + liberated, 77; + goes again to Guiana, 78; + capture of St. Thome, 79; + his execution, 82 + + Reclus, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356 + + Regapo, Leonard, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77 + + _Repartimientos_, 15 + + Robespierre, 260 + + Rodney, Admiral, 237, 242 + + Rossy, Sieur du, 116 + + Route of Spanish trade, 49 + + Rovers to the Main, 49, 66 + + Royal African Company for introducing slaves, 149 + + Rupert, Prince, 124 + + Ruyter, Admiral de, attacks Barbados, 161 + + + St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's, + settled by Thomas Warner, 84; + granted to the Earl of Carlisle, 85; + d'Enambuc arrives, 87; + divided between English and French, 88; + attacked by Spaniards, 114; + granted to a French Company, 116; + bond-servants in, 153; + quarrels between English and French, 162, 177, 207; + captured by French, 249 + + St. Croix or Santa Cruz, riots in, 311, 329 + + St. Domingo, + captured by Drake, 64; + attempted by Penn and Venables, 131 + + St. Eustatius, 86, 161, 181, 238, 243 + + St. Lucia, 238, 241, 251 + + St. Martin's, 115, 116 + + St. Thomas, 239 + + St. Vincent, 238 + + Salle, General de la, French Governor of St. Kitt's, 162 + + San Juan river, 346 + + Santa Martha, captured by French pirates, 51 + + Santiago de Cuba, gallant fight at, 50 + + Santiago de la Vega captured by English, 116 + + Savile, Henry, his "Libel of Spanish Lies," 66 + + Sedenno, Antonio, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45 + + Serfdom, 137, 145 + + Shelley, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121 + + Simarons, _see_ Maroons + + Slaves, + Indian, 19; + negro, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210, 289; + white (bond-servants), 146; + insurrections, 213, 294, 302; + abolition of the African trade, 255, 289; + runaways, 210; + Registrar and Protector of, 293; + emancipation of, 309; + reviews of slavery, 289 + + Smith, Rev. John, a missionary sentenced to death in connection with + a slave revolt, 303-6 + + South Sea Bubble, 187, 196 + + Spain, + character of her people, 9; + introducing Christianity, 9; + wanton cruelty to the natives, 18; + hardiness of Spaniards, 25; + their audacity, 30; + Spanish claim to supremacy, 114; + interference with their trade, 133; + Spanish cruelty to prisoners of war, 171 + + "Spiriting" or kidnapping white servants, 146; + made felony 147 + + Sugar cane, 19, 141 + + Suicides, 18 + + Surinam, 161, 165, 167, 171, 179 + + Sylva, Gaspar de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45 + + + Tison, Thomas, first English trader to West Indies, 49 + + Tobacco, 141 + + Tobago, 115, 238, 251 + + Toledo, Don Frederic de, captures St. Kitt's, 114 + + Tortuga, the great rendezvous of the buccaneers, 95, 102, 165 + + Trade forced upon the Spanish settlers, 53, 57 + + Transported convicts, 147 + + Treasure seeking, 23 + + Trelawny Town, 232 + + Tribute imposed on natives, 15 + + Trinidad, 70, 328 + + + Ursua, Pedro de, murdered by the tyrant Aguirre, 38 + + Utrecht, treaty of, 196 + + + Valdivia, his shipwreck, 30 + + Van Horn the pirate, 103 + + Vanderbilt Transit Company, 351 + + Venables and Penn, Generals, their expedition, 130 + + Venezuela, + the treasure seekers in, 23; + her struggle for independence, 277 + + Vernon, Admiral, 204, 205, 337 + + Virgin Islands, 96 + + Virginia, 113 + + + Wafer, Lionel, his journey across the Isthmus, 105 + + Walker, William, the modern filibuster, 352 + + Walrond, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121 + + Warner, Thomas, founder of the colony of St. Kitt's, 84, 85, 88 + + Wars, + England and Spain, 63, 114, 130; + Holland and Spain, 87, 114; + France and Spain, 116; + England and Holland, 129, 160; + England and France against Holland and Spain, 170; + France against England and Holland, 177; + Spain, England, and Holland against France, 178; + England and Holland against France and Spain, 195; + England and Spain, 203; + England and her revolted colonies, 241; + France, Spain, and Holland join in the quarrel, 243; + commencement of the great French war, 251; + England and the United States, 255 + + Watts, Governor, of St. Kitt's, 162 + + Welsers of Augsburg, 33 + + West India Company of Holland, 87 + + William III. and the Darien scheme, 194 + + Willoughby, Lord, Governor of Barbados, 122, 124-8, 164 + + Wyse, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356 + +[Illustration] + +The Gresham Press, + +UNWIN BROTHERS, + +WOKING AND LONDON. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main +[1899], by James Rodway + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST INDIES *** + +***** This file should be named 32809.txt or 32809.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/2/8/0/32809/ + +Produced by Steven Gibbs, Jane Hyland and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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