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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899], by
+James Rodway
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The West Indies and the Spanish Main [1899]
+
+Author: James Rodway
+
+Release Date: June 14, 2010 [EBook #32809]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST INDIES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Steven Gibbs, Jane Hyland and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+    The Story of the Nations.
+
+    THE WEST INDIES.
+
+[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY ARAWAKS.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+    THE WEST INDIES
+
+    AND THE
+
+    SPANISH MAIN
+
+    BY
+
+    JAMES RODWAY
+
+    _SECOND IMPRESSION_
+
+    London
+
+    T. FISHER UNWIN
+
+    PATERNOSTER SQUARE
+
+    MDCCCXCIX
+
+    COPYRIGHT BY T. FISHER UNWIN, 1896
+    (For Great Britain).
+
+    COPYRIGHT BY G.P. PUTNAM'S SONS, 1896
+    (For the United States of America).
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The story of the West Indies and Spanish Main is one to stir the hearts
+of many nations. The shores of the Caribbean Sea have been the scene of
+marvellous adventures, of intense struggles between races and peoples,
+of pain, trouble, and disaster of almost every description. No wonder
+that the romance writer has laid his scenes upon its beautiful islands
+and deep blue waters, for nowhere in the world, perhaps, could he find
+such a wealth of incident. From "Robinson Crusoe" to Marryat's genial
+stories, and down to "Westward Ho!" and "Treasure Island," old and young
+have been entranced for many generations with its stories of shipwrecks,
+pirates, sea-fights, and treasure-seekers. Yet with all this the field
+has not been exhausted, for hardly a year passes without a new romance
+dealing more or less with the "Indies."
+
+Under this name of the Indies the islands and continent were first known
+to the Spaniards, and it was not until some years had passed that the
+mainland received the name of _Terra Firma_. The string of islands
+facing the Atlantic were the Antilles, so called from a traditional
+island to the west of the Azores, marked on maps and globes of the
+fifteenth century. This "Bow of Ulysses," as Froude called the islands,
+was divided into the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the latter being also
+known as the Caribbees, from their original inhabitants. Other divisions
+were made later into Windward and Leeward Islands, but these differed so
+much in the descriptions of different nations that it would be as well
+to leave them out of the question. Perhaps the best way would be to name
+the whole the Antilles or West Indian Islands and divide them, in going
+from north to south, into the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the
+Caribbees.
+
+When we think of these beautiful islands and shores they recall those of
+that other "Great Sea" which was such a mighty factor in the development
+of Greece and Rome, Phoenicia and Carthage, Venice and Genoa. As Ulysses
+and AEneas wandered about the Mediterranean, so the early voyagers sailed
+along the coasts of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico in fear of
+anthropophagoi, amazons, giants, and fiery dragons. As the Indies were
+the scene of struggles between great nations and the raids of
+buccaneers, so also was the Mediterranean a battlefield for Christian
+and Turk, and a centre for piracy.
+
+Reports of golden cities, pearls and emeralds in profusion, and wealth
+that passed all description, led the Spaniards to explore every island
+and river, until the cannibals became less alarming. Yet their
+sufferings were terrible. Hurricanes sunk their frail craft on the sea
+and earthquakes wrung their very souls on land. Starvation, with its
+consequent sickness and death, destroyed one party after another, but
+they still went on. The discovery of the riches of Mexico and Peru led
+them to look for other rich nations, and to travel thousands of miles on
+the mainland, guided by the reports of the Indians. Undaunted by
+suffering and failure, they would often try again and again, perhaps
+only to perish in the attempt at last.
+
+The treasures of the Indies made Spain the greatest nation in Europe.
+With her riches she could do almost anything. Other nations bowed down
+before her, and she became sovereign of the seas and mistress of the
+world. No matter how it was obtained, gold and silver flowed into her
+coffers; what did she care that it was obtained by the bloody sweat of
+the poor Indians?
+
+Then came envy and jealousy. Why should Spain claim the whole of the New
+World? England, Holland, and France began to dispute her supremacy and
+determined to get a share of the good things. The "invincible
+domination" of Spain led her to declare war against England, with the
+result that the hardy sea-dogs of that time began to worry the fat
+galleons at sea, and to pillage the treasure depots on the Main.
+
+And here we must mention that there were two important places in the
+Indies where Spain was most vulnerable--the Mona Passage between
+Hispaniola and Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien. Through the first
+came the outward fleets with supplies, and on their return with gold and
+silver, while on the Isthmus was the depot for merchandise and the great
+treasure store. At these two points the enemy congregated, either as
+ships of war, buccaneers, corsairs, or pirates, and in their
+neighbourhood some of the most bitter struggles took place. There was no
+peace in the Indies, whatever might nominally be the case in Europe.
+Englishmen's blood boiled at the atrocities of the Spaniards, but we are
+afraid it was not love for the oppressed alone that made them massacre
+the Spaniards whenever they got an opportunity. The poor Indian received
+but a scant measure of justice from these very people, when as a matter
+of convenience they required possession of the Caribbee islands.
+
+Other nations took possession of smaller islands, unoccupied by Spain,
+and from these centres continued their raids, as privateers in war, and
+as pirates at other times. Sometimes they were united among themselves
+against the common enemy, sometimes at war with each other. France and
+Holland against England, England and Holland against France--nothing but
+quarrels and fighting. Now an island changed hands, and again it was
+restored or recaptured. The planters were never sure of being able to
+reap their crops, and often had literally to superintend the estate
+work, armed with sword and arquebuse, while their black and white slaves
+cultivated the soil.
+
+Now the West Indies became the great training ground for three maritime
+nations--England, France, and Holland. Spain lost her prestige, and the
+struggle lay among her enemies for over a century. At first the three
+disputants for her place were equally matched; then Holland dropped
+behind, leaving England and France to fight it out. The struggle was a
+very close one, which only ended with the fall of Napoleon, and it was
+in the Caribbean Sea where the great check to France took place. Here
+Rodney defeated De Grasse, and here Nelson and many another naval
+officer gained that experience which served them so well in other parts
+of the world.
+
+Here also was the scene of that great labour experiment, the African
+slave-trade. The atrocities of the Spaniards caused the depopulation of
+the Greater Antilles, and led to the importation of negroes. Whatever
+may be said against slavery, there can hardly be any question that the
+African has been improved by his removal to another part of the world
+and different surroundings. True, he has not progressed to the extent
+that was expected by his friends when they paid such an enormous sum for
+his enfranchisement; still, there are undoubtedly signs of progress.
+
+The white colonists in the West Indies never settled down to form the
+nucleus of a distinct people. Since the emancipation the islands have
+been more and more abandoned to the negroes and coloured people, with
+the result that although the government is mostly in the hands of the
+whites, they are in such a minority as to be almost lost. In Cuba there
+appears to be such a feeling of patriotism towards their own island that
+probably we shall soon hear of a new republic, but elsewhere in the
+islands our hopes for the future must lie in the negroes and coloured
+people.
+
+On the mainland the original inhabitants were not exterminated as in the
+large islands, and consequently we have there a most interesting
+process in course of accomplishment--the development of one or more
+nations. Here are the true Americans, and as the Gaul was merged in the
+Frank, and the Briton in the Saxon, so the Spaniard has been or will
+ultimately be lost in the American. At present the so-called Spanish
+republics are in their birth-throes--they are feeling their way. Through
+trouble and difficulty--revolution and tyranny--they have to march on,
+until they become stronger and more fitted to take their places among
+other nations. Out of the struggle they must ultimately come, and it
+will be a most interesting study for those who see the result.
+
+In Hispaniola we have also a nation in the course of development--an
+alien race from the old world. More backward than the Americans, the
+Africans of Haiti are struggling to gain a position among other nations,
+apparently without any good result. The nation is yet unborn, and its
+birth-throes are distressing. We look upon that beautiful island and
+feel sad that such a paradise should have fallen so low. As a race the
+negro has little of that internal power that makes for progress--he must
+be compelled to move on. Some are inclined to look upon him as in the
+course of degenerating into the savage, but we, on the contrary, believe
+him to be progressing slowly.
+
+In the islands belonging to European nations the influence of the
+dominant power is visible in the negro even when he has no trace of
+white blood. The French, English, or Dutch negro may be recognised by
+his manners, and even features. In some places East Indians and Chinese
+have been imported, but these stand alone and make little impression.
+They are aliens as yet, and take little part in the development of the
+colonies.
+
+Latterly the West Indies have sunk into neglect by Europe. Except for
+the difficulties of the planters their history is almost a blank sheet.
+Few know anything about the beautiful islands or the grand forests of
+the mainland. Even the discovery of gold in Guiana, which goes to
+confirm the reports of Ralegh, three centuries ago, is only known to a
+few. Ruin and desolation have fallen upon them since the peace of 1815
+and the emancipation. Even the negro--the _protege_ of the
+benevolent--is no longer the object of interest he once was. Cane sugar
+is being gradually ousted by that from the beet, and hardly anything has
+been done to replace its cultivation by other tropical products.
+
+Yet the islands are still as lovely as they were four centuries ago, and
+on the continent is a wealth of interest to the naturalist and lover of
+the beautiful. Now and again a tourist goes the round of the islands and
+publishes the result in a book of travel; but the countries are out of
+the track of civilisation and progress. Possibly if the Panama or
+Nicaragua Canal is ever finished things may be a little better, but at
+present the outlook is very dismal.
+
+In attempting to compress the story of the West Indies and Spanish Main
+within the covers of one volume we have undertaken a task by no means
+easy. Every island and every province has its own tale, and to do them
+all justice would require a hundred books. Every West Indian will find
+something missing--some event unmentioned which is of the greatest
+importance to his particular community. This is only to be expected, yet
+we believe that the reader will get a fairer idea of their importance
+when they are comprehended in one great whole. The photo block
+illustrations are from negatives prepared by Mr. Thomas B. Blow, F.L.S.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+    I.
+                                                                   PAGE
+    THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS                                1-22
+
+    The native Americans--The Arawak and the Carib--Their independent
+    spirit--Their country--The character of the Spaniard--He wants to
+    convert the natives to Christianity--"A ton of gold"--First Spanish
+    settlers in Hispaniola--They ravage the island and are entirely cut
+    off--The second colony oppresses the Indians--Repartimientos--Cruelties
+    to the Indian slaves--Decrease of the population--Slave-hunting in
+    other islands and on the Main--Resistance of the cannibals--Decline of
+    Hispaniola.
+
+    II.
+
+    THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO"                                     23-47
+
+    Treasure-seeking and its dangers--Alonzo de Ojeda--The proclamation to
+    the Indians--Disastrous voyage of Valdivia--A cannibal story--"El
+    Dorado," the gilded one--The German knights--Ambrosio de
+    Alfinger--George of Spires--Nicholas Fedreman and others--Pedro de
+    Ursua and Lope de Aguirre--Pedro de Acosta--Diego de Ordas and Juan
+    Martinez--The quest and its dangers.
+
+    III.
+
+    "SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD"                               48-67
+
+    The Papal Bull of partition--English and French seamen in the
+    Indies--Raids on the Spanish possessions--Master William Hawkins goes
+    to Brazil--The Caribs friendly to the enemies of Spain--John Hawkins
+    carries negroes from Africa--Francis Drake's attack on Nombre de
+    Dios--The Simaroons--Drake captures the Panama train--John
+    Oxenham--Andrew Barker--Drake's second voyage--He captures St. Domingo
+    and Carthagena--Last voyage of Drake and Hawkins--Death of
+    Drake--Exploits of other adventurers.
+
+    IV.
+
+    RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES                         68-89
+
+    "Letters Patent" to Ralegh--"El Dorado" again--Ralegh's first voyage to
+    Guiana--Keymis and Berrie--The Dutch in Guiana--Charles Leigh founds a
+    settlement--Robert Harcourt's colony--Ralegh's imprisonment--He is
+    released to again visit Guiana--Disastrous results--Roger North's
+    colony--King James's want of policy--Changes after his death--St.
+    Christopher's and Barbados--North's colony again--The Bahamas--The
+    French and Dutch settlements--Rise of the Dutch--The French and English
+    at St. Christopher's.
+
+    V.
+
+    BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES                         90-112
+
+    The buccaneers of Hispaniola--Tortuga--Bay of Campeachy--Privateers
+    turning pirates--Pierre Legrand--Captains de Basco and Brouage--Captain
+    Lawrence--Montbar the "Exterminator"--Lolonois--Morgan storms and
+    captures Panama--He settles down in Jamaica--Van Horn--Raid on the
+    South Sea--Lionel Wafer's journey across the Isthmus.
+
+    VI.
+
+    WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES                                   113-136
+
+    Spanish raids--Effects of the "Great English Revolution"--The Caribbee
+    Islands in revolt--Cavaliers and Roundheads in Barbados--Charles the
+    Second declared king--Lord Willoughby arrives with a Commission from
+    the fugitive--Persecution of the Roundheads--Sir George Ayscue sent out
+    with a fleet to reduce Barbados--The island blockaded--Its
+    surrender--Surinam held for the king--Cromwell and Spain--The
+    Expedition to St. Domingo--Capture of Jamaica--Colonisation of the
+    island--The Council for foreign plantations.
+
+    VII.
+
+    THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES                               137-159
+
+    First adventurers not agriculturalists--Slaves wanted--Negroes
+    imported--Sugar--Cotton--Tobacco--First plantations--Kidnapping--
+    Prisoners transported--English slave-trade--Comparative cost of negroes
+    and whites--Rebels--Story of Henry Pitman--Condition of the
+    bond-servants--Life of the planter--Dangers of the
+    voyage--Jamaica--Slavery in Africa--Treatment of the West Indian slave.
+
+    VIII.
+
+    THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY                                  160-183
+
+    Trade disputes between England and Holland--War--The buccaneers
+    employed--Repulse of De Ruyter at Barbados--Capture of Dutch colonies
+    by English--The French drive the English from St. Kitt's--Abortive
+    attempts for its recapture--Peace of Breda--The value of the buccaneers
+    to Jamaica--Character of the three nations now contending for
+    supremacy--Case of Surinam--English refused permission to leave with
+    their slaves--War again--Peace of Westminster and the exodus from
+    Surinam--Case of Jeronomy Clifford--Sir Henry Morgan represses
+    buccaneering--Another war--Du Casse and the Corsairs--Jacques
+    Cassard--Curious position of Berbice--Cassard takes Curacao--His
+    downfall.
+
+    IX.
+
+    THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE                           184-206
+
+    Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs--The trade of the Isthmus--The
+    joint-stock mania--William Paterson and the Darien scheme--Caledonia
+    and New Edinburgh founded--Destruction of the colony--The _Assiento_
+    contract--The Great South Sea Bubble--Vain attempts of the English to
+    obtain free trade with the Spanish provinces--Attacks on the logwood
+    cutters of Campeachy--War with Spain--Contraband traders and their
+    losses--Captain Jenkins' ear--Another war with Spain--Admiral Vernon
+    takes Porto Bello--His failure at Carthagena--English exploits.
+
+    X.
+
+    SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES                        207-236
+
+    Sufferings of the planters from war--Barbados alone as having never
+    fallen to the enemy--Internal difficulties--Ferocity of slaves and
+    cruelty of their punishments--The Maroons of Jamaica and bush negroes
+    in Guiana--Slave insurrections--Abortive plots in Barbados--Troubles in
+    Jamaica--Revolt in Antigua--The great slave insurrection in
+    Berbice--The whites driven from the colony--Haunts of the Guiana bush
+    negroes--Surinam in continual fear of their raids--Expeditions sent
+    against them--Treaties--Great insurrection in Jamaica and suppression
+    of the Maroons.
+
+    XI.
+
+    THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS                                 237-255
+
+    Downfall of Spain--England and France--Contraband traffic of the Dutch
+    and Danes--Advantages of neutrality--The Jews in the islands--They
+    support the buccaneers--The great war--England against the
+    world--Admiral Rodney--His abortive fights with De Guichen--The
+    training of his fleet--He captures St. Eustatius and confiscates
+    private property--Capture of Demerara--Outcry against Rodney--British
+    disasters--Rodney appears again--His decisive victory over De
+    Grasse--Peace and its results--The great struggle with France and her
+    allies--British supremacy--Peace of Amiens--War again--Nelson in the
+    West Indies--The American war--Decline of the plantations from the
+    abolition of the slave-trade.
+
+    XII.
+
+    DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA                                      256-275
+
+    Results of the French Revolution--The friends of the blacks--The rights
+    of man--Civil disabilities of free coloured people--Agitation in the
+    French colonies--James Oge--Demand of the coloured people for equal
+    rights--Civil war in Hispaniola--"Perish the colonies"--Great slave
+    insurrection--The whites concede equal rights, but the Convention
+    revokes their original decree--Truce broken--The struggle
+    renewed--Devastation of the colony--The British expedition and its
+    failure--Toussaint L'Ouverture--Slavery abolished--It is re-established
+    by Napoleon--Treachery to L'Ouverture and the negroes--Dessalines and
+    Christophe declare the independence of Hayti--Massacre of the
+    whites--The Empire and Republic.
+
+    XIII.
+
+    EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN                            276-288
+
+    Influence of the French Revolution on Spanish America--Miranda vainly
+    attempts to rouse Venezuela--Revolution at Caracas--Simon
+    Bolivar--Struggle for independence--Atrocities of both parties--Bolivar
+    proclaims extermination to the Royalists--Spanish successes--The
+    British Legion--Devastation of the country--The Columbian
+    Republic--Guatemala.
+
+    XIV.
+
+    ABOLITION OF SLAVERY                                        289-313
+
+    Agitation against slavery by the Quakers--Abolition of the African
+    slave-trade--Effects of this on the plantations--Condition of the
+    slave--Registration--Rising in Barbados--The Protestant missionaries
+    arrive--Opposition of the planters--Ordinance against preaching and
+    teaching slaves passed in Jamaica--The anti-slavery party in
+    England--Amelioration of the condition of the slave--Insurrection in
+    Demerara--Prosecution and conviction of the Rev. John
+    Smith--Emancipation in the British colonies--Its effect on colonies of
+    other nationalities--Insurrection at St. Croix--Total abolition of
+    slavery in the West Indies.
+
+    XV.
+
+    RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION                                     314-345
+
+    Ruin of the planters--Difficulty of procuring labour--Abolition of the
+    differential duties--Immigration--Barbados an exception when ruin fell
+    on the other colonies--Labour laws in French, Danish, and Dutch
+    colonies--Another insurrection in St. Croix--Race prejudice causes
+    riots in Demerara--Insurrection at Jamaica--Confederation riot at
+    Barbados.
+
+    XVI.
+
+    THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES                                 346-364
+
+    Nelson's expedition to the San Juan--Miranda's project--Importance of a
+    canal--Central America--Effects of the discovery of gold in
+    California--The Panama railway--Canal projects--Darien again--The
+    _Times_ and the Nicaragua project--Ship railway--Lesseps and the Panama
+    Canal--Difficulties of the work--Its downfall--Character of
+    Lesseps--The Nicaragua Canal.
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                   PAGE
+
+    1.--Reception of Spaniards by Arawaks. From Gottfried's
+    "Reisen"                                                 _Frontispiece_
+
+    2.--Reception of Spaniards by Caribs. From Gottfried's
+    "Reisen"                                                         5
+
+    3.--A corner of Paradise. The Victoria Regia                     8
+
+    4.--_En route_ to the goldfields of Guiana. Passing the rapids
+    of the Essequebo                                                10
+
+    5.--Worrying the natives with dogs. From Gottfried's "Reisen"   13
+
+    6.--A modern alluvial gold washing                              16
+
+    7.--Suicides. From Gottfried's "Reisen"                         17
+
+    8.--A Guiana river. The Tumatamari falls                        26
+
+    9.--Inhabitants of the Spanish Main. From Colijn's "Reisen"     28
+
+    10.--"El Dorado." From Gottfried's "Reisen"                     37
+
+    11.--Negro woman returning from market                          53
+
+    12.--Negro barber                                               54
+
+    13.--Negro family on holiday                                    55
+
+    14.--Negresses gossiping                                        56
+
+    15.--Ralegh in Trinidad. From Gottfried's "Reisen"              71
+
+    16.--Gold hunting. From Gottfried's "Reisen"                    80
+
+    17.--Carib attack on a settlement. From Gottfried's "Reisen"    89
+
+    18.--St. Kitt's. From Andrews' "West Indies"                   118
+
+    19.--A Surinam planter. From Stedman's "Surinam"               138
+
+    20.--A negro festival. From Edwards' "West Indies"             140
+
+    21.--Voyage of the sable Venus. From Edwards' "West Indies"    142
+
+    22.--Slaves landing from the ship. From Stedman's "Surinam"    144
+
+    23.--Map of _Terra Firma_. From Gottfried's "Reisen"           197
+
+    24.--A rebel negro. From Stedman's "Surinam"                   209
+
+    25.--The execution of breaking on the rack. From Stedman's
+    "Surinam"                                                      212
+
+    26.--March through a swamp. From Stedman's "Surinam"           224
+
+    27.--Trelawny town. From Edwards' "West Indies"                231
+
+    28.--Pacification of the Maroons. From Edwards' "West Indies"  234
+
+    29.--View of part of Hispaniola. From Andrews' "West Indies"   258
+
+    30.--La Guayra on the Main. From Andrews' "West Indies"        280
+
+    31.--The First of August. From Madden's "West Indies"          308
+
+    32.--A relic of the slavery days--old slave buying fish        310
+
+    33.--Negress, Guiana                                           315
+
+    34.--Negress fish-sellers, Guiana                              316
+
+    35.--Chinese wood-carrier                                      317
+
+    36.--East Indian coolie                                        318
+
+    37.--East Indian coolie family                                 319
+
+    38.--Coolie barber                                             320
+
+    39.--East Indian coolie girl                                   321
+
+    40.--Coolie women, British Guiana                              322
+
+    41.--Coolie vegetable sellers, British Guiana                  323
+
+    42.--East Indian coolies, Trinidad                             324
+
+    43.--East Indian coolie, Trinidad                              325
+
+    44.--Trinidad coolies                                          326
+
+    45.--Barbados. From Andrews' "West Indies"                     330
+
+    46.--St. Lucia. From Andrews' "West Indies"                    331
+
+    47.--Atlantic entrance to Darien Canal. From Cullen's "Darien
+    Canal"                                                         348
+
+    48.--Europe supported by Africa and America. From Stedman's
+    "Surinam"                                                      363
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+THE WEST INDIES.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+THE SPANIARDS AND THEIR VICTIMS.
+
+
+When the early writers spoke of America as the new world, _mundus
+novus_, they could hardly have appreciated the full meaning of the name.
+True, it was a new world to them, with new animals, new plants, and a
+new race of mankind; but the absolute distinctness of everything,
+especially in the tropical regions, was not understood. With our fuller
+knowledge the ideas of strangeness and novelty are more and more
+impressed, and we are ready to exclaim, Yes! it is indeed a new world.
+
+Unlike those of the eastern hemisphere, the peoples of the West are of
+one race. Apart from every other, the development of the American Indian
+has gone on different lines, the result being a people self-contained,
+as it were, and unmodified until the arrival of the European. The
+American is perhaps the nearest to the natural man, and his character is
+the result of nature's own moulding. When compared with the European or
+Asiatic he seems to be far behind, yet the civilisation of Peru and
+Mexico was in some respects in advance of that of their conquerors. This
+was brought about by a dense population which forced men into collision
+with each other--in other parts of the continent and on the islands they
+were more isolated and therefore less civilised.
+
+In the forest region of the Spanish Main, and on the West Indian
+islands, the communities were, as a rule, very small and isolated one
+from another. A kind of patriarchal system prevented much communication,
+and inter-tribal disputes were a bar to union. Every community
+distrusted every other, and even when one tribe fought against its
+neighbour there were few attempts to bring the sections together against
+the common enemy.
+
+On the coasts and islands of the Caribbean Sea, at the time of their
+discovery, lived two distinct peoples, the Arawaks and the Caribs. There
+were also a few other tribes of minor importance, such as the Warrows,
+but these made little impression, and may therefore be left out of
+consideration. The remnants of the two great stocks still exist in
+Guiana and at the mouth of the Orinoco, living to-day in much the same
+manner as they did when the country was first discovered by the
+Spaniards.
+
+Four centuries ago the Greater Antilles were exclusively inhabited by
+Arawaks, and the Lesser by Caribs. The Arawak, as his name implies, was
+more or less an agriculturalist--a meal-eater, a cultivator of
+vegetables, mainly cassava. From the poisonous root of this plant
+bread, drink, and a preservative sauce for meat, were prepared, so that,
+with game or fish, it formed the staff of life. The probable course of
+his migration was from Yucatan or Mexico to the south-east, terminating
+in Guiana, and from thence north through the whole of the Antilles. When
+Columbus arrived people of this stock filled the larger islands and the
+Bahamas, but along the coast and in the island of Trinidad they disputed
+the occupation of the territories with the Caribs. In Porto Rico also
+the Caribs had become aggressive, and even in Hispaniola the Arawaks had
+to defend their shores against that warlike people. If we believe the
+accounts of the Spaniards the inhabitants of the Greater Antilles were
+not altogether a savage people. Whether they had destroyed all the
+larger game, or whether they found none on their arrival, the fact
+remains that they were agriculturalists rather than huntsmen. They were,
+however, expert in fishing, and built great canoes with sails, in which
+they carried on their operations even in comparatively rough water.
+Their provision grounds were highly praised by the Spaniards in language
+that could hardly apply to little clearings like those in the Guiana
+forest. In them were grown, besides cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, and
+maize, while other things such as cotton and tobacco were also largely
+cultivated. The natives had also acquired several arts besides that of
+canoe building, which, when we consider their want of proper implements,
+was almost wonderful. Cotton was spun and woven into cloth for their
+scanty garments, gold cast and hammered into figures and ornaments, and
+wood and stone idols and weapons were also carved. All this was done
+with stone implements, even to the work of hollowing great logs for
+their canoes, and shaping planks. We read of axe-heads made of _guanin_,
+an alloy of gold and copper, and also of attempts to make similar tools
+of silver, but these were very rare, and could hardly have been utilised
+to any good purpose. When we appreciate the labour and pains taken in
+excavating a large canoe, with only fire and the stone adze, we can see
+that these people were by no means idle. Nor were they altogether
+wanting in appreciation of art, for the figures on their baskets and
+pottery were beautifully true geometrical patterns, and their so-called
+idols, although grotesque and rude, often striking.
+
+On the mainland the Arawaks lived in small communities, only electing a
+war-chief as occasion required--in Haiti the Cacique seems to have been
+leader and ruler as well. And here we must mention the most striking
+characteristic of the American Indian--his utter abhorrence of anything
+like coercion. Even in childhood his parents let him do as he pleases,
+never attempting to govern him in any way. It followed therefore that
+neither war-captain nor Cacique had any real power to compel them to a
+course they disliked, and that discipline was entirely wanting. The
+traveller in Guiana at the present day can thoroughly understand this
+trait of character, for he has to take it into account if he wishes to
+get their assistance. They must be treated as friends, not as servants,
+and the greatest care taken not to offend their dignity, unless he
+wishes to be left alone in the forest.
+
+[Illustration: RECEPTION OF SPANIARDS BY CARIBS.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+They quarrelled little among themselves, and only fought against the
+Caribs; they were peaceable, kind, and gentle, so hospitable to
+strangers that Columbus could hardly say enough in their favour. "A
+better race there cannot be," he declared to his sovereigns, and this
+opinion was confirmed by all who came into contact with them. In fact if
+you do nothing to offend him, the Arawak of to-day is the same quiet and
+gentle fellow who met the voyagers on their arrival at Guanahani.
+
+The Caribs were a stronger race, and had probably followed the same
+track as the Arawaks in a later migration. At the time of the discovery
+they appear to have driven the more gentle race from the smaller islands
+south of Porto Rico, and had taken their women as wives. All along the
+coast the two tribes fought with each other, but on account of the
+greater stretch of country there was nothing like the extermination
+which took place in the Lesser Antilles. The Arawaks retired up the
+rivers and creeks, leaving their enemies to take possession of the
+coast, which they did to such good purpose that the Spaniards were
+unable to get a footing in Guiana. All the early writers agree that the
+Caribs were man-eaters--in fact the word cannibal seems to have been
+derived from their name. In the smaller islands they had eaten all the
+men of the gentler tribe, and now made periodical raids on the larger,
+from whence they carried off prisoners to be cooked and devoured at
+leisure. These raids led to combinations on the part of the inhabitants
+of Haiti and Porto Rico, and hitherto they had been successful in
+preventing anything like an occupation of these islands by their
+enemies. Whether these successes would have continued is doubtful; the
+arrival of the Spaniards upset everything.
+
+The Carib was not so entirely dependent on the produce of the soil as
+the meal-eater. He was a hunter and fisherman, but above everything else
+a warrior. His women had provision grounds like those of the Arawak,
+possibly because they came from that stock. The Carib's hunting grounds
+were circumscribed and poor, and his craving for meat could only be
+appeased in one way--by eating his enemies. Probably this made him all
+the more fierce and bloodthirsty, as a flesh diet is certainly more
+stimulating than one of fish and starchy tubers.
+
+If the Arawak was impatient of control, the Carib was even more
+independent. The former would pine away and die under coercion, the
+latter refused absolutely to be a slave. He would die fighting for his
+liberty, but never admit that he was conquered. It was not he who
+welcomed the Spaniards to the West Indies--on the contrary, he did
+everything possible to prevent their landing on his shores. His
+so-called treachery caused many difficulties to the new-comers, but
+taken altogether he was much respected by them as a foe worthy of their
+steel.
+
+These two peoples lived in a country which Columbus described as a
+veritable paradise--in fact he thought he had discovered the site of the
+Garden of Eden. Into this beautiful world he let loose a band of
+robbers and murderers, to depopulate and make it a wilderness. They were
+the product of an entirely different environment--a continent in which
+every man's hand was against that of his neighbour. For a long time
+Spain had been a battlefield, on which the most warlike instincts of
+mankind came to the front. Her soldiers understood the advantages of
+discipline, and would follow their leaders wherever anything was to be
+gained, yet at the same time they were individuals, and as such fought
+for their own hands as well.
+
+[Illustration: A CORNER OF PARADISE. THE VICTORIA REGIA.]
+
+Like the rest of Christendom Spain was very religious, and after
+treasure-seeking, the adventurers of that nation meant to convert the
+heathen. The cross was erected everywhere on landing, and religious
+services held to pray for help in their undertakings. If the cruelties
+that followed were not quite in accordance with Christ's teachings we
+must put it down to the manners and customs of the age. Ignorance was
+really the great characteristic of that period, and the brilliancy of
+the few only shone out the brighter because of the dark background. The
+majority were steeped in superstition, and almost entirely dominated by
+their passions.
+
+Columbus was continually harping upon the desirability of making the
+natives of the new world Christians. "Your Highness," he said, in one of
+his letters, "ought to rejoice that they will soon become Christians,
+and that they will be taught the good customs of your kingdom." He took
+nine of them to Spain, on his return from the first voyage, who were
+baptized and taught the Spanish language. The king and queen told him to
+deal lovingly with those in the Indies, and to severely punish any who
+ill-treated them. More were sent to Spain and allowed to go back for the
+purpose of "gaining souls." Columbus, however, did not altogether agree
+with his sovereigns--his project was to send enough as slaves to pay the
+expenses of his expeditions, and he actually shipped four lots for that
+purpose. But Ferdinand and Isabella would not have this, and even went
+so far as to prohibit the deportation of the Caribs notwithstanding the
+admiral's argument that they were unworthy of the royal clemency,
+because they ate men and were enemies of the friendly Arawaks.
+
+[Illustration: EN ROUTE TO THE GOLDFIELDS OF GUIANA. PASSING THE RAPIDS
+OF THE ESSEQUEBO.]
+
+How the new world was discovered in 1492 has been told so often that it
+is hardly necessary to repeat the story. Haiti, named Hispaniola or
+Little Spain, was chosen from the first as the island on which a
+settlement should be planted. Here Columbus left thirty-nine colonists
+under the command of Diego de Arana, and under the protection of the
+great Cacique Guacanagari. He "trusted to God" that on his return he
+would find a ton of gold and a large quantity of spices, with the
+proceeds of which his sovereigns might undertake the conquest of
+Jerusalem from the infidels.
+
+A ton of gold! This was the whole end and aim of his expedition.
+Everything else was subordinate to this. He had seen the natives wearing
+gold ornaments, and found that the precious metal could be gathered from
+certain streams on the island. But, could he estimate the amount of
+labour required to procure such an enormous quantity, by people who had
+no other appliances than baskets? This alone was enough to bring trouble
+upon the peaceful island.
+
+But this was not all. The colonists quarrelled among themselves,
+interfered with the Indian women, went hunting for gold all over the
+country, took it wherever it could be found, and stole provisions when
+their friends did not bring them enough. Not satisfied with the district
+of the friendly Cacique, they ravaged that of Caonabo, the Carib
+chieftain of another clan, a man of a different stamp. He resented the
+insults at once by attacking the Spaniards, who, notwithstanding the
+assistance of their allies, were utterly exterminated. When Columbus
+arrived, instead of a ton of gold, he found nothing but the blackened
+ruins of the fort and houses.
+
+This should have been a lesson to the Spaniards, but unfortunately it
+only led to further quarrels. The new-comers did not intend to cultivate
+the soil; their main object was treasure, and they expected the natives
+to provide them with food. And here we must mention the fact that the
+people of tropical climes _never_ have any store of provisions laid
+up--this is only necessary where winter prevails for half the year. It
+follows therefore that however liberal they may feel towards strangers,
+their supplies being restricted to their own wants leave little to give
+away. Up to a certain point the Indian gives freely, but when this means
+privation to himself he withholds his hand. The want of a full
+appreciation of this fact caused great trouble in many of the early
+settlements, and in some cases led to their destruction. The natives
+promised food supplies; but when they found themselves starving,
+naturally withheld further assistance. The settlers considered this a
+breach of faith, and made incursions on the provision grounds, taking
+what they wanted, and seriously injuring the crops. This the Indians
+resented, and deadly quarrels ensued, which ended in their driving out
+the colonists or deserting the place altogether. In the latter case the
+food supply was necessarily cut off, and often led ultimately to the
+abandonment of the colony.
+
+To the kindly people of Hispaniola the new-comers were gods, and their
+horses and cattle preternatural creatures. While wondering and admiring,
+they were at the same time frightened at these out-of-the-way men and
+animals, especially when the soldiers exhibited themselves on horseback.
+At first they thought them immortal, and were disagreeably surprised
+when they fell before the army of Caonabo. But even the proverbial worm
+will turn, and soon the oppressions of the second colonists drove the
+poor Haitians to resist. To labour in the field was beneath the dignity
+of the adventurous treasure-seekers--the natives must supply them with
+provisions. What they had brought from Spain was soon spoilt in such a
+hot climate--no one had yet learned how to pack for long voyages. They
+must get food, and what was the good of having thousands of people, and
+acres of cultivated land in their neighbourhood, if the natives did not
+bring in as much as was required? At first they were supplied willingly,
+but when the results of this profuse hospitality began to tell upon
+themselves, the poor Haitians withheld their hands. Then the Spaniards
+began complaining to the Cacique, who, however, had no real authority
+over his people in a matter of this kind, and therefore could do
+nothing. Driven by want the Spaniards made incursions on the provision
+grounds, where they spoilt as much as they took away, and left a waste
+behind. Sometimes they met with resistance, and the defenders were cut
+down without mercy. The spoilers only wanted an excuse for fleshing
+their swords; they were even anxious to show their powers, and make the
+natives feel that at last they had masters.
+
+[Illustration: WORRYING THE NATIVES WITH DOGS.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Before two years had passed the Spaniards were beset with difficulties.
+The Indian looked despairingly at his wasted fields, and refused to
+cultivate them any longer. Why should he plant for others when he
+himself was starving? Some fled into the mountains and forests of the
+interior, others died of want. This naturally told upon the white men,
+who had not yet learnt that they must cultivate the soil if they wanted
+its produce. They could not demean themselves to this, but must have the
+power to compel the inhabitants and owners of this beautiful island to
+work for them.
+
+The home authorities knew what was going on, and did their best
+according to their lights to provide a remedy. At first they gave large
+tracts of land to the settlers, _repartimientos_ as they were called,
+but what was the use of these if their owners could get no labourers?
+Then to every grant was allotted a certain number of Indians as slaves,
+and thus the cruel system that ultimately depopulated the Greater
+Antilles and the Bahamas was introduced.
+
+Those who were not allotted as slaves were compelled to pay tribute. In
+the neighbourhood of the gold-washings this was to consist of a little
+bellful of gold; in other places of an arroba (28 lbs.) of cotton, once
+a quarter for every person above the age of fourteen. Metal tokens to
+hang upon the neck were given as receipts, and when these were absent
+the people were severely punished. Thus this gentle and independent race
+was enslaved.
+
+[Illustration: A MODERN ALLUVIAL GOLD WASHING.]
+
+Even with modern appliances and the use of quicksilver, gold-washing is
+a most precarious business; what then could it have been here with
+nothing but a basket and gourd? Columbus had such exaggerated ideas
+that, when he saw the gold-washings of Cibao, he came to the conclusion
+they were the Ophir of the Bible; from his reports the king and queen
+thought nothing of demanding this small tribute. To the Indian, however,
+the gleaning of the tribute meant the labour of days and weeks, and when
+there were so many seekers it was found utterly impossible for each to
+gather his amount. Then they ran away, and were hunted with dogs,
+brought back, and compelled to wash the gravel under surveillance,
+subject to the pricks of a sword if they were not active enough. But,
+even with all this, the returns were not equal to what was expected, and
+the tribute had ultimately to be abandoned. However, it was stated
+that as much as the value of a million crowns per annum was extracted
+during the best years, at a cost of pain and suffering awful to
+contemplate.
+
+[Illustration: SUICIDES.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+The cotton tribute had also to be abandoned, and even the
+_repartimientos_ were not a success. If they had been willing, the
+natives could hardly have performed steady work, and as slaves they were
+almost valueless. In their natural condition they laboured when they
+chose, wasting time as we should say with little good result. Now their
+masters demanded heavy tasks which prevented their working on their own
+provision grounds, and yet provided little or nothing in the way of
+rations. Hundreds died of starvation; thousands committed suicide. Some
+jumped from high precipices; they hanged, stabbed, drowned, and poisoned
+themselves; mothers destroyed their babes to save them from the misery
+of living. If caught in such attempts they were flogged, had boiling
+water or melted lead poured over them, and were otherwise tortured until
+death came to their relief. Their cruel masters, however, rarely wished
+to kill them outright--they were too valuable. No, they must break down
+this dogged, stubborn spirit--treat them as horses and mules, until they
+bent themselves to the yoke.
+
+It was left for bands of soldiers on foraging expeditions to kill in
+mere wantonness. A company would be travelling through the island and
+come upon a village, where perhaps they stopped for a short rest. The
+people looked on, admiring their shining armour and weapons, wondering
+what sort of creatures these were that so quietly cropped the grass and
+shrubs. One of the soldiers would take out his sword, feel its keen
+edge, and think what a pity it was that the weapon should be used so
+little. Behind him comes a little boy. The temptation is great; in a
+moment the sharp weapon flashes and the child lies dead. The Indians
+fly, and the whole party follows, chasing and slaughtering to their
+heart's content, not knowing nor caring why. In a few minutes fifty are
+killed, the soldiers return to their bivouac, and if they inquire into
+the matter at all pass it off as a good jest.
+
+Is it any wonder that the population decreased to a wonderful degree in
+a few years? The sugar-cane had been introduced by Columbus on his
+second voyage, and labour was soon required for cultivating this and
+other crops. As long as slaves were procurable the planters throve, and
+as by that time Hispaniola had become the great centre of the Indies,
+the settlers were in a fair way to make fortunes. But the decrease in
+the population became alarming, and something had to be done; then, new
+settlers were continually arriving who also wanted slaves. It followed,
+therefore, that some of the more audacious of the adventurers took up
+the trade of kidnapping the Indians from other islands and the mainland.
+A host of disappointed treasure-seekers had ransacked every shore, and
+were now well prepared for the business of man-hunting.
+
+The first people to suffer were those who so kindly welcomed Columbus on
+his arrival--the gentle inhabitants of the Bahamas. They were even more
+peaceful than the Haitians, because they had not suffered from Carib
+invasions. When the slave hunters told them to come to the south and
+live with their ancestors, they willingly allowed themselves to be
+carried off to suffer like their neighbours. Some ran away and got to
+the northern shores of Hispaniola, where they stretched out their hands
+to their beautiful homes and then died of grief.
+
+Having entirely depopulated the smaller islands, and being prevented
+from kidnapping the people of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, by the
+settlers on those islands, they tried the Caribbees. Here they met their
+match. No longer was it the gentle Arawak whom they encountered, but the
+ferocious cannibal. Like his foes he had been trained in war for many
+generations. Not only did he refuse to work for the stranger, but even
+went so far as to oppose his landing. On his islands was little to
+attract the treasure-seeker, and if he would not submit to be a slave,
+nothing was to be gained by interfering with him. This the Spaniard
+found out by bitter experience. A few vessels were wrecked on these
+inhospitable shores, the crews of which escaped to land only to be
+killed and eaten, after being tortured with all the ingenuity of the
+savage. Even a landing for fresh water had to be made in the most
+cautious manner, and the carriers protected by a strong guard. No doubt
+the Caribs had heard of the white man's cruelties from their Arawak
+prisoners, and were therefore all the more ready to repel their
+invasions. This was particularly noticeable later when the English and
+French arrived and found them by no means so ferocious as the Spaniards
+had reported. Possibly they knew these people to be enemies to their
+foes, and were therefore all the more ready to be friendly as long as no
+attempts were made to oppress them.
+
+Hispaniola rose to some importance very quickly, and almost as quickly
+declined. The settlers depopulated the island, and then complained of
+the want of labourers. The gold-seekers went elsewhere, and Mexico and
+the isthmus of Darien became of more importance. Some writers have
+attempted to give the number of Indians exterminated in the early years
+of the sixteenth century, but little reliance can be placed on their
+statistics. Generally, they range from one to three millions, but it is
+doubtful whether even the lowest figure is not too high. Yet, when we
+read the statement of Columbus that crowds of people (in one place two
+thousand) came forth to meet him, and his description of the large area
+of cultivated land, as well as the broad and good roads, it is not
+difficult to conceive that a million people lived in these great
+islands.
+
+With the destruction of the labourers down fell the plantations. Cattle
+had been introduced and throve wonderfully; now they ran wild over the
+islands, especially Hispaniola, until they became innumerable. On the
+abandoned provision grounds of the Indians they found a virgin
+pasturage. Hogs also took to the woods, and increased even faster than
+the cattle. At first there were neither huntsmen nor carnivorous animals
+to check this wonderful development. The once domesticated animals
+recovered some of the powers and capacities of their wild ancestors,
+and only required enemies to assist in bringing out other latent
+characters. And these were not long wanting. Large and powerful hounds
+had been imported from Spain to hunt the runaway Indians, and now that
+their occupation was gone, they also took to the woods and savannahs.
+Like their ancestors and cousins, the wolves, they combined into packs
+and fought the cattle and hogs. Both hunters and hunted became stronger
+and fiercer--the dogs learnt how best to attack, and their prey to
+defend themselves. It was a struggle like that between the cannibals and
+meal-eaters--nature's method of preserving the balance of life. This
+equalisation no doubt would have been the result had not man interfered;
+how this happened we must leave to another chapter.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+THE QUEST FOR "EL DORADO".
+
+
+Ophir was not found in the islands, and the bands of adventurers went
+over to _terra firma_ or the mainland to continue the search. Along the
+coast of Guiana and Venezuela they again came across the gentle Arawak
+and ferocious Carib, the latter making himself respected everywhere,
+while his poor-spirited fellow-countryman was alternately caressed and
+plundered. In every place the Spaniards found gold ornaments, and every
+tribe told them that the precious metal was only obtainable in some far
+distant country. The Haitians sent Columbus to the south in search of
+the _guanin_ country, and it was there he discovered the coast of Paria
+and the delta of the mighty Orinoco. But he was not fated to come across
+the treasure cities of the Indies.
+
+Others followed to at last conquer Mexico and Peru, but even then it was
+generally believed that nations existed who had more riches to be
+plundered than those of the Inca and Montezuma. To find these golden
+regions the voyagers wandered in every direction, contributing much to
+the knowledge of the coasts and rivers, but always coming back
+disappointed.
+
+The horrors of this search can hardly be appreciated nowadays. The ships
+were so small and ill-found that we should hardly care to use them for
+coasters, yet in them these pioneers crossed the Atlantic and
+encountered the hurricanes of the West Indies. Decked only at bow and
+stern, the waves dashed into the hold and wetted the provisions, while
+the sun poured down upon the water casks and burst their wooden hoops.
+The butter and cheese stank, the flour in sacks became mouldy, and the
+bacon and salt fish putrid. Then the hull of the vessel was unprotected,
+and the teredo, or ship worm, bored it through and through, until
+nothing but careening and caulking could save the poor craft from
+sinking. When we understand the privations and dangers of this
+navigation we are not surprised that the adventurers often came to
+grief, but rather wonder that any of them survived.
+
+Living in the West Indies, we have often thought of the pain and
+suffering it would produce if we were compelled to walk or sit in the
+burning sun armed as were the soldiers at that period. We can hardly
+believe that they wore steel body armour, yet the evidence is too strong
+to be refuted. True, they gave it up afterwards in favour of quilted
+cotton, but before they did so how hot they must have felt! We can fancy
+the sentry standing exposed to the full blaze of the sun, his helmet and
+breastplate burning hot and his woollen underclothing saturated with
+perspiration. Then there would be the open boat ascending a river. The
+occupants dared not row in the shade for fear of cannibals shooting at
+them with poisoned arrows from the thicket, and out in the river they
+must have felt as if in a furnace. Even with our white clothing and
+light hats a long journey in an open boat when the sun is high often
+ends in fever, and almost invariably in a headache. The neck and backs
+of the hands get blistered, and become sore, the glare on the water
+dazzles the eye, and we feel faint.
+
+In one of the accounts of such a boating expedition on a river in Guiana
+we read of the men finding some yellow plums floating on the water, and
+of their being much refreshed by them. We also have come across these
+hog-plums when almost exhausted by a long exposure on the open river,
+and when even our negro steersman was nodding as he held the paddle.
+Suddenly we came to our destination, the mouth of a creek, and were
+under an arcade of vegetation, beneath which the plums floated on the
+cool dark water.
+
+The men of the sixteenth century must have been stronger than ourselves,
+or they could hardly have endured such pain and privation. They lay down
+on the bare earth night after night, and on board ship went to sleep on
+naked planks. As they could endure pain and discomfort, so also could
+they inflict it on others. The rough seamen learnt to bear hardships
+which blunted their feelings of humanity and made them inclined to
+torture others. When in the hands of the cannibals they were almost as
+stoical as the savage himself, their ruling passion being a desire for
+revenge. If cruelly treated by one tribe they retaliated on others; in
+the same way the Indians killed one party of Spaniards to avenge the
+insults of their countrymen. This led to a great deal of trouble and
+made the voyages of the treasure-seekers dangerous to all. However free
+from blame one party might be, they were liable to suffer for previous
+wrong-doings and they in turn left behind them injuries to be avenged
+on the next comers.
+
+[Illustration: A GUIANA RIVER. THE TUMATAMARI FALLS.]
+
+And then, how very audacious these adventurers were! Alonzo de Ojeda was
+perhaps the most striking example of utter recklessness in face of
+danger. In 1509 he entered the harbour of Carthagena in spite of a
+warning that its shores were inhabited by a ferocious tribe who fought
+with palm-wood swords and poisoned arrows. It was even stated that the
+women mingled in the battle, and could use the bow and a kind of lance.
+
+These people had been irritated by another party of Spaniards, and on
+sight of the vessels were up in arms at once. However, Ojeda was
+undaunted, and landed at once with his men and some friars, who had been
+sent to convert the Indians. In front stood the enemy brandishing their
+weapons, and prepared for the first hostile movement. Yet, even under
+these critical circumstances, he ordered the usual proclamation to be
+read to the Indians in a language of which they knew nothing. He, Alonzo
+de Ojeda, servant of the most high and mighty sovereigns of Castile and
+Leon, conquerors of barbarous nations, notified them that God had given
+St. Peter the supreme power over the world, which power was exercised by
+the Pope, who had given all that part of the world to these sovereigns.
+They were called upon to acknowledge this sovereignty at once, which, if
+they refused to do, he would bring upon them the horrors of war,
+desolation to their houses, confiscation of their property, and slavery
+to their wives and children.
+
+[Illustration: INHABITANTS OF THE SPANISH MAIN.
+
+(_From Colijn's "Reisen."_)]
+
+While one of the friars read this address the savages stood on the
+defensive, no doubt wondering what the delay meant. Ojeda knew not their
+language, and they took little notice of his signs of amity. As they
+still brandished their weapons, the intrepid adventurer led on an
+attack, calling the Virgin to his aid, and in a few minutes put them to
+flight, killing a few and taking others prisoners. Not content with
+this, he followed them through the forest to their village, and after a
+deadly fight, drove them out and burnt their dwellings. Still undaunted,
+he went on to another village, which he found deserted, but while his
+men were searching for plunder he was attacked by the enemy in
+overwhelming numbers. All his followers were killed, and he himself
+wounded with a poisoned arrow, yet he managed to escape into the forest
+to suffer hunger and thirst in addition to the pain of his wound.
+
+Meanwhile his men on board the ships were wondering what had become of
+their leader and his party. They were afraid to venture far into the
+woods on account of the yells and shouts of the Indians, who were
+celebrating their triumph. At last, however, they commenced a search,
+and found their captain in a mangrove swamp, lying on a tangle of roots,
+speechless and dying of hunger, yet still clutching his naked sword and
+bearing his buckler. Notwithstanding all this, he ultimately recovered,
+to go on as eagerly as ever in making fresh conquests.
+
+Later, the proclamation to the Indians was interpreted to them,
+sometimes eliciting replies very much to the point. When the Bachelor
+Enciso went in search of the country of Zenu, where gold was so
+plentiful that it could be collected in the rainy season in nets
+stretched across the river, he was opposed by two Caciques, to whom the
+paper was read. They listened courteously, and, when it had been
+expounded, said they were quite willing to admit that there was one God,
+the ruler of heaven and earth, whose creatures they were. But as to the
+Pope's regency and his donation of _their_ country to the king of Spain,
+that was another thing altogether. The Pope must have been drunk when he
+gave away what was not his, and the king could only have been mad to ask
+him for the territory of others. They, the Caciques, were the rulers of
+these territories, and needed no other sovereign: if their king came to
+take possession they would cut off his head and stick it on a pole, as
+they did the heads of their other enemies, at the same time pointing to
+a row of grisly skulls impaled close by. Their arguments, however, were
+useless, for Enciso attacked, routed them, and took one of the Caciques
+prisoner.
+
+The accounts of the early voyagers are full of such examples of audacity
+as well as of endurance of suffering. The perils of the sea were as
+great as those of the land, but few voyages were as disastrous as that
+of Valdivia, who in 1512 sailed from Darien for Hispaniola. When in
+sight of Jamaica, his vessel was caught in a hurricane and driven upon
+some shoals called the Vipers, where it was dashed to pieces. He and his
+twenty men barely escaped with their lives in a boat without sails,
+oars, water, or provisions. For thirteen days they drifted about, until
+seven were dead and the remainder helpless. Then the boat stranded on
+the coast of Yucatan, and the poor wretches were captured by Indians, to
+be taken before their Cacique. They were now put into a kind of pen to
+fatten for the cannibal festival. Valdivia and four others were taken
+first, and the horror produced on their comrades led them to risk
+everything and break out of their prison in the night. Having succeeded
+in reaching the forest, they were almost as badly off, for no food could
+be had, and they dared not run the risk of going near the villages.
+Almost perishing with hunger, they at last reached another part of the
+country, to be again captured, and kept as slaves. Finally they all died
+except two, one of whom at last escaped to tell the tale almost by a
+miracle.
+
+One of the stories is suggestive of "Robinson Crusoe." In 1499 Nino and
+Guerra sailed from Spain in a bark of fifty tons, and, while exploring
+the Gulf of Paria, came across eighteen Carib canoes filled with armed
+men. The savages assailed them with flights of arrows, but the sudden
+boom of the cannon frightened them away at once. One canoe, however, was
+captured, in which they took a Carib prisoner, and found an Arawak
+captive lying bound at the bottom. On being liberated, the Arawak
+informed the Spaniards, through their interpreter, that he was the last
+of seven who had been taken by the cannibals. The other six had been
+killed and eaten one after another, and he had been reserved for the
+next evening meal. The Spaniards, incensed against the man-eater, gave
+him into the hands of the Arawak, at the same time handing him a
+cudgel, leaving his enemy unarmed. Immediately the Arawak sprang upon
+him, knocked him sprawling, trod his breath out of his body, and at the
+same time beat him with his fist until nothing but a shapeless corpse
+remained. But, not yet satisfied, he tore the head off and stuck it on a
+pole as a trophy.
+
+After the conquest of Mexico and Peru had rewarded Cortez and Pizarro,
+others wished to be equally fortunate. From the Indians came reports of
+golden countries in the interior, and land expeditions were projected.
+These reports grew into shape, and at last a quest as romantic as that
+for the Holy Grail, led one adventurer after another on and on, to
+starvation, sickness, and death.
+
+The germ of the story of "El Dorado," the lake of golden sands, and the
+glittering city of Manoa, appears to have first arisen in New Granada.
+Here was the Lake of Guatavita, and before the arrival of the Spaniards
+this was the scene of an annual religious festival. To the genius of the
+lake the Cacique of the neighbouring district offered a holy sacrifice
+on a certain day. In the morning he anointed his body with balsam, and
+then rolled himself in gold dust until he became a "gilded king." Then,
+embarking in a canoe with his nobles, he was paddled to the centre of
+the lake, crowds of people thronging its shores and honouring him with
+songs and the din of rude instrumental music. Offerings to the god of
+the lake were made from the canoe, gold, emeralds, pearls, and
+everything precious being scattered upon the water. Finally, the Cacique
+jumped in himself and washed the gold from his body, while the people
+shouted for joy. To wind up the festival a great drinking bout was held,
+when canoesful of piwarree, the Indian's beer, were drunk, and every one
+made merry.
+
+Such was the tradition--for the ceremony had been discontinued half a
+century before--which had so impressed itself over the northern shores
+of South America, as to be told from the Amazon to the isthmus of
+Darien. "El Dorado" was gilded every morning, and his city was full of
+beautiful golden palaces. It stood on the edge of the great salt lake
+Parima, the sands of which were composed of the precious metal. Some
+went so far as to say that they had seen the glittering city from a
+distance, and were only prevented from reaching it by the peculiar
+difficulties of the way. Not to mention tigers and alligators,
+starvation and sickness, there were "anthropophagoi and men whose heads
+do grow beneath their shoulders," besides amazons and fiery dragons.
+Wherever the story was told the golden city was located at a far
+distance, and it seemed ever to recede before the eager seekers. They
+sought it in the forest and on the savannah, over the lofty peaks of the
+Andes, and along the banks of the mighty rivers. The whole of the
+Spanish Main was explored, and places then visited which have hardly
+been seen again by the white man down to the present date.
+
+The quest began in New Granada, and from thence it shifted to Venezuela.
+The most daring seekers were German knights, the Welsers of Augsburg.
+They had received charters from Charles the Fifth, under which they
+were empowered to found cities, erect forts, work mines, and make slaves
+of the Indians. One of their representatives, Ambrosio de Alfinger, set
+out in 1530, accompanied by two hundred Spaniards, and a larger number
+of Indians, laden with provisions and other necessaries. On the journey
+the party committed such brutalities upon the poor natives that the
+reports afterwards helped to fire the blood of Englishmen, and make them
+bitterly cruel. To prevent the bearers from running away they were
+strung together on chains, running through rings round their necks. If
+one of them dropped from sickness or exhaustion, his head was cut off,
+the ring loosened, and thus the trouble of interfering with the chain
+saved. If he were to be left behind, it did not matter whether he was
+alive or dead. At one place on the river Magdalena the frightened
+natives took refuge on some islands, but the Spaniards swam their horses
+across and killed or took prisoners the whole of them. From their
+Cacique Alfinger got booty to the value of sixty thousand dollars, with
+which he sent back for further supplies. But, although he waited for a
+year his messengers did not return, and the company were reduced to such
+straits that many died for want of bare food. But the Indians fared much
+worse, for their provision grounds were utterly destroyed, and what with
+murders and starvation the surrounding country was quite depopulated and
+desolate.
+
+Even Alfinger had to give up waiting for his supplies and move on at
+last, for these had been utilised by his lieutenant on an expedition of
+his own. The party eked out a bare subsistence with wild fruits and
+game. If they found a village they plundered it of everything it
+contained, dug up the provisions from the fields, and left the survivors
+of the massacre to starve. Not that they themselves were in a much
+better plight; fever, the result of want and exposure, carried them off
+in continually increasing numbers. At last they got into a mountain
+region, and the poor naked bearers were frozen to death. Descending
+again they encountered stronger and fiercer tribes, by whom they were
+defeated, the cruel Alfinger himself dying two days afterwards from his
+wounds. A small remnant only returned after two years' absence, leaving
+a track of pain and suffering to make their memory accursed for many
+generations.
+
+George of Spires now fitted out a great expedition of three hundred
+infantry and two hundred cavalry, which started in 1536. They also went
+a long distance into the interior, braving hardships and dangers almost
+incredible. Jaguars carried off their horses, and even went so far as to
+attack and kill several of the Indian bearers and one Spaniard. Like
+their predecessors, they also encountered savage Indians, and died of
+starvation and sickness. After journeying fifteen hundred miles from the
+coast they had to return unsuccessful; but as their leader was less
+cruel than Alfinger, the losses of the party were not so great. Instead
+of dying on the journey he lived to become Governor of Venezuela.
+
+Nicholas Fedreman followed the last party with supplies, but took them
+to go treasure-seeking on his own account. He wandered about for three
+years, and at last returned with some wonderful stories which induced
+others to continue the search. Herman de Quesada also travelled about
+for a year, and returned like his predecessors. Then Philip von Huten,
+who had gone already with George of Spires, fitted out a great
+expedition. His party was at one time so utterly famished that they had
+to eat ants, which they captured by placing corn cobs near the nests of
+these little creatures. They travelled in a great circle without knowing
+where they went, and at the end of a year came back to the place from
+whence they had started. Hearing, however, of a rich city called
+Macatoa, Von Huten started again, and found streets of houses with about
+eight hundred inhabitants, but no treasure. The people here sent him on
+farther, with their tales of the Omaguas, a warlike people living away
+in the south. On he went for five days, and at last came upon what he
+thought must be the golden city. It stretched away as far as the eye
+could reach, and in the centre was a great temple. But, although the
+little party charged gallantly down a hill and into the town, the
+Omaguas came out in such force that they had to retreat, bearing their
+wounded leader in a hammock. Continually harassed by Indians, they at
+last got back, to tell such stories of the dangers of the quest that the
+Omaguas seem to have been afterwards left alone.
+
+Our account of the search for "El Dorado" is necessarily short and
+imperfect, as it would be impossible even to enumerate all the
+expeditions. There is one, however, that was so tragic and awful, that,
+although it was fitted out in Peru, it must yet be mentioned in the
+story of the Spanish Main.
+
+[Illustration: "EL DORADO."
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Notwithstanding the enormous quantities of gold and silver found in
+Peru, the crowds of needy treasure-seekers who went to that country gave
+some trouble to the Viceroy, who appears to have been willing to get rid
+of them at any cost. Whether he purposely sent them on a "wild goose
+chase," or whether he really believed the "El Dorado" story, is
+doubtful, but it is certain that he thought it prudent to give them
+employment in some way, to prevent mischief in his province.
+
+The expedition was put in command of Pedro de Ursua, and was intended to
+go down the Amazon in search of treasure cities. Embarking on the river
+Huallaga, in the year 1560, they had hardly passed the mouth of Ucayali
+before Ursua found he had a most unprincipled gang of scoundrels under
+his command. A little farther down the river they mutinied, under the
+leadership of Lope de Aguirre, and murdered Ursua and his lieutenant,
+appointing Guzman as captain. Being dissatisfied, however, with their
+new commander, they also killed him a little later, together with most
+of his adherents.
+
+Now Aguirre became leader--a ruffian whose character was of the
+blackest. Father Pedro Simon delineates his features and character,
+making him out to be a very devil. He was about fifty years of age,
+short of stature and sparsely built, ill-featured, his face small and
+lean, his beard black, and his eyes as piercing as those of a hawk. When
+he looked at any one he fixed his gaze sternly, particularly when
+annoyed; he was a noisy talker and boaster, and when well supported very
+bold and determined, but otherwise a coward. Of a very hardy
+constitution, he could bear much fatigue, either on foot or horseback.
+He was never without one or two coats of mail or a steel breastplate,
+and always carried a sword, dagger, arquebuse, or lance. His sleep was
+mostly taken in the day, as he was afraid to rest at night, although he
+never took off his armour altogether nor put away his weapons. Simon
+said he had always been of a turbulent disposition; a lover of revolts
+and mutinies; an enemy to all good men and good actions.
+
+Such was the Tyrant or Traitor Aguirre--virtually a madman--who now
+became the leader of a band of wretches like-minded to himself. They
+journeyed down the mighty river, now and again murdering one or another
+of the party, on the least suspicion of their dislike to their
+proceedings, and ill-treating the natives everywhere.
+
+Aguirre was not ashamed to boast that he had murdered a woman--not an
+Indian, but a beautiful Spanish lady, who had accompanied her lover on
+this arduous journey. Donna Inez de Altienza, a young widow, fell
+passionately in love with Ursua, who was brave, generous, and handsome;
+and loath to part with him, she undertook the hitherto unheard-of
+journey of thousands of miles in a strange and savage country. No fears
+or terrors daunted this devoted woman until after the death of her
+lover. Aguirre then picked a quarrel on the ground that her mattress was
+too large for the boat, and she also was murdered. The Spanish poet,
+Castellanos, thus laments the cruel deed:--
+
+    "The birds mourned on the trees;
+    The wild beasts of the forest lamented;
+    The waters ceased to murmur;
+    The fishes beneath the waters groaned;
+    The winds execrated the deed
+    When Llamoso cut the veins of her white neck.
+    Wretch! wert thou born of woman?
+    No! what beast could have such a wicked son?
+    How was it that thou didst not die
+    In imagining a treason so enormous?
+    Her two women, 'midst lamentation and grief,
+    Gathered flowers to cover her grave,
+    And cut her epitaph in the bark of a tree--
+    'These flowers cover one whose faithfulness
+    And beauty were unequalled,
+    Whom cruel men slew without a cause.'"
+
+Whether Aguirre reached the mouth of the Amazon is doubtful--the
+evidence is in favour of his getting out of that river into the Rio
+Negro, and from thence into the Orinoco. However this may have been, he
+arrived at last in the Gulf of Paria and proceeded to the island of
+Margarita. Here, true to his character, he and his men commenced to
+plunder and kill the inhabitants, going so far as to defy the local
+authorities and even the king of Spain himself. To even enumerate the
+deeds of this band of outlaws would fill a chapter, but we cannot omit
+giving an extract from Aguirre's letter to his king, one of the most
+curious productions ever written:--
+
+"I firmly believe that thou, O Christian king and lord, hast been very
+cruel and ungrateful to me and my companions for such good service, and
+that all those who write to thee from this land deceive thee much,
+because thou seest things from too far off. I and my companions, no
+longer able to suffer the cruelties which thy judges and governors
+exercise in thy name, are resolved to obey thee no longer.... Hear me! O
+hear me! thou king of Spain. Be not cruel to thy vassals.... Remember,
+King Philip, that thou hast no right to draw revenues from these
+provinces, since their conquest has been without danger to thee. I take
+it for certain that few kings go to hell, only because they are few in
+number; if they were many, none of them would go to heaven. For I
+believe that you are all worse than Lucifer, and that you hunger and
+thirst after human blood; and further, I think little of you and despise
+you all; nor do I look upon your government as more than an air
+bubble....
+
+"In the year 1559 the Marquis of Canete entrusted the expedition of the
+river of Amazons to Pedro de Ursua, a Navarrese, or, rather, a
+Frenchman, who delayed the building of his vessels till 1560. These
+vessels were built in the province of the Motilones, which is a wet
+country, and, as they were built in the rainy season, they came to
+pieces, and we therefore made canoes and descended the river. We
+navigated the most powerful river in Peru, and it seemed to us that we
+were in a sea of fresh water. We descended the river for three hundred
+leagues. This bad governor was capricious, vain, and inefficient, so
+that we could not suffer it, and we gave him a quick and certain death.
+We then raised Don Fernando de Guzman to be our king.... Because I did
+not consent to their evil deeds they desired to murder me. I therefore
+killed the new king, the captain of his guard, his lieutenant-general,
+four captains, his major-domo, his chaplain who said mass, a woman, a
+knight of the Order of Rhodes, an admiral, two ensigns, and five or six
+of his servants. I named captains and sergeants, but these men also
+wanted to kill me, and I hanged them. We continued our course while this
+evil fortune was befalling us, and it was eleven months and a half
+before we reached the mouths of the river, having travelled for more
+than a hundred days over more than fifteen hundred leagues. This river
+has a course of two thousand leagues of fresh water, the greater part of
+the shores being uninhabited, and God only knows how we ever escaped out
+of that fearful lake. I advise thee not to send any Spanish fleet up
+this ill-omened river, for, on the faith of a Christian, I swear to
+thee, O king and lord, that if a hundred thousand men should go up, not
+one would escape....
+
+"We shall give God thanks if, by our arms, we attain the rewards which
+are due to us, but which thou hast denied us; and because of thine
+ingratitude I am a rebel against thee until death."
+
+He and his band of outlaws ravaged the settlements of Venezuela for some
+time, until at last, on a promise of pardon, all left him save Llamoso,
+the murderer of Lady Inez. Aguirre had a daughter, a girl of twelve to
+fourteen, and when he found that all was lost he resolved to kill her.
+They were living at a country house, and when Llamoso brought the news
+of the desertion of his men, he snatched up a loaded arquebuse and
+rushed into his child's room, saying, "Commend thyself to God, my
+daughter, for I am about to kill thee, that thou mayest not be pointed
+at with scorn, nor that it be in the power of any one to call thee the
+daughter of a traitor." A woman snatched the weapon from his hand, but,
+drawing his poniard, he stabbed the girl in the breast, saying, "Die!
+because I must die!" Rushing then to the door, he found the house
+surrounded by Spanish soldiers, who compelled him to surrender, and
+almost immediately took him out to be shot.
+
+This put an end to treasure-seeking on the Amazon, but the search for
+"El Dorado" had been going on and was still continued along the banks of
+the Orinoco. The first attempt to reach the golden city by this river
+appears to have been made by Pedro de Acosta about the year 1530, but
+after most of his men had been killed and eaten by the cannibals, he was
+compelled to abandon his project. After him came Diego de Ordas, the
+following year, whose expedition became afterwards famous. He, however,
+found nothing himself, although he went as far as the mouth of the
+Caroni--it was from one of his men that the "El Dorado" story was
+gleaned. By some accident the whole of the gunpowder was exploded, and
+this being attributed to the negligence of the munitioner, Juan
+Martinez, he was sentenced to be put in a canoe, without paddles or
+food, and allowed to drift at the mercy of the current.
+
+What became of the culprit was not known, but some months afterwards a
+strange white man was brought by some Indians to Margarita. He was
+wasted by sickness, naked, and apparently destitute, but, through the
+kindness of a ship-captain, he got a passage to Porto Rico, and was
+there placed in a religious house, under the care of some Dominican
+friars. Here he became worse, but when on the point of death he
+presented his friends with two gourdsful of gold beads to pay for the
+repose of his soul; he also declared himself to be Juan Martinez, and
+told the wonderful story of his adventures.
+
+After being cast adrift, the canoe floated down the stream until
+evening, when it attracted the attention of some Indians, who paddled
+out from the shore and rescued Martinez from his perilous situation.
+These were Guianians, who had never before seen a white man, and
+therefore resolved to take him to their king as a curiosity. He was,
+however, blind-folded to prevent his seeing the direction they were
+taking, and led on and on, through forest and over mountain, for fifteen
+days, until a great city was reached. Arriving here at noon, his bandage
+was taken off, and Martinez feasted his eyes upon a great plain covered
+with houses, the roofs of which glittered in the sun as if made of gold.
+As far as his eye could reach stretched this marvellous assemblage of
+palaces. In the centre dwelt the great king, but, although the party
+travelled the whole of that and the next day, they did not reach the
+palace until evening.
+
+Here Martinez was well treated, and allowed to walk about the city, but
+not beyond it. He remained for seven months, saw the great lake on the
+shore of which the city of Manoa stood, and handled its golden sands.
+However, he was not content to remain, and after repeated petitions to
+be allowed to depart, was at last furnished with guides and as much
+gold as they could carry. Arrived at the Orinoco, the cannibals fell
+upon the party, stole all the treasure save that hidden under some
+provisions in the two gourds, and left them destitute. After enduring
+many privations Martinez, however, got a passage in an Indian canoe to
+Margarita, from whence he expected to go to Spain and report his
+discovery to the king.
+
+What amount of truth, if any at all, was contained in the story is
+doubtful. It does not appear to have been told at once, but gradually
+leaked out, becoming more marvellous as it spread over the West Indies.
+Adventurers flocked to the Orinoco, and at least a score of expeditions
+went in search of "El Dorado." Under the command of bold adventurers one
+party after another entered into the forest, some never to return or to
+be heard of again. The remnant sometimes came back starving, and broken
+down with sickness. We read of one Juan Corteso that he marched into the
+country, but neither he nor any of his company did return again. Gaspar
+de Sylva and his two brothers sought El Dorado, but fell down to
+Trinidad, where all three were buried. Jeronimo Ortal, after great
+travail and spending all his substance, died on a sudden at St. Domingo.
+Father Iala, a friar, with only one companion and some Indian guides,
+returned with gold eagles, idols, and other jewels, but when he essayed
+to pass a second time was slain by Indians. Alonzo de Herera endured
+great misery, but never entered one league into the country; he also was
+at last slain by Indians. Antonio Sedenno got much gold and many Indian
+prisoners, whom he manacled in irons, and of whom many died on the way.
+The tigers being fleshed with the dead carcases assaulted the Spaniards,
+who with much trouble hardly defended themselves from them. Sedenno was
+buried within the precincts of the empire of the gilded king, and most
+of his people perished likewise. Augustine Delgado came to an Indian
+Cacique, who entertained him with kindness and gave him rich jewels, six
+seemly pages, ten young slaves, and three nymphs very beautiful. To
+requite these manifold courtesies he took all the gold he could get and
+all the Indians he could lay hold on, to sell for slaves. He was
+afterwards shot in the eye by an Indian, of which hurt he died.
+
+And so we might go on to tell of the thousands of people murdered and
+tens of thousands carried off as slaves; Every gold ornament was stolen,
+provision grounds destroyed, and the forest tracks strewn with the
+corpses of those who had been massacred, and marked out by the graves of
+their murderers. Sometimes treasure and slaves were recaptured and no
+one left to tell the tale, but more often a few escaped to fight over
+the booty and perhaps be hanged as mutineers on their return.
+
+The men of that age were undoubtedly great--great warriors, great
+ruffians, great villains. Only here and there can we distinguish a good
+man like Las Casas, who did his very best for the Indians against the
+opposition of the settlers and the lukewarmness of the Spanish Court. He
+was horrified at the atrocities in the Indies, but the kings wanted
+their tithes and cared little how they were obtained. "Get it honestly
+if you can, but get it," seems to have been their motto, and it was not
+for many years that anything like humanity was shown, and then only by a
+few priests.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+"SINGEING THE SPANIARD'S BEARD."
+
+
+On the discovery of the Indies, Ferdinand and Isabella at once applied
+to Pope Alexander the Sixth to secure the rights of Spain in the new
+countries against every other nation, but more especially against
+Portugal. Accordingly, the celebrated "Bull of partition" was issued on
+the 4th of May, 1493, giving, conceding, and assigning for ever, to them
+and their successors, all the islands and mainlands already found or
+that might be discovered in future, to the west of a line, stretching
+from the north to the south poles, a hundred leagues from the Azores or
+Cape de Verde Islands, provided they were not in the possession of any
+other Christian prince. The sovereigns were commanded to appoint
+upright, God-fearing, skilful, and learned men to instruct the
+inhabitants in the Catholic faith, and all unauthorised persons were
+forbidden to traffic on or even approach the territories. If they did so
+they would incur the indignation of Almighty God and of the blessed
+Apostles Peter and Paul.
+
+Such was the gist of the document under which the enormities mentioned
+in the preceding chapters were committed. Portugal, except for some
+disputes about Brazil, accepted this arrangement, but the other great
+nations of Europe, especially England, disputed it from the very
+beginning. Nevertheless, the governments, as long as they were at peace
+with Spain, took no active part in the matter, but left the work to
+individuals, even going so far in some instances as to disclaim their
+responsibility for piracies committed beyond the seas.
+
+English and French seamen, hearing of the treasure continually imported
+into Spain, soon found their way to the new world, and as early as the
+year 1526 precautions had to be taken against them. Orders were sent to
+build castles on the coasts and strong houses, not only for defence
+against the cannibals, who continued to ravage the larger islands, but
+to protect the settlements from French corsairs who had already
+commenced their depredations. The tract of the Spanish fleets led them
+first to St. Domingo, and thence on to the isthmus of Darien or Panama,
+where at first the chief port was Nombre de Dios. At these two points it
+was of great importance that fortifications should be erected, and this
+was done in the first half of the sixteenth century.
+
+An English merchant named Thomas Tison seems to have been the first of
+our nation who went to the West Indies, but he got his goods sent from
+Bristol to Spain. In 1527 King Henry VIII. fitted out the _Dominus
+Vobiscum_ and another vessel for those parts, but little is known of
+their course. It was, however, reported that they went to Porto Rico,
+and got there a cargo of brazil wood, and then proceeded to St. Domingo,
+where permission was asked to trade. After waiting for the license two
+days the Spanish batteries fired upon them, driving them off to go back
+to Porto Rico, where the inhabitants were more friendly.
+
+From this time the corsairs and rovers became more numerous and
+audacious every year. Some went trading among the Indians of the
+mainland, others, more bold, forced their goods upon the Spanish
+settlements under threats of pillage. In 1536 the inhabitants of Havana
+paid seven hundred ducats to a French corsair to save the city, and
+because later the pirate was chased by three Spanish vessels, which he
+captured, he returned and exacted a second ransom.
+
+In 1538 there was a gallant fight in the harbour of Santiago de Cuba,
+between a Spaniard and a French corsair. The two vessels fought with
+each other the first day until sunset, when a truce was agreed to, and
+civilities exchanged between the captains. They sent each other presents
+of wine and fruit, were very friendly, and mutually agreed to fight only
+by day with swords and lances. Artillery, they agreed, was an invention
+of cowards--they would show their valour, and the one who conquered
+should have the other's vessel. The second day they fought again until
+evening without either being conquered, and again they exchanged
+courtesies. That night, however, the Spanish captain, Diego Perez, sent
+to the people of the city asking if they would compensate him for the
+loss of his ship if the corsair got the better of him; if they agreed
+to do this he would risk his life in their service. Were he not poor and
+without any other property, he would not have asked them, and as they
+would be gainers by his victory, he did not think his request at all
+extravagant. But the authorities refused to pledge themselves to
+anything, leaving Perez to fight for his own honour, life, and property.
+The battle continued the whole of the third day, each giving the other
+time for rest and refreshment, yet neither was conquered, although many
+had fallen on both sides. After similar courtesies the fight went on
+next morning, and when evening came the Frenchman promised to continue
+it next morning. Feeling, however, that the Spaniard was likely to get
+the better of him, he slipped his cable in the night and made off,
+leaving Perez to grieve at the drawn battle.
+
+The same year Havana was sacked and burnt, and three years later both
+English and French did great injury to the Spanish trade. Even Portugal
+did not escape, but when complaints were sent to the king of France, he
+said he intended to follow those conquests and navigations which by
+right belonged to him. In 1545 five French vessels captured the
+pearl-fishing fleet near the Main, which the owners were compelled to
+ransom; at the same time they were forced to buy seventy negroes from
+the captors. The Frenchmen then took Santa Martha and got a thousand
+ducats as ransom.
+
+One raid after another took place until the Spaniards were at their
+wits' ends. Forts were built, _guarda-costas_ stationed, and other
+precautions taken, but the depredations and forced traffic still
+continued. They cruelly punished all who fell into their hands, and this
+led to retaliation, not only for their own injuries, but to avenge the
+slaughter of the innocent natives.
+
+About the year 1530 Master William Hawkins made three long and famous
+voyages in the ship _Paul_. Hakluyt said he went to Brazil--a thing very
+rare in those days to our English nation. He became so friendly with the
+Indians that one of their kings came to England in his vessel, and was
+exhibited to King Henry, who marvelled to see this savage representative
+of royalty. Unfortunately the poor fellow died on the return voyage,
+which made Hawkins fear for the white hostage he had left behind.
+However, his explanation was accepted, and his man given back
+unharmed--a result all the more pleasing, as he knew so little of the
+language, and might easily have been misunderstood.
+
+This is an example of the good feeling of these people towards
+Englishmen and all who treated them fairly. Even the cannibals became
+more gentle under good treatment, and would allow the enemies of Spain
+to land on their shores without opposition. By this time the natives of
+the Greater Antilles were gone, and with them the thousands of captives
+from the mainland. Then began the importation of negroes, first from
+Spain, where the Portuguese had sold a fair number during the previous
+century, and then from Africa. Spain could not send and fetch the
+negroes on account of the Papal Bull, which reserved the savage
+countries east of the line to Portugal. It followed, therefore, that, as
+Spain claimed the Indies, so her sister country claimed the whole of
+Africa--a claim as little respected by other nations as that of her
+neighbour.
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO WOMAN RETURNING FROM MARKET.]
+
+Hearing that there was a good market for negroes in the West, Captain
+(afterwards Sir) John Hawkins, in 1563, got up an expedition to supply
+this demand. With three vessels of 120, 100, and 40 tons respectively,
+he sailed to Sierra Leone, and partly by the sword and partly by other
+means, got three hundred slaves, whom he carried to Hispaniola. Here he
+had a reasonable sale, probably forced, for he trusted the Spaniards no
+farther than he thought prudent, considering his strength. His returns
+were so good, however, that he not only loaded his own vessels with
+hides, ginger, sugar, and some pearls, but also freighted two hulks to
+send to Spain.
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO BARBER]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRO FAMILY ON HOLIDAY.]
+
+This success induced him to make another venture on a larger scale with
+the _Jesus_ of Lubeck, of 700, and three other vessels of 140, 50, and
+30 tons. He sailed for Africa in October, 1564, to kidnap slaves, yet
+all the time he was very religious in a way. His orders concluded with
+the commands to "serve God daily; love one another; preserve your
+victuals; beware of fire; and keep good company"--_i.e._, do not stray
+from others of the fleet. At several places he took negroes by force,
+losing a few of his men in the fights, and with a good number set off
+for the West Indies. Fortunately, he said, although they were in great
+danger from a gale on this voyage, they arrived without many deaths of
+either the negroes or themselves. For "the Almighty God, who never
+suffereth His elect to perish, sent us, on the 16th of February (1565),
+the ordinary breeze."
+
+[Illustration: NEGRESSES GOSSIPING.]
+
+The first land they sighted was Dominica, where they watered, and then
+went on to Margarita, the Governor of which island refused them
+permission to trade. They then tried several other places, including
+Hispaniola and Cumana, but also without success. At Barbarota they
+forced the people to traffic, and here they were joined by Captain
+Bontemps, a French corsair, with whom they went to Curacao, and forced a
+hundred slaves upon the inhabitants. Finally they went to Rio de la
+Hacha and defeated a body of Spanish troops, after which the remainder
+of Hawkins' cargo was freely sold.
+
+In his third voyage, on which he started in October, 1567, Hawkins was
+accompanied by Francis Drake and several other gentlemen adventurers. He
+took a similar course to that of his former voyages, joined some African
+chiefs in storming a town, and received, as his share of the booty, five
+hundred prisoners, with whom he again sailed for the Indies. The alarmed
+Spaniards dared not refuse to trade, and consequently he soon sold his
+negroes at a good profit. On his return, however, he was caught in a
+storm near the coast of Florida and had to take shelter in the harbour
+of Vera Cruz, where at first his vessels were taken for a Spanish fleet
+then daily expected. Under this mistake several influential persons came
+on board, two of whom were retained as hostages.
+
+Next day the Spanish fleet, consisting of thirteen sail, arrived, and on
+board one of them was the new Viceroy of Mexico. From this high
+authority Hawkins got permission to repair his ships, victual, and
+refit, provided the English kept themselves to a small island in the
+harbour, for the due performance of which they gave twelve hostages.
+
+But the Spaniards were not prepared to let their enemies off so easily,
+and made preparations for a surprise. Hawkins, becoming suspicious, sent
+to inquire about certain shady transactions, and was at once attacked by
+something like a thousand men. The Spaniards sunk three of his vessels,
+seriously damaged the fourth, and left him with only one leaky ship in
+which to find his way home. A great number of his men were killed and
+others captured, the prisoners to be taken to Mexico and there cruelly
+used. Two of them--Miles Philips and Job Hortop--managed to escape and
+return to England, where they gave long accounts of their sufferings,
+the latter comparing himself to his namesake the patriarch. As for
+Hawkins, in speaking of his return voyage, he said, that "if all the
+miserable and troublesome affairs of this sorrowful voyage should be
+perfectly and thoroughly written, there should need a painful man with
+his pen, and as great a time as he had that wrote the lives and deaths
+of the martyrs."
+
+This disaster put an end to Hawkins' slave-trading, but made no
+impression on the other adventurers to the Indies. Francis Drake now
+took up the quarrel, and in the year 1572 "singed the Spaniard's beard"
+to some purpose. Knowing already something of the state of affairs near
+the isthmus, he resolved to gain his spurs in that direction. He cared
+not for a forced trade in negroes, but virtually went in for piracy, for
+although the relations of the mother countries were at that time
+somewhat strained, war had not yet been declared.
+
+Drake sailed straight for Nombre de Dios, the treasure port, arrived
+suddenly before the inhabitants had any warning, and landed a hundred
+and fifty men in the night. Suddenly the town was roused to the fact
+that the enemy were in possession, and as the people ran off to the
+forest, they asked each other what was the matter. Unfortunately for
+Drake, however, through a misunderstanding, the English were alarmed and
+took to their vessels, so that all the advantage of the surprise was
+lost. Undaunted by this failure, he determined to attempt something even
+more audacious--the capture of the Panama train.
+
+We have already seen that African slaves had been imported in
+considerable numbers; we have now to mention that on the continent they
+often escaped into the forest. Here they lived like the Indians, and
+were often in friendship with them, going under the name of Simerons, or
+afterwards Maroons. Always at enmity with the masters whom they had
+deserted, they were a terror to the settlers on account of their
+continual raids on the plantations.
+
+Drake determined to get the assistance of these people, which was freely
+given, and he was enabled to traverse the pathless forest and to lie in
+wait for the train of mules carrying gold and silver from Panama to
+Nombre de Dios. This he captured, but, on account of the difficulties
+of the way, was obliged to leave the silver behind, and content himself
+with the gold. Then he attacked some merchants, burnt their goods to the
+value of two hundred thousand ducats, and got safely back to his ships
+just as the dilatory Spaniards sent out three hundred men for his
+capture. It was on this excursion that he saw the Great South Sea, and
+determined to carry English ships into that immense Spanish preserve.
+How he carried out his resolve, and appeared suddenly off the Peruvian
+coast five years later, is a story we must leave, as it belongs to
+another part of the new world.
+
+When Drake returned to Plymouth the news of his adventures, and the more
+substantial evidence of the gold he had brought, roused others to follow
+his example. Among them was one John Oxnam, or Oxenham, who has been
+immortalised by Kingsley in "Westward Ho!" Arriving at the isthmus in
+1575, in a vessel of 140 tons, he went to an out-of-the-way river, and
+hid his bark among the great trees. Landing with his seventy men, he
+went in search of the Simerons, who took him to a river which flowed
+into the South Sea, where a pinnace was built. In this the English
+pulled down to the Pacific, with the intention of capturing one of the
+treasure ships coming to Panama. They succeeded so far as to get sixty
+thousand dollars in gold from one bark, and a hundred thousand from
+another. Not yet satisfied, they went to the Pearl Islands, attacked the
+negro divers, and took a few pearls, with which they at last returned up
+the river.
+
+Unfortunately for Oxenham the negroes of the Pearl Islands carried the
+news of his presence to Panama, and in two days four boats with a
+hundred men were sent in pursuit. They found the two barks, which had
+been released, and from their captains learnt where the Englishmen had
+gone. Following up the river they were at a loss when they came to three
+branches, but spying some freshly plucked feathers floating down one of
+the streams, they followed that until they came upon the pinnace. Six
+men were on guard, one of whom was killed, but the other five escaped
+and gave the alarm to their comrades. Pursuing their track through the
+forest the Spaniards found the store of treasure hidden away under
+boughs of trees. With this they would have gone back had not Oxenham
+attacked them with two hundred Simerons before they reached their boats.
+Being more skilful in bush fighting than the English, the Spaniards
+repulsed the party, killing eleven and taking seven prisoners, from whom
+they learnt that the delay was caused by the difficulty of transporting
+the treasure.
+
+Now the news was sent to Nombre de Dios, and the authorities there found
+the English vessel and brought her away, thus cutting off the means of
+escape for those still lurking in the forest. Then an expedition was
+sent in search of them, and they were found building canoes. Some were
+sick and could make no resistance, the others fled and took refuge with
+the negroes, by whom they were ultimately betrayed and taken to Panama.
+Here Oxenham was interrogated as to his authority for the raid, and was
+obliged to admit that he had not his Queen's license. All except five
+boys were executed, the men at once, and the officers a little while
+afterwards at Lima.
+
+Thus ended one of the most audacious attacks on the Spaniards which only
+failed through a little want of calculation. Hakluyt, who wrote the
+account, said the enemy marvelled much to see that although many
+Frenchmen had come to these countries, yet never one durst put foot upon
+land; only Drake and Oxenham performed such exploits. When the news
+reached Spain the king was so alarmed that he sent out two galleys to
+guard the coast, which in the first year after their arrival took six or
+seven French vessels, and put a stop to their piracies for a time.
+
+There was another class of raids in the Indies, of which that of Andrew
+Barker, of Bristol, was an example. He, and one Captain Roberts, going
+to trade in the Canary Islands, had their goods confiscated, and were
+put in prison, from which Roberts escaped and Barker was ultimately
+discharged. To recoup his losses and revenge himself, Barker fitted out
+several vessels in 1576, in which he went trading to the Main, and
+afterwards committed acts of piracy. He took a small vessel off
+Margarita and a frigate near Carthagena, from which he got five hundred
+pounds' weight of gold and some emeralds. Now, following the example of
+Drake, he landed on the isthmus to get help from the Simerons, but could
+find none. Then, from the unhealthiness of the climate, most of his men
+fell sick, and eight or nine died, which made him give up this part of
+his project. Embarking again he took another Spanish vessel with some
+gold, but after that the party got into difficulties. Barker quarrelled
+with his ship-master, and one of the vessels became so leaky that they
+had to let her sink, first removing the cargo into the last Spanish
+prize. They, however, captured another vessel with a hundred pounds of
+silver and some provisions, but after that the crews mutinied and put
+Barker ashore with some others, where they were attacked by Spaniards,
+and nine, including the captain, killed. The mutineers then went on to
+Truxillo, which they surprised, but could find no treasure, and were
+soon driven to flight by a Spanish vessel. On their way home the Spanish
+vessel sunk, carrying down two thousand pounds' worth of their booty,
+and on their arrival at Plymouth they were imprisoned as accessories to
+their captain's death. Although none were executed, yet, says the worthy
+Hakluyt, "they could not avoid the heavy judgment of God, but shortly
+after came to miserable ends."
+
+Open war soon came, and culminated in the invasion of England by the
+"Invincible Armada" of 1588. No longer could there be any question of
+the Queen's license, and in 1585 Drake, now Sir Francis, fitted out a
+great fleet to cripple the power of Spain in the Indies. The Spanish
+authorities were no longer unprepared, but ready to give him a warm
+reception all along his expected course. The fleet consisted of
+twenty-five vessels, with two thousand three hundred men, among whom
+could be found many whose names are famous in the annals of Queen
+Elizabeth. At the Cape de Verde Islands they burnt the town of Santiago
+in revenge for the murder of a boy, and after this baptism of fire,
+proceeded to the island of St. Christopher's, where they landed the
+sick, cleaned their vessels, and spent Christmas. Leaving at the end of
+December, on the 1st of January, 1586, they arrived off Hispaniola with
+the intention of attacking St. Domingo. The English landed about ten
+miles distant from that city, marched upon the Spaniards unawares, and
+took it by surprise, notwithstanding every preparation that had been
+made, and the careful watch for enemies from the sea.
+
+Drake demanded a large ransom, and because it was not paid at once,
+commenced to demolish the buildings, which brought the inhabitants to
+their senses and made them offer the sum of 25,000 ducats (about
+L7,000), which he accepted. From thence the fleet sailed to Carthagena,
+where no opposition was made until the troops landed, when a great
+struggle took place in the streets. The Spaniards had erected
+barricades, behind which they succeeded in doing some execution, but
+only delayed the surrender for a short time. After a portion of the town
+had been burnt, 110,000 ducats were paid as ransom for the remainder,
+and after a few less brilliant exploits, the fleet went back to England,
+being thus hurried on account of sickness among the men. Otherwise,
+Drake had intended to capture Nombre de Dios and Panama, but from this
+disability had to be content with booty to the amount of L60,000, which
+would mean something like a quarter of a million at the present value of
+money. He arrived in time to help in repelling the Armada, and this
+invasion kept most of the English about their own shores for a year or
+two.
+
+In 1595, when there were no longer any fears of a Spanish landing, Drake
+determined on another voyage, and this time with Sir John Hawkins.
+Getting together six of the Queen's ships and twenty-one other vessels,
+they arrived safely at the Caribbee Islands, where Hawkins became sick
+and died. Drake then went on to Porto Rico and attacked the capital, but
+could do nothing more than capture a few vessels from under the guns of
+the forts. Going to the Main he captured Rio de la Hacha and a fishing
+village named Rancheria. These he held for ransom, but was dissatisfied
+with the number of pearls offered by private persons, the Governor
+refusing to give anything, and burnt both town and village. Santa Martha
+was also taken, and then Nombre de Dios, but he found that the treasure
+had been removed, the inhabitants taking to the forest when they heard
+his fearful name. Sir Thomas Baskerville took seven hundred and fifty
+men to go over to Panama, but returned much discouraged by the
+difficulties of the road. Drake finally burnt Nombre de Dios and every
+vessel in the harbour down to the smallest boats.
+
+After that, sickness began to tell upon the expedition, and Drake
+himself was stricken with dysentery. When on the point of death he rose
+from his bed, put on his full dress of admiral, called his men and gave
+them a farewell address, then, sinking down exhausted he died
+immediately afterwards. Several captains and other important officers
+also died, and they even lost the chief surgeon; after that, nothing was
+left but to return home. Off Cuba they were attacked by a Spanish fleet
+of twenty vessels, sent out to intercept them, with which they kept up
+a running fight until the enemy were left behind.
+
+On their arrival in England in May, 1596, the sad news of the death of
+Drake overshadowed all the glory of the expedition. In Spain, however,
+it was published for general information, and the people congratulated
+each other that at last their enemy was gone. Henry Savile, in his
+"Libel of Spanish Lies," said "it did ease the stomachs of the timorous
+Spaniards greatly to hear of the death of him whose life was a scourge
+and a continual plague to them." No wonder that the news was so
+grateful, for none was so daring, and no name like that of Drake ever
+came to be used as a bogey with which to frighten their children.
+
+Yet there were many gallant adventurers in the Indies at that very time.
+Sir Robert Dudley and Sir Walter Ralegh were both at Trinidad in 1595,
+and for several years before and after the English rovers were plentiful
+in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1591 the _Content_ was successfully defended
+against six Spanish men-of-war, and the galleons were obliged to sail in
+large squadrons. What with the dangers of storms and the enemy, it was
+stated that of a hundred and twenty-three vessels expected in Spain
+during that year, only twenty-five arrived safe.
+
+The number of rovers became at last so great that plunder was difficult
+to obtain. The Spanish settlers were in continual fear, and naturally
+took every precaution against their enemies, hiding the treasure on the
+least alarm, and taking to the forest. The French corsairs were not far
+behind the English, although as yet they had no proper licenses, and
+only fought for their own hands. Latterly, also, the Dutch and Flemings
+had arrived, and although mainly occupied in trading, they did not
+hesitate to fight on occasion, especially when attempts were made to
+prevent their traffic. While under the rule of Charles the Fifth they
+had been free to go to and from the Indies, and no doubt use the
+knowledge thus gained to further their own interests since their revolt.
+Like the English, they were at enmity with Spain, but there was also
+another bond of union--both were Protestant. Queen Elizabeth assisted
+Holland in gaining her independence, and therefore at this period the
+relations between English and Dutch were very cordial. But the
+fellow-feeling of enmity to Spain made even the French corsair unite
+with the two others, so that pirates, privateers, and traders all
+combined against the common foe.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+RALEGH AND THE FIRST BRITISH COLONIES.
+
+
+The first grant made by Queen Elizabeth for a settlement in America was
+given to Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1578, but the father of English
+colonisation was Sir Walter Ralegh. Although considered a rover, or
+pirate, by the Spaniards, he was of a different type to Drake, Hawkins,
+and the other adventurers of the sixteenth century. Not only was he
+famous as a brave warrior, but at the same time as one of the most
+learned men of his time; as enterprising in the arts of peace as on the
+battlefield.
+
+The "Letters Patent" to Walter Ralegh, Esquire, dated the 25th of March,
+1584, may be considered as the first charter of the English colonies.
+Under them he was empowered to discover, occupy, and possess barbarous
+countries not actually in the possession of any Christian prince, or
+inhabited by Christian people, on condition that he reserved to Her
+Majesty a fifth of all the gold and silver found therein. He was also
+given all the rights of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and empowered
+to govern and make laws as long as these laws did not conflict with
+those of the mother country, or with the true Christian faith of the
+Church of England. Under this charter the first settlement in Virginia
+was undertaken, and thus England threw down the gauntlet in the face of
+Spain.
+
+However, Ralegh did not confine himself to North America--there were
+other countries not in the actual possession of any Christian prince,
+the most notable being Guiana. Ralegh had heard the story of "El Dorado"
+and of the failures of the many German and Spanish knights. He would
+succeed where they had failed. Englishmen had displayed their mettle in
+the Indies--if the treasures of Peru and Mexico had raised their enemy
+to be "mistress of the world" and "sovereign of the seas," why should
+not he also find other golden countries for the benefit of his virgin
+queen and country? Because two rich provinces had been discovered, it
+did not follow that there were no others; on the contrary, the rumours
+of "El Dorado" were so many that they could not be treated with
+contempt. And then the natives of the "Great Wild Coast," although
+cannibals, were friendly to the English, who had always treated them
+fairly, and there they had the advantage over Spain. The country was
+open to them, although strictly guarded against their rivals.
+
+The stories had been lately revived by the expeditions of Antonio de
+Berrio, Governor of Trinidad and Guiana, who had made explorations of
+the river Orinoco, and possibly exaggerated his reports for the purpose
+of getting settlers. Captain Popham took some letters from a Spanish
+vessel in 1594, wherein were found accounts of the "Nueva Dorado,"
+which were spoken of as incredibly rich. Ralegh saw these, and was
+induced by their reports and his own knowledge of the Indies, which he
+had gained in working at his colonisation schemes, to go out and look up
+the matter.
+
+The occupation of Guiana, he said, had other ground and assurance of
+riches than the voyages to the West Indies. The king of Spain was not so
+impoverished as the English supposed by their taking two or three ports,
+neither were the riches of Peru or New Spain to be picked up on the
+sea-shore. The burning of towns on the coast did not impoverish Spain
+one ducat, for it was within the country that the land was rich and
+populous. Therefore England should endeavour to get possession of this
+yet unspoiled country, instead of wasting her energies on adventures
+that were of no real benefit, and that hardly touched the real source of
+her enemy's greatness.
+
+Ralegh arrived at Trinidad in March, 1595, and as a matter of precaution
+captured the Spanish town of St. Joseph, and the Governor, De Berrio,
+from whom he heard more stories of El Dorado. Here also he began those
+conciliatory measures with the natives which characterised all his
+dealings. He released five chiefs, who had been imprisoned in chains and
+tortured by dropping melted fat on their bodies, and thus gained their
+friendship. Unlike other adventurers he thought it necessary to excuse
+himself for burning St. Joseph, which he did in rather quaint language.
+Considering that if he entered Guiana by small boats and left a
+garrison of the enemy at his back, he "should have savoured very much of
+the ass," he took the place, and at the instance of the natives set it
+on fire.
+
+[Illustration: RALEGH IN TRINIDAD.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Now began a weary voyage up the Orinoco, first through the delta, which
+is such a maze that they might have wandered for months without getting
+into the main river had they not secured an Indian pilot. Exposed
+alternately to burning sun and drenching showers in open boats, they
+toiled against the powerful stream. Ralegh everywhere tried his best to
+ingratiate himself with the Indians, succeeding so well that his name
+became known over the whole of Guiana. He told them that he had been
+sent by a great queen, the powerful Cacique of the north, and a virgin,
+whose chieftains were more numerous than the trees of the forest. She
+was an enemy to the Spaniards, had freed other nations from their
+oppression, and had now sent to rescue them. To confirm his statement he
+gave each Cacique a coin so that they could possess the queen's
+likeness, and these were treasured and even worshipped for a century
+afterwards.
+
+Everywhere he heard of El Dorado, but it was always receding farther and
+farther, until his men became so disheartened that he had to rouse them
+by saying that they would be shamed before their comrades if they gave
+up so easily. However, after reaching the mouth of the Caroni and
+getting specimens of gold ore, he had to return without doing more than
+locating the city of Manoa several hundred miles to the east of his
+farthest point. This was done in so exact a manner that the great lake
+of Parima, as large as the Caspian Sea, was retained upon the maps of
+South America down to the beginning of the present century. His ore was
+probably stream quartz, and in representing it as taken from the rock he
+probably reported what the Indians had told him. When, therefore, he
+said that the assay gave its value as L13,000 a ton, there is no reason
+to suppose a mistake or untruth, for pieces quite as valuable may still
+be picked up. His "Discoverie of Guiana" is such a mixture of close and
+accurate observation with the hearsay of the Indians, that it is
+difficult in some cases to separate truth from fiction. Yet, although
+historians have charged him with wilful lying, there can be no doubt of
+his good faith. It has been left to the present century to prove that
+gold-mines exist on the site of the fabled El Dorado, for it is there
+that the well-known Caratal diggings are situated.
+
+Ralegh asked the people of England to judge for themselves. He had spent
+much time and money, with no other object than to serve his queen and
+country. When they considered that it was the Spaniard's gold which
+endangered and disturbed all the nations of Europe, that "purchaseth
+intelligence, creepeth into councils and setteth bound loyalty at
+liberty," they would see the advantage of these provinces he had
+discovered. Guiana was a country that had never yet been sacked, turned,
+or wrought. The face of the earth had not been torn, nor the virtue and
+salt of the soil spent by manurance; the graves had not been opened for
+gold, the mines not touched with sledges, or the images pulled down
+from the temples. It was so easily defensible that it could be protected
+by two forts at the mouth of a river, and thus the whole empire be
+guarded. The country was already discovered, many nations won to Her
+Majesty's love and obedience, and those Spaniards who had laboured on
+the conquest were beaten, discouraged, and disgraced. If Her Majesty
+took up the enterprise, he doubted not that after the first or second
+year there would be a Contractation House for Guiana in London, with
+larger receipts than that for the Indies at Seville.
+
+Such was Ralegh's dream. Another Peru to be conquered, and England to be
+raised to the highest point of wealth and importance. But unfortunately
+he could get no assistance to carry out the grand project. Yet he was
+undoubtedly sincere, for did he not send out two expeditions under
+Captains Keymis and Berrie the following year, to assure the Indians
+that he had not forgotten them? Keymis found one tribe keeping a
+festival in honour of the great princess of the north, and anxiously
+waiting for the return of Gualtero, which name, by the by, was similar
+to their word for friend. They made fires, and, sitting in their
+hammocks, each man with his companion, they recounted the worthy deeds
+and deaths of their ancestors, execrating their enemies most spitefully,
+and magnifying their friends with all the titles of honour they could
+devise. Thus they sat talking and smoking tobacco until their cigars
+(their measure of time) went out, during which they were not to be
+disturbed, "for this is their religion and prayers which they now
+celebrated, keeping a precise fast one whole day in honour of the great
+princess of the north, their patron and defender."
+
+The explorations of Ralegh and his captains were published all over
+Europe, with the result that attention was generally drawn to Guiana.
+Already some Dutchmen had been trading on the coast for many years, and
+it was even reported that they had established a post in the river
+Pomeroon, the centre of the province of Caribana. As early as 1542
+Flemings had settled at Araya on the coast of Venezuela, where they
+collected salt and were left undisturbed as long as the Netherlands
+belonged to Spain. Ralegh seems to have purposely ignored the presence
+of these people in Guiana, probably to prevent any question of prior
+rights on the part of a friendly nation. But, after all, the Dutchmen
+could only have been there on their own responsibility, and their
+temporary occupation had no meaning from a national point of view.
+
+Now that Guiana was made known, vessels of other nationalities went
+trading along the coast, everywhere meeting with a hearty welcome from
+the Indians as long as the visitors were not Spanish. They were only so
+many additions to their friends--their enemies were confined to Trinidad
+and the Orinoco, leaving the whole coast of Guiana to its rightful
+owners. In fact, the Spaniards could no more subdue the Caribs of the
+Main than they could those of the islands. Only in Trinidad, where the
+Arawak was employed against the cannibal, was a settlement made
+possible.
+
+Ralegh was unable to carry out his great project, but others were not
+backward in attempting to settle in the country. First came Charles
+Leigh, who in 1604 founded a colony in the river Oyapok, which failed
+partly from the lack of assistance from England and partly from too
+great a dependence on the promises of the Indians to supply food.
+Sickness followed on starvation, Leigh died, and a mutiny took place,
+after which the survivors got back to Europe in a Dutch trader, which
+fortunately arrived when all hope of succour had been abandoned. Robert
+Harcourt followed to the same river in 1609, like Leigh, getting
+promises of assistance from the Indians by using the name of Ralegh.
+With their consent he took possession of the country, "by twig and
+turf," in the name of King James. This ceremony was performed by first
+cutting a branch from a tree, and then turning up a sod with the sword,
+thus claiming everything in and on the earth.
+
+Harcourt's colony lasted several years, and in 1613 he received from
+James the First a grant of all that part of Guiana lying between the
+rivers Amazons and Essequebo, on the usual condition of the fifth of all
+gold and silver being handed over to the king. In the same year the
+Dutch trading factory at Kyk-over-al on the river Essequebo was
+established, and this was probably the reason why the English grant made
+that river the boundary of their possessions, leaving the Hollander to
+establish himself between the Essequebo and the Orinoco.
+
+Meanwhile, in 1603, poor Ralegh had been tried on a charge of aiding and
+abetting the plot to raise Arabella Stuart to the throne of England, on
+the death of Queen Elizabeth. Any one who reads the account of his
+trial will perceive at once the absurdity of the charge, yet Ralegh was
+convicted and sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. However,
+even with all his hatred for the knight, King James dared not carry out
+the sentence, but instead, kept him imprisoned in the Tower.
+
+Here Ralegh still hankered after the treasures of Guiana, and in 1611 he
+made a proposition to the Government to send Captain Keymis to find the
+rich gold mine which had been pointed out to him by an Indian. If Keymis
+should live to arrive at the place and fail to bring half a ton or more
+of that rich ore of which he had shown a sample, Ralegh himself would
+bear all the expense of the journey. "Though," said he, "it be a
+difficult matter of exceeding difficulty for any man to find the same
+acre of ground again, in a country desolate and overgrown, which he hath
+seen but once, and that sixteen years since--which were hard enough to
+do upon Salisbury Plain--yet that your lordships may be satisfied of the
+truth, I am contented to adventure all I have (but my reputation) upon
+Keymis's memory."
+
+This proposition was rejected, and the poor knight lingered on in the
+Tower, attended during part of the time by two Guiana Indians, Harry and
+Leonard Regapo. In 1616, however, he at last recovered his liberty on
+condition that he went to Guiana and brought back gold, but at the same
+time the king refused to pardon him. Nevertheless he took up the matter
+with an amount of enthusiasm which showed his entire confidence in its
+ultimate success. All his own money and as much of his wife's as could
+be spared was spent in fitting out the expedition, and he also got
+contributions from many of his friends. The king even went so far as to
+give him a commission to undertake a voyage to the south parts of
+America, or elsewhere in America, inhabited by heathen and savage
+people, with all the necessary rights of government and jurisdiction;
+yet with all this the old sentence hung over his head.
+
+The expedition of fourteen vessels started in March, 1617, but even from
+the commencement the voyage was disastrous. First a gale was
+encountered, which drove the fleet to take refuge in Cork Harbour, where
+it lay until August. This seems to have put a damper on the commander,
+who now began to realise how much depended on his success. He was
+twenty-two years older than when he went on his first voyage to Guiana,
+and most of those years he had spent in captivity. Is it any wonder that
+when the excitement attendant on his release had gone off he became sick
+and utterly prostrated? Such was his condition when the fleet arrived at
+Cayenne, where he went to look for his Indian boy Harry, who had gone
+back to his people and was now wanted as interpreter.
+
+So low was Ralegh's condition that he had to be carried ashore, and
+although he soon became a little better under a course of fresh meat and
+fruits, he never wholly recovered. So great was his weakness, both of
+mind and body, that he deputed Keymis to lead the party up the Orinoco,
+while he rested at Cayenne; in a few days he would go on to Trinidad and
+wait there until they returned. Keymis accordingly went on, accompanied
+by young Walter Ralegh, a number of other gentlemen, and four hundred
+soldiers. They arrived at the site of the supposed gold mine without
+accident, but found that since the first expedition some Spaniards had
+built "a town of sticks, covered with leaves," and this stood in the way
+of their approach to the mine. Possibly Keymis now thought of his
+master's expression in regard to St. Joseph, and did not care to "savour
+of an ass" by leaving the enemy to interfere with his work. He therefore
+attacked this town of St. Thome, and set it on fire. Unfortunately young
+Ralegh was killed in the fight, and the thought of how he could tell
+this bad news preyed upon the mind of Keymis until all relish for
+gold-seeking was lost. The Spaniards took to the bush, from whence they
+sallied forth on any small party of the English, and ultimately put them
+into a state of confusion. The mine could not be found, the adventurers
+began to complain that they had been fooled, and Keymis was so troubled
+that he seemed neither to know nor care anything about treasure-seeking.
+
+Ralegh had meanwhile arrived in the Gulf of Paria, where he received the
+news of the burning of St. Thome and the death of his son from some
+Indians. Presently Keymis arrived, utterly dejected, to find his master
+broken down and more woe-begone than himself. Ralegh said he was undone,
+and that Keymis was entirely to blame. Not even a sample of ore--the
+king would believe him a liar and a cheat. Then, this attack on a
+Spanish town! Did not Keymis remember that these were not the days of
+the virgin queen, when to "singe the Spaniard's beard" was worthy of
+praise? Did he not know that James was friendly with the king of Spain
+and wanted to get from him a princess for his son Henry?
+
+[Illustration: GOLD HUNTING.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Keymis had been the intimate friend of Ralegh through all his troubles.
+He had remained faithful even when threatened with the rack at the time
+of the trial. As a kind of steward he had administered the prisoner's
+estate, and was a trusted friend and confidant of the family. He had
+seen young Walter grow up to manhood, and now through his fault the
+youth had been killed. For the first time the bereaved father was angry
+with his captain; perhaps if Keymis died the whole blame would be laid
+upon his shoulders, and Ralegh be exonerated. He went to the cabin
+allotted to him, loaded a pistol, shot himself, and then, as he feared
+the wound was not mortal, finished the suicide by driving a long knife
+into his heart.
+
+Thus died poor Keymis, but unfortunately this did not make any
+difference to his master. If Ralegh had been prepared to throw all the
+responsibility on his lieutenant, the king could only be satisfied with
+treasure. Even if James had been inclined to over-look the affair, the
+Spanish ambassador would not condone such an offence. He is said to have
+rushed into the royal presence with the cry of "Piracy! piracy! piracy!"
+at the same time demanding the immediate capture and punishment of the
+raiders. It followed, therefore, that Ralegh was arrested immediately on
+his return, and finally executed under the old sentence, but by
+decapitation instead of hanging.
+
+His last days were passed with resignation and fortitude. His old spirit
+was entirely broken, and although he petitioned the king for grace and
+pardon, he did so in a hopeless way. He had many sympathisers, and to
+satisfy them the king's printers issued a little book entitled "A
+Declaration of the Demeanour and Carriage of Sir Walter Raleigh,"
+obviously inspired by the king himself. Here was a thing unheard of
+before or since; a sovereign excusing himself for his actions! If
+anything were required to prove the prisoner's innocence, this was
+sufficient. Did James want to salve his own conscience, or was it
+intended to satisfy those who clamoured on account of the injustice of
+the execution? No doubt many of the old sea dogs who had served under
+Drake and Hawkins were still living, and remembered when Plymouth bells
+rang at the news of fresh arrivals from the Indies. "But now, forsooth,
+you must not burn down a thatched hovel without a great to-do being
+made." If Spain wanted peace, why did her people murder a ship's company
+in cold blood a little while before? Out upon it! The good old days had
+passed and England was going to ruin.
+
+However, even King James's sneaking friendship for Spain could not keep
+back colonisation altogether. Something like moderation was introduced,
+and only pirates pure and simple kept up the old traditions. As for the
+king he hardly knew how to steer, what with the petitions for reprisals
+from English seamen on the one hand, and complaints of the Spanish
+ambassadors on the other. The result of this want of policy is well
+shown in the case of Roger North one of the adventurers in the last
+expedition of Ralegh, who, in 1619, wished to re-establish the colony in
+the Oyapok, which had virtually sunk to nothing. An association called
+the Amazon Company was formed, and, notwithstanding Spanish protests,
+the king granted "Letters Patent," under which North got up an
+expedition in four vessels. Then the Spanish ambassador began to storm,
+and the weak king revoked the patent, calling upon the members of the
+Company to renounce their rights. North, who had been warned that
+something was going on, hurried up his preparations, and was off so
+quickly that he sailed on the 30th of April, 1620, fifteen days before
+the proclamation revoking his license was published.
+
+On his return in January following he was arrested and sent to the
+Tower, where he remained until July. Meanwhile his cargo from Guiana was
+seized on the ground that it had been obtained from Spanish possessions,
+but with all his willingness to oblige Spain the king could not get the
+case proven. It followed, therefore, that North was released, and his
+goods restored, but as the cargo was mainly tobacco it had become much
+damaged by neglect.
+
+This detention of North, and the consequent delay in sending out
+supplies to the Oyapok, led to the downfall of the infant colony.
+Hearing nothing from England the settlers became disheartened, and if it
+had not happened that Dutch traders arrived there occasionally they
+would have been starved. Even as it was one left after another until few
+remained, and when, six years later, "the Company of Noblemen and
+Gentlemen of England for the Plantation of Guiana" was formed, the
+settlement had to be commenced anew. However, some of those who left
+carried the English flag to the island of St. Christopher's, where a
+settlement was commenced in 1624 by Thomas Warner. Thus, as Ralegh was
+the father of English colonisation, so his beloved Guiana became the
+parent of the British West Indies.
+
+James the First died in March, 1625, and with him went the English
+subservience to Spain, never to be restored. During his reign British
+enterprise had been kept back; now it broke down all obstructions. True,
+New England and Bermuda were settled during his reign, but they owed
+little to him or his government. As soon as the Royal obstructionist was
+dead, colonisation schemes came to the front. Before even a month had
+passed, on the 14th of April, John Coke came forward with a proposition
+to incorporate a company for the defence and protection of the West
+Indies, for establishing a trade there, and for fitting out a fleet to
+attack the Spanish settlements. About the same time, also, the
+Attorney-General made some "notes" on the advantages derived by the
+Spaniards and Dutch from their West Indian trade, showing that it was
+neither safe nor profitable to England for them to remain absolute lords
+of those parts, and suggesting that the new king should entertain the
+matter and openly interpose, or else permit it to be done underhand;
+then if it prospered he could make it his own at pleasure.
+
+What was done in these particular cases does not appear, but that a new
+policy was introduced is certain. In September following the case of
+St. Christopher's was brought before the Privy Council, which apparently
+confirmed what had been done, in taking possession of the island. In the
+"information" laid over it was stated that Thomas Warner had discovered
+that island, as well as Nevis, Barbados, and Montserrat, and had begun
+the planting and colonising of these islands, until then only inhabited
+by savages. King Charles was asked to take them under his royal
+protection and grant Thomas Warner their custody as his lieutenant, with
+the usual powers of jurisdiction.
+
+The result was not altogether to the liking of the petitioners, Ralph
+Merrifield and Thomas Warner, for in July, 1627, a grant of all the
+Caribbees was made to the Earl of Carlisle. This was sweeping enough,
+however, to suit those who wanted English colonies, however it ignored
+the rights of the first settlers in St. Kitt's and Barbados, which
+latter island had been settled a few months after the first.
+
+Now, also, Roger North came forward with his story and got the revoked
+patent renewed, so that he could go on with the settlement in the
+Oyapok. For a time it did very well, but the tide had turned in favour
+of the islands, and Guiana was soon abandoned to the Dutch and French.
+
+The most important of the two islands first colonised was Barbados,
+which, fortunately for her comfort, never suffered from such calamities
+as befel the sister island of St. Christopher's. As far as the English
+were concerned Barbados was discovered by a vessel going out to Leigh's
+settlement, in Guiana, in 1605. A pillar was erected with the
+inscription, "James, King of England and this island," but nothing was
+done in the way of a settlement until immediately after Warner commenced
+planting in St. Kitt's. The most intimate connection existed between
+Barbados and Guiana from the earliest times, as in fact it does to the
+present day, for Captain Powell, the commander of the little company of
+pioneers, sent to his Dutch friend, Groenwegel, in Essequebo, for a
+party of Arawak Indians to teach the new-comers how to plant provisions,
+cotton, and tobacco.
+
+In 1630 another group of islands was added by the granting of a patent
+to the "Governor and Company of Adventurers for the Plantation of the
+Islands of Providence, Henrietta, and the adjacent islands." Under this
+charter possession was taken of the Bahamas, but little was done in the
+way of settling them for about a century. Thus West Indian colonisation
+was commenced, and claims made to all the smaller islands on behalf of
+England.
+
+But it is not to be supposed that France and Holland were going to let
+everything go by default--on the contrary, they soon began to settle in
+some of the very islands which had been granted to the Earl of Carlisle.
+The Dutch, as we have seen, were traders from the beginning, preferring
+the so-called contraband traffic with the natives and Spanish colonists
+to anything like the raids of English or French. Yet, in their plodding
+way they went on steadily, and as early as the year 1600 took possession
+of the island of St. Eustatius. When the Spaniards awoke to the fact
+that the Dutch were injuring their trade, they began to enforce all the
+old prohibitions and seized the smugglers. But the Hollander commenced
+to feel his power, and gave his enemy several lessons, which made him
+feel that the United Provinces with their symbol of a bundle of darts
+were not to be despised.
+
+In 1615 the Dutch took the capital of Porto Rico, and in 1621 their West
+India Company was formed with territorial and trading rights over all
+the unoccupied countries of Africa and America. Suddenly as it were the
+despised Hollander became a power in the West Indies, and the Company
+was soon strong enough to conquer Brazil, which it must be remembered
+was, with Portugal and all her colonies, then in the hands of Spain.
+About the year 1627 Piet Heyn destroyed a Spanish fleet in Mataca Bay,
+Cuba, the booty from which was something enormous. Altogether, the West
+India Company was said to have captured 547 vessels, mainly off the
+coast of America, the prize money from which amounted to thirty million
+guilders (L2,500,000), while the damage to Spain was at least six times
+as much.
+
+Now also the French began to claim their share. In 1625 Mons. d'Enambuc
+went on a piratical expedition to the Caribbean Sea, but without any
+intention of founding a colony. However, off the Cayman's islands he was
+attacked by a Spanish galleon of much superior force, and although he
+succeeded at last in driving her off, his vessel was so crippled that he
+had to put into St. Christopher's for repairs. Here he found Warner
+already established, and with him a few Frenchmen. On account of his
+condition and the beauty of the island, he became inclined to settle,
+and as the English and French were then on good terms, Warner saw no
+objection. The consequence was that St. Kitt's became divided between
+the two nationalities, with results in the future most disastrous to
+both.
+
+At first, however, the assistance of the French was very welcome. The
+Caribs were still a power in the smaller islands and gave a great deal
+of trouble to the young colony. At first they were friendly, but when
+the settlers wished to oppress them by taking away their lands and
+compelling them to supply provisions, open war began. Hearing from an
+Indian woman that a conspiracy was forming to destroy all the white men,
+Warner determined to be beforehand with them. He massacred a hundred and
+twenty of the men, took the women as slaves, and drove the remainder off
+the island. But these powerful savages were by no mean conquered, for
+those who escaped soon came back with three or four thousand of their
+friends from neighbouring islands, and at first it appeared as if the
+whites would have been utterly exterminated. By a supreme effort of both
+French and English, however, this great invasion was repelled, the
+defenders killing about two thousand, and capturing fifteen large
+periaguas, with a loss to themselves of about a hundred, most of whom
+died from poisoned arrows. This was a bond of union between French and
+English, and Warner and d'Enambuc amicably divided the island between
+them.
+
+[Illustration: CARIB ATTACK ON A SETTLEMENT
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+BUCCANEERS, FILIBUSTERS, AND PIRATES.
+
+
+Now that settlements were commenced the old system of piracy was
+somewhat discountenanced by the home governments, and many of the
+adventurers began to become a little more civilised. But there was still
+a large number of them who became known as buccaneers, filibusters,
+freebooters, marooners, and brethren of the coast, who continued to
+worry the Spaniards, and even to attack other nationalities on occasion.
+They had taken to the trade, and, when no longer able to carry it on in
+a quasi-legitimate manner, did so on their own lines.
+
+The claim of Spain to the whole of America was the great cause of
+offence. Had she been content with what her people could occupy, there
+would have been little trouble, but the "dog in the manger" policy could
+hardly be recognised by other nations. It followed, therefore, that when
+complaints were made to France and England of the ravages on the Spanish
+coasts, the sovereigns told the king of Spain to protect his own shores,
+disclaiming on their own parts any responsibility whatever.
+
+The earliest accounts of the buccaneers are confused with those of the
+French corsairs, of which mention has been already made. They sailed
+along the coast from one island to another, trading a little, capturing
+Spanish vessels, fighting the guarda-costas, and now and again repairing
+to some out-of-the-way place to put their ships in order or even to
+assist the Caribs in their raids. The advantages of combination were
+soon felt, and with these also the necessity for places of rendezvous.
+Even the English adventurers became accustomed to obtain wood and water
+from Dominica, but this island was not conveniently situated for the
+French corsairs. They wanted an uninhabited place near enough to
+Hispaniola and the track of the Spanish vessels for them to be quickly
+pounced upon and for the corsairs to as quickly escape. Then there must
+be a food supply, and on the great island of Hispaniola were countless
+herds of wild cattle which ranged over a wilderness utterly depopulated.
+
+The palmy days of the Hispaniola planter were over, and although he
+imported negro slaves to some extent, he was virtually ruined. One after
+another left for the newly discovered countries on the Main, and for
+Peru and Mexico, leaving the island to a few merchants and wealthy
+planters, who found it to their interest to remain. Hispaniola was
+little more than a house of call on the road to the treasure countries,
+which meant that although the port of St. Domingo was fortified, the
+greater portion of the island was open to any one who chose to occupy
+it.
+
+Salt was a scarce commodity in those times, but it could be obtained in
+some of the smaller islands, notably Tortuga, which for that reason
+became the resort of the buccaneers. But the Indians had learnt how to
+preserve meat without this useful substance, by smoking it over a fire
+of green branches and leaves. Even Europeans knew something of this
+process, although we believe they never preserved their beef and bacon
+entirely without salt as did the Indians their game. The process was
+very simple. Four sticks with forked ends were pushed into the ground,
+and on these uprights a sort of rack of other sticks was laid to make an
+open platform, where the pieces of meat were laid above a fire until
+well dried and impregnated with smoke. This stage was called a boucan,
+or barbecue, and from their using it to prepare supplies for their
+voyages the corsairs became known as buccaneers.
+
+There were no tinned provisions in those days, nor had the proper means
+of keeping food on long voyages been yet perfected. It followed,
+therefore, that a food supply in the Indies had to be provided, and the
+Spaniards unintentionally did good service to their enemies by placing
+hogs on most of the islands to breed and be available in emergencies.
+
+It is obvious that the hunting of semi-wild animals and curing their
+meat required time, and for that reason a division of labour was
+initiated. While one party went cruising in search of Spanish vessels,
+another ranged the country to capture and prepare the supplies against
+their return. Thus a rendezvous became necessary, and in time
+plantations were established in this neighbourhood to gradually develop
+into a settlement. Now and again the Spaniards discovered these places,
+but as they were generally of little value, their loss was of no
+importance; if destroyed the buccaneers could easily escape to another
+locality. When the enemy burnt their vessels, they easily built canoes
+with which they soon captured others and became as strong as before. The
+hunters grew to like their hardy life with its perfect liberty, and
+became so inured to the climate and open air as to be utterly unlike the
+effeminate planters. They were even little subject to the diseases of
+the country, and could live for months at a time on nothing but meat. As
+for clothes, they made these from the skins of animals, and all they
+really required from outside was powder and lead for their firearms.
+
+They became known as the brethren of the coast from their custom of each
+choosing one comrade as a bosom friend and brother. Everything gained by
+either was common to both, and the company were very strict in enforcing
+their law against unfaithfulness in a companion, or unfair dealing in
+any way among themselves. Sometimes they marooned a culprit by leaving
+him alone on some small island to die of hunger, or perhaps to become a
+"Crusoe" for many years. The wounded received compensation according to
+a fixed tariff, from the common stock or from contributions; thus the
+loss of an arm was valued at five hundred crowns, and other mutilations
+at corresponding rates.
+
+As the attacks of the Spaniards became more common, the small bands
+united, and division of labour became more exact. Some were hunters of
+wild boars, others of cattle, a few became planters, but the main body
+were always sea rovers. At first the hunters were on good terms with the
+Spanish planters and entered into engagements to supply them with meat.
+A party would go off into the interior and stay away for months at a
+time, eventually returning with large supplies borne on the backs of
+their horses. During all this time they lived in rough shelters which
+could be erected in an afternoon, and were much exposed to the
+vicissitudes of the weather. Now they made up for their long term of
+privation by carousing to their hearts' content, and when drunk, often
+fought and killed each other. In the settlements there were generally a
+few women, and these often became the cause of contentions; there were
+also bond-servants who were treated most cruelly.
+
+Sometimes they made incursions on the Spanish settlements, which led to
+stronger efforts for their extermination that at last considerably
+reduced their numbers. In fact, had it not been for the continual
+accessions they would soon have died out, or have given up their trade
+and settled down as planters. Hispaniola became at last almost
+untenable, for the Spaniards, unable to find any other way of putting
+them down, organised several hunting parties with the view to utterly
+destroy the wild cattle and thus deprive them of their means of living.
+Not that this was easily done, for it took many years, during which the
+hunting parties from both sides fought and killed each other, committing
+enormities which made the quarrel all the more bitter.
+
+About the year 1632 a party of buccaneers captured the island of Tortuga
+from the Spaniards, the garrison of twenty-five men surrendering without
+a blow. Here was now the grand rendezvous of the French, for which it
+was perfectly suitable from its proximity to the food supply and the
+track of the Spanish vessels. It was situated on the north of the
+western portion of Hispaniola, and not very well suited for plantations,
+although good tobacco was grown there. There were, however, plenty of
+sea fowl and turtle to be had, as well as their eggs, which formed a
+large portion of the diet of the inhabitants.
+
+This island became a veritable pandemonium--the sink of the West Indies.
+It was the place of call for rovers of all nations, the market for their
+booty, and the storehouse for everything in the way of supplies. The
+merchants pandered to the tastes of their customers, and drinking and
+gambling went on continually. But in 1638 it was surprised by the
+Spaniards, who began to be alarmed at this nest of pirates at their very
+doors. They chose a time when most of the rovers were away on a cruise,
+and the buccaneers gone hunting in Hispaniola. All they captured were
+killed--even those who surrendered being hanged as pirates. Only a few
+escaped by hiding among the rocks and bushes to come forth after the
+enemy had left, which they did without leaving a garrison.
+
+A grand attempt to expel the hunters from the main island was now
+organised, in which a corps of five hundred lancers ranged the island in
+bands of fifties. Many of the buccaneers were killed, but the remainder
+combined together under an Englishman named Willis and again took
+possession of Tortuga.
+
+From this rendezvous near Hispaniola the main passages between the
+islands were under observation, but a similar station was required near
+the Isthmus, and this was established about 1630 in the Bay of
+Campeachy. Like that at Tortuga its beginnings are lost in obscurity. At
+first one or more of the small islands or keys was used on
+occasion--later fortifications were erected, and a watch always kept for
+the enemy. The excuse for the settlement was the logwood trade, but this
+did not become of much importance until after the English conquest of
+Jamaica.
+
+Like the true buccaneers these pirates were fond of hunting, but their
+game was principally Indians, whom they attacked and carried off from
+the Main, the men to sell to the plantations and the women to keep for
+themselves. When they arrived after a cruise and sold their booty, they
+would have a jolly time with drinking, gambling, and firing of guns,
+until the island would seem to be the habitation of devils rather than
+human beings.
+
+There were also other pirate resorts, notably the Virgin Islands and the
+Bahamas, but these were generally used only by one company, and never
+rose to the position of general resorts. It is to these that most of the
+romances refer, but the stories of Pirate and Treasure islands rarely
+have much foundation in fact.
+
+How privateers became pirates is well shown by a case that occurred in
+the latter half of the seventeenth century. A vessel went cruising from
+the Carolinas, and after being out for eighteen months had gained so
+few prizes that the crew began to complain. After discussing the
+situation, they resolved to try the South Sea, where they hoped to find
+the Spaniards less prepared. Meeting with very bad weather at the
+entrance of the Strait of Magellan, they were, however, obliged to turn
+back, and then the majority decided to become pirates. Eight men who
+refused to agree were marooned on the island of Fernando Po, their late
+comrades leaving them a small boat in which they expected to be able to
+get to some English colony.
+
+The vessel left, and commenced her piratical work at once by capturing a
+Portuguese ship larger than herself, the crew being brought and landed
+on the same island. In the night the Portuguese made off, taking with
+them the Englishmen's boat as well as their own, leaving the eight
+privateers to do the best they could. However, they were not easily
+daunted, and at once began to cut down trees and build a sloop of four
+tons, which they finished in six weeks, meanwhile living on sea fowl and
+their eggs, which were plentiful. Finally they sailed for Tobago, but
+missing that island got to Tortuga, where they arrived almost perishing
+with hunger and thirst, having had nothing to eat or drink for six days.
+Even then they were not discouraged, but after resting awhile, set sail
+in the same boat for New England, passing along the Spanish islands,
+often unable to land for water on account of the enemy, and lying under
+cover of the mangroves, to be almost devoured by mosquitoes. Even with
+all this care they were taken at last, stripped, thrust down in the
+hold of a Spanish _guarda-costa_, and finally kept as slaves in the
+island of Cuba.
+
+In the early years of the seventeenth century few of the adventurers had
+any commissions, but as the mother countries began to establish
+settlements, letters of marque were granted when there was a war. The
+corsairs and pirates then became privateers, only to go back to their
+old trade when peace was nominally restored. Some played fast and loose
+with these commissions, sometimes having both French and English at the
+same time, either to be used according to circumstances. The French
+Governors went so far as to sell these documents signed and sealed, but
+without names, so that they passed from hand to hand ready to be filled
+up when the pirate wished to escape the yard-arm. The young colonies
+were too weak to incur their displeasure--in fact they were glad to
+encourage their visits, as the settlers could always pick up good
+bargains when they sold their booty. Yet, with all that, there was a
+dread of them, even among their own countrymen, which prevented that
+feeling of safety which best consists with the progress of a colony.
+
+We can say little of individuals, as there were so many, but we may
+mention a few of the most striking characters and their daring exploits.
+They inspired such dread among the Spaniards that at last the latter
+hardly dared to defend themselves against them, but on their approach
+immediately surrendered. If the cargo was rich, quarter was granted, but
+if otherwise, or anything was found secreted, the whole company,
+officers, crew, and passengers, were forced to leap overboard. Pierre
+Legrand with his twenty-eight men once attacked a great Spanish galleon,
+and before going alongside scuttled his own vessel so that it sunk as
+the pirates leapt on to the enemy's deck. With no possibility of retreat
+the men fought like devils and quickly got possession of the galleon,
+with the usual result.
+
+When other nations had compelled respect from Spain their vessels were
+sometimes chartered to carry rich cargoes, which thus sailed under the
+protection of another flag. But the pirates were not to be cheated so
+easily, for they had their spies on the look-out, and often managed to
+glean information. On one occasion Captains Michael de Basco and Brouage
+heard of two Dutch vessels leaving Carthagena with treasure and at once
+followed, attacked and captured them. Exasperated at being beaten by a
+force much smaller than their own, the Dutch captains told Michael that
+he could not have overcome them if he had been alone. "Very well," said
+the audacious Frenchman, "let us begin the fight again, and Captain
+Brouage shall look on. But if I conquer I will not only have the Spanish
+silver you carry, but your own ships as well." The Dutch were not
+inclined to accept this challenge, but made off as soon as they could
+after the treasure had been taken into the pirate vessels, fearing they
+might otherwise lose their opportunity.
+
+Captain Lawrence was once unexpectedly overtaken by two Spanish
+sixty-gun ships, the crews of which numbered fifteen hundred. Addressing
+his men, he said--"You have experience enough to be aware of your
+danger, and too much courage to fear. On this occasion we must avail
+ourselves of every circumstance, hazard everything, and attack and
+defend at the same time. Valour, artifice, rashness, and even despair
+itself must now be employed. Let us fear the disgrace of a defeat; let
+us dread the cruelty of our enemy; and let us fight that we may escape
+him." After he was applauded with loud cheers, Lawrence took aside one
+of the bravest of his men, and in the presence of all, gave him strict
+orders to fire the gunpowder at a given signal, thus telling them
+plainly they must fight or be blown up. Meanwhile the enemy had
+approached very close, and Lawrence, ranging his men on both sides of
+the vessel, steered between the two great monsters, firing a broadside
+on either hand as he passed, which they could not return for fear of
+damaging each other. He did not succeed in capturing them, but they were
+so demoralised by his determined attitude, and the number of killed and
+wounded, that they were glad to make off.
+
+Montbar was a Frenchman who had heard of the atrocities of the Spaniards
+and the exploits of the buccaneers, and determined to go out to the West
+Indies to join in the fray. On his voyage from France he met a Spanish
+vessel which he attacked and boarded with a sabre in his hand. Passing
+twice from bow to stern, he carved his way through the enemy, entirely
+reckless of danger, and by his example animated his comrades until the
+vessel was taken. Then standing apart while the spoil was being
+divided, he gloated with savage pleasure over the corpses that lay on
+the deck.
+
+Arrived at Hispaniola he heard from the buccaneers that they could do
+little in the way of planting because of the continual attacks on their
+settlements. "Why then," said Montbar, roughly, "do you tamely submit to
+such insults?" "We do not!" they answered; "the Spaniards have
+experienced what kind of men we are, and therefore take advantage of the
+time when we go hunting. But we are going to join with some of our
+companions, who have been even worse treated than ourselves, and then we
+shall have hot work." "If such be the case let me lead you," said
+Montbar, "not as a commander, but first in the post of danger."
+
+They were quite willing to have him as leader, and the very same day he
+went at the head of a party to find the enemy. Meeting a small body of
+Spaniards he rushed upon them with such fury that hardly one escaped,
+and this at once justified them in their choice. He afterwards became
+such a terror all over the West Indies as to be known as "the
+Exterminator."
+
+Lolonois was another ruffian, who commenced his career by taking a
+Spanish frigate with only two canoes and twenty-two men. This vessel had
+sailed from Havana especially to put down the buccaneers, and had on
+board a negro executioner who was engaged to hang the prisoners. Hearing
+this from the negro, Lolonois ordered all the Spaniards to be brought
+before him, and going down the line, he struck off one head after
+another, licking his sword after each blow. He afterwards went to Port
+au Prince, where four vessels were fitting out for his capture. These
+he took and threw all their crews into the sea, except one man, whom he
+sent to the Governor of Havana with the news, and a warning that he
+would treat the Governor himself in the same way if he had the
+opportunity.
+
+After this he ran the best prizes aground and sailed for Tortuga in the
+frigate, where he joined Michael de Basco. With four hundred and forty
+men this worthy pair sailed for the Main, where they plundered the coast
+of Venezuela, set fire to Gibraltar, and held Maracaybo for ransom. They
+carried off all the crosses, pictures, plate, ornaments, and even bells
+from the churches, with the intention of using them in a great cathedral
+to be erected on Tortuga.
+
+Although the buccaneers were mostly French they were not confined to
+that nationality. The famous or notorious Captain Morgan was a Welshman,
+who began his career in the West Indies as a bond-servant. One of his
+greatest exploits was the capture of Porto Bello, which had taken the
+place of Nombre de Dios after that town had been burnt by Drake. He even
+out-did Drake and every other adventurer before him by storming Panama,
+from whence he obtained a very rich booty. Here he fell in love with a
+Spanish lady, who, however, threatened to stab herself rather than yield
+to his embraces. Even when he tried the gentlest measures which such a
+ruffian could think of, she still refused to yield, so that he had
+ultimately to comply with the wishes of his companions and leave her.
+Panama was burnt, the retreat across the isthmus safely performed
+without any serious misadventure, and Morgan sailed away to Jamaica
+with the lion's share of the plunder.
+
+In this great expedition the buccaneers of all nations united to form a
+combination hitherto unknown. But, as this was the first time that such
+a thing had occurred, so also was it the last. As for Morgan his career
+was ended; his comrades charged him with treachery and made it unsafe
+for him to come within their reach. He therefore settled down in
+Jamaica, made himself right with the authorities there and in England,
+was knighted by King Charles the Second, and professed now to have a
+great dislike to piracy. On two occasions Sir Henry Morgan became acting
+Governor of Jamaica, and in that capacity did his best to discountenance
+buccaneering.
+
+In 1683 a great expedition was organised at Tortuga by Van Horn, a
+Fleming, noted for his courage and ferocity. In the heat of an
+engagement he would pace the deck, and urge his men to fight by shooting
+any one who even flinched from a ball. He thus made himself a terror to
+cowards and the admiration of the brave; like Montbar, gaining the
+respect and confidence of his followers. Like the French leader also, he
+was careless about his own share of the booty, leaving everything to his
+men, which naturally increased his popularity. With twelve hundred men
+in six vessels he sailed for Vera Cruz, and surprised the town at night.
+Most of the inhabitants took refuge in the churches, and the buccaneers
+posted sentries with barrels of gunpowder in front of each, giving
+orders to blow up the buildings on the least sign of an attempt to
+escape. After plundering the houses they demanded about half a million
+pounds from the prisoners as ransom for their lives and liberties. This
+was not obtained, however, for while waiting the collection a large body
+of troops was seen approaching from the interior, and a fleet of
+seventeen vessels came into the harbour from Spain. Yet the buccaneers
+were determined to get something towards the ransom, and to this end
+seized fifteen hundred slaves, with which they quietly sailed away in
+defiance of the enemy, promising to call again for the balance of the
+ransom. The Spanish fleet let them pass without firing a single gun, and
+they went back to Tortuga, there to spend a year in rioting and
+carousing.
+
+When their money was all spent they resolved to try the most arduous of
+adventures, a raid on the ports of the Great South Sea. And it happened
+curiously that at that very time the English pirates were getting ready
+for a similar venture, without either having knowledge of that of the
+other party. About four thousand men were engaged, some going by way of
+the Straits of Magellan and others across the isthmus. The English and
+French met, and at first agreed to work together, but for want of one
+leader who could command and be respected by both parties, the
+expedition proved almost a failure. Possibly also the French had not
+forgotten Morgan's treachery, and this caused distrust and prevented any
+cordial feeling.
+
+Those who travelled across the isthmus stole boats on the other side,
+and with them captured larger vessels, until this little frequented sea
+became almost as dangerous to Spanish ships as the Caribbean. Most of
+the smaller ports were surprised, and even Guayaquil was captured,
+mainly because they were not provided with forts and other defences. In
+fact, the people were so unacquainted with war and so wrapped up by the
+supposed security of their position, that even when the alarm was given
+little could be done. Silver became so common that nothing but gold,
+pearls, and precious stones would satisfy the spoilers, yet with all
+their easy conquests they got little real benefit. Some died of
+sickness, and many from the results of drunkenness and debauchery. The
+storms of Cape Horn and the Straits wrecked several vessels, and drowned
+both spoil and spoilers, while those who attempted to return by land
+were equally unfortunate. They died in the bush of fever and dysentery,
+or were cut off by ambuscades of the enemy, often losing their booty if
+they escaped with their lives.
+
+What a journey across the isthmus really meant at that time is well
+exemplified in the case of Lionel Wafer. In 1681 he was a surgeon on
+board an English vessel under Captain Sharp, one of those privateers who
+went cruising in the South Sea. After spending some time there the party
+divided, one portion deciding to cross overland, and the other to
+continue the cruise.
+
+Wafer went with those who intended crossing the isthmus, the whole
+numbering forty-four white men and three Indians. They marched from the
+Pacific shore one afternoon, and towards night arrived at the foot of a
+hill, where they put up several rough sheds. Rain had already begun to
+fall--such rain as is only known in the tropics--and they had to crouch
+under these imperfect shelters until midnight, with streams of water
+running down their backs and rivulets flowing about their feet. By
+morning they felt less discomfort and were glad to warm their chilled
+limbs by walking up the hill. Here they came upon an Indian path which
+led to a village, where they were gratified with food and a drink made
+of Indian corn. After resting awhile they agreed with one of the Indians
+to guide them on the next day's journey, and that night rested in the
+village.
+
+Next morning they went on again, and at mid-day arrived at an Indian
+hut, the owner of which was so morose and surly that at first he refused
+to have anything to do with them. After they had spoken kindly and asked
+him to guide them on their journey, he roughly answered that he was
+prepared to lead them to the Spanish settlements. This of course would
+never do, and they offered him beads, money, axes, and knives to gain
+his good-will, but all without effect, until a sky-blue petticoat was
+dangled before the eyes of his wife. This turned the scale, for her
+persuasions being added to theirs, he at last consented to procure a
+guide, excusing himself from the task on the plea that he was lame from
+a cut. He wished to detain them with him for the day, as it still
+rained, but they were in so great a dread of being discovered by the
+enemy that, having obtained the guide, they marched three miles farther
+before stopping for the night.
+
+On the fourth morning the weather was fairer, and they travelled for
+twelve miles over hills and through slushy morasses, crossing one river
+after another to the number of about thirty. Rain poured down again in
+the afternoon and during the greater part of the night, so that they had
+much ado to keep their fires from going out. What with the discomforts
+of their situation, the want of proper food, and the chilliness
+preceding intermittent fever, they even forgot for the time their fears
+of the Spaniards. However, as the sun rose they went on again until,
+after travelling seven miles through the forest, they reached the hut of
+a Spanish Indian, who supplied them with yams, sweet potatoes, and
+plantains, but no meat except the flesh of two monkeys, which they gave
+to the weak and sickly.
+
+While resting here Wafer met with an accident. One of the company, in
+drying some gunpowder on a silver plate, carelessly placed it near the
+fire where he was sitting, with the result that it exploded and tore the
+skin and flesh from one of his thighs, rendering him almost helpless. He
+had a few medicines in his knapsack and dressed the wound as well as he
+could under the circumstances, but rest and proper food were needed, and
+these he could not have. The consequence was that, after struggling
+along with the others until he sank down exhausted and suffering from
+excruciating torture, he was left behind with two sick men at an Indian
+village, where they were presently joined by two others who had broken
+down.
+
+Observing the condition of Wafer's wound, the Indians treated it with a
+poultice of chewed herbs on a plantain leaf, and in twenty days it was
+healed. Nevertheless, although they did him this kindness, they were
+not over civil, but on the contrary treated the five white men with
+contempt, throwing them their refuse provisions as if they were dogs.
+One young Indian proved kinder, and got them some ripe bananas now and
+then, but the others were annoyed because the main body had compelled
+some inhabitants of the village to go with them as guides against their
+will. The weather was then so bad that even the Indians considered
+travelling almost impossible, and this annoyed them all the more,
+especially when the guides did not return.
+
+Day after day passed, and the Indians becoming more incensed at the
+non-arrival of their people, began to think of avenging themselves on
+Wafer and his comrades. Thinking that the guides had been murdered, they
+determined to burn them to death, and even went so far as to erect a
+great pile of wood for the purpose. But almost at the last moment their
+chief interposed, and offered to send away the Englishmen in charge of
+two guides.
+
+Accordingly they set out, their only food supply a little dry Indian
+corn, and their only resting-place at night the wet ground, still
+exposed to drenching rains which fell every day. The third night they
+went to sleep on a low mound, and in the morning woke to find it a
+little island with water extending as far as their eyes could reach. To
+add to their trouble, the Indian guides had disappeared, leaving them to
+remain here without shelter and almost starved for three days. Then the
+waters fell and they commenced the weary work of steering to the north
+by means of a pocket compass--a task the difficulty of which can only
+be appreciated by one who has attempted it.
+
+However, they soon reached the bank of a deep river, the stream of which
+was rushing along like a mill race. Here a lately-felled tree lying
+across showed them where their comrades had passed, and they commenced
+to climb over astride as the trunk was so slippery. One of the party was
+so weak and so overburdened by four hundred pieces of eight (silver
+dollars) that he fell, and was immediately carried down the stream out
+of sight.
+
+Giving him up as lost, the four survivors went wandering about, looking
+for the footprints of their comrades, but could find no trace of them,
+probably on account of the floods. Fearing a mistake, they again crossed
+the river and recommenced the search on the other side, where they were
+surprised to come upon their lost companion sitting on the bank, which
+he had managed to gain by grasping the bough of a tree as he was borne
+swiftly past. Finding no signs of a trail, they again went on working
+with the compass as before. On the fifth day they had nothing to eat but
+a few wild berries, and the day following arrived at another great river
+where not even a tree lay across to give them a passage. They had only
+their long knives, but with them they set to work and cut down bamboos,
+with which rafts were made by binding the sticks with bush-ropes. They
+had just finished and were resting awhile, when a terrible storm came
+on. The rain fell as if from a cascade, thunder rolled and lightning
+flashed, accompanied by a sulphurous odour which almost choked them.
+There was no shelter but the trees of the forest, and the fire was put
+out at once, leaving these half-starved wretches to shiver and shake
+with ague all through the afternoon and up to midnight.
+
+Then the waters began to rise, and in the darkness--that total absence
+of light under the canopy of foliage, where two men sitting together
+only know of each other's presence by feeling, for the din of the
+elements is absolutely deafening--Wafer began to appreciate the fact
+that the swirl of the flood had reached his feet. With no possibility of
+communicating with the others, he felt his way to a hollow silk-cotton
+tree, into which he crawled, and climbed upon a heap of debris that
+stood in the centre. Here he fell asleep from sheer exhaustion, or more
+probably, perhaps, fainted. When he awoke he said it was impossible for
+words to paint the terrors that overwhelmed his mind. The water reached
+to his knees, notwithstanding that the mound was five feet above the
+ground level, and he was afraid it would reach still higher. However, as
+the sun rose the flood went down, and presently he was glad to crawl out
+and stretch his chilled limbs. But he was all alone, and at first
+thought his comrades had been drowned. He shouted, but no answer came
+back, except the echo of his own voice. Giving way to despair, he threw
+himself on the buttress of a tree, from which condition he was roused by
+the appearance of first one and then another, until the little company
+was again complete. They also had found similar refuges and now came to
+look after their rafts.
+
+But the bundles of canes had become water-logged and useless, so they
+resolved to retrace their steps if possible to the Indian village. On
+their way they unfortunately missed shooting a deer which lay beside the
+path, and had nothing to eat but macaw berries and the pith of a tree.
+Seeing the track of a wild hog they followed that, and ultimately came
+upon two provision fields. But even with this prospect of food they were
+so much depressed that, although perishing with hunger, they were afraid
+to venture near the Indian huts, and lingered about for some time.
+However, at last Wafer summoned enough courage to go into one of them,
+when almost immediately he was so affected by the close atmosphere and
+the odour of some meat cooking over the fire, that he fainted.
+
+The kindly Indians assisted in his recovery, and gave him something to
+eat, when he was pleasantly surprised to find there the very same guides
+on whose account he and his comrades had been nearly roasted to death.
+On telling them where the others were, the Indians went out and brought
+back three, but had to carry food to the fourth before he could gain
+enough strength to walk the short distance. Here they were treated with
+the greatest humanity and tenderness, and after resting a week they
+again started with four guides, to reach the same river that had before
+checked their progress, in one day. Here, finding a canoe, they
+proceeded up stream until, arriving at the dwelling of the chief who had
+saved them from torture, they were told it was impossible to go on in
+such weather.
+
+Wafer and his companions stopped here for several months--in fact the
+chief wished to retain them altogether. As a physician, Wafer was
+respected and loved; but at last, wishing to depart, by repeated
+importunities and the promise to come back with some good hunting-dogs,
+and then to marry the chief's daughter, he was at last furnished with
+guides. Over high mountains, along the edges of precipices, and through
+dense forests they toiled until they came to a river flowing north, on
+which they embarked, and reached the shores of the Gulf of Darien two
+days later. Here they were overjoyed to find an English vessel, the crew
+of which gave them a hearty welcome, making up to some extent for their
+long and perilous journey.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+WAR IN THE YOUNG COLONIES.
+
+
+At the beginning of the seventeenth century Spain was nominally at peace
+with the other great powers, except the Netherlands, which had not yet
+come to the front. By the treaty of 1604 Queen Elizabeth made up the
+English quarrel, and in 1609 even Holland was conceded a truce for nine
+years.
+
+Thus amity was supposed to exist, and the raids of licensed privateers
+came to an end. Yet there was "no peace beyond the line." Not to mention
+corsairs and pirates, the English were as determined on their part to
+get a share of America as were the Spaniards to keep them out if
+possible. The founders of Virginia were resolute to lose their lives
+rather than abandon so noble a colony. Even King James dared not give it
+up, although in 1612 and the following year there was a hot contention
+with the Spanish Secretary of State on the matter. Spain was
+discontented that the colony should have the royal sanction, and at the
+same time demanded its removal, accompanying this with a threat to drive
+out the settlers, as well as those in the Bermudas. But James could not
+admit the Papal Bull, and as the English were firm, the claimants of
+the whole of America contented themselves with protests.
+
+In the West Indies, however, Spain went farther. Here she had
+undoubtedly the right by discovery, although not by actual possession,
+save in the Greater Antilles. The weak English king who succeeded the
+strong-minded Tudor princess was not prepared to contest the Spanish
+supremacy here, but simply answered the complaints against English
+adventurers by disclaiming all responsibility. Neither England nor
+France had officially taken the ground that only actual possession
+created territorial rights, but many Englishmen were clamouring loudly
+to that effect. We have already noticed in another chapter James's
+policy, or want of policy, and the change which took place a few weeks
+after his death--we have now to deal with the results of that
+alteration.
+
+In 1621 hostilities were renewed between Spain and the Netherlands, but
+even during the nominal truce the Dutch invaded Margarita, and
+demolished the fort, but without, however, taking actual possession.
+When the truce was over hostilities were recommenced with a vigour that
+rather astonished Spain, for in the interval the Netherlands had
+progressed wonderfully. In 1625, the year of his accession, Charles the
+First entered into a treaty, offensive and defensive, with the United
+Provinces, which of course brought England into collision with Spain,
+and open war began again in the West Indies. In 1629 a fleet of
+thirty-five vessels under Don Frederic de Toledo conquered the island of
+St. Christopher's and removed most of the English settlers, only a few
+of whom managed to escape to the mountains, while the French got off in
+two of their vessels. The French refugees suffered a great deal from the
+want of preparation for their hurried flight, and arrived at the island
+of St. Martin's perishing with hunger and thirst. Here they dug holes in
+the sand and obtained a supply of brackish water, which was so
+unwholesome that some died from drinking it in excessive quantities.
+After the Spaniards left they returned to St. Christopher's to find a
+few English, who, annoyed at their desertion, wanted to keep the island
+to themselves, but the French were too numerous and soon took possession
+of their old quarters.
+
+In 1632 the Dutch took possession of Tobago, and two years later of
+Curacao, which latter island soon became their great stronghold in the
+West Indies, and the principal depot for the contraband traffic with
+Venezuela. At that time no Spanish vessels went to this part of the
+Main, but finding that the trade was of some importance to the Dutch,
+the authorities now granted licenses to drive their rivals out of the
+market. But the Spanish traders could not compete with the Hollanders,
+and this so annoyed the authorities that they determined to extinguish
+smuggling at any cost. This they were unable to do by catching the
+delinquents, but they could punish those who dealt with them. The result
+was the infliction of heavy fines and confiscation, with disgraceful
+punishments, from which many were ruined. Yet with all that the trade
+was so lucrative to both parties that neither was inclined to give it
+up--the Dutch took care of themselves, while cheap commodities could
+generally command a market, whatever the risk. The fact was the mother
+country imposed so many restrictions, and exacted such heavy fees for
+licenses, that the cost of an article was doubled or trebled as compared
+with that of the Hollander.
+
+In 1627 a French Association was incorporated under the title of "The
+Company of the Islands of America." They appointed the Sieurs d'Enambuc
+and du Rossy to settle the islands of St. Christopher's and Barbados as
+well as others situated at the "entrance of Peru." Nothing was done at
+Barbados, as the English were already in possession, but in 1634
+examinations of Dominica, Martinique, and Guadeloupe were made, which
+ended in the two latter islands becoming French colonies in 1635.
+
+Meanwhile, in November, 1630, a treaty was signed at Madrid between
+England and Spain, after which peace was supposed to again prevail.
+Nothing was said about the West Indies, probably because Spain knew that
+further protests were useless. Hardly had this been settled before, in
+1635, France declared war against the common foe, and her corsairs could
+now legally carry on their work of pillage and destruction. In 1638 the
+island of St. Martin's, which had been partly occupied by French and
+Dutch, was captured by Spaniards, who expelled the inhabitants and
+replaced them by a strong garrison. In the same year Colonel Jackson,
+with a force from the English islands, captured Santiago de la Vega in
+Jamaica, and plundered it of everything valuable, after which, in
+retaliation, the island of New Providence, one of the Bahamas, was
+captured by Spain. Neither place was, however, occupied by the captors,
+who only did as much damage as they could and then left.
+
+Almost from the commencement of their settlements the French had
+quarrelled among themselves, but until the struggle which ended in the
+execution of Charles the First, there had been few difficulties in the
+English islands. The Barbadians, it is true, protested against the claim
+of the Earl of Carlisle, in which they were joined by the people of St.
+Kitt's, but this was settled without disturbance. Now, however, the
+effects of "the great rebellion" began to be felt across the seas, and
+disaffection towards the Parliament, and loyalty to the king, were
+promoted by a number of Royalists who had fled from the disturbance in
+the mother country.
+
+In 1650 the West Indies were virtually in revolt against the Parliament,
+and on the 10th of September an embargo was declared in England against
+vessels bound for the Caribbee Islands, Bermuda, and Virginia. This was
+followed on the 27th by an Act prohibiting all commerce with these
+colonies because of their rebellion against the Commonwealth. Virginia
+and the Bermudas had declared for King Charles the Second after the
+execution of his father, and sent emissaries to Barbados for the purpose
+of inciting them to join in the revolt.
+
+[Illustration: ST. KITT'S.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+At the commencement of that year Barbados was in a state of ferment,
+waiting only for the spark which would plunge the island into civil war.
+Even at this early period the inhabitants of Little England, as it is
+called, were very loyal, and had something of the conceit which has
+characterised them ever since. True, there were "Roundheads" on the
+island, but hitherto party differences had been put in the
+background--now they were brought into prominence. When the agent of the
+Bermudians asked that Barbados should declare for the king, the majority
+were in favour of the project, but, as a matter of course, the others,
+who were of considerable importance, refused. At first the Royalists
+went so far as to advocate the banishment of their opponents, but were
+unable to find any reasonable excuse for such a high-handed proceeding.
+However they brought in an Act to imprison all who went to a
+conventicle, or who seduced others from repairing to the Public
+Congregation or from receiving the Holy Sacrament. For a second offence
+the penalty was forfeiture of all lands, goods, chattels, and debts by
+those whom they called "the enemy to the peace of the island."
+
+This was to have been published on April 15, 1650, and kept secret until
+proclaimed, to prevent trouble. But it appears that Colonel Codrington,
+a member of the Assembly, divulged it in his cups, for which he was
+fined twenty thousand pounds of sugar, and banished from the island. A
+deputation of Parliamentarians then waited upon the Governor, to enter
+their protest against the new law, and were asked to leave the matter in
+his hands, as he had to deal with "violent spirits." Finally, the
+proclamation was delayed, on the ground that there were many errors in
+the copy, and the two parties stood at bay.
+
+On the 23rd of April the Roundheads petitioned the Governor to issue
+his writ for a new Assembly, on the ground that the present body had sat
+for its full term. This he agreed to do, and thus alienated the
+Cavaliers, who said he was a most emphatic Roundhead and enemy to the
+king. Handbills and posters now began to be circulated calling attention
+to the "damnable designe" of the Independents, of which, they said,
+Colonel Drax, "that devout zealot (of the deeds of the Devil, and the
+cause of that seven-headed Dragon at Westminster), is the Agent." One of
+the writers declared that he should think his best rest but disquiet
+until he had sheathed his sword in the bowels of the same obnoxious
+personage.
+
+The Cavaliers were still adding to their numbers by the arrival of more
+refugees, while Colonel Drax and his friends fell into the background.
+The new-comers had mostly been ruined by the civil war, and were
+naturally desirous of doing something to retrieve their fortunes; it
+followed, therefore, that anything that led to the confiscation of the
+estates of the obnoxious party would be to their advantage. The
+Cavaliers set to work to rouse the island by going about on horseback,
+fully armed, everywhere challenging those they met to drink the health
+of Charles the Second and confusion to the Independent dogs. This, with
+the rumours of a Roundhead plot and the various manifestoes, induced the
+Governor to issue a proclamation declaring that in future if any persons
+spread such scandalous papers they would be proceeded against as enemies
+of the public peace, at the same time forbidding any one to take up arms
+in a hostile manner.
+
+This produced little effect, for the leader of one of the roving bands,
+Colonel Shelley, refused to disband. On this the Governor issued
+commissions to raise a militia for the preservation of order, but by the
+time that a hundred men had been collected an alarm went forth that the
+Cavaliers were advancing on Bridgetown. This was the 1st of May, and by
+that time the Cavaliers were prepared to act. Their leader was Colonel
+Walrond, who, on being sent for by the Governor, and saying they had no
+evil intention, was allowed to depart. However, they took possession of
+the town, and then came forward with the demand that all Independents
+and other disturbers of the peace should be at once disarmed. To this
+the Governor agreed, provided the well-affected should vouch for their
+safety. They also stipulated that the magazine on the bridge should be
+put under their protection, that those who obstructed the peace and
+laboured to ruin the loyal colonists should be punished, that twenty
+persons whose names they gave should be forthwith arrested, and that the
+Governor should speedily call together the Assembly to try them;
+meanwhile they refused to disperse until these things were done. The
+Governor could do nothing but accede to these demands, but even then
+there was something more which they considered the climax--"that our
+lawful soveraigne Charles the Second be instantly in a solemn manner
+proclaimed king."
+
+This staggered the Governor, who said it was a matter for the General
+Assembly, in which opinion he got them at last to agree. However, they
+were not yet content, but insisted that at the dissolution of the
+present Assembly only such men as were known to be well-affected to His
+Majesty and conformers to the Church of England should be chosen and
+admitted. After that they must be promised an "Act of oblivion" for the
+lawful taking up of arms, safe-conduct for all officers on legislative
+business, and, finally, that the Governor must come to them without the
+companionship of any disaffected person and put himself under their
+care.
+
+All this was perforce agreed to, and on the 3rd of May Charles the
+Second was declared king of England, &c., as well as of Barbados, and at
+the same time the Book of Common Prayer was proclaimed to be the only
+pattern of true worship.
+
+Behind all this was a fact which no one mentioned, but which probably
+everybody knew--on the 29th of April Lord Willoughby had arrived in the
+harbour, bearing a commission as Governor of the Caribbee Islands, from
+the fugitive King Charles and the Earl of Carlisle. No doubt the whole
+demonstration was got up on his account, the Cavaliers wanting to have
+the king proclaimed first, so that there should be no difficulty about
+the commission. Everything was ready now, and nothing was heard but
+uproarious drinking of His Majesty's health, the Cavaliers going from
+house to house and compelling others to follow their example. As for
+Lord Willoughby, he left the Governor to carry out the stipulated
+measures, while he went to look after the other islands under his
+jurisdiction.
+
+Now the Royalists of Barbados began to persecute the leaders of the
+obnoxious party, beginning with the twenty they had named to the
+Governor. Some, seeing their danger, had got off to England, but those
+who remained were sentenced to pay a million pounds of sugar and to be
+banished. Then nearly a hundred others were indicted and ordered to
+leave before the 2nd of July, while all their commissions of the peace
+or in the militia were cancelled. Wives were banished with their
+husbands, and unless the estate-owners humbly submitted, paid their
+fines, and appointed well-affected persons as attorneys, their
+properties were confiscated. Yet with all that, when an attempt was made
+to get to the bottom of the rumoured plot, no trace of it could be
+found. Some of the more moderate of the Royalists even began to doubt
+whether they were not going too far, but they salved their consciences
+by saying that everything was done in the interest of the king.
+
+When the news arrived in England it created a great stir. In November
+some merchants and planters interested in the island asked for
+permission to make reprisals on their own account. They wanted licenses
+to trade there with five or six able ships, and letters of marque to use
+in case of obstruction, or a refusal to comply with certain demands.
+These demands were to repeal all Acts dishonourable to the Commonwealth,
+to renounce obedience to Charles Stuart, to acknowledge the supreme
+authority of the Parliament, to banish certain "active incendiaries in
+the late troubles," and, finally, to recall those who had suffered, so
+that they might enjoy the same rights as the other inhabitants. A
+further petition asked for the removal of Lord Willoughby in favour of
+Edward Winslow, a man of approved fidelity to the Commonwealth.
+
+The Parliamentary Government did not adopt these proposals, as they
+intended to reduce the island in a regular manner. In January, 1651, a
+fleet was made ready for this purpose, but being employed in the
+reduction of the Scilly Islands, it could not be got ready for the West
+Indies until June following.
+
+Meanwhile Lord Willoughby had returned, and was doing his best to
+conciliate the Barbadians of both parties. He did not altogether approve
+of what had been done, but repealed the Acts of sequestration, thus
+putting the inhabitants in good spirits for the expected invasion. It
+was rumoured that Prince Rupert was coming out from Marseilles, and this
+made things appear brighter, encouraging them to put their forts in
+order.
+
+The English fleet did not actually leave Plymouth until the 5th of
+August. It was under the command of Sir George Ayscue, who took six or
+seven merchant vessels under convoy, probably those referred to in the
+petition. He reached Barbados on the 15th of October, when as yet no
+news had been heard of Prince Rupert; in fact, that great seaman had
+been dissuaded from crossing the Atlantic. Fourteen Dutch vessels were
+captured in Carlisle Bay, the sudden arrival of the fleet preventing
+their escape.
+
+Willoughby had some six thousand foot and four hundred horse stationed
+at different parts of the island, and was determined to hold it for the
+king, looking forward daily to see Prince Rupert arrive. He had heard
+from a Dutch vessel that the king was marching on London with an army of
+Scots: this also tended to make his resistance all the more stubborn.
+From a few Roundheads, who managed to come off in the night, Ayscue
+learnt this, but he was as equally determined to subdue the island as
+Willoughby was to defend it.
+
+On being called upon to surrender the island for the use of the
+Parliament of England, the Governor replied that he acknowledged no
+supremacy over Englishmen save the king and those having commissions
+from him, directing the letter to the admiral on board His Majesty's
+ship the _Rainbow_. He also said that he had expected some overtures of
+reparation for the hostile acts upon the ships in the bay. After this
+defiance nothing was left but to prepare first for a strict blockade,
+and then to effect a landing. The strength on shore was too great for
+any open attack, and Ayscue managed to send a proclamation addressed to
+the freeholders and inhabitants, urging them to accept in time his
+offers of peace and mercy. In answer to this the Assembly met and passed
+a declaration to "sticke to" Lord Willoughby and defend the island to
+the utmost.
+
+In England a great deal of interest was felt in the struggle, and the
+demand for news of the expedition created a supply giving circumstantial
+accounts of what had _not_ taken place. One of them was headed, "Bloody
+news from the Barbados, being a true relation of a great and terrible
+fight between the Parliament's Navie, commanded by Sir George Ayscue,
+and the King of Scots' Forces under the command of the Lord Willoughby;
+with the particulars of the fight, the storming of the Island, the
+manner how the Parliament's Forces were repulsed and beaten off from
+Carlisle Bay and the Block House, and the number killed and wounded."
+And all this before any attempt had been made beyond the blockade!
+
+On the receipt of the news of the battle of Worcester, Ayscue sent
+another flag of truce to give Willoughby the information, saying that he
+did so as a friend rather than as an enemy. He was acting in that
+quality, by stating the true condition of England, and leaving him and
+his friends to judge of the necessity for due obedience to the State of
+England; otherwise they would be swallowed up in the destruction so
+shortly and inevitably coming upon them.
+
+In reply, Willoughby said he had never served his king so much in
+expectation of prosperity as in consideration of duty, and that he would
+not be the means of increasing the sad affliction of His Majesty by
+giving up that island. To this Ayscue rejoined, that if there were such
+a person as the king, Willoughby's retention of that place signified
+nothing to his advantage, and therefore the surrender could be small
+grief to him. He well knew the impossibility of the island subsisting
+without the patronage of England, and the admiral's great desire was to
+save it from ruin and destruction.
+
+As Willoughby refused to surrender, Ayscue determined to attack the Hole
+or James's Town, which he did on the 2nd of November, beating off its
+defenders, taking thirty prisoners, and spiking the four guns of the
+fort. On the 1st of December the fleet which had been sent to reduce
+Virginia arrived, and on the temporary addition of this force, Ayscue
+again sent to Willoughby, as he stated, for the last time. In reply he
+was told that the Assembly would consider the matter in two or three
+days, but this reply did not please the admiral, so he tried to hurry up
+the decision by landing at Speight's Town. Against the stubborn
+opposition of twelve hundred men he stormed and took the fort, which he
+held for two days, ultimately retiring, however, after burning the
+houses, demolishing the fortifications, and throwing the guns into the
+sea.
+
+After that the correspondence was continued, Ayscue entreating
+Willoughby to spare the good people of the island the horrors of war. To
+this the Governor replied, that they only took up arms in their own
+defence; the guilt of the blood and ruin would be at the doors of those
+who brought force to bear. Then the Virginia fleet sailed for its
+destination, and Ayscue recommenced hostilities by again occupying
+Speight's Town.
+
+By this time, however, there was a party on the island in favour of
+peace, and they began to bestir themselves, thus making the Royalists
+more determined. They put forth a proclamation inviting the inhabitants
+to endure the troubles of war for a season, rather than by base
+submission to let the deceitful enemy make them slaves for ever. But the
+Roundheads now began to assemble under Colonel Modiford at his house, to
+the number of six hundred men, who declared for the Parliament, and
+threatened to bring Willoughby to reason, the admiral going so far as
+to visit them surreptitiously to read his commission. Hearing of this,
+Willoughby got two thousand four hundred men together and appeared near
+the house, but did not venture to attack it, as by this time he had
+become somewhat disheartened.
+
+This brought things to a crisis, and on the 10th of January arrangements
+were made for a commission from both sides to make arrangements for
+terms. After a great deal of hesitation on the part of the admiral, the
+capitulation was at last signed, the articles being exceedingly
+favourable both to the inhabitants and Lord Willoughby. So lenient were
+they that Ayscue had to excuse himself to the home authorities for fear
+that he might have been misunderstood. They were, in short, liberty of
+conscience, continuation of the old government, and of the old Courts of
+Justice, no taxation without consent of the Assembly, no confiscations,
+all suits to be decided on the island, no acts of indemnity, no oaths
+against their consciences, a temporary cessation of all civil suits, and
+finally that Lord Willoughby should retain all his private property in
+the islands as well as in Surinam, with full liberty to go to England.
+These articles were signed on the 11th of January, 1652, and the "storm
+in a teapot" came to an end, the Barbadians proudly boasting that they
+had been able to defy the mighty power of the Commonwealth. Most of the
+leaders were banished from the island, some going to Surinam, where a
+colony had been established by Lord Willoughby soon after his arrival in
+Barbados. Among them was Major Byam, who became Governor, and virtually
+held the settlement for the king until he came to his own again. This
+is all the more curious because Cromwell knew the circumstances, yet
+made no effort to bring the people under submission. At first the
+settlers established a little Commonwealth of their own, with Major Byam
+as president, but when his term had expired, instead of giving place to
+another he declared he had a commission as Governor from the king,
+although he refused to show the document to any one. With enough
+Royalists to back him, he thus held office until the Restoration,
+notwithstanding the complaints of the Parliamentary faction and their
+requests to the home authorities for redress.
+
+Meanwhile, early in 1652 England went to war with the Dutch, and this
+seriously interfered with the trade of that nationality in the West
+Indies. The Navigation Act was another blow to them, although it could
+not yet be enforced altogether. Cromwell made himself respected in such
+a manner that peace with Holland was restored in April, 1654, thus
+leaving him free to carry out his designs against the old enemy--Spain.
+
+Since Queen Elizabeth's time the English Governments had done little in
+the way of worrying the Spaniards, although pirates had been busy almost
+without intermission. Now, however, Cromwell was at liberty, and he
+began to see that they wanted a little correction to prevent their
+having too much of their own way in America. The Spanish ambassador was
+cringing enough when he saw what a powerful leader had arisen, and did
+his best to avert the impending storm. It is even stated that he assured
+the Protector of his master's friendship, and declared that if he took
+the Crown of England Spain would be first in her approval. Cromwell was
+not to be mollified by soft speeches; he had got peace at home, and was
+determined to have it across the seas as well. He was quite willing to
+arrange for a treaty, but it must be on his own terms, not at the
+dictation of Spain. A commission was appointed to meet the ambassador
+and discuss the grounds of the agreement, and they began at once with
+the West Indies. A long list of depredations was produced for which the
+English demanded satisfaction before going farther. The English had been
+treated as enemies wherever the Spaniards met them in the West Indies,
+even when going to and from their own plantations, notwithstanding the
+former treaty, and the Commission insisted on a proper indemnity. The
+English must be free to trade everywhere--in fact the old claim of Spain
+to the whole of America must be finally abandoned.
+
+The Spanish ambassador replied that the inquisition and trade to the
+West Indies were his master's two eyes, and that nothing different from
+the practice of former times could be permitted. On hearing this
+Cromwell, seeing that neither indemnity for the past nor promises of
+amendment in the future could be obtained, prepared for war, and
+commenced by fitting out an expedition to conquer Hispaniola.
+
+In December, 1654, we find the first mention of a special service under
+the command of Generals Penn and Venables, and early in the following
+year the fleet sailed for Barbados. With five thousand men from England,
+and as many from the West Indies, the expedition arrived near St.
+Domingo on the 13th of April, 1655, frightening the inhabitants so much
+that they fled to the woods on its approach. However, the affair was so
+badly managed that no benefit accrued from following the example of
+Drake, which appears to have been the object of the leaders. Like the
+great Elizabethan hero, they landed at a distance from the town with the
+intention of marching along the shore, but instead of landing ten miles
+off they went as far as thirty. For four days the troops wandered
+through the mangrove bushes, without guides, and even without
+provisions, thus giving the runaway Spaniards time to rally from their
+fright and come out after them. Weary, entangled in the swamps, and
+utterly unfit to cope with an enemy, the English became an easy prey;
+the slaughter was considerable, and it was even stated that those killed
+were mostly shot in the back while trying to escape.
+
+Unwilling to attempt anything further in Hispaniola, Penn and Venables
+took off the dispirited remnant and sailed for Jamaica, hoping to do
+something there to prevent failure altogether. Not that there were any
+laurels to be gained in that direction, for the inhabitants only
+numbered three thousand, and half of these were negro slaves. A few
+shots were fired, and then the inhabitants took to flight, leaving the
+English in possession of the island. A capitulation was agreed upon with
+the old Spanish Governor, who was brought in a hammock to sign it, but
+many of the people took to the woods with their slaves, and refused to
+be bound by the articles. A body of two thousand men was then sent to
+scour the interior and bring them back, but they could find nothing
+save great herds of wild cattle. Afterwards, in pure wantonness, the
+churches and religious buildings were demolished, the cattle killed or
+driven far away, and the provision grounds devastated, with the result
+that the invaders were soon starving. In less than a month two thousand
+were sick, many had died, and the remainder had become mutinous.
+Altogether the whole affair was so badly managed that Cromwell became
+almost mad at the news, and sent both commanders to the Tower on their
+return.
+
+However, Jamaica was captured, and for the first time in the history of
+the West Indies a Spanish possession went into the hands of another
+nation. Some thought the island of no importance as compared with
+Hispaniola--it was certainly of little value to the Spaniards. However,
+a few English people foresaw something of its future importance, and did
+their best to develop the island. In October Cromwell issued a
+proclamation offering certain advantages to settlers from the other
+islands, or from England, so that it might be occupied as soon as
+possible. It stated that by the providence of God Jamaica had come into
+the possession of the State, and that they were satisfied of its
+fertility and commodiousness for trade; it had therefore been resolved
+to plant it. To this end it was made known to the people of the English
+islands and colonies the encouragements offered to those who removed
+their habitations there within two years from the 29th of September,
+1656. Twenty acres of land would be granted to every adult, and ten for
+each child, they would have freedom to hunt wild cattle and horses, be
+given the privilege of mining except for gold and silver, and freedom
+from taxes for three years.
+
+It resulted from this that many planters from Barbados and St. Kitt's
+went over, and in a very few years Jamaica was more prosperous than it
+had ever been while in the possession of Spain. In November, 1656,
+Cromwell ordered the Scotch Government to apprehend all known idle
+masterless robbers and vagabonds, male or female, and to transport them
+there, and at the same time the Council of State ordered that a thousand
+girls and as many young men should be enlisted in Ireland for the same
+purpose. As for the adventurers who went with the expedition, they were
+reported as being so lazy "that it could not enter into the heart of any
+Englishman that such blood should run in the veins of his
+countrymen"--they were so unworthy, slothful, and basely secure, out of
+a strange kind of spirit desiring rather to die than live. As for
+planting, little was done by them, although every possible inducement
+and encouragement was given.
+
+Meanwhile letters of marque were issued to privateers for the West
+Indies, which drove the Spaniards to send their treasure from Peru to
+Buenos Ayres, a route that had been abandoned since the time of Queen
+Elizabeth. Now also they began to make efforts for the recovery of
+Jamaica, and in May, 1658, thirty companies of infantry, under the
+command of the late Governor, landed on the north side of the island.
+Here in a small harbour they entrenched themselves, and built a little
+fort before their presence became known to the English. However,
+Governor D'Oyley at last heard of the invasion, but it was nearly two
+months after their arrival before he could proceed to approach them by
+sea. When he arrived, however, with seven hundred and fifty men, he at
+once stormed their fortress and drove them to their vessels, in which
+they fled to Cuba. This put an end to the matter; but the old Governor
+returned, and lived with the remnant of the Spaniards and their slaves
+in the mountains.
+
+Now at last even the Pope had to acknowledge other sovereignty than that
+of Spain, and this he did in a letter to Father Fontaine, of the
+Dominican Mission, on the 25th of July, 1658. Therein he acknowledged
+the king of France as ruler of the conquests and colonies his subjects
+had made in the American islands. Thus was the Bull of partition at last
+cancelled by the successor of its original promulgator, and the ground
+for the exclusive claim to America cut away. At this time France was
+also at war with Spain, but the following year a treaty was signed, and
+in 1660, on the restoration of Charles the Second, peace was restored
+with England.
+
+At the first private audience of the Spanish ambassador with the king,
+he delivered a memorial demanding the restoration of Jamaica to his
+master, on the ground that it had been taken by his rebel subjects,
+contrary to the treaty between the two Crowns. Instead of doing this,
+however, Charles despatched a vessel with letters to the Governors of
+the Caribbee islands, asking them to encourage all persons willing to
+transplant themselves to the larger islands. At the same time the Royal
+African Company, the great slave-trading corporation of that time, was
+asked to make Jamaica its headquarters for the sale of negroes. Then it
+was arranged to send women from England to be wives for the planters,
+Newgate and Bridewell to be spared as much as possible, so that poor
+maids might have a chance, with whom it was stated that few English
+parishes were unburdened.
+
+On the 1st of December, 1660, King Charles the Second made a move which
+must be considered as of the greatest importance to the development of
+the British Colonial Empire--he founded the "Council for foreign
+plantations," which later developed into the Colonial Office. This
+Council were to inform themselves of the state of the plantations and of
+how they were governed, keeping copies of all grants in a book. They
+were to write to every Governor asking for exact accounts of their
+proceedings, the nature of their laws and government, as well as
+statistics. They must establish a correspondence with the colonies, so
+that the king might be informed of all complaints, their wants, what
+they cultivated, their commodities, and their trade, so that all might
+be regulated upon common grounds and principles. They must adopt means
+for rendering them and England mutually helpful, and bring them into a
+more uniform government, with a better distribution of justice. Especial
+care was to be taken for the execution of the Navigation Act, and
+consideration given to the best means of providing servants, to which
+end care was to be taken that no persons were forced or enticed away by
+unlawful means. Those willing to be transported were, however, to be
+encouraged, and a legal course was to be settled for sending over
+vagrants and others who were noxious and unprofitable in England.
+Learned and orthodox ministers were also to be sent, and instructions
+given for regulating and repressing the debaucheries of planters and
+servants. The Council were also to consider how the natives and slaves
+might be invited to, and made capable of, baptism in the Christian
+faith, and finally to dispose of all matters relating to the good
+government, improvement, and management of the plantations.
+
+Thus England commenced her great career of colonisation, the results of
+which we see to-day. While taking all due account of Virginia and New
+England, we cannot but note that it was in the West Indies where the
+"prentice hand" was first tried. Jamaica was the main object of these
+provisions--to that island the king's attention had been specially
+directed, and it was here that many difficulties had to be encountered
+before it could be made a worthy appendage of the Crown. Most of the
+other islands were in the hands of private persons or companies, while
+this was under the control of the State. No matter that the island had
+been annexed by rebels, Charles the Second was determined to hold it
+fast for England, in spite of all the protests of Spain.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+THE PLANTERS AND THEIR SLAVES.
+
+
+When the first European adventurers went to the West Indies, serfdom was
+still common in Spain. The peasantry were, as a rule, bound to the soil,
+and could neither be taken away by their lords nor remove at their own
+will. The consequence was that only soldiers, mariners, and free men
+from the towns took part in the first expeditions. The townsmen had
+mostly been brought up to the trades of their fathers, and were hardly
+fit to cultivate the land even in Spain, much less, therefore, were they
+suited to the tropics. They could not demean themselves by performing
+anything so servile, but must get their land cultivated by others. As
+the serfs were not available, first Indians and then negro slaves and
+white bond-servants were employed.
+
+We have seen how the Indians were exterminated, and how the first
+planters in Hispaniola were ruined by the want of labour. Even the
+Spanish priests could see that the poor Arawak's nature was quite
+distinct from that of the European peasant. The serf had been kept under
+subjection for centuries; his father and grandfather had worked in the
+fields, and he must do the same. The armourer, the mason, and the
+weaver carried on their trades, because they had been born into the
+respective guilds as it were. The Indians, on the contrary, were free,
+and had always been so; yes, more free than any people in the old world.
+They died, and the planter had to look elsewhere for his labour supply.
+Then commenced the cry which has been continually rising from the
+plantations ever since--More servants! More slaves! More coolies!
+
+[Illustration: A SURINAM PLANTER.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+For many years the Portuguese had been kidnapping negroes on the west
+coast of Africa. By their connection with Morocco they had learnt that
+the natives of the interior were brought to and openly sold in the
+Moorish towns--possibly they themselves had purchased some of them. To
+bring home a number after every voyage to the coast was therefore
+nothing strange, nor was it anything novel to sell them in Portugal to
+help pay the expense of the voyage. From Portugal to Spain this negro
+slavery spread, until it became fairly common in both countries.
+
+When the cry for labourers came over the Atlantic--even before the
+extermination of the natives--a few negroes were sent out. Finding them
+more docile and better able to endure hard labour than the Indians, more
+were called for, the benevolent priests also urging the matter to save
+the remnant of the Arawaks. The demand created a supply, and soon the
+Portuguese found themselves embarked in a lucrative trade, of which they
+commanded the monopoly. Thus began a traffic which has been unreservedly
+condemned by the most enlightened of humanity, and praised alone by
+those whose very livelihood depended upon it.
+
+[Illustration: A NEGRO FESTIVAL.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+On his second voyage Columbus carried the sugar cane, which was destined
+to have such an influence for good and evil on the West Indies. Its
+produce was at first known as a kind of honey, and recognised as an
+expectorant and comforting medicine. Now it had made its way into the
+kitchens of the great, where it was considered as one of the spices, and
+with them became more and more used every year. In early times the cane
+was cultivated on the warmer shores of the Mediterranean, and, after
+their discovery, in the Canary and Cape de Verde islands. At the period
+of the discovery of America sugar was sold at about eightpence a pound,
+equivalent to something like three shillings nowadays. As the demand
+continued to increase large plantations were laid out in Hispaniola,
+until it became the staple product of the colony.
+
+Cotton was known in the old world, but as yet had hardly come into use
+in Europe. In the West Indies it was generally cultivated in a small way
+by every native, and on being forwarded to Spain, the "tree wool," as it
+was called, soon came into use. Then came another product, tobacco,
+which was quite new at that time, although probably known in the far
+East. It seemed strange to the new-comers that people should carry
+firebrands in their mouths, and at first they took tobacco-smokers for
+juggling fire-eaters, until they also learnt the sustaining power of the
+"weed." This soon took place, and by the year 1550 tobacco was well
+known in Spain and Italy. Probably also the Dutch knew it quite as
+early, for it was in the Netherlands that it became more quickly
+appreciated than in any other country, probably on account of its
+particularly comforting properties in marshy districts. Soon afterwards
+Jean Nicot introduced it into France, and probably Master Hawkins
+brought samples into England from Brazil, although Ralegh is stated to
+have been the first English smoker. Towards the end of the sixteenth
+century its use became so common all over Europe that Popes and
+Churchmen thundered their curses against the "filthy habit," and later
+poor King James wrote his "Counterblast to Tobacco," which only had the
+effect of making it better known.
+
+[Illustration: VOYAGE OF THE SABLE VENUS.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+Here at the beginning were two commercial products which grew well in
+the West Indies, with a doubtful third to come to the front as soon as
+it became known. As yet coffee had not been introduced--this followed in
+the next century. Notwithstanding the large profit on sugar the Spaniard
+would not labour in the field, and in the end the plantations became
+fewer and fewer until only one or two were left. This falling off tended
+to keep up the price, and although the Dutch bought much cotton and
+tobacco from the Indians of the Main, and the Portuguese began to grow
+sugar in Brazil, the supply was always limited.
+
+There was room for more plantations, and the first people to take
+advantage of this opening were the English. Their many different
+colonies in Guiana all commenced planting with tobacco: Virginia and the
+Bermudas did the same. All through the reign of James the First,
+however, the trade was obstructed in so many ways that a great deal of
+their produce was sent to the Netherlands and thus escaped the English
+duties. Probably also the smuggling of tobacco, so notorious at a later
+period, began at this time, as the Dutch were always noted free-traders,
+not only on the Spanish Main, but in Europe as well.
+
+[Illustration: SLAVES LANDING FROM THE SHIP.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+Like the Spaniards, the English adventurers were soldiers and sailors,
+and therefore did not work in the field. Subject to the raids of the
+European claimants of the territory as well as the incursions of
+ferocious cannibals, they went about literally with pistols in their
+belts and swords at their thighs. Now they had to show a good face to
+some buccaneer company, and anon to fight the French or Dutch when war
+broke out. Later, when there was no fear of enemies from without, they
+had a continual dread of slave insurrections. It followed, therefore,
+that the planter was always on the alert, and, even if he felt inclined,
+could do little in the way of cultivation.
+
+In England serfdom had virtually come to an end, and the agricultural
+labourer might go where he pleased. But the love of country, the unknown
+but magnified perils of a sea voyage, and stories of cruel Spaniards and
+man-eating Caribs, prevented many from going to the Indies,
+notwithstanding the great inducements offered. The English planters
+found it difficult to get negroes, as their enemy controlled the trade.
+As for the Indians, they had to deal with cannibals whose women
+cultivated small clearings, but resented anything like coercion, while
+no labour whatever could be got from the men. Something had to be done.
+If the English labourer would not come willingly, he might be kidnapped,
+and the carrying out of this work led to the organisation of bands of
+ruffians, who went sailing along the coasts, especially of Scotland and
+Ireland, to pick up likely fellows wherever they found opportunity.
+However, this caused such an outcry that extraordinary efforts were made
+on the part of the Government to put down "spiriting," as it was called.
+
+In June, 1661, the Council for foreign plantations considered the best
+means of encouraging and furnishing people for the colonies, and they
+thought that felons condemned for small offences, and sturdy beggars,
+might be sent. They had several complaints of men, women, and children
+being spirited away from their masters and parents, and later the Mayor
+of Bristol and the Lord Mayor of London petitioned the king for
+authority to examine ships, with the view of finding out whether the
+passengers went of their own free will. It was stated that husbands
+forsook their wives, wives fled from their husbands, children and
+apprentices ran away, while unwary and credulous persons were often
+tempted on board by men-stealers. Many who had been pursued by hue and
+cry for robberies, burglaries, and breaking prison, also escaped to the
+plantations. Certain persons, called spirits, inveigled, and by lewd
+subtleties enticed, away young persons, whereby great tumults and
+uproars were raised in London, to the breach of the peace and the hazard
+of men's lives.
+
+These abuses led to an Order in Council, published in September, 1664,
+for registering persons going voluntarily, and commissions were given to
+the Lord High Admiral and the officers of the ports to establish
+registration offices and give certificates. Yet the spiriting still went
+on, for in April, 1668, Sir Anthony Ashley Cooper was asked to move the
+House of Commons to make the offence capital. His petitioner, said he,
+had found one lost child, and after much expense and trouble, freed him,
+but there were several others in the same ship, and other ships in the
+river at the same work. Even if the parents found their children, they
+could not recover them without money, and he was sure that if such a law
+were passed the mercy to these innocents would ground a blessing on
+those concerned in introducing it. This Act was finally passed on the
+1st of March, 1670, punishing the spirits with death without benefit of
+clergy.
+
+There were, however, other means of procuring servants. In 1649, when
+Cromwell took Drogheda by storm, about thirty prisoners were saved from
+the massacre to be shipped to Barbados, and in 1651 seven or eight
+thousand Scots, taken at the battle of Worcester, were reserved for a
+similar fate. After the Restoration, however, there was an intermission
+in such supplies, and the planters began to look to Newgate and
+Bridewell for their labour supply.
+
+The supply was by no means equal to the demand, for the agents in London
+of the planters of Virginia, Barbados, St. Christopher's, and other
+islands were equally clamorous for their share. As for King Charles the
+Second, he granted the prisoners as a privilege to his favourites, and
+even mistresses, who generally sold it to the highest bidder. The agent
+must have had influence to get into the presence of the holder, say of a
+hundred prisoners sentenced to transportation, and this was only
+obtainable by largess to door-keepers and servants. Then came the
+trouble of obtaining delivery from the prison authorities, and here
+again fees were demanded. In one case that is recorded the amount paid
+to the gaoler of Newgate was fifty-five shillings a head. But even now
+the trouble was only beginning. The prisoners were supposed to be
+delivered at the door of the gaol, and the planter was under a heavy
+bond not to allow one to escape. He must account for each by a
+certificate of death on the voyage or of landing in Barbados, on penalty
+of five hundred pounds for every one missing. It followed, therefore,
+that a sufficiently strong guard had to be provided, and provision made
+for attempts at rescue by the prisoners' friends. Even this was not all,
+for the concession simply granted a certain number, and it rested with
+the gaoler to palm off the old, weak, and infirm on those who were at
+all wanting in liberality. Then, at the best the prisoners were hatters,
+tailors, and haberdashers, rather than agricultural labourers, many of
+whom ultimately proved valueless. If a large number was available, and
+there were several applicants, the competition became quite
+spirited--every one wanted his pick before the others, and the gaoler
+made the best of the occasion, leaving those to whom he allotted the
+refuse to curse their evil fortune.
+
+Up to the passing of the Navigation Act the Dutch had been free to trade
+with English colonies, and had brought a fair number of negroes; and
+afterwards the king established the Royal African Company to prevent the
+supply being cut off. The average price of the African was then about
+L16 or 2,400 pounds of sugar, but the Dutch sold their slaves for a
+little less, which led the planters to evade the Navigation Act when
+they had opportunities.
+
+The white bond-servant was valued at about 2,200 pounds of sugar, very
+little less than the slave for life, although he had generally but five
+years to serve. The cost of transport was about L5 per head; it
+followed, therefore, that if the London agent got his prisoners cheap he
+made a good profit. There was also another way of making money in this
+business. Some of the gaol-birds had friends who were willing to pay
+good sums on consideration that the convict should be virtually freed on
+his arrival. Many a sum of fifty pounds was obtained in this way,
+sometimes without helping the bond-servant in the least. How were the
+relations to prove that the promise had not been fulfilled, and if they
+did so what redress could be obtained? They certainly could not go to
+law, as the whole transaction was illegal.
+
+We have seen how Charles the Second tried to people Jamaica with free
+settlers, but this did not prevent the transportation of criminals. In
+1665 four young men, who had been convicted of interrupting and abusing
+a preacher, were whipped through the streets of Edinburgh and afterwards
+sent to Barbados, and in 1684 some of the Rye House plotters were
+reprieved on condition that they served ten years in the West Indies.
+When these plotters arrived in Jamaica, the Governor, "by His Majesty's
+command," directed the Assembly to pass an Act "to prevent all
+clandestine releasements or buying out of their time," so that their
+punishment should not be evaded. But it was after the Monmouth
+rebellion, in 1685, that the greatest deportation took place. The
+miserable followers of the duke were executed by Judge Jeffreys until
+even his thirst for blood was somewhat slackened, when the remainder
+were sent to the plantations. The story of one of these unfortunates
+gives such a graphic picture of the life of a bond-servant that we
+cannot do better than give an outline of the "Relation of the great
+sufferings and strange adventures of Henry Pitman, surgeon to the late
+Duke of Monmouth."
+
+Having been taken prisoner after the battle of Sedgemoor, he was
+committed to Ilchester Gaol, had his pockets rifled, his clothes torn
+off his back, and was remanded until the Wells assizes. While in gaol he
+was inveigled into telling all he knew, by promises of pardon, and then
+his acknowledgments were treated as a confession. Those who pleaded not
+guilty on the first day of the trial were convicted and executed the
+same afternoon; others who confessed were equally condemned. After two
+hundred and thirty had been hanged the remainder were ordered to be
+transported to the Caribbee islands, of whom Pitman was one. With some
+others, including his brother, he was disposed of to an agent who took
+L60 from his friends to set him free on his arrival at Barbados.
+
+The Legislative Assembly of that island, however, in consequence of the
+"most horrid, wicked, and execrable rebellion," lately raised, and
+because many of the rebels had been transported for ten years, passed a
+special Act, under which they were bound to serve, notwithstanding any
+bargain to the contrary. If they attempted to escape they were to be
+flogged, and burnt in the forehead with the letters "F.T.," meaning
+"Fugitive Traitor."
+
+By this law Pitman's hopes were frustrated, and, utterly disheartened,
+he was not inclined to work at his profession for the master to whom he
+had been sold. Although the status of a surgeon was not then as high as
+it is now, it was yet a great downfall to practise the profession on
+rations of five pounds of salt beef or fish per week, with nothing else
+but corn meal. As for the fees, which were large, the master pocketed
+them, leaving Pitman to endure the discomforts of a tropical residence
+and semi-starvation as best he could. On one occasion he refused to go
+on with his work, and for this he was beaten by his master until the
+cane used was broken in pieces. Then the master became bankrupt, and,
+with his brother, Pitman was sent back to the merchant to whom they had
+been first consigned.
+
+Here his brother died of the hardships he had experienced, and Pitman
+resolved to escape, notwithstanding the risk of attempting such a thing.
+Having made the acquaintance of a poor man who was willing to help, he
+got a consignment of goods from his friends in England, with which to
+raise the means. A boat was purchased for twelve pounds; but this led
+to inquiries, as the buyer was known to be poor, and his creditors began
+to come down upon him. However, Pitman contributed enough to satisfy
+them, meanwhile postponing his departure until suspicion had been
+lulled.
+
+On the evening of the 9th of May, 1687--this being a holiday, when most
+of the people were revelling--he and seven other bond-servants got
+safely off in their open boat, with a small supply of provisions and
+water, a few tools, a compass, and a chart. They intended to make for
+the Dutch island of Curacao, six hundred miles distant; but even before
+they were out of Carlisle Bay their frail craft began to leak, and they
+had to tear up their clothes to stop the gaping seams. At sunrise they
+were out of sight from the land, but so enervated by sea-sickness that
+some would willingly have gone back. However, they went on as best they
+could, with nothing but their hats to bale out the water, which still
+continued to trickle into the boat. They were a little more comfortable
+as the sun rose, but when night came a gale arose which kept them
+employed baling for their lives. To add to their difficulties the rudder
+broke, and they had to steer with an oar.
+
+Five days passed in this manner, the refugees hardly able to get an
+hour's rest for the baling and continual fear that the boat would sink
+if left alone. On the sixth morning they saw Margarita, but could not
+land on account of the rocky shore, which nearly wrecked them on their
+making the attempt. Sheering off, they next day sighted Saltatudos
+island, one of the Dry Tortugas, where they met a boat manned with
+privateers, who treated them very kindly, and wanted them to join their
+company. To this, however, Pitman and his companions would not agree,
+and this annoyed the privateers, who burnt their boat and virtually kept
+them as prisoners. When they went on a cruise the refugees were left in
+charge of four men, and had much ado to find enough turtle to keep them
+from starving. After remaining here for three months an English
+privateer arrived, and, at their request, took them on to New
+Providence, to which the inhabitants had just returned after being
+driven off by Spaniards. Pitman at last got to Amsterdam, and from
+thence to England, where the revolution had just taken place, and his
+friends had succeeded in obtaining a free pardon.
+
+The white bond-servant, being under a short engagement, was generally
+worked to his utmost capacity. No matter if he died before the end of
+his term as long as he paid for the expense incurred. But Englishmen
+were no more inclined to be slaves then than they are now, and the
+planters of St. Kitt's found them so troublesome to manage that they
+soon became afraid of buying, and showed a preference for negroes. Some
+of the English servants committed suicide, and it is recorded that a
+pious master told one of them, who had expressed his intention of
+destroying himself, that he trusted that God would give him more grace,
+than, for a short term of trouble in this life, to precipitate himself
+into hell.
+
+Even in the earliest times some of the planters were absentees, living
+in England. The system was always more or less fortune-hunting, the
+whole end and aim being to get rich and return to the old country. There
+were, as we have seen, many difficulties and dangers to encounter, and
+not the least of the drawbacks was the want of good society. We who live
+in an age when there is daily communication with the whole world, can
+hardly conceive how entirely these pioneers were cut off from their
+friends. The long voyage was full of discomfort, and at the best
+uncertain as to its termination. The words still found on bills of
+lading, "the act of God or the queen's enemies," had a meaning then
+hardly appreciable by the present generation. Barbary pirates and French
+corsairs ranged the Channel; in the broad Atlantic storms shook the
+crazy vessels to pieces; and when they escaped these dangers, it was
+often to fall into the hands of the buccaneers when in sight of their
+destination. Then there were hurricanes on both sea and land, and
+earthquakes on some of the islands. Vessels were sunk in harbour, houses
+blown away, and sugar buildings torn down. As for the negro huts, they
+were carried off altogether, and the crops injured so as to become
+useless. Then, perhaps, when the planter had strained himself to the
+utmost to put things straight, another tornado would put him in a worse
+plight than before.
+
+Yet with all this the planter struggled on, generally doing his best to
+carry the traditions and fashions of the mother country into his new
+home. We have already noticed Barbados, and how it was affected by the
+"great rebellion." Many other examples might be noted had we sufficient
+space. The planter was nearly always a gentleman, even if he had begun
+his career as a transported rebel. Some were gallants, and dressed in
+the extreme of London fashion, often living beyond their means. Others
+were merchants, trading with their own vessels, and selling their
+surplus goods for produce to make up cargoes. With their own sugar, and
+as much as they could procure from others, they filled their ships for
+the homeward voyage, and in return got enough merchandise for trading.
+These were the fortune-hunters, who were always looking forward to that
+happy time when, with money in their pouches, they could once more
+settle down in Merry England. The old country was always "home," as it
+is still for the West Indian, although perhaps neither himself nor his
+parents ever saw it--then it was the will-o'-the-wisp that drove him to
+endure all the discomforts of a life in the tropics, often to die of
+fever before his work was hardly begun.
+
+While Jamaica was under the dominion of Spain little was done to develop
+the island. The Indians were exterminated, as in Hispaniola, to be
+replaced by wild cattle and horses, and fifteen hundred negroes were
+introduced to cultivate provision grounds. From these, passing vessels,
+which called in on their way to Mexico, got their supplies. As yet it
+was not a rendezvous for buccaneers, and taken altogether it was quite
+insignificant. Thousands of white men and tens of thousands of negroes
+were required before it became the important island which ultimately
+rivalled Hispaniola. However, although the Spaniard was driven out he
+left his sting behind in the shape of his slaves, who took to the
+mountains, to be afterwards known as Maroons, and to worry the English
+colonists for over a century.
+
+And here, as we are dealing with the planter and his labour supply, we
+must say something of the negro slaves, to whom the West Indies were
+indebted for their very existence as European colonies. Unlike the
+American, the African had known slavery for ages. Prisoners taken in war
+were kept in servitude as a matter of course; debtors were slaves to
+their creditors, and even children were sold by their parents. Yet there
+were great differences between the tribes--the Coromantees, for example,
+were particularly troublesome, and the Foulahs often dangerous. The
+first slave-traders took their cargoes from the more northern coasts,
+and from this cause, perhaps, as well as the want of proper supervision
+in the Indies, runaways, or Simerons, were mentioned at very early
+periods. Later, the trade was carried on in a particularly judicious
+manner, and the more docile tribes selected, to be sold in the colonies
+as "Prime Gold Coast Negroes."
+
+In their native countries these people were all virtually slaves to
+their chiefs, and as such were liable to be sold at any time. The
+authority was unlimited; the slightest offence meant slavery; death was
+the only alternative. Often when, for some reason or other, the negro
+was rejected by the trader, he was executed at once. Adultery was
+punished by the sale of both offenders, and debtors could be sold by
+their creditors. Bryan Edwards, author of a history of the West Indies,
+took much pains to procure information from the slaves themselves,
+through an interpreter; and as they had no reason to misrepresent their
+cases, we can safely give the outlines of one.
+
+The most interesting story is, perhaps, that of the boy Adam, a Congo,
+about fourteen years of age when he was brought to Jamaica. His country
+was named Sarri, and was situated a long distance from the coast. While
+walking one morning through a path, about three miles from his native
+village, the boy was captured by one of his countrymen. With his
+prisoner the man hid himself in the woods during the whole of the day,
+and at night stole away from the neighbourhood, going on like this for a
+whole month. Then he came to the country of another tribe, where he sold
+the boy for a gun, some powder and shot, and a little salt. His new
+owner afterwards sold Adam for a keg of brandy to another black man who
+was going about collecting slaves, and when twenty had been collected
+they were taken to the coast and sold to a Jamaica captain.
+
+Of the five-and-twenty interrogated by Bryan Edwards, fifteen frankly
+declared that they had been born in slavery, and were sold to pay the
+debts, or bartered to supply the wants, of their owners. Five were
+secretly kidnapped in the interior, and sold to black merchants; the
+other five fell into the hands of the enemy in some of those petty wars
+which were continually going on, when, if there had been no market for
+their sale, they would almost certainly have been killed.
+
+It is hardly necessary to state that in giving these statements we are
+not attempting the impossible task of vindicating slavery either of the
+black or white man. It would be well, however, if, in mitigation of the
+offence against the negro, his former condition were taken into
+consideration, and the undoubted fact that he was better treated by the
+West India planter than by his own countrymen. His lot was by no means
+so hard as slavery had been to the Indian and white bond-servant. He did
+not sink under the hardships of a life of toil in the burning sun, but
+was happy in his way, and in most cases better off than his descendant,
+the West Indian peasant of to-day. He was certainly treated as a
+domestic animal, but his value was always high enough to prevent
+anything like ill-usage. There were certainly people who could be cruel
+to their negroes, as there are yet men so low as to brutally flog
+valuable horses, but that such were common is a statement utterly
+without foundation. As a well-kept animal, the planter took a pride in
+him, fed and doctored him, patted him on the back, and proudly showed
+him to his friends. All this appears very degrading to humanity, but
+after all the negro did not see it in that light. On the contrary, he
+took a pride in exhibiting his strong muscles and in showing the
+"buccras" what a fine nigger massa had got.
+
+The slave of the rich planter, like the horse of the English gentleman,
+was undoubtedly very comfortable. First, he was a picked lot--the
+healthiest, strongest, and most suitable for his work--one of those
+"pieces d'India," as the best negroes were called by the traders. Then,
+as an expensive chattel, everything was done to make him still more
+valuable, and to prevent his deteriorating. But unfortunately there was
+another class--the miserable, broken-down creatures sold cheap as refuse
+lots to poor white men or even to slaves. Yes, the slaves bought their
+diseased fellow-countrymen, to work on their own allotments, treating
+them as the costermonger sometimes does his donkey. Half-starved,
+hard-worked, and covered with sores, they lingered in misery until death
+came to make them free. Some were so disfigured with yaws, or leprosy,
+that none but a negro could bear the sight of them; these were kept out
+of the way and treated worse than mangy dogs.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY.
+
+
+By the time of the Dutch war of 1665 the pretensions of Spain to the
+exclusive possession of the Indies had been entirely ignored. Now began
+the great struggle of other nations for supremacy, and the position of
+"sovereign of the seas," the islands and Guiana becoming scenes of
+contention between English, French, and Dutch. To these struggles is
+greatly due the positions the naval powers of the world hold to-day, and
+especially that of Britain.
+
+As it was mainly a demand for free trade which led to so many attacks on
+the Spanish possessions, so it was now the same question which led to
+the struggle between the two great mercantile nations which succeeded
+Spain and Portugal, as these had followed Venice and Genoa. In the West
+Indies there was no line of demarcation between these new powers, and
+consequently their interests often clashed, but on the whole the
+colonists were favourable to the Dutch, and did all they could to evade
+the Navigation Act.
+
+Early in 1665 preparations were made in Barbados to repel an expected
+invasion by the Dutch. Vessels were ordered to keep together and
+protect each other, and men-of-war were sent out to afford convoy.
+Already the English buccaneers had been somewhat discountenanced by the
+home government, although they were generally encouraged by the
+colonies, especially Jamaica, which derived considerable advantage from
+their sales of booty. Now that there was a demand for all the forces
+that could be gathered together, the Governor of that island gave the
+rovers letters of marque, under which they were empowered to ravage the
+Dutch colonies. At St. Eustatius they succeeded in carrying off
+everything portable, including nine hundred slaves, and even such heavy
+articles as sugar coppers and stills. De Ruyter made an attempt on
+Barbados on the 20th of April, but the people there made such a stand
+that he had to retire. He commenced the attack at ten o'clock in the
+morning with his fourteen vessels, but by three in the afternoon the
+fleet was so much damaged that he was forced to move away his own ship,
+with a hole in her side "as big as a barn-door." He then went on to
+Montserrat and Nevis, where he captured sixteen ships, but did not take
+either of the islands.
+
+In Guiana, the English from Barbados captured the Dutch trading factory
+in the river Essequebo, as well as the young sugar colony in the
+Pomeroon, and in retaliation the Dutch took Surinam. In January, 1666,
+France joined the Netherlands, and an English fleet was sent out to
+protect Barbados, which now began to feel alarmed at the possible result
+of such a powerful combination.
+
+Then came the critical period for the island of St. Kitt's, which, as we
+have before stated, had been divided between English and French, the
+former holding the middle portion with the enemy on either side. As soon
+as the news of the declaration of war arrived, the relations between the
+two nationalities, which had often before been much strained, became
+ruptured. The English Governor, Watts, gave his rival three days'
+notice, and prepared to attack him, with the assistance of five hundred
+men from Nevis, and two hundred buccaneers. General de la Salle, on the
+French side, asked and obtained forty-eight hours' longer grace, and
+took advantage of this to steal into the English territory with a large
+body of horse and foot, as well as a mob of negroes armed with bills and
+hoes. The slaves also carried firebrands, and were said to have been
+promised, in return for their assistance, freedom, English women as
+wives, and the liberty to plunder and burn. At the town of St. Nicholas
+a gentlewoman with three or four children, on trying to escape, was
+forced back into her blazing house and kept there until the whole family
+were burnt to death. A party of English, who advanced to check their
+progress, was overwhelmed by the number of the enemy and driven back,
+thus leaving them to advance over the island with fire and sword.
+
+Governor Watts took things so coolly, that Colonel Morgan (not the
+famous Sir Henry), who led the buccaneers, went to rouse him, and found
+he was lounging about in dressing-gown and slippers. Presenting a pistol
+to his breast, Morgan called the Governor a coward and a traitor, at
+the same time swearing he would shoot him dead if he did not at once
+take his place at the head of the forces. The contingent from Nevis had
+already gone over to the French quarter near Sandy Point, and, after a
+hard struggle, had taken the post, when the Governor at last followed
+behind. Coming up late his men fired on the mingled French and English,
+indiscriminately slaughtering both. After that everything was confused,
+neither party distinguishing friend from foe, with the result that the
+Governor, Colonel Morgan, several other officers, and most of the
+English, were killed. After that the main body of the French arrived,
+driving before them a confused mob of women and children, who ran
+shrieking to their friends for help. Nothing remained for the English
+now but to fly or sue for quarter, and the French became masters of the
+whole island, with a body of prisoners twice as numerous as themselves.
+
+In 1667 a petition was forwarded to Charles the Second on behalf of
+several thousand distressed people, lately inhabitants of St.
+Christopher's. In this it was stated that the island had been one of the
+most flourishing colonies--the first and best earth that ever was
+inhabited by Englishmen among the heathen cannibals of America. They
+prayed that a colony so ancient and loyal, the mother island of all
+those parts, the fountain from whence all the other islands had been
+watered with planters, might not remain in the hands of another nation.
+Since the surrender they had been continually oppressed, until thousands
+had left for other parts. Many had sold their estates for almost
+nothing, and had been stripped and plundered at sea of the little they
+had saved. If the inhumanities of the French nation were examined, their
+bloody and barbarous usage of the Indians, their miserable cruelties to
+prisoners of war, all nations would abhor their name. They would make
+Christians grind their mills instead of cattle, leave thousands to
+starve for want, and send other thousands to uninhabited lands.
+
+In 1666 Lord Willoughby, who had gone back to Barbados on the
+restoration of Charles the Second, fitted out an expedition to recapture
+St. Kitt's, but his fleet encountered a hurricane, and neither his
+vessel nor one of his company was ever heard of again. The following
+year his nephew, Henry Willoughby, made an unsuccessful attempt for the
+same object. On the 10th of May of the same year a fight took place
+between the English and French fleets off Nevis. On the English side
+were ten men-of-war and one fire-ship, while the enemy had more than
+double that number. One of the English vessels was blown up, but,
+undaunted by this disaster, they drove the enemy before them to the very
+shores of St. Kitt's, where they took shelter under the guns of
+Basse-terre.
+
+Peace was signed at Breda in July, 1667. The gains of territory by any
+one of the three nations were not considerable, and the result went to
+prove that England could hold her own against the only two powers who
+were able to dispute her supremacy. During the war she had captured New
+Amsterdam (now New York) from the Dutch, and they in turn had taken
+Surinam. As it was agreed with Holland that both parties should retain
+what was then in their possession, Surinam was virtually exchanged for
+what is now the capital of the United States. Antigua and Montserrat,
+which had been taken by the French, were now restored to England, and
+St. Christopher's returned to its former condition, but without the
+least prospect of the two nationalities ever being again on friendly
+terms.
+
+Now that the war was over the trade of the privateers came to an end,
+and further efforts were made to make them settle down. Having received
+orders to discountenance them, the Governor of Jamaica deputed Colonel
+Cary to report on the matter. Cary thought they should not be
+discouraged, as already harm had been done to Jamaica by such attempts,
+and in the future the want of their help might be prejudicial. On the
+news that the commissions against the Spaniards were called in, several
+English privateers resolved never to return to Jamaica, unless there was
+a war, but in future to carry on their operations from Tortuga. To
+divert them from injuring the Spaniards, the Governor had, during the
+late war, appointed Cary to treat with them for the reduction of
+Curacao, to which they at first consented, but afterwards disagreed. If,
+said Cary, they had two of His Majesty's nimble fifth-rate frigates,
+they would be able to keep the privateers to their obedience, observe
+the enemy's movements, and guard their own coasts from rovers. There was
+no profitable employment for the privateers against the French and
+Dutch; these fellows, being people that would not be brought to plant,
+must prey upon the Spaniard, whether they were countenanced at Jamaica
+or not. There was such an inveterate hatred of the English in those
+parts by the Spaniard, that he would not hear of trade or
+reconciliation, but, on the contrary, inhumanly butchered any of the
+islanders he could cowardly surprise. The French interest daily
+increased in the Caribbees, Hispaniola, and Tortuga, and if this was
+suffered to grow it would in a short time prove of dangerous
+consequence.
+
+Here we have plain speaking. It was not to the interest of England for
+the pirates to become too closely connected with the French, as they
+would then be helping to build up the prosperity of a nation that might
+any day become our enemy. As for the rovers themselves, they cared
+little or nothing for the interests of their country; they were willing
+to plunder the Spanish possessions because they got something worth
+having; with those of the French and Dutch it was another thing. It is
+evident that Cary troubled himself but little as to how a cargo was
+obtained as long as Jamaica profited by the transaction.
+
+We may here also call attention to the differences between the
+characters of the nations which now commenced a great struggle for
+mastery in these parts. The Dutch were, above everything else, an
+association of traders, and although they could fight on occasion, they
+hardly ever went out of their way to pick a quarrel. Their wars with
+England were brought about by mercantile disputes, the first two, as we
+have already seen, mainly on account of the Navigation Acts. The
+English, "the nation of shopkeepers," were naturally rival traders, but
+they did not altogether confine themselves to traffic, being rather
+inclined to alternate or mix it up with something like piracy. Such
+transactions as those of Hawkins were not carried on by any other
+nation, the Hollander being more inclined to take advantage of the
+swiftness of his fly boat than the metal of his guns. The French were
+rarely traders, for even their plantations were largely supported by
+buccaneering. When, after a peace, some of the rovers settled down for a
+time, they were always ready to abandon their fields at the first rumour
+of a war. England thus stood between the two others as a
+stumbling-block; she interfered with the trade of the one and offended
+the dignity of the other; thus coming in for many blows, which only made
+her all the more able to resist and conquer.
+
+The character of the Dutchman is well shown in the curious difficulty
+which hastened a third breach of the peace with England in 1672. In 1667
+a fleet from the Netherlands captured Surinam, and forced the
+authorities of the colony to capitulate on favourable terms. By these
+articles the inhabitants were at liberty to sell or transport, when or
+where they pleased, all or any part of their possessions. After the
+peace, a few went to Barbados, but the majority found it difficult to
+dispose of their plantations, and therefore remained in hopes of a
+better market on the arrival of new Dutch settlers. At that time the
+Dutchmen were few and mostly poor; they had been ruined by the war, and
+in many cases driven from their settlements by the English. It followed,
+therefore, that there were no buyers, and the plantation owners,
+trusting to the capitulation, decided to wait rather than abandon their
+flourishing properties.
+
+In June, 1669, the Dutch Governor issued a proclamation calling upon all
+the English who intended to leave to give notice within six months,
+after which a like term was given them to dispose of their goods, when
+they might leave for English colonies under free passes from the
+authorities of both nations. In case they were unable to sell their
+slaves, the Governor would take them over at the market price, but only
+those negroes who had been in their possession at the rendition of the
+colony could come under this arrangement.
+
+At first sight this looked very fair, but the English saw at once that
+something was wrong. In the first place they understood that under the
+capitulation they were free to take away all their property, including
+slaves, and at the then market prices they saw that a forced sale would
+be a serious loss. Although not expressly intimated, they also
+understood that the Governor meant they were not to carry them away, and
+this at once caused much dissatisfaction. Things were, however, in such
+a critical state that little notice was taken of the proclamation; in
+fact, the people had not as yet made up their minds what to do. Such a
+sacrifice as was required from those who had flourishing properties,
+naturally made them hesitate; and when the English Government inquired
+about the matter, they were told by the Dutch authorities that the
+people were so well satisfied that they intended to remain.
+
+Such was, however, not the case, and when the year of grace had expired,
+and they were virtually prevented from leaving with or without their
+negroes, they sent memorials to King Charles the Second asking for his
+interference. It was another case of Egyptian bondage; the Dutch would
+not let the people go--except a few of the poorest. It can easily be
+understood that it was not very pleasant to lose the best colonists and
+have nothing left but a lot of abandoned plantations. This would have
+been a poor exchange for New York, and it is evident that the Dutch knew
+very well what they were doing, and had the welfare of Surinam at heart.
+But, in face of the capitulation, they were undoubtedly wrong, and when
+they began to oppress the English for claiming their rights, they went a
+great deal too far.
+
+When Major Bannister, who had been acting Governor under the English,
+protested against this, he was arrested and transported to Holland,
+where he obtained his release only by the intervention of the English
+ambassador. Then complaints were made to the Dutch Government, but it
+was two years before permission was granted for commissioners from
+England to go out and transport those who wanted to leave. Even then
+secret orders were sent to put every possible obstruction in their way,
+which was done by bringing suits for debt, and otherwise putting the
+English in positions which made it impossible for them to wind up their
+affairs. It followed, therefore, that only a few more went away,
+carrying with them the prayers of the more important to be delivered
+from such bondage.
+
+Matters now came to a crisis. Other questions had arisen between the two
+powers, notably some in connection with the Eastern trade, and the
+refusal of Holland to honour the English flag. War broke out in 1672,
+and this time the French joined England against the Dutch, who had to
+stand alone. French and English buccaneers were let loose to plunder the
+colonies, and they made the seas so dangerous that hardly one of the
+enemy's vessels could show herself in the West Indies. The Dutch
+colonies were thus cut off, and even the settlements of Essequebo and
+Berbice had to go without their usual supplies. This deprivation caused
+much dissatisfaction among the garrison of the latter colony, and led to
+a mutiny, which resulted in the incarceration of the Governor, who was
+not released until next year, when the belated supplies arrived.
+
+Spain was also involved in the war the following year, and thus all the
+nations interested in the West Indies were fighting at once--Holland and
+Spain against France and England. The French buccaneers had already
+gained a footing on Hispaniola; now they attempted to get possession of
+the whole island, but could not succeed. However, they went on to
+Trinidad, which had always been a Spanish island, and plundered it of a
+hundred thousand dollars.
+
+The Spanish and Dutch colonies suffered greatly, but Englishmen by no
+means escaped altogether. As an example of their treatment by the
+enemy, the case of John Darbey is interesting. In April, 1674, he and
+six others were taken by a Dutchman from a small English vessel, while
+sailing from St. Thomas to Antigua, and carried to Havana. There they
+were kept in irons for five weeks, and then set to work as slaves on the
+fortifications. After enduring great misery for three months, they were
+removed to work on board a ship, which was captured by the French off
+St. Domingo, when they were of course released, and finally carried to
+Jamaica. Here they told of the sufferings they had endured and
+witnessed--the story of which more and more embittered the English
+feeling against Spain. On one occasion Darbey had seen eight men brought
+in from a New England bark, who afterwards attempted to escape. They
+marched along the shore hoping to attract the notice of some friendly
+vessel, but the Governor sent a party of soldiers in pursuit, and they
+were all murdered at once save the master, who was brought back,
+executed, and his head stuck on a pole. He also saw the commander of a
+man-of-war bring in a New England vessel and hang five men at the
+yard-arm, where the corpses were used as targets by him and his
+officers. The same captain wanted himself and several other Englishmen
+to sail with them, but because they indignantly refused, he deliberately
+stabbed one of them with his sword, killing him at once.
+
+In February, 1674, a treaty was signed at Westminster in which there was
+a special clause bearing on the English in Surinam. To the intent that
+there might be no more mistakes, the States General agreed that the
+articles of capitulation should not only be executed without any more
+prevarication, but also that His Majesty of Great Britain should be free
+to depute commissioners to examine into the condition of his subjects
+and agree with them as to the time of their departure. Also that no
+special laws should be made to hamper them in any way in the sale of
+their lands, payments of their debts, or barter of their goods, and that
+vessels should be as free to go to Surinam, as they and their servants
+should also be free to depart.
+
+Accordingly, in March, 1675, three commissioners were instructed to
+proceed there, and were enjoined to see that the provisions of the
+treaty were properly carried out, to press for debts owing to the
+English, and to endeavour to get over the difficulty of their
+obligations to the Dutch. Vessels were provided to carry the settlers
+wherever they wished, and provision made for victualling them on the
+voyage, as well as for a short time after their landing in their new
+homes.
+
+Now at last it might be presumed that the exodus could be freely
+managed; yet even then the Dutch authorities tried to put obstructions
+in the way. Among the servants of the English were many Indians, some of
+whom were nominally free, and these the Dutch Governor demanded should
+be put ashore, to prevent the mischiefs and cruelties of the heathen,
+their friends, who might avenge themselves for the deportation on those
+who remained in the colony. The English claimed that these people went
+of their own free will, and that some of them were much attached to
+their white masters, which was probably true. Besides these, most of
+whom were got off against the Governor's protests, there were ten Jews
+with 322 slaves, in preventing the departure of whom he was more
+successful. They were not, strictly speaking, British subjects, although
+they had lived under the flag for many years, and the commissioners did
+not insist on their admission.
+
+Finally, three vessels sailed away for Jamaica in September, 1675,
+carrying 1,231 people, including thirty-one Indians, and more negroes
+than whites. On arriving at that island they were granted lands in St.
+Elizabeth, afterwards known as Surinam quarters, and thus Guiana again
+became a factor in the development of the English islands. As for the
+Jews, even they were afterwards allowed to depart when they memorialised
+the king and got him to press the matter.
+
+Even yet, however, the last had not been heard of this detention, for it
+cropped up again in the case of Jeronomy Clifford, one of those who
+actually left with the others for Jamaica. He was then a lad, and went
+off with his father, returning again to the colony as the second husband
+of an Englishwoman who had property there. It appears that, as surgeon
+of a Dutch vessel, he was so kind to a dying planter named Charles
+Maasman, that his widow went to London and married him in August, 1683.
+
+Not getting on very well in Surinam, Clifford and his wife resolved to
+sell out and take their slaves with them to Jamaica, but in this they
+were frustrated. The Dutch felt very sore about the former migration,
+especially when Jamaica plumed herself on her great acquisition, and
+taunted them with the fact that they got little by the transfer of the
+colony. When, therefore, Clifford made known his intention, the Governor
+told him he could not remove his wife's property because she had
+inherited it from a Dutch subject. Clifford had some of that doggedness
+which has been observed so often in Englishmen, and was determined to
+obtain what he considered his rights. Under the capitulation he might
+leave at any time, and he did not consider that this right had been in
+any way forfeited.
+
+However, the Dutch Governor said otherwise, and, to prevent the
+alienation or removal of his property, put it in trust, and then
+endeavoured to set his wife against him so that she might refuse to
+leave. By some tittle-tattle about a female cousin of Clifford, her
+jealousy was aroused, and she petitioned for a divorce on the grounds of
+cruelty and adultery. However, when she found out the object of the
+traducers of her husband, she asked that her petition be annulled and
+made void, because she had been misled and drawn away by the ill advices
+of others--now she was sorry, and well satisfied and content with him.
+This having been read before the Court of Justice, a council of Dutch
+planters, they showed their animus by deciding that Mrs. Clifford was a
+weak and silly woman, and that it appeared to them that her husband, to
+the prejudice of his wife and that land, had endeavoured to remove his
+goods, which they would willingly prevent. They therefore ordered the
+plantation to be appraised and put in commission, forbidding either
+Clifford or his wife from diminishing, removing, or making away with the
+estate, but only to enjoy the interest and produce as long as they lived
+and corresponded well with each other. They also wished the wife much
+joy of her reconciliation, and condemned her to pay the costs both
+present and future. Finally, considering her frowardness and ill-nature,
+and for an example to all other like-natured women, they condemned her
+to pay a fine of five thousand pounds of sugar.
+
+Clifford, who yet stood by what he considered his right, was now
+subjected to a number of petty persecutions. His wife went to England,
+leaving him her attorney, and he began to pester the Governor to remove
+the illegal arrest on his estate. At last this importunity led to his
+arrest, and he was sentenced by this same Court of Justice to be hanged,
+as a mutineer and disturber of the public peace. But, being "more
+inclined to clemency than to carry things to the utmost rigour of
+justice," they commuted this sentence to imprisonment for seven years,
+with a fine of a hundred and fifty thousand pounds of sugar.
+
+As may be supposed, this arbitrary judgment only made Clifford more
+exasperated. He still went on petitioning and protesting that he was not
+a Dutch subject, as he had refused to take the oath of allegiance, and
+that therefore he was only standing up for his rights. However, he was
+imprisoned in the fort, where every effort was made to prevent his
+communicating with England or the English colonies. Notwithstanding
+these precautions he managed to send several letters, meanwhile
+threatening the Court that if they kept him any longer he would be
+forced to use such means of relief as he should be advised. After some
+delay his communications reached Barbados, Jamaica, and New York, from
+whence they at last reached King William, who soon got him released. But
+even then Clifford could not get back his estate, and although he went
+to London and petitioned the king, who directed inquiry of the
+ambassador at the Hague, he could never get any redress. For seventy
+years he, and his heirs after his death, kept up a stream of petitions
+and memorials, without result, in the end claiming for illegal
+detention, damages, and interest, over half a million pounds.
+
+During the short peace which followed the treaty of Westminster
+attention was again directed to the buccaneers, who were now called
+pirates, and treated as such even in Jamaica, with the result that many
+of them settled down. It has been stated that Charles the Second shared
+in their gains even after he had issued proclamations against them, but
+this sort of thing now came to an end. The French continued their
+depredations up to the year 1680, when the king issued a proclamation,
+forbidding the further granting of commissions, and recalling those
+which had been issued, at the same time ordering that those who
+persisted in the trade should be hanged as pirates. This tended to bring
+the less audacious to settle down, but even to the beginning of the
+present century piracy was still known in the West Indies.
+
+While Sir Henry Morgan was Acting Governor of Jamaica, in 1681, Everson,
+the Dutch pirate, came to Cow Bay on that island, but Morgan captured
+him and his crew and sent them off to Carthagena, to be punished by the
+authorities there for the ravages they had committed on the Spanish
+coasts and shipping. During the ex-buccaneer's administration he also
+got an Act passed to restrain privateers, and keep inviolable all
+treaties with foreign states. Any British subject who treated a foreign
+prince or State in a hostile manner should be punished with death as a
+felon.
+
+Peace did not last long, however, for in 1688 the French began to move
+against Holland, and the year following King William was also bound to
+declare war. Almost immediately the English were again driven out of St.
+Kitt's, the French, as on the former occasion, committing outrages quite
+unjustifiable among civilised nations even in war. They also took St.
+Eustatius from the Dutch.
+
+As if there were not enough pirates in the West Indies, the French
+brought some more from their own coast--the celebrated corsairs, who had
+held a position in Europe during the wars similar to that of the
+buccaneers in America. Some rovers, who had lately settled in Cayenne,
+were agreeably surprised at the beginning of the year 1689 by the
+arrival of Du Casse, who soon enrolled them under his banner and started
+to pillage the Dutch and English colonies.
+
+The first attack was made upon Surinam with nine vessels, but after
+three days' fighting the Dutch obliged the corsairs to retire, leaving
+one ship aground to be captured. Two of the squadron were, however,
+more successful in Berbice, which, after the enemy had destroyed one or
+two plantations, was obliged to pay a ransom of twenty thousand guilders
+(L1,666), which was settled by a draft on the proprietors in Amsterdam,
+and which curiously enough appears to have been afterwards paid. Another
+privateer destroyed the small settlement in the Pomeroon river, and
+obliged the few inhabitants to fly to Essequebo, and to afterwards
+abandon the place altogether. Du Casse then went on to the islands,
+where he did much damage to both Dutch and English, finally, in 1697,
+Spain being also on the other side, joining De Pointis to attack and
+capture Carthagena.
+
+The corsairs were privateers with proper commissions, authorised by the
+French Government to pillage and destroy and divide the plunder among
+themselves after setting aside the king's share. Up to the present
+France could hardly be said to have a navy, and these private
+adventurers to some extent filled its place. True, there were a few
+king's ships, but the treasury was often so bare that they could not be
+properly armed or manned without assistance from outside. Then, perhaps,
+one or more would be put at the disposal of a renowned corsair, on
+condition that the State should be put to no expense. Courtiers,
+ministers, and merchants would come forward and form a joint stock
+company, equip the ship or fleet as the case might be, and share the
+plunder.
+
+Du Casse settled down as Governor of the French part of Hispaniola,
+which by this time had been taken over, and he appears to have
+encouraged the buccaneers on account of their assistance to the colony.
+When that great corsair, Jacques Cassard came out, he was therefore
+enabled to supply him with as much help as he required.
+
+Cassard, in 1712, was supplied by the merchants of Marseilles with a
+large fleet, with which he sailed to the West Indies, beginning, as Du
+Casse had done, with Surinam, where he arrived on the 8th of October,
+with eight large and thirty small vessels. The Dutch were not so
+fortunate this time, for he sailed up and down the river for three
+weeks, burning, pillaging, and carrying off slaves, until most of the
+inhabitants took to the bush. Among other exploits he is said to have
+broken open the Jewish synagogue, killed a pig within the sacred
+precincts, and sprinkled its blood over the walls and ornaments. He was
+ultimately bought off for over L50,000, which, in the absence of enough
+coin, was paid in sugar, negro and Indian slaves, cattle, merchandise,
+provisions, stores, jewellery, and a very little cash.
+
+While remaining in Surinam Cassard sent three vessels to Berbice, which
+was easily captured, and for which a ransom of three hundred thousand
+guilders (L25,000) was demanded. But this settlement was far worse off
+than Surinam, and had neither goods nor money to pay such a large
+amount, which was out of all proportion to that of her neighbour. After
+raising 118,000 guilders in various ways, the balance was accepted in a
+bill of exchange on the proprietors, two of the leading planters of the
+colony being taken as hostages and security. Not satisfied with this,
+the corsairs insisted on a further sum of ten thousand guilders in
+cash, as ransom for the private estates, on the ground that they had
+been paid only for the fort and properties of the Government. There was
+not so much money in the whole river, and after collecting every bit of
+plate and jewellery they possessed, to the value of six thousand
+guilders, the enemy had to take the balance in sugar and stores.
+
+Now came the most curious part of this transaction. The two hostages
+died, and the proprietors refused to pay the draft--in fact, they said
+Berbice was not worth so much. Nevertheless the colony could not be
+taken over as a French possession, and even when the peace of Utrecht
+was signed in 1713, nothing could be done. Here was an anomaly--a Dutch
+settlement in the hands of French merchants as security for a debt. On
+account of trade restrictions its produce might not be brought to
+France, and the owners of the draft neither knew what to do with the
+document nor its security. The Dutch proprietors were equally at a loss,
+for they knew very well that, if they ignored the claim of the corsairs,
+revenge would be taken on the first opportunity--during the next war, if
+not before. At last one of the Marseilles merchants was deputed to go to
+Amsterdam, and after a great deal of haggling he sold the draft to a
+third party at a reduction of about forty per cent.
+
+Meanwhile Cassard had captured St. Eustatius, and exacted a large
+ransom. From thence he resolved to proceed to Curacao, the great
+stronghold of the Dutch, and the depot for goods used in the contraband
+traffic with the Spanish colonies. Here there were many Jews, who had
+large stocks of merchandise, and as the booty would be certainly great,
+Cassard resolved to risk everything on such an exploit. On his arrival
+he sent a boat ashore with a demand for the surrender of the island, to
+which the Governor sent a jeering reply, as he considered the place
+impregnable. However, the corsair fleet stood in for the harbour, but
+were greeted with such a heavy fire that Cassard was forced to retire
+and call a council. The balance of opinion was against going any
+farther. The officers said the Dutch guns were of heavier metal than
+theirs, the currents round the island rendered a landing almost
+impossible, and the entrance to the harbour was so narrow that it could
+easily be commanded by the two forts. However, Cassard himself and a few
+others were in favour of the attempt, and it was ultimately resolved to
+carry it out on the morrow.
+
+To deceive the Dutch, Cassard sent part of his fleet on a cruise round
+the island, while he with the remainder commenced to bombard the forts,
+keeping this up during the day as if that were his line of attack. The
+following night, however, he embarked most of his men in small craft,
+and keeping the lights on his ships burning, managed to land under cover
+of the darkness. Fortunately for him, this manoeuvre was not perceived
+by the Dutch, for he had quite enough to do in contending with a strong
+current and in avoiding sunken rocks, which made the landing so perilous
+that it is doubtful if even these hardy fellows would have attempted it
+during the day, when the dangers would be conspicuous. However, they
+got ashore without serious accident, and at once erected a breastwork
+for the light guns they had brought.
+
+Morning broke, and Cassard expected to see the second half of the
+squadron returned from its cruise, and ready to support him, instead of
+which it was visible several miles to leeward. To add to his
+difficulties, the Dutch had discovered the landing, had erected a
+powerful battery a mile away, and were preparing to attack him before
+his reinforcements could come up. Yet in face of all this he was
+undaunted. He must, however, attack at once, and this was done, with the
+result that the forts were taken. Cassard was wounded by a musket ball
+in the foot, yet he did not relinquish the command, but followed this
+first success by turning the guns of the forts on the town. At the same
+time he sent a flag of truce to the Governor, declaring, that if the
+place were not at once surrendered at discretion he would bombard it. In
+reply, the Dutch attacked the forts, but were repulsed with great loss,
+and at last terms were discussed, with the result that the ransom was
+fixed at 600,000 louis d'ors. This amount was considered so reasonable
+that the merchants hastened to pay it over and get rid of him, which
+they did in three days.
+
+On his arrival in Martinique, Cassard found he had been superseded in
+the command, and that the fleet was ordered home. Giving the buccaneers
+their share of the booty, he sailed for Brest, and on the way met an
+English squadron. The French admiral signalled his vessels not to
+fight, but Cassard, turning to his second in command of the vessel, said
+his duty to his king was above that to his admiral--he would fight His
+Majesty's foes wherever he met them. On that he bore down upon the
+English and captured two small craft before nightfall, afterwards making
+his voyage to Brest alone.
+
+This want of subordination so incensed the admiral that he preferred
+several charges against him, one being that he had retained more than
+his share of the booty. Whether this charge was true or not, the "Hero
+of Nantes," as he was called, fell into disgrace, followed by great
+poverty. Almost a beggar, he was at last sent to prison for importuning
+a cardinal and king's minister too much, by claiming what he considered
+his rights. There he ultimately died, and, like some others who have
+been as badly treated in life, has now a statue erected to his memory in
+his native town.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+THE STRUGGLE FOR THE DARIEN TRADE.
+
+
+Carthagena and Porto Bello were the great trading stations for the
+Spaniards in the Indies. The latter had taken the place of Nombre de
+Dios, since that town had been destroyed by Drake, and was now the port
+to which the treasures of Peru were brought overland from Panama. The
+galleons from Spain, after calling at St. Domingo, went on to
+Carthagena, where the first great fair of the year was held. Here the
+traders from the inland provinces of New Granada came to get their
+supplies from Europe, which they paid for in gold, silver, emeralds, and
+produce. For the short time the vessels remained, the people of the town
+woke up from their year's inactivity, and made the most of the occasion.
+Stores were in demand, and lodging-houses required for the visitors, so
+that the cost of living went up by leaps and bounds. Those who had
+slaves got enormous profits by their hire, and even the negroes
+themselves made large sums beyond the amounts they had to pay their
+masters. The whole place lost its air of desertion and became the scene
+of such bustle and confusion as would hardly be conceivable to those
+who saw it as a "sleepy hollow" during the _tiempo muerto_, the dead
+time, as it was called.
+
+Having done with Carthagena, the galleons went on to Porto Bello, the
+beautiful haven, said to have been the most unhealthy place on the Main.
+By reason of its noxious air and barren soil there was a scarcity of
+provisions, which led to its desertion at ordinary times. In
+anticipation of the fleet, however, it woke up and became even more
+lively than Carthagena. The only reason for its existence was the trade
+across the isthmus, otherwise it would have been deservedly abandoned.
+Here was held the great fair, that at the other port being petty in
+comparison. The concourse of people was so great that a single chamber
+for a lodging during the busy time sometimes cost a thousand crowns,
+while a house would be worth five or six times as much. As the galleons
+came in sight, the people began to erect a great tent in the _Plaza_ to
+receive their cargoes, where they were assorted and delivered to the
+various consignees or their representatives. The crowd of men and
+animals soon became so great that movement was difficult. Droves of
+mules came over the isthmus loaded with cases of gold and silver, which
+were dumped down in the open streets or in the square, for want of
+storehouses. Yet, with all the confusion, it is said that theft was
+unknown, and losses through mistakes very rare. But not only were there
+thousands of mules and their drivers, but small vessels continually
+arrived from different parts of the coast, bringing goods and people,
+to increase the hubbub. Here was a cargo of cinchona bark, there
+another of cacao, and further on, by no means the least important, were
+boat-loads of fresh vegetables and fruits to supply the great assembly.
+This went on for forty days, after which the port was deserted and the
+town resumed its poverty-stricken air. Then two persons in the streets
+formed a crowd and half a dozen a mob. Solitude and silence reigned,
+where so lately the bustle and noise had been rampant, and the _tiempo
+muerto_ ruled until the following year.
+
+It can be easily understood that the influence of the Porto Bello fair
+was not only felt on the Gulf side, but on the shores of the Pacific as
+well. Panama was largely dependent on the transport business, which
+employed a great number of mules and slaves. Even in the absence of
+buccaneers and pirates the road was always difficult, and sometimes even
+dangerous. Heavy rains caused great floods, which delayed the traffic
+for days, and left the tracks on the hills so slippery that even that
+sure-footed animal the mule was often carried over a precipice. Then
+there were cannibal Indians and Simarons always lurking in the forest,
+ready to cut off stragglers. On the rumour of a buccaneer landing on the
+coast--it might be a hundred miles away--the traffic was at once stopped
+and the merchants began to "fear and sweat with a cold sweat," as Thomas
+Gage very quaintly puts it.
+
+The Spanish merchants no doubt deplored this state of things, and would
+have been thankful for a good road instead of such an unutterably
+worthless bridle track. There was, however, a side to the question
+which probably influenced them--a way that would be easy for them would
+also be more accessible to their enemies. Then, again, a good road
+should have been the work of the Spanish Government rather than of the
+settlers, but it was useless to expect anything from that direction.
+Nevertheless, a good road and even a canal were mooted before the end of
+the sixteenth century, thus anticipating the Panama railroad and canal
+of our own time. But, although the advantages were patent, the
+difficulties were so many as to be practically insurmountable, and
+nothing whatever was done.
+
+Towards the end of the seventeenth century came a sudden craze for
+carrying out gigantic schemes of various kinds, practicable or
+impracticable, useful or worthless, Utopian or utterly absurd. Among
+them was the Mississippi scheme in France and the South Sea Bubble in
+England, of which the latter was intimately connected with the Indies.
+The time had arrived when people began to think of trading on credit or
+pledges, and of combining together for carrying on banks and other
+commercial operations. Private banks had existed for several centuries,
+and more or less public establishments in the great commercial centres,
+such as Venice, Amsterdam, and Hamburg, but up to the present there was
+no Bank of England. In fact the great principle that allows an enormous
+trade to be carried on without the actual interchange of specie or
+commodities had just been discovered, and the people of France and
+England went mad over it.
+
+The pioneer of the system in England was William Paterson, who seems to
+have been acquainted with Dampier and Wafer, both of whom knew the
+isthmus of Darien very well. He is also said to have travelled in the
+West Indies himself, and even to have visited the Porto Bello fair, but
+this is not quite certain.
+
+Paterson first came into prominence by bringing forward a scheme which
+ultimately led to the establishment of the Bank of England on the 27th
+of July, 1694. From this he appears to have derived no actual benefit,
+however, although he was one of the first directors, upon a
+qualification of L2,000 stock, which he sold out after the first year,
+and thus withdrew. Probably he wanted his money to carry out the new
+project for a settlement on the isthmus of Darien.
+
+In the course of this history we have advisedly used the word "English"
+instead of "British," in speaking of our nation, because as yet
+Scotchmen were little concerned in colonisation schemes. In fact, except
+as transported rebels or convicts, they had hardly any interest in the
+plantations. This was the result of Navigation Acts, which debarred
+Scotch merchants and vessels from trading, by ordering that all traffic
+with the colonies should be carried on in English vessels and from
+English ports.
+
+Paterson's idea was to take possession of the isthmus of Darien,
+establish a Scotch colony at a convenient harbour on the Gulf side, and
+then open up a proper road by which the trade would be so much
+facilitated that it would become the great highway. Seated between the
+two vast oceans of the universe, he said, the isthmus is provided with
+excellent harbours on both sides, between the principal of which lie the
+more easy and convenient passes. If these ports and passes were
+fortified, the road could easily be secured and defended, thus affording
+the readiest and nearest means of gaining and keeping the command of the
+South Sea--the greatest and by far the richest side of the world. With
+the passes open, through them would flow at least two-thirds of the
+produce of both Indies. The time and expense of the voyage to China and
+Japan would be lessened more than half, and the consumption of European
+commodities soon doubled, and annually increased.
+
+He contended that Darien possessed great tracts of country up to that
+time unclaimed by any European, and that the Indians, the original
+proprietors, would welcome the honest and honourable settler to their
+fertile shore. The soil was rich to a fault, producing spontaneously the
+most delicious fruits, and required the hand of labour to chasten rather
+than stimulate its capabilities. There crystal rivers sparkled over
+sands of gold--there the traveller might wander for days under a canopy
+of fruit-laden branches, the trees bearing them being of inestimable
+value as timber. The waters also abounded in wealth. Innumerable shoals
+of fish disported themselves among the rocks, and the bottom was strewn
+with pearls. From the dawn of creation this enchanted country had lain
+secluded from mortals--now it was revealed and opened to Scottish
+enterprise. Let them enter and take possession of this promised land,
+and build a new city--a new Edinburgh, like Alexandria of old, which
+grew to prodigious wealth and power from its position on another
+isthmus--to soon become famous as the new emporium of a new world.
+
+The reader who has seen our account of Lionel Wafer's miserable journey
+will be able to discount these florid statements, but the Scotch people
+seem to have taken everything for gospel. Now, at last, they would have
+a colony--a plantation of more value than any of those that the English
+had begun to boast of. They were enthusiastic, and although poor, did
+their very best to contribute, actually promising the large sum of
+L400,000. England also subscribed to the extent of L300,000, and Holland
+and Hamburg L200,000. Everything looked bright, and at last a concession
+was obtained for the "Company of Scotland, trading to Africa and the
+Indies."
+
+Strange to say, Paterson entirely ignored the claims of Spain, although
+he must have known that she would strenuously object to such a
+settlement. It was all very well to say the place belonged to the
+Indians, but the very fact of its vicinity to the great trading centre
+and channel of communication with the Pacific coast should have made him
+anticipate trouble. Even if he argued that the buccaneers were
+practically unmolested along the Mosquito shore, he must also have known
+that their position was by no means secure, and even had this been the
+case, that it would have afforded to argument in favour of his project.
+
+To be successful he must also have had the support of the English
+Government, but unfortunately this was denied. Jealousy and envy between
+the two countries led to representations adverse to the scheme being
+made to King William, with the result that the Company was
+discountenanced, and that most of the promised subscriptions outside of
+Scotland were withdrawn. Then came dissensions among the leaders
+themselves, and this lost them half the amount from their own county.
+Yet with all that Paterson was undaunted, and, notwithstanding the
+diminished funds at command, he still resolved to go on.
+
+On the 26th of July, 1698, twelve hundred men in five ships sailed for a
+place near the entrance of the Gulf of Darien, a hundred miles to the
+east of Porto Bello. It was afterwards stated that the vessels were
+rotten and ill-found, although gaily decked with flags on the day of
+departure, which hid some of their deficiencies. The provision supply
+was bad, and, to crown all, the captains were coarse, brutal, and
+ignorant, continually quarrelling with each other. Through envy,
+Paterson had been prevented from having any voice in the arrangements,
+and although he went with the expedition, he entered the ship as
+ignorant of her equipment as any other passenger. But he evidently had
+his doubts, for he asked for an inspection of the stores, only to have
+his request treated with contempt.
+
+On the 27th of October the fleet came to anchor in a fair sandy bay
+three leagues west of the Gulf of Darien, now known as the Port
+D'Escoces. It was an excellent harbour surrounded by high mountains,
+and capable of holding a thousand sail in security from wind and
+tempest. The settlers named the district Caledonia, and considered it to
+be fertile and even healthy. They commenced at once to erect a fort, to
+which they gave the name of St. Andrews, and a cluster of houses for the
+town of New Edinburgh. These labours gave them little time for planting,
+and it naturally followed that they had to live on the provisions
+brought from Scotland, which, bad at the beginning, were now almost
+worthless. Paterson sent emissaries to the neighbouring Spanish
+settlements to ask for their friendship, and went himself into the
+interior to arrange treaties with the Indians, so that the Scotch might
+have a good title to the land. In this latter object he was successful,
+and it was agreed that peace should be kept between the natives and the
+colonists, "as long as rivers ran and gold was found in Darien."
+
+After six days' absence he returned to find a great change in the
+settlement. A spirit of mutiny and discontent had broken out, those who
+worked hard being naturally dissatisfied with others who did nothing.
+Then the provisions became rotten, and even then were so reduced in
+quantity that the people suffered from want and its consequent sickness.
+Four months passed, and nothing but daily discouragements were
+encountered; not even a little gold to enliven their spirits. Hard work
+under a tropical sun began to tell upon them, and although the friendly
+natives brought a little game, it was almost useless among so many.
+Every day, however, the number was reduced by death, fevers, and
+dysentery playing sad havoc, until those who remained were utterly
+dispirited.
+
+To add to their troubles they were refused supplies from Jamaica, King
+William having sent instructions to the Colonial Governors to
+discountenance the colony in every way. Paterson sent to Jamaica to get
+food for the starving people, and instead, his empty vessel brought
+copies of the Proclamation that had been issued in that island. This
+stated that as His Majesty knew nothing of the intentions and designs of
+the Scots at Darien, and as their settling on the isthmus was contrary
+to the peace of Spain, every one was commanded not to hold any
+communication with them, and not to supply arms, ammunition, provisions,
+or anything whatsoever, on their peril.
+
+In this desperate condition they awaited supplies from Scotland, but
+these did not arrive, for the ship had foundered on her way, and even
+Paterson began to be discouraged when day after day passed without
+relief. Even the reduced number could no longer exist, and with heavy
+hearts they prepared to leave. They had a ship, but no provisions for
+the voyage, and on account of the prohibition were prevented from
+victualling at one of the islands. At last, however, they got together
+as much barbecued fish and game as the Indians could procure, with a few
+fruits, and sailed away. But even now fate was against them. Hardly had
+they got out of the harbour before they were becalmed off this deadly
+shore for many days, their scanty supply of food diminishing when it was
+so much wanted for the long voyage. However, the remnant of about
+thirty, survivors of the twelve hundred, at last arrived at
+Charlestown, Carolina, in a most miserable condition. Paterson was
+himself so worn out that he lost his senses for a time, becoming quite
+childish, yet he recovered, to go back to Scotland and ask the Company
+for another expedition.
+
+This he urged on the ground that the first had failed simply through the
+want of supplies and the action of the English Government. Some were in
+favour of still carrying out the project, and these drew up a petition
+to the king, giving it for presentation to Lord Hamilton. William the
+Third, however, refused not only to receive the petition, but even to
+grant an audience to its bearer. Lord Hamilton would not be put off,
+however, but watched for his opportunity, and found it one day as the
+king was mounting his horse. He laid the petition on the saddle, which
+made His Majesty cry out, "Now, by heaven, this young man is too bold,"
+adding in a softer tone, "if a man can be too bold in the service of his
+country." With that he threw the document from him and rode off,
+afterwards, when memorial after memorial came from Scotland, issuing a
+Proclamation against the worry of such petitions.
+
+Notwithstanding this refusal, another expedition was sent out, the
+management of which was as bad as that of the first. But this time the
+Spaniards were on the alert, and hardly had the settlers begun to put
+things in order before the enemy was upon them in force. Famine and
+sickness again fell upon New Edinburgh, added to the horrors of a siege,
+which ultimately led to a capitulation on fair terms. But so weak were
+they as the Spaniards allowed them to embark, that their late enemies
+out of pity helped to heave their anchors and set their sails.
+
+It was long before the Scotch people forgot or forgave their sister
+kingdom for her action in thus frustrating their darling project.
+Besides impeding the Union, it is said to have strengthened the Jacobite
+feelings in the rebellions of 1715 and 1745. Even as late as the year
+1788, when it was proposed to erect a monument in Edinburgh to King
+William the Third and the "glorious revolution," the affair was
+remembered, and some one suggested that the pedestal should have on the
+one side a view of Glencoe, and on the other the Darien colony. Queen
+Anne, in 1702, tried to pacify her Scotch subjects by an autograph
+letter, stating that she regretted the Company's losses and
+disappointments, but this did not kill the ill-feeling. As for Paterson,
+in 1715 the English House of Commons voted him the sum of L18,241 as
+some indemnity for his losses, but as the bill was thrown out by the
+House of Lords, he got nothing.
+
+Thus ended one of the most disastrous of British attempts to colonise
+the Indies. From beginning to end it was an example of the Dutch caution
+of William of Orange, as contrasted with the recklessness of Queen
+Elizabeth's time or the sturdy defiance of Cromwell. The king was not
+prepared to risk war for an idea, yet at the same time he would not
+prohibit the expeditions.
+
+From 1702 to 1713 there was war between England and Holland on the one
+side, and France and Spain on the other. By the treaty of Utrecht,
+which again brought peace, the English received the concession for the
+exclusive supply of negro slaves to the Spanish colonies for thirty
+years. This _Assiento_ contract was given to the Great South Sea
+Company, which resulted from one of those joint-stock manias, now
+epidemic in France, England, and even Holland.
+
+The Company was projected by the Earl of Oxford in 1711, and, like the
+Mississippi scheme in France, was intended to assist the Government,
+which was virtually bankrupt. As yet there was no funded national debt,
+but large sums were owing to the army and navy, which had been
+provisionally settled by debentures, that could be discounted only at a
+serious loss to the owners. Down to the establishment of the Bank of
+England in 1693 no public loan existed, but this was commenced by
+borrowing the capital of that institution. At the peace of Ryswick, in
+1697, the public debt amounted to twenty millions, but by the time the
+South Sea Company was started the arrears of pay made it half as much
+again. Part of the great scheme was to advance this amount on security
+of English customs duties amounting to L600,000 per annum, and a
+monopoly of the Spanish trade in the Indies as far as the _Assiento_
+contract would permit.
+
+Whether the whole affair was a fraud from the commencement is doubtful;
+there were certainly misrepresentations in the prospectus, either wilful
+or possibly in good faith. Spain was to allow free trade to England in
+four ports on the Pacific, and three vessels besides slavers were to go
+to the isthmus every year--concessions never promised nor intended by
+Philip the Fifth. The slave trade was a fact, and according to the
+statements it would give fabulous profits.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF TERRA FIRMA.
+
+(_From Gottfried's "Reisen."_)]
+
+Visions of boundless wealth now floated before the eyes of the English
+people, and they at once began to rival the French in their madness, as
+they had in their colonisation. The English Government was ready to make
+every possible concession because it wanted to be rid of the incubus of
+thirty millions, and therefore did nothing to check the Company. As the
+stock was issued it was at once bought up, and then sold again at a
+considerable advance. Everybody expected to make fortunes, therefore
+they must get shares at any price. Rumours of peace with Spain, and
+great concessions that would bring all the riches of Peru and Mexico
+into their coffers, roused them still more. Gold would soon be as
+plentiful as copper, and silver as iron. The shareholders would be the
+richest people the world ever saw, and every share would give dividends
+of hundreds per cent. per annum. The bill making the Government
+concessions was passed in April, 1720, when the stock was quoted at L310
+for a hundred pound share. Strange to say, it then began to fall, but
+the projectors put forth a rumour that England was about to exchange
+Gibraltar for a port in Peru, and confidence was restored at once. So
+great was the increased demand that another million was issued at L300
+per L100 share, and these were so much run after that the fortunate
+owners were at once offered double what they had paid. Then another
+million was offered at L400, and in a few hours applications were
+received for a million and a half.
+
+People were so eager to invest their money that they swallowed almost
+any bait thrown to them. Hundreds of bubble companies hovered on the
+outskirts of the parent, among them one for settling the barren islands
+of Blanco and Sal Tortugas, another to colonise Santa Cruz, and a third
+to fit out vessels for the suppression of piracy. But perhaps the most
+absurd was "a company for carrying on an undertaking of great advantage,
+but nobody to know what it is."
+
+Near their highest point the South Sea Shares were sold at L890, but so
+many wanted to sell at that price that they soon fell to L640. This put
+the directors again upon their mettle, and they set to work with fresh
+rumours and pushed them up to L1,000, from which they suddenly went
+down, with a few fluctuations, until utterly worthless. The treasurer of
+the Company ran away to France when the blow fell, but the directors
+were arrested and their estates ultimately confiscated. Thousands of
+people were ruined, and the public credit received a blow from which it
+took many years to recover.
+
+Meanwhile the South Sea Company had not been altogether idle. Besides
+the slave vessels they were entitled to send _one_ ship annually to the
+Carthagena and Porto Bello fairs, this being called the _Navio de
+permisso_. It was not to be larger than five hundred tons, yet the
+Company picked out the biggest they could find and filled it with goods,
+to the exclusion of food and water, which were carried in small store
+vessels that waited outside the harbour. This caused a great deal of
+dissatisfaction, as the English brought so much that they could
+under-sell the Spanish merchants in their own market. In 1715 the
+_Bedford_, nominally of six hundred tons, was seized at Carthagena on
+the ground that her burden was excessive. By the Spanish measurements
+the cargo was said to have amounted to 2,117-1/2 tons, and the excess
+was confiscated and ordered to be sold. However, the English protested,
+at the same time passing over some valuable presents to the authorities,
+with the result that a remeasurement was ordered, which made the amount
+only 460 tons.
+
+In 1716 the Spaniards took Campeachy and sixty English logwood vessels,
+which occasioned another war. The English claimed that they had an
+undoubted right to cut logwood at that place, and that former kings had
+always maintained them in this. For a long time they had quietly
+possessed a part of Yucatan, uninhabited by Spaniards, and they claimed
+not only the privilege of wood-cutting, but of settlement as well.
+Probably the little notice taken of their attack on the Darien colony
+made the Spanish authorities think England ready to bear any insult, but
+they soon found out their mistake. War was declared in 1718, and all the
+property of the South Sea Company, including debts, was confiscated, the
+whole amounting to L850,000. This would have been a great blow to the
+Company had it been genuine, but as we have seen, its mercantile
+transactions were secondary considerations.
+
+Peace was restored by the Treaty of Madrid in June 1721, when the
+_Assiento_ contract was renewed in favour of the Royal Company instead
+of that of the South Sea. So much dissatisfaction had been created by
+the concession for a trading ship, however, that the English did not
+insist upon its continuance, and therefore only slave vessels were to be
+permitted to visit the Indies in future. Everything that had been seized
+from the South Sea Company was to be restored, or its equivalent value
+paid, but the amount actually received only came to L200,000, which did
+not go far to help the unfortunate shareholders.
+
+Thus, this small measure of free trade with the Spanish Indies came to
+an end, and things went on much the same as before. English, Dutch, and
+French vessels still carried on the contraband traffic, doing all they
+could to evade the law, often with the assistance of the local
+authorities. The Spanish settlers got their supplies so much cheaper in
+this way than through the usual channels, that they were not likely to
+give up buying as long as the smugglers ran the risk. At last, however,
+the authorities received very strict orders to enforce the law, with the
+result that vessels were often captured, their cargoes confiscated, and
+crews imprisoned. Then the Spanish _guarda-costas_ claimed the right to
+search vessels of other nationalities, and to confiscate them if they
+found produce from their colonies on board, or other evidence that they
+were carrying on illicit trade.
+
+This led to another dispute with England, which claimed compensation for
+such seizures and the abolition of the right of search. English vessels
+had always resented this overhauling, and latterly several had fought
+the _guarda-costas_ rather than submit, with the result that, when
+captured, their crews were treated with a severity often amounting to
+cruelty. In 1739 several petitions were presented to the British
+Parliament, complaining of such outrages, and asking the Government to
+obtain redress. Among them was one from Captain Jenkins, the master of a
+Scottish vessel, who was examined by the House. His story was that he
+had been boarded by a _guarda-costa_, the Spaniards from which searched
+his vessel without finding anything contraband. Apparently enraged at
+their discomfiture, and possibly annoyed by the jeers of the English,
+they cut off one of Jenkins' ears and told him to carry it to his king
+with the message that they would do the same to him if he came near the
+Main. Finally, according to Jenkins' statement, he was further tortured
+and threatened with death. "What did you think when you found yourself
+in the hands of those barbarians?" asked a Member of the House; to which
+the captain replied, "I recommended my soul to God and my cause to my
+country." The severed ear he exhibited in Parliament as he had done
+elsewhere whenever he told the story.
+
+It was then stated that the losses from Spanish depredations by
+plundering and the taking of fifty-two vessels, since 1728, amounted to
+L340,000. In every case the masters and crews were brutally treated, and
+in some cases murdered. The English demand for compensation was met by
+the reply that the king had ordered inquiries to be made, and that if
+any of his subjects were found guilty they would be punished according
+to their deserts; also that orders would be given to conform exactly to
+the treaties. It was, however, claimed that the treaty of 1667 did not
+contain any clause bearing on the navigation and commerce of the Indies,
+and that the English had been wrong in supposing they had a right to
+sail and trade there; they were only permitted to sail to their own
+islands and plantations, and were therefore subject to confiscation if
+they changed their course to make for the Spanish possessions without
+necessity. There were then in Havana fifteen British vessels which had
+been detained on one pretext or another, and about the same time the
+_Success_ from London to Virginia was captured off Montserrat, and her
+captain and crew set adrift in an open boat to find their way ashore as
+best they could.
+
+In January, 1739, a convention between Great Britain and Spain was
+arranged, under which the latter agreed to pay L95,000 on account of
+these demands, less the value of certain vessels which they agreed to
+restore. This did not satisfy the West India merchants, and they
+petitioned against it. The indemnity was to be paid on the 10th of July,
+but that date having passed without a settlement, Great Britain issued
+letters of marque and ordered all Spanish vessels in her waters to be
+seized. Spain commenced reprisals the following month, and war was
+actually declared by Great Britain on the 19th of October. The
+declaration stated that for several years past unjust seizures and
+depredations had been carried on, and great cruelties exercised. The
+British colours had been ignominiously insulted, against the laws of
+nations and solemn treaties, and Spain had lately ordered British
+subjects from her dominions within a shorter period than had been
+covenanted by express stipulation in those treaties.
+
+In July previous a fleet under Admiral Vernon had sailed from Spithead,
+and after a short cruise off the Spanish coast, went over to the West
+Indies, arriving at Antigua the 27th of September. Going on to Jamaica,
+Vernon prepared for a grand raid on the Spanish settlements, leaving for
+Porto Bello on the 5th of November with six vessels and 2,500 men. They
+arrived on the 21st, and bombarded the forts, which made a stout
+resistance; but while this was going on, the British landed and took the
+town, thus compelling the forts to capitulate. Two warships and several
+other vessels were captured, as well as specie to the amount of ten
+thousand dollars, but the town was not pillaged, although the guns were
+either taken away or rendered useless, and the forts as far as possible
+demolished. This was virtually the end of that stronghold, as it was
+afterwards allowed to fall into decay, to be ultimately replaced by
+Chagres, Grey Town, and Colon. Later, also, the treasure from Peru had
+much diminished, and the isthmus sunk in importance, especially after
+the way round Cape Horn and through the Straits of Magellan was adopted
+more and more.
+
+As the dispute with Spain had arisen from her action in the Indies, so
+retaliation on the part of Great Britain was greatest on the Main. In
+February, 1740, Vernon again sailed from Jamaica, and on the 6th of
+March bombarded Santa Martha, but did not capture it. After repairing
+damages at Porto Bello he went on to Chagres, took a Spanish man-of-war
+from under the guns of the fort, captured the place, and demolished it.
+In January, 1741, Sir Chaloner Ogle came out from England with a fleet,
+and joined him, making a force of 12,000 men in twenty-nine
+sail-of-the-line besides smaller vessels.
+
+This great fleet sailed for Hispaniola in hopes of encountering that of
+Spain and France, but not finding it went on to Carthagena. This, the
+other great stronghold on the Main, was guarded by two powerful
+batteries, a boom across the entrance to the port, and four Spanish
+men-of-war just inside. After a long cannonading the batteries were
+silenced, a landing accomplished at night, and a passage made by which
+the fleet entered the harbour. Here, however, further progress was
+checked by sickness and disagreements among the commanders, with the
+result that the siege was raised and partial success ended in miserable
+failure. This was followed by another check at Santiago de Cuba, which
+virtually terminated all hopes of further great exploits, although
+attempts were made on La Guayra and Puerto Cabello.
+
+Yet with all this the Spaniards undoubtedly received a great lesson.
+Their men-of-war were captured from under their fortresses, and small
+English or colonial vessels performed such deeds of daring as had hardly
+been equalled since the Elizabethan age. The old spirit still existed
+although it might lie dormant for a time--the men were there when the
+hour came. In 1740 Captain Hall in a New England privateer came to an
+anchor under the fort of Puerto de la Plata, pretending to be a Caracas
+trader. He wanted to land in the night and surprise the town, but found
+that the inhabitants kept such a good watch that he had to give up that
+idea. However, the Governor was sick and sent to ask the loan of Hall's
+surgeon, and here was the opportunity he wanted. The surgeon,
+quartermaster, and an interpreter visited the Governor, and at the same
+time seven of Hall's crew landed and surprised the fort, dismounted the
+guns, marched into the town and plundered it, finally escaping with the
+loss of only one man.
+
+Peace was at last concluded on the 7th of October, 1748, but nothing was
+said in the treaty of the right of search. The _Assiento_ contract was
+confirmed, and one English trading ship allowed as formerly; free trade
+with the Indies, however, was still one of those things which could
+never be conceded.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+SLAVE INSURRECTIONS AND BUSH NEGROES.
+
+
+With war almost continuously raging at their very doors the West Indian
+planters not only risked their fortunes but their lives. During the
+seventeenth century England spent something like thirty-five years in
+fighting her enemies, and in the eighteenth, forty-six. As long as the
+quarrel was with Spain alone the colonists cared but little, but when
+France turned against them the struggle was much fiercer. The French
+were always most audacious in their assaults, and the consequences were
+all the more disastrous because they were such near neighbours. We have
+already spoken of St. Kitt's and the difficulties produced on that
+island by its division between the two nationalities. These were only
+terminated by its entire cession to England, which did not take place
+until the peace of Utrecht in 1713. Meanwhile, besides the two defeats
+of the English already mentioned, they were driven out in 1689, to
+return the following year and expel the enemy, retaining entire control
+until the peace of Ryswick gave France again her share. Then in 1702
+England once more held full possession until the island was assured to
+her entirely.
+
+Barbados, alone among the British West Indian islands, stands in the
+proud position of a colony that has never fallen into the hands of
+another nation. It has never even been seriously attacked beyond the
+attempt of De Ruyter. And yet the island was poorly fortified, as
+compared with the great strongholds of the West Indies such as
+Carthagena and Curacao. Possibly "the game was not worth the candle,"
+for on the one hand there was little plunder to be had, and on the other
+a strong force of hardy Englishmen to be encountered. We have seen
+already how the Parliamentary fleet was kept at bay, and what an amount
+of trouble the islanders gave before they capitulated. Even then they
+were not actually conquered, although there could be no question as to
+the ultimate result.
+
+But not only had the colonists to stand up against the enemy from
+outside, but there was another danger which lay within their plantations
+and dwellings from which even Barbados was not free. The slaves had to
+be kept under subjection, and the planters must always be on the alert
+to anticipate riots and insurrections. For although the negro in most
+cases was submissive, at times he recovered that savage nature which had
+only been suppressed by force and discipline.
+
+When we read of flogging to death and other horrible cruelties of the
+planters and authorities, we are inclined to sympathise with the African
+and look upon his masters as worse than brutes. But to appreciate the
+full significance of these punishments we must judge them by the codes
+in existence at the time, remembering that nothing was ever done to the
+blacks that had not also been endured by whites for similar crimes.
+True, these punishments were retained for slaves after they had become
+obsolete for Europeans, but then the negro was undoubtedly stubborn and
+less amenable to persuasion than any other race. Like a mule he had to
+be broken in and trained, and like that stubborn animal he often gave
+great trouble in the process. There were differences of opinion as to
+various ways of teaching the negro, and it was only a long experience
+that ultimately led to gentle conciliation instead of flogging.
+
+[Illustration: A REBEL NEGRO
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+The slaves often ran away, and had to be hunted for and brought back. In
+the larger islands and on the Main they hid in the forest and swamp,
+where they formed communities, to which other runaways flocked until
+they became strong enough to hold their own. From these recesses they
+often came forth to pillage the plantations, murder the whites, and get
+the slaves to go off with them in a body. If the buccaneer was ferocious
+he had at least some method in his madness; the poor ignorant African,
+on the contrary, let his passions dominate him entirely. In revenge for
+fancied tyrannies he would commit the most atrocious crimes, torturing
+his prisoners by cutting them to pieces or even flaying while they still
+lived.
+
+Is it any wonder that when caught the bush negro or maroon was severely
+punished, and that the utmost rigour of the law was exercised? As for
+flogging, every one knows how common that was at the beginning of the
+present century. Some of us can even look back to a time when the use of
+the rod and whip on delicate children was a matter of course. Even fine
+ladies took their little ones to see executions that now horrify us to
+think of; in a similar way the planter's wife stood at her window to see
+the punishment of her house-servant.
+
+We could tell of negroes burnt to death, where a downpour of rain put
+out the fires and left them to linger in torment for hours, of taking
+pieces of flesh from the unhappy criminals with red-hot pincers, and,
+most horrible of all, breaking on the wheel. These punishments often
+took place in the middle of a town, but only on one occasion have we
+seen any mention of the horror of the scene, and this referred to the
+smell of burning flesh. Yet the criminals--for it must be remembered
+that they had been legally convicted and sentenced--showed a stoical
+indifference to pain almost incredible. As savages they gloried in
+showing their ability to endure torture, only craving sometimes for a
+pipe of tobacco to hold between their teeth until it fell.
+
+[Illustration: THE EXECUTION OF BREAKING ON THE RACK.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+The maroons or bush negroes began to form communities on the Main and in
+the larger islands from very early times. In Jamaica they were the
+remnant of the Spanish slaves who ran away on the arrival of the
+English, with accessions from deserters at later periods; in Surinam
+some of those who had been sent into the forest to prevent their capture
+by French corsairs. In both places they maintained their independence,
+and ultimately made treaties with the colonial authorities, greatly to
+their own advantage. In Essequebo and Demerara they were kept down by
+subsidising Arawak Indian trackers, who hunted them from savannah to
+forest, and from forest to swamp, killing and capturing them almost as
+fast as they ran away. In the smaller and more settled islands the
+runaways were generally recaptured at once and severely punished as a
+warning to others. There the more daring plotted insurrections which
+often caused much trouble for a few days until suppressed. They did not
+last long, for the negroes were wanting in the power of combination,
+because they all wanted to be leaders. Then there was generally some
+faithful slave or white man's mistress to give the warning, which
+sometimes caused such prompt action that the outbreak did not occur at
+all. Yet with all that the danger was serious, and one that could hardly
+be coped with by forts and batteries.
+
+As early as the year 1649 a plot for a general rising in Barbados was
+discovered through the information of a bond-servant. All the whites
+were to have been murdered, but fortunately the ringleaders were
+arrested before the time fixed and eight of them condemned to death.
+Then in 1676, under the leadership of a Coromantee, it was arranged that
+on a certain fixed day, at a signal to be given by blowing shells, all
+the cane-fields should be set on fire, the white men killed, and their
+women retained by the negroes as their wives. This also was frustrated
+by information received from a house negress. Hearing two men talking
+of the matter, she made inquiries, and learnt of the plot in time to
+inform her master. Six of the prisoners were burnt alive and eleven
+beheaded, while five committed suicide by hanging themselves before the
+trial. The story was told in a pamphlet entitled, "Great Newes from the
+Barbados, or a true and faithful account of the great conspiracy." Yet
+again in 1693, after a fearful epidemic had much reduced the number of
+the whites, a third conspiracy was set on foot. The Governor was to have
+been killed, the magazine seized, and the forts surprised and taken.
+When the plot was nearly ripe two of the leaders were overheard
+conversing about it and instantly arrested. They were hung in chains for
+four days without food or drink, promises of pardon being made if they
+revealed their accomplices, which they did at the end of that time, with
+the result that some were executed and others cruelly tortured. We might
+go on to tell also of the abortive insurrection of 1702 and several
+others, but as there were never any very serious risings in Barbados, we
+must proceed to other colonies.
+
+In Jamaica several abortive attempts at general insurrections were made,
+some of them assisted by the maroons, who continually received
+accessions to their numbers from desertion. These people also made
+incursions on their own account, which led the Government to offer L5 a
+head for every one killed, the reward being payable on the production of
+his ears. In 1734 they destroyed several plantations and killed a
+hundred and fifty white men, which led to an attempt at suppressing
+them altogether. Captain Stoddart therefore took a detachment of
+soldiers into the mountains to the maroon town of Nanny. Arriving at
+night he planted a battery of swivel guns on a height that commanded the
+collection of huts, before the negroes were aware of his coming. They
+were rudely awakened from their sleep to find the place surrounded, and
+in alarm many flung themselves over precipices in their hurry to escape.
+Some were killed, a few captured, and the town utterly destroyed. About
+the same time a party of maroons from another place were so bold as to
+attack the barracks at Spanish Town.
+
+Two years later, under Captain Cudjo, the maroons became so formidable
+that two regiments of regular troops besides the island militia were
+employed to reduce them. The Assembly also ordered a line of
+block-houses or posts to be erected as near as possible to their haunts,
+at which packs of dogs were to be kept as part of the garrison. Then
+they sent to the Main for two hundred Mosquito Indians whom they engaged
+as trackers. This brought matters to a crisis, and Captain Cudjo was
+compelled to sue for peace, which was granted. A treaty was therefore
+made with them in 1738 at Trelawny town, by which they were to be
+considered as free on condition that they captured runaway slaves,
+assisted in repelling invasions, and allowed two white residents to
+remain in their towns. Thus peace was restored for a time, and the
+Mosquito Indians were allowed to go back to their country.
+
+However, Jamaica was not to be free from slave insurrections apart from
+the maroons, for in May, 1760, at St. Mary's, the slaves of General
+Forrest's plantation fell suddenly upon the overseer while he was at
+supper with some friends, and massacred the whole company. They were
+immediately joined by others, and commenced a career of plundering and
+burning all the plantations in the neighbourhood. Business in the island
+was at once suspended, martial law proclaimed, and every white man
+called out to assist in putting down the revolt. The negroes, however,
+tried to avoid an open conflict, trusting to hide in the forest, where,
+however, a large body was discovered and defeated. The maroons had been
+sent for, but did not arrive until this action had taken place, when
+they were sent in pursuit of the flying rebels. This they pretended to
+do, and in a few days returned with a collection of ears which they said
+had been taken from those whom they had slain, and for which they were
+paid. The story was found out afterwards to have been a falsehood, as
+instead of pursuing the fugitives they had simply cut off the ears of
+those who had been slain before they arrived. This led the authorities
+to think the maroons in league with the revolted slaves and afterwards
+to look upon them with distrust. However, by the aid of a body of free
+negroes, the rebels were at last captured, to be punished in the cruel
+manner so characteristic of the time. Some were burnt, some hung alive
+on gibbets, and about six hundred transported to the Bay of Honduras.
+Two were hung alive on the parade at Kingston, one to linger for seven
+days and the other for nine, during which time it was said "they behaved
+with a degree of hardened insolence and brutal insensibility." In the
+course of the whole insurrection about sixty whites and four hundred
+negroes were killed, and damage done to the amount of one hundred
+thousand pounds.
+
+In 1736 a slave revolt took place at Antigua, or rather it was
+discovered and anticipated. Five negroes were broken on the wheel, six
+hung in chains and starved to death, one of whom lived for nine days and
+eight nights, fifty-eight were burnt at the stake, and about a hundred
+and thirty imprisoned. These horrible punishments were intended as a
+warning to the others, and no doubt they had such an effect on that
+generation.
+
+Few of the early insurrections met with any success, notwithstanding
+that the negroes largely outnumbered the whites in every colony. At the
+most the blacks had a few days' liberty to murder, burn, and pillage,
+after which came the terrible retribution. There was, however, one
+conspicuous exception: poor Berbice was actually taken over, and every
+white man driven from the plantations.
+
+The Dutch were noted nigger drivers, and although the English were
+unable to boast much of their humanity, they stigmatised the Hollander
+as a cruel master. If a negro was obstinate, the Englishman threatened
+to sell him to a Dutchman or Jew, but the worst threat of all was to
+give him to a free negro. Whether this bad character was deserved or not
+is doubtful, but it is quite certain that the criminal law of the
+Netherlands permitted "the question" when a prisoner would not admit his
+guilt. This, however, was applicable to white as well as black, there
+being no particular slave code in the Dutch colonies.
+
+What was the immediate cause of the great rising of 1763, in Berbice,
+was never exactly ascertained, but vague complaints were made of
+ill-treatment by certain planters. It commenced on the 27th of February,
+on an estate in the river Canje, and from thence spread like wildfire
+over the whole colony. The population consisted of, besides the free
+Indians, 346 whites, 244 Indian slaves, and about 4,000 negro slaves.
+The garrison was supposed to consist of sixty soldiers besides officers,
+distributed at several forts and posts, but owing to sickness only about
+twenty were fit for duty when the rising took place.
+
+An epidemic of fever and dysentery had prevailed for two years among
+both whites and slaves, weakening the former in such a manner that they
+had no courage to contend with the revolted negroes, but mostly ran away
+to Fort Nassau when they heard of the rising. Almost out of their senses
+from fright, they urged Governor Hoogenheim to abandon the fort and
+colony at once. Only one of the councillors stood by the Governor, and
+it was as much as these two could accomplish to prevent even the
+soldiers from running away. As for moving against the rebels, this was
+impossible, for not one of the colonists would follow Councillor
+Abbinsetts in his attempt to do something. Their fright even affected
+the officials and soldiers in such a manner that the Governor could
+hardly escape their importunities to be allowed to leave.
+
+Four vessels lay in the river, two merchant ships and two slavers, but
+even their crews were sick, and the captain of one so utterly broken
+down that he could not attend to his duties. The Governor tried to get
+them to go up the river and do something, but they were almost as
+frightened as the colonists. Only in one place were the negroes opposed;
+a few whites taking refuge in the block-house at Peereboom, some
+distance above the fort, where their way of escape was cut off. But for
+want of a little assistance they were compelled to make terms with the
+negroes. Under the agreement the whites were to be allowed to go down to
+the fort in their own boats, but as soon as they began to embark the
+negroes fell upon them, men, women, and children, massacred some and
+took others prisoners, a few only managing to get across the river.
+
+Among the fugitives was a lad named Jan Abraham Charbon, whose story
+gives a graphic picture of the alarm and consternation produced by the
+insurrection, and of its results on himself.
+
+He was the son of a planter, and the alarm was brought to the estate at
+night by a faithful slave. The plantations below were all in the hands
+of the rebels, who were burning and murdering on both sides of the
+river. The whites from several neighbouring estates gathered together
+and decided to make a stand at Peereboom, hoping for assistance from
+Fort Nassau. They got to the block-house early in the morning, to the
+number of thirty whites, with a body of faithful slaves, who had not
+yet deserted them, although they did so later.
+
+Soon after their arrival the insurgents surrounded the house and
+attacked it, the whites making a successful defence until seven o'clock
+in the evening. Then one of Charbon's slaves came forward and asked if
+they wanted peace. On receiving a favourable reply the leaders on both
+sides came to the agreement above-mentioned. Next morning the whites
+were fired upon as they went to embark, and Charbon was wounded.
+However, he jumped into the river and swam across, hiding himself in the
+jungle, where he came upon another fugitive named Mittelholzer.
+
+For eight days the two wandered about the forest, losing their way and
+almost dying from hunger and thirst. They dared not approach the river
+for fear of the negroes. Once they came upon the back of a plantation
+and hurriedly gathered a few cobs of Indian corn, immediately afterwards
+running back into the bush to eat them. While lying down a negro with a
+sabre passed quite close without seeing them, but presently another with
+a gun peeped into the bushes and caught sight of them. On this
+Mittelholzer ran out with his drawn sabre and so furiously attacked the
+rebel that he cut off one of his hands, captured his gun, and put him to
+flight. However, this audacity did not save him, for he was captured
+soon afterwards, Charbon managing to escape into the forest. Alone the
+boy wandered about for six or seven days, until, again becoming
+desperate from hunger, he returned to the same plantation, to fall into
+the hands of the negroes. He was stripped of his clothes, put in the
+stocks, flogged, and threatened with death, but was finally spared on
+account of his youth, and because the rebel chief, "King" Coffee, wanted
+a secretary to write letters to Governor Hoogenheim, proposing terms.
+
+Meanwhile the poor Governor hardly knew what to do. He sent to Surinam
+and Demerara for assistance, but while awaiting this the military
+officers informed him that the fort was untenable against even a single
+assault. The wooden palisades were so rotten that a strong man could
+pull them down easily, and then the building was of wood and could
+easily be fired. He was ultimately obliged to destroy it and retire down
+the river, where he at first took possession of the lowest plantation,
+Dageraad, hoping to remain there until assistance arrived. But even here
+the rumours of an attack by the rebels made the people clamorous to be
+allowed to leave, and Hoogenheim had to retire to the mouth of the
+river, where there was a small guard-house, or signal station, near the
+site of what is now New Amsterdam. Thus the last hold on the plantations
+was given up, and the whole colony abandoned to the negroes.
+
+A month passed before the first arrival from Surinam. All that time the
+Governor and a few whites waited day after day, sometimes almost in
+despair. The vessels had, at the request of their captains, been allowed
+to leave, carrying with them some of the people, while others had gone
+off to Demerara. This desertion was almost necessary, as the food supply
+was very limited and of a poor quality--cowards were useless, and
+therefore no objection was made to their departure. Hoogenheim was at
+last somewhat relieved by the arrival of the English brigantine _Betsy_
+with a hundred soldiers from Surinam, and with this small contingent he
+at once began to retrace his steps with a view to recover the colony. He
+went back to Dageraad, and in a day or two after was attacked by seven
+hundred negroes, who fought from early morning to noon, when they
+retired after suffering a great loss in killed and wounded. It was after
+this battle that young Charbon arrived with a letter bringing "greetings
+from Coffee, Governor of the negroes of Berbice." The rebel chief said
+that as the negroes did not want war, he would give His Honour half the
+colony, while he himself would govern the other half and go up the river
+with his people, who were determined never again to be slaves. No notice
+was taken of this, and Charbon, who had been warned to bring back an
+answer at his peril, was too pleased to get back to his white friends to
+again wish for his post of secretary.
+
+Even now the Governor's situation was not only perilous, but most
+pitiful. St. Eustatius sent two vessels, but almost as soon as they
+arrived the men were attacked by sickness, and instead of being a help
+they had to be nursed, even the Governor himself taking his part in the
+necessary attendance. At one time there were not enough healthy soldiers
+to relieve guard, but fortunately Coffee had no means of knowing this,
+or all would certainly have been over with them.
+
+It was not until December that a fleet arrived from the Netherlands, and
+then a horrible vengeance overtook the rebels. There was not much
+difficulty in subduing them, especially when a large contingent of
+Indians was sent overland from Demerara to drive them from the forest.
+In March, 1764, the trials began with a hundred ringleaders, fifty of
+whom were sentenced to death. Fifteen of these were burnt, sixteen
+broken on the wheel, and twenty-two hanged. The following month they
+executed in similar ways thirty-four, and later again thirty-two. The
+chiefs were burnt at slow fires, punishment which they bore with the
+utmost stoicism. One named Atta, however, told the bystanders that he
+only suffered what he deserved. Finally, in December a general amnesty
+was proclaimed, which made the negroes cry out with joy, _Dankje!
+Dankje!_
+
+Berbice was of course utterly ruined for a time. The plantations were
+overrun with weeds, the buildings in ruins, and many of the slaves
+missing. Of the whites only 116 remained; the rest were dead from
+sickness, had been killed by the negroes, or had fled from the colony.
+The loss in killed was small, as the general fright prevented any show
+of resistance. What would have happened if the whites had fallen into
+the hands of the rebels was shown in one or two flagrant cases. One of
+the colony surgeons was said to have been flayed alive on the ground
+that he had poisoned the slaves by forcing them to take medicine. One
+poor girl who had been captured at Peereboom was compelled to submit to
+the embraces of King Coffee and driven mad, while another committed
+suicide to prevent a similar degradation. About eight hundred slaves
+were missing, most of whom had been killed, as very few managed to
+escape to the bush.
+
+[Illustration: MARCH THROUGH A SWAMP.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+Behind the coast of Guiana is a long stretch of swamp, which in slavery
+times was the general resort of runaways. For miles extends a grassy
+plain like a meadow, the sedges entirely covering the two to four feet
+of water which would otherwise give it the appearance of a great lake.
+Except through the various streams that drain it, access is almost
+impossible during the rainy season, and even the Indians care little to
+explore its recesses beyond fishing in the canal-like creeks. However,
+here and there are little islands or sand reefs, and on these the
+runaway slaves took refuge. First, perhaps, a murderer would escape and
+hide himself for a time until the hue and cry had abated, returning now
+and again to the plantation at night for the purpose of getting
+provisions from his friends. Then others would follow, until a party of
+twenty to a hundred, with their wives, had established a little village.
+Towards the end of the last century a number of these communities of
+bush negroes had been formed in Demerara, and their depredations became
+so common that regular expeditions were sent against them, guided by
+Indian trackers. In 1795 they joined with the slaves to raise a general
+insurrection, but special measures were taken so that they were almost
+suppressed for a time.
+
+Before this they had formed a line of stations for seventy miles from
+the river Demerara to the Berbice. Every camp was naturally surrounded
+by water, and by driving pointed stakes in a circle, and leaving the
+entrance to wind through a double line under water, they were made
+almost impregnable. To reach them the attacking party had to wade up to
+their middles through perhaps a mile of ooze and water, to be cut with
+razor grass, and all the time at the mercy of the negroes. Only during
+the dry season was anything like success possible, and even then the
+negroes generally saved themselves by flight.
+
+Many of the slaves were friendly with the runaways, but they were much
+feared by the more timid. On one occasion a negro went to cut wood at
+the back of a plantation in Demerara and came suddenly upon the outpost
+of a camp, probably the entrance to the concealed path which led to the
+little sand reef. In walking along he stepped upon a bush-rope, and
+immediately after heard a bell ring above his head. Before he could get
+away a ferocious bush negro stood before him and demanded his business,
+but the poor slave was so frightened that he ran home and reported the
+occurrence to his master. Some of the slaves went so far as to enjoy
+hunting runaways--in fact, there was little love lost between the two
+parties. One of these was offered his freedom as a reward for the
+assistance he had given in an expedition, the Government engaging to
+purchase him of his owner provided they both consented. Tony, however,
+did not wish to leave a good master, and refused, stipulating, however,
+that he should retain the right to accept the kind offer at some future
+period. When his master ultimately left Demerara, some years afterwards,
+Tony claimed his promised freedom and got it.
+
+While the bush negroes in other parts of Guiana were kept within
+reasonable bounds, those of Surinam, like the maroons of Jamaica, had
+never been conquered. Treaties were agreed to by them in 1749 and 1761,
+but disputes continually occurred, with the result that the colonists
+were always more or less in fear of their raids. Then they carried off
+most of the slaves whenever they attacked a plantation, until their
+number became so great as to be a real danger. In 1773 the authorities
+in the Netherlands resolved to make a special effort to conquer them,
+and for this purpose raised a corps of all nationalities which was put
+under the command of Colonel Fourgeaud.
+
+That soldiers should be brought from Europe for such a service shows the
+utter ignorance of the Dutch authorities. If the colonists themselves
+could not put down the bush negroes, how could it be expected that this
+would be effected by fresh troops from a cold climate, who had no
+knowledge of the country, the mode of fighting, or the difficulties of
+travelling through the bush and swamp?
+
+Commissioners had visited them at different times to arrange the
+treaties, but there was generally something wrong with the presents
+(virtually blackmail), or else they were given to the wrong parties. In
+1761 the chief Araby had insisted on the commissioners binding
+themselves by his form of oath. This was done by each party tasting the
+blood of the other. With a sharp knife a few drops were drawn from the
+arm of each person into a calabash of water with a few particles of dry
+earth. After pouring a small quantity of this mixture on the ground as a
+libation, the calabash was handed round from one to another until all
+the company had taken a sip. Then the gadoman (priest) took heaven and
+earth--exemplified by the water and clay--to witness the agreement, and
+invoked the curse of God upon the first who broke it, the company and
+crowd of negroes around calling out _Da so!_ (that is so, or amen).
+
+Yet, after all this solemnity, quarrels soon arose again. One chief with
+his sixteen hundred people had come to terms, but these did not bind his
+neighbour, who perhaps had half as many. The different chiefs were not
+united in any way, and it followed, therefore, that, after thousands of
+guilders had been spent on one, the others made incursions to get a
+share of the good things for themselves. To the colonists they were all
+bush negroes, but among themselves they were as distinct as if they had
+been different nations. Even when at peace, and when the chiefs had
+received gold-headed canes as symbols of authority, they would often
+call at the outlying plantations and demand rum or anything else they
+fancied, which the whites dared not refuse.
+
+The immediate occasion for the special corps from the mother country was
+an insurrection of the slaves in 1772, who, after plundering and burning
+some of the plantations, and murdering their owners, fled in great
+numbers to join the bush negroes. The whole colony was a scene of horror
+and consternation--the colonists expected the rising to become general,
+and took refuge in Paramaribo, thus leaving their plantations
+unprotected. However, it was soon checked, mainly by raising a body of
+three hundred free negroes, called rangers, who were expert
+bushfighters, and therefore thoroughly well fitted to cope with the
+rebels.
+
+One of the chiefs named Baron had settled on an island in the swamp,
+such as we have described, where he defied the whole colony. There were
+no means of communication except hidden tracks under water, and in
+addition to the palisades the chief had erected a battery of swivel guns
+which he had stolen from the plantations. Thus triply defended by water,
+stakes, and guns, it is no wonder if he thought his position
+impregnable. However, he was discovered by a party of rangers, and
+assaulted by them and a large body of white soldiers. Camping first on
+the edge of the swamp about a mile away, they could see Baron's flag
+waving in defiance on the little island, while they were at their wits'
+ends to find a means of getting at him. A great many shots were wasted
+by both sides before they found the distance was too great, even for the
+swivel guns, and then the rangers began to act. Several weeks were
+passed in attempting to make a causeway by sinking fascines, but when
+the workers had come within range, so many were killed that it had to be
+abandoned. In despair of ever effecting anything, they were about to
+retire, when some of the rangers discovered the hidden pathway under
+water. A feint was now made of attacking one side by one party, while
+another crept along the track, and thus at last the fortress was
+stormed. A terrible hand-to-hand fight took place, in which many were
+killed on both sides, but even then Baron managed to escape with a good
+number of his followers.
+
+This defeat made little impression, for soon afterwards the slaves on
+three plantations killed their white masters, and, like the others, went
+off to join the bush negroes. It was now felt that something must be
+done or the colony would have to be abandoned. The bush negroes had to
+be hunted from their recesses, however difficult the task might be,
+otherwise there would be no safety even in the town itself. The
+expeditions could only move in Indian file, exposed to ambushes in the
+most difficult parts of the track, and firing from behind trees
+everywhere. There was no possibility of bringing the party together if
+attacked; it followed, therefore, that the long string of men went
+forward with the utmost caution. In front came two powerful blacks with
+machetes or cutlasses to clear the way, and immediately behind them the
+vanguard. These were followed by the main body alternating with
+ammunition bearers, and, finally, a long line of carriers with food,
+medicines, utensils, and kill-devil (rum) with the rearguard. Sometimes
+the party would flounder through a swamp for hours, holding their
+firearms above their heads to keep them dry. Then drenching showers
+would fall, and give the greatest trouble to prevent the powder from
+becoming useless. Creeks had to be passed on fallen trees, or the party
+would be detained until a trunk was felled and trimmed to afford a
+passage. Exposed to malaria, mosquitoes, bush ticks, and maribuntas,
+they went on day after day, only to find, on reaching the village of the
+bush negroes, that they had gone elsewhere, to perhaps turn up at some
+unprotected plantation. The European troops died off in great numbers,
+while the enemy were in their element. It followed, therefore, that
+little was done, and that the old system of conciliation had to be
+adopted, with the same unsatisfactory results. Finally, by utilising
+their mutual jealousies, about 1793 they were driven so far away from
+the settlements as to become almost harmless. Their descendants still
+exist almost as savages, with curious manners and customs, partly
+inherited from their African forefathers, and partly adopted from their
+neighbours the Indians.
+
+[Illustration: TRELAWNY TOWN.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+We must now return to the maroons of Jamaica, who had not been
+conquered, although a nominal treaty existed, and the white residents
+remained at their posts. In July, 1795, two of them were flogged for
+pig-stealing, and this was considered a disgrace on the whole community.
+On the return of the pig-stealers to Trelawny they raised a great
+outcry, and the resident was at once ordered to leave on pain of death.
+Efforts were made to pacify them, but they sent a written defiance to
+the magistrates who had ordered the flogging and declared their
+intention to attack Montego Bay. The militia were called out and
+soldiers applied for, but before the preparations were completed, a body
+of maroons appeared and asked for an interview with four gentlemen whom
+they named.
+
+Hoping the matter might be prevented from going farther, these and
+several other whites went to the rendezvous, where they were received by
+three hundred armed men. The maroons complained of the disgrace on the
+whole body, through the flogging having been performed by a negro
+overseer in the presence of felons, and demanded reparation. They
+wanted, first, an addition to their lands, and, second, a dismissal of
+the then resident in favour of one they had formerly. Promising to
+forward their requests to the Governor, the gentlemen left, the maroons
+appearing as if pacified.
+
+However, this interview was only applied for to gain time, and
+especially to allow the departure of the British fleet which was then on
+the point of leaving, and might be detained if they moved too quickly.
+On the report that there was a probability of a settlement of the matter
+the fleet left, when the maroons immediately began to plot with the
+slaves for a general rising. Reports of this had been received by the
+Governor before, but just after the men-of-war had departed more
+definite news arrived, which induced him to send a fast-sailing boat to
+bring them back. Fortunately this was successfully accomplished, and at
+once confidence drove out the fear of murders, fires, and plundering
+which had alarmed the inhabitants. The slaves were correspondingly
+disheartened and left the maroons to fight alone.
+
+But even the maroons themselves became divided in opinion on the return
+of the military and naval force. The Governor taking advantage of this,
+issued a proclamation calling upon them to submit, but only thirty-eight
+old men came forward, the others being determined to fight. They set
+fire to their own town and commenced hostilities by attacking the
+outposts. This led to a pursuit in which the whites fell into an
+ambuscade, many being killed, without as far as was known doing any harm
+whatever to the enemy. Now commenced a series of raids on the
+plantations, in which even infants at the breast were massacred.
+
+[Illustration: PACIFICATION OF THE MAROONS.
+
+(_From Edwards' "West Indies."_)]
+
+The matter becoming serious, the General Assembly resolved to hunt the
+rebels with dogs, as had been intended before the treaty. They
+accordingly sent over to Cuba for huntsmen with their powerful
+blood-hounds, the descendants of those which had once worried the poor
+Indians, and afterwards assisted the buccaneers. Times had changed
+however, and a feeling grew up that hunting men with savage beasts was
+not quite the thing. This led to some expressions of opinion adverse to
+the action of the executive, but they excused themselves on the ground
+that the safety of the island demanded extreme measures. If war was
+justifiable at all, any and every means, they said, was allowable; in
+fact, "all was fair in war."
+
+Meanwhile the maroons had been driven to their strongholds in the
+mountains, where they had little to eat, and were virtually compelled to
+ravage the plantations for food. On the arrival of forty _chasseurs_
+with their hundred dogs, however, they became alarmed, and began to sue
+for mercy. It does not appear that there was any real necessity for
+using the animals, their presence being enough for the purpose. They
+were led _behind_ the troops, and on their appearance the maroons
+surrendered in great numbers, this putting an end to the insurrection.
+
+Now came the question of what was to be done with them. It was argued
+that no country could suffer people to live in it unless they could be
+controlled by law, and that obedience could not be expected from these
+people. To expect it was entirely out of the question; it was therefore
+resolved to transport them from the island. Accordingly, in June, 1796,
+six hundred were sent to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where lands were granted
+them and a subsistence allowed until crops could be raised. Not liking
+the climate, they were ultimately established in Sierra Leone, where
+they became the nucleus of the present colony. Those who had submitted
+remained in Jamaica, where their descendants are still well known.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS.
+
+
+By the middle of the eighteenth century Spain had fallen behind, and
+even Holland had lost her prestige. It followed, therefore, that the
+only Power that could rival Great Britain was France, and she was an
+enemy that could never be despised. The struggle in the West Indies
+between these two Powers now became, if possible, more intense; and if
+the result gave the sovereignty of the seas to Britons, they have mainly
+to ascribe it to their naval training in this part of the world. The
+mistakes of Admiral Vernon were lessons which, being borne in mind by
+later admirals, tended to prevent similar disasters in the future.
+
+There was a short intermission in the struggle between 1748 and 1756,
+when the "Seven Years' War" commenced; but before the actual declaration
+hostilities had commenced between the two rivals in India and North
+America. Now arose one of England's great admirals, Rodney, who gained
+his laurels in the Caribbean Sea, and was mainly instrumental in putting
+France in the background as a naval power. He first came to the front in
+1759, when he bombarded Havre, and later, with that other great seaman,
+Sir Samuel Hood, he became a "household word" in the West Indies.
+
+Before they appeared, however, the British captured Guadeloupe, and
+commenced a general raid upon the French shipping. But, as usual, our
+gallant foes were by no means despicable, for in 1760 they claimed to
+have taken 2,539 English vessels, against a loss of only 944. On the 5th
+of January, 1762, Rodney sailed from Barbados for Martinique, in command
+of eighteen ships of the line, and on the 4th of the following month the
+island capitulated. Then Grenada was taken, to be followed by Dominica,
+Tobago, St. Vincent, and St. Lucia, thus giving the whole of the French
+Caribbees into the possession of Great Britain. Spain being also
+involved, Admiral Pococke attacked Havana in May, and, after a siege of
+twenty-nine days, took the Morro Castle, a fort hitherto considered
+impregnable. A fortnight later the Governor of Cuba was compelled to
+capitulate, thus giving the town also into the hands of the British.
+These exploits made France and Spain sue for peace, which was signed at
+Paris in February, 1763, when Grenada, St. Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago
+were ceded to Great Britain, the other captures being restored.
+
+After this war positive orders were sent to the British West Indies to
+break off all trade and intercourse with the French and Spanish
+settlements, with the result that contraband and other traffic was
+thrown into the hands of the Dutch and Danes. Then the Dutch islands of
+Curacao and St. Eustatius began to flourish more and more, and those of
+the Danes, St. Thomas and St. John, became free ports. During the wars
+these islands rose to a pitch of prosperity hardly possible to any of
+those belonging to the combatants, on account of their neutrality.
+Naturally they were almost barren and of little account as plantations;
+but as _entrepots_ they were exceedingly useful, not only to their
+owners, but to the belligerents as well. Here alone could French,
+Spanish, and British ships meet without fighting, and for them they
+could run when pursued by the enemy.
+
+The island of St. Thomas was first colonised in 1666, but for a long
+time it made little progress. It became useful to the pirates, however,
+mainly from its being a safe place at which to dispose of their
+captures. Then merchant vessels found it sometimes convenient to go in
+to escape these rovers, perhaps to be followed by them, and yet remain
+safe until an opportunity occurred for escaping their vigilance. Prizes
+were brought here and sold, the prospect of good bargains leading to the
+settlement of a number of rich merchants, and especially Jews. What with
+all this, and a little contraband traffic, the people of St. Thomas did
+very well, and soon the harbour became one of the busiest in the West
+Indies.
+
+And here we must mention that the Jews were a very important factor in
+the development of the early settlements. It will be remembered that
+large numbers of these people were driven from Spain after the conquest
+of Granada, and how they went to Portugal and the Netherlands. A large
+number also went to Brazil, where at first they had a measure of
+freedom in the exercise of their religion not granted in the mother
+country. When the Dutch captured Brazil, perfect freedom followed; but
+after Portugal took her own again, this was withdrawn, and in
+consequence many left for Surinam and the West Indian islands. Here they
+were joined by some of their co-religionists from Holland, and in time
+became a powerful body of planters, but more especially traders. To them
+were due many improvements in the manufacture of sugar, and even the
+introduction of the cane into some places. In every colony there was a
+small community, often with a synagogue, and their connection one with
+another, as well as their virtual neutrality, made their transactions
+more safe than those of other traders. As may be supposed, they had no
+love for the Spaniard, and consequently were the main financiers, not
+only of privateers, but even pirates.
+
+St. Thomas, Curacao, and St. Eustatius lived by the misfortunes of
+others. No longer could the jolly buccaneer sell his prizes and booty at
+Jamaica; he must go elsewhere, and let other places reap the advantage
+of his free and easy bargains. For it was "easy come, easy go" with him,
+and the fortune he made was soon wasted in riotous living. This was all
+to the advantage of the wily Jew, who first haggled about the price of a
+cargo, and then got his money back by charging enormous profits on the
+supplies. The rover was as careless as the proverbial "Jack ashore," and
+could easily be induced to spend his last piece of eight on the luxuries
+so temptingly laid before him, utterly regardless of the consequences.
+He had only to go out and capture another vessel to be able to return
+and renew his jollification.
+
+In war time these harbours were crowded with the shipping of all
+nations, and many a fortune was made that enabled the merchant to go to
+Europe as a West Indian nabob. Then there was a great demand for neutral
+vessels, in which goods could be transhipped for conveyance to colonies
+where the belligerent flag might bring a crowd of privateers before the
+vessel got safely into harbour. Even physicians and surgeons made their
+piles, for there was always more or less sickness on board the vessels,
+and a hundred dollars a visit was a common fee.
+
+In 1774 began the dispute with the American colonies of Great Britain,
+and four years later France joined them, thus bringing trouble again
+upon the West Indies. The first important move was made by the French,
+who, in September, 1778, took Dominica, on which the English retaliated
+by capturing St. Lucia. Then a fleet was sent out from England under
+Admiral Byron, and another from France under Count de Grasse. The French
+took St. Vincent and Grenada, and every island of either nation was in a
+state of alarm and consternation. In July, 1779, Spain joined the others
+against England, on the ground that her flag had been insulted. To this
+it was replied that she harboured American privateers, and furnished
+them with false documents, under which they carried Spanish colours.
+Thus England had her hands full, for the Yankees alone gave her quite
+enough work, without the addition of these old rivals.
+
+As yet Rodney had not come out, but in the years 1778 and 1779 he
+pressed his claim on the Government to have a command in the West
+Indies. The seas were well known to him, and he had his views as to the
+proper mode of carrying out operations; but for some time his
+application was refused. Finally, however, in October, 1779, he was
+appointed to replace Admiral Byron, with supreme control over the
+operations in the Caribbean Sea, as well as freedom to intervene if
+necessary on the American coast.
+
+Rodney was at last satisfied, and he left in December with a convoy, the
+whole fleet numbering three hundred. In the centre were transports and
+merchant vessels, and on either side men-of-war. Off Cape Finisterre he
+captured a convoy of sixteen Spanish vessels, and beyond Cape St.
+Vincent fought with another squadron, and captured four men-of-war,
+including the admiral. On then to the relief of Gibraltar, from whence
+he sent part of the fleet into the Mediterranean, and where he remained
+until February 13, 1780, when he sailed for the West Indies.
+
+Arriving off St. Lucia on the 28th of March, he came upon the French
+fleet under De Guichen, which he attempted to engage, but was prevented
+from the want of skill in his captains. The result was that both fleets
+sailed away from each other without much damage to either, both stating
+that the other refused to fight. As, however, the French had thirty
+vessels to the English seventeen, they could have compelled an action;
+so that, although the affair was not creditable to either, it was
+perhaps a little more disgraceful to the larger fleet. Rodney was in a
+great rage. He attributed his failure to the incompetency of his
+subordinates, who had not been properly trained to make combined naval
+evolutions. Every captain, he said, thought himself fit to be Prime
+Minister of Britain.
+
+However, he continued his cruise, barring the way of the French, and
+driving De Guichen to St. Eustatius to refit. Now he began to teach his
+captains those naval manoeuvres in which he considered them so much
+wanting, which his assistant admiral, Sir Hyde Parker, did not
+altogether like. Rodney, it appears, treated all his subordinates as if
+they were raw recruits, and, while he gained obedience, created a great
+deal of ill-feeling. But, with all their training, they could not bring
+De Guichen to fight, even when they encountered him a second time; yet
+we may presume that the training was by no means wasted.
+
+As if Great Britain had not enough enemies, in December, 1780, she
+declared war with the Dutch, on the ground that they assisted the
+American colonies. What a formidable array--the Colonies, France, Spain,
+and Holland! Yet, somehow or other, she managed to cope with the whole.
+
+St. Eustatius was the great offender among the Dutch colonies.
+Notwithstanding that the home Government had sent out strict orders to
+all her settlements not to honour the flag of the revolted British
+colonies, or to supply them with contraband of war, there is no doubt
+that they were very loose in inquiring into such transactions. As we
+have said already, this and other islands were very useful to the
+belligerents; and, as we have just stated, De Guichen went to St.
+Eustatius to escape Rodney and refit. This was no doubt a sore point
+with the British admiral, who barred the enemy's passage to his own
+islands only to see him get what he needed from the Dutch.
+
+When the news of the declaration of war came out, Rodney was ready at
+once to pounce upon the offender; and on the 3rd of February, 1781,
+before the authorities of St. Eustatius had heard the news, he appeared
+in the harbour. The Governor could hardly believe his ears when an
+officer appeared to demand the surrender of the island to His Majesty of
+Great Britain, but being entirely unprepared, and quite unfitted to cope
+with such a force, he was obliged to surrender at discretion.
+
+Here was the opportunity for revenge, and Rodney embraced it. Even his
+best friends could hardly excuse the arbitrary doings which followed,
+and which were stigmatised as unworthy and almost dishonourable to a
+British admiral. Being determined to root out this nest of
+contrabandists, he confiscated all the property of the inhabitants, and
+ordered them to quit the island. The harbour was filled with shipping,
+and the stores with goods, the vessels numbering two hundred and fifty,
+and the contents of the stores worth about three million pounds. Here
+was indeed a disaster to the Jews, not only of St. Eustatius, but even
+of British islands, for they were all in correspondence. Rodney went so
+far as to say that many of the English merchants ought to have been
+hanged, for it was through their means, and the help of this neutral
+port, that the enemy were able to carry on the war.
+
+The people were astonished at such unheard-of treatment. Never before
+had such a thing happened, except in the raids of buccaneers and
+pirates. The Jews petitioned Rodney and General Vaughan to rescind their
+decision. They had received orders to give up the keys of their stores
+and inventories of the goods in them, as well as household furniture and
+plate; then they were to prepare themselves to quit the island. Such
+orders from British commanders, whose principal characteristics were
+mercy and humanity, had distressed them in the extreme, so that their
+families were absolutely in despair.
+
+This appeal had no effect, even when it was supported by some of the
+British officers, and such an auction now began as was never known
+before. The news reached Barbados and the other islands, and down came a
+horde of speculators, prepared to make their fortunes at once if
+possible. Such a haul did not occur every day, and they intended to take
+advantage of it. Thousands of bales of goods were brought out and sold,
+without either seller or buyer knowing anything of their contents. They
+might contain rich silks and velvets or the cheapest slave clothing. It
+was a grand lottery in which every bidder got a prize, although they
+were in some cases of little value. No one needed to despair of a
+bargain, however, for there was so much to sell as compared with the
+number of purchasers, that everything went cheap. Some few got bitten,
+but in the end hardly a tithe of the value of the goods was obtained.
+
+While this was going on at St. Eustatius, some Bristol privateers got
+information of the outbreak of hostilities, and pounced upon Demerara
+and Berbice, where they levied blackmail and captured most of the
+shipping. As usual with these plunderers, they had no authority to
+capture the colony, nor had they in this case even commissions against
+the Dutch. However, they put the inhabitants in a state of
+consternation, until, a few days later, two men-of-war arrived from
+Barbados to receive the capitulation, which was demanded on the same
+terms as that of St Eustatius, although neither party knew what these
+terms were. Nothing was left but submission, although the authorities
+protested against such an unheard-of manner of dictating unknown terms.
+The Governor of Barbados had heard from one of the inhabitants of that
+island that the Directeur-General of Demerara had expressed, at his
+dinner-table, his fears that in case of a war the river would be
+plundered by privateers, and of his preferring to surrender to one of
+the king's ships: for this reason he had sent the men-of-war. This was
+considered a bit of "sharp practice" by the Demerarians, but perhaps
+turned out for the best.
+
+Two commissioners were appointed by the colony to go in one of the
+English vessels to St. Eustatius and arrange the articles of
+capitulation, which were fortunately on altogether different lines from
+those of that island. Surinam, St. Martin's, Saba, and St.
+Bartholomew's also surrendered on the same unknown terms, but the
+admiral said that he and General Vaughan thought they ought to be put on
+a different footing. They would not treat them like the other, whose
+inhabitants, belonging to a State bound by treaty to assist Great
+Britain, had yet nevertheless assisted her public enemies and the rebels
+to her State, with every necessary and implement of war as well as
+provisions, thus perfidiously breaking the very treaties they had sworn
+to maintain.
+
+The treatment of St. Eustatius caused a great stir, not only in the West
+Indies, but in England as well. A remonstrance was sent to Rodney by the
+merchants of St. Kitt's, who claimed that a large quantity of their
+goods had been seized. Some of these were insured in England, and they
+considered their Excellencies responsible for their losses, for which
+they would seek redress by all the means in their power. It was
+impossible, they said, for many of them to be more utterly ruined than
+they then were, and they asked that certificates in reference to their
+property should be sent to England, in demanding which they were
+claiming a right rather than a favour. In reply, Rodney said he was
+surprised that gentlemen who called themselves subjects and merchants of
+Great Britain, should, when it was in their power to lodge their effects
+in the British islands to windward, under the protection of British
+laws, send them to leeward to St. Eustatius, where, in the eyes of
+reason and common sense, they could only be lodged to supply their
+king's and country's enemies. The island, he continued, was
+Dutch--everything in it was Dutch--all was under the Dutch flag. As
+Dutch it should be treated, and this was his firm resolution as a
+British admiral, who had no view whatever but to do his duty to his king
+and country.
+
+Two merchants from St. Eustatius went to London, where they were
+examined by the Attorney and Solicitor-Generals. They clamoured for
+justice, and got it, for one of them was committed on a charge of high
+treason for corresponding with the American agent at Amsterdam, and for
+furnishing the Americans with military stores and ammunition. Several
+attempts were made to injure Rodney with the king, but the blow on the
+enemy was so severe that His Majesty would not listen to the detractors.
+It is said that a cry of rage went up from the French and American
+colonies, and that Rodney gloried in his triumph. He was undoubtedly
+inclined to ride rough-shod over everybody and everything, but as long
+as he was successful, only the enemy complained.
+
+But the trouble was not yet over, for the merchants of St. Kitt's sent
+lawyers to file their claims in the Admiralty Courts. Then St. Eustatius
+was recaptured for Holland by the French, and the tide turned against
+the admiral. Now was the time to attack him, and his enemies took
+advantage of it. The mob that threw up their caps and shouted for joy at
+the glorious news of the capture, now lifted their hands in horror at
+Rodney's misdeeds. Even his friend Hood was guilty of the meanness of
+charging his comrade with carrying off vast sums of money, and never
+accounting for them. Rodney was recalled to England, where he arrived
+on the 19th of September, 1781, in ill-health, and rather downspirited.
+In December Burke moved the House of Commons for a committee to inquire
+into the affair, but although he pressed the motion with all his powers
+of oratory it was rejected.
+
+Meanwhile the French were turning the tables upon the late victors and
+having their revenge for the disasters which had fallen upon them. This
+led to Rodney being again consulted, with the result that on the 19th of
+February, 1782, he arrived in Barbados with twelve ships of the line.
+This was the most critical period during the whole war. On the 19th of
+October previous, Lord Cornwallis had surrendered to the Americans at
+Yorktown, and this disaster was followed not only by the loss of the
+West Indian captures, but of the British colonies of St. Kitt's, Nevis,
+Montserrat, Dominica, and St. Vincent. It was by the special request of
+the king that Rodney had been again sent out, and before his departure
+he declared that either the French admiral or himself should be
+captured. Lord Sandwich, to impress him the more, on the eve of his
+departure said: "The fate of this Empire is in your hands, and I have no
+wish that it should be in those of any other."
+
+Meanwhile the Count de Grasse was at Martinique, preparing a large fleet
+for the final reduction of the British by conquering Jamaica. He was
+expecting large reinforcements of French vessels and troops, which
+Rodney tried unsuccessfully to cut off. On the 8th of April the French
+were reported as having sailed for Hispaniola, where they were to be
+joined by a Spanish contingent, and Rodney at once sailed in pursuit.
+The result was that, at last, on the 12th, a decisive victory was gained
+off Dominica. Admiral de Grasse was captured, many of his fleet
+destroyed, and the whole expedition broken up. The British West Indies
+were thus saved, and the people of Jamaica erected a statue to the
+gallant admiral. Rodney, in concluding his despatch giving the account,
+said it was his most ardent wish that the British flag should for ever
+float in every part of the globe, and there is no doubt that this
+triumph conduced to such an end. It stands prominently forth as the
+greatest sea fight of the age, and was only eclipsed by those of Nelson,
+who we may state received much of his naval training in the West Indies.
+
+In January, 1783, peace was again restored. Great Britain lost her
+American colonies, restored those she had taken from France and Holland,
+and got back her own, except the island of Tobago, which was ceded to
+France. From Spain she got the right to cut logwood between the rivers
+Hondo and Belize, on the understanding that all other places on the
+coasts of Central America should be abandoned, and that no forts be
+erected on the concession.
+
+For ten years there was peace, and during that time the planting
+colonies were developed to a wonderful extent, while those dependent on
+the contraband traffic became much depressed. The English settlements
+increased in value so much, that in 1788 they were calculated to have
+under cultivation two million and a half acres, with five hundred and
+sixty thousand slaves. These were the palmy days of the slave-trade,
+when the importations leapt up year after year, with a corresponding
+increase in the export of produce. The property was valued at over
+eighty-six millions sterling, Jamaica coming first, but nearly every
+other island flourishing to an extent hardly credible to those who have
+only seen them after their downfall.
+
+What Jamaica was to the English, the western portion of Hispaniola
+became to the French, and even Spain increased her productions, now that
+things had become settled, and treasure seeking less remunerative.
+Altogether, the period from this time, to the end of the century, may be
+considered as the planter's best days, and the "good old times" of which
+we hear so much but find it so difficult to precisely indicate.
+
+On the 1st of February, 1793, peace was again broken by the French
+Convention, the declaration of war being made against England and
+Holland. Thus began that struggle which seemed interminable at the time,
+and which actually lasted twenty-two years. As usual the West Indies
+suffered, but this time they were not quite so much the scene of
+contention as they had been formerly. Tobago was captured from the
+French on the 15th of April, but during the remainder of the year little
+was done. In January, 1794, however, Admiral Sir John Jervis arrived at
+Barbados, and in the following month took Martinique after a severe
+struggle. Then he went on to St. Lucia, which also surrendered, and
+before the end of April Guadeloupe fell. Then came reverses; a French
+fleet arrived, and all were recaptured.
+
+Meanwhile France had invaded Holland, and established a sister republic
+on her own lines, rendering it necessary for the Stadtholder, the Prince
+of Orange, to fly off to England. From Kew, where the king had given him
+a residence, he wrote letters to all the Dutch colonies, asking the
+authorities to place them in the hands of the British, and treat people
+of that nationality as friends and allies. With these despatches British
+fleets were sent to all the possessions of Holland, but only one or two
+obeyed the command, the result being that the others had to be taken by
+force, until hardly a Dutch colony existed in any part of the world.
+
+In October, 1796, Spain joined France on the ground that the British, in
+their operations against the enemy, had injured her in several ways. One
+of the reasons given was so absurd that we can hardly conceive it to
+have been put forth seriously. Great Britain had captured Demerara, and
+this put her in a situation to possess positions of greater importance.
+Spain, however, got nothing by her taking up the quarrel, for her trade
+was absolutely swept from the seas, and communication with America
+almost cut off. This state of things became so troublesome that for the
+first time in her history neutral vessels were permitted to trade in her
+American colonies. She also lost the island of Trinidad, which had
+remained in her possession since the days of Ralegh.
+
+Soon the whole of the West Indies and Spanish Main were virtually under
+the control of Great Britain, little opportunity being given to her
+enemies of crossing the Atlantic. No longer could the Caribbean Sea be
+the scene of the great struggle--the forces of the combatants were
+wanted nearer home. Now again came the harvest of the little island of
+St. Thomas, until Denmark was also numbered among the enemies of the
+"Queen of the Seas." Then the United States came to get her pickings as
+a neutral, which gave such an impetus to her ship-building and commerce,
+that later the seamen trained under such auspices became formidable
+rivals to the British.
+
+The colonists did not altogether dislike this great war. True, freights
+and insurances were very high, but then the prices of produce were high
+also. There was a spice of danger in every voyage, but after all the
+risk was not so very great until the vessels came into the Channel. Then
+there was a convoy to protect them, and they might even get prize money
+by capturing traders of the enemy. Every vessel went armed, and many a
+privateer of the enemy got severely beaten by a gallant body of merchant
+seamen and passengers. This was a glorious time for the British navy,
+but the fleets in the West Indies had little to do after the beginning
+of the war. There was a great disturbance on the island of Hispaniola, a
+riot in Grenada, troubles in the French islands, and a few skirmishes
+here and there, but nothing of much consequence to the British.
+
+There were many small difficulties of course, and the navigation laws
+had to be relaxed generally in favour of neutrals, as otherwise
+provisions would have been scarce. The Dutch were not altogether
+displeased with British rule, for Curacao, which had not been conquered,
+was captured from its French garrison in 1800, at the request of the
+inhabitants, whose trade had been entirely stopped. Then the Spanish
+colonies came to an arrangement by which much of their produce went
+through British hands, and this prevented the neutrals from getting
+everything.
+
+In 1802 the peace of Amiens gave France a rest for about ten months,
+when she got back her own and the Dutch colonies, leaving Trinidad as an
+addition to those of Great Britain. Hardly, however, had they taken
+possession, when the treaty was broken, and the British were again in
+their midst. A great deal of the work which had been undone by the peace
+had now to be undertaken afresh, but it was ultimately accomplished, so
+that things went on much the same as before.
+
+The year 1805 was notable for Nelson's trip across the Atlantic in
+search of the French fleet, which however fled before him and got back
+to Europe. The same year also saw the heroic defence of "H.M.S." Diamond
+Rock, which however was not a ship, but an improvised fortress, which
+after a long struggle was obliged to capitulate. Hundreds of gallant
+exploits were performed in the West Indies by both English and French,
+and thus the war went on year after year, until it became something to
+be calculated for in commercial transactions. People began to look upon
+it almost as a natural state of things, and fathers told their children
+that they had peace on one occasion long ago for as many as ten years.
+
+The British had undoubtedly become very arrogant. Their position on the
+sea was so supreme that they did much as they pleased with the few
+neutrals. This sort of thing did not suit the North American traders,
+who were Englishmen also, and like their forefathers resented any
+interference whatever. It resulted, therefore, that the United States
+declared war in January, 1813, and made the planters understand what
+took place "when Greek met Greek." Almost immediately every colony was
+pestered and worried by a number of fast-sailing schooners, as dangerous
+in a sense as had once been the fly-boats of the buccaneers. The heavy
+sugar boats going from plantation to port were captured in great
+numbers, and some of the harbours actually blockaded by the "Saucy
+Jack," the "Hornet," and other audacious Yankee craft with names as
+suggestive of their characters. Then, indeed, the West Indies were
+roused from their apathy--war was actually at their doors. However,
+peace came at last, and after 1815 it might be expected that the islands
+would go on prospering and to prosper.
+
+Such, however, was not the case. In 1807 a great difficulty had come
+upon them by the abolition of the slave-trade, which at once put a stop
+to all extensions, either in the way of new plantations or of the
+acreage under cultivation. This was the first great check, and with the
+fall in prices, which ensued when Britain became the consignee of almost
+every settlement, caused a cry of "Ruin!" to arise, which has continued
+with short intermissions down to the present day.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+DOWNFALL OF HISPANIOLA.
+
+
+Before the abolition of the slave-trade had affected the British islands
+the French colonies were distracted by the results of their great
+revolution. Hispaniola, or rather that portion now known as Hayti, had
+become, as we before said, the most important colony; we must now give
+the story of its downfall. If this had happened by the fortune of war it
+would perhaps not have been so deplorable, but to be utterly ruined as
+it was, until even now, after the lapse of a century, it is behind its
+neighbours, is very sad.
+
+But, in the struggle for existence the straining after liberty has to be
+reckoned with, and although the process causes intense suffering to both
+lord and serf--master and slave--the fight is sure to come at some time
+or other. Miss Martineau uses the title, "The hour and the man," for her
+romance of the liberation of this once flourishing island. The hour had
+come, but we are afraid _the man_ has not yet appeared on Hispaniola.
+
+When the French people took the government from the hands of their king
+and summoned the States General, revolutionary ideas had already come
+to a head, and the matter of slavery received much consideration. In all
+the colonies were numbers of free coloured persons, who had been
+manumitted by their fathers, and in many cases sent to Europe for their
+education. In Paris they were brought into communication with a kind of
+anti-slavery society, called _L'Amis des noirs_, before which they had
+opportunities of ventilating their grievances. These consisted of civil
+disabilities which kept mulattoes in the background, and prevented their
+taking what they believed to be their proper positions in society. The
+time was fitted for such an agitation, the people were there, and it was
+only to be expected that their complaints would come in the long
+catalogue of charges against the aristocrats, among whom were included
+the West Indian planters. However, although there was little sympathy
+with the colonists, nothing particular was done as yet, except the issue
+of the celebrated declaration that all men were born, and continued to
+be, free and equal as to their political rights. It might be said,
+perhaps, that this alone gave freedom to the slave and civil equality to
+the mulatto, but as it did not specially apply to them, little trouble
+ensued. The planters, however, were sufficiently acute to see the
+logical outcome of the declaration, and were correspondingly troubled,
+as they felt that if published among the negroes it might convert them
+into implacable enemies, and bring on dangerous insurrections. They were
+soon pacified, however, by orders to convene provincial assemblies, and
+send representatives to Paris: this they thought would prevent
+mischief, as their interests could be made known and promoted in
+France.
+
+[Illustration: VIEW OF PART OF HISPANIOLA.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+The free coloured people soon heard the news, and at once began to claim
+their rights as citizens, which the planters were by no means prepared
+to grant. On this refusal they began to arm themselves, and make
+demonstrations in various parts of Hayti, but at first were easily put
+down by the authorities. As yet there was little ill-feeling; the
+demonstrations were only alarming from their significance and their
+possible consequences. It followed, therefore, that little was done
+beyond a demand for submission, the mulattoes being allowed to disperse
+on promising to keep the peace. A few whites, however, who had been
+leaders in the agitation, were severely punished, and when a certain
+Mons. Dubois not only advocated the claims of the coloured people, but
+the slaves as well, he was banished from the colony.
+
+Mons. de Beaudierre, a _ci-devant_ magistrate, also helped to add to the
+trouble. He was enamoured of a coloured woman, who owned a valuable
+plantation, and wanted to marry her, but at the same time wished to see
+her free from all civil disabilities. Accordingly he drew up a memorial
+to the committee of his section, claiming for the mulattoes the full
+benefit of the national declaration of rights. This roused the
+authorities, who at once arrested him, but so strong was the feeling of
+the whites that they took the prisoner from gaol and put him to death.
+
+The agitation in Hayti as well as in Martinique led to petitions and
+remonstrances to the National Assembly, and on the 8th of March, 1790,
+the majority voted that it was never intended to comprehend the internal
+government of the colonies in the constitution of the mother country, or
+to subject them to laws incompatible with their local conditions. They
+therefore authorised the inhabitants of each colony to signify their
+wishes, and promised that, as long as the plans suggested were
+conformable to the mutual interests of the colonies and the metropolis,
+they would not cause any innovations.
+
+This of course raised a clamour among the friends of the blacks and
+mulattoes, who considered it as sanctioning the slave-trade, which they
+wanted to put down. In Hayti the General Assembly met and made some
+radical changes, which were opposed by many of the old colonists, and
+this brought discord among the whites. The Governor dissolved the
+Assembly, but this only brought more trouble, for the subordinate
+Western body took the part of the General Assembly, and went so far that
+the Governor tried to suppress it by force. But the members put
+themselves under the protection of the national guard who resisted the
+troops sent against them, and after a short skirmish drove them off.
+Thus all authority was put at defiance by the whites, when if they
+wanted to keep down the coloured and black people, it was of the
+greatest consequence that union should exist. The General Convention
+called the colony to arms, but, before actually commencing hostilities,
+they resolved to proceed to France, and lay the whole matter before the
+Convention. Accordingly to the number of eighty-five they sailed on the
+8th of August, 1790, the authorities also agreeing to await the result.
+
+Among the coloured residents in France was a young man named James Oge,
+the son of a mulatto woman by a white man, whose mother owned a coffee
+plantation. He was a regular attendant at the meetings of the friends of
+the blacks, where, under such men as Lafayette and Robespierre, he had
+been initiated into the doctrine of the equal rights of men. On hearing
+of the vote of non-interference with the colonies, Oge, maddened by the
+thought that the civil disabilities of people of his colour would be
+continued, resolved to go himself to Hayti. He was confident that the
+people there would join him, and going out by way of the United States
+he obtained there a good supply of arms, with which he arrived in
+October of the same year.
+
+Six weeks after his arrival he wrote to the Governor, demanding that all
+the privileges of the whites should be extended to every other person,
+without distinction. As representing the coloured people he made this
+request, and if their wrongs were not at once redressed, he said, they
+were prepared to take up arms. He had already been joined by his two
+brothers, and they were busy calling upon their friends to insist,
+assuring them that France approved of their claim. But with all his
+efforts he could get but few followers, the same difficulty cropping up
+here as in most of the slave insurrections--a want of the power of
+combination under one of their own race. However, he at last got
+together two hundred, and, receiving no answer from the Governor, they
+commenced a series of raids on the plantations. Oge cautioned them
+against bloodshed, but the first white man that fell into their hands
+was murdered, and others soon met with the same fate. Even mulattoes,
+who refused to join the insurgents, were treated the same way; one man
+who pointed to his wife and six children, as a reason for his refusal,
+being murdered with them.
+
+The Governor now sent out a body of troops and militia to suppress the
+revolt, with the result that Oge was defeated, and obliged to take
+refuge with the remnant of his followers in the Spanish colony of St.
+Domingo. The whites were now roused, and began to cry out for vengeance
+upon the coloured people in general, whether they had sympathised with
+Oge or not. In self-defence they had to take up arms in several places,
+but by conciliation on the part of the authorities a general
+insurrection was averted for the time. A new Governor now arrived, and
+one of his first acts was to demand the extradition of Oge by the
+Spaniards, which, being done, he was executed by breaking alive upon the
+wheel. In his last confession he is said to have stated that a plot was
+then hatching for the destruction of all the whites, but little notice
+was taken of this information. The whites believed that now the leader
+was dead things would go on in the old way, but, unfortunately for them,
+they were mistaken.
+
+Meanwhile the delegates had arrived in France, where they were
+honourably received. After an interview with a Committee of the
+Convention, however, they were informed that their decrees were
+reversed, the Haytian Assembly dissolved, and they themselves under
+arrest. This, when the news reached the colony, put the whites into a
+state of consternation, and for awhile it appeared as if Hayti would be
+the scene of a civil war. Captain Mauduit, who had led the force against
+the assembly, was murdered by his own troops, and preparations were made
+to resist the authorities.
+
+The planters thought these arbitrary measures of France very oppressive,
+but they had yet to learn how far the revolutionists might go. In May,
+1791, the matter of equal rights for the coloured people came up before
+the National Convention, and their claim was strongly advocated by
+Robespierre and others. It was now that the words, "Perish the colonies
+rather than sacrifice one of our principles," were uttered by that
+bloodthirsty revolutionist, to afterwards become a stock quotation of
+the extremist in every country. The result of the discussion was the
+decree of May the 15th, that the people of colour resident in the French
+colonies, and born of free parents, should be allowed all the privileges
+of French citizens; to have votes, and be eligible for election to the
+parochial and colonial assemblies.
+
+This brought on a crisis in Hayti. The coloured people were determined
+to obtain their rights, and the planters equally resolved that they
+should remain as before. The Governor was so much alarmed that he at
+once sent to France for further assistance, at the same time asking for
+the suspension of the obnoxious decree. Hearing of this, the mulattoes
+began to assemble and take up arms, and the Governor hardly dared to
+take action pending the result of his application.
+
+On the morning of the 23rd of August, 1791, the people of Cape Francois
+were alarmed by reports that the slaves in the neighbourhood were in
+open revolt, plundering the plantations and murdering the whites. The
+disturbance had commenced with the hewing in pieces of a young white
+apprentice on Pin. Noe, which murder was followed by a general massacre
+of every white man, except the surgeon, who was spared that he might
+become useful. From one estate to another the revolt spread, until the
+whole neighbourhood was a scene of murder, fire, and rapine. The white
+townspeople put their women and children on board the ships, and then
+united for a stubborn defence, but the coloured men wanted to remain
+neutral. This roused such a strong feeling that even at that critical
+time the whites had to be prevented by the authorities from murdering
+the mulattoes. By thus protecting the mulattoes their good-will was
+gained, and they volunteered to go out against the rebels.
+
+Amidst the glare of a hundred conflagrations a strong body of men was
+collected and sent against the negroes. They defeated one body of four
+hundred, but accessions were continually made to the side of the rebels,
+until their overpowering numbers compelled the whites to retreat, and do
+their best to save the town. The revolt had been continually spreading,
+and now extended over the whole country, coloured people joining the
+negroes in their work of destruction. One planter was nailed to a gate,
+and then had his limbs cut off, one after another; a carpenter was sawn
+asunder, on the ground that this mode of execution suited his trade; and
+two mulatto sons killed their white father, notwithstanding his prayers
+and promises. White, and even coloured children, were killed without
+mercy at the breasts of their mothers, and young women were violated
+before the eyes of their parents. Here and there the horror was relieved
+by kind actions on the part of faithful slaves, who, while joining in
+the revolt for their own safety, saved their masters and mistresses.
+
+The inhabitants of the town did all they could by sorties, but this was
+very little. The rebels would run away at the first onset, but only to
+return in overpowering numbers. A few were taken and broken on the
+wheel, others fell in the skirmishes, but the insurrection still went
+on. It spread to the neighbourhood of Port au Prince, but, on the
+inhabitants of that town agreeing to enforce the obnoxious decree, the
+rebels retired. This action was at last followed by those of Cape
+Francois, and a partial truce ensued. In two months, it was said, a
+thousand plantations were destroyed, and ten thousand blacks and two
+thousand whites killed.
+
+The news of this great disaster caused a revulsion of feeling in Paris,
+and the decree which had caused so much trouble was annulled on the 24th
+of September, before the results of the insurrection and the truces were
+known. The arrangement had been come to at Port au Prince on the 11th of
+the same month, and on the 20th at Cape Francois. Thus almost at the
+time when it was being repealed the colonists were promising to see it
+enforced.
+
+It is hardly necessary to say what could be the only result of the
+arrival of this revocation. The struggle was renewed, and all hopes of
+reconciliation were at an end. The coloured party charged the whites
+with treachery and duplicity; now they would fight until one or the
+other was exterminated. They captured Port St. Louis, but got a severe
+repulse from Port au Prince. Both sides were desperate, and although
+there were fewer massacres in cold blood the rebels fell in thousands.
+But as they were so numerous this slaughter made little impression.
+Even when the prisoners were tortured with a refinement of cruelty
+hardly credible, no good resulted from such examples. The time for all
+that had passed, yet the whites nailed one poor mulatto by the feet in a
+cart, and had him driven round the neighbourhood as a spectacle, before
+breaking him on the wheel.
+
+In January, 1792, three commissioners arrived from France to attempt a
+reconciliation, which they commenced by publishing the decree revoking
+the rights of the coloured people. Then they proclaimed a general
+amnesty for all who should surrender within a given time. Such utter
+ignorance as was thus shown has hardly been equalled in any age; we can
+only ascribe it to the fact that the scum had risen to the top. The
+mulattoes were roused to fury, and the whites equally exasperated. At
+Petit Goave the rebels held thirty-four white prisoners, and at once
+they were brought forth to be broken on the wheel, previous to which the
+proclamation of amnesty was read to them, their executioners mockingly
+claiming it as a pardon for the cruelties they were exercising.
+
+This sort of thing, however, could not go on very long. Most of the
+plantations and provision grounds had been destroyed, and both parties
+felt the want of food. Unless something were done they would all be
+starved; for without means of buying supplies even the whites could
+hardly exist, while the blacks did nothing to raise further crops in
+place of those they had eaten or destroyed. France again made an attempt
+to put matters straight by declaring, on the 4th of April, 1792, that
+the people of colour and free negroes ought to enjoy equal political
+rights with other citizens. New assemblies were to be called, in the
+election of which they should be allowed to vote; a new Governor of
+Hayti was appointed, and new commissioners sent out to inquire into the
+whole matter.
+
+The Governor and the commission arrived at Cape Francois on the 13th of
+September, and finding everything in confusion, they sent the late
+administrator to France as a prisoner, and called a new assembly. Then
+the commissioners put themselves in communication with the rebels, which
+made the whites think them about to emancipate the slaves. This was
+followed by a dispute between them and the Governor, and the appointment
+of yet another head, who arrived in May, 1793. He refused to recognise
+the commissioners, but they were not so easily set aside, for having the
+whole power of the colony under control, they took possession of Port au
+Prince, Jacmel, and Cape Francois, afterwards ordering the Governor to
+leave. This led to another war, in which the coloured rebels and even
+negroes were utilised by the commissioners, who thus, in a way,
+sanctioned the revolt. Similar atrocities to those formerly enacted were
+renewed, and again the colony was distracted in every part.
+
+The ruined planters now lost all hope, and began to leave for the United
+States, Jamaica, and other colonies. Some went to England, especially
+those Royalists who attributed all their disasters to the revolution.
+Here they began to urge the British to conquer Hayti, although as yet
+war had not been declared with France. In September, 1793, an
+expedition was sent from Jamaica, and on its arrival at Jeremie the
+British were apparently welcomed by the whites. But the colony was so
+utterly distracted that little could be done, and although they took
+Port au Prince they were repulsed at Cape Tiberon. Then sickness fell
+upon them--"Yellow Jack"--and this, with the delay of reinforcements,
+made all prospects of success quite hopeless. With a foreign enemy at
+hand the commissioners did all they could to reconcile the parties, and
+to this end, just before the landing of the British, proclaimed complete
+emancipation of all the slaves, which was ratified in Paris on the 4th
+of February, 1794. This brought the whole body of rebels together, and
+the position of the enemy became untenable. Finally came the cession of
+the Spanish part of the island to France, and now it might be supposed
+that something could be done to restore peace.
+
+This repulse of the British was greatly due to the influence of a very
+remarkable personage, Toussaint L'Ouverture, a pure negro, and lately a
+slave. He had joined the revolt from its commencement, and had succeeded
+in gaining such an influence over his race as had hitherto been unknown
+in any slave insurrection. As soon as the general emancipation had been
+declared, he was so grateful that he joined the French, heart and soul,
+drove out the British, put down the mulattoes, and was appointed
+Commander-in-chief of the united forces. In 1801 he became virtually
+Dictator of the whole island, and was made President for life, with the
+result that many plantations were re-established, and the colony was
+making slow progress towards recovery.
+
+Napoleon Buonaparte has been much lauded for his diplomacy, but he
+certainly knew nothing of the West Indies. After the peace of Amiens he
+had a little time to look after the colonies, and Hayti was among the
+first to receive attention. Toussaint was then almost at the height of
+his power, and had prepared a Constitution which was laid before
+Napoleon, on reading which the First Consul said it was an outrage on
+the honour of France, and the work of a revolted slave, whom they must
+punish. It was true that the black President was virtually independent.
+He lived in the palace at St. Domingo, and, with his councillors of all
+colours, enacted the part of a little sovereign. To crown his audacity,
+he, in July, 1801, proclaimed the independence of the island, and
+himself as supreme chief.
+
+This roused the anger of Napoleon, who retaliated by a proclamation
+re-establishing slavery in the island--a measure so foolish that even
+the planters themselves saw the impossibility of carrying it out. To
+reduce the negroes again to servitude was utterly impossible, even with
+all the power France could then bring into the island. However, it was
+attempted with a force of thirty thousand men and sixty-six ships of
+war. When this immense fleet arrived at Cape Francois the town was
+commanded by the negro Christophe, who, finding himself unable to cope
+with such a force, burnt the palace and withdrew. The French landed and
+sent two sons of Toussaint, who had been sent to France for their
+education, and to whom they had given a passage to their father,
+bearing a letter from Napoleon, offering him great honours if he would
+declare his allegiance. All that Toussaint said in reply was that he
+would be faithful to his brethren and his God, and with that he allowed
+his sons to return.
+
+As yet the declaration that slavery was to be re-established had not
+been published, and the negroes were working the plantations on a share
+of the crop, with penalties for idleness. The French tried to put the
+negroes against Toussaint, in which they succeeded to some extent, the
+result being that civil war was renewed, and that the power of the black
+chieftain was broken. Then the general thought it time to issue the
+proclamation, which fell upon his negro allies like a thunder-clap, and
+made them again rally round Toussaint. Thus almost everything which had
+been gained was utterly and for ever lost.
+
+Now the French tried a little double-dealing. The general stated in a
+new proclamation that ignorance had led him hastily to fall into error,
+and that to prevent anything of the same kind, and to provide for the
+future welfare and liberty of all, he convened an assembly of
+representatives of all the inhabitants, regardless of colour. This won
+over the leaders, and finally peace was concluded with Toussaint. The
+fallen president wished to retire to his estate and into private life,
+but having been cordially invited to meet the general to discuss with
+him the welfare of the colony, he was seized at the interview and put on
+board a French frigate, which immediately sailed for France. Here he
+was imprisoned for life without trial, and finally allowed to starve by
+withholding food and water for four days.
+
+The negroes again rose, and the soldiers were by this time so weakened
+by yellow fever, which even carried off the Governor, that little could
+be done against the rebels. Yet everything possible was attempted.
+Bloodhounds were brought from Cuba to worry the rebels to death; they
+were shot and taken into the sea to be drowned in strings. Dessalines
+had now become their leader, and on the 29th of November, 1803, he with
+Christophe and Clervaux, the other rebel chiefs, issued the St. Domingo
+declaration of independence. Restored to their primitive dignity the
+black and coloured people proclaimed their rights, and swore never to
+yield them to any power on earth. "The frightful veil of prejudice is
+torn to pieces, and is so for ever; woe be to whomsoever would dare
+again to put together its bloody tatters." The landholders were not
+forbidden to return if they renounced their old errors and acknowledged
+the justice of the cause for which the blacks had been spilling their
+blood for twelve years. As for those who affected to believe themselves
+destined by Heaven to be masters and tyrants, if they came it would be
+to meet chains or to be quickly expelled. They had sworn not to listen
+to clemency for those who dared to speak of the restoration of slavery.
+Nothing was too costly a sacrifice for liberty, and every means was
+lawful to employ against those who wished to suppress it. Were they to
+cause rivers and torrents of blood to flow--were they to fire half the
+globe to maintain it--they would be innocent before the tribunal of
+Providence.
+
+This declaration was followed on the 30th of March, 1804, by an address
+of Dessalines, in which he said that everything that reminded them of
+France also reminded them of the cruelties of Frenchmen. There still
+remained, he said, Frenchmen on their island--creatures, alas! of their
+indulgence; when would they be tired of breathing the same air? Their
+cruelty, when compared with the patient moderation of the blacks--their
+difference in colour--everything said that they were not brothers, and
+would never become so. If they continued to find an asylum, troubles and
+dissensions would be sure to continue. "Citizens, inhabitants of Hayti,
+men, women, girls, children, cast your eyes upon each point of the
+island! Seek in it, you, your wives; you, your husbands; you, your
+sisters!" Their ashes were in the grave, and they had not avenged their
+deaths. Let the blacks learn that they had done nothing if they did not
+give the nations a terrible but just example of the vengeance of a brave
+people, who had recovered liberty, and were jealous to maintain it.
+
+They were again roused, and from the 29th of April to the 14th of May an
+indiscriminate massacre of the whites took place, as many as 2,500 being
+killed during the fifteen days. On the 28th of April Dessalines issued a
+manifesto congratulating them on their success. At length, he said, the
+hour of vengeance had arrived, and the implacable enemies of the rights
+of man had suffered the punishment due to their crimes. His arm had too
+long delayed to strike, but at the signal, which the justice of God had
+urged, they had brought the axe to bear upon the ancient tree of slavery
+and prejudice. In vain had time and the infernal politics of Europe
+surrounded it with triple brass. They had become, like their natural
+enemies, cruel and merciless. Like a mighty torrent their vengeful fury
+had carried away everything in its impetuous course. "Thus perish all
+tyrants over innocence and all oppressors of mankind!" Where was that
+evil and unworthy Haytian who thought he had not accomplished the
+decrees of the Eternal by exterminating those bloodthirsty tigers? "If
+there be one, let him fly--indignant nature discards him from our
+bosom--let him hide his shame far from hence! The air we breathe is not
+suited to his gross organs--it is the pure air of liberty, august and
+triumphant." Yes, they had rendered war for war, crime for crime,
+outrage for outrage. He had saved his country--he had avenged America.
+He made this avowal in the face of earth and heaven--it was his pride
+and glory. Black and yellow, whom the duplicity of Europeans had
+endeavoured to divide, now made but one family--he advised them to
+maintain that precious concord and happy harmony. In order to strengthen
+the tie let them call to remembrance the catalogue of atrocities--the
+abominable project of massacring the whole population, unblushingly
+proposed to him by the French authorities. Let that nation which was mad
+enough to attack him, come--let them bring their cohorts of homicides.
+He would allow them to land, but woe to those who approached the
+mountains! "Never again shall a colonist or a European set his foot
+upon this territory with the title of master or proprietor."
+
+On the 8th of October the writer of these bloodthirsty addresses was
+crowned as Jacques the First, Emperor of Hayti.
+
+In 1808 an attempt was made on the part of Spain to regain her old
+colony on the eastern part of the island, where France still maintained
+a nominal supremacy. Spain was now an ally of Great Britain, and, with
+the aid of British troops, she took St. Domingo and retained this part
+of the island until 1821, when a revolution took place and it became
+independent, to be almost immediately united with its sister republic.
+
+Meanwhile the Emperor Jacques did not long enjoy his throne in peace,
+for he was murdered by his coloured soldiers on the 17th of October,
+1806. A republic followed, under the presidency of General Petion, who
+was at the head of the mulattoes, but did not agree with the blacks.
+This led to a division, the north, with Cape Francois as the capital,
+coming into the hands of the negro Christophe, who got himself crowned
+as the Emperor Henry the First; the southern district, with Port au
+Prince, forming a republic under President Petion.
+
+Henry was a man of good common sense, but like most negroes, much
+inclined to ape the whites. One of his toasts at a dinner was
+characteristic: "My brother, the king of Great Britain, and may he be
+successful against Buonaparte, and continue the barrier between that
+tyrant and this kingdom." He created a legion of honour, called the
+Order of St. Henry, built a palace, and began to acquire a fleet; he
+gave balls and encouraged operas, had a great seal, gave titles of
+nobility, and procured a set of regalia and jewels, with velvet robes
+and all other appendages of royalty. Under his rule the country
+flourished, for he would have no idlers. Yet he was a tyrant, and at
+last, in 1820, he was attacked by his own guard, and committed suicide
+to prevent falling into their hands. President Boyer, who had succeeded
+Petion, now took advantage of the confusion to incorporate the two
+districts, and two years later he added the revolted Spanish portion,
+thus bringing the whole island under one rule, the presidency of which
+he held for twenty-two years.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+EMANCIPATION OF THE SPANISH MAIN.
+
+
+The influence of the French Revolution was felt in most of the other
+islands, but nowhere did it lead to such disasters as befel Hispaniola.
+In 1795 there was an insurrection in the island of Grenada, where the
+coloured people, under French influence, nearly drove the English out of
+the colony. Even when defeated they held their own in the mountains for
+about a year, committing many atrocities on the whites who fell into
+their hands. In most of the French islands there were insurrections more
+or less dangerous, some of which were put down by the British
+conquerors, who thus helped to keep the peace. It could not be expected,
+however, that small places like Martinique and Guadeloupe would ever
+have made such stubborn resistance as the great island of Hispaniola.
+
+A very great impression was made on the Spanish colonies, who during the
+war, owing to the distracted condition of the mother country, attained
+to a degree of freedom hitherto beyond their reach. This led to
+unfavourable comparisons between past and present, and the feeling that
+grew up was fomented by the British, who now had many opportunities
+from the measure of free trade which resulted from the peculiar
+circumstances of that period. Secret societies were then common all over
+Europe, and in Spain they were not wanting. In the early years of this
+century one of the most energetic members was Francisco Miranda, a
+native of Caracas, who had been a soldier under Washington, and had
+distinguished himself by his prominence in many of the revolutionary
+projects of the time. He was the prime organiser of the Creoles of South
+America, and under his auspices the "Gran Reunion Americana" was founded
+in London. Bolivar and San Martin were initiated into this society, and
+took its oath to fight for the emancipation of South America. Miranda
+did his best to ensure the co-operation of Great Britain and the United
+States, but failing in this, determined to get up one or more
+insurrections without their assistance.
+
+On the 27th of March, 1806, he sailed with three vessels and two hundred
+men from Jacmel, Hayti, and on the 11th of April arrived at the Dutch
+island of Aruba, from whence the little company proceeded to Puerto
+Cabello. The demonstration, however, was nipped in the bud, for two of
+his vessels being almost immediately captured by the Spaniards, Miranda
+was obliged to fly in the other to Barbados. Here he met Admiral
+Cochrane, with whom he entered into an arrangement for British
+assistance. Conceiving that it might be mutually advantageous to Great
+Britain and the Spanish provinces that the latter should be freed from
+the yoke of Spain, the admiral agreed to support him in a descent on
+Venezuela, between the coasts opposite Trinidad and Aruba. The only
+stipulation was for free trade with Great Britain as against her
+enemies, and with that Miranda went off to Trinidad.
+
+Here he hoped to gain recruits from among the Spanish people of the
+island, to whom he issued an address. The glorious opportunity, he said,
+presented itself of relieving from oppression and arbitrary government a
+people who were worthy of a better fate, but who were shackled by a
+despotism too cruel for human nature longer to endure. Groaning under
+their afflictions they hailed with extended arms the noble cause of
+freedom and independence, and called upon them to share the God-like
+action of relieving them.
+
+This stirring address made little impression, and consequently few
+followers were enrolled. However, he got eight armed vessels and two
+traders, and sailed from Trinidad on the 25th of July, 1806, for Coro on
+the Main. The fort and city were taken, but the people, instead of
+joyfully welcoming their deliverers, ran away and could not be induced
+to return. Miranda, finding the place untenable, went over to Aruba, of
+which he took possession as a basis for further operations. But the
+British authorities looked upon his scheme as impracticable, especially
+as it tended to injure their trade, and in November Miranda was
+compelled to disband his little company of less than three hundred at
+Trinidad.
+
+The time for a revolution had not yet arrived, but it was fast
+approaching. It could not be expected that Great Britain would assist
+filibustering against her ally, which Spain now became, and without some
+outside assistance Miranda found it impossible to do anything. However,
+the people themselves were at last aroused, and on the 19th of April,
+1810, the city of Caracas deposed the captain-general and appointed a
+Junta to rule in the name of the king. This body invited the other
+provinces to join and form a league for mutual protection against the
+French, who now had virtual possession of the mother country. Other
+provinces took the Government side and prepared to suppress the revolt,
+which led Caracas to ask the assistance of Great Britain and the United
+States.
+
+Among the Venezuelans was Simon Bolivar, who afterwards became the most
+important personage in the struggle for independence. Like Miranda, he
+was a native of South America, and like him had imbibed revolutionary
+ideas in Paris. He was a planter, and had taken no part in the overthrow
+of the captain-general, but from his principles being well known, he was
+appointed with others to proceed to London in the interests of the
+Junta. On their arrival they were answered cautiously, the authorities
+not wishing to commit themselves under the circumstances. Here Bolivar
+met Miranda, and took the oath of the "Gran Reunion," promising to work
+for the independence of South America, notwithstanding his nominal
+position as an advocate of the king of Spain against Napoleon.
+
+Meanwhile the Spanish Regency had proclaimed the leaders of the movement
+to be rebels, declaring war against them and blockading their ports.
+The Central Junta responded by raising an army, which was defeated with
+considerable loss at Coro and had to retire on Caracas. This caused some
+discouragement, but Miranda now arrived, was welcomed with an ovation,
+and appointed lieutenant-general of the army. He was also asked to draw
+up a constitution and to become one of the deputies at the first
+congress of Venezuela to be held in March, 1811.
+
+[Illustration: LA GUAYRA ON THE MAIN.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+No longer was there any question of the French, the struggle was for
+entire independence. A civil war began, which raged with varying
+fortunes for twelve years, in the course of which were enacted scenes
+more worthy of the days of buccaneers than the beginning of the
+nineteenth century. In 1812 Caracas was destroyed by an earthquake, and
+in another locality perished the greater portion of a thousand men,
+marching against the Spaniards. It was reported that those provinces
+where the revolution had most influence suffered greatest, while those
+more loyal almost escaped. This was due to the fact that the mountainous
+region, in which Caracas is situated, felt the full effect of the
+earthquake, but the priests, who were mostly loyalists, told the
+ignorant peasantry that it was a judgment on the Patriots. The result
+was that large bodies deserted, until the whole Patriot army became
+disorganised. Miranda was captured and sent to Spain, where he died in
+prison in 1816, but Bolivar managed to escape.
+
+New Granada had revolted before Venezuela and was more successful. It
+was to this province that Bolivar retired after the downfall of the
+Patriot cause in Venezuela. Then the Spanish captain-general,
+Monteverde, who was called "the Pacificator," commenced his work by
+imprisoning so many Patriots that the gaols were choked, and many died
+of hunger and suffocation. In the country districts he let his troops
+ravage and plunder like hordes of banditti. Even his superiors were at
+length compelled to recall him on account of the numerous complaints and
+petitions. At last the people were again fairly roused, until there came
+a war of extermination, in which both parties tried to outvie the other
+in murder and rapine.
+
+Off the peninsula of Paria lay the small island of Chacachacare, and on
+it forty-five fugitives took refuge, where they consulted as to the
+renewal of the war. With only six muskets and some pistols, they landed
+on the coast on the 13th of March, 1813, surprised the guard of Gueiria,
+took their arms and marched into the town, where they were joined by the
+garrison, making their number two hundred. Thus began the second war, in
+which the Patriots, assisted by the return of Bolivar and a body of
+troops from New Granada, again took possession of a large part of the
+province. On the 15th of June Bolivar proclaimed extermination to the
+Royalists, and named the year, the third of independence and first of
+the war to the death. This severity created many enemies in Venezuela,
+as well as in other countries, and even Bolivar himself afterwards said
+that the proclamation had been issued in a delirium. However, the result
+was that both sides became more ferocious than ever, especially when the
+Indians were induced to join the Patriots.
+
+On the 6th of August Bolivar entered Caracas in triumph. The bells rang,
+cannons roared, and the people cheered him as their liberator. His path
+was strewn with flowers, blessings were called down upon his head, and
+beautiful girls, dressed in white and the national colours, led his
+horse and crowned him with laurel. The prison doors were opened, the
+Patriots set free, and, in spite of his proclamation, no act of
+retaliation sullied his triumph. Two days later he re-established the
+republic and proclaimed himself Dictator as well as liberator.
+
+There were now two Dictators in Venezuela, Marino in the east and
+Bolivar in the west, but the Spaniards were by no means conquered.
+Bolivar published another decree on the 6th of September, that all
+Americans who were even suspected of being Royalists were traitors to
+their country, and should be treated as such. Ten days later twelve
+thousand men arrived from Spain, and Bolivar, who had been besieging
+Puerto Cabello, was forced to retire. This encouraged the Royalists, who
+got the llaneros of the Orinoco on their side by promises of freedom to
+kill and plunder in the cause of the king, and threats of punishing by
+death all who disregarded the call to arms.
+
+Bolivar was captain-general, but he shared his power with Marino, the
+rights of both resting on force alone. To put an end to this, an
+assembly of notables was convened at Caracas, to whom he resigned his
+office, and then accepted it again at their request. But the Patriots,
+even when united, were as yet unable to stand before the Spanish army,
+and very shortly afterwards their flag was only visible on the island
+of Margarita. Bolivar again took refuge in New Granada, where he was
+elected captain-general, and entitled Liberator and Illustrious
+Pacificator. He, however, quarrelled with the Governor of Carthagena,
+and was forced to fly to Jamaica, saying before his departure that
+Carthagena preferred her own destruction to obedience to the federal
+government.
+
+In 1815, after the great peace, Marshal Morillo came out with 10,600 men
+selected from the army that had fought against Napoleon. He was to
+reduce the whole of the Main from Spanish Guiana to Darien, dealing
+first with Margarita. In the course of a year he did this, committing
+such atrocities as made his name a byword over the whole of South
+America. In the siege of Carthagena, which lasted about three months,
+the Patriots suffered greatly, hundreds dying of starvation; but at
+last, on the 6th of December, 1815, it was captured. An amnesty was
+proclaimed, but in spite of that four hundred old men, women, and
+children who surrendered were all killed, while most of the stronger men
+who survived managed to escape.
+
+The remnant of the Patriots was now scattered over the country as
+guerillas, and while Morillo was subduing New Granada a fresh signal for
+a general revolt was given. The Royalist Governor, in November, 1815,
+ordered the arrest of Arismendi, who had been pardoned, and at once the
+Margaritans rose, took possession of a part of the island, captured the
+fort, and killed the whole garrison. At the same time the guerillas
+united under Paez, who now came to the front as a llanero and leader of
+his class. Thus the struggle was resumed with all its former virulence.
+
+Bolivar, when he heard of the fall of Carthagena, went over to
+Hispaniola to meet President Petion, who was an ardent supporter of the
+revolution. Here he received assistance of arms and money, with which he
+began to fit out an expedition to recover his lost position. There were
+many refugees from the Main on that island, but they were not altogether
+friendly with the late Dictator, however Petion managed to secure their
+co-operation. It followed, therefore, that on the 16th of March, 1816,
+three hundred Patriots left for Margarita, where they captured two
+Spanish vessels and united with their fellow-countrymen under Arismendi.
+Going over to the Main they soon got together a powerful force which
+overran the whole country and ultimately achieved its independence.
+
+But before this happened the Patriots met with many reverses. Sometimes
+it appeared as if they would be utterly exterminated; then the tide
+turned in their favour and they were again successful. The country was
+devastated by both parties, until cultivation was abandoned in many
+districts. Provisions for the armies were often unattainable, and this
+drove the soldiers to plunder wherever there was an opportunity, no
+matter that the sufferers were of their own party.
+
+The struggle was watched with sympathy by the people of England, and
+Canning went so far as to make a declaration of neutrality favourable to
+the Patriots. Then came a systematic attempt to raise British
+volunteers, and, as there were many officers and men who had been
+disbanded since the great peace, a considerable force was raised.
+Carried away by enthusiasm they would hear nothing of the difficulties
+and dangers they had to encounter, but rushed to fight in the ranks of a
+people striving to liberate themselves from the grossest oppression. The
+country was represented as a perfect paradise, and the officers were
+promised grants of land in this delightful Eden, while the men had
+offers of double the pay of the British army. A similar call was also
+made in Germany with good results, and it was expected that what with
+the British Legion and this other contingent the result would be no
+longer doubtful.
+
+On their arrival at Margarita, however, they at once began to perceive
+that poverty reigned everywhere, and that no provision whatever had been
+made for them. The Patriots foraged for themselves, and anything like a
+commissariat was virtually unknown; but British soldiers were not
+accustomed to such a state of things. Then the food supply was at the
+best only live cattle, which they had to kill for themselves, cassava
+bread, and a few roots such as yams. The rations were so irregular, that
+one or two days would pass without any supply whatever, and this
+ultimately led to complaints and something like a mutiny, which was put
+down with the "cat."
+
+After some delay the British Legion was sent on to the Main, where they
+were worse off than in Margarita. Instead of welcoming them, the
+Patriots seemed to be jealous, and did not even give them the
+opportunity of fighting as they wished. When posted before Cumana they
+were exposed to the burning sun and drenching rains, without tents or
+any other shelter; their drinking water was stagnant and brackish, and
+for rations had only a pound of beef per day for each man, from oxen
+which they had to butcher. They were also greatly shocked at the
+enormities of the Patriots, who carried on the struggle in a manner
+suggestive of the Middle Ages rather than modern days. Prisoners were
+indiscriminately massacred, their murderers enjoying the work as if it
+were a recreation. It is true that in the then condition of the country
+large bodies of prisoners could neither be fed nor guarded; still the
+British could not but feel that the cause they had joined was not
+altogether what it had been represented. Want of proper food led to
+sickness, and soon they became quite broken down. Many died of fever and
+dysentery, some deserted and got away as best they could, the general
+result being that little benefit was derived from the British Legion by
+Venezuela.
+
+If such was the experience of the foreigners, what must have been that
+of the Patriots? They were certainly more used to the country and its
+food, and therefore suffered less from sickness; but this advantage was
+lost when it came to actual starvation. With the men engaged in the
+struggle, only the women and children were left to cultivate enough
+cassava to keep body and soul together. Even this little was often
+stolen by a foraging party, who did not hesitate to murder the whole
+family if any objection was made. Fugitives, if not cut off, made their
+way in canoes to Trinidad and Demerara, often arriving almost dead from
+the privations they had endured. Delicate Spanish ladies and little
+children sometimes arrived--their pitiable condition causing an outflow
+of sympathy from the planters, and a feeling of detestation for their
+persecutors.
+
+At the commencement of the year 1820 the Columbian Republic had become
+an accomplished fact, and on the 25th of November an armistice was
+concluded between Morillo and Bolivar, which virtually ended the
+struggle. The United States had looked upon it with favour, and
+Lafayette in France said that opposition to the independence of the New
+World would only cause suffering, but not imperil the idea. In 1823 the
+celebrated Monroe doctrine was formulated, and Canning said in the same
+year that the battle was won and Spanish America was free.
+
+Central America had not suffered like Venezuela and New Granada. From
+Mexico to Panama was the old captain-generalship of Guatemala, but
+little interest was taken in the province, Spain leaving it almost
+entirely in the hands of the Catholic Missions. It was not until
+Columbia had gained her independence that Guatemala moved in the same
+direction, although there were slight disturbances in Costa Rica and
+Nicaragua from 1813 to 1815. At first there was a project to found a
+kingdom, but this gave way to the proposal for union with Mexico under
+the Emperor Iturbide, which was carried out, but did not last long. In
+1823 Central America established a Federal Republic, and at once
+abolished slavery and declared the slave-trade to be piracy--a decision
+to which the other revolted colonies came about the same time.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+ABOLITION OF SLAVERY.
+
+
+Negro slavery, although it formed the sinews and backbone of the
+plantations, was, as we have seen, considered unjust by the French
+republicans and immoral by a large section of the benevolent in Great
+Britain and the United States. In both countries the Society of Friends,
+or Quakers, commenced to influence public opinion against its
+continuance as early as about 1770, and had it not been for the French
+Revolution it is probable that emancipation would have taken place early
+in this century. The premature and inconsiderate action of the French in
+Hayti lost to France her most valuable plantation, for some years giving
+such an example of what might happen were emancipation to be granted
+elsewhere, that those in favour of the system could always point to it
+with the finger of warning. Yet with all that the friends of the slave
+were undaunted; and as a beginning, in 1807, they procured the abolition
+of the slave-trade as far as Great Britain and her colonies were
+concerned, and then went on to get the traffic prohibited by other
+nations. Denmark had led the van by declaring it unlawful as early as
+1792, but little impression was made until the nation most concerned
+took action.
+
+This was a great blow to the British West Indies. The labour question
+had always been of the first importance, and to put a sudden stop to the
+supply meant a check to all progress. For twenty years before a great
+impetus had been given to planting, which was much assisted by the
+downfall of Hayti and consequent reduction of her produce to such an
+extent that she no longer affected the market. Now that the planters
+could get no more negroes, anything like enlargement of the acreage
+under cultivation was impossible. Latterly, also, produce had diminished
+in price, which made cheap labour all the more important. They had great
+difficulty in making their estates pay, and when sugar fell to half its
+former value a cry of "Ruin!" went forth all over the West Indies. It is
+interesting to note that the panacea which they expected would save them
+was free trade. At that time the British warehouses were filled with
+sugar and other tropical produce, while every continental port was
+closed by Napoleon, and the United States by the navigation laws. Not
+only did Great Britain store the produce of her own colonies, but that
+from those of the French and Dutch as well. In 1812 it was stated that
+the sugar consumption of Great Britain amounted to 225,000 hogsheads,
+while the production of her colonies was 150,000 in excess of this. The
+Southern States had just taken up cotton cultivation, and brought the
+price of that article too low for the West Indian planter, and, as if
+that were not enough, coffee also fell in price to an alarming extent.
+
+Sugar paid best, and was therefore fostered to the exclusion of the
+other products; and now began the plantation system which became so
+obnoxious to the anti-slavery party. Hitherto, with a full supply of
+labour, the negroes did little work as compared with their
+capabilities--now something like the factory system of the mother
+country was introduced. The old methods would no longer enable the
+planter to get a profit, and he must make the best of his labour supply.
+Great administrative ability, more careful management, attention to
+economy, and concentration, were all necessary to prevent losses, and
+that these were not wanting can easily be seen from the results. The
+slaves were driven into the field in gangs, and kept at work by the
+threat of the driver's whip, while the overseers and manager gave most
+careful attention to the whole system.
+
+Not only did the negroes work, but the whites also; in fact, on the part
+of the latter there was a continual strain after a fortune on which to
+retire from this tiresome and harassing work of nigger-driving. Where
+one succeeded, ten failed; many died of the exposure and of the
+_anti-malarial_ drinks they imbibed so plentifully. So great was the
+mortality that the colonies became proverbial for their number of
+widows, some of whom, however, were not above managing their own
+plantations. It was a race for wealth, to which everything else was
+secondary.
+
+The slaves diminished every year in the absence of additions from
+outside, as the whites would have done under similar circumstances.
+That there was no natural increase was mainly due to the fact that the
+sexes were unequal, and then, again, maternal affection was sadly
+wanting in the women, who seemed to care less for their children than
+some domestic animals. This state of things was mainly the outcome of
+the system, which was undoubtedly immoral, but the mental disabilities
+of the race must also be taken into consideration. The anti-slavery
+party considered that environment was everything; if they could only
+free the negro from compulsory servitude he would at once become an
+industrious labourer. Yes, in their opinion, if he had the incentive of
+wages, it would make him a credit to himself and his community. The
+slaves, they said, were worked to death, yet as free men they would do
+more and perform their tasks better. Their experience with free workmen
+led to these conclusions, but this could not apply to the West Indies
+nor to the negro race.
+
+The anti-slavery party was very strong, and although it is not stated
+that they took "Perish the colonies!" for their motto, it is very
+certain that they cared little about the future of either white or black
+as long as they carried their object. To this end every possible case of
+oppression and ill-treatment was exaggerated, and spoken of as if it
+were common, notwithstanding that the case only came to their notice
+through the trial and punishment of the offender. The fact was the
+planter could not afford to ill-treat his slave--no other animal of his
+live stock was of so much value. If a valuable horse were killed
+another could be obtained to replace him, but this was almost impossible
+in the case of the negro. Formerly, when he cost about L20, it might
+have paid to work him to death; now that his price was five or six times
+as much, self-interest alone prevented ill-treatment. There was a strong
+public opinion in every colony which prevented cruelty, and there were
+societies in some which gave prizes to those in charge of estates who
+raised the greatest number of children in proportion to their negroes.
+This breeding of negroes was necessarily very slow work, and did little
+to make up for the stoppage of importation. It followed, therefore, that
+every year the amount of available labour became less.
+
+In 1815 the anti-slavery party commenced a further agitation in favour
+of the negro, with the result that a Registrar of slaves was appointed
+for each colony, and ultimately a Protector. By obtaining an annual
+census they hoped to have some check on the decrease, and at the same
+time see if any Africans were surreptitiously imported. In some places
+there was already a slave registration for the purpose of adjusting the
+head-tax; here the planters did not oppose the measure, although they
+resented interference. Others, like Barbados, protested against the
+innovation as something quite unnecessary, or even if desirable, not to
+be imposed upon them from outside. This led to a great deal of
+discussion at the planters' tables, where the slave waiters listened to
+what was said, and from thence carried garbled reports to the others.
+
+In every colony were numbers of free negroes and coloured people, some
+of whom were loafers and spongers on the slaves, while others went about
+the country peddling. Having nothing to do, they became the
+news-carriers and circulators of garbled reports. In 1815 there lived in
+Barbados a free coloured man named Washington Franklin, who, like many
+negroes, was possessed of a good memory and a great power of
+declamation. Getting hold of the English and colonial newspapers, he
+would read the speeches of Wilberforce and others, and after putting his
+own construction on them, retail them in language tending to rouse the
+slaves. To him was due an impression that prevailed in Barbados,
+probably from a misunderstanding of the Registry Bill, that they were
+all to be free at the beginning of the year 1816. When New Year's Day
+had passed they became dissatisfied, believing that their masters had
+received orders to set them free, but would not execute them. They had
+heard of the successful rising in Hayti, and were determined to attempt
+a similar revolt in Barbados.
+
+After waiting for the expected freedom until the 14th of April, they
+determined on that day to have a general rising, which was signalled by
+burning heaps of cane-trash in the parish of St. Philip. Soon the fields
+were set on fire, and frenzied mobs, continually increasing in numbers,
+went from one plantation to another seeking arms. This went on for two
+days, but on the arrival of the militia they dispersed, leaving a waste
+behind. As usual a great many of the negroes were executed, although it
+does not appear that any whites got killed in the revolt. However, the
+Registry Act was delayed for two years, to be ultimately passed in
+January, 1817.
+
+Towards the end of the last century a new class of men appeared in the
+West Indies--the Protestant missionaries. Catholic missions had been
+established in the Spanish possessions since the time of Columbus, but
+hitherto, with the exception of a few Moravians, no other Church had
+done anything to convert the slaves in the British colonies. Between
+1780 and 1790, Methodist societies were established in most of the
+islands, notwithstanding the opposition of the planters, who in some
+cases appear to have thought that baptized Christians could no longer be
+held in slavery. This vulgar error, however, was not the real cause of
+the antagonism to these teachers, but rather the feeling natural to a
+master which makes him resent any outside interference between himself
+and his servants. The best and kindest were the first to feel this. The
+slaves were their children, and to them they applied, in all their
+troubles and difficulties, as to a great father. It followed, therefore,
+that when the missionaries came and proclaimed themselves friends to the
+slaves, giving them advice in secular as well as religious matters, the
+cordial feeling was broken. "Massa" was much put out, for he liked to
+hold the position of a little god to these poor ignorant creatures over
+whom he held such power. The slaves were sometimes whipped as bad
+children when they did wrong, and as children they cared little for a
+flogging. It is easily conceivable that a humane missionary might feel
+more pain at witnessing such a punishment than the culprit himself, but
+it is a fact that cruel punishment was never mentioned by the slaves as
+an excuse for a revolt.
+
+The missionaries were shocked at the apparent nakedness and destitution
+of the negroes, as a visitor to the West Indies will be even now. They
+did not remember that their clothing and houses were well suited to the
+climate, and that a home in the English sense of the word would not have
+been appreciated by them. These things were reported to the societies at
+home, the members of which knew no more about the tropics than the
+merchant who once sent a consignment of warming-pans to Barbados. Those
+who wanted to raise a cry of cruelty to the poor slave, circulated these
+facts, and put their own construction upon them, one going so far as to
+state that there were no chimneys to the houses, as if this omission
+were a slave disability or oppression, although any visitor to the
+colonies could have told him that these conveniences were hardly found
+anywhere.
+
+The negro willingly listened to his friend the missionary, and felt
+eager to perform the rites and ceremonies of the little congregation.
+The Established Church was that of England, and although in some places
+there were special services for the blacks, in others "slaves and dogs"
+were refused admission. This exclusiveness threw the slaves into the
+hands of the Moravians, Baptists, Methodists, and the agents of the
+London Missionary Society. The Church government of some of these was in
+the hands of the congregation, and as this was a sort of playing at
+"Massa," the slave took to them all the more readily.
+
+No doubt these ministers were very good men, and animated by a great
+love for the negroes, but this did not prevent their being misunderstood
+by both master and slave. Then many of them were connected with the
+anti-slavery society, and however careful they might be not to offend
+local prejudices, by speaking against the obnoxious system, as
+conscientious men they could not help showing their bias. The
+established clergymen, on the contrary, when they preached to the
+slaves, told them to "be subject to the powers that be," and to remain
+content in the condition where Providence had placed them.
+
+At first most of the planters only sneered at these attempts to convert
+the slaves, but when they saw what an attraction the chapels became,
+they opposed them openly. Gangs of young fellows would attend, and
+sometimes break up the meetings by jeering at the preacher. In 1807 an
+ordinance was passed in Jamaica "for preventing the profanation of
+religious rites and false worshipping of God, under the pretence of
+preaching and teaching, by illiterate, ignorant, and ill-disposed
+persons, and of the mischief consequent thereupon." Considering it the
+first duty of all magistrates to encourage the solemn exercise of
+religion, and whereas nothing tended more to bring it into disrepute
+than the pretended preaching and expounding of the Word of God by
+ignorant persons and false enthusiasts, to persons of colour and slaves,
+it was enacted that, after the 1st of July, no unauthorised person
+should presume to teach, preach, offer public prayer, or sing psalms to
+any assembly of these people, on pain of a fine of a hundred pounds,
+imprisonment for six months, or whipping. Similar punishments were also
+to be inflicted on any one preaching in an unlicensed building, as well
+as on the owner of a house or yard in which it had been permitted.
+
+Another way of stopping the assembly of slaves was to pass a law against
+their meeting at night, and punish them if they left the estate without
+a written permission. There were always excuses for this apparent
+harshness, as plots had been arranged at nocturnal meetings, some of
+which had given a great deal of trouble. Even if a pass were granted to
+attend chapel, the estate's authorities could hardly be expected to
+follow and see that the slave did not go elsewhere. The missionaries
+took it that all this was done to hamper their work, but such was not
+the case altogether.
+
+The anti-slavery party became very strong about the year 1820, and every
+obnoxious regulation was a text for discourses on the infamy of the
+whole system. If a planter were punished, the case was trumpeted over
+the country to promote a greater antagonism. How absurd this really was
+could only be seen by the West Indians themselves, and if they attempted
+to say anything they were put down as liars, becaused they were biassed
+in favour of the other side. One writer pertinently remarked that, among
+the hundreds of military and naval officers stationed in the West
+Indies, not one had borne out the statements of the missionaries, and we
+may call attention to the curious fact that Captain Marryat, who was
+well acquainted with every colony, speaks always of the negro as a happy
+fellow. The genial novelist does not mince matters when he speaks of
+oppression on board ship, and it is not to be supposed that he would go
+out of his way to screen the planters.
+
+Some of the colonies passed laws against indiscriminate manumissions,
+and these were declaimed against as tyranny. Yet their wisdom was so
+patent that, under the system, they could only be heartily approved by
+every one competent to judge. There is one little fact that stands out
+most prominently as a redeeming point, if such a thing be
+possible--under slavery there was no poverty--there were no tramps nor
+beggars. The owner of the plantation had to feed his people in sickness
+and in health, in childhood and old age. If manumissions could be given
+by the mere stroke of a pen, many a poor sick or broken-down creature
+would have been cast adrift to become a burden upon the community. Now
+and again we yet hear some old woman complain that if this were slavery
+time, she would not be half-starved as she is to-day, notwithstanding
+the poor relief.
+
+It may perhaps be thought that we are attempting the defence of slavery;
+we only wish to show that it was not quite so black as it has been
+painted. It had its dark side; but, on the other hand, many a bright
+gleam can be perceived by those who have seen some who were born into
+servitude and heard their stories. They were well fed, had as much
+clothing as they really required, were as a matter of policy well
+treated as a rule, and were quite as happy as they are to-day.
+Magistrates, policemen, and gaols were almost unknown; the planter gave
+the negro a slight flogging now and then, and this ended the tale of
+his misdemeanours. A bad master might be cruel as a bad husband may be
+also, but we should not condemn marriage on account of its abuses. The
+great argument against slavery was the degradation it produced on the
+minds of both parties. However, we are not writing the history of
+slavery, but the story of the West Indies, and must apologise for the
+digression.
+
+In 1823 the House of Commons, on a motion of Fowell Buxton, "that the
+state of slavery is repugnant to the principles of the British
+Constitution, and of the Christian religion," resolved to ameliorate the
+condition of the slave by giving him civil rights and privileges. As a
+result of this, orders were sent out to abolish the flogging of women,
+and discontinue the use of the whip in the field.
+
+Already the West Indian planters were alarmed at the interference of the
+British Government, and the overriding of colonial laws by Orders in
+Council. In 1819 they had petitioned against being compelled to manumit
+their slaves in cases where they wished to buy their freedom, but their
+protests went for nothing. Now also they had to submit, although they
+did so with a bad grace. The British Government left the carrying out of
+the provisions of the resolutions to the colonial legislatures, but at
+the same time giving them to understand that there was no option.
+
+In 1811, when the Governor and Court of Policy of Demerara neglected to
+issue a proclamation allowing negroes to attend chapel in the evening,
+they received a sharp reprimand, and the Governor was superseded; now
+they knew that nothing was left but to obey orders.
+
+When, therefore, the despatch containing these resolutions arrived in
+Demerara, a meeting of the legislature was at once convened to prepare
+the necessary ordinance. There was no attempt to evade this duty or
+delay compliance, but such a radical change required great
+consideration, especially in regard to the control of females without
+the use of the whip. Negresses were, as a rule, less amenable to
+discipline than the men, and it was thought that something must be done
+to prevent insubordination. Several meetings took place from the 21st of
+July, 1823, to early in August, at which the ordinance was prepared and
+passed, but up to the 18th of the latter month it had not been
+published. Such a delay, however, did not imply any intention of evading
+the duty, for three or four weeks often elapse from the time of passing
+to the publication of a Bill.
+
+Meanwhile the negroes got an idea that something had been done in
+England for their benefit. Like the slaves in Barbados and other
+colonies, they heard discussions at their masters' tables, and supposed
+that the something which had taken place meant their total emancipation.
+"The king had freed them, but the planters refused to carry out the
+order." On the East Coast of Demerara there was then a small chapel
+belonging to the London Missionary Society, under the charge of the Rev.
+John Smith. This chapel was a rendezvous for the negroes of the
+neighbouring plantations, who not only came to service, but met
+afterwards for a little gossip. Some who could read gave their ideas of
+what they had gleaned from their masters' newspapers, while others told
+what had been said at the dinner-tables. It does not appear that Mr.
+Smith had told them anything of the new resolutions, nor is there
+evidence that the deacons of the chapel knew of them. It followed,
+therefore, that all the information they had was these garbled reports
+of their own people.
+
+On Sunday, the 17th of August, a number of the bolder spirits met after
+service and discussed a plot which had been already under consideration,
+for a general rising at eight o'clock next evening. Their idea was to
+put their masters in the stocks, arm themselves, and, when the Governor
+came, demand their supposed rights.
+
+On Monday morning a coloured servant informed his master of the plot, on
+which he at once rode off to Georgetown and interviewed the Governor.
+Warnings were sent to most of the planters, and preparations made to
+suppress the revolt if it took place, but such reports were not
+uncommon, and although the whites looked after their weapons they did
+not feel much alarm. As a matter of policy it was better to assume
+indifference, as anything like desertion of the estates, even so far as
+the sending away of women and children, would have encouraged the
+negroes.
+
+The signal was given by a fire near the chapel, on which the slaves
+assembled in great mobs, over-powered their masters, put them in the
+stocks, and took all the firearms and other weapons they could find. The
+Governor was already in the neighbourhood with a small party of
+cavalry, and on seeing the signal proceeded to inquire into its meaning.
+On the way he was met by an armed mob, who, on being asked what they
+wanted, answered, "Our right!" He told them of the new law, and promised
+a full explanation on the morrow if they would disperse and come to him
+at a neighbouring plantation. There was a slight hesitation for a few
+moments, but presently, with cries of "No! no!" and the blowing of
+shells, they drowned his voice. Then some of the more moderate advised
+him to go away, which he was obliged to do, as his whole company
+numbered hardly a dozen.
+
+Bearing in mind the disasters of the Berbice insurrection, the people of
+Georgetown were much alarmed. Placing their women and children on board
+vessels in the river, the men prepared to resist to the death. Martial
+law was proclaimed, and every person, without distinction, called upon
+to enrol at once in the militia, all exemptions being cancelled. They
+responded heartily, and soon the town put on an appearance as if
+deserted, except at those places where guards were stationed. The stores
+were closed, the slaves kept indoors, and, save for the arrival and
+departure of mounted orderlies, not a sound could be heard. Even the
+negroes themselves, in their kitchens and outbuildings, were overawed,
+and hardly spoke above a whisper.
+
+The Methodist ministers came forward and enrolled themselves in the
+militia, but they were not called upon to perform any duty. The Rev.
+John Smith, however, took no notice of the proclamation, although he
+admitted having seen it. On the evening of the revolt he went for a walk
+with his wife, and on his return found that the manager's house was
+being attacked by a mob of slaves. He succeeded by expostulation in
+preventing their doing much injury, and even rescued the manager from
+their hands, but instead of sending notice of the rising to the
+neighbouring estates he went quietly home. As far as he knew no one had
+been warned of the revolt, and he was certainly remiss in his duty when
+he did nothing whatever. When, on the following day, he was visited by a
+militia officer, and ordered to enrol himself in accordance with the
+Governor's proclamation, he refused on the ground of his exemption,
+although he knew that all exemptions had been cancelled.
+
+As usual the rebels had no proper leaders, and for some reason or
+other--the missionaries ascribed it to religious teaching--they did not
+burn the houses or destroy the crops. One or two whites who resisted
+were wounded, one at least fatally, but here again the insurgents were
+forbearing. Fortunately they were soon suppressed, and this no doubt
+prevented such atrocities as had been committed elsewhere. What with the
+soldiers, the militia, and crews of vessels in the river, the force
+brought against them was overwhelming. Only one attempt was made to
+fight, but the first volley of the troops sent the rioters scattering
+into a cotton field. In about two days the insurrection was over, and
+then came the hunt for fugitives, who as usual took to the swamp at the
+back of the estates. A large body of Indians was employed, and in the
+end most of them were captured, some to be hanged at once and others
+after sentence by court-martial.
+
+Mr. Smith's behaviour was considered as something more than
+suspicious--he was believed to have had knowledge of the plot, and
+charged with an intention to side with the negroes if he saw any
+prospect of their success. On his refusal to take part in the defence of
+the colony he was taken prisoner, and after the negroes had been tried
+and sentenced, his case was brought before a court-martial. He was
+charged with promoting discontent among the slaves, conspiring to bring
+about a revolt, knowing of the plot the day before and not reporting it,
+and holding communication with one of the leaders after it had broken
+out without attempting to capture him. The case created a great stir,
+public opinion being universal that he was the prime mover in the whole
+affair.
+
+His trial lasted over a month, at the end of which he was found guilty
+and sentenced to be hanged. This sentence, however, seems to have been
+given to satisfy the people; it was not published, nor was it intended
+to be executed without reference to the home Government. This is proved
+by the report in the "Royal Gazette" of the colony, which stated that
+the trial was over, but the nature of the proceedings was such as to
+render it imperative on the Governor to transmit them for His Majesty's
+consideration. The public were not informed of the verdict, but it is
+not to be supposed that they were ignorant of the result of the trial;
+on the contrary, the sentence met with their approval, and they
+complained of the delay in carrying it out, as compared with the hasty
+executions of the negroes. Mr. Smith was ultimately reprieved, on the
+understanding that he removed himself from the West Indies, and engaged
+never to come back to Guiana or go to any of the islands. But the poor
+missionary was sick, and under treatment before the insurrection, and it
+may be presumed that the worry of the trial hastened his end. He died in
+prison before the king's answer arrived, and was buried at night to
+prevent a hostile demonstration.
+
+We have been thus particular in giving the facts of the Demerara East
+Coast Insurrection, because it made such an impression in England. The
+anti-slavery party used the case of the "Martyr" Smith as a watchword,
+and it was a prime factor in hurrying on emancipation. The immediate
+result was an Order in Council to enable slaves to contract legal
+marriage, to hold property, to buy their freedom on a valuation by
+disinterested parties, and to put them under a Protector, whose duty was
+to see that their rights were not infringed. They were now citizens,
+their only civil disabilities being compulsory labour and a tie to the
+plantation or their masters.
+
+This, however, did not satisfy the anti-slavery party, and they went on
+with their struggle for total emancipation, in which they at last
+succeeded. In 1833 an Act of Parliament was passed, by which, after the
+1st of August, 1834, slavery was to give place to an apprenticeship of
+four or six years, according to the status of the slave, the former
+term for house-servants and the latter for labourers on the
+plantations, or "predials." Every child born after that date was to be
+entirely free, and here came in one of the greatest blemishes of the
+law. These poor infants belonged to nobody; their mothers cared little
+for them, and it could not be expected that the planters would pay to
+keep up the old system of superintendence. Even those who had been
+instrumental in getting the law passed now began to make comparisons
+between the position of the child-bearing woman under the old and new
+systems. Hitherto they were unable to find words harsh enough to use in
+condemning slavery--now they began to find that it had its good points.
+Then the new system required new administrators, and, to prevent any
+suspicion of bias, magistrates were brought from England. Yet these very
+same unbiassed gentlemen ordered flogging for the men and the treadmill
+and dark cell for the women. The Quaker delegates sent out to inspect
+the result of their work were horrified. They said that the cat was
+worse than the old whip, and that the apprenticeship system caused ten
+times more suffering than slavery.
+
+And such was really the case. The negroes could no longer be kept under
+subordination--they even claimed entire freedom at once. Several
+disturbances took place before they could be made to understand that
+they had to work seven and a half hours every day, to pay for their
+homes, provision grounds, and other allowances. In Demerara the Governor
+addressed them as erring children, telling them that they could not
+all be masters, and that every one must work. They had never seen a
+white man handle the shovel or the hoe--he was free--now they had
+attained to the same condition, the same coveted freedom from hard
+labour must be theirs also. True, there were free negroes, some of whom
+had learnt trades, but even they were above working in the field. Why
+should free negroes work? Certainly not for their wives and children.
+The women got their allowances, and the planter had hitherto looked
+after the children. The negro had no house rent to pay, his two suits of
+clothing came regularly every year, and if he was sick the doctor
+attended to him. Except to deck himself with finery, he had no use for
+money; a few would work overtime when they wanted something of that
+sort, but the majority did as little as possible.
+
+[Illustration: THE FIRST OF AUGUST.
+
+(_From Madden's "West Indies."_)]
+
+In 1838, when the house servants were to be freed, while the predials
+must serve two years longer, the difficulties of such an arrangement
+became insurmountable. A daughter or wife might be entirely free, and
+the father or husband an "apprentice." Then came the difficulty of
+classification, which the commissioners appointed to arrange the
+divisions necessarily decided against the opinion of one or the other
+disputant, driving him to appeal. All this rendered a continuance of the
+system impossible, and slavery was terminated altogether on the 1st of
+August, 1838, the planters receiving from the British people twenty
+millions sterling as compensation, being about one-third of the
+estimated value of the slaves.
+
+The French had received such a lesson from the revolt of Hayti that
+they did little for their negroes. However, after the downfall of Louis
+Philippe in 1848, the revolutionary Government abolished slavery
+throughout the colonies, without compensation.
+
+[Illustration: A RELIC OF THE SLAVERY DAYS--OLD SLAVE BUYING FISH.]
+
+After freedom had been secured in the British colonies the slaves in
+neighbouring places naturally became discontented. There were not many
+desertions from the islands, but in Guiana, where the Dutch negroes were
+slaves on one side of the river Corentyne, and the British free on the
+other, the runaways from the former caused a great deal of trouble to
+the Dutch. Whenever an opportunity occurred, a party of slaves stole a
+boat and made off to the British side, until the Surinam planters became
+much alarmed. Ultimately a Dutch gunboat was stationed at the boundary
+river, and this put an end to the migration.
+
+Some of the islands were much affected, especially those of the Danes,
+which were frequented by British vessels, and were largely English in
+their sympathies. Here the negroes soon learnt what had happened, and
+began to express dissatisfaction with their own position. However,
+Denmark saw that something had to be done, and in 1847 enacted laws for
+gradual emancipation in her islands. From the 28th of July of that year
+all children born of slaves were to be free, and at the end of twelve
+years from that time slavery was to cease altogether.
+
+This did not satisfy the negroes, who became more discontented, and in
+1848 an insurrection took place on the island of St. Croix. On the 2nd
+of July it was rumoured that the slaves would refuse to work next day,
+and in the evening the whites were alarmed by the ringing of bells and
+blowing of conch shells. At first it was considered as an alarm of fire,
+but on inquiry the whites found that the negroes had revolted, and were
+demanding their freedom. Later, people came in from the country
+districts with the news that there were noisy demonstrations, but that
+as yet no actual violence had been committed. So little alarm was as yet
+felt that no precautions were taken, although some persons became
+uneasy.
+
+Next morning the negroes streamed into Christiansted in great numbers,
+and commenced to demolish the police office. An officer coming into town
+was attacked by a woman with an axe, which fortunately missed him, but
+the crowd was so good-humoured that, on his treating the matter coolly
+he was allowed to pass: this apparent good feeling made the authorities
+hesitate in taking extreme measures, even when the mob came round the
+fort, shouting and calling for freedom. Now, however, they began to
+collect trash for the purpose of setting fire to a house, and the
+Stadthauptman and a Roman Catholic priest went among them to try
+remonstrances. All the answer they got was that the slaves could not
+fight the soldiers, but they intended to burn and destroy everything if
+freedom were not given them. One of the mob carried a British flag as an
+emblem of liberty, and several English sailors were reported as forming
+part of the crowd. Soon all their good-humour was gone, and they
+commenced plundering the stores, the whites running away to vessels in
+the harbour.
+
+About three o'clock in the afternoon the Governor arrived from St.
+Thomas, and went among the crowd telling them that they were free, at
+the same time ordering them to disperse quietly. For a few hours there
+was a lull, but next morning they reassembled in the country districts
+as if in doubt whether the Governor really meant what he had said. Some
+planters now brought their families to town, leaving their houses to be
+plundered. Parties of soldiers were sent out, and hundreds of prisoners
+were taken, the mobs, which in some cases numbered two or three
+thousand, dispersing at their appearance. Martial law was declared,
+Porto Rico sent six hundred Spanish troops, the insurrection was at last
+quelled, and peace restored. The Governor stood his trial in Denmark, to
+be acquitted, and to have his declaration of complete emancipation
+confirmed.
+
+Slavery still continued in the Dutch possessions until 1863, and even
+then it was only replaced by compulsory labour for ten years, leaving
+the final emancipation until 1873. Yet with all that there were no
+disturbances to hurry on the process or cause trouble. In Cuba a law was
+passed in 1870 to give freedom to all above the age of sixty, as well as
+to children born after the passing of the Act. This, however, was not
+enforced on account of internal dissensions, and although Porto Rico
+gave her slaves their liberty on the 23rd of March, 1873, the Cuban
+Emancipation Bill was not passed by the Spanish Senate until February,
+1880, and under that law slavery only came to an end on the 6th of
+October, 1886.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XV.
+
+RESULTS OF EMANCIPATION.
+
+
+The slave emancipation was a terrible blow to the West Indies, and one
+from which many of the islands have not yet recovered. It was, the
+planters said, the second attempt to ruin them, the first having been
+the abolition of the slave-trade. The party who brought it about looked
+to see their _protegees_ become a contented, hard-working peasantry, in
+place of driven cattle, as they called them. The planters, on the
+contrary, were morally certain that as free men they would not work, and
+without a labour supply their estates would be utterly ruined. The
+British taxpayer grumbled at having to pay twenty millions, but this was
+a mere sop for the estate owners. With the loss of their human chattels
+the plantations in many cases became utterly valueless; for the negroes
+congregated round certain centres, leaving most of the outlying places
+without enough people to keep up the cultivation. Labour had been
+degraded by the system, and now the full effects of such influence began
+to be felt.
+
+[Illustration: NEGRESS, GUIANA.]
+
+[Illustration: NEGRESS FISH-SELLERS, GUIANA.]
+
+The compensation money, in many cases, went towards paying off mortgages
+and other claims, the holders of which saw the impending ruin and
+hastened to save themselves as far as possible. But it was not enough
+even for that, for many plantations had liens of half the appraised
+value of the land, buildings, and slaves. The last security being
+entirely gone the others became worthless, and, as no one cared to
+advance money on such risks, the nominal owners could not even get as
+much as to pay wages. A plantation valued at perhaps L60,000 a few years
+before, and easily mortgaged for half that amount, received L16,000 for
+compensation with which to pay off the claim, and then wanted cash to
+carry on as well. Banks were established, but only solvent estates could
+get help from them, and consequently hundreds were abandoned in the
+larger colonies, and hardly one, with the exception of those in
+Barbados, could produce as much sugar as formerly. West Indian Nabobs,
+who had been getting their ten thousand a year and living in England,
+went out to see what could be done. Their incomes were entirely gone,
+and with them all hopes for the future. Widows and children lost their
+only means of support, and ruin fell on hundreds of families in England
+as well as in the West Indies. But not only did this downfall affect the
+owners and their relations, but merchants as well. Old firms shook to
+their very foundations, while many became bankrupt, to bring suffering
+to the homes of thousands who had hardly known of the sugar colonies
+beyond the invectives of the anti-slavery society. Many who had been
+strong advocates of emancipation now wished they had never said anything
+about it, but the die was cast, and there could never again be anything
+like the shilly-shallying of the French at Hayti.
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE WOOD-CARRIER.]
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE.]
+
+The negroes would not work, and there were no means of forcing them to
+do so. The anti-slavery party still had their delegates in the West
+Indies to see that the "poor negro" was not oppressed in any way, and
+their representatives in Parliament to call the Government to account if
+they allowed any vagrancy laws, or even the shadow of a coercive measure
+in the colonies. One ordinance after another for this purpose was
+disallowed, until every planter was in despair.
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE FAMILY.]
+
+[Illustration: COOLIE BARBER.]
+
+To retain their labourers was a matter of life or death. Some continued
+the old slave allowances to put them in good humour, but as these made
+the negroes independent of wages, the privilege was abused. They took
+everything and did nothing in return. Some went so far as to say that
+the Queen had promised that their late masters should supply them as
+usual, entirely regardless of the amount of work they did. This made the
+planters sore. What with one trouble and another the few who survived
+the wreck hardly knew how to act. They must not do anything to drive
+their people away, for there were many inducements offered by others in
+the same predicament. The negro was master, and he knew it. So much
+depended on him that he was enticed to labour, by high wages and greater
+privileges, until this bidding of one against another produced the very
+result which it was intended to avoid.
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE GIRL.]
+
+[Illustration: COOLIE WOMEN, BRITISH GUIANA.]
+
+Something had to be done. First, the allowances of those who would not
+work were stopped; then their houses and provision grounds were taken
+away. Thousands of fruit-trees were destroyed to prevent their living on
+mangoes and bananas during the season. Then the planters attempted to
+combine to bring wages to a paying level, and this led to strikes of
+the negroes. Everything tended to further estrangement until employer
+and labourer drifted far apart. In British Guiana the negroes bought
+some of the abandoned plantations and established villages; in some
+cases they even attempted to carry them on as sugar estates, but as all
+wanted to be masters they in every case failed.
+
+[Illustration: COOLIE VEGETABLE SELLERS, BRITISH GUIANA.]
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIES, TRINIDAD.]
+
+As if this were not enough, the British Government went in for free
+trade, and allowed foreign slave-grown sugar to compete with that of the
+colonies. It seemed as if the French revolutionary cry of "Perish the
+colonies!" had now been introduced into the British Parliament. From one
+point of view the planters had been amply paid with the compensation
+money. Some went so far as to say that twenty millions could have bought
+all the estates in the West Indies, implying that the colonists had no
+further claim upon them. Even the anti-slavery party would not see that
+they were encouraging the slave system in other countries by opening
+their markets. This completed the ruin begun by emancipation, but as
+long as the principles were adhered to it did not matter.
+
+[Illustration: EAST INDIAN COOLIE, TRINIDAD.]
+
+Most of the remaining plantations now fell into the hands of those who
+had liens upon them, and they, not liking to lose their money
+altogether, commenced the uphill work of again bringing them into
+cultivation. Even a few colonists continued the struggle in hopes of
+better times. In Demerara there were two cases where eminent
+lawyers--the legal profession, by the bye, doing well when everything
+else was on the verge of ruin--spent all their profits in keeping their
+sugar estates from utter abandonment. One of these got so heavily in
+debt that at one time he could not pay his house rent, and as the
+landlord dared not sue him, he had metaphorically to go on his knees and
+beg him to quit.
+
+[Illustration: TRINIDAD COOLIES.]
+
+However, the sturdy English spirit survived in a few, and they set to
+work to obtain labourers from other parts of the world. At first they
+thought of Africa, but the anti-slavery party would not hear of
+immigration from the "dark continent," for fear of abuses. Then India
+was tried, with the result that a few coolies were brought over by
+private parties, notably to Demerara by John Gladstone. But again the
+cry of slavery went forth, due to the managers leaving the new-comers in
+the hands of their headmen or sirdars. It was charged against them that
+they beat their underlings, and of course the planters had to bear the
+responsibility. The result was that East Indian immigration was
+prohibited for a time. After a hard struggle on the part of the planters
+it was renewed, and in the end prevented Trinidad and British Guiana
+from utter abandonment.
+
+Besides Hindoo coolies, Chinese were also imported, as well as Maltese,
+Madeirans, and a few Germans. At first the negro thought little of this
+competition, but when he gradually dropped into the background, with his
+missionary friends, he commenced to protest against it. His friends
+said, and it was the truth, that there was enough labour in the colonies
+to carry on the estates, but the difficulty was that it could not be
+depended upon. Then the wages demanded by the negroes was entirely
+beyond the means of the planters--the price of sugar would not admit of
+them. It was a case of cheap labour or the alternative of giving up the
+struggle, and with the East Indians, British Guiana, and Trinidad
+recovered from the brink of ruin to become more flourishing in some
+respects than in the years immediately preceding emancipation. Jamaica,
+the greatest of the British colonies, suffered the most as she got but
+few immigrants, and it is only during the last decade that she has again
+begun to hold up her head. Without healthy competition with other races,
+the negroes sunk back, until they became even more degraded than those
+of British Guiana and Trinidad.
+
+In Barbados, on the contrary, the population was so dense that the
+freedman must either work or starve. There were no waste lands and few
+absentee proprietors, nor were any of the estates abandoned. Labour was
+plentiful and cheap; it followed, therefore, that the island soon
+recovered from the check and went on prospering. The compulsion of the
+whip gave way to the force of circumstances, and the struggle for
+existence which ensued has made the Barbadian negro the most industrious
+in the West Indies. Not only is he this, but he is, like his former
+masters, intensely loyal to Great Britain and "Little England." All the
+black, coloured, and white people in the other islands call themselves
+Creoles, but he is "neither Crab (Carib) nor Creole, but true Barbadian
+born."
+
+In the French, Danish, and Dutch colonies labour laws were enforced
+after emancipation, and generally with good results. They felt the
+change, but not to such an extent as their neighbours, and recovered all
+the sooner. Then they were not utterly disheartened by the unhealthy
+competition of slave-grown products like the English. Possibly, however,
+the British freedman would not have borne coercion, for even the Danes
+resented it.
+
+We have seen already that the negroes of the island of St. Croix were by
+no means willing to submit to what they considered injustice, and how
+they forced on their own emancipation. However, down to 1878 they were
+bound to the soil as it were under annual engagements, from which they
+were not released without proper notice, even after the term had
+expired. They had houses, provision grounds, allowances, and very low
+wages, and were bound to work five days a week. The engagement expired
+annually on the 1st of October, and on that day those who did not renew
+their contract assembled in the two towns of the island for a
+jollification, where something like the old "mop" or hiring fair of
+England took place.
+
+In 1878 they somehow got the impression that the labour law was about to
+be relaxed, but there does not seem to have been any combination among
+them to obtain such an end; they were dissatisfied, and that was all.
+About the same time the Government were so assured of their peaceable
+disposition that they reduced the garrison of Christiansted, the
+capital, to sixty men. When the 1st of October arrived the negroes
+assembled as usual in Frederiksted, round the rum shops, appearing
+good-humoured, although noisy, as such a crowd always must be. Nothing
+particular happened until, at about three o'clock in the afternoon, a
+cry went up that one of their number had been beaten by a policeman, on
+which they attacked the peace officers, and drove them into the fort,
+which was police-station and barracks. Some of the principal whites came
+out and remonstrated with them, and at first they seemed as if they
+would disperse, but just then the police-master, his assistant, and two
+soldiers rode into their midst, brandishing swords and ordering them to
+move off at once. Infuriated by this, the mob attacked the horsemen with
+stones, and drove them back into the fort, which they now stormed. The
+British Vice-Consul then went among them, and, after a little parleying,
+induced them to go with him to the outskirts of the town. Here he got a
+statement of their grievances, which were--first, that their wages were
+too low (only ten cents a day); second, that the annual contract was
+slavery; third, that the manager of the estate could fine them at will;
+and fourth, that if they wanted to leave the island they were
+obstructed. Having promised to do all he could for them, the Vice-Consul
+begged them to disperse.
+
+[Illustration: BARBADOS.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+[Illustration: ST. LUCIA.
+
+(_From Andrews' "West Indies."_)]
+
+They were apparently leaving the town, when a woman came running up with
+the report that the man who had been beaten by the police had just died
+in the hospital. This made them furious, and all further hopes of their
+pacification had to be given up. They invaded the hospital, knocked down
+the sick-nurse and a patient who inquired their business, and demanded
+to see the murdered man. They were informed that he was not dead but
+only dead drunk, and would soon recover if left alone. On being
+convinced of this, they again went off and attacked the fort. The
+defenders, when assailed with stones, fired over their heads, but this
+only made them all the more violent. The outer gate was broken down and
+some of the negroes were shot. Just at that moment a planter came up,
+intending to enter the fort, and at once they beat him with sticks until
+he was nearly killed.
+
+However, the bullets checked them, but only to throw the attack on other
+parts of the town. Stores were pillaged and set fire to, until a great
+portion of the town was in flames. From some of the stores they took
+weapons in the shape of cane-bills, and in one were alarmed for a few
+moments by an explosion of gunpowder. The whole of Bay Street was soon
+in flames, and like troops of fiends the negroes went dancing round the
+fires, in some places pouring on them cans of petroleum if the houses
+did not blaze up fast enough. Then the rum casks began to burst, and
+streams of burning spirit ran down the gutters, adding to the horror of
+the scene. The women were always the most reckless--they danced and
+howled with mingled joy and rage. The men added to the din by clashing
+their sticks together or against the burning stores, some blowing shells
+as a sort of rallying signal. "Our side!" was the watchword, and all who
+could not or would not repeat it were severely beaten. Most of the
+whites, however, had fled, leaving them entirely unchecked in their
+destructive work.
+
+Meanwhile the police-master had sent to Christiansted for assistance,
+and while he waited the mob again assailed the fort and again without
+success. All through the night the disturbance continued, and it was not
+until six o'clock in the morning that a small band of twenty soldiers
+arrived. At their first volley the mob dispersed, flying precipitately
+from the town to carry the riot all over the island. Two soldiers left
+in charge of a waggon were killed; and on learning this the soldiers
+were roused to a state of fury almost as great as that of the rioters.
+They hunted them from one plantation to another, invaded their huts,
+stabbed through the mattresses, and killed every negro who came in their
+way, without taking the trouble to inquire whether they had been
+concerned in the affair or not. Three hundred prisoners were taken, and
+on the 5th of October a proclamation was issued calling on all the
+negroes to return to their houses or be treated as rebels, after which
+the disturbance was quelled. Twelve hundred were sentenced to death, and
+a Commission of Inquiry was sent out from Denmark, the result of their
+report being that the obnoxious labour law was repealed.
+
+We have been thus particular in our account of this riot, because it
+exemplifies the character of the negro and is a type of such
+disturbances in other colonies. There is generally some ill-feeling at
+the bottom, but as a rule no conspiracy beforehand. When the
+dissatisfaction reaches a certain point, little is required to raise the
+passions of the black man, and that little thing is almost sure to
+occur. Unlike the European, he does not proclaim his grievances, except
+in a general way, among his own people--he has not yet arrived at that
+stage where civilised man uses the platform and press. It follows,
+therefore, that his passions smoulder for weeks and months, until some
+trifle--often a misunderstanding--brings them to the surface.
+
+At St. Croix there does not appear to have been anything like race
+prejudice, or that envious feeling which makes the negro think himself
+down-trodden by his rivals; but that is a characteristic of most riots,
+and is strikingly exemplified in two that have taken place in Demerara.
+
+After the emancipation the negro in British Guiana became of less and
+less importance as more and more immigrants arrived, until he grew quite
+sore. No longer could he demand extortionate wages, for the labour
+market was virtually governed by the current rates paid to the coolies.
+These people, however, were quite able to hold their own, and the negro
+knew this; it followed, therefore, that he vented his spite upon the
+most inoffensive people in the colony.
+
+The Portuguese from Madeira came to British Guiana absolutely destitute
+just after the failure of the vines on their island. They found the
+negro more prosperous than perhaps he has ever been since, for this was
+the time when, if he worked, he could always save money if he chose. In
+fact, many did so, and bought land which is still in the hands of some
+of their descendants, on which houses much superior to those now in
+existence were erected. The Portuguese could not endure the hard labour
+of sugar-planting, but soon found openings as small shopkeepers or
+pedlars. Hitherto there was little competition in these businesses, but
+the few who carried them on were negroes or coloured persons. These were
+soon ousted out, and the Portuguese became almost the only small trader
+in the colony. This was a grievance to the negro, who could not see that
+he himself reaped the benefit--certainly he took advantage of the
+reduced prices while abusing the sellers.
+
+At the beginning of the year 1856 the negroes of Georgetown were excited
+by the arrival of an anti-Popery agitator, who had become notorious in
+England, Scotland, and the United States. John Sayers Orr, known as "the
+Angel Gabriel," because he blew a trumpet to call the people together,
+was a native of Demerara, and soon found out what a strong antipathy to
+the Portuguese existed among the people. This suited his ideas exactly,
+for were they not Roman Catholics--the very body which he had been
+declaiming everywhere against?
+
+Soon his horn-blowing brought crowds into the market square every
+Sunday, where his harangues roused his hearers to such a pitch of fury
+that the authorities became alarmed. He was therefore arrested, brought
+before a magistrate, charged with convening an illegal assembly, and
+committed for trial. This committal of the popular hero was the spark
+which set all the negroes' passions in a blaze, but, strange to say,
+they did not attack the authorities. Their spite was against the
+Portuguese, and soon almost the whole colony was the scene of a general
+raid upon their shops. Hardly any escaped, but one after another was
+broken open and the goods either carried away or destroyed. Some went so
+far as to use the Governor's name, as if he had authorised the raid, and
+in this way got ignorant people in the country districts to help them to
+seize boats, provisions, and even the produce of the farms of the
+obnoxious Portuguese.
+
+The riot was ultimately quelled, but not before the damage amounted to
+over a quarter of a million dollars. Hundreds of prisoners were
+captured, but beyond the shooting of one policeman there does not appear
+to have been any serious casualties, neither were there any executions.
+It is interesting to note that the idea of poisoning, which is connected
+with Obeah superstition, was conspicuous here as in the Berbice slave
+insurrection. One black man charged a Portuguese with threatening to
+poison his customers with the provisions he sold them; but all the
+satisfaction the negro got was a reprimand from the magistrate.
+
+The second great riot in Georgetown is notable for its similarity to
+that at St. Croix. The feeling of antipathy to the Portuguese still
+continued, and the negro had a special grievance on account of the
+reprieve of a murderer of that nationality. If he had been black he
+would have been hanged, they said--it was colour prejudice. However, no
+disturbance took place for several months, and even then it only came
+about through a misunderstanding. A black boy buying a cent roll of
+bread in the market, snatched one of the penny rolls instead, when the
+Portuguese stall-keeper struck him down with a stick. The boy was taken
+up senseless and carried to the hospital, while his assailant through
+some misunderstanding was not arrested. At once there was a cry of
+"Portugee kill black man; Binney (the clerk of the market) let he go,"
+and they began to assail the clerk with sticks and stones.
+
+The police arrived, dispersed the mob, and shut up the market, but this
+only led to their scattering throughout the city. The report that the
+black boy was dead was carried into every yard, and at once swarms of
+women and boys, with comparatively few men, began to smash the
+Portuguese shops. The authorities did next to nothing, beyond sending
+out a few special constables, armed only with sticks, to fight against
+overpowering crowds better provided with weapons than themselves. The
+consequence was that for two days Georgetown was in the power of
+thousands of negroes, and damage resulted to the amount of nearly fifty
+thousand dollars. The disturbance was finally checked by arming the
+police, and issuing a proclamation that they were authorised to fire on
+the rioters. Not a single shot was fired, however; the threat was quite
+sufficient for the purpose.
+
+It will be seen from these cases that of late years the negroes have
+not perpetrated such massacres as once characterised their
+insurrections, but the insurrection at St. Thomas-in-the-East in Jamaica
+seems to show that the old spirit was not dead in 1865.
+
+For several years previous Jamaica had been much depressed--in fact, she
+had hardly begun to recover from the ruin which followed emancipation.
+Then came a two years' drought, which caused some distress among the
+people, who had no other means of support than what was derived from
+their small provision fields. The Baptist connexion was very strong in
+the island, and Dr. Underhill, the Secretary of its Missionary Society,
+went out, and on his return published reports blaming the Government for
+the distress, which he appears to have highly exaggerated. This tended
+to produce more dissatisfaction and to give the negroes an object on
+which they could vent their feelings. In one of Dr. Underhill's letters
+he said the people seemed to be overwhelmed with discouragement, and
+that he feared they were giving up their long struggle with injustice
+and fraud in despair. Thus a feeling was produced which only required
+some little incident to bring on a serious disturbance.
+
+On the 7th of October a black man was brought up for trial before the
+Custos of St. Thomas-in-the-East, when a somewhat orderly mob marched
+into the town to, if possible, release the prisoner. They crowded round
+the court-house and made such a disturbance that one of them was taken
+in charge, only, however, to be rescued at once by his friends. Nothing
+more was done on that day, but warrants having been issued for the arrest
+of the leaders, their execution was forcibly resisted. The negroes now
+seem to have planned a general rising and issued notices calling their
+people to arms. "Blow your shells, roll your drums; house to house take
+out every man! War is at us; my black skin, war is at hand. Every black
+man must turn at once, for the oppression is too great." They were, they
+said, ground down by an overbearing and oppressive foreigner, and if
+they did not get justice would burn and kill.
+
+On the 11th of October a mob assembled at the same court-house, and
+being resisted by a small body of volunteers, they killed the Custos,
+and every white man who opposed them, to the number of twenty-eight,
+released all the prisoners and burnt the building. Immediately
+afterwards there was a general rising in the district, which spread for
+about fifty miles.
+
+Governor Eyre, when he heard the news, at once determined to suppress
+the insurrection before it affected the whole island. Martial law was
+declared, a body of maroons employed, and within a few days the riots
+were suppressed. Many of the negroes were shot as they tried to escape,
+others taken and hanged at once, their villages burnt to the ground, and
+altogether they received such a lesson as effectually put a stop to
+anything of the kind in the future. It was stated that 439 people were
+killed and 600 flogged; a thousand houses were burnt and a great deal of
+property destroyed by both parties.
+
+The severity of Governor Eyre caused a great outcry in England,
+especially among the Baptists. Among those who were executed was Mr.
+Gordon, a member of the Assembly, who no doubt fell a victim to the
+feeling aroused among the whites. He was charged with being a prime
+instigator of the revolt, but it does not appear that he went beyond
+what is generally allowed to a political agitator. Such agitation,
+however, amongst ignorant people, who are easily excited, is
+particularly dangerous, and likely to recoil on the heads of those who
+initiate it, who must be prepared to risk the consequences.
+
+Governor Eyre was recalled, and prosecuted without success. He
+undoubtedly saved the island, and, although such executions as were
+committed can hardly be excused, yet when we consider the alarm and
+excitement, we must make some allowances. And, after all, it must be
+remembered that the loss of life would probably have been much greater
+had not the insurrection been nipped in the bud.
+
+Barbados is unique in several respects, and as may be supposed there is
+something remarkable even about her riots. The patriotism of the
+inhabitants, both black and white, is proverbial all over the West
+Indies. There is no place in the world to equal Barbados--no colony but
+what has been conquered by the enemy at some time or other. "Little
+England" was said to have offered an asylum to King George the Third
+when Buonaparte intended to invade England, and no doubt if such an
+offer was ever made it was done in all sincerity. Barbadians are proud
+of their constitution, and jealous of its infringement in the slightest
+degree. This feeling led to a disturbance in 1876, which was the
+nearest approach to an insurrection on that island in late years.
+
+It has often been suggested that a confederation of the British West
+Indies would be advantageous in many ways, and in 1876 the Secretary of
+State was of opinion that a closer union of Barbados and the other
+Windward Islands was desirable. The Governor of all the islands was then
+Mr. Pope Hennessy, who had lately been appointed, and who had been
+directed to obtain the consent of Barbados to a partial union. The
+measures proposed were of little importance, consisting only of the
+amalgamation of the prisons, lunatic asylums, and lazarettos, and the
+extension of the powers of the Chief Justice, Auditor-General, and the
+police force to cover the whole of the islands.
+
+An outsider would suppose that there was nothing offensive in these
+changes, but that, on the contrary, they would be beneficial in many
+ways, but most of the Barbadians opposed them strongly. Barbados, they
+said, was solvent, while some of the islands were on the verge of
+bankruptcy--their island should not be taxed to support paupers. They
+held meetings at which six points were agreed to, and on which the
+leaders harangued crowds throughout the island. These were, first, that
+their Court of Appeal would be abolished; second, that all the mad
+people from other islands would have to be supported by them; third,
+that all the lepers would come there; fourth, that the officials of
+other islands would live on them; fifth, that the power would be taken
+from the people and given to the Governor; and sixth, that as the House
+of Assembly had always been faithful they resented any interference with
+it.
+
+The Governor was desirous of carrying his project, and possibly went
+farther than was consistent with his instructions, which were to bring
+about the arrangement in an amicable manner. He did all he could to
+create a party in its favour, and was charged by the other side with
+using underhand means to this end. The main point, however, on which he
+laid stress, and which seems to have caused the trouble, was the
+advantage to the Barbadians of having the other islands so close as to
+become virtually like their own parishes, so that the surplus population
+would be able to take up lands that were then useless, and lying waste.
+
+Barbados is densely populated. All the lands are occupied, and it is
+very difficult to procure even a small lot--this makes the people all
+the more eager to get possession of a little freehold. Yet, with all
+this, they will not settle in other islands, where they can get a piece
+of ground for next to nothing.
+
+Somehow or other the more ignorant people seem to have got the notion
+that the Governor was promising them land in Barbados, and this made
+them enthusiastic for his project. Something like communism would, they
+thought, follow if the Confederation Act were passed, and this was the
+reason in their opinion why the other party fought against it. The
+planters spoke as if Mr. Hennessy had laid himself open to such a
+misunderstanding, and that made them all the more virulent against him.
+
+The anti-Confederation party said that it had always been the pride and
+glory of Barbados to have a separate political existence, and if under
+their own institutions they had achieved a success which made them the
+envy of their neighbours, why should they change? The majority of the
+House of Assembly were on their side, and it is difficult to understand
+why the Governor pressed the matter in the way he did. The opposition
+was no doubt foolish, but still, if the people chose to be silly, he
+could not overcome their prejudices. Party feeling ran high, only the
+mob shouting for Hennessy and Confederation. Those on one side would
+hiss him as he appeared--the others took the horses from his carriage
+and drew him along in triumph. It was reported that he never went out
+without a guard, and that even his wife lived in continual fear. She had
+been threatened with the abduction of her child, and one ruffian went so
+far as to pelt the little one as he was driven along the street, for
+which he was prosecuted.
+
+At last, on the 18th of April, 1876, when the party feeling had existed
+over six weeks, matters came to a crisis. A man went into the yard of
+Byde Mill plantation, flourishing a cane-cutter, and bearing a red flag.
+He was, he said, a Confederation man, had just come from the Governor,
+and wanted some liquor (cane juice). Getting nothing he went out and
+brought his brother who bore a sword, and the two quarrelled with the
+man in the boiling-house, the one with the sword attempting to stab him.
+They defied a constable who came to arrest them, and one blew a shell
+which brought a mob of women and children, who went into a field of
+sweet-potatoes and began to carry them off. Three mounted police
+arrived, but they were pelted with stones, and one who attempted to
+arrest the man with the sword got wounded. A magistrate then came and
+read the Riot Act, but the mob refused to disperse. As usual there were
+grievances, some complained that their pay had been stopped, which the
+manager said was because they could not work the mill full time for want
+of wind.
+
+Two cane-fields were now set on fire, and the disturbance spread, its
+great characteristic being raids upon the potato fields. In several
+places live stock were killed, dwellings broken into, and everything
+chopped or broken to pieces. A few shots were exchanged, but no one
+appears to have been killed, although many got wounds and bruises from
+sticks and stones. Everywhere the mob declared they had the authority of
+the Governor for what they were doing, and the sufferers from their
+depredations charged Mr. Hennessy with delay in putting down the
+disturbance. This, however, was probably due to the effect of the
+persecution of Governor Eyre, which has made every West Indian Governor
+hesitate before going to extremes. However, when the people from the
+country districts began to fly to Bridgetown he sent out a few soldiers
+who very quickly dispersed the mobs. A sensational telegram to London
+stated that five hundred prisoners had been taken, forty people killed
+and wounded, rioting was suspended, but their position was threatened,
+and that confidence in the Government had entirely gone. This was highly
+exaggerated, but a great deal of property was destroyed or injured,
+fifty estates pillaged, and probably over fifty persons received more or
+less serious blows.
+
+Quite a storm fell upon Hennessy, who on the 26th of April had to issue
+a proclamation threatening to direct the law officers to take prompt
+measures against those who libelled him, by saying that he had sent
+emissaries through the island to mislead the people, and that he
+countenanced and abetted the disgraceful and lawless acts of the
+marauders.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+XVI.
+
+THE ISTHMUS TRANSIT SCHEMES.
+
+
+By the second half of the last century the supply of gold and silver
+from Peru had much diminished, and the road across the isthmus almost
+fell into disuse. In 1780, during the great war, the British appear to
+have had some vague notion that it would be good policy to secure the
+track across Nicaragua, for which purpose an expedition was fitted out.
+Early in that year Nelson sailed from Jamaica with five hundred men, and
+after getting a number of Indians from the Mosquito shore and a
+reinforcement of British troops, the party made the difficult ascent of
+the San Juan river, and captured the fort of the same name. But, through
+ignorance, the whole affair proved disastrous--the fort was useless, and
+the losses through sickness very great. Of eighteen hundred men only
+three hundred and eighty survived, and Nelson himself nearly lost his
+life. He was obliged to go home to recruit, and it was only after
+spending two or three months at Bath that he recovered to continue that
+glorious career which made him so famous.
+
+However, it was not long afterwards that a project for utilising the
+isthmus was brought under the consideration of the British Government by
+General Miranda, of whom we have spoken in another chapter. He wanted
+Pitt to assist him in his projects for the emancipation of the Spanish
+colonies, and, as a means to this end, in 1790, proposed that the
+British should take possession of Darien, and thus further their
+commerce in the Pacific. Nothing was done at that time, and a few years
+later Miranda made a second proposition that the United States should
+join with Great Britain, and open roads and canals for both nations.
+
+Mr. Pitt seems to have agreed to this, and was only prevented from
+attempting to carry it out by the delay of President Adams. The United
+States were to furnish ten thousand men, and Great Britain money and
+ships. In 1801, under Lord Sidmouth, an expedition was actually set on
+foot, only to collapse at the Peace of Amiens. Again, in 1804, Pitt
+tried to carry out the project with Miranda, but the condition of Europe
+stood in the way of expeditions to the Spanish Main.
+
+[Illustration: ATLANTIC ENTRANCE TO DARIEN CANAL.
+
+(_From Cullen's "Darien Canal."_)]
+
+In enumerating the advantages likely to accrue from the emancipation of
+South America, a writer in the _Edinburgh Review_ of January, 1809, laid
+great stress upon a passage across the isthmus. It was the most
+important to the peaceful intercourse of nations of anything that
+presented itself to the enterprise of man. So far from being a romantic
+and chimerical project, it was not only practicable, but easy. The river
+Chagre, about eighteen leagues westward of Porto Bello, was navigable as
+far as Cruzes, within five leagues of Panama. But there was even a
+better route; at about five leagues from its mouth the Chagre received
+the river Trinidad, which was navigable to Embarcadero, from which
+Panama was only distant thirty miles through a level country. The ground
+had been surveyed, and not the practicability only, but the facility of
+the work _completely ascertained_. Further north was the grand lake of
+Nicaragua, which by itself almost extended the navigation from sea to
+sea. The Governor of St. John's Castle (Fort San Juan) had been
+instructed by the king of Spain to refuse permission to any British
+subject desirous of passing up or down this lake, "for if ever the
+English came to a knowledge of its importance and value they would soon
+make themselves masters of this part of the country."
+
+But not only had the best places for a canal been selected at this early
+time, but the many advantages to be derived from its construction had
+been well considered. The same writer went on to say that from this
+splendid and not difficult enterprise, not merely the commerce of the
+western shores of America would be brought, as it were, to their doors,
+but that of the South Sea whalers, who would be saved the tedious and
+dangerous voyage round Cape Horn. Then the whole of the vast interests
+of Asia would increase in value to a degree that was then difficult to
+conceive, by having a direct route across the Pacific. It would be as
+if, by some great revolution of the globe, they were brought nearer.
+Immense would be the traffic which immediately would begin to cover the
+ocean--all the riches of India and China moving towards America. Then
+also the commodities of Europe and America would be carried towards
+Asia. As a result of this, vast depots would be formed at the two
+extremities of the canal, to soon develop into great commercial cities.
+Never before had such an opportunity been offered to a nation as Great
+Britain had then before her, owing to a wonderful combination of
+circumstances.
+
+Mr. Robinson, a United States merchant, in 1821, said that the most
+ardent imagination would fail in an attempt to portray all the
+important and beneficial consequences of such a work, the magnitude and
+grandeur of which were worthy the profound attention of every commercial
+nation. The powers of the old and new world should discard all selfish
+considerations, and unite to execute it on a magnificent scale, so that
+when completed it might become, like the ocean, a highway of nations,
+the enjoyment of which should be guaranteed by all, and be exempt from
+the caprice or regulation of any one kingdom or state.
+
+Such were the views promulgated at the beginning of this century, but
+nothing was done until about 1850, when the pressure of circumstances
+again brought the isthmus into note.
+
+Darien and Panama are in the Republic of New Granada, but north of these
+come the small states of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador,
+and Guatemala. All of these are inhabited by true Americans--native
+races who have to a considerable extent absorbed the slight admixture of
+European blood introduced by their conquerors. Some places are so
+inaccessible as to be virtually outside the pale of civilisation. The
+roads are nothing but mule tracks, full of quagmires where the animals
+have to wade up to their girths in mud--in fact, little better than the
+paths so well described by Lionel Wafer. The rivers are numerous, and,
+on account of the heavy rainfall, their currents are very strong, and
+all the more dangerous from the numerous sandbanks and rapids which
+obstruct their course. Since the states gained their independence they
+have passed through so many changes of government that at the beginning
+hardly a month passed without a revolution in one or the other. This
+went on until 1848 without interference from outside, but with the
+discovery of gold in California came an invasion of ruffians of all
+nations.
+
+The old freebooters almost seemed to have come to life again. Hardy
+adventurers from all parts of the world rushed off to the new "El
+Dorado," woke the sleepy Nicaraguans on the San Juan river, and roused
+the people of Chagres. Over the isthmus of Panama or through the
+Nicaragua lake they flocked by thousands, necessitating the
+establishment of Transit Companies to provide them with mules, boats,
+and steamers. The easiest, although longest, route was through
+Nicaragua, which was controlled by the Vanderbilt Company, and during
+the time the "rush" lasted they took over two or three thousand per
+month. The Company had steamers on the lake to meet the throng of
+diggers as they arrived, and they passed through at regular intervals
+like a tide. The overland part of the route presented a strange
+spectacle, with their pack mules and horses. Men of all nationalities,
+armed with pistols and knives, which they were prepared to use on the
+Greasers (natives) at the slightest provocation, put these altogether in
+the background. A traveller has spoken of them as a string of romantic
+figures that could not be matched in any other part of the world. Some
+glowed with fervent passion, as if on fire, others were hard, cold, and
+rugged as the rocky passes they traversed, while a few were worn, old,
+and decaying, under the effects of the hardships and reverses of their
+stormy existence. Every line in their faces had a meaning, if it could
+only have been interpreted, telling of sin and suffering--of adventures
+more terrible than were ever portrayed by the pen of the romantic
+writer, and of experiences as fascinating as they had been dangerous.
+
+Among the results of this rush through Nicaragua was the expedition of
+William Walker, the great filibuster of this century. With fifty-five
+men he went forth from California to conquer Central America, and in the
+end nearly succeeded. He got himself elected President of Nicaragua, but
+ultimately raised such a storm that he was brought to bay by some forces
+from Honduras and Costa Rica, and had to surrender to the captain of a
+British man-of-war, by whom he was handed over to his enemies to be
+shot.
+
+With this wonderful traffic across the isthmus arose the old canal
+schemes, as well as a new one for a railway. Easy and rapid transit must
+be obtained in some way or other, and this time being in the age of
+steam, it naturally followed that the project for a railway gained
+immediate support. It was commenced in 1850, at which time the terminus
+on the Gulf side was settled, and the foundations of the new town of
+Aspinwall or Colon laid a few miles east of Chagres. The difficulties
+were enormous, on account of the marshy ground and the number of rivers
+to be crossed. The wooden bridges were almost immediately attacked by
+wood ants, floods carried away the timbers, but more distressing than
+all was the loss of life through sickness. Chinese labourers were
+imported in great numbers, only to fall victims to the same deadly
+climate which had given Porto Bello and the isthmus generally their evil
+reputation. However, the railway was completed in 1864, at the enormous
+cost of $7,500,000, although its length is only 47-1/2 miles. Thus one
+part of the great project was carried out, and a good road provided for
+passengers and light goods, the annual value of which latter is now
+about L15,000,000.
+
+But those in favour of a canal were not sleeping all this time. The old
+routes were again mooted, that through Lake Nicaragua being put down at
+194 miles in length, while the other, since known as the Panama, was
+only 51. Dr. Edward Cullen, however, in 1850 went out and made some
+surveys, with the result that he advocated the old Darien line as the
+shortest and most practicable. He would start from the same Port de
+Escoces that witnessed the downfall of William Paterson's scheme, and
+which he said was a most commodious harbour for the terminus of a canal.
+The isthmus was here only 39 miles across, and free from many of the
+difficulties which beset the other routes.
+
+As a result of Dr. Cullen's reports, in 1852 it was proposed to
+establish "The Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company," with a capital of
+fifteen millions sterling. The prospectus stated that the period had
+arrived when the spread of commerce and the flow of emigration to the
+western shores of America, Australasia, and China, demanded a passage
+more direct than those by way of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn.
+Various projects had been formed for uniting the two oceans, but all
+these were open to the objection that they fell short of supplying a
+continuous channel from sea to sea, for vessels of all dimensions, by
+which alone transhipment could be obviated. Sir Charles Fox, Mr. John
+Henderson, Mr. Thomas Brassey, and Dr. Cullen had received a concession
+of territory from New Ganada to the extent of 200,000 acres, on
+condition that a deposit of L24,000 be made within twelve months. It was
+believed that the work could be completed for twelve millions.
+
+The _Times_ spoke disparagingly of the new Company, and this probably
+prevented its acceptance by the financial world. The line, it said, had
+not been actually surveyed, but only superficially examined, and, after
+all, if it were finished, it could only come into competition with the
+Nicaragua Canal, every foot of which had been the subject of precise
+estimates, and which would only cost _four millions_. Several letters
+from the projectors and supporters of the Company followed, with other
+leaders, the result being that the Darien Canal never went beyond a
+project. Presently also the rush for California abated, and the railway
+met the wants of the passengers; all the canal schemes were therefore
+again shelved for a time.
+
+Then came an almost Utopian project for a ship railway, the cars of
+which would run down into the water, take up the largest vessel, and
+carry it over without trouble or difficulty. This met with little
+encouragement, and was soon dropped.
+
+In 1879 Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had achieved such a glorious success
+with the Suez Canal, took up the matter of a canal between the two
+oceans, and summoned a congress of savants, engineers and seamen, to
+inquire into and discuss the questions of its possibility, and of the
+most suitable place for its excavation. A number of projects were
+considered, among them that of Dr. Cullen, brought forward by M. de
+Puydt, which, however, did not receive much attention, as there was a
+difference of opinion as to the reliability of the figures.
+
+The schemes were ultimately reduced to two--those for the Nicaragua and
+Panama routes. The position of the great lake caused the former to be
+thoroughly discussed; but there were several almost insurmountable
+difficulties in the way of its adoption. To clear the San Juan river,
+and make it into a great canal, would entail great labour and expense,
+and then seven or eight locks would be required. On the Pacific side
+locks would also be required for the Rivas, while the harbours of
+Greytown on the Gulf side, and Brito on the Pacific, were quite unsuited
+as termini for a canal. The total length would be 182-1/2 miles, and the
+time occupied in the passage four and a half days. There was also
+another great draw-back: Nicaragua was and is subject to earthquakes,
+which would be likely at times to interfere greatly with such heavy
+works as were required. It followed, therefore, that notwithstanding the
+powerful support of the Americans, this line was abandoned in favour of
+that from Port Simon to Panama, not far from the railway.
+
+Two French officers, MM. Wyse and Reclus, had explored the country, and
+proposed to carry the canal through the Chagres river, and thence, by
+means of a great tunnel, into the valley of the Rio Grande; but, on
+consideration, the tunnel was abandoned in favour of a deep cutting,
+which would not exceed 290 feet. The great objection to this was the
+floods of the Chagres river, which sometimes rose twenty-five feet in a
+single night; but this was got over by arranging for a separate bed for
+the canal. There were a few other difficulties, but propositions were
+made to obviate them; and at last the sub-commission reported that "the
+Panama Canal on the level technically presents itself under the most
+satisfactory conditions, and ensures every facility, as it gives every
+security, for the transit of vessels from one sea to another."
+
+Now came the question of cost. The Nicaragua Canal was estimated at
+L32,000,000, and that at Panama L40,000,000. (The reader will compare
+these with former estimates, especially that of Nicaragua as stated by
+the _Times_.) The former was rejected absolutely, on account of the
+necessity for locks, and all further discussion was concerned with the
+latter. It was then calculated that, with transit dues of fifteen francs
+per ton, the net annual profit would be L1,680,000.
+
+M. de Lesseps was elected to the Academy in 1885, when M. Renan said he
+had been born to pierce isthmuses, and that antiquity would have made
+him a god. Carried away by enthusiasm, the great projector saw no
+difficulties; he had already completed a work which had been declared
+almost impossible, now he would carry out a project similar to that
+proposed by William Paterson. However, Panama was not Suez, a rainless
+desert, but a place where floods, marshes, and quagmires took the place
+of almost level sands.
+
+M. Wyse had vainly tried to start a Company; but when Lesseps, with all
+the prestige of his Suez Canal, joined him, there was comparatively
+little difficulty. Personally, Lesseps seems to have known little of
+Panama--all his knowledge was gained at second hand. The first public
+subscription was invited in July, 1879, the capital being 400,000,000
+francs (L16,000,000), in 800,000 shares at 500 francs each. This large
+sum, however, was not obtained at once, only L3,200,000 being applied
+for. However, Lesseps was not discouraged, but determined to go on with
+the work, trusting that money would flow in as it was wanted, which
+ultimately proved to be the case, until the project appeared hopeless.
+He visited the isthmus, and made a triumphal progress over the line; he
+even witnessed one of the great floods of the Chagres river, which rose
+forty feet and covered the railway. Undaunted by this, he went over to
+Panama, and on the 5th of January, 1880, inaugurated the great canal
+with a ceremony and _fete_. He then stated that success was assured, and
+declared, upon his word of honour, that the work would be much easier on
+the isthmus than in the desert of Suez.
+
+In March following he visited New York, where he was but coldly
+received, on account of American jealousy of European influence. The
+President said that the capital invested in such an enterprise by
+corporations or citizens of other countries must be protected by one or
+more of the great Powers, but no European Power could intervene for such
+protection without adopting means which the United States would deem
+inadmissible. This did not damp his enthusiasm; if other countries would
+not assist, all the credit would go to France. The Company had a
+concession from the Columbian Republic for twelve years, and the United
+States would not be likely to interfere.
+
+It will be interesting here to compare the estimates for the canal by
+different persons and at different times within two years:--
+
+    M. Wyse, 1879                              L17,080,000
+    The Paris Congress, 1879                    41,760,000
+    The Lesseps Commission, February, 1880      33,720,000
+    M. de Lesseps himself,     "        "       26,320,000
+    Rectified estimate, September, 1880         21,200,000
+
+Lesseps said he had an offer from a contractor to complete the work for
+twenty millions. Backed by the press and the deputies, the Company's
+shares sold freely, and on the 3rd of March, 1881, it was fully
+established. It was promised that in the course of that year the line of
+the canal should be cleared, and dredging commenced. Lesseps expected to
+finish in 1887, but in 1884 and the two following years he was obliged
+to advance the time to 1890. The canal was to be 47 miles long, 70 feet
+wide at the bottom, and 29 feet deep.
+
+Little was done in 1881, but the work was divided into five sections,
+and in the following year dredging and excavating were commenced. But,
+even thus early, it was found to be more difficult than had been
+expected. Up to March, 1883, only 659,703 metres had been excavated,
+which was reckoned to be about 1/130th of the whole. This would not do,
+as it meant that over a century would pass before its completion. About
+seven thousand labourers, mostly Jamaica negroes, were employed at that
+time, and this number was increased until, in 1888, there were 11,500.
+In 1884 the average amount excavated was 600,000 metres per month,
+against Lesseps' estimate of two millions. Yet, with all that, it was
+calculated that in this year only 1/180th of the material had been taken
+out.
+
+The difficulties were enormous. First, there was trouble to find dumping
+places, where the earth would not be again washed into the excavations
+by heavy floods. Then came the rank vegetation, which was continually
+stretching from either side to choke the clearing. Weeds grew six to
+eight feet high in a rainy season, and these, with the straggling vines,
+kept a little army at work to clear them away from the embankments and
+tracks. The workmen suffered greatly from yellow and other fevers, and
+L600,000 was spent on hospitals and their appurtenances. Money was spent
+profusely on such things as grand offices and a magnificent house to
+lodge the President, if he should ever come to inspect the works. All
+along the route were ornamental bungalows, and the director-general at
+Panama had a salary of L20,000, besides a house and other allowances.
+Even he suffered from fever, and his wife and daughter died of it.
+
+Up to 1888 about fifty millions sterling had been spent, and hardly a
+fifth of the work was finished. Then financial difficulties led to an
+arrangement for merging it in a new Company, which proposed to complete
+the canal on a new plan. Notwithstanding all the objections to locks, it
+was now proposed to save such an immense work of excavation by erecting
+four on either side, thus bringing the highest water level to 123 feet.
+Eighteen and a half miles were said to have been completed, of which
+five were on the Pacific side and the remainder on the Gulf. To carry
+out the new plan, L36,000,000 more were required, but, as a matter of
+fact, only a third of the work necessary for this revised scheme had
+been done.
+
+Then came the downfall, which has been compared to that of the South Sea
+Bubble. When the Company went into liquidation, scores of shady
+transactions came to light. Editors of newspapers and deputies had been
+bribed to gain their support, and money had been wasted in almost every
+possible manner. In February, 1893, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps and four
+other directors were prosecuted, with the result that he, MM. C. de
+Lesseps, Fontaine, and Cottin, were convicted of breach of trust and
+swindling, the two former being sentenced to five years' imprisonment
+and 3,000 francs fines each, and the latter two years and 20,000 francs
+fines. M. Eiffel, the architect of the great tower of Paris, was found
+guilty of breach of trust, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment and
+a fine of 20,000 francs. Nine persons were then charged with receiving
+bribes, one of whom, M. Baihaut, admitted that he got 375,000 francs.
+Three were found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, fines, and to pay
+the liquidators of the company the amount of M. Baihaut's bribe. Charles
+de Lesseps appealed against the charges of swindling, and these were
+quashed on the ground that the transactions had occurred more than five
+years before, thus getting the longer terms of imprisonment and fines of
+the three principals reduced.
+
+Ferdinand de Lesseps hardly knew what was going on; he was old, feeble,
+and in a state of apathy and stupor. Pity for his condition prevented
+the carrying out of the sentence as far as he was concerned, and he died
+on the 7th of December, 1894. The _Times_, in noticing his death, said
+the story was a most pitiful one. The blame of the Panama affair must be
+laid upon the people and the public temper. Bribery and corruption were
+symptoms of a thoroughly unhealthy state of things. An infatuated public
+provided enormous sums; when these were spent, more went the same way,
+and to get these contributions everything possible was done. Lesseps was
+no engineer, but a diplomatist, planning great schemes and the means of
+carrying them out. He was the man of the moment in France. He was
+neither a financier nor an engineer, neither an impostor nor a swindler.
+He was a man of great originality, of indomitable perseverance, of
+boundless faith in himself, and of singular powers of fascination over
+others.
+
+Meanwhile several attempts had been made to get money to carry on the
+work, one of which was by means of a lottery. But the French people were
+discouraged, and were no longer prepared to throw good money after bad.
+It followed, therefore, that although in 1894 a new company, with a
+capital of sixty-five million francs, was proposed, and that it was
+announced in August that eight hundred workmen were engaged, it does not
+appear that anything is being done. If, as has been stated, only a third
+of the work has been accomplished for, say, thirty millions, allowing
+for waste of money, it can hardly be expected that double this amount
+will ever be obtained. What with the heavy floods and rank vegetation, a
+great deal will have to be done to recover lost ground; in fact, some of
+the excavations must be filled up by this time. Those who know the
+country can easily understand that the handsome bungalows, hospitals,
+and workmen's houses must be overrun by wood-ants, and that the
+machinery is mostly spoilt by rust. Even if the canal is ever finished
+with locks, it is doubtful whether it could pay a dividend, as the work
+of keeping it open by dredging would be very expensive. No doubt it
+would be a boon to the world if it were finished, but capitalists expect
+profit, and will hardly be inclined to assist without such expectations.
+
+[Illustration: EUROPE SUPPORTED BY AFRICA AND AMERICA.
+
+(_From Stedman's "Surinam."_)]
+
+The Nicaragua canal has been in course of excavation for several years
+past by an American Company. As finally adopted, it is to have a total
+length of 169.4 miles, of which 56-1/2 will be through the lake, and 641/2
+through the San Juan river. There are to be three locks on either side,
+which may cause trouble in case of a violent earthquake; and then,
+again, the length of the journey will be against it as compared with
+that of Panama. It has been attempted in the United States to make it a
+national work, and the sum of a hundred million dollars is asked from
+the American Government, or at least a guarantee on the issue of bonds
+to that amount. We believe that very little enthusiasm for the project
+has been shown. In August, 1893, the Company was unable to meet its
+obligations, and a receiver was appointed, since which time we believe
+the work is being continued, and that it has been decided to complete it
+as soon as possible. M. de Varigny, in _L'Illustration_ of June the 1st,
+1895, gives the following opinion on the work and its political
+importance:--
+
+"That the Washington statesmen take account of the fact that the cutting
+of the isthmus is difficult, costly, and, in case of a rupture with
+England, dangerous, we cannot doubt. But such is the fascination of
+great enterprises, of grand words and grand theories, that senators and
+representatives hesitate to oppose the current of opinion that is
+bearing along the masses.
+
+"The work has begun, and we can only hope that it will succeed. There
+cannot be too many gates of communication between different peoples. The
+United States undertake to open this. Can they do it, and doing it, will
+they give up the advantages they will thereby acquire? The future will
+show."
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+    Acosta, Pedro de, explorer of the Orinoco, 43
+
+    African slavery, 157
+
+    Aguirre the Tyrant, 38
+
+    Alfinger, Ambrosio de, searches for "El Dorado," 34
+
+    Altienza, Donna Inez de, murdered by Aguirre, 39
+
+    Amazon Company, 83
+
+    Amazon, expedition of Ursua and Aguirre, 38
+
+    American Indian, his character, 1
+
+    _Amis des Noirs_, 257
+
+    "Angel Gabriel," John Sayers Orr, rouses the negroes of Demerara, 335
+
+    Antigua, 165
+
+    Anti-slavery party, 289, 298
+
+    Apprenticeship, negro, 306
+
+    Araby, a leader of bush negroes, 227
+
+    Arawaks,
+      their character, 2;
+      Columbus tries to enslave them, 9;
+      the Spanish sovereign's good feeling for them, 9;
+      their treatment by the first colonists, 11;
+      did not lay up provisions, 12;
+      thinks Spaniards gods, 12;
+      refuse to be slaves, 18;
+      die off in great numbers, 18;
+      in Guiana, 23, 75
+
+    Araya, Dutch at, 75
+
+    Armada, Spanish, 63, 64
+
+    Aruba, 277
+
+    Aspinwall, 352
+
+    _Assiento_ contract to supply slaves, 196
+
+    Ayscue, Sir George, reduces Barbados for the Parliament, 124
+
+
+    Bahamas,
+      natives kidnapped, 19;
+      settled by English, 86;
+      resort of buccaneers, 96;
+      captured by Spaniards, 117
+
+    Baihaut, M., bribed by Panama Canal Company, 361
+
+    Bannister, Major, English Governor of Surinam, 169
+
+    Barbados,
+      first colonised, 85;
+      protests against grant to Earl of Carlisle, 117;
+      result of the English revolution, 117;
+      Charles II. proclaimed king, 122;
+      Sir George Ayscue arrives to subdue the island, 124;
+      attack on Hole Town, 126;
+      the island surrenders, 128;
+      sufferings of a bond-servant in, 151;
+      De Ruyter driven off from, 161;
+      its unique position, 208;
+      negro plots, 213;
+      anti-slavery insurrection, 293;
+      result of emancipation, 328;
+      confederation disturbances, 341
+
+    Barker, Andrew, a rover, 62
+
+    Baron, a bush negro chief, 229
+
+    Basco, Michael de, a buccaneer, 99, 102
+
+    Baskerville, Sir Thomas, a companion of Drake, 65
+
+    Beaudierre, Mons. de, a sympathiser with the coloured people of
+      Hayti, 259
+
+    Berbice,
+      supplies cut off during war, 170;
+      captured by French corsairs, 178, 179;
+      great slave insurrection, 218
+
+    Belize, 250
+
+    Berrie, one of Ralegh's captains, 74
+
+    Berrio, Antonio de, Spanish Governor of Trinidad, 69
+
+    Bolivar, Simon, Liberator of Venezuela, 279
+
+    Bond-servants, 149
+
+    Boyer, President of Hayti, 275
+
+    Brethren of the coast, 93
+
+    British Guiana, 328, 334
+
+    British Legion in Venezuela, 286
+
+    Bull of Partition,
+      its terms, 48;
+      disputed, 49;
+      practically revoked, 134
+
+    Bush negroes, 225
+
+    Buxton, Fowell, 300
+
+    Byam, Major, Governor of Surinam, 128
+
+    Byron, Admiral, 241, 242
+
+
+    Caciques of the Indians, their position, 4
+
+    California rush, 351
+
+    Campeachy, Bay of, 96, 200
+
+    Cannibals, 20, 31
+
+    Canning's declaration of neutrality, 285
+
+    Caribana, 75
+
+    Caribbee Islands, 20, 85
+
+    Caribs,
+      their character, 6;
+      cannibalism, 20, 31;
+      hatred of Spaniards, 20;
+      in Guiana, 23, 75;
+      in St. Kitt's, 88
+
+    Carlisle, Earl of, Grantee of Caribbee Islands, 85, 122
+
+    Carthagena,
+      taken by French, 178;
+      great fair, 184;
+      attacked by Admiral Vernon, 205
+
+    Cary, Colonel, favours the buccaneers, 165
+
+    Casas, Las, 46
+
+    Cassard, Jacques,
+      the corsair, 179;
+      captures St. Eustatius, 180;
+      Curacao, 181
+
+    Cattle, wild, 21
+
+    "Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" in Barbados, 119
+
+    Central American Republics, 288
+
+    Chagres, 352
+
+    Charbon, Jan Abraham, 219
+
+    Charles I. and the Colonies, 114
+
+    Charles II.
+      declared king in the Bermudas and Virginia, 117;
+      Barbados, 122;
+      his interest in the plantations, 135
+
+    Chinese labourers introduced, 327
+
+    Christianity forced on the natives, 8, 27
+
+    Christophe, a Haytian leader, 269, 274
+
+    Clervaux, a Haytian leader, 271
+
+    Clifford, Jeronomy, case of, 173
+
+    Cochrane, Admiral, 277
+
+    Codrington, Colonel, 119
+
+    Coffee, 143
+
+    Coffee, leader of rebel slaves in Berbice, 221, 223
+
+    Coke, John, 84
+
+    Colon, 352
+
+    Colonies, Spanish, in Hispaniola, 11, 14
+
+    Coloured people in Hayti, 257
+
+    Columbian Republic, 288
+
+    Columbus' opinion of the natives, 6
+
+    Confederation in Barbados, 341
+
+    Contraband trade with Spanish colonies, 53, 57, 201
+
+    Convict labour, 147
+
+    Coolies, East Indian, 327
+
+    Cooper, Anthony Ashley, 147
+
+    Corsairs, 49, 177
+
+    Corteso, Juan, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+    Costa Rica, 288
+
+    Cottin, M., 360
+
+    Cotton, 15, 18, 141
+
+    Council for Plantations, 135, 146
+
+    Cromwell and the West Indies, 129
+
+    Cudjo, a maroon chief, 215
+
+    Cuba, 20
+
+    Cullen, Dr. E., projector of the Darien Canal, 353
+
+    Curacao, 115, 152, 165, 180, 238
+
+
+    Darbey, John, an English prisoner in Cuba, 171
+
+    Darien Canal, 353
+
+    Darien scheme, 188
+
+    Delgado, Augustine, an "El Dorado" seeker, 46
+
+    Demerara, 213, 246, 252, 301
+
+    Dessalines,
+      a chief in the Haytian insurrection, 271;
+      crowned emperor, 274
+
+    Dogs,
+      hunt Indians, 16;
+      run wild, 22;
+      hunt maroons, 235;
+      hunt rebel negroes, 271
+
+    Dominica, 91, 116, 238, 241, 249
+
+    _Dominus Vobiscum_, one of the first English vessels in the West
+      Indies, 49
+
+    D'Oyley, Governor of Jamaica, 134
+
+    Drake, Sir Francis,
+      voyage with Hawkins, 57;
+      raid on Nombre de Dios, 59;
+      great expedition to the West Indies, 63;
+      captures St. Domingo, 64;
+      last voyage, 65;
+      death, 65
+
+    Drax, Colonel, 120
+
+    Du Casse, a French corsair, 177
+
+    Dudley, Sir Robert, 66
+
+    Dutch, 67, 75, 84, 86, 115, 129, 166
+
+
+    Edwards, Bryan, 157
+
+    Eiffel, M., 360
+
+    "El Dorado,"
+      the quest for, 23;
+      dangers, 24;
+      germ of the story, 32;
+      Martinez' report, 44
+
+    Elizabeth, Queen, 67
+
+    Emancipation,
+      Great Britain, 289;
+      France, 310;
+      Denmark, 312;
+      Holland, 313;
+      Spain, 313
+
+    Enambuc, M. d', first French settler, 87-8, 116
+
+    Enciso, Bachelor, 29
+
+    English and Dutch, 67, 68, 114
+
+    Essequebo, 213
+
+    Everson, a Dutch pirate, 177
+
+    Eyre, Governor of Jamaica, 339
+
+
+    Fedreman, Nicholas, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
+
+    Ferdinand and Isabella,
+      kind feelings towards the Indians, 10;
+      grant from the Pope, 48
+
+    Fontaine, Father, a Catholic missionary, 134
+
+    Fontaine, M., a Panama defaulter, 360
+
+    Fourgeaud, Colonel, 227
+
+    Franklin, Washington, 294
+
+    Free trade, 324
+
+    French,
+      in the West Indies, 49-51, 87;
+      company for settling the islands, 116;
+      character of, 167;
+      revolution, its influence on Hayti, effect on the Spanish Main, 276
+
+
+    George of Spires, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
+
+    German knights in Venezuela, 33
+
+    Gold-hunting, 11, 15, 23, 29, 73
+
+    Gordon, Mr., a Member of the Jamaica Assembly, executed, 340
+
+    Grasse, Count de, 241, 249
+
+    Grenada, 238
+
+    Groenwegel, Commander of Essequebo, 86
+
+    Guadeloupe, 238, 251
+
+    _Guanin_, 23
+
+    Guatavita, Lake of, 32
+
+    Guatemala, 288
+
+    Guiana, 23, 69
+
+    Guianians, 44
+
+    Guichen, Admiral de, 241, 249
+
+    Gueiria, 282
+
+    Guzman, Fernando de, 38
+
+
+    Haiti, Hayti, or Hispaniola,
+      its inhabitants, 3;
+      colonised, 11;
+      gold found, 11;
+      almost ruined by becoming depopulated, 21;
+      a resort of buccaneers, 91;
+      under the French, 251;
+      downfall, 257;
+      British invasion, 268;
+      republics and empires, 274
+
+    Hall, Captain, exploit of, 206
+
+    Harcourt, Robert, in Guiana, 76
+
+    Harry, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77, 78
+
+    Hartop, Job, a prisoner in Mexico, 58
+
+    Havana,
+      ransomed, 50;
+      sacked and burnt, 51
+
+    Hawkins, Sir John,
+      first voyage, 53;
+      second, 54;
+      third, 57;
+      final trip with Drake, and death, 65
+
+    Hawkins, William, voyage to Brazil, 52
+
+    Hennessy, Governor John Pope, of Barbados, 341, 345
+
+    Henri I. (Christophe), Emperor of Hayti, 274
+
+    Henry VIII. of England sends an expedition to the West Indies, 49
+
+    Herera, Alonzo de, 45
+
+    Hogs naturalised in Hispaniola, see Haiti
+
+    Hondo river, 250
+
+    Hood, Sir Samuel, 238
+
+    Hoogenheim, Wolfert Simon van, Governor of Berbice, 218
+
+    Huten, Philip von, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
+
+
+    Iala, Father, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+    Indian, character of, 1
+
+
+    Jackson, Colonel, captures Santiago de la Vega, 116
+
+    Jacques I. (Dessalines), Emperor of Hayti, 274
+
+    Jamaica,
+      Valdivia wrecked off the coast, 30;
+      attacked by Colonel Jackson, 116;
+      captured by English, 131;
+      Spanish attempt to recapture, 133;
+      the first real British colony, 136;
+      progress of, 155;
+      authorities refuse help to the Darien colony, 193;
+      slave revolts, 214;
+      serious negro insurrection, 338
+
+    James I.,
+      friendship for Spain, 82, 114;
+      dispute with Spain about the West Indies and Virginia, 113
+
+    Jeffreys, Judge, sends prisoners to Barbados, 150
+
+    Jenkins, Captain, and his ear, 202
+
+    Jervis, Admiral Sir John, 251
+
+    Jews in the West Indies, 239, 245
+
+
+    Keymis, Captain, a follower of Ralegh, 74, 77-9, 81
+
+    Kyk-over-al, Dutch fort in Essequebo, 76
+
+
+    Labour difficulties, 14, 137, 321
+
+    Lafayette, 260
+
+    Lawrence, Captain, an English pirate, 99
+
+    Legrand, Pierre, a French pirate, 99
+
+    Leigh, Charles, first English settler in Guiana, 76
+
+    Lesseps, Ferdinand de, and his Panama scheme, 356
+
+    Lolonois, the great pirate, 101
+
+
+    Macatoa, reported a very rich city, 36
+
+    Madeirans imported into British Guiana, 327
+
+    Maltese imported into British Guiana, 327
+
+    Manoa, city of, fabulous residence of "El Dorado," 44
+
+    Margarita, 114, 152
+
+    Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, 283
+
+    Maroons or Simarons, 59, 211, 232
+
+    Martinez, Juan de, his report of "El Dorado," 43
+
+    Martinique, 116, 182, 238, 251, 259
+
+    Mauduit, Captain, murdered in the Haytian revolt, 262
+
+    Merrifield, Ralph, one of the first settlers in St. Kitt's, 85
+
+    Methodists, 295
+
+    Miranda, Francisco, leader of the revolution in Venezuela, 277, 347
+
+    Missionaries, Protestant, 295, 327
+
+    Montbar, the French pirate, 100
+
+    Montserrat, 161, 165, 249
+
+    Morgan, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry), the English buccaneer, 102, 177
+
+    Morgan, Colonel, 162
+
+    Morillo, Marshal, Spanish leader in Venezuela, 284
+
+
+    _Navio de permisso_, 199
+
+    Negro slavery, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210
+
+    Negroes, free, difficulties with, 329
+
+    Nelson, Lord,
+      flying trip to the West Indies, 254;
+      his expedition to Nicaragua, 346
+
+    Nevis, 161, 249
+
+    New Edinburgh, 192
+
+    New Granada, 32, 33, 281, 288
+
+    New World, 1
+
+    Nicaragua and the canal scheme, 288, 346, 351, 355, 362
+
+    North, Roger, a settler in Guiana, 83, 85
+
+    _Nueva Dorado_, 70
+
+
+    Ojeda, Alonzo de, 27
+
+    Omaguas, reported a rich nation, 36
+
+    Ophir, 15, 23
+
+    Ordas, Diego de, explores the Orinoco, 43
+
+    Orders in Council, 300
+
+    Orr, John Sayers, "the Angel Gabriel," creates a disturbance in
+    Demerara, 335
+
+    Ouverture, Toussaint L', leader of the Haytian negroes, 268
+
+    Oxenham or Oxnam, John, crosses the Isthmus, 61
+
+    Oyapok, English colonies in the, 76, 83
+
+
+    Panama, 186, 347, 350
+
+    Panama Canal, 347, 353, 355
+
+    Panama Railway, 352
+
+    Parima Lake, 33
+
+    Paterson, William, and the Darien scheme, 188
+
+    Penn and Venables, Generals, expedition to the West Indies, 130
+
+    Perez, Diego, a gallant Spaniard, 50
+
+    Petion, President of Hayti, 274, 285
+
+    Philips, Miles, an English prisoner in Mexico, 58
+
+    Pirates in the West Indies, 49, 90
+
+    Pitman, Henry, a bond-servant, 150
+
+    Pitt, in favour of a Panama Canal, 347
+
+    Plantations, 143, 154, 291
+
+    Pointis, de, a leader of buccaneers, 178
+
+    Pomeroon, 75, 161
+
+    Pope, The,
+      issues Bull of Partition, 48;
+      acknowledges French rights in the West Indies, 134
+
+    Popham, Captain, captures Spanish letters, 69
+
+    Porto Bello,
+      its fair, 185;
+      captured by Vernon, 204
+
+    Porto Rico, 20, 49
+
+    Prince of Orange in England, 252
+
+    Privateers, 96, 98
+
+    Proclamations to the Indians, 27, 30
+
+    Providence Island, 86
+
+    Puerto Cabello, 277
+
+
+    Quesada, Herman de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
+
+
+    Ralegh Sir Walter,
+      at Trinidad, 66;
+      his "Letters Patent," 68;
+      his interest in Guiana, 69;
+      captures Trinidad, 70;
+      searches for "El Dorado," 72;
+      sent to the Tower, 76;
+      liberated, 77;
+      goes again to Guiana, 78;
+      capture of St. Thome, 79;
+      his execution, 82
+
+    Reclus, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356
+
+    Regapo, Leonard, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77
+
+    _Repartimientos_, 15
+
+    Robespierre, 260
+
+    Rodney, Admiral, 237, 242
+
+    Rossy, Sieur du, 116
+
+    Route of Spanish trade, 49
+
+    Rovers to the Main, 49, 66
+
+    Royal African Company for introducing slaves, 149
+
+    Rupert, Prince, 124
+
+    Ruyter, Admiral de, attacks Barbados, 161
+
+
+    St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's,
+      settled by Thomas Warner, 84;
+      granted to the Earl of Carlisle, 85;
+      d'Enambuc arrives, 87;
+      divided between English and French, 88;
+      attacked by Spaniards, 114;
+      granted to a French Company, 116;
+      bond-servants in, 153;
+      quarrels between English and French, 162, 177, 207;
+      captured by French, 249
+
+    St. Croix or Santa Cruz, riots in, 311, 329
+
+    St. Domingo,
+      captured by Drake, 64;
+      attempted by Penn and Venables, 131
+
+    St. Eustatius, 86, 161, 181, 238, 243
+
+    St. Lucia, 238, 241, 251
+
+    St. Martin's, 115, 116
+
+    St. Thomas, 239
+
+    St. Vincent, 238
+
+    Salle, General de la, French Governor of St. Kitt's, 162
+
+    San Juan river, 346
+
+    Santa Martha, captured by French pirates, 51
+
+    Santiago de Cuba, gallant fight at, 50
+
+    Santiago de la Vega captured by English, 116
+
+    Savile, Henry, his "Libel of Spanish Lies," 66
+
+    Sedenno, Antonio, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+    Serfdom, 137, 145
+
+    Shelley, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121
+
+    Simarons, _see_ Maroons
+
+    Slaves,
+      Indian, 19;
+      negro, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210, 289;
+      white (bond-servants), 146;
+      insurrections, 213, 294, 302;
+      abolition of the African trade, 255, 289;
+      runaways, 210;
+      Registrar and Protector of, 293;
+      emancipation of, 309;
+      reviews of slavery, 289
+
+    Smith, Rev. John, a missionary sentenced to death in connection with
+      a slave revolt, 303-6
+
+    South Sea Bubble, 187, 196
+
+    Spain,
+      character of her people, 9;
+      introducing Christianity, 9;
+      wanton cruelty to the natives, 18;
+      hardiness of Spaniards, 25;
+      their audacity, 30;
+      Spanish claim to supremacy, 114;
+      interference with their trade, 133;
+      Spanish cruelty to prisoners of war, 171
+
+    "Spiriting" or kidnapping white servants, 146;
+      made felony 147
+
+    Sugar cane, 19, 141
+
+    Suicides, 18
+
+    Surinam, 161, 165, 167, 171, 179
+
+    Sylva, Gaspar de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
+
+
+    Tison, Thomas, first English trader to West Indies, 49
+
+    Tobacco, 141
+
+    Tobago, 115, 238, 251
+
+    Toledo, Don Frederic de, captures St. Kitt's, 114
+
+    Tortuga, the great rendezvous of the buccaneers, 95, 102, 165
+
+    Trade forced upon the Spanish settlers, 53, 57
+
+    Transported convicts, 147
+
+    Treasure seeking, 23
+
+    Trelawny Town, 232
+
+    Tribute imposed on natives, 15
+
+    Trinidad, 70, 328
+
+
+    Ursua, Pedro de, murdered by the tyrant Aguirre, 38
+
+    Utrecht, treaty of, 196
+
+
+    Valdivia, his shipwreck, 30
+
+    Van Horn the pirate, 103
+
+    Vanderbilt Transit Company, 351
+
+    Venables and Penn, Generals, their expedition, 130
+
+    Venezuela,
+      the treasure seekers in, 23;
+      her struggle for independence, 277
+
+    Vernon, Admiral, 204, 205, 337
+
+    Virgin Islands, 96
+
+    Virginia, 113
+
+
+    Wafer, Lionel, his journey across the Isthmus, 105
+
+    Walker, William, the modern filibuster, 352
+
+    Walrond, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121
+
+    Warner, Thomas, founder of the colony of St. Kitt's, 84, 85, 88
+
+    Wars,
+      England and Spain, 63, 114, 130;
+      Holland and Spain, 87, 114;
+      France and Spain, 116;
+      England and Holland, 129, 160;
+      England and France against Holland and Spain, 170;
+      France against England and Holland, 177;
+      Spain, England, and Holland against France, 178;
+      England and Holland against France and Spain, 195;
+      England and Spain, 203;
+      England and her revolted colonies, 241;
+      France, Spain, and Holland join in the quarrel, 243;
+      commencement of the great French war, 251;
+      England and the United States, 255
+
+    Watts, Governor, of St. Kitt's, 162
+
+    Welsers of Augsburg, 33
+
+    West India Company of Holland, 87
+
+    William III. and the Darien scheme, 194
+
+    Willoughby, Lord, Governor of Barbados, 122, 124-8, 164
+
+    Wyse, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The Gresham Press,
+
+UNWIN BROTHERS,
+
+WOKING AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The West Indies and the Spanish Main
+[1899], by James Rodway
+
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