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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:58:03 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:58:03 -0700 |
| commit | 518f6b808c3283f951098ec7381b7f3398dccec4 (patch) | |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5 + "Dinard" to "Dodsworth" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: June 4, 2010 [EBook #32689] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VIII SLICE V<br /><br /> +Dinard to Dodsworth</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">DINARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">DISSECTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">DINDIGUL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">DISSENTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">KARL WILHELM DINDORF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">DISSOCIATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">D’INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THÉODORE-VINCENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">DISSOLUTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">DINEIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">DISTAFF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">DISTILLATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">DINGHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">DISTRACTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">DINGLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">DISTRESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">DINGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">DISTRIBUTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">DINGWALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">DISTRICT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">DINKA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">DISTYLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">DINKELSBÜHL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">DITHMARSCHEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">DINNER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">DITHYRAMBIC POETRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">DINOCRATES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">DITTERSBACH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">DINOFLAGELLATA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">DINOTHERIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">DITTO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">DINWIDDIE, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">DITTON, HUMPHRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">DIO CASSIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">DIU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">DIOCESE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">DIURETICS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">DIO CHRYSOSTOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">DIURNAL MOTION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">DIOCLETIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">DIVAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">DIVER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">DIODATI, GIOVANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">DIODORUS CRONUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">DIVES-SUR-MER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">DIODORUS SICULUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">DIVIDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">DIODOTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">DIVIDEND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">DIOGENES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">DIVIDIVI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">DIOGENES APOLLONIATES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">DIVINATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">DIOGENES LAËRTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">DIVINING-ROD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">DIOGENIANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">DIVISION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">DIVORCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">DIOMEDES</a> (Greek legend)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">DIWANIEH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">DIOMEDES</a> (Latin grammarian)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">DION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">DIX, JOHN ADAMS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">DIONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">DIXON, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">DIONYSIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">DIXON, HENRY HALL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">DIONYSIUS</a> (pope)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">DIXON, RICHARD WATSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">DIONYSIUS</a> (tyrant of Syracuse)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">DIXON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">DIZFUL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">DJAKOVO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">DLUGOSZ, JAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">DIONYSIUS THRAX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">DNIEPER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">DIONYSUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">DNIESTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">DIOPHANTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">DOAB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">DIOPSIDE </a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">DIOPTASE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">DOBBS FERRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">DIORITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">DIP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">DÖBELN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">DIPHENYL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">DOBERAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">DIPHILUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">DÖBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">DIPHTHERIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">DOBREE, PETER PAUL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">DIPLODOCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">DÖBRENTEI, GABOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">DIPLOMACY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">DOBRITCH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">DIPLOMATIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">DOBRUDJA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">DIPSOMANIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">DOBSINA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">DIPTERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">DIPTERAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">DOBSON, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">DIPTYCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">DOCETAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">DIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">DOCHMIAC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">DIRCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">DOCK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">DIRECT MOTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">DOCK</a> (botany)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">DIRECTORS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">DOCK</a> (marine and river engineering)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">DIRECTORY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">DOCKET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">DIRGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">DOCK WARRANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">DIRK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">DOCKYARDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">DIRSCHAU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">DOCTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">DISABILITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">DOCTORS’ COMMONS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">DISCHARGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">DOCTRINAIRES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">DISCHARGING ARCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">DOCUMENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">DISCIPLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">DODD, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">DISCIPLES OF CHRIST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">DODDER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">DISCLAIMER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">DODDRIDGE, PHILIP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">DISCOUNT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">DODDS, ALFRED AMÉDÉE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">DISCOVERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">DODECAHEDRON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">DISCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">DODECASTYLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">DISINFECTANTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">DÖDERLEIN, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">DISMAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">DISORDERLY HOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">DISPATCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">DODO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">DISPENSATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">DODONA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">DISPERSION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">DODS, MARCUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">D’ISRAELI, ISAAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">DODSLEY, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">DISS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">DODSWORTH, ROGER</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DINARD<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span>, a seaside town of north-western France, in the department of +Ille-et-Vilaine. The town, which is the chief watering-place of +Brittany, is situated on a rocky promontory at the mouth of the Rance +opposite St Malo, which is about 1 m. distant. It is a favourite resort +of English and Americans as well as of the French, its attractions being +the beauty of its situation, the mildness of the climate and the good +bathing. It has two casinos and numerous luxurious hotels and elegant +villas. Together with the adjoining watering-place of St Enogat, Dinard +has a population of 4882 (1906).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINDIGUL<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span>, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, 880 +ft. above the sea, 40 m. from Madura by rail. Pop. (1901) 25,182. +Dindigul has risen into importance as the centre of a trade in tobacco +and manufacture of cigars, which are exported to England. There are two +large European cigar factories here. The town has manufactures oe silk, +muslim#and blankets, and an export trade in hides and cardamoms; and +there is a large native Christian population, with two churches. The +ancient fort, well preserved, stands on a rock rising 350 ft. above the +town; this was formerly a position of great strategic importance, +commanding passes into Madura from Coimbatore, and figured prominently +in the military operations of the Mahrattas in the 17th and 18th +centuries, and of Hyder Ali in 1755 seq., being thrice captured by the +British (1767, 1783, 1790). After the two first captures it was restored +to Hyder Ali under treaty; after the third it was ceded to the East +India Company.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">KARL WILHELM DINDORF<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1802-1883), German classical scholar, was born at +Leipzig on the 2nd of January 1802. From his earliest years he showed a +strong taste for classical studies, and after completing F. Invernizi’s +edition of Aristophanes at an early age, and editing several grammarians +and rhetoricians, was in 1828 appointed extraordinary professor of +literary history in his native city. Disappointed at not obtaining the +ordinary professorship when it became vacant in 1833, he resigned his +post in the same year, and devoted himself entirely to study and +literary work. His attention had at first been chiefly given to +Athenaeus, whom he edited in 1827, and to the Greek dramatists, all of +whom he edited separately and combined in his <i>Poetae scenici Graeci</i> +(1830 and later editions). He also wrote a work on the metres of the +Greek dramatic poets, and compiled special lexicons to Aeschylus and +Sophocles. He edited Procopius for Niebuhr’s <i>Corpus</i> of the Byzantine +writers, and between 1846 and 1851 brought out at Oxford an important +edition of Demosthenes; he also edited Lucian and Josephus for the Didot +classics. His last important editorial labour was his <i>Eusebius of +Caesarea</i> (1867-1871). Much of his attention was occupied by the +republication of Stephanus’s <i>Thesaurus</i> (Paris, 1831-1865), chiefly +executed by him and his brother Ludwig, a work of prodigious labour and +utility. His reputation suffered somewhat through the imposture +practised upon him by the Greek Constantine Simonides, who succeeded in +deceiving him by a fabricated fragment of the Greek historian Uranius. +The book was printed, and a few copies had been circulated, when the +forgery was discovered, just in time to prevent its being given to the +world under the auspices of the university of Oxford. Shortly after the +death of his brother, he lost all his property and his library by rash +speculations. He died on the 1st of August 1883.</p> + +<p>His brother <span class="sc">Ludwig</span> (1805-1871) was born at Leipzig on the +3rd of January 1805, and died there on the 6th of September 1871. +He never held any academical position, and led so secluded a +life that many doubted his existence, and declared that he was +a mere pseudonym. The important share which he took in the +edition of the <i>Thesaurus</i> is nevertheless authenticated by his +own signature to his contributions. He also published valuable +editions of Polybius, Dio Cassius and other Greek historians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">D’INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THÉODORE-VINCENT<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1851-  ), +French musical composer, was born in Paris, on the 27th of March +1851. He studied composition and the organ at the Paris Conservatoire +under César Franck, and obtained the grand prize offered +by the city of Paris in 1885 with <i>Le Chant de la Cloche</i>, a dramatic +legend after Schiller. His principal works, beside the above, are +the symphonic trilogy <i>Wallenstein</i>, the symphonic works entitled +<i>Saugefleurie</i>, <i>La Forêt enchantée</i>, <i>Istar</i>, <i>Symphonie sur un air +montagnard français</i>; overture to <i>Anthony and Cleopatra</i>; <i>Ste +Marie Magdeleine</i>, a cantata; <i>Attendez-moi sous l’orme</i>, a one-act +opera; <i>Fervaal</i>, a musical drama in three acts. Vincent d’Indy +is perhaps the most prominent among the disciples of César +Franck. Imbued with very high aims, he was always guided by +a lofty ideal, and few musicians have attained so complete a +mastery over the art of instrumentation. His music, however, +lacks simplicity, and can never become popular in the widest +sense. His opera <i>Fervaal</i>, which is styled “action musicale”, is +constructed upon the system of <i>Leit-motifs</i>. Its legendary +subject recalls both <i>Parsifal</i> and <i>Tristan</i>, and the music is also +suggestive of Wagnerian influence. D’Indy can scarcely be +considered so typical a representative of modern French music as +his juniors Alfred Bruneau, the composer of <i>Le Rêve</i>, <i>L’Attaque du +moulin</i>, <i>Messidor</i>, or Gustave Charpentier, the author of <i>Louise</i>, +who chose subjects of modern life for their operatic works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINEIR<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span>, a small town in Asia Minor, built amidst the ruins of +Celaenae-Apamea, near the sources of the Maeander (Menderes). +It is the terminus of the Smyrna-Aidin-Dineir railway. Pop. +1400. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apamea</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1814-1881), German poet and +dramatist, was born at Halsdorf, in Hesse Cassel, on the 30th of +June 1814. Having studied at the university of Marburg, he +became in 1836 a master at the Lyceum in Cassel, from which he +was transferred to Fulda in 1838. In 1839 he produced a novel, +<i>Unter der Erde</i>, which obtained considerable success, and in 1841 +published the book by which he is best remembered, the <i>Lieder +eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwächters</i>. These poems, animated +as they are by a spirit of bitter opposition to everything that +savours of despotism, were an effective contribution to the +political poetry of the day. The popularity of this book +determined Dingelstedt to take up a literary career, and in 1841 +he obtained an appointment on the staff of the <i>Augsburger +allgemeine Zeitung</i>. In 1843, however, the satirist of German +princes accepted, to the general surprise, the appointment of +private librarian to the king of Württemberg, and in the same year +he married the celebrated Bohemian opera singer, Jenny Lutzer. +In 1845 he published a volume of poems, some of which, treating +of modern life, possessed great literary rather than strictly +poetical merit. A subsequent collection, published in 1852, +attracted little attention. The success of his tragedy <i>Das Haus +der Barneveldt</i> (1850) obtained for him the position of intendant +at the court theatre at Munich, where he soon became the centre +of literary society. He incurred, however, the animosity of the +Jesuit clique at the court, and in 1856 was suddenly dismissed on +the most frivolous charges. A similar position was offered to him +at Weimar through the influence of Liszt, and he remained there +until 1867. His administration was most successful, and he +especially distinguished himself by presenting all Shakespeare’s +historical plays upon the stage in an unbroken cycle. In 1867 he +became director of the court opera house in Vienna, and in 1872 +of the Hofburgtheater, a position he held until his death on the +15th of May 1881. Among his other works may be noticed an +autobiographical sketch of his Munich career, entitled <i>Münchener +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span> +Bilderbogen</i> (1879), <i>Die Amazone</i>, an art novel of considerable +merit (1869), translations of several of Shakespeare’s comedies, +and several writings dealing with questions of practical dramaturgy. +He was ennobled in 1867 by the king of Bavaria and in +1876 was created <i>Freiherr</i> by the emperor of Austria.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dingelstedt’s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> appeared in 12 vols. (1877-1878), +but this edition is far from complete. On his life see, besides the +autobiography mentioned above, J. Rodenberg, <i>Heimaterinnerungen +an F. Dingelstedt</i> (Berlin, 1882), and by the same author, <i>F. Dingelstedt, +Blätter aus seinem Nachlass</i> (2 vols., 1891). Also an essay by +A. Stern in <i>Zur Literatur der Gegenwart</i> (Leipzig, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINGHY,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dingey</span> (from the Hindu <i>dēngī</i> a small boat, the +diminutive of <i>denga</i>, a sloop or coasting vessel), a boat of greatly +varying size and shape, used on the rivers of India; the term is +applied also, in certain districts, to a larger boat used for coasting +purposes. The name was adopted by the merchantmen trading +with India, and is now generally used to designate the small extra +boat kept for general purposes on a man-of-war or merchant +vessel, and also, on the Thames, for small pleasure boats built for +one or two pairs of sculls.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINGLE,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a seaport and market town of county Kerry, Ireland, +in the west parliamentary division, the terminus of the Tralee +and Dingle railway. Pop. (1901) 1786. This may be considered +the most westerly town in the United Kingdom unless +Knightstown at Valencia Island be excepted; it lies on the south +side of the northernmost of the great promontories which protrude +into the Atlantic on the south-western coast of Ireland, on +the fine natural harbour of Dingle Bay, in a wild hilly district +abundant in relics of antiquity. The town, which is the centre +of a considerable fishing industry, especially in mackerel, was in +the 16th century of no little importance as a seaport; it had also +a noted manufacture of linen. It was incorporated by Queen +Elizabeth, and returned two members to the Irish parliament +until the Union.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINGO,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a name applied apparently by Europeans to the +warrigal, or native Australian dog, the Canis dingo of J. F. +Blumenbach. The dingo is a stoutly-built, rather short-legged, +sandy-coloured dog, intermediate in size between a jackal and a +wolf, and measuring about 51 in. in total length, of which the +tail takes up about eleven. In general appearance it is very like +some of the pariah dogs of India and Egypt; and, except on +distributional grounds, there is no reason for regarding it as +specifically distinct from such breeds. Dingos, which are found +both wild and tame, interbreed freely with European dogs introduced +into the country, and it may be that the large amount +of black on the back of many specimens may be the result of +crossing of this nature.</p> + +<p>The main point of interest connected with the dingo relates to +its origin; that is to say, whether it is a member of the indigenous +Australian fauna (among which it is the only large placental +mammal), or whether it has been introduced into the country +by man. There seems to be no doubt that fossilized remains of +the dingo occur intermingled with those of the extinct Australian +mammals, such as giant kangaroos, giant wombats and the still +more gigantic <i>Diprotodon</i>. And since remains of man have +apparently not yet been detected in these deposits, it has been +thought by some naturalists that the dingo must be an indigenous +species. This was the opinion of Sir Frederick McCoy, by whom +the deposits in question were regarded as probably of Pliocene age. +A similar view is adopted by D. Ogilvy in a <i>Catalogue of Australian +Mammals</i>, published at Sydney in 1892; the writer going however +one step further and expressing the belief that the dingo +is the ancestor of all domesticated dogs. The latter contention +cannot for a moment be sustained; and there are also strong +arguments against the indigenous origin of the dingo. That the +animal now occurs in a wild state is no argument whatever as to +its being indigenous, seeing that a domesticated breed introduced +by man into a new country abounding in game would almost +certainly revert to the wild state. The apparent absence of +human remains in the beds yielding dingo teeth and bones (which +are almost certainly not older than the Pleistocene) is of only +negative value, and liable to be upset by new discoveries. Then, +again (as has been pointed out by R. I. Pocock in the first part of +the <i>Kennel Encyclopaedia</i>, 1907), the absence of any really wild +species of the typical group of the genus <i>Canis</i> between Burma +and Siam on the one hand and Australia on the other is a very +strong argument against the dingo being indigenous, seeing that, +whether brought by man or having travelled thither of its own +accord, the dingo must have reached its present habitat by way +of the Austro-Malay archipelago. If it had followed that route +in the course of nature, it is inconceivable that it would not still +be found on some portions of the route. On the supposition that +the dingo was introduced by man, we have now fairly decisive +evidence that the native Australian, in place of being (as formerly +supposed) a member of the negro stock, is a low type of Caucasian +allied to the Veddahs of Ceylon and the Toalas of Celebes. +Consequently the Australian natives must be presumed to have +reached the island-continent by way of Malaya; and if this be +admitted, nothing is more likely than that they should have been +accompanied by pariah dogs of the Indian type. Confirmation of +this is afforded by the occurrence in the mountains of Java of a +pariah-like dog which has reverted to an almost completely wild +condition; and likewise by the fact that the old voyagers met +with dogs more or less similar to the dingo in New Guinea, New +Zealand and the Solomon and certain other of the smaller Pacific +islands. On the whole, then, the most probable explanation of +the case is that the dingo is an introduced species closely allied to +the Indian pariah dog. Whether the latter represents a truly wild +type now extinct, cannot be determined. If so, all pariahs should +be classed with the Australian warrigal under the name of <i>Canis +dingo</i>. If, on the other hand, pariahs, and consequently the dingo, +cannot be separated specifically from the domesticated dogs of +western Europe, then the dingo should be designated <i>Canis +familiaris dingo</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINGWALL,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a royal and police burgh and county town of the +shire of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2519. It is +situated near the head of Cromarty Firth where the valley of the +Peffery unites with the alluvial lands at the mouth of the Conon, +18½ m. N.W. of Inverness by the Highland railway. Its name, +derived from the Scandinavian <i>Thingvöllr</i>, “field or meeting-place +of the <i>thing</i>,” or local assembly, preserves the Norse origin of +the town; its Gaelic designation is Inverpefferon, “the mouth of +the Peffery.” The 18th-century town house, and some remains +of the ancient mansion of the once powerful earls of Ross still +exist. There is also a public park. An obelisk, 57 ft. high, was +erected over the grave of the 1st earl of Cromarty. The town +belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs. It is +a flourishing distributing centre and has an important corn market +and auction marts. Some shipping is carried on at the harbour +at the mouth of the Peffery, about a mile below the burgh. +Branch lines of the Highland railway run to Strathpeffer and to +Strome Ferry and Kyle of Lochalsh (for Skye). Alexander II. +created Dingwall a royal borough in 1226, and its charter was +renewed by James IV. On the top of Knockfarrel (Gaelic, <i>cnoc</i>, +hill; <i>faire</i>, watch, or guard), a hill about 3 m. to the west, is a +large and very complete vitrified fort with ramparts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINKA<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (called by the Arabs <i>Jange</i>), a widely spread negro +people dwelling on the right bank of the White Nile to about +12° N., around the mouth of the Babr-el-Ghazal, along the right +bank of that river and on the banks of the lower Sobat. Like the +Shilluk, they were greatly harried from the north by Nuba-Arabic +tribes, but remained comparatively free owing to the vast +extent of their country, estimated to cover 40,000 sq. m., and their +energy in defending themselves. They are a tall race with skins +of almost blue black. The men wear practically no clothes, +married women having a short apron, and unmarried girls a +fringe of iron cones round the waist. They tattoo themselves +with tribal marks, and extract the lower incisors; they also +pierce the ears and lip for the attachment of ornaments, and wear +a variety of feather, iron, ivory and brass ornaments. Nearly +all shave the head, but some give the hair a reddish colour by +moistening it with animal matter. Polygamy is general; some +headmen have as many as thirty or more wives; but six is the +average number. They are great cattle and sheep breeders; the +men tend their beasts with great devotion, despising agriculture, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span> +which is left to the women; the cattle are called by means of +drums. Save under stress of famine cattle are never killed +for food, the people subsisting largely on durra. The Dinkas +reverence the cow, and snakes, which they call “brothers.” +Their folklore recognizes a good and evil deity; one of the two +wives of the good deity created man, and the dead go to live with +him in a great park filled with animals of enormous size. The +evil deity created cripples. The Dinka came, in 1899, under the +control of the Sudan government, justice being administered +as far as possible in accord with tribal custom. A compendium +of Dinka laws was compiled by Captain H. D. E. O’Sullivan.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. A. Schweinfurth, <i>The Heart of Africa</i> (1874); W. Junker, +<i>Travels in Africa</i>, Eng. edit. (London, 1890-1892); <i>The Anglo-Egyptian +Sudan</i>, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINKELSBÜHL,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of +Bavaria, on the Wörnitz, 16 m. N. from Nördlingen, on the railway +to Dombühl. Pop. 5000. It is an interesting medieval town, +still surrounded by old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical +and two Roman Catholic churches. Notable is the so-called +<i>Deutsches Haus</i>, the ancestral home of the counts of +Drechsel-Deufstetten, a fine specimen of the German renaissance style of +wooden architecture. There are a Latin and industrial school, +several benevolent institutions, and a monument to Christoph +von Schmid (1768-1854), a writer of stories for the young. The +inhabitants carry on the manufacture of brushes, gloves, stockings +and gingerbread, and deal largely in cattle.</p> + +<p>Fortified by the emperor Henry I., Dinkelsbühl received in +1305 the same municipal rights as Ulm, and obtained in 1351 the +position of a free imperial city, which it retained till 1802, when +it passed to Bavaria. Its municipal code, the <i>Dinkelsbuhler +Recht</i>, published in 1536, and revised in 1738, contained a very +extensive collection of public and private laws.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINNER,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> the chief meal of the day, eaten either in the middle +of the day, as was formerly the universal custom, or in the +evening. The word “dine” comes through Fr. from Med. Lat. +<i>disnare</i>, for <i>disjejunare</i>, to break one’s fast (<i>jejunium</i>); it is, +therefore, the same word as Fr. <i>déjeuner</i>, to breakfast, in +modern France, to take the midday meal, <i>dîner</i> being used +for the later repast. The term “dinner-wagon,” originally +a movable table to hold dishes, +is now used of a two-tier sideboard.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINOCRATES,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a great and +original Greek architect, of the +age of Alexander the Great. He +tried to captivate the ambitious +fancy of that king with a design +for carving Mount Athos into a +gigantic seated statue. This plan +was not carried out, but Dinocrates +designed for Alexander the +plan of the new city of Alexandria, +and constructed the vast +funeral pyre of Hephaestion. +Alexandria was, like Peiraeus +and Rhodes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hippodamus</a></span>), +built on a regular plan; the streets +of most earlier towns being narrow +and confused.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:240px; height:373px" src="images/img277a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">After F. Schutt in Engler and Prantl’s +<i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>, by permission of Wm +Engelmann.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—<i>Peridinium divergens</i> +showing longitudinal and transverse +grooves in which lie the +respective flagella l.f., t.f.; s.p., +large “sack pusule” discharging +through a tube by pore o’; c.p., +“collective pusule discharging +at o, and surrounded by a ring +of formative” or “daughter +pusules”; n, nucleus.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">DINOFLAGELLATA,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> so called +by O. Bütschli (= the <span class="sc">Cilioflagellata</span> +of E. Claparide and +H. Lachmann), a group of Protozoa, +characterized as Mastigophora, +provided with two flagella, +the one anterior extended in locomotion, +the other coiled round +its base, or lying in a transverse +groove. The body is bounded by a firm pellicle, often supplemented +by an armour (“lorica”) of cuticular cellulose plates, +with usually a marked longitudinal groove from which the +anterior flagellum springs, and an oblique or spiral transverse +groove for the second flagellum. In <i>Polykrikos</i> (fig. 2, 9) there +are eight transverse grooves each with its flagellum. The +armour-plates are often exquisitely sculptured, and may be +produced into spines or perpendicular plates to give greater +surface extension, as we find in other plankton organisms. +The cortical plasma may protrude pseudopodia in the longitudinal +groove; it contains trichocysts in several species, true +nematocysts in <i>Polykrikos</i>. It contains chromatophores in +many species, coloured by a mixed lipochrome pigment which +appears to be distinct from diatomin. The endoplasm is +ramified between alveoli; it contains a large nucleus (in +<i>Polykrikos</i> there are eight nuclei, accompanied by smaller, +more numerous bodies regarded by O. Butschli as micro-nuclei). +Besides the other spaces are definite rounded or oval +vacuoles with a permanent pellicular wall termed by Schutt +“pusules”; these open by a duct or ducts into the longitudinal +groove. They enlarge and diminish, and are possibly excretory +like the “contractile vacuoles” of other Protista; though it has +been suggested that by their communication with the medium +they subserve nutrition. Nutrition is of course holozoic or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> +saprophytic in the colourless forms, holophytic in the coloured; +but these divergent methods are exhibited by different species +of the same genus, or even by individuals of one and the same +species under different conditions. Binary fission has been +widely observed, both in the active condition or after loss of +the flagella: it differs from that of true Flagellates in not +being longitudinal, but transverse or oblique (fig, 2, 2). Repeated +fission (brood-formation) within a cyst has also been +observed, as in <i>Pyrocystis</i> and <i>Ceratium</i>; and possibly the chains +of <i>Ceratium</i> and other (fig. 2, 5 and 6) genera are due to the non-separation +of the brood-cells. Conjugation of adults has been +observed in several species, the most complete account being that +of Zederbauer on <i>Ceratium hirundinella</i> (marine): either mate +puts forth a tube which meets and opens into that of the +other (as in some species of <i>Chlamydomonas</i> and Desmids); the +two cell-bodies fuse in this tube, and encyst to form a resting +zygospore. The Dinoflagellates are relatively large for +Mastigophora, many attaining 50 µ (1/500”) in length. The +majority are marine; but some genera (<i>Ceratium</i>, <i>Peridinium</i>) +include fresh-water species. Many are highly phosphorescent +and some by their abundance colour the water of the sea or pool +which they dwell in. Like so many coloured Protista, they +frequently possess a pigmented “eye-spot” in which may be +sunk a spheroidal refractive body (“lens”).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:461px; height:878px" src="images/img277b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="center f90 sc" colspan="2">Fig. 2.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Delage and Hérouard’s <i>Traité de zoologie concrete</i>, +by permission of Schleicher Frères.<br /><br /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">1. Modified from Schütt, <i>Ornithoceras</i>.<br /> +2. Diagram of transverse fission of a Dinoflagellate.<br /> +3. After Schutt, <i>Exuviaeella</i>.<br /> +4. After Stein, <i>Prorocentrum</i>.</td> + <td class="tcl f90">5, 6. <i>Ceratium</i>, single and series.<br /> +7. <i>Pouchetia fusus</i> (Schutt).<br /> +8. <i>Citharistes</i>.<br /> +9. After Butschli, <i>Polykrikos</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The affinities of the Dinoflagellata are certainly with those +Cryptomonadine Flagellates which possess two unequal flagella; +the zoospores or young of the Cystoflagellates are practically +colourless Dinoflagellates.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>Gymnodiniaceae</i>: body naked, or with a simple cellulose or +gelatinous envelope; both grooves present. <i>Pyrocystis</i> (Murray), +often encysted, spherical or crescentic, becoming free within cyst wall, +and escaping whole or after brood-divisions as a form like <i>Gymnodinium</i>; +<i>Gymnodinium</i> (Stein); <i>Hemidinium</i> (Stein); <i>Pouchetia</i> +(Schütt) (fig. 2, 7) with complex eye-spot; to this group we may +refer <i>Polykrikos</i> (Bütschli) (fig. 2, 9), with its metameric transverse +grooves and flagella.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Prorocentraceae</i> (Schütt) ( = the Adinida of Bergh); body surrounded +by a firm shell of two valves without a girdle band; transverse +groove absent; transverse flagellum coiled round base of +longitudinal. <i>Exuviaeella</i> (Cienk.) (fig. 2, 3); <i>Prorocentrum</i> (Ehrb.) +(fig. 2, 4).</p> + +<p>3. <i>Peridiniaceae</i> (Schütt); body with a shell of plates, a girdle +band along the transverse groove, in which the transverse flagellum +lies. Genera, <i>Peridinium</i> (Ehrb.) (fig. 1), fresh-water and marine; +<i>Ceratium</i> (Schrank) (fig. 2, 5, 6), fresh-water and marine; <i>Citharistes</i> +(Stein); <i>Ornithoceras</i> (Claparède and Lachmann) (fig. 2, 1).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—R. S. Bergh, “Der Organismusder Cilioflagellaten,” +<i>Morphol. Jahrbuch</i>, vii. (1881); F. von Stein, <i>Organismus der Infusionsthiere</i>, +Abth. 3, 2. Hälfte; <i>Die Naturgeschichte der arthrodelen +Flagellaten</i> (1883); Bütschli, “Mastigophora” (in Bronn’s <i>Thierreich</i>, +i. Abth. 2), 1881-1887; G. Pouchet, various observations on +Dinoflagellates, <i>Journal de l’anatomie et de la physiologie</i> (1885, +1887, 1891); F. Schütt, “Die Peridineen der Plankton Expedition” +(<i>Ergebnisse d. Pl. Exed.</i> i. Th. vol. iv. 1895); and “Peridiniales” +in Engler and Prantl’s <i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>, vol. i. Abt. 2 b. (1896); +Zederbauer, <i>Berichte d. deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft</i>, vol. xx. +(1900); Delage and Hérouard, <i>Traité de zoologie concrète</i>, vol. i. <i>La +Cellule et les protozoaires</i> (1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINOTHERIUM,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> an extinct mammal, fossil remains of which +occur in the Miocene beds of France, Germany, Greece and +Northern India. These consist chiefly of teeth and the bones of +the head. An entire skull, obtained from the Lower Pliocene +beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1836, measured 4½ ft. +in length and 3 ft. in breadth, and indicates an animal exceeding +the elephant in size. The upper jaw is apparently destitute of +incisor and canine teeth, but possesses five molars on each side, +with a corresponding number in the jaw beneath. The most +remarkable feature, however, consists in the front part of the +lower jaw being bent downwards and bearing two tusk-like +incisors also directed downwards and backwards. <i>Dinotherium</i> +is a member of the group Proboscidea, of the line of descent of +the elephants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DINWIDDIE, ROBERT<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1693-1770), English colonial governor +of Virginia, was born near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1693. From the +position of customs clerk in Bermuda, which he held in 1727-1738, +he was promoted to be surveyor-general of the customs “of +the southern ports of the continent of America,” as a reward +for having exposed the corruption in the West Indian customs +service. In 1743 he was commissioned to examine into the +customs service in the Barbadoes and exposed similar corruption +there. In 1751-1758 he was lieutenant-governor of Virginia, +first as the deputy of Lord Albemarle and then, from July 1756 to +January 1758, as deputy for Lord Loudon. He was energetic in +the discharge of his duties, but aroused much animosity among +the colonists by his zeal in looking after the royal quit-rents, and +by exacting heavy fees for the issue of land-patents. It was his +chief concern to prevent the French from building in the Ohio +Valley a chain of forts connecting their settlements in the north +with those on the Gulf of Mexico; and in the autumn of 1753 he +sent George Washington to Fort Le Bœuf, a newly established +French post at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, with a +message demanding the withdrawal of the French from English +territory. As the French refused to comply, Dinwiddie secured +from the reluctant Virginia assembly a grant of £10,000 and in the +spring of 1754 he sent Washington with an armed force toward +the forks of the Ohio river “to prevent the intentions of the +French in settling those lands.” In the latter part of May +Washington encountered a French force at a spot called Great +Meadows, near the Youghiogheny river, in what is now south-western +Pennsylvania, and a skirmish followed which precipitated +the French and Indian War. Dinwiddie was especially active at +this time in urging the co-operation of the colonies against the +French in the Ohio Valley; but none of the other governors, +except William Shirley of Massachusetts, was then much concerned +about the western frontier, and he could accomplish very +little. His appeals to the home government, however, resulted in +the sending of General Edward Braddock to Virginia with two +regiments of regular troops; and at Braddock’s call Dinwiddie +and the governors of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania +and Maryland met at Alexandria, Virginia, in April 1755, and +planned the initial operations of the war. Dinwiddie’s administration +was marked by a constant wrangle with the assembly over +money matters; and its obstinate resistance to military appropriations +caused him in 1754 and 1755 to urge the home government +to secure an act of parliament compelling the colonies +to raise money for their protection. In January 1758 he left +Virginia and lived in England until his death on the 27th of July +1770 at Clifton, Bristol.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor of +Virginia</i> (1751-1758), published in two volumes, at Richmond, +Va., in 1883-1884, by the Virginia Historical Society, and edited +by R. A. Brock, are of great value for the political history of the +colonies in this period.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIO CASSIUS<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (more correctly <span class="sc">Cassius Dio</span>), <span class="sc">Cocceianus</span> +(c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 150-235), Roman historian, was born at Nicaea in +Bithynia. His father was Cassius Apronianus, governor of +Dalmatia and Cilicia under Marcus Aurelius, and on his mother’s +side he was the grandson of Dio Chrysostom, who had assumed +the surname of Cocceianus in honour of his patron the emperor +Cocceius Nerva. After his father’s death, Dio Cassius left +Cilicia for Rome (180) and became a member of the senate. +During the reign of Commodus, Dio practised as an advocate at +the Roman bar, and held the offices of aedile and quaestor. He +was raised to the praetorship by Pertinax (193), but did not +assume office till the reign of Septimius Severus, with whom he +was for a long time on the most intimate footing. By Macrinus +he was entrusted with the administration of Pergamum and +Smyrna; and on his return to Rome he was raised to the +consulship about 220. After this he obtained the proconsulship +of Africa, and again on his return was sent as legate successively +to Dalmatia and Pannonia. He was raised a second time to +the consulship by Alexander Severus, in 229; but on the plea +of ill health soon afterwards retired to Nicaea, where he died. +Before writing his history of Rome (<span class="grk" title="Rhômaika">῾Ρωμαικά</span> or <span class="grk" title="Rhômaikê +Historia">῾Ρωμαικὴ Ίστορία</span>), Dio Cassius had dedicated to the emperor Severus +an account of various dreams and prodigies which had +presaged his elevation to the throne (perhaps the <span class="grk" title="Enodia">Ένόδια</span> +attributed to Dio by Suidas), and had also written a biography +of his fellow-countryman Arrian. The history of Rome, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> +consisted of eighty books,—and, after the example of Livy, was +divided into decades,—began with the landing of Aeneas in Italy, +and was continued as far as the reign of Alexander Severus +(222-235). Of this great work we possess books 36-60, containing +the history of events from 68 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>-<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 47; books 36 and +55-60 are imperfect. We also have part of 35 and 36-80 in the +epitome of John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century Byzantine monk. +For the earlier period the loss of Dio’s work is partly supplied +by the history of Zonaras, who followed him closely. Numerous +fragments are also contained in the excerpts of Constantine +Porphyrogenitus. Dio’s work is a most important authority for +the history of the last years of the republic and the early empire. +His industry was great and the various important offices he held +afforded him ample opportunities for historical investigation. +His style, though marred by Latinisms, is clearer than that of +his model Thucydides, and his narrative shows the hand of the +practised soldier and politician; the language is correct and +free from affectation. But he displays a superstitious regard +for miracles and prophecies; he has nothing to say against the +arbitrary acts of the emperors, which he seems to take as a matter +of course; and his work, although far more than a mere compilation, +is not remarkable for impartiality, vigour of judgment or +critical historical faculty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition with notes is that of H. S. Reimar (1750-1752), +new ed. by F. G. Sturz (1824-1836); text by I. Melber (1890 foll.), +with account of previous editions, and U. P. Boissevain (1895-1901); +translation by H. B. Foster (Troy, New York, 1905 foll.), with full +bibliography; see also W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur</i> +(1898), p. 675; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, +iii. pt. 2 (1899); C. Wachsmuth, <i>Einleitung in das Studium der alten +Geschichte</i> (1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOCESE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (formed on Fr. <i>diocèse</i>, in place of the Eng. form +<i>diocess</i>—current until the 19th century—from Lat. <i>dioecesis</i>, +med. Lat. variant <i>diocesis</i>, from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dioikêsis">διοίκησις</span>, “housekeeping,” +“administration,” <span class="grk" title="dioikein">διοικεῖν</span>, “to keep house,” “to +govern”), the sphere of a bishop’s jurisdiction. In this, its +sole modern sense, the word diocese (<i>dioecesis</i>) has only been +regularly used since the 9th century, though isolated instances of +such use occur so early as the 3rd, what is now known as a diocese +having been till then usually called a <i>parochia</i> (parish). The +Greek word <span class="grk" title="dioikêsis">διοίκησις</span>, from meaning “administration,” came +to be applied to the territorial circumscription in which administration +was exercised. It was thus first applied <i>e.g.</i> to the +three districts of Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada, which were added +to Cilicia in Cicero’s time (between 56 and 50 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). The word +is here equivalent to “assize-districts” (Tyrrell and Purser’s +edition of Cicero <i>Epist. ad fam.</i> iii. 8. 4; xiii. 67; cf. Strabo +xiii. 628-629). But in the reorganization of the empire, begun +by Diocletian and completed by Constantine, the word “diocese” +acquired a more important meaning, the empire being divided +into twelve dioceses, of which the largest—Oriens—embraced +sixteen provinces, and the smallest—Britain—four (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: +<i>Ancient History</i>; and W. T. Arnold, <i>Roman Provincial Administration</i>, +pp. 187, 194-196, which gives a list of the dioceses and +their subdivisions). The organization of the Christian church in +the Roman empire following very closely the lines of the civil +administration (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Church History</a></span>), the word diocese, in its +ecclesiastical sense, was at first applied to the sphere of jurisdiction, +not of a bishop, but of a metropolitan.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Thus Anastasius +Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886), in his life of Pope Dionysius, says that +he assigned churches to the presbyters, and established dioceses +(<i>parochiae</i>) and provinces (<i>dioeceses</i>). The word, however, survived +in its general sense of “office” or “administration,” and +it was even used during the middle ages for “parish” (see Du +Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s. “Dioecesis” 2).</p> + +<p>The practice, under the Roman empire, of making the areas of +ecclesiastical administration very exactly coincide with those of +the civil administration, was continued in the organization of the +church beyond the borders of the empire, and many dioceses to +this day preserve the limits of long vanished political divisions. +The process is well illustrated in the case of English bishoprics. +But this practice was based on convenience, not principle; and +the limits of the dioceses, once fixed, did not usually change with +the changing political boundaries. Thus Hincmar, archbishop +of Reims, complains that not only his metropolitanate (<i>dioecesis</i>) +but his bishopric (<i>parochia</i>) is divided between two realms under +two kings; and this inconvenient overlapping of jurisdictions +remained, in fact, very common in Europe until the readjustments +of national boundaries by the territorial settlements of the +19th century. In principle, however, the subdivision of a diocese, +in the event of the work becoming too heavy for one bishop, +was very early admitted, <i>e.g.</i> by the first council at Lugo in Spain +(569), which erected Lugo into a metropolitanate, the consequent +division of diocese being confirmed by the king of the second +council, held in 572. Another reason for dividing a diocese, and +establishing a new see, has been recognized by the church as +duly existing “if the sovereign should think fit to endow some +principal village or town with the rank and privileges of a +city” (Bingham, lib. xvii. c. 5). But there are canons for the +punishment of such as might induce the sovereign so to erect +any town into a city, solely with the view of becoming bishop +thereof. Nor could any diocese be divided without the consent +of the primate.</p> + +<p>In England an act of parliament is necessary for the creation of +new dioceses. In the reign of Henry VIII. six new dioceses were +thus created (under an act of 1539); but from that time onward +until the 19th century they remained practically unchanged. +The Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1836, which created two +new dioceses (Ripon and Manchester), remodelled the state of the +old dioceses by an entirely new adjustment of the revenues and +patronage of each see, and also extended or curtailed the parishes +and counties in the various jurisdictions.</p> + +<p>By the ancient custom of the church the bishop takes his title, +not from his diocese, but from his see, <i>i.e.</i> the place where his +cathedral is established. Thus the old episcopal titles are all +derived from cities. This tradition has been broken, however, by +the modern practice of bishops in the United States and the +British colonies, <i>e.g.</i> archbishop of the West Indies, bishop of +Pennsylvania, Wyoming, &c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bishop</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, ii. 38, &c.; Joseph Bingham, <i>Origines +ecclesiasticae</i>, 9 vols. (1840); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s. “Dioecesis”; +<i>New English Dictionary</i> (Oxford, 1897), s. “Diocese.”</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For exceptions see Hinschius ii. p. 39, note 1.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIO CHRYSOSTOM<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 40-115), Greek sophist and +rhetorician, was born at Piusa (mod. <i>Brusa</i>), a town at the foot +of Mount Olympus in Bithynia. He was called Chrysostom +(“golden-mouthed”) from his eloquence, and also to distinguish +him from his grandson, the historian Dio Cassius; his surname +Cocceianus was derived from his patron, the emperor Cocceius +Nerva. Although he did much to promote the welfare of his +native place, he became so unpopular there that he migrated to +Rome, but, having incurred the suspicion of Domitian, he was +banished from Italy. With nothing in his pocket but Plato’s +<i>Phaedo</i> and Demosthenes’ <i>De falsa legatione</i>, he wandered about +in Thrace, Mysia, Scythia and the land of the Getae. He +returned to Rome on the accession of Nerva, with whom and +his successor Trajan he was on intimate terms. During this +period he paid a visit to Prusa, but, disgusted at his reception, +he went back to Rome. The place and date of his death are +unknown; it is certain, however, that he was alive in 112, when +the younger Pliny was governor of Bithynia.</p> + +<p>Eighty orations, or rather essays on political, moral and +philosophical subjects, have come down to us under his name; +the <i>Corinthiaca</i>, however, is generally regarded as spurious, and +is probably the work of Favorinus of Arelate. Of the extant +orations the following are the most important:—<i>Borysthenitica</i> +(xxxvi.), on the advantages of monarchy, addressed to the +inhabitants of Olbia, and containing interesting information on the +history of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Black Sea; +<i>Olympica</i> (xii.), in which Pheidias is represented as setting forth +the principles which he had followed in his statue of Zeus, one +passage being supposed by some to have suggested Lessing’s +<i>Laocoon</i>; <i>Rhodiaca</i> (xxxi.), an attack on the Rhodians for altering +the names on their statues, and thus converting them into +memorials of famous men of the day (an imitation of Demosthenes’ +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span> +<i>Leptines</i>); <i>De regno</i> (i.-iv.), addressed to Trajan, a eulogy of the +monarchical form of government, under which the emperor is the +representative of Zeus upon earth; <i>De Aeschylo et Sophocle et +Euripide</i> (lii.), a comparison of the treatment of the story of +Philoctetes by the three great Greek tragedians; and <i>Philoctetes</i> +(lix.), a summary of the prologue to the lost play by Euripides. +In his later life, Dio, who had originally attacked the philosophers, +himself became a convert to Stoicism. To this period belong the +essays on moral subjects, such as the denunciation of various +cities (Tarsus, Alexandria) for their immorality. Most pleasing +of all is the <i>Euboica</i> (vii.), a description of the simple life of the +herdsmen and huntsmen of Euboea as contrasted with that of the +inhabitants of the towns. <i>Troica</i> (xi.), an attempt to prove to +the inhabitants of Ilium that Homer was a liar and that Troy was +never taken, is a good example of a sophistical rhetorical exercise. +Amongst his lost works were attacks on philosophers and +Domitian, and <i>Getica</i> (wrongly attributed to Dio Cassius by +Suïdas), an account of the manners and customs of the Getae, for +which he had collected material on the spot during his banishment. +The style of Dio, who took Plato and Xenophon especially +as his models, is pure and refined, and on the whole free from +rhetorical exaggeration. With Plutarch he played an important +part in the revival of Greek literature at the end of the 1st +century of the Christian era.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions: J. J. Reiske (Leipzig, 1784); A. Emperius (Brunswick, +1844); L. Dindorf (Leipzig, 1857), H. von Arnim (Berlin, 1893-1896). +The ancient authorities for his life are Philostratus, <i>Vit. Soph.</i> +i. 7; Photius, <i>Bibliotheca</i>, cod. 209; Suidas, <i>s.v.</i>; Synesius, <span class="grk" title="Diôn">Δίων</span>. +On Dio generally see H. von Arnim, <i>Leben und Werke des Dion von +Prusa</i> (Berlin, 1898); C. Martha, <i>Les Moralistes sous l’empire romain</i> +(1865); W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur</i> (1898), +§ 520; J. E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> (2nd ed., 1906); +W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, v. pt. 1 (1905). +The <i>Euboica</i> has been abridged by J. P. Mahaffy in <i>The Greek World +under Roman Sway</i> (1890), and there is a translation of <i>Select Essays</i> +by Gilbert Wakefield (1800).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOCLETIAN<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus</span>) +(<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 245-313), Roman emperor 284-305, is said to have been +born at Dioclea, near Salona, in Dalmatia. His original name +was Diocles. Of humble origin, he served with high distinction +and held important military commands under the emperors +Probus and Aurelian, and accompanied Carus to the Persian War. +After the death of Numerianus he was chosen emperor by the +troops at Chalcedon, on the 17th of September 284, and slew with +his own hands Arrius Aper, the praefect of the praetorians. He +thus fulfilled the prediction of a druidess of Gaul, that he would +mount a throne as soon as he had slain a wild boar (<i>aper</i>). Having +been installed at Nicomedia, he received general acknowledgment +after the murder of Carinus. In consequence of the rising of +the Bagaudae in Gaul, and the threatening attitude of the German +peoples on the Rhine, he appointed Maximian Augustus in 286; +and, in view of further dangers and disturbances in the empire, +proclaimed Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Caesars in 293. Each +of the four rulers was placed at a separate capital—Nicomedia, +Mediolanum (Milan), Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), Sirmium. +This amounted to an entirely new organization of the empire, on +a plan commensurate with the work of government which it now +had to carry on. At the age of fifty-nine, exhausted with labour, +Diocletian abdicated his sovereignty on the 1st of May 305, and +retired to Salona, where he died eight years afterwards (others +give 316 as the year of his death). The end of his reign was +memorable for the persecution of the Christians. In defence of +this it may be urged that he hoped to strengthen the empire by +reviving the old religion, and that the church as an independent +state over whose inner life at least he possessed no influence, +appeared to be a standing menace to his authority. Under +Diocletian the senate became a political nonentity, the last traces +of republican institutions disappeared, and were replaced by +an absolute monarchy approaching to despotism. He wore the +royal diadem, assumed the title of lord, and introduced a complicated +system of ceremonial and etiquette, borrowed from the +East, in order to surround the monarchy and its representative +with mysterious sanctity. But at the same time he devoted +his energies to the improvement of the administration of the +empire; he reformed the standard of coinage, fixed the price +of provisions and other necessaries of daily life, remitted the +tax upon inheritances and manumissions, abolished various +monopolies, repressed corruption and encouraged trade. In +addition, he adorned the city with numerous buildings, such +as the thermae, of which extensive remains are still standing +(Aurelius Victor, <i>De Caesaribus</i>, 39; Eutropius ix. 13; Zonaras +xii. 31).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Vogel, <i>Der Kaiser Diocletian</i> (Gotha, 1857), a short sketch, +with notes on the authorities; T. Preuss, <i>Kaiser Diocletian und seine +Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1869); V. Casagrandi, <i>Diocleziano</i> (Faenza, 1876); +H. Schiller, <i>Gesch. der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, ii. (1887); T. Bernhardt, +<i>Geschichte Roms von Valerian bis zu Diocletians Tod</i> (1867); A. J. +Mason, <i>The Persecution of Diocletian</i> (1876); P. Allard, <i>La Persécution +de Dioclétien</i> (1890); V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie +für protestantische Theologie</i>, iv. (1898); Gibbon. <i>Decline +and Fall</i>, chaps. 13 and 16; A. W. Hunzinger, <i>Die Diocletianische +Staatsreform</i> (1899); O. Seeck, “Die Schatzungsordnung Diocletians” +in <i>Zeitschrift für Social- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte</i> (1896), +a valuable paper with notes containing references to sources; and +O. Seeck, <i>Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt</i>, vol. i. cap. 1. +On his military reforms see T. Mommsen in <i>Hermes</i>, xxiv., and on his +tariff system, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diocletian, Edict of</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (<i>De pretiis rerum venalium</i>), an imperial +edict promulgated in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 301, fixing a maximum price for +provisions and other articles of commerce, and a maximum rate of +wages. Incomplete copies of it have been discovered at various +times in various places, the first (in Greek and Latin) in 1709, at +Stratonicea in Caria, by W. Sherard, British consul at Smyrna, +containing the preamble and the beginning of the tables down to +No. 403. This partial copy was completed by W. Bankes in 1817. +A second fragment (now in the museum at Aix in Provence) was +brought from Egypt in 1809; it supplements the preamble by +specifying the titles of the emperors and Caesars and the number +of times they had held them, whereby the date of publication can +be accurately determined. For other fragments and their localities +see <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</i> (iii., 1873, pp. 801 and 1055; +and supplement i, 1893, p. 1909); special mention may be made +of those of Elatea, Plataea and Megalopolis. Latin being the +official language all over the empire, there was no official Greek +translation (except for Greece proper), as is shown by the variations +in those portions of the text of which more than one Greek +version is extant. Further, all the fragments come from the +provinces which were under the jurisdiction of Diocletian, from +which it is argued that the edict was only published in the +eastern portion of the empire; certainly the phrase <i>universo orbi</i> +in the preamble is against this, but the words may merely be an +exaggerated description of Diocletian’s special provinces, and if it +had been published in the western portion as well, it is curious +that no traces have been found of it. The articles mentioned +in the edict, which is chiefly interesting as giving their relative +values at the time, include cereals, wine, oil, meat, vegetables, +fruits, skins, leather, furs, foot-gear, timber, carpets, articles of +dress, and the wages range from the ordinary labourer to the +professional advocate. The unit of money was the denarius, not +the silver, but a copper coin introduced by Diocletian, of which +the value has been fixed approximately at <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span>th of a penny. The +punishment for exceeding the prices fixed was death or deportation. +The edict was a well-intended but abortive attempt, in +great measure in the interests of the soldiers, to meet the distress +caused by several bad harvests and commercial speculation. The +actual effect was disastrous: the restrictions thus placed upon +commercial freedom brought about a disturbance of the food +supply in non-productive countries, many traders were ruined, +and the edict soon fell into abeyance.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lactantius, <i>De mortibus persecutorum</i>, vii., a contemporary +who, as a Christian, writes with natural bias against Diocletian; +T. Mommsen, <i>Das Edict Diocletians</i> (1851); W. M. Leake, <i>An Edict +of Diocletian</i> (1826); W. H. Waddington, <i>L’Édit de Dioclétien</i> (1864), +and E. Lépaulle, <i>L’Édit de maximum</i> (1886), both containing introductions +and ample notes; J. C. Rolfe and F. B. Tarbell in <i>Papers +of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens</i>, v. (1892) +(Plataea); W. Loring in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xi. (1890) +(Megalopolis); P. Paris in <i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i>, ix. +(1885) (Elatea). There is an edition of the whole by Mommsen, with +notes by H. Blümner (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">DIODATI, GIOVANNI<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1576-1649), Swiss Protestant divine, +was born at Geneva on the 6th of June 1576, of a noble family +originally belonging to Lucca, which had been expatriated on +account of its Protestantism. At the age of twenty-one he was +nominated professor of Hebrew at Geneva on the recommendation +of Theodor Beza. In 1606 he became professor of theology, in +1608 pastor, or parish minister, at Geneva, and in the following +year he succeeded Beza as professor of theology. As a preacher +he was eloquent, bold and fearless. He held a high place among +the reformers of Geneva, by whom he was sent on a mission to +France in 1614. He had previously visited Italy, and made the +acquaintance of Paolo Sarpi, whom he endeavoured unsuccessfully +to engage in a reformation movement. In 1618-1619 he +attended the synod of Dort, and took a prominent part in its +deliberations, being one of the six divines appointed to draw up +the account of its proceedings. He was a thorough Calvinist, and +entirely sympathized with the condemnation of the Arminians. +In 1645 he resigned his professorship, and died at Geneva on the +3rd of October 1649. Diodati is chiefly famous as the author of +the translation of the Bible into Italian (1603, edited with notes, +1607). He also undertook a translation of the Bible into French, +which appeared with notes in 1644. Among his other works are +his <i>Annotationes in Biblia</i> (1607), of which an English translation +(<i>Pious and Learned Annotations upon the Holy Bible</i>) was +published in London in 1648, and various polemical treatises, +such as <i>De fictitio Pontificiorum Purgatorio</i> (1619); <i>De justa +secessione Reformatorum ab Ecclesia Romana</i> (1628); <i>De +Antichristo</i>, &c. He also published French translations of +Sarpi’s <i>History of the Council of Trent</i>, and of Edwin Sandys’s +<i>Account of the State of Religion in the West</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIODORUS CRONUS<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), Greek philosopher of +the Megarian school. Practically nothing is known of his life. +Diogenes Laërtius (ii. 111) tells a story that, while staying at the +court of Ptolemy Soter, Diodorus was asked to solve a dialectical +subtlety by Stilpo. Not being able to answer on the spur of the +moment, he was nicknamed <span class="grk" title="ho Kronos">Κρόνος</span> (the God, equivalent to +“slowcoach”) by Ptolemy. The story goes that he died of +shame at his failure. Strabo, however, says (xiv. 658; xvii. 838) +that he took the name from Apollonius, his master. Like the rest +of the Megarian school he revelled in verbal quibbles, proving that +motion and existence are impossible. His was the famous +sophism known as the <span class="grk" title="Kyrieyôn">Κυριεύων</span>. The impossible cannot +result from the possible; a past event cannot become other than +it is; but if an event, at a given moment, had been possible, from +this possible would result something impossible; therefore the +original event was impossible. This problem was taken up by +Chrysippus, who admitted that he could not solve it. Apart +from these verbal gymnastics, Diodorus did not differ from +the Megarian school. From his great dialectical skill he earned +the title <span class="grk" title="ho dialektikos">ὁ διαλεκτικός</span>, or <span class="grk" title="dialektikôtatos">διαλεκτικώτατος</span>, a title which was +borne by his five daughters, who inherited his ability.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cicero, <i>De Fato</i>, 6, 7, 9; Aristotle, <i>Metaphysica</i>, θ 3; Sext. +Empiric., <i>adv. Math.</i> x. 85; Ritter and Preller, <i>Hist. philos. Gr. et +Rom.</i> chap. v. §§ 234-236 (ed. 1869); and bibliography appended +to article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Megarian School</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIODORUS SICULUS,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> Greek historian, born at Agyrium in +Sicily, lived in the times of Julius Caesar and Augustus. From +his own statements we learn that he travelled in Egypt between +60-57 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> and that he spent several years in Rome. The latest +event mentioned by him belongs to the year 21 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He asserts +that he devoted thirty years to the composition of his history, and +that he undertook frequent and dangerous journeys in prosecution +of his historical researches. These assertions, however, find +little credit with recent critics. The history, to which Diodorus +gave the name <span class="grk" title="bibliothêkê historikê">βιβλιοθήκη ἱστορική</span> (<i>Bibliotheca historica</i>, +“Historical Library”), consisted of forty books, and was divided +into three parts. The first treats of the mythic history of the non-Hellenic, +and afterwards of the Hellenic tribes, to the destruction +of Troy; the second section ends with Alexander’s death; and +the third continues the history as far as the beginning of Caesar’s +Gallic War. Of this extensive work there are still extant only the +first five books, treating of the mythic history of the Egyptians, +Assyrians, Ethiopians and Greeks; and also the 11th to the 20th +books inclusive, beginning with the second Persian War, and ending +with the history of the successors of Alexander, previous to +the partition of the Macedonian empire (302). The rest exists +only in fragments preserved in Photius and the excerpts of +Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The faults of Diodorus arise +partly from the nature of the undertaking, and the awkward form +of annals into which he has thrown the historical portion of his +narrative. He shows none of the critical faculties of the historian, +merely setting down a number of unconnected details. His +narrative contains frequent repetitions and contradictions, is +without colouring, and monotonous; and his simple diction, +which stands intermediate between pure Attic and the colloquial +Greek of his time, enables us to detect in the narrative the +undigested fragments of the materials which he employed. In +spite of its defects, however, the <i>Bibliotheca</i> is of considerable +value as to some extent supplying the loss of the works of older +authors, from which it is compiled. Unfortunately, Diodorus +does not always quote his authorities, but his general sources of +information were—in history and chronology, Castor, Ephorus +and Apollodorus; in geography, Agatharchides and Artemidorus. +In special sections he followed special authorities—<i>e.g.</i> in the +history of his native Sicily, Philistus and Timaeus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Editio princeps</i>, by H. Stephanus (1559); of other editions the +best are: P. Wesseling (1746), not yet superseded; L. Dindorf +(1828-1831); (text) L. Dindorf (1866-1868, revised by F. Vogel, +1888-1893 and C. T. Fischer, 1905-1906). The standard works on +the sources of Diodorus are C. G. Heyne, <i>De fontibus et auctoribus +historiarum Diodori</i>, printed in Dindorf’s edition, and C. A. +Volquardsen, <i>Die Quellen der griechischen und sicilischen Geschichten +bei Diodor</i> (1868); A. von Mess, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i> (1906); see +also L. O. Bröcker, <i>Untersuchungen über Diodor</i> (1879), short, but +containing much information; O. Maass, <i>Kleitarch und Diodor</i> +(1894-  ); G. J. Schneider, <i>De Diodori fontibus</i>, i.-iv. (1880); +C. Wachsmuth, <i>Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte</i> (1895); +Greece; <i>Ancient History</i>, “Authorities.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIODOTUS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> Seleucid satrap of Bactria, who rebelled against +Antiochus II. (about 255) and became the founder of the Graeco-Bactrian +kingdom (Trogus, <i>Prol.</i> 41; Justin xli. 4, 5, where he is +wrongly called Theodotus; Strabo xi. 515). His power seems to +have extended over the neighbouring provinces. Arsaces, the +chieftain of the nomadic (Dahan) tribe of the Parni, fled before +him into Parthia and here became the founder of the Parthian +kingdom (Strabo l.c.). When Seleucus II. in 239 attempted to +subjugate the rebels in the east he seems to have united with him +against the Parthians (Justin xli. 4, 9). Soon afterwards he died +and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II., who concluded a peace +with the Parthians (Justin l.c.). Diodotus II. was killed by +another usurper, Euthydemus (Polyb. xi. 34, 2). Of Diodotus I. +we possess gold and silver coins, which imitate the coins of +Antiochus II.; on these he sometimes calls himself Soter, “the +saviour.” As the power of the Seleucids was weak and continually +attacked by Ptolemy II., the eastern provinces and +their Greek cities were exposed to the invasion of the nomadic +barbarians and threatened with destruction (Polyb. xi. 34, 5); +thus the erection of an independent kingdom may have been a +necessity and indeed an advantage to the Greeks, and this epithet +well deserved. Diodotus Soter appears also on coins struck in his +memory by the later Graeco-Bactrian kings Agathocles and +Antimachus. Cf. A. v. Sallet, <i>Die Nachfolger Alexanders d. Gr. +in Baktrien und Indien</i>; Percy Gardner, <i>Catal. of the Coins of the +Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and India</i> (Brit. Mus.); see +also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bactria</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOGENES,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> “the Cynic,” Greek philosopher, was born at +Sinope about 412 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and died in 323 at Corinth, according to +Diogenes Laërtius, on the day on which Alexander the Great died +at Babylon. His father, Icesias, a money-changer, was imprisoned +or exiled on the charge of adulterating the coinage. Diogenes was +included in the charge, and went to Athens with one attendant, +whom he dismissed, saying, “If Manes can live without Diogenes, +why not Diogenes without Manes?” Attracted by the ascetic +teaching of Antisthenes, he became his pupil, despite the brutality +with which he was received, and rapidly excelled his master both +in reputation and in the austerity of his life. The stories which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span> +are told of him are probably true; in any case, they serve +to illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured +himself to the vicissitudes of weather by living in a tub belonging +to the temple of Cybele. The single wooden bowl he possessed he +destroyed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his +hands. On a voyage to Aegina he was captured by pirates and +sold as a slave in Crete to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being +asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of +governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who +needed a master. As tutor to the two sons of Xeniades, he lived +in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted entirely to +preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. At the Isthmian +games he lectured to large audiences who turned to him from +Antisthenes. It was, probably, at one of these festivals that he +craved from Alexander the single boon that he would not stand +between him and the sun, to which Alexander replied “If I were +not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” On his death, about which +there exist several accounts, the Corinthians erected to his +memory a pillar on which there rested a dog of Parian marble. +His ethical teaching will be found in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cynics</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). +It may suffice to say here that virtue, for him, consisted in +the avoidance of all physical pleasure; that pain and hunger +were positively helpful in the pursuit of goodness; that all the +artificial growths of society appeared to him incompatible with +truth and goodness; that moralization implies a return to nature +and simplicity. He has been credited with going to extremes of +impropriety in pursuance of these ideas; probably, however, his +reputation has suffered from the undoubted immorality of some of +his successors. Both in ancient and in modern times, his personality +has appealed strongly to sculptors and to painters. Ancient +busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre and the +Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is represented +in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani. +Rubens, Jordaens, Steen, Van der Werff, Jeaurat, Salvator Rosa +and Karel Dujardin have painted various episodes in his life.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief ancient authority for his life is Diogenes Laërtius vi. 20; +see also Mayor’s notes on Juvenal, <i>Satires</i>, xiv. 305-314; and article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cynics</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOGENES APOLLONIATES<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (c. 460 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), Greek natural +philosopher, was a native of Apollonia in Crete. Although of +Dorian stock, he wrote in the Ionic dialect, like all the <i>physiologi</i> +(physical philosophers). There seems no doubt that he lived some +time at Athens, where it is said that he became so unpopular +(probably owing to his supposed atheistical opinions) that his +life was in danger. The views of Diogenes are transferred in the +<i>Clouds</i> (264 ff.) of Aristophanes to Socrates. Like Anaximenes, +he believed air to be the one source of all being, and all other +substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction. +His chief advance upon the doctrines of Anaximenes is that +he asserted air, the primal force, to be possessed of intelligence—“the +air which stirred within him not only prompted, but instructed. +The air as the origin of all things is necessarily an +eternal, imperishable substance, but as soul it is also necessarily +endowed with consciousness.” In fact, he belonged to the old +Ionian school, whose doctrines he modified by the theories of +his contemporary Anaxagoras, although he avoided his dualism. +His most important work was <span class="grk" title="Peri physeôs">Περὶ φύσεως</span> (<i>De natura</i>), of +which considerable fragments are extant (chiefly in Simplicius); +it is possible that he wrote also Against the Sophists and <i>On the +Nature of Man</i>, to which the well-known fragment about the +veins would belong; possibly these discussions were subdivisions +of his great work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in F. Mullach, <i>Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum</i>, +i. (1860); F. Panzerbieter, <i>Diogenes Apolloniates</i> (1830), with +philosophical dissertation; J. Burnet, <i>Early Greek Philosophy</i> (1892); +H. Ritter and L. Preller, <i>Historia philosophiae</i> (4th ed., 1869), +§§ 59-68; E. Krause, <i>Diogenes von Apollonia</i> (1909). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian +School</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOGENES LAËRTIUS<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Laërtius Diogenes</span>), the +biographer of the Greek philosophers, is supposed by some to have +received his surname from the town of Laërte in Cilicia, and by +others from the Roman family of the Laërtii. Of the circumstances +of his life we know nothing. He must have lived after +Sextus Empiricus (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 200), whom he mentions, and before +Stephanus of Byzantium (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 500), who quotes him. It is +probable that he flourished during the reign of Alexander Severus +(<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 222-235) and his successors. His own opinions are equally +uncertain. By some he was regarded as a Christian; but it seems +more probable that he was an Epicurean. The work by which +he is known professes to give an account of the lives and sayings +of the Greek philosophers. Although it is at best an uncritical +and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as giving us an insight +into the private life of the Greek sages, justly led Montaigne +to exclaim that he wished that instead of one Laërtius there had +been a dozen. He treats his subject in two divisions which he +describes as the Ionian and the Italian schools; the division is +quite unscientific. The biographies of the former begin with +Anaximander, and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and +Chrysippus; the latter begins with Pythagoras, and ends with +Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, is +classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and sceptics are +treated under the Italic. The whole of the last book is devoted to +Epicurus, and contains three most interesting letters addressed +to Herodotus, Pythocles and Menoeceus. His chief authorities +were Diocles of Magnesia’s <i>Cursory Notice</i> (<span class="grk" title="Epidromê">Έπιδρομή</span>) <i>of Philosophers</i> +and Favorinus’s <i>Miscellaneous History</i> and <i>Memoirs</i>. +From the statements of Burlaeus (Walter Burley, a 14th-century +monk) in his <i>De vita et moribus philosophorum</i> the text of +Diogenes seems to have been much fuller than that which we +now possess. In addition to the <i>Lives</i>, Diogenes was the author +of a work in verse on famous men, in various metres.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—<i>Editio princeps</i> (1533); H. Hübner and C. +Jacobitz with commentary (1828-1833); C. G. Cobet (1850), text +only. See F. Nietzsche, “De Diogenis Laërtii fontibus” in +<i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, xxiii., xxiv. (1868-1869); J. Freudenthal, +“Zu Quellenkunde Diog. Laërt.,” in <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>, iii. +(1879); O. Maass, <i>De biographis Graecis</i> (1880); V. Egger, <i>De +fontibus Diog. Laërt.</i> (1881). There is an English translation by +C. D. Yonge in Bohn’s Classical Library.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOGENIANUS,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> of Heraclea on the Pontus (or in Caria), Greek +grammarian, flourished during the reign of Hadrian. He was +the author of an alphabetical lexicon, chiefly of poetical words, +abridged from the great lexicon (<span class="grk" title="Peri glossôn">Περὶ γλωσσῶν</span>) of Pamphilus +of Alexandria (fl. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 50) and other similar works. It was also +known by the title <span class="grk" title="Periergopenêtes">Περιεργοπένητες</span> (for the use of “industrious +poor students”). It formed the basis of the lexicon, or rather +glossary, of Hesychius of Alexandria, which is described in the +preface as a new edition of the work of Diogenianus. We still +possess a collection of proverbs under his name, probably an +abridgment of the collection made by himself from his lexicon +(ed. by E. Leutsch and F. W. Schneidewin in <i>Paroemiographi +Graeci</i>, i. 1839). Diogenianus was also the author of an Anthology +of epigrams, of treatises on rivers, lakes, fountains and promontories; +and of a list (with map) of all the towns in the world.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> one of the early Christian apologies. +Diognetus, of whom nothing is really known, has expressed +a desire to know what Christianity really means—“What is this +new race” of men who are neither pagans nor Jews? “What is +this new interest which has entered into men’s lives now and not +before?” The anonymous answer begins with a refutation of +the folly of worshipping idols, fashioned by human hands and +needing to be guarded if of precious material. The repulsive +smell of animal sacrifices is enough to show their monstrous +absurdity. Next Judaism is attacked. Jews abstain from +idolatry and worship one God, but they fall into the same error of +repulsive sacrifice, and have absurd superstitions about meats +and sabbaths, circumcision and new moons. So far the task is +easy; but the mystery of the Christian religion “think not to +learn from man.” A passage of great eloquence follows, showing +that Christians have no obvious peculiarities that mark them off +as a separate race. In spite of blameless lives they are hated. +Their home is in heaven, while they live on earth. “In a word, +what the soul is in a body, this the Christians are in the +world.... The soul is enclosed in the body, and yet itself +holdeth the body together: so Christians are kept in the world +as in a prison-house, and yet they themselves hold the world +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span> +together.” This strange life is inspired in them by the almighty +and invisible God, who sent no angel or subordinate messenger to +teach them, but His own Son by whom He created the universe. +No man could have known God, had He not thus declared +Himself. “If thou too wouldst have this faith, learn first the +knowledge of the Father. For God loved men, for whose sake He +made the world.... Knowing Him, thou wilt love Him and imitate +His goodness; and marvel not if a man can imitate God; he +can, if God will.” By kindness to the needy, by giving them what +God has given to him, a man can become “a god of them that +receive, an imitator of God.” “Then shalt thou on earth behold +God’s life in heaven; then shalt thou begin to speak the mysteries +of God.” A few lines after this the letter suddenly breaks off.</p> + +<p>Even this rapid summary may show that the writer was a man +of no ordinary power, and there is no other early Christian +writing outside the New Testament which appeals so strongly +to modern readers. The letter has been often classed with the +writings of the Apostolic Fathers, and in some ways it seems +to mark the transition from the sub-apostolic age to that of the +Apologists. Bishop Lightfoot, who speaks of the letter as “one +of the noblest and most impressive of early Christian apologies,” +places it c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 150, and inclines to identify Diognetus with the +tutor of Marcus Aurelius. Harnack and others would place it +later, perhaps in the 3rd century. There are some striking +parallels in method and language to the Apology of Aristides +(<i>q.v.</i>), and also to the early “Preaching of Peter.”</p> + +<p>The one manuscript which contained this letter perished by fire +at Strassburg in 1870, but happily it had been accurately collated +by Reuss nine years before. It formed part of a collection of +works supposed to be by Justin Martyr, and to this mistaken +attribution its preservation is no doubt due. Both thought and +language mark the author off entirely from Justin. The end +of the letter is lost, but there followed in the codex the end of +a homily,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which was attached without a break to the epistle: +this points to the loss in some earlier codex of pages containing +the end of the letter and the beginning of the homily.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Epistle may be read in J. B. Lightfoot’s <i>Apostolic Fathers</i> +(ed. min.), where there is also a translation into English.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. R.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Chapters xi. and xii., which Lightfoot suggested might be the +work of Pantaenus.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOMEDES,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Tydeus, one of the bravest +of the heroes of the Trojan War. In the <i>Iliad</i> he is the favourite +of Athena, by whose aid he not only overcomes all mortals who +venture to oppose him, but is even enabled to attack the gods. In +the post-Homeric story, he made his way with Odysseus by an +underground passage into the citadel of Troy and carried off the +Palladium, the presence of which within the walls secured Troy +against capture (Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, ii. 164). On his return to Argos, +finding that his wife had been unfaithful, he removed to Aetolia, +and thence to Daunia (Apulia), where he married the daughter of +King Daunus. He was buried or mysteriously disappeared on +one of the islands in the Adriatic called after him Diomedeae, his +sorrowing companions being changed into birds by the gods out +of compassion (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xiv. 457 ff.). He was the reputed +founder of Argyrippa (Arpi) and other Italian cities (<i>Aeneid</i>, xi. +243 ff.). He was worshipped as a hero not only in Greece, but on +the coast of the Adriatic, as at Thurii and Metapontum. At Argos, +his native place, during the festival of Athena, his shield was +carried through the streets as a relic, together with the Palladium, +and his statue was washed in the river Inachus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOMEDES,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> Latin grammarian, flourished at the end of the +4th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> He was the author of an extant <i>Ars grammatica</i> +in three books, dedicated to a certain Athanasius. The third book +is the most important, as containing extracts from Suetonius’s +<i>De poëtis</i>. Diomedes wrote about the same time as Charisius (<i>q.v.</i>) +and used the same sources independently. The works of both +grammarians are valuable, but whereas much of Charisius has +been lost, the Ars of Diomedes has come down to us complete. In +book i. he treats of the eight parts of speech; in ii. of the elementary +ideas of grammar and of style; in iii. of quantity and metres.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition is in H. Keil’s <i>Grammatici Latini</i>, i.; see also C. von +Paucker, <i>Kleinere Studien</i>, i. (1883), on the Latinity of Diomedes.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DION,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> tyrant of Syracuse (408-353 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), the son of Hipparinus, +and brother-in-law of Dionysius the Elder. In his youth he was +an admirer and pupil of Plato, whom Dionysius had invited to +Syracuse; and he used every effort to inculcate the maxims of +his master in the mind of the tyrant. The stern morality of +Dion was distasteful to the younger Dionysius, and the historian +Philistus, a faithful supporter of despotic power, succeeded in +procuring his banishment on account of alleged intrigues with the +Carthaginians. The exiled philosopher retired to Athens, where +he was at first permitted to enjoy his revenues in peace; but the +intercession of Plato (who had again visited Syracuse to procure +Dion’s recall) only served to exasperate the tyrant, and at length +provoked him to confiscate the property of Dion, and give his wife +to another. This last outrage roused Dion. Assembling a small +force at Zacynthus, he sailed to Sicily (357) and was received with +demonstrations of joy. Dionysius, who was in Italy, returned +to Sicily, but was defeated and obliged to flee. Dion himself was +soon after supplanted by the intrigues of Heracleides, and again +banished. The incompetency of the new leader and the cruelties +of Apollocrates, the son of Dionysius, soon led to his recall. He +had, however, scarcely made himself master of Sicily when the +people began to express their discontent with his tyrannical +conduct, and he was assassinated by Callippus, an Athenian +who had accompanied him in his expedition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Lives</i> by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi. +6-20) and in modern times by T. Lau (1860); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sicily</a></span> : <i>History</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in the earliest Greek mythology, the wife of Zeus. As +such she is associated with Zeus Naïus (the god of fertilizing +moisture) at Dodona (Strabo vii. p. 329), by whose side she sits, +adorned with a bridal veil and garland and holding a sceptre. As +the oracle declined in importance, her place as the wife of Zeus +was taken by Hera. It is probable that in very early times the +cult of Dione existed in Athens, where she had an altar before the +Erechtheum. After her admission to the general religious system +of the Greeks, Dione was variously described. In the <i>Iliad</i> +(v. 370) she is the mother by Zeus of Aphrodite, who is herself in +later times called Dione (the epithet Dionaeus was given to Julius +Caesar as claiming descent from Venus). In Hesiod (<i>Theog.</i> 353) +she is one of the daughters of Oceanus; in Pherecydes (ap. schol. +<i>Iliad</i>, xviii. 486), one of the nymphs of Dodona, the nurses of +Dionysus; in Euripides (frag. 177), the mother of Dionysus; in +Hyginus (fab. 9. 82), the daughter of Atlas, wife of Tantalus and +mother of Pelops and Niobe. Others make her a Titanid, the +daughter of Uranus and Gaea (Apollodorus i. 1). Speaking +generally, Dione may be regarded as the female embodiment +of the attributes of Zeus, to whose name her own is related as +Juno (= Jovino) to Jupiter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIA,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> festivals in honour of the god Dionysus generally, +but in particular the festivals celebrated in Attica and by the +branches of the Attic-Ionic race in the islands and in Asia Minor. +In Attica there were two festivals annually. (1) The lesser +Dionysia, or <span class="grk" title="ta kat agrous">τὰ κατ᾽ ἀγρούς</span>, was held in the country places for +four days (about the 19th to the 22nd of December) at the first +tasting of the new wine. It was accompanied by songs, dance, +phallic processions and the impromptu performances of itinerant +players, who with others from the city thronged to take part in the +excitement of the rustic sports. A favourite amusement was the +Ascoliasmus, or dancing on one leg upon a leathern bag (<span class="grk" title="askos">ἀσκός</span>), +which had been smeared with oil. (2) The <i>greater</i> Dionysia, or +<span class="grk" title="ta en astei">τὰ ἐν ἄστει</span>, was held in the city of Athens for six days (about the +28th of March to the 2nd of April). This was a festival of joy at +the departure of winter and the promise of summer, Dionysus +being regarded as having delivered the people from the wants and +troubles of winter. The religious act of the festival was the +conveying of the ancient image of the god, which had been brought +from Eleutherae to Athens, from the ancient sanctuary of the +Lenaeum to a small temple near the Acropolis and back again, +with a chorus of boys and a procession carrying masks and singing +the dithyrambus. The festival culminated in the production of +tragedies, comedies and satyric dramas in the great theatre +of Dionysus. Other festivals in honour of Dionysus were the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> +Anthesteria (<i>q.v.</i>); the Lenaea (about the 28th to the 31st of January), +or festival of vats, at which, after a great public banquet, the +citizens went through the city in procession to attend the dramatic +representations; the Oschophoria (October-November), a vintage +festival, so called from the branches of vine with grapes carried +by twenty youths from the ephebi, two from each tribe, in a race +from the temple of Dionysus in Athens to the temple of Athena +Sciras in Phalerum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Mommsen, <i>Feste der Stadt Athen</i> (1898); L. Preller, +<i>Griechische Mythologie</i>; L. C. Purser in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of +Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1890); article <span class="sc">Dionysos</span> in W. H. Roscher’s +<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; and the exhaustive account with bibliography +by J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des +antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> pope from 259 to 268. To Dionysius, who was +elected pope in 259 after the persecution of Valerian, fell the task +of reorganizing the Roman church, which had fallen into great +disorder. At the protest of some of the faithful at Alexandria, +he demanded from the bishop of Alexandria, also called Dionysius, +explanations touching his doctrine. He died on the 26th of +December 268.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (c. 432-367 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), tyrant of Syracuse, began life as +a clerk in a public office, but by courage and diplomacy succeeded +in making himself supreme (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span>). He carried on war +with Carthage with varying success; his attempts to drive the +Carthaginians entirely out of the island failed, and at his death +they were masters of at least a third of it. He also carried on an +expedition against Rhegium and its allied cities in Magna Graecia. +In one campaign, in which he was joined by the Lucanians, he +devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton and Locri. After a +protracted siege he took Rhegium (386), and sold the inhabitants +as slaves. He joined the Illyrians in an attempt to plunder the +temple of Delphi, pillaged the temple of Caere on the Etruscan +coast, and founded several military colonies on the Adriatic. In +the Peloponnesian War he espoused the side of the Spartans, and +assisted them with mercenaries. He also posed as an author and +patron of literature; his poems, severely criticized by Philoxenus, +were hissed at the Olympic games; but having gained a prize +for a tragedy on the <i>Ransom of Hector</i> at the Lenaea at Athens, he +was so elated that he engaged in a debauch which proved fatal. +According to others, he was poisoned by his physicians at the +instigation of his son. His life was written by Philistus, but the +work is not extant. Dionysius was regarded by the ancients as +a type of the worst kind of despot—cruel, suspicious and vindictive. +Like Peisistratus, he was fond of having distinguished +literary men about him, such as the historian Philistus, the poet +Philoxenus, and the philosopher Plato, but treated them in a most +arbitrary manner.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Diod. Sic. xiii., xiv., xv.; J. Bass, <i>Dionysius I. von Syrakus</i> +(Vienna, 1881), with full references to authorities in footnotes; +articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sicily</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>His son <span class="sc">Dionysius</span>, known as “the Younger,” succeeded +in 367 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He was driven from the kingdom by Dion (356) and +fled to Locri; but during the commotions which followed +Dion’s assassination, he managed to make himself master of +Syracuse. On the arrival of Timoleon he was compelled to +surrender and retire to Corinth (343), where he spent the rest +of his days in poverty (Diodorus Siculus xvi.; Plutarch, +<i>Timoleon</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timoleon</a></span>; and, on both the Dionysii, articles +by B. Niese in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, v. pt. 1 (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (or “the Areopagite”), named +in Acts xvii. 34 as one of those Athenians who believed when they +had heard Paul preach on Mars Hill. Beyond this mention our +only knowledge of him is the statement of Dionysius, bishop of +Corinth (fl. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 171), recorded by Eusebius (<i>Church Hist.</i> iii. 4; +iv. 23), that this same Dionysius the Areopagite was the first +“bishop” of Athens. Some hundreds of years after the +Areopagite’s death, his name was attached by the Pseudo-Areopagite +to certain theological writings composed by the latter. +These were destined to exert enormous influence upon medieval +thought, and their fame led to the extension of the personal legend +of the real Dionysius. Hilduin, abbot of St Denys (814-840), +identified him with St Denys, martyr and patron-saint of France. +In Hilduin’s <i>Areopagitica</i>, the Life and Passion of the most holy +Dionysius (Migne, <i> Patrol. Lat.</i> tome 106), the Areopagite is sent +to France by Clement of Rome, and suffers martyrdom upon the +hill where the monastery called St Denys was to rise in his honour. +There is no earlier trace of this identification, and Gregory of +Tours (d. 594) says (<i>Hist. Francorum</i>, i. 18) that St Denys came +to France in the reign of Decius (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 250), which falls about +midway between the presumptive death of the real Areopagite +and the probable date of the writings to which he owed his +adventitious fame.</p> + +<p>Traces of the influence of these writings appear in the works +of Eastern theologians in the early part of the 6th century. They +also were cited at the council held in Constantinople in 533, which +is the first certain dated reference to them. In the West, Gregory +the Great (d. 604) refers to them in his thirty-fourth sermon on +the gospels (Migne, <i>Pat. Lat.</i> tome 76, col. 1254). They did not, +however, become generally known in the Western church till after +the year 827, when the Byzantine emperor Michael the Stammerer +sent a copy to Louis the Pious. It was given over to the care of +the above-mentioned abbot Hilduin. In the next generation the +scholar and philosopher Joannes Scotus Erigena (<i>q.v.</i>) translated +the Dionysian writings into Latin. This appears to have been +the only Latin translation until the 12th century when another +was made, followed by several others.</p> + +<p>Thus, the author, date and place of composition of these +writings are unknown. External evidence precludes a date later +than the year 500, and the internal evidence from the writings +themselves precludes any date prior to 4th-century phases of +Neo-platonism. The extant writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite +are: (a) <span class="grk" title="Peri tês ouranias hierarchias">Περὶ τῆς οὐρανίας ἱεραρχίας</span>, <i>Concerning the Celestial +Hierarchy</i>, in fifteen chapters. (b) <span class="grk" title="Peri tês ekklêsiastikês +hierarchias">Περὶ τῆς ἐκκλησιαστικῆς ἱεραρχίας</span> , <i>Concerning the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy</i>, in seven +chapters. (c) <span class="grk" title="Peri theiôn onomatôn">Περὶ θείων ὀνομάτων</span>, <i>Concerning Divine Names</i>, +in thirteen chapters. (d) <span class="grk" title="Peri mystikês theologias">Περὶ μυστικῆς θεολογίας</span>, <i>Concerning +Mystic Theology</i>, in five chapters. (e) Ten letters addressed to +various worthies of the apostolic period.</p> + +<p>Although these writings seem complete, they contain references +to others of the same author. But of the latter nothing +is known, and they may never have existed.</p> + +<p>The writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite are of great interest, +first as a striking presentation of the heterogeneous elements that +might unite in the mind of a gifted man in the 5th century, and +secondly, because of their enormous influence upon subsequent +Christian theology and art. Their ingredients—Christian, Greek, +Oriental and Jewish—are not crudely mingled, but are united +into an organic system. Perhaps theological philosophic fantasy +has never constructed anything more remarkable. The system of +Dionysius was a proper product of its time,—lofty, apparently +complete, comparable to the <i>Enneads</i> of Plotinus which formed +part of its materials. But its materials abounded everywhere, +and offered themselves temptingly to the hand strong enough +to build with them. There was what had entered into Neo-platonism, +both in its dialectic form as established by Plotinus, +and in its magic-mystic modes devised by Iamblichus (d. c. 333). +There was Jewish angel lore and Eastern mood and fancy; and +there was Christianity so variously understood and heterogeneously +constituted among Syro-Judaic Hellenic communities. +Such Christianity held materials for formula and creed; also +principles of liturgic and sacramental doctrine and priestly +function; also a mass of popular beliefs as to intermediate +superhuman beings who seemed nearer to men than any member +of the Trinity.</p> + +<p>Out of this vast spiritual conglomerate, Pseudo-Dionysius +formed his system. It was not juristic,—not Roman, Pauline +or Augustinian. Rather he borrowed his constructive principles +from Hellenism in its last great creation, Neo-platonism. That +had been able to gather and arrange within itself the various +elements of latter-day paganism. The Neo-platonic categories +might be altered in name and import, and yet the scheme remain +a scheme; since the general principle of the transmission of life +from the ultimate Source downward through orders of mediating +beings unto men, might readily be adapted to the Christian God +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span> +and his ministering angels. Pseudo-Dionysius had lofty thoughts +of the sublime transcendence of the ultimate divine Source. That +source was not remote or inert; but a veritable Source from which +life streamed to all lower orders of existence,—in part directly, +and in part indirectly as power and guidance through the higher +orders to the lower. Life, creation, every good gift, is from God +directly; but his flaming ministers also intervene to guide and +aid the life of man; and the life which through love floods forth +from God has its counterflow whereby it draws its own creations +to itself. God is at once absolutely transcendent and universally +immanent. To live is to be united with God; evil is the nonexistent, +that is, severance from God. Whatever is, is part of +the forth-flowing divine life which ever purifies, enlightens and +perfects, and so draws all back to the Source.</p> + +<p>The transcendent Source, as well as the universal immanence, +is the Triune God. Between that and men are ranged the +three triads of the Celestial Hierarchy: Seraphim, Cherubim +and Thrones; Dominations, Virtues, Powers; Principalities, +Archangels, Angels. Collectively their general office is to raise +mankind to God through purification, illumination and perfection; +and to all may be applied the term angel. The highest +triad, which is nearest God, contemplates the divine effulgence, +and reflects it onward to the second; the third, and more +specifically angelic triad, immediately ministers to men. The +sources of these names are evident: seraphim and cherubim are +from the Old Testament; later Jewish writings gave names to +archangels and angels, who also fill important functions in the New +Testament. The other names are from Paul (Eph. i. 21; Col. i. 16).</p> + +<p>Such is the system of Pseudo-Dionysius, as presented mainly in +<i>The Celestial Hierarchy</i>. That work is followed by <i>The Ecclesiastical +Hierarchy</i>, its counterpart on earth. What the primal +triune Godhead is to the former, Jesus is to the latter. The +Ecclesiastical Hierarchy likewise is composed of Triads. The first +includes the symbolic sacraments: Baptism, Communion, +Consecration of the Holy Chrism. Baptism signifies purification; +Communion signifies enlightening; the Holy Chrism signifies +perfecting. The second triad is made up of the three orders of +Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons, or rather, as the Areopagite +names them: Hierarchs, Light-bearers, Servitors. The third +triad consists of monks, who are in a state of perfection, the +initiated laity, who are in a state of illumination, and the +catechumens, in a state of purification. All worship, in this +treatise, is a celebration of mysteries, and the pagan mysteries are +continually suggested by the terms employed.</p> + +<p>The work <i>Concerning the Divine Names</i> is a noble discussion of +the qualities which may be predicated of God, according to the +warrant of the terms applied to him in Scripture. The work +<i>Concerning Mystic Theology</i> explains the function of symbols, and +shows that he who would know God truly must rise above them +and above the conceptions of God drawn from sensible things.</p> + +<p>The works of Pseudo-Dionysius began to influence theological +thought in the West from the time of their translation into Latin +by Erigena. Their use may be followed through the writings of +scholastic philosophers, <i>e.g.</i> Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus, +Thomas Aquinas and many others. In poetry we find their +influence in Dante, Spenser, Milton. The fifteenth chapter of <i>The +Celestial Hierarchy</i> constituted the canon of symbolical angelic +lore for the literature and art of the middle ages. Therein the +author explains in what respect theology ascribes to angels the +qualities of fire, why the thrones are said to be <i>fiery</i> (<span class="grk" title="pyrinous">πυρίνους</span>); +why the seraphim are <i>burning</i> (<span class="grk" title="emprêstas">ἐμπρηστάς</span>) as their name +indicates. The fiery form signifies, with Celestial Intelligences, +likeness to God. Dionysius explains the significance of the parts +of the human body when given to celestial beings: feet are +ascribed to angels to denote their unceasing movement on the +divine business, and their feet are winged to denote their celerity. +He likewise explains the symbolism of wands and axes, of brass +and precious stones, when joined to celestial beings; and what +wheels and a chariot denote when furnished to them,—and much +more besides.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—There is an enormous literature on Pseudo-Dionysius. +The reader may be first referred to the articles in +Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Christian Biography</i> and Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopadie +fur protestantische Theologie</i> (Leipzig, 1898). The bibliography +in the latter is very full. Some other references, especially upon the +later influence of these works, are given in H. O. Taylor’s <i>Classical +Heritage of the Middle Ages</i> (Macmillan, 1903). The works themselves +are in Migne’s <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, tomes 3 and 4, with a Latin version. +Erigena’s version is in Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> t. 122. <i>Vita Dionysii</i> by +Hilduin is in Migne, <i>Pat. Lat.</i> 106. There is an English version by +Parker (London, 1894 and 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. O. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> one of the most learned men of the +6th century, and especially distinguished as a chronologist, was, +according to the statement of his friend Cassiodorus, a Scythian +by birth, “<i>Scytha natione</i>.” This may mean only that he was a +native of the region bordering on the Black Sea, and does not +necessarily imply that he was not of Greek origin. Such origin is +indicated by his name and by his thorough familiarity with the +Greek language. His surname “Exiguus” is usually translated +“the Little,” but he probably assumed it out of humility. He +was living at Rome in the first half of the 6th century, and is +usually spoken of as abbot of a Roman monastery. Cassiodorus, +however, calls him simply “monk,” while Bede calls him “abbot.” +But as it was not unusual to apply the latter term to distinguished +monks who were not heads of their houses, it is uncertain whether +Dionysius was abbot in fact or only by courtesy. He was in high +repute as a learned theologian, was profoundly versed in the Holy +Scriptures and in canon law, and was also an accomplished +mathematician and astronomer. We owe to him a collection of +401 ecclesiastical canons, including the apostolical canons and the +decrees of the councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, Chalcedon and +Sardis, and also a collection of the decretals of the popes from +Siricius (385) to Anastasius II. (498). These collections, which +had great authority in the West (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon Law</a></span>), were published +by Justel in 1628. Dionysius did good service to his contemporaries +by his translations of many Greek works into Latin; and +by these translations some works, the originals of which have +perished, have been handed down to us. His name, however, is +now perhaps chiefly remembered for his chronological labours. +It was Dionysius who introduced the method of reckoning +the Christian era which we now use (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronology</a></span>). His +friend Cassiodorus depicts in glowing terms the character of +Dionysius as a saintly ascetic, and praises his wisdom and +simplicity, his accomplishments and his lowly-mindedness, his +power of eloquent speech and his capacity of silence. He died at +Rome, some time before <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 550.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His works have been published in Migne, <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, tome +67; see especially A. Tardif, <i>Histoire des sources du droit canonique</i> +(Paris, 1887), and D. Pitra, <i>Analecta novissima, Spicilegii Solesmensis +continuatio</i>, vol. i. p. 36 (Paris, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (“of Halicarnassus”), +Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, flourished during the reign +of Augustus. He went to Rome after the termination of the civil +wars, and spent twenty-two years in studying the Latin language +and literature and preparing materials for his history. During +this period he gave lessons in rhetoric, and enjoyed the society of +many distinguished men. The date of his death is unknown. +His great work, entitled <span class="grk" title="Rômaikê archaiologia">῾Ρωμαῗκὴ ἀρχαιολογία</span> (Roman +Antiquities), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical +period to the beginning of the first Punic War. It was divided +into twenty books,—of which the first nine remain entire, the +tenth and eleventh are nearly complete, and the remaining books +exist in fragments in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus +and an epitome discovered by Angelo Mai in a Milan MS. The +first three books of Appian, and Plutarch’s <i>Life of Camillus</i> also +embody much of Dionysius. His chief object was to reconcile +the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon the good +qualities of their conquerors. According to him, history is +philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried +out from the point of view of the Greek rhetorician. But he has +carefully consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of +Livy are the only connected and detailed extant accounts of early +Roman history.</p> + +<p>Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in +which he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic +models:—<i>The Art of Rhetoric</i> (which is rather a collection of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span> +essays on the theory of rhetoric), incomplete, and certainly not +all his work; <i>The Arrangement of Words</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri syntheseôs +onomatôn">Περὶ συνθέσεως ὀνομάτων</span>), treating of the combination of words according +to the different styles of oratory; <i>On Imitation</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri +mimêseôs">Περὶ μιμήσεως</span>), on the best models in the different kinds of literature +and the way in which they are to be imitated—a fragmentary +work; <i>Commentaries on the Attic Orators</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tôn archaiôn +rhêtorôn hypomnêmatismoi">Περὶ τῶν ἀρχαίων ῥητόρων ὑπομνηματισμοί</span>), which, however, only deal with +Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates and (by way of supplement) Dinarchus; +<i>On the admirable Style of Demosthenes</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tês lektikês Dêmosthenous +deinotêtos">Περὶ τῆς λεκτικῆς Δημοσθένους δεινότητος</span>); and <i>On the Character of Thucydides</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri +tou Thoukydidou charakteros">Περὶ τοῦ Θουκυδίδου χαρακτῆρος</span>), a detailed but on the whole an +unfair estimate. These two treatises are supplemented by letters +to Cn. Pompeius and Ammaeus (two).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Complete edition by J. J. Reiske (1774-1777); of the <i>Archaeologia</i> +by A. Kiessling and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885-1891); +Opuscula by Usener and Radermacher (1899); Eng. translation by +E. Spelman (1758). A full bibliography of the rhetorical works is +given in W. Rhys Roberts’s edition of the Three Literary Letters +(1901); the same author published an edition of the <i>De compositione +verborum</i> (1910, with trans.); see also M. Egger, <i>Denys d’Halicarnasse</i> +(1902), a very useful treatise. On the sources of Dionysius see O. +Bocksch, “De fontibus Dion. Halicarnassensis” in <i>Leipziger Studien</i>, +xvii. (1895). Cf. also J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> i. (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> author of a <span class="grk" title="Periêgêsis tês +oikoumenês">Περιήγησις τῆς οἰκουμένης</span>, a description of the habitable world in Greek +hexameter verse, written in a terse and elegant style. Nothing +certain is known of the date or nationality of the writer, but there +is some reason for believing that he was an Alexandrian, who +wrote in the time of Hadrian (some put him as late as the end of +the 3rd century). The work enjoyed a high degree of popularity +in ancient times as a school-book; it was translated into Latin +by Rufus Festus Avienus, and by the grammarian Priscian. The +commentary of Eustathius is valuable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best editions are by G. Bernhardy (1828) and C. Müller (1861) +in their <i>Geographici Graeci minores</i>; see also E. H. Bunbury, +<i>Ancient Geography</i> (ii. p. 480), who regards the author as flourishing +from the reign of Nero to that of Trajan, and U. Bernays, <i>Studien +zu Dion. Perieg.</i> (1905). There are two old English translations: +T. Twine (1572, black letter), J. Free (1789, blank verse).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (“of Tell-Maḥrē”), patriarch +or supreme head of the Syrian Jacobite Church during the years +818-848, was born at Tell-Maḥrē near Raḳḳa (ar-Raḳḳah) on the +Balīkh. He was the author of an important historical work, +which has seemingly perished except for some passages quoted by +Barhebraeus and an extract found by Assemani in Cod. <i>Vat.</i> 144 +and published by him in the <i>Bibliotheca orientalis</i> (ii. 72-77). He +spent his earlier years as a monk at the convent of Ḳen-neshrē on +the upper Euphrates; and when this monastery was destroyed by +fire in 815, he migrated northwards to that of Kaisūm in the +district of Samosāta. At the death of the Jacobite patriarch +Cyriacus in 817, the church was agitated by a dispute about the +use of the phrase “heavenly bread” in connexion with the +Eucharist. An anti-patriarch had been appointed in the person +of Abraham of Ḳartamīn, who insisted on the use of the phrase +in opposition to the recognized authorities of the church. The +council of bishops who met at Raḳḳa in the summer of 818 to +choose a successor to Cyriacus had great difficulty in finding a +worthy occupant of the patriarchal chair, but finally agreed on +the election of Dionysius, hitherto known only as an honest monk +who devoted himself to historical studies. Sorely against his will +he was brought to Raḳḳa, ordained deacon and priest on two +successive days, and raised to the supreme ecclesiastical dignity +on the 1st of August. From this time he showed the utmost zeal +in fulfilling the duties of his office, and undertook many journeys +both within and without his province. The ecclesiastical schism +continued unhealed during the thirty years of his patriarchate. +The details of this contest, of his relations with the caliph +Ma’mūn, and of his many travels—including a journey to Egypt, +on which he viewed with admiration the great Egyptian +monuments,—are to be found in the <i>Ecclesiastical Chronicle</i> of +Barhebraeus.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He died in 848, his last days having been especially +embittered by Mahommedan oppression. We learn from Michael +the Syrian that his <i>Annals</i> consisted of two parts each divided +into eight chapters, and covered a period of 260 years, viz. from +the accession of the emperor Maurice (582-583) to the death of +Theophilus (842-843).</p> + +<p>In addition to the lost <i>Annals</i>, Dionysius was from the time of +Assemani until 1896 credited with the authorship of another important +historical work—a <i>Chronicle</i>, which in four parts narrates +the history of the world from the creation to the year <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 774-775 +and is preserved entire in <i>Cod. Vat.</i> 162. The first part (edited by +Tullberg, Upsala, 1850) reaches to the epoch of Constantine the +Great, and is in the main an epitome of the Eusebian Chronicle.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +The second part reaches to Theodosius II. and follows closely the +<i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of Socrates; while the third, extending to +Justin II., reproduces the second part of the <i>History</i> of John +of Asia or Ephesus, and also contains the well-known chronicle +attributed to Joshua the Stylite. The fourth part<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> is not like the +others a compilation, but the original work of the author, and +reaches to the year 774-775—apparently the date when he was +writing. On the publication of this fourth part by M. Chabot, it +was discovered and clearly proved by Nöldeke (<i>Vienna Oriental +Journal</i>, x. 160-170), and Nau (<i>Bulletin critique</i>, xvii. 321-327), +who independently reached the same conclusion, that Assemani’s +opinion was a mistake, and that the chronicle in question was the +work not of Dionysius of Tell-Maḥrē but of an earlier writer, a +monk of the convent of Zuḳnīn near Āmid (Diarbekr) on the upper +Tigris. Though the author was a man of limited intelligence and +destitute of historical skill, yet the last part of his work at least +has considerable value as a contemporary account of events +during the middle period of the 8th century.</p> +<div class="author">(N. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Ed. Abbeloos and Lamy, i. 343-386; cf. Wright, <i>Syriac +Literature</i>, 196-200, and Chabot’s introduction to his translation of +the fourth part of the <i>Chronicle</i> of (pseudo) Dionysius.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the studies by Siegfried and Gelzer, <i>Eusebii canonum +epitome ex Dionysii Telmaharensis chronico petita</i> (Leipzig, 1884), +and von Gutschmid, <i>Untersuchungen über die syrische Epitome der +Eusebischen Canones</i> (Stuttgart, 1886).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Text and translation by J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS THRAX<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (so called because his father was a +Thracian), the author of the first Greek grammar, flourished about +100 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He was a native of Alexandria, where he attended +the lectures of Aristarchus, and afterwards taught rhetoric in +Rhodes and Rome. His <span class="grk" title="Technê grammatikê">Τέχνη γραμματική</span>, which we possess +(though probably not in its original form), begins with the definition +of grammar and its functions. Dealing next with accent, +punctuation marks, sounds and syllables, it goes on to the different +parts of speech (eight in number) and their inflections. No rules +of syntax are given, and nothing is said about style. The +authorship of Dionysius was doubted by many of the early middle-age +commentators and grammarians, and in modern times its +origin has been attributed to the oecumenical college founded +by Constantine the Great, which continued in existence till 730. +But there seems no reason for doubt; the great grammarians +of imperial times (Apollonius Dyscolus and Herodian) were +acquainted with the work in its present form, although, as was +natural considering its popularity, additions and alterations may +have been made later. The <span class="grk" title="Technê">τέχνη</span> was first edited by J. A. +Fabricius from a Hamburg MS. and published in his <i>Bibliotheca +Graeca</i>, vi. (ed. Harles). An Armenian translation, belonging to +the 4th or 5th century, containing five additional chapters, was +published with the Greek text and a French version, by M. +Cirbied (1830). Dionysius also contributed much to the criticism +and elucidation of Homer, and was the author of various other +works—amongst them an account of Rhodes, and a collection of +<span class="grk" title="Meletai">Μελέται</span> (literary studies), to which the considerable fragment in +the <i>Stromata</i> (v. 8) of Clement of Alexandria probably belongs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions, with scholia, by I. Bekker in <i>Anecdota Graeca</i>, ii. and +G. Uhlig (1884), reviewed exhaustively by P. Egenolff in Bursian’s +<i>Jahresbericht</i>, vol. xlvi. (1888); Scholia, ed. A. Hilgard (1901); see +also W. Hörschelmann, <i>De Dionysii Thracis interpretibus veteribus</i> +(1874); J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i>, i. (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIONYSUS<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (probably = “son of Zeus,” from <span class="grk" title="Dios">Διός</span> and +<span class="grk" title="nysos">νῦσος</span>, a Thracian word for “son”), in Greek mythology, +originally a nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially +of the vine; hence, distinctively, the god of wine. The names +Bacchus (<span class="grk" title="Bakchos">Βάκχος</span>, in use among the Greeks from the 5th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span> +century), Sabazius, and Bassareus, are also Thracian names of +the god. The two first (like Iacchus, Bromius and Euios) have +been connected with the loud “shout” (<span class="grk" title="sabazein = bazein = +eúazein">σαβάζειν = βάζειν = εὐάζειν</span>) of his worshippers, Bassareus with <span class="grk" title="bassárai">βασσάραι</span>, the +fox-skin garments of the Thracian Bacchanals. It has been +suggested (J. E. Harrison <i>Prolegomena to Greek Religion</i>) +that Sabazius and Bromius = “beer-god,” “god of a cereal +intoxicant” (cf. Illyrian <i>sabaia</i> and modern Greek <span class="grk" title="brômi">βρῶμι</span>, +“oats”), while W. Ridgeway (<i>Classical Review</i>, January 1896), +comparing Apollo Smintheus, interprets Bassareus as “he who +keeps away the foxes from the vineyards” (for various interpretations +of these and other cult-titles, see O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische +Mythologie</i>, ii. pp. 1408, 1532, especially the notes).</p> + +<p>In Homer, notwithstanding the frequent mention of the use of +wine, Dionysus is never mentioned as its inventor or introducer, +nor does he appear in Olympus; Hesiod is the first who calls +wine the gift of Dionysus. On the other hand, he is spoken of +in the <i>Iliad</i> (vi. 130 foll., a passage belonging to the latest period +of epic), as “raging,” an epithet that indicates that in those +comparatively early times the orgiastic character of his worship +was recognized. In fact, Dionysus may be regarded under two +distinct aspects: that of a popular national Greek god of wine +and cheerfulness, and that of a foreign deity, worshipped with +ecstatic and mysterious rites introduced from Thrace. According +to the usual tradition, he was born at Thebes—originally the +local centre of his worship in Greece—and was the son of Zeus, +the fertilizing rain god, and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, +a personification of earth. Before the child was mature, Zeus +appeared to Semele at her request in his majesty as god of +lightning, by which she was killed, but the infant was saved +from the flames by Zeus (or Hermes). The epithet <span class="grk" title="perikionios">περικιόνιος</span>, +originally referring to an ivy-crowned, pillar-shaped fetish of the +god, afterwards gave rise to the legend of a miraculous growth of +ivy “round the pillars” of the royal palace, whereby the infant +Dionysus was preserved from the flames. Zeus took him up, +enclosed him within his own thigh till he came to maturity, and +then brought him to the light, so that he was twice born; it was +to celebrate this double birth that the <i>dithyrambus</i> (also used as +an epithet of the god) was sung (see <i>Etym. Mag. s.v.</i>). It has +been suggested that this is an allusion to the <i>couvade</i> of certain +barbarous tribes, amongst whom it is customary, when a child is +born, for the husband to take to his bed and receive medical treatment, +as if he shared the pains of maternity (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Couvade</a></span>, +and references there). Dionysus was then conveyed by Hermes +to be brought up by the nymphs of Nysa, a purely imaginary +spot, afterwards localized in different parts of the world, which +claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the god. As +soon as Dionysus was grown up, he started on a journey through +the world, to teach the cultivation of the vine and spread his +worship among men. While so engaged he met with opposition, +even in his own country, as in the case of Pentheus, king of +Thebes, who opposed the orgiastic rites introduced by Dionysus +among the women of Thebes, and, having been discovered watching +one of these ceremonies, was mistaken for some animal of the +chase, and slain by his own mother (see A. G. Bather, <i>Journ. Hell. +Studies</i>, xiv. 1894). A similar instance is that of Lycurgus, a +Thracian king, from whose attack Dionysus saved himself by +leaping into the sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis. +Lycurgus was blinded by Zeus and soon died, or became frantic +and hewed down his own son, mistaking him for a vine. At +Orchomenus, the three daughters of Minyas refused to join the +other women in their nocturnal orgies, and for this were transformed +into birds (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agrionia</a></span>). These and similar stories point +to the vigorous resistance offered to the introduction of the +mystic rites of Dionysus, in places where an established religion +already existed. On the other hand, when the god was received +hospitably he repaid the kindness by the gift of the vine, as in the +case of Icarius of Attica (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Erigone</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The worship of Dionysus was actively conducted in Asia Minor, +particularly in Phrygia and Lydia. Here, as Sabazius, he was +associated with the Phrygian goddess Cybele, and was followed in +his expeditions by a <i>thiasos</i> (retinue) of centaurs, and satyrs, with +Pan and Silenus. In Lydia his triumphant return from India was +celebrated by an annual festival on Mount Tmolus; in Lydia +he assumed the long beard and long robe which were afterwards +given him in his character of the “Indian Bacchus,” the +conqueror of the East, who, after the campaigns of Alexander, +was reported to have advanced as far as the Ganges. The other +incidents in which he appears in a purely triumphal character are +his transforming into dolphins the Tyrrhene pirates who attacked +him, as told in the Homeric hymn to Dionysus and represented on +the monument of Lysicrates at Athens, and his part in the war of +the gods against the giants. The former story has been connected +with the sailors’ custom of hanging vine leaves, ivy and bunches +of grapes round the masts of vessels in honour of vintage festivals. +The adventure with the pirates occurred on his voyage to Naxos, +where he found Ariadne abandoned by Theseus. At Naxos +Ariadne (probably a Cretan goddess akin to Aphrodite) was +associated with Dionysus as his wife, by whom he was the father +of Oenopion (wine-drinker), Staphylus (grape), and Euanthes +(blooming), and their marriage was annually celebrated by a +festival. Having compelled all the world to recognize his +divinity, he descended to the underworld to bring up his mother, +who was afterwards worshipped with him under the name of +Thyone (“the raging”), he himself being called after her +Thyoneus.</p> + +<p>Another phase in the myth of Dionysus originated in observing +the decay of vegetation in winter, to suit which he was supposed +to be slain and to join the deities of the lower world. This phase +of his character was developed by the Orphic poets, he having +here the name of Zagreus (“torn in pieces”), and being no longer +the Theban god, but a son of Zeus and Persephone. The child +was brought up secretly, watched over by Curetes; but the +jealous Hera discovered where he was, and sent Titans to the spot, +who, finding him at play, tore him to pieces, and cooked and ate +his limbs, while Hera gave his heart to Zeus. The tearing in +pieces is referred by some to the torture experienced by the grape +(<i>Naturschmerz</i>) when crushed for making into wine (cf. Burns’s +<i>John Barleycorn</i>); but it is better to refer it to the tearing of the +flesh of the victim at sacrifices at which the deity or the sacred +animal was slain, and sacramentally eaten raw (cf. the title +<span class="grk" title="ômêstês">ὠμηστής</span> given to Dionysus in certain places, probably pointing +to human sacrifice.) To connect this with the myth of the +Theban birth of Dionysus, it is said that Zeus gave the child’s +heart to Semele, or himself swallowed it and gave birth to the new +Dionysus (called Iacchus from his worshippers’ cry of rejoicing), +who was cradled and swung in a winnowing fan (<span class="grk" title="liknos">λίκνος</span>; see +J. E. Harrison, <i>Journ. Hellenic Studies</i>, xxiii.), the swinging being +supposed to act as a charm in awakening vegetation from its +winter sleep. The conception of Zagreus, or the winter Dionysus, +appears to have originated in Crete, but it was accepted also in +Delphi, where his grave was shown, and sacrifice was secretly +offered at it annually on the shortest day. The story is in many +respects similar to that of Osiris. According to others, Zagreus +was originally a god of the chase, who became a hunter of men +and a god of the underworld, more akin to Hades than to +Dionysus (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Titans</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Dionysus further possessed the prophetic gift, and his oracle +at Delphi was as important as that of Apollo. Like Hermes, +Dionysus was a god of the productiveness of nature, and hence +Priapus was one of his regular companions, while not only in the +mysteries but in the rural festivals his symbol, the phallus, was +carried about ostentatiously. His symbols from the animal +kingdom were the bull (perhaps a totemistic attribute and +identified with him), the panther, the lion, the tiger, the ass, the +goat, and sometimes also the dolphin and the snake. His personal +attributes are an ivy wreath, the thyrsus (a staff with pine cone at +the end), the laurel, the pine, a drinking cup, and sometimes the +horn of a bull on his forehead. Artistically he was represented +mostly either as a youth of soft, nearly feminine form, or as a +bearded and draped man, but frequently also as an infant, with +reference to his birth or to his bringing up in “Nysa.” His +earliest images were of wood with the branches still attached in +parts, whence he was called Dionysus Dendrites, an allusion to his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span> +protection of trees generally (according to Pherecydes in C. W. +Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec.</i> iv. p. 637, the word <span class="grk" title="nysa">νῦσα</span> signified +“tree”). It is suggested that the cult of Dionysus absorbed that +of an old tree-spirit. He was figured also, like Hermes, in the +form of a pillar or term surmounted by his head. For the +connexion of Dionysus with Greek tragedy see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drama</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, v. (1910); also O. Rapp, +<i>Beziehungen des Dionysuskultus zu Thrakien</i> (1882); O. Ribbeck, +<i>Anfange und Entwickelung des Dionysuskultes in Attica</i> (1869); +A. Lang, <i>Myth, Ritual and Religion</i>, ii. p. 241; L. Dyer, <i>The Gods +in Greece</i> (1891); J. E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek +Religion</i> (1903); J. G. Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i>, ii (1900), pp. 160, +291, who regards the bull and goat form of Dionysus as expressions +of his proper character as a deity of vegetation; F. A. Voigt in +Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i> +(4th ed. by C. Robert); F. Lenormant (<i>s.v.</i> “Bacchus”) in Daremberg +and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; O. Kern in Pauly-Wissowa’s +<i>Realencyclopadie</i> (with list of cult titles); W. Pater, +<i>Greek Studies</i> (1895); E. Rohde, <i>Psyche</i>, ii., who finds the origin of +the Hellenic belief in the immortality of the soul in the “enthusiastic” +rites of the Thracian Dionysus, which lifted persons out of +themselves, and exalted them to a fancied equality with the gods; +O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte</i>, ii. (1907), +who considers Boeotia, not Thrace, to have been the original home +of Dionysus; P. Foucart, “Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique” in +<i>Mémoires de l’Institut national de France</i>, xxxvii. (1906), who finds +the prototype of Dionysus in Egypt. <i>The Great Dionysiak Myth</i> +(1877-1878) by R. Brown contains a wealth of material, but is weak +in scholarship. For a striking survival of Dionysiac rites in Thrace +(Bizye), see Dawkins, in <i>J.H.S.</i> (1906), p. 191.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOPHANTUS,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> of Alexandria, Greek algebraist, probably +flourished about the middle of the 3rd century. Not that this +date rests on positive evidence. But it seems a fair inference from +a passage of Michael Psellus (<i>Diophantus</i>, ed. P. Tannery, ii. +p. 38) that he was not later than Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea +from <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 270, while he is not quoted by Nicomachus (fl. c. +<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 100), nor by Theon of Smyrna (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 130), nor does Greek +arithmetic as represented by these authors and by Iamblichus +(end of 3rd century) show any trace of his influence, facts which +can only be accounted for by his being later than those arithmeticians +at least who would have been capable of understanding +him fully. On the other hand he is quoted by Theon of Alexandria +(who observed an eclipse at Alexandria in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 365); and his +work was the subject of a commentary by Theon’s daughter +Hypatia (d. 415). The <i>Arithmetica</i>, the greatest treatise on which +the fame of Diophantus rests, purports to be in thirteen Books, +but none of the Greek MSS. which have survived contain more +than six (though one has the same text in seven Books). They +contain, however, a fragment of a separate tract on <i>Polygonal +Numbers</i>. The missing books were apparently lost early, for +there is no reason to suppose that the Arabs who translated or +commented on Diophantus ever had access to more of the work +than we now have. The difference in form and content suggests +that the <i>Polygonal Numbers</i> was not part of the larger work. On +the other hand the <i>Porisms</i>, to which Diophantus makes three +references (“we have it in the Porisms that ...”), were +probably not a separate book but were embodied in the +<i>Arithmetica</i> itself, whether placed all together or, as Tannery +thinks, spread over the work in appropriate places. The +“Porisms” quoted are interesting propositions in the theory of +numbers, one of which was clearly that <i>the difference between two +cubes can be resolved into the sum of two cubes</i>. Tannery thinks +that the solution of a complete quadratic promised by Diophantus +himself (I. def. 11), and really assumed later, was one of the +Porisms.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the great variety of problems solved are problems leading +to determinate equations of the first degree in one, two, three or +four variables, to determinate quadratic equations, and to indeterminate +equations of the first degree in one or more variables, which +are, however, transformed into determinate equations by arbitrarily +assuming a value for one of the required numbers, Diophantus being +always satisfied with a rational, even if fractional, result and not requiring +a solution in integers. But the bulk of the work consists of +problems leading to indeterminate equations of the second degree, +and these universally take the form that one or two (and never +more) linear or quadratic functions of one variable x are to be made +rational square numbers by finding a suitable value for x. A few +problems lead to indeterminate equations of the third and fourth +degrees, an easy indeterminate equation of the sixth degree being +also found. The general type of problem is to find two, three or four +numbers such that different expressions involving them in the first +and second, and sometimes the third, degree are squares, cubes, +partly squares and partly cubes, &c. E.g. <i>To find three numbers such +that the product of any two added to the sum of those two gives a square</i> +(III. 15, ed. Tannery); <i>To find four numbers such that, if we take the +square of their sum ± any one of them singly, all the resulting numbers are +squares</i> (III. 22); <i>To find two numbers such that their product ± their +sum gives a cube</i> (IV. 29); <i>To find three squares such that their continued +product added to any one of them gives a square</i> (V. 21). Book VI. +contains problems of finding rational <i>right-angled triangles</i> such that +different functions of their parts (the sides and the area) are squares. +A word is necessary on Diophantus’ notation. He has only one +symbol (written somewhat like a final sigma) for an unknown +quantity, which he calls <span class="grk" title="arithmos">ἀριθμός</span> (defined as “an undefined number of +units”); the symbol may be a contraction of the initial letters αρ, as +Δ<span class="sp">Υ</span>, Κ<span class="sp">Υ</span>, Δ<span class="sp">Υ</span>Δ, &c., +are for the powers of the unknown (<span class="grk" title="dynamis">δύναμις</span>, square; +<span class="grk" title="kubos">κύβος</span>, cube; <span class="grk" title="dynamodynamis">δυναμοδύναμις</span>, fourth power, &c.). The only other +algebraical symbol is <img style="width:16px; height:12px" src="images/img288.jpg" alt="" /> for minus; plus being expressed by merely +writing terms one after another. With one symbol for an unknown, +it will easily be understood what scope there is for adroit assumptions, +for the required numbers, of expressions in the one unknown which +are at once seen to satisfy some of the conditions, leaving only one or +two to be satisfied by the particular value of x to be determined. +Often assumptions are made which lead to equations in x which +cannot be solved “rationally,” <i>i.e.</i> would give negative, surd or +imaginary values; Diophantus then traces how each element of the +equation has arisen, and formulates the auxiliary problem of determining +how the assumptions must be corrected so as to lead to an +equation (in place of the “impossible” one) which can be solved +rationally. Sometimes his x has to do duty twice, for different +unknowns, in one problem. In general his object is to reduce the +final equation to a simple one by making such an assumption for the +side of the square or cube to which the expression in x is to be equal +as will make the necessary number of coefficients vanish. The book +is valuable also for the propositions in the theory of numbers, other +than the “porisms,” stated or assumed in it. Thus Diophantus knew +that <i>no number of the form 8n + 7 can be the sum of three squares</i>. He +also says that, if 2n + 1 is to be the sum of two squares, “n must not +be odd” (<i>i.e.</i> <i>no number of the form 4n + 3, or 4n − 1, can be the sum of +two squares</i>), and goes on to add, practically, the condition stated by +Fermat, “and the double of it [n] increased by one, when divided +by the greatest square which measures it, must not be divisible by a +prime number of the form 4n − 1,” except for the omission of the +words “when divided ... measures it.”</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The first to publish anything on Diophantus in +Europe was Rafael Bombelli, who embodied in his Algebra (1572) +all the problems of Books I.-IV. and some of Book V. interspersing +them with his own problems. Next Xylander (Wilhelm Holzmann) +published a Latin translation (Basel, 1575), an altogether meritorious +work, especially having regard to the difficulties he had with +the text of his MS. The Greek text was first edited by C. G. Bachet +(<i>Diophanti Alexandrini arithmeticorum libri sex, et de numeris +multangulis liber unus, nunc primum graece et latine editi atque +absolutissimis commentariis illustrati</i> ... Lutetiae Parisiorum ... +MDCXXI.). A reprint of 1670 is only valuable because it contains +P. de Fermat’s notes; as far as the Greek text is concerned it is much +inferior to the other. There are two German translations, one by +Otto Schulz (1822) and the other by G. Wertheim (Leipzig, 1890), +and an English edition in modern notation (T. L. Heath, <i>Diophantos +of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra</i> (Cambridge, +1885)). The Greek text has now been definitively edited (with Latin +translation, Scholia, &c.) by P. Tannery (Teubner, vol. i., 1893; +vol. ii., 1895). General accounts of Diophantus’ work are to be +found in H. Hankel and M. Cantor’s histories of mathematics, and +more elaborate analyses are those of Nesselmann (<i>Die Algebra der +Griechen</i>, Berlin, 1842) and G. Loria (<i>Le Scienze esatte nell’ antica +Grecia</i>, libro v., Modena, 1902, pp. 95-158).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. L. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIOPSIDE,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> an important member of the pyroxene group of +rock-forming minerals. It is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate, +CaMg(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, and crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Usually +some iron is present replacing magnesium, and when this predominates +there is a passage to hedenbergite, CaFe(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, a +closely allied variety of monoclinic pyroxene. These are distinguished +from augite by containing little or no aluminium. +Diopside is colourless, white, pale green to dark green or nearly +black in colour, the depth of the colour depending on the amount +of iron present. The specific gravity and optical constants also +vary with the chemical composition; the sp. gr. of diopside is +3.2, increasing to 3.6 in hedenbergite, and the angle of optical +extinction in the plane of symmetry varies between 38° and 47° +in the two extremes of the series. Crystals are usually prismatic +in habit with a rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure: +the angle between the prism faces m, parallel to which there are +perfect cleavages, is 92° 50′.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:169px; height:302px" src="images/img289a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Several varieties, depending on differences in structure and +chemical composition, have been distinguished, viz. coccolite +(from <span class="grk" title="kokkos">κόκκος</span>, a grain), a granular variety; +salite or sahlite, from Sala in Sweden; +malacolite; diallage; violane, a lamellar +variety of a dark violet-blue colour; +chrome-diopside, a bright green variety +containing a small amount of chromium; +and many others. Belonging to the same +series with diopside and hedenbergite +is a manganese pyroxene, known as +schefierite, which has the composition +(Ca, Mg) (Fe, Mn) (Si0<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + +<p>Diopside is the characteristic pyroxene +of metamorphic rocks, occurring especially +in crystalline limestones, and often in +association with garnet and epidote. It +is also an essential constituent of some +pyroxene-granites, diorites and a few other igneous rocks, but +the characteristic pyroxene of this class of rocks is augite. +Fine transparent crystals of a pale green colour occur, with +crystals of yellowish-red garnet (hessonite) and chlorite, in veins +traversing serpentine in the Ala valley near Turin in Piedmont: +a crystal of this variety (“alalite”) is represented in the +accompanying figure. These, as well as the long, transparent, +bottle-green crystals from the Zillerthal in the Tyrol, have +occasionally been cut as gem-stones. Good crystals have been +found also at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals, Traversella +near Ivrea in Piedmont (“traversellite”), Nordmark in Sweden, +Monroe in New York, Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and +several other places: at Nordmark the large, rectangular black +crystals occur with magnetite in the iron mines.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:139px; height:264px" src="images/img289b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="bold">DIOPTASE,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper +orthosilicate, H<span class="su">2</span>CuSiO<span class="su">4</span>, crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemihedral +class of the rhombohedral system. The degree of symmetry +is the same as in the mineral phenacite, +there being only an axis of triad symmetry +and a centre of symmetry. The crystals +have the form of a hexagonal prism m +terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alternate +edges between these being sometimes replaced +by the faces of a rhombohedron s. The +faces are striated parallel to the edges between +r, s and m. There are perfect cleavages +parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which +truncate the polar edges of r: from the cleavage +cracks internal reflections are often to +be seen in the crystal, and it was on account +of this that the mineral was named dioptase, by +R. J. Haüy in 1797, from <span class="grk" title="diopteuein">διοπτεύειν</span>, “to see into.” The crystals +vary from transparent to translucent with a vitreous lustre, and +are bright emerald-green in colour; they thus have a certain +resemblance to emerald, hence the early name emerald-copper +(German, <i>Kupfer-Smaragd</i>). Hardness 5; sp. gr. 3.3. The +mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of +gelatinous silica. At a red heat it blackens and gives off water. +The fine crystals from Mount Altyn-Tübe on the western slopes of +the Altai Mountains in the Kirghiz Steppes, Asiatic Russia, line +cavities in a compact limestone; they were first sent to Europe +in 1785 by Achir Mahmed, a Bucharian merchant, after whom +the mineral has been named archirite. More recently, in 1890, +good crystals of similar habit, but rather darker in colour, +have been found with quartz and malachite near Komba in the +French Congo. As drusy crystalline crusts it has been found at +Copiapo in Chile and in Arizona.</p> + +<p>Dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially +in Russia and Persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of +hardness and the transparency is imperfect.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIORITE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="diorizein">διορίζειν</span> to distinguish, from +<span class="grk" title="dia">διά</span> through, <span class="grk" title="oros">ὅρος</span>, a boundary), in petrology, the name given +by Haüy to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of +plagioclase felspar and hornblende. As they are richer in the dark +coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark +grey, and have a higher specific gravity than granite. They also +rarely show visible quartz. But there are diorites of many kinds, +as the name applies rather to a family of rocks than to a single +species. Some contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene; +many have a small amount of quartz. Orthoclase is rarely +entirely absent, and when it is fairly common the rock becomes a +tonalite; in this way a transition is furnished between diorites +and granites. It is rare to find the pure types of “hornblende-diorite,” +“augite-diorite,” &c., but in most cases the rocks +contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such combinations +as “hornblende-biotite-diorite” are commonest in nature.</p> + +<p>The felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase +to labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers +being more alkaline than the internal. Small fluid enclosures +and black grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great +numbers. Weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and +kaolin. The biotite is always brown or yellow; the hornblende +usually green, but sometimes brown or yellowish brown in those +diorites which have affinities to lamprophyres. The augite is +nearly always green but sometimes has a reddish tinge; bronzite +and hypersthene have their usual green and brown shades. +Apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present; +sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite, +chlorite, muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary. +The structure is not essentially different from that of granite. +The ferromagnesian minerals crystallize comparatively early +and have some idiomorphism; the felspar usually follows and +only in part shows good crystalline outlines. Orthoclase and +quartz, if present, are last to separate out, and fill the spaces +between the other minerals; often they interpenetrate to form +micropegmatite. In many diorites the plagioclase felspar has +crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has less +perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply +formed individuals of felspar. This produces the ophitic structure +(very common also in the dolerites). More rarely biotite and +augite exhibit the same relations to the plagioclase. Orbicular +structure also occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact +the orbicular diorite of Corsica (also called “Napoleonite” or +“Corsite”) was for a long time the best-known example of this +structure. The rock seems composed of spheroids, about an inch +in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of dark-coloured +dioritic matrix. The spheroids have a radiate structure and often +show concentric dark and pale shells. These consist of hornblende +(dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and +bytownite (grey or nearly white). Occasionally diorites have +a parallel banded or foliated structure, but these must not be +confounded with the epidiorites, which are metamorphic rocks +and also have a conspicuous foliation.</p> + +<p>Diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros, +which contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally +olivine; but the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are +admittedly somewhat vague, <i>e.g.</i> some authors would call rocks +gabbro which others would regard as augite-diorite. The hornblendites +differ from the diorites in containing little felspar, and +consist principally of hornblende. Among varietal designations +given to rocks of the diorite family are “banatite” for an augite-diorite +with or without quartz (from the Schemnitz district), +“granodiorite” for a quartz-hornblende-diorite (essentially +the same as tonalite) from California, &c., “adamellite” for +the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of Monte Adamello (Alps), +“ornite” for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from Sweden.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIP<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Old Eng. <i>dyppan</i>, connected with the common Teutonic +root seen in “deep”), the angle which the magnetic needle makes +with the horizon. A freely suspended magnetic needle will not +maintain a horizontal position except at the magnetic equator. +Over the N. magnetic pole the north-seeking end of the needle +points directly downwards and dips at an intermediate angle at +intermediate distances between the magnetic poles and equator. +There are secular progressive variations of dip as well as of +declination and the maxima are independent of each other. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span> +1576 the dip at London was 71° 50′, in 1720 (max.) 74° 42′, in +1900 67° 9′. (For Dip Circle see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inclinometer</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPHENYL<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (phenyl benzene), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, a hydrocarbon +found in that fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between +240-300° C., from which it may be obtained by warming with +sulphuric acid, separating the acid layer and strongly cooling +the undissolved oil. It may be artificially prepared by passing +benzene vapour through a red-hot tube; by the action of sodium +on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action of stannous +chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of solid +phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (R. Möhlau, <i>Berichte, +1893, 26</i>, 1997) C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>N<span class="su">2</span>·HSO<span class="su">4</span> + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span> = H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + N<span class="su">2</span> + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>. +L. Gattermann (<i>Berichte, 1890, 23</i>, 1226) has also prepared it +by the decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate +with alcohol and copper powder. It crystallizes in plates (from +alcohol) melting at 70-71° C. and boiling at 254° C. It is oxidized +by chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid, +dilute nitric acid and chromic acid mixture being without effect. +It is not reduced by hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium +in the presence of amyl alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl +C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">14</span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitution +derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. Of the +disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from +diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Orthoaminodiphenyl</i>, <img style="width:154px; height:56px" src="images/img290a.jpg" alt="" /> is prepared by the action of +bromine and caustic soda on orthophenylbenzamide (R. Hirsch, +<i>Berichte, 1892, 25</i>, 1974); when its vapour is passed over heated +lime, carbazol (<i>q.v.</i>) is formed.</p> + +<p><i>Diorthodiaminodiphenyl</i>, <img style="width:144px; height:57px" src="images/img290b.jpg" alt="" /> is obtained by the reduction +of the corresponding nitro compound (obtained by the action of +ethyl nitrite at 0° C. on metadinitrobenzidine hydrochloride). Its +tetrazo compound on reduction gives a hydrazine which, on warming +with hydrochloric acid at 150° C., +decomposes into ammonium chloride and <i>phenazone</i>, +<img style="width:235px; height:56px" src="images/img290c.jpg" alt="" /> One of the +most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the theoretical point +of view, is <i>diphenic acid</i> or diorthodiphenyl carboxylic acid, which can +be obtained from diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid, +<img style="width:223px; height:54px" src="images/img290d.jpg" alt="" /> +or from phenanthrene (<i>q.v.</i>), the constitution +of which it determines. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Benzidine</a></span> for diparadiaminodiphenyl.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPHILUS<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span>, of Sinope, poet of the new Attic comedy and +contemporary of Menander (342-291 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). Most of his plays were +written and acted at Athens, but he led a wandering life, and died +at Smyrna. He was on intimate terms with the famous courtesan +Gnathaena (Athenaeus xiii. pp. 579, 583). He is said to have +written 100 comedies, the titles of fifty of which are preserved. +He sometimes acted himself. To judge from the imitations +of Plautus. (<i>Casina</i> from the <span class="grk" title="Klêroumenoi">Κληρούμενοι</span>, <i>Asinaria</i> from the +<span class="grk" title="Onagos">Όναγός</span>, <i>Rudens</i> from some other play), he was very skilful in +the construction of his plots. Terence also tells us that he +introduced into the <i>Adelphi</i> (ii. 1) a scene from the <span class="grk" title="Synapothnêskontes">Συναποθνήσκοντες</span>, +which had been omitted by Plautus in his adaptation +(<i>Commorientes</i>) of the same play. The style of Diphilus was +simple and natural, and his language on the whole good Attic; +he paid great attention to versification, and was supposed to have +invented a peculiar kind of metre. The ancients were undecided +whether to class him among the writers of the New or Middle +comedy. In his fondness for mythological subjects (<i>Hercules</i>, +<i>Theseus</i>) and his introduction on the stage (by a bold anachronism) +of the poets Archilochus and Hipponax as rivals of +Sappho, he approximates to the spirit of the latter.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in H. Koch, <i>Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta</i>, ii.; see +J. Denis, <i>La Comédie grecque</i> (1886), ii. p. 414; R. W. Bond in +<i>Classical Review</i> (Feb. 1910, with trans. of <i>Emporos</i> fragm.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPHTHERIA<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (from <span class="grk" title="diphthera">διφθέρα</span>, a skin or membrane), the term +applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by +a membranous exudation on a mucous surface, generally on the +tonsils and back of the throat or pharynx.</p> + +<p>In general the symptoms at the commencement of an attack +of diphtheria are comparatively slight, being those commonly +accompanying a cold, viz. chilliness and depression. Sometimes +more severe phenomena usher in the attack, such as vomiting +and diarrhoea. A slight feeling of uneasiness in the throat is experienced +along with some stiffness of the back of the neck. When +looked at the throat appears reddened and somewhat swollen, +particularly in the neighbourhood of the tonsils, the soft palate +and upper part of pharynx, while along with this there is tenderness +and swelling of the glands at the angles of the jaws. The +affection of the throat spreads rapidly, and soon the characteristic +exudation appears on the inflamed surface in the form of +greyish-white specks or patches, increasing in extent and thickness +until a yellowish-looking false membrane is formed. This deposit +is firmly adherent to the mucous membrane beneath or incorporated +with it, and if removed leaves a raw, bleeding, +ulcerated surface, upon which it is reproduced in a short period. +The appearance of the exudation has been compared to wet +parchment or washed leather, and it is more or less dense in +texture. It may cover the whole of the back of the throat, the +cavity of the mouth, and the posterior nares, and spread downwards +into the air-passages on the one hand and into the alimentary +canal on the other, while any wound on the surface of +the body is liable to become covered with it. This membrane is +apt to be detached spontaneously, and as it loosens it becomes +decomposed, giving a most offensive and characteristic odour to +the breath. There is pain and difficulty in swallowing, but unless +the disease has affected the larynx no affection of the breathing. +The voice acquires a snuffling character. When the disease +invades the posterior nares an acrid, fetid discharge, and sometimes +also copious bleeding, takes place from the nostrils. Along +with these local phenomena there is evidence of constitutional +disturbance of the most severe character. There may be no +great amount of fever, but there is marked depression and loss of +strength. The pulse becomes small and frequent, the countenance +pale, the swelling of the glands of the neck increases, which, along +with the presence of albumen in the urine, testifies to a condition +of blood poisoning. Unless favourable symptoms emerge death +takes place within three or four days or sooner, either from the +rapid extension of the false membrane into the air-passage, giving +rise to asphyxia, or from a condition of general collapse, which is +sometimes remarkably sudden. In cases of recovery the change +for the better is marked by an arrest in the extension of the false +membrane, the detachment and expectoration of that already +formed, and the healing of the ulcerated mucous membrane +beneath. Along with this there is a general improvement in the +symptoms, the power of swallowing returns, and the strength +gradually increases, while the glandular enlargement of the +neck diminishes, and the albumen disappears from the urine. +Recovery, however, is generally slow, and it is many weeks +before full convalescence is established. Even, however, where +diphtheria ends thus favourably, the peculiar sequelae already +mentioned are apt to follow, generally within a period of two or +three weeks after all the local evidence of the disease has disappeared. +These secondary affections may occur after mild as +well as after severe attacks, and they are principally in the form of +paralysis affecting the soft palate and pharynx, causing difficulty +in swallowing with regurgitation of food through the nose, and +giving a peculiar nasal character to the voice. There are, however, +other forms of paralysis occurring after diphtheria, especially +that affecting the muscles of the eye, which produces a loss of the +power of accommodation and consequent impairment of vision. +There may be, besides, paralysis of both legs, and occasionally +also of one side of the body (hemiplegia). These symptoms, +however, after continuing for a variable length of time, almost +always ultimately disappear.</p> + +<p>Under the name of the <i>Malum Egyptiacum</i>, Aretaeus in the 2nd +century gives a minute description of a disease which in all its +essential characteristics corresponds to diphtheria. In the 16th, +17th and 18th centuries epidemics of diphtheria appear to have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span> +frequently prevailed in many parts of Europe, particularly in +Holland, Spain, Italy, France, as well as in England, and were +described by physicians belonging to those countries under various +titles; but it is probable that other diseases of a similar nature +were included in their descriptions, and no accurate account of +this affection had been published till M. Bretonneau of Tours in +1821 laid his celebrated treatise on the subject before the French +Academy of Medicine. By him the term <i>La Diphthérite</i> was first +given to the disease.</p> + +<p>Great attention has been paid to diphtheria in recent years, +with some striking results. Its cause and nature have been +definitely ascertained, the conditions which influence its prevalence +have been elucidated, and a specific “cure” has been +found. In the last respect it occupies a unique position at the +present time. In the case of several other zymotic diseases much +has been done by way of prevention, little or nothing for treatment; +in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed, but treatment +has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin, +which constitutes the most important contribution to practical +medicine as yet made by bacteriology.</p> + +<p>The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified +by Klebs and Loffler in 1883 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parasitic Diseases</a></span>). It +has been shown by experiment that the symptoms of +diphtheria, including the after-effects, are produced by +<span class="sidenote">Causation.</span> +a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which lodge in the air-passages +and multiply in a susceptible subject. The natural +history of the organism outside the body is not well understood, +but there is some reason to believe that it lives in a dormant +condition in suitable soils. Recent research does not favour the +theory that it is derived from defective drains or “sewer gas,” +but these things, like damp and want of sunlight, probably +promote its spread, by lowering the health of persons exposed to +them, and particularly by causing an unhealthy condition of the +throat, rendering it susceptible to the contagion. Defective +drainage, or want of drainage, may also act, by polluting the +ground, and so providing a favourable soil for the germ, though +it is to be noted that “the steady increase in the diphtheria +mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improvement +in regard of such sanitary circumstances as water supply, +sewerage, and drainage” (Thorne Thorne). Cats and cows are +susceptible to the diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys +and other birds have been known to suffer from a disease like +diphtheria, but other domestic animals appear to be more or less +resistant or immune. In human beings the mere presence of the +germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there must also be +susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists. Individuals +exhibit all degrees of resistance up to complete immunity. +Children are far more susceptible than adults, but even children +may have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without +showing any symptoms of illness. Altogether there are many +obscure points about this micro-organism, which is apt to assume +a puzzling variety of forms. Nevertheless its identification has +greatly facilitated the diagnosis of the disease, which was previously +a very difficult matter, often determined in an arbitrary +fashion on no particular principles.</p> + +<p>Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore +throat in which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found, the +illness is regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms +are quite unmistakable. One result of this is a large transference +of registered mortality from other throat affections, and particularly +from croup, to diphtheria. Croup, which never had a well-defined +application, and is not recognized by the College of +Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria, appears to be dying out +from the medical vocabulary in Great Britain. In France the +distinction has never been recognized.</p> + +<p>Diphtheria is endemic in all European and American countries, +and is apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly. +It is far more prevalent on the continent than in +England, and still more so in the United States and +<span class="sidenote">Prevalence.</span> +Canada. The following table, compiled from figures +collected by Dr Newsholme, shows how London compares with +some foreign cities. The figures give the mean death-rate from +diphtheria and croup for the term of years during which records +have been kept. The period varies in different cases, and therefore +the comparison is only a rough one.</p> + + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Mean Death-Rates from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">New York</td> <td class="tcc rb">1610</td> <td class="tcl">Munich</td> <td class="tcc">990</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Chicago</td> <td class="tcc rb">1400</td> <td class="tcl">Milan</td> <td class="tcc">990</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Buenos Aires</td> <td class="tcc rb">1360</td> <td class="tcl">Florence</td> <td class="tcc">830</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trieste</td> <td class="tcc rb">1300</td> <td class="tcl">Vienna</td> <td class="tcc">770</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dresden</td> <td class="tcc rb">1290</td> <td class="tcl">Stockholm</td> <td class="tcc">720</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Berlin</td> <td class="tcc rb">1190</td> <td class="tcl">St Petersburg</td> <td class="tcc">650</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Boston</td> <td class="tcc rb">1160</td> <td class="tcl">Moscow</td> <td class="tcc">640</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Marseilles</td> <td class="tcc rb">1130</td> <td class="tcl">Paris</td> <td class="tcc">630</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Christiania</td> <td class="tcc rb">1090</td> <td class="tcl">Hamburg</td> <td class="tcc">490</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Budapest</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcl">London</td> <td class="tcc">386</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>There is comparatively little diphtheria in India and Japan, +but in Egypt, the Cape and Australasia it prevails very extensively +among the urban populations. The mortality varies greatly from +year to year in all countries and cities. In Berlin, for instance, it +has oscillated between a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum +of 340 in 1896; in New York between 2760 in 1877 and 680 in +1868; in Christiania between 3290 in 1887 and 170 in 1871. In +some American cities still higher maxima have been recorded. In +other words, diphtheria, though always endemic, exhibits at times +a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or even +pandemic. The following table for 1859-99 shows fairly well the +periodical rise and fall in England and Wales. Diphtheria and +croup are given both separately and together, showing the +increasing transference from one to the other of late years. +Diphtheria was first entered separately in the year 1859.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="center pt2"><i>Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in +England and Wales.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Years.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Diphtheria.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Croup.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Diphtheria<br />and Croup.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1859</td> <td class="tcc rb">517</td> <td class="tcc rb">286</td> <td class="tcc rb">803</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">261</td> <td class="tcc rb">220</td> <td class="tcc rb">481</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1861-70</td> <td class="tcc rb">185</td> <td class="tcc rb">246</td> <td class="tcc rb">431</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1871-80</td> <td class="tcc rb">121</td> <td class="tcc rb">168</td> <td class="tcc rb">289</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1881-90</td> <td class="tcc rb">163</td> <td class="tcc rb">144</td> <td class="tcc rb">307</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1891-95</td> <td class="tcc rb">254</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 70</td> <td class="tcc rb">324</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896-97</td> <td class="tcc rb">269</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 43</td> <td class="tcc rb">312</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">244</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 27</td> <td class="tcc rb">271</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">293</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"> 32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">325</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years are:— +(1900) 316; (1901) 296; (1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184; +(1905) 174; (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166.</p> +</div> + +<p>Several facts are roughly indicated by the table. It begins +with an extremely severe epidemic, which has not been approached +since. Then follows a fall extending over twenty years. +On the whole this diminution was progressive, though not in +reality so steady as the decennial grouping makes it appear, being +interrupted by smaller oscillations in single years and groups of +years. Still the main fact holds good. After 1880 an opposite +movement began, likewise interrupted by minor oscillations, but +on the whole progressive, and culminating in the year 1893 with a +death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865. After 1896 +a marked fall again took place. This is partly accounted for by +the use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable scale in +1895, and did not become general until a year or two later at +least. Its effects were only then fully felt. The registrar-general’s +returns record mortality, not prevalence—that is to +say, the number of deaths, not of cases.</p> + +<p>On the whole, we get clear evidence of an epidemic rise and fall, +which may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions. The +belief, held until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in +Great Britain was obviously premature; it did rise over a series +of years, but has now ebbed again. Moreover, the general +prevalence during the last thirty years has been notably less +than in the previous twelve years. Yet it is during years since +1870 that compulsory education has been in existence and +main drainage chiefly carried out. It follows that neither school +attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence +over the epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span> +What are those conditions? Dr Newsholme has advanced the +theory, based on an elaborate examination of statistics in various +countries, that the activity of diphtheria is connected with the +rainfall, and he lays down the following general induction from +the facts: “Diphtheria only becomes epidemic in years in which +the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics are on the largest scale +when three or more years of deficient rainfall follow each other.” +He points out that the comparative rarity of diphtheria in tropical +climates, which are characterized by excessive rainfall, and its +greater prevalence in continental than in insular countries, +confirm his theory. His observations seem quite contrary to the +view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted, +that wet weather favours diphtheria. The two, however, are not +irreconcilable. The key to the problem—and possibly to many +other epidemiological problems—may perhaps be found in the +movements of the subsoil water. It has been suggested by +different observers, and particularly by Mr M. A. Adams, who has +for some years made a study of the subsoil water at Maidstone, +that there is a definite connexion between it and diphtheria. In +England the underground water normally reaches its lowest level +at the end of the summer; then it gradually rises, fed by percolation +from the winter rains, reaching a maximum level about the +end of March, after which it gradually sinks. This maximum +level Mr Adams calls the annual spring cleaning of the soil, and +his observations go to show that when the normal movement is +arrested or disturbed, diphtheria becomes active. Now that is +what happens in periods of drought. The underground water +does not rise to its usual level, and there is no spring cleaning. +The hypothesis, then, is this: The diphtheria bacillus lives in the +soil, but is “drowned out” in wet periods by the subsoil water. +In droughty ones it lives and flourishes in the warm, dry soil; +then when rain comes, it is driven out with the ground air into the +houses. This process will continue for some time, so that epidemic +outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet. But they +begin in drought, and are stopped by long-continued periods of +copious rainfall. This is quite in keeping with the observed fact +that diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the +last quarter of the year. The summer develops the poison in the +soil, the autumnal rains bring it out. The fact that the same +cause does not produce the same effect in tropical countries may +perhaps be explained by the extreme violence of the alternations, +which are too great to suit this particular micro-organism, or +possibly the regularity of the rainfall prevents its development.</p> + +<p>The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good deal of +evidence, and notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic +or pandemic prevalence in Great Britain, culminating in 1859, +with a prolonged period of exceptionally deficient rainfall. Again, +the highest death-rate registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year +of similarly exceptional drought. But it is no more than an +hypothesis, and the fate of former theories is a warning against +drawing conclusions from statistics and records extending over +too short a period of time. The warning is particularly necessary +in connexion with meteorological conditions, which are apt to +upset all calculations. As it happens, a period of deficient rainfall +even greater than that of 1854-1858 has recently been +experienced. It began in 1893 and culminated in the extraordinary +season of 1899. The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896, +1898 and 1899, and the deficiency of rainfall was not made good +by any considerable excess in 1894 and 1897. It surpassed all +records at Greenwich; streams and wells ran dry all over the +country, and the flow of the Thames and Lea was reduced to +the lowest point ever recorded. There should be, according to +the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of +diphtheria. To a certain extent it has held good. There was a +marked rise in 1893-1896 over the preceding period, though not +so large as might have been expected, but it was followed by a +decided fall in 1897-1898. The experience of 1898 contradicts, +that of 1899 supports, the theory. Further light is therefore +required; but perhaps the failure of the recent drought to produce +results at all comparable with the epidemic of the ’fifties may be +due to variations in the resistance of the disease, which differs +widely in different years. It may also be due in part to improved +sanitation, to the notification of infectious diseases, the use of +isolation hospitals, which have greatly developed in quite recent +years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of antitoxin. If these +be the real explanations, then scientific and administrative work +has not been thrown away after all in combating this very painful +and fatal enemy of the young.</p> + +<p>The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria, +and its epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do +not touch the question of actual dissemination. The +contagion is spread by means which are in constant +<span class="sidenote">Dissemination.</span> +operation, whether the general amount of disease is +great or small. Water, so important in some epidemic diseases, +is believed not to be one of them, though a negative proof based +on absence of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. On +the other hand, milk is undoubtedly a means of dissemination. +Several outbreaks of an almost explosive character, besides minor +extensions of disease from one place to another, have been traced +to this cause. Milk may be contaminated in various ways—at +the dairy, for instance, or on the way to customers,—but several +cases, investigated by the officers of the Local Government Board +and others, have been thought to point to infection from cows +suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder. The part +played by aërial convection is undetermined, but there is no +reason to suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any +distance by wind or air currents. Instances which seem to point +to the contrary may be explained in other ways, and particularly +by the fact, now fully demonstrated, that persons suffering from +minor sore throats, not recognized as diphtheria, may carry the +disease about and introduce it into other localities. Human +intercourse is the most important means of dissemination, the +contagion passing from person to person either by actual contact, +as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and articles, or by +mere proximity. In the last case the germs must be supposed to +be air-borne for short distances, and to enter with the breath. +Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of +diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons +using them. At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth +Asylum in 1898 the infection clung obstinately to a particular +ward, in spite of the prompt removal of all cases, and fresh ones +continued to occur until it had been thoroughly disinfected, after +which there were no more. The part played by human intercourse +in fostering the spread of the disease suggests that it would +naturally be more prevalent in urban communities, where people +congregate together more, than in rural ones. This is at variance +with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this +country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated +districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still +rather a rural disease. That view is based upon an analysis of the +distribution by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 1880, +and it has been generally accepted and repeated until it has +become a sort of axiom. Of course the facts of distribution are +facts, but the general inference drawn from them, that diphtheria +peculiarly affects the country and is changing its <i>habitat</i>, may be +erroneous. Dr Newsholme, by taking a wider basis of experience, +has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and finds that diphtheria +does not, in fact, flourish more in sparsely-peopled districts. +“When a sufficiently long series of years is taken,” he says, “it +appears clear that there is more diphtheria in urban than in rural +communities.” The rate for London has always been in excess of +that for the whole of England and Wales. Its distribution at any +given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by +their incidental co-operation, not by any property or predilection +for town or country inherent in the disease. There are the +epidemic conditions of soil and rainfall, previously discussed, +which vary widely in different localities at different times; there +is the steady influence of regular intercourse, and the accidental +element of special distribution by various means. These things +may combine to alter the incidence. In short, accident plays +too great a part to permit any general conclusion to be drawn +from distribution, except from a very wide basis of experience. +The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden. For +instance, the county of London for some years headed the list, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span> +having a far higher death-rate than any other. In 1898 it dropped +to the fifth place, and was surpassed by Rutland, a purely rural +county, which had the lowest mortality of all in the previous year +and very nearly the lowest for the previous ten years. Again, +South Wales, which had had a low mortality for some years, +suddenly came into prominence as a diphtheria district, and in +1898 had the highest death-rate in the country. Staffordshire +and Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an urban, the other +a rural, county. All the northern counties, both rural and urban,—namely, +Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland, +Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lincolnshire,—had a very +high rate in 1861-1870, and a low one in 1896-1898. It is +obviously unsafe to draw general conclusions from distribution +data on a small scale. Diphtheria appears to creep about very +slowly, as a rule, from place to place, and from one part of a large +town to another; it forsakes one district and appears in another; +occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great energy, presumably +because the local conditions are exceptionally favourable, +which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the susceptibility of +the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground. But through +it all personal infection is the chief means of spread.</p> + +<p>The acceptance of this doctrine has directed great attention to +the practical question of school influence. There is no doubt +whatever that it plays a very considerable part in spreading +diphtheria. The incidence of the disease is chiefly on children, +and nothing so often and regularly brings large numbers together +in close contact under the same roof as school attendance. +Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and extensive opportunities +for personal infection. Many outbreaks have definitely +been traced to schools. In London the subject has been very +fully investigated by Sir Shirley Murphy, the medical officer of +health to the London County Council, and by Dr W. R. Smith, +formerly medical officer of health to the London School Board. +Sir Shirley Murphy has shown that a special incidence on children +of school age began to manifest itself after the adoption of +compulsory education, and that the summer holidays are marked +by a distinct diminution of cases, which is succeeded by an +increase on the return to school. Dr W. R. Smith’s observations +are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school influence, +and to showing that it is less important than other factors; +which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked. It +appears that the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school +age, and that liability diminishes progressively after school age +is reached. But this by no means disposes of the importance of +school influence, as the younger children at home may be infected +by older ones, who have picked up the contagion at school, but, +being less susceptible, are less severely affected and exhibit no +worse symptoms than a sore throat. From a practical point of +view the problem is a difficult one to deal with, as it is virtually +impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection, on account +of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering +how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of +schools, it would probably be to the advantage of the authorities +to discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children +with sore throats. A fact of some interest revealed by statistics +is that in the earliest years of life the incidence of diphtheria is +greater upon male than upon female children, but from three +years onwards the position is reversed, and with every succeeding +year the relative female liability becomes greater. This is probably +due to the habit of kissing maintained among females, but +more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood onwards.</p> + +<p>All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating +the sick in isolation hospitals. Of late years this preventive +measure has been carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to +the better provision of such hospitals and the greater willingness +of the public to make use of them; and probably the improvement +so effected has had some share in keeping down the +prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate proportions. +Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons is +hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence +of symptoms, exhibited by some individuals. A further difficulty +arises with reference to the discharge of patients. It has been +proved that the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the +air-passages in certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it +does persist for several weeks after convalescence. On returning +home such cases may, and often do, infect others.</p> + +<p>Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has +overshadowed all other methods. We owe this drug originally +to the Berlin school of bacteriologists, and particularly +to Dr Behring. The idea of making use of serum arose +<span class="sidenote">Treatment.</span> +about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with Mechnikov’s +theory of phagocytosis, by which is meant the action of the +phagocytes or white corpuscles of the blood in destroying the +bacteria of disease. It was shown by the German bacteriologists +that the serum or liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more +important part in resisting disease, and the idea of combating +the toxins produced by pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum +injected into the blood presented itself to several workers. The +idea was followed up and worked out independently in France and +Germany, so successfully that by the year 1894 the serum treatment +had been tried on a considerable scale with most encouraging +results. Some of these were published in Germany in the +earlier part of that year, and at the International Hygienic +Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut +Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than +that of his German colleagues, read a paper giving the result of +several hundred cases treated in Paris. When all allowance for +errors had been made, they showed a remarkable and even +astonishing reduction of mortality, fully confirming the conclusions +drawn from the German experiments. This consensus of +independent opinion proved a great stimulus to further trial, and +before long one <i>clinique</i> after another told the same tale. The +evidence was so favourable that Professor Virchow—the last man +to be carried away by a novelty—declared it “the imperative +duty of medical men to use the new remedy” (<i>The Times</i>, 19th +October 1894). Since then an enormous mass of facts has +accumulated from all quarters of the globe, all testifying to +the value of antitoxin in the treatment of diphtheria. The +experience of the hospitals of the London Metropolitan Asylums +Board for five years before and after antitoxin may be given +as a particularly instructive illustration; but the subsequent +reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11.3 in 1901, +10.8 in 1902, 9.3 in 1903, and an average of 9 in 1904-1908) added +further confirmation.</p> + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board’s +Hospitals.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">Before Antitoxin.</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="2">After Antitoxin.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm">Year.</td> <td class="tccm rb">Mortality<br />per cent.</td> <td class="tccm">Year.</td> <td class="tccm">Mortality<br />per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.55</td> <td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcc">22.85</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.61</td> <td class="tcc">1896</td> <td class="tcc">21.20</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.51</td> <td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcc">17.79</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.42</td> <td class="tcc">1898</td> <td class="tcc">15.37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.29</td> <td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcc">13.95</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years +was 32,835, or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result +is a reduction of mortality by more than one-half. It is a +fair inference that the treatment saves the lives of about 1000 +children every year in London alone. This refers to all cases. +Those which occur in the hospitals as a sequel to scarlet fever, and +consequently come under treatment from the commencement, +show very much more striking results. The case mortality, which +was 46.8% in 1892 and 58.8% in 1893, has been reduced to +3.6% since the introduction of antitoxin. But the evidence is +not from statistics alone. The beneficial effect of the treatment +is equally attested by clinical observation. Dr Roux’s original +account has been confirmed by a cloud of witnesses year after +year. “One may say,” he wrote, “that the appearance of most +of the patients is totally different from what it used to be. +The pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in the wards; the +expression of the children is brighter and more lively.” Adult +patients have described the relief afforded by inoculation; it acts +like a charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like +a cloud in the course of a few hours. Finally, the counteracting +effect of antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> +diphtheritic toxin on +the nervous tissues has +been demonstrated +pathologically. There +are some who still affect +scepticism as to the +value of this drug. +They cannot be acquainted +with the evidence, +for if the efficacy +of antitoxin in the treatment +of diphtheria has +not been proved, then +neither can the efficacy +of any treatment for +anything be said to be +proved. Prophylactic +properties are also +claimed for the serum; +but protection is necessarily +more difficult to +demonstrate than cure, +and though there is +some evidence to support +the claim, it has +not been fully made +out.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Adams, +<i>Public Health</i>, +vol. vii.; Thorne Thorne, +<i>Milroy Lectures</i> (1891); +Newsholme, <i>Epidemic +Diphtheria</i>; W. R. Smith, +<i>Harben Lectures</i> (1899); +Murphy, <i>Report to London +County Council</i> (1894); +Sims Woodhead, <i>Report +to Metropolitan Asylums +Board</i> (1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPLODOCUS,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a +gigantic extinct land +reptile discovered in +rocks of Upper Jurassic +age in western North +America, the best-known +example of a +Sauropodous Dinosaur. +The first scattered remains +of a skeleton were +found in 1877 by Prof. +S.W. Williston near +Cañon City, Colorado; +and the tail and hind-limb +of this specimen +were described in the +following year by Prof. +O.C. Marsh. He +noticed that in the part +of the tail which dragged +on the ground, each +chevron bone below the +vertebral column consisted +of a pair of bars; +and as so peculiar an +arrangement for the +protection of the artery +and vein beneath the +tail had not previously +been observed in any +animal, he proposed +the name <i>Diplodocus</i> +(“double beam” or +“double bar”) for the +new reptile, adding the +specific name <i>longus</i> in allusion to the elongated shape of the +tail vertebrae. In 1884 Prof. Marsh described the head, +vertebrae and pelvis of the same skeleton, which is now +in the National Museum, Washington. In 1897 the next +important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments, +apparently of <i>Diplodocus longus</i>, was obtained by the American +Museum of Natural History, New York, from Como Bluffs, +Wyoming. In 1899-1900 large parts of two skeletons of another +species, in a remarkable state of preservation, were disinterred +by Messrs J. L. Wortman, O. A. Peterson and J. B. Hatcher in +Sheep Creek, Albany county, Wyo., and these are now exhibited +with minor discoveries in the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg. There +are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the University +of Wyoming. In 1901 Mr J. B. Hatcher studied the new +species at Pittsburg, named it <i>Diplodocus carnegii</i>, and published +the first restored sketch of a complete skeleton. Shortly afterwards +plaster casts of the finest specimens were prepared under +the direction of Mr J. B. Hatcher and Dr W. J. Holland, and +these were skilfully combined to form the cast of a completely +reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to the British +Museum by Andrew Carnegie in 1905. This reconstruction is +based primarily on a well-preserved chain of vertebrae, extending +from the second cervical to the twelfth caudal, associated with +the ribs, pelvis and several limb-bones. The tail is completed +from two other specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals +13 to 36 and 37 to 73 respectively in apparently unbroken series. +Prof. Marsh’s specimen in Washington supplied the greater part +of the skull; and the fore-foot is copied from a specimen in New +York.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:152px" src="images/img294.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Reconstructed Skeleton of <i>Diplodocus carnegii</i>, +Hatcher, about one-hundredth natural size. A and B, Caudal Vertebrae +Nos. 36 and 70 of the same are about one-quarter natural size.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of <i>Diplodocus carnegii</i> +measures 84 ft. in length and 12 ft. 9 in. in maximum height at +the hind-limbs. It displays the elongated neck and tail and the +relatively small head so characteristic of the Sauropodous +Dinosaurs. The skull is inclined to the axis of the neck, denoting +a browsing animal; while the feeble blunt teeth and flat +expanded snout suggest feeding among succulent water-weeds. +The large narial opening at the highest point of the head probably +indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have +been a soft valve to close the nostrils when under water. The +diminutive brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a +walnut, is noteworthy. There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in +the neck, 11 in the back, 5 in the sacrum and 73 in the tail. The +presacral vertebrae are of remarkably light construction, the +plates and struts of bone being arranged to give the greatest +strength with the least weight. The end of the tail is a flexible +lash, which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail of +some existing lizards. The feet, notwithstanding the weight they +had to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a crocodile, with +claws only on the three inner toes. There is no external armour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See O. C. Marsh, <i>Amer. Journ. Sci.</i> ser. 3, vol. xvi. (1878), p. 414, +pl. viii., and loc. cit. vol. xxvii. (1884), p. 161, pls. iii., iv.; +H. F. Osborn, Mem. <i>Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. pt. v. (1899); +J. B. Hatcher, <i>Mem. Carnegie Mus.</i> vol. i. No. 1 (1901), and vol. ii. +No. 1 (1903); W. J. Holland, <i>Mem. Carnegie Mus.</i> vol. ii. No. 6 +(1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. S. Wo.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPLOMACY<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Fr. <i>diplomatie</i>), the art of conducting international +negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, has +the same derivation as Diplomatic (<i>q.v.</i>), and, according to the +<i>New English Dictionary</i>, was first used in England so late as 1796 +by Burke. Yet there is no other word in the English language +that could supply its exact sense. The need for such a term +was indeed not felt; for what we know as diplomacy was long +regarded, partly as falling under the <i>Jus gentium</i> or international +law, partly as a kind of activity morally somewhat suspect and +incapable of being brought under any system. Moreover, though +in a certain sense it is as old as history, diplomacy as a uniform +system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed by +a diplomatic hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of +quite modern growth even in Europe. It was finally established +only at the congresses of Vienna (1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), +while its effective extension to the great monarchies of the East, +beyond the bounds of European civilization, was comparatively +an affair of yesterday. So late as 1876 it was possible for the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> +writer on this subject in the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i> to say that “it would be an historical absurdity to +suppose diplomatic relations connecting together China, Burma +and Japan, as they connect the great European powers.”</p> + +<p><i>Principles.</i>—Though diplomacy has been usually treated under +the head of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant +with the facts to place international law under diplomacy. The +principles and rules governing the intercourse of states, defined +by a long succession of international lawyers, have no sanction +save the consensus of the powers, established and maintained +by diplomacy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balance of Power</a></span>); in so far as they have +become, by international agreement, more than mere pious +opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for +mutual convenience, which it is the function of diplomacy to +safeguard or to use for its own ends. In any case they by no +means cover the whole field of diplomatic activity; and, were +they swept away, the art of diplomacy, developed through long +ages of experience, would survive.</p> + +<p>This experience may perhaps be called the science, as distinct +from the art, of diplomacy. It covers not only the province of +international law, but the vast field of recorded experience which +we know as history, of which indeed international law is but a +part; for, as Bielfeld in his <i>Institutions politiques</i> (La Haye, 1760, +t. I. ch. ii. § 13) points out, “public law is founded on facts. To +know it we must know history, which is the soul of this science +as of politics in general.” The broad outlook on human affairs +implied in “historical sense” is more necessary to the diplomatist +under modern conditions than in the 18th century, when international +policy was still wholly under the control of princes +and their immediate advisers. Diplomacy was then a game of +wits played in a narrow circle. Its objects too were narrower; +for states were practically regarded as the property of their +sovereigns, which it was the main function of their “agents” to +enlarge or to protect, while scarcely less important than the +preservation or rearrangement of territorial boundaries was that +of precedence and etiquette generally, over which an incredible +amount of time was wasted. The <i>haute diplomatie</i> thus resolved +itself into a process of exalted haggling, conducted with an +utter disregard of the ordinary standards of morality, but with +the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever +more and more elaborate rules. Much of the outcome of these +dead debates has become stereotyped in the conventions of the +diplomatic service; but the character of diplomacy itself has +undergone a great change. This change is threefold: firstly, as +the result of the greater sense of the community of interests +among nations, which was one of the outcomes of the French +Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of democracy, with its +expression in parliamentary assemblies and in the press; thirdly, +through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic agent, due +to modern means of communication.</p> + +<p>The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of Count +Kaunitz of the 17th of July 1791, in which, in face of the Revolution, +he impressed upon the powers the duty of making common +cause for the purpose of preserving “public peace, the tranquillity +of states, the inviolability of possessions, and the faith of +treaties.” The duty of watching over the common interests of +Europe, or of the world, was thus for the first time officially +recognized as a function of diplomacy, since common action could +only be taken as the result of diplomatic negotiations. It would +be easy to exaggerate the effective results of this idea, even when +it had crystallized in the Grand Alliance of 1814 and been proclaimed +to the world in the Holy Alliance of the 26th of September +1815 and the declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle. The cynical picture +given by La Bruyère of the diplomatist of the 18th century still +remained largely true: “His talk is only of peace, of alliances, +of the public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality +he is thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his master +or of his republic.”<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The proceedings of the congress of Vienna +proved how little the common good weighed unless reinforced +by particular interests; but the conception of “Europe” as a +political entity none the less survived. The congresses, notably +the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1818, were in a certain +sense European parliaments, and their ostensible object was the +furtherance of common interests. Had the imperial dreamer +Alexander I. of Russia had his way, they would have been +permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance, +and would have included, not the great powers only, but representatives +of every state (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander I.</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span> : +<i>History</i>). Whatever the effective value of that “Concert of +Europe” which was the outcome of the period of the congresses, +it certainly produced a great effect on the spirit and the practice +of diplomacy. In the congresses and conferences diplomacy +assumes international functions both legislative and administrative. +The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own +government, but to “Europe.” Thus Castlereagh was accused of +subordinating the interests of Great Britain to those of Europe; +and the same charge was brought, perhaps with greater justice, +against Metternich in respect of Austria. Canning’s principle of +“Every nation for itself and God for us all!” prevailed, it is +true, over that of Alexander’s “Confederation of Europe”; yet, +as one outcome of the congresses, every diplomatic agent, though +he represents the interests of his own state, has behind him the +whole body of the treaties which constitute the public law of +the world, of which he is in some sort the interpreter and the +guardian.</p> + +<p>Parallel with this development runs the second process making +for change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public +opinion. To discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is +impossible; but the subject is too important to be altogether +passed over, since it is one of the main problems of modern +international intercourse, and concerns every one who by his vote +may influence the policy of the state to which he belongs. The +question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public discussion +of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of +diplomacy for better or for worse? To the diplomatist of the +old school the answer seems clear. For him diplomacy was too +delicate and too personal an art to survive the glare and confusion +of publicity. Metternich, the last representative of the old <i>haute +diplomatie</i>, lived to moralize over the ruin caused by the first +manifestations of the “new diplomacy,” the outcome of the rise +of the power of public opinion. He had early, from his own point +of view, unfavourably contrasted the “limited” constitutional +monarchies of the west with the “free” autocracies of the east +of Europe, free because they were under no obligation to give a +public account of their actions. He himself was a master of the +old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose under a cloud +of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal fascination. +But public opinion was for him only a dangerous force to be kept +under control; and, even had he realized the necessity for appealing +to it, he had none of the qualities that would have made the +appeal successful. In direct antagonism to him was George +Canning, who may be called the great prototype of the “new +diplomacy,” and to Metternich was a “malevolent meteor hurled +by divine providence upon Europe.” Canning saw clearly the +immense force that would be added to his diplomatic action if +he had behind him the force of public opinion. In answer to +Metternich’s complaint of the tone of speeches in parliament and +of the popular support given in England to revolutionary movements, +he wrote, “Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad, +must be secure in its sources of strength at home: and the sources +of that strength are in the sympathy between the people and the +government; in the union of the public sentiment with the public +counsels; in the reciprocal confidence of the House of Commons +and the crown.”<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning +was wholly right and Metternich wholly wrong. The conditions +of the Habsburg monarchy were not those of Great Britain,<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +and even if it had been possible to speak of a public opinion in the +Austrian empire at all, it certainly possessed no such organ as +the British parliament. But the argument may be carried yet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span> +further. In the abstract the success of the policy of a minister +in a democratic state must ultimately rest upon the support of +public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the +conduct of foreign affairs its peculiar dangers. In the difficult +game of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary. Secret +sources of information would be dried up were they to be lightly +revealed; a plain exposition of policy would often give an undue +advantage to the other party to a negotiation. Thus, even in +Great Britain, the diplomatic correspondence laid before parliament +is carefully edited, and all governments are jealous of +granting access to their modern archives. Yet a representative +assembly is apt to be resentful of such reservations. Its members +know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign +affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated +by explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness. +Canning himself had experience of this in the affair of the capture +of the Danish fleet at Copenhagen; and Castlereagh’s diplomacy +was hampered by the bitter attacks of an opposition which +accused him, with little justice, of pursuing a policy which he +dared not reveal in its full scope to parliament. Moreover, the +appeal to public opinion may be used as a diplomatic weapon for +ends no less “selfish” than any aimed at by the old diplomacy. +Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as that of +Metternich, was a master of the art of taking the world into his +confidence—when it suited him to do so; and the “reptile press,” +hired to give a seemingly independent support to his policy, +was one of his most potent weapons. So far the only necessary +consequence of the growth of the power of public opinion on the +art of diplomacy has been to extend the sphere of its application; +it is but one more factor to be dealt with; and experience has +proved that it is subject to the wiles of a skilful diplomatist no +less than were the princes and statesmen with whom the old +diplomacy was solely concerned.</p> + +<p>The third factor making for change—the revolution in the +means of communication which has brought all the world into +closer touch—remains to be discussed. It is obvious that before +the invention of the telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far +more responsible position than he is now, when he can, in most +cases, receive immediate instructions from his government on +difficult questions as they arise. When communication was still +slow there was often no time to await instructions, or the instructions +when they arrived were not seldom already out of date and +had to be set aside on the minister’s own responsibility. It would, +however, be easy to exaggerate the importance of this change as +affecting the character and status of diplomatic agents. It is true +that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign affairs to hold +the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far greater +extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend +for information and advice on the “man on the spot,” and the +success of their policy largely depends upon his qualities of +discretion and judgment. The growth of democracy, moreover, +has given to the ambassador a new and peculiar importance; for +he represents not only the sovereign to the sovereign, but the +nation to the nation; and, as a succession of notable American +ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his personal +qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and +ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations. It +marks an immense advance in the comity of international +intercourse when the representatives of friendly powers are +no longer regarded as “spies rather than ambassadors,” to be +“quickly heard and dismissed,” as Philippe de Commines would +have them, but as agreeable guests to be parted from with regret.</p> + +<p>As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly impossible +to lay down a general rule, for the same qualities are +obviously not required in Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris +as in Pekin. Yet the effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks +largely in the works of the earlier theorists, and the demands they +make are sufficiently alarming. Ottaviano Maggi, himself a +diplomatist of the brilliant age of the Renaissance, has left us in +his <i>De legato</i> (Hanoviae, 1596) his idea of what an ambassador +should be. He must not only be a good Christian but a learned +theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotle +and Plato, and able at a moment’s notice to solve in correct +dialectical form the most abstruse problems; he must be well +read in the classics, and an expert in mathematics, architecture, +music, physics and civil and canon law. He must not only know +how to write and speak Latin with classical refinement, but he +must be a master of Greek, Spanish, French, German and Turkish. +He must have a sound knowledge of history, geography and the +science of war; but at the same time is not to neglect the poets, +and never to be without his Homer. Add to this that he must +be well born, rich and of a handsome presence, and we have +a portrait of a diplomatist whose original can hardly have +existed even in that age of brilliant versatility. The Dutchman +Frederikus de Marselaer, in his <span class="grk" title="kêrukeion">κηρυκεῖον</span> <i>sive legationum +insigne</i> (Antwerp, 1618), is scarcely less exacting than the +Venetian. His ideal ambassador is a nobleman of fine presence +and in the prime of life, famous, rich, munificent, abstemious, +not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no flatterer, learned, +eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good linguist, widely +read, prudent and cautious, but brave and—as he adds somewhat +superfluously—many-sided.</p> + +<p>With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the +qualifications demanded by the exigencies of practical politics +may be cited by way of illuminating contrast. At the court of the +empress Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of +diplomatic success than all the talents and virtues, and the +princess of Zerbst (mother of the empress Catherine II.) wrote to +Frederick of Prussia advising him to replace his elderly ambassador +by a handsome young man with a good complexion; +and the essential qualification for an ambassador to Switzerland, +Germany, Poland, Denmark and Russia used to be that he should +be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood +to strong liquors, under the table.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of +the intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a +mere brute struggle for the mastery;<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> in a narrower sense, with +which the present article is alone concerned, it is that of the +methods and spirit of diplomatic intercourse and of the character +and status of diplomatic agents. Earlier writers on the office +and functions of ambassadors, such as Gentilis or Archbishop +Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin to God himself, +who created the angels to be his legates; and they fortify their +arguments by copious examples drawn from ancient history, +sacred and profane. But, whatever the influence upon it of +earlier practice, modern diplomacy really dates from the rise of +permanent missions, and the consequent development of the +diplomatic hierarchy as an international institution. Of this the +first beginnings are traceable to the 15th century and to Italy. +There had, of course, during the middle ages been embassies and +negotiations; but the embassies had been no more than temporary +missions directed to a particular end and conducted by +ecclesiastics or nobles of a dignity appropriate to each occasion; +there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a professional +diplomatic class. To the evolution of such a class the Italy of the +Renaissance, the nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave the +first impetus. This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous +independent states, between which there existed a lively intercourse +and a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in miniature the +modern states’ system of Europe. In feudal Europe there had +been little room for diplomacy; but in northern and central Italy +feudalism had never taken root, and in the struggles of the +peninsula diplomacy had early played a part as great as, or greater +than, war. Where all were struggling for the mastery, the +existence of each depended upon alliances and counter-alliances, +of which the object was the maintenance of the balance of power. +In this school there was trained a notable succession of men of +affairs. Thus, in the 13th and 14th centuries Florence counted +among her envoys Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and later on +could boast of agents such as Capponi, Vettori, Guicciardini and +Machiavelli. Papal Rome, too, as was to be expected, had +always been a fruitful nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span> +authorities have traced the beginnings of modern diplomacy to a +conscious imitation of her legatine system.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>It is, however, in Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy +are to be sought.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> So early as the 13th century the republic, with +a view to safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a +series of rules for the conduct of its ambassadors. Thus, in 1236, +envoys to the court of Rome are forbidden to procure a benefice +for anyone without leave of the doge and little council; in 1268 +ambassadors are commanded to surrender on their return any +gifts they may have received, and by another decree they are +compelled to take an oath to conduct affairs to the honour and +advantage of the republic. About the same time it was decided +that diplomatic agents were to hand in, on their return, a written +account of their mission; in 1288 this was somewhat expanded by +a law decreeing that ambassadors were to deposit, within fifteen +days of their return, a written account of the replies made to them +during their mission, together with anything they might have seen +or heard to the honour or in the interests of the republic. These +provisions, which were several times renewed, notably in 1296, +1425 and 1533, are the origin of the famous reports of the +Venetian ambassadors to the senate, which are at once a monument +to the political genius of Venetian statesmen and a mine +of invaluable historical material.<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations, +many others also dating to the 13th century, by which the +Venetian government sought to systematize its diplomatic +service. That permanent diplomatic agencies were not established +by it earlier than was the case is probably due to the +distrust of its agents by which most of this legislation of the +republic is inspired. In the 13th century two or three months +was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to reside at +a foreign court; in the 15th century the period of residence was +extended to two years, and in the 16th century to three. This +latter rule continued till the end of the republic; the embassy +had become permanent, but the ambassador was changed every +three years.</p> + +<p>The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions +has been the subject of much debate and controversy. The theory +that it was due, in the first instance, to the evolution of the +Venetian consulates (<i>bajulats</i>) in the Levant into permanent +diplomatic posts, and that the idea was thence transferred to the +West, is disproved by the fact that Venice had established other +permanent embassies before the baylo (<i>q.v.</i>) at Constantinople was +transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first rank. Nor is +the first known instance of the appointment of a permanent +ambassador Venetian. The earliest record<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> is contained in the +announcement by Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1455, of his +intention to maintain a permanent embassy at Genoa<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a>; and in +1460 the duke of Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, archdeacon of +Vercelli, as his permanent representative to the Curia.<a name="fa10d" id="fa10d" href="#ft10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Though, +however, the early records of such appointments are rare, the +practice was probably common among the Italian states. Its +extension to countries outside Italy was a somewhat later development. +In 1494 Milan is already represented in France by a +permanent ambassador. In 1495 Zacharia Contarini, Venetian +ambassador to the emperor Maximilian, is described by Sanuto +(<i>Diarii</i>, i. 294) as <i>stato ambasciatore</i>; and from the time of +Charles V. onwards the succession of ambassadors of the republic +at the imperial court is fairly traceable. In 1496 “as the way to +the British Isles is very long and very dangerous,” two merchants +resident in London, Pietro Contarini and Luca Valaressa, were +appointed by the republic <i>subambasciatores</i>; and in June of the +same year Andrea Trevisano arrived in London as permanent +ambassador at the court of Henry VII.<a name="fa11d" id="fa11d" href="#ft11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Florence, too, from +1498 onwards, was represented at the courts of Charles V. and of +France by permanent ambassadors.</p> + +<p>During the same period the practice had been growing up +among the other European powers. Spain led the way in 1487 +by the appointment of Dr Roderigo Gondesalvi de Puebla as +ambassador in England. As he was still there in 1500, the +Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the oldest still +surviving post of the new permanent diplomacy. Other states +followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the 16th +century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm. +The precarious relations between the European powers during +the 16th century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of +the system. Thus it was not till after good relations had been +established with France by the treaty of London that, in 1519, +Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr West were sent to Paris as resident +English ambassadors, and, after the renewed breach between the +two countries, no others were appointed till the reign of Elizabeth. +Nine years before, Sir Robert Wingfield, whose simplicity earned +him the nickname of “Summer-shall-be-green,” had been sent as +ambassador to the court of Charles V., where he remained from +1510 to 1517; and in 1520 the mutual appointment of resident +ambassadors was made a condition of the treaty between Henry +VIII. and Charles V. In 1517 Thomas Spinelly, who had for +some years represented England at the court of the Netherlands, +was appointed “resident ambassador to the court of Spain,” +where he remained till his death on the 22nd of August 1522. +These are the most important early instances of the new system. +Alone of the great powers, the emperor remained permanently +unrepresented at foreign courts. In theory this was the result +of his unique dignity, which made him superior to all other +potentates; actually it was because, as emperor, he could not +speak for the practically independent princes nominally his +vassals. It served all practical purposes if he were represented +abroad by his agents as king of Spain or archduke of Austria.</p> + +<p>All the evidence now available goes to prove that the establishment +of permanent diplomatic agencies was not an unconscious +and accidental development of previous conditions, but deliberately +adopted as an obvious convenience. But, while all the +powers were agreed as to the convenience of maintaining such +agencies abroad, all were equally agreed in viewing the representatives +accredited to them by foreign states with extreme +suspicion. This attitude was abundantly justified by the +peculiar ethics of the new diplomacy. The old “orators” of the +Summer-shall-be-green type could not long hold their own +against the new men who had studied in the school of Italian +statecraft, for whom the end justified the means. Machiavelli +had gathered in <i>The Prince</i> and <i>The Discourses on Livy</i> the +principles which underlay the practice of his day in Italy; +Francis I., the first monarch to establish a completely organized +diplomatic machinery, did most to give these principles a +European extension. By the close of the 16th century diplomacy +had become frankly “Machiavellian,” and the ordinary rules of +morality were held not to apply to the intercourse between +nations. This was admitted in theory as well as in practice. +Germonius, after a vigorous denunciation of lying in general, +argues that it is permissible for the safety or convenience +(<i>commodo</i>) of princes, since <i>salus populi suprema lex</i>, and <i>quod +non permittit naturalis ratio, admittit civilis</i>; and he adduces +in support of this principle the answer given by Ulysses to +Neoptolemus, in the <i>Ajax</i> of Sophocles, and the examples of +Abraham, Jacob and David. Paschalius, while affirming that an +ambassador must study to speak the truth, adds that he is not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> +such a “rustic boor” as to say that an “official lie” (<i>officiosum +mendacium</i>) is never to be employed, or to deny that an +ambassador should be, on occasion, <i>splendide mendax</i>.<a name="fa12d" id="fa12d" href="#ft12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The +situation is summed up in the famous definition of Sir Henry +Wotton, which, though excused by himself as a jest, was held to +be an indiscreet revelation of the truth: “An ambassador is an +honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country.”<a name="fa13d" id="fa13d" href="#ft13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a> +The most successful liar, in fact, was esteemed the most successful +diplomatist. “A prime article of the catechism of ambassadors,” +says Bayle in his <i>Dictionnaire critique</i> (1699), “whatever their +religion, is to invent falsehoods and to go about making society +believe them.” So universally was this principle adopted that, +in the end, no diplomatist even expected to be believed; and +the best way to deceive was—as Bismarck cynically avowed—to +tell the truth.</p> + +<p>But, in addition to being a liar <i>ex officio</i>, the ambassador was +also “an honourable spy.” “The principal functions of an +envoy,” says Francois de Callières, himself an ex-ambassador of +Louis XIV., “are two; the first is to look after the affairs of his +own prince; the second is to discover the affairs of the other.” +A clever minister, he maintains, will know how to keep himself +informed of all that goes on in the mind of the sovereign, in the +councils of ministers or in the country; and for this end “good +cheer and the warming effect of wine” are excellent allies.<a name="fa14d" id="fa14d" href="#ft14d"><span class="sp">14</span></a> +This being so, it is hardly to be wondered at that foreign +ambassadors were commonly regarded as perhaps necessary, but +certainly very unwelcome, guests. The views of Philippe de +Commines have already been quoted above, and they were shared +by a long series of theoretical writers as well as by men of affairs. +Gentilis is all but alone in his protest against the view that all +ambassadors were <i>exploratores magis quam oratores</i>, and to be +treated as such. So early as 1481 the government of Venice had +decreed the penalty of banishment and a heavy fine for any one +who should talk of affairs of state with a foreign envoy, and +though the more civilized princes did not follow the example of +the sultan, who by way of precaution locked the ambassador of +Ferdinand II., Jerome Laski, into “a dark and stinking place +without windows,” they took the most minute precautions to +prevent the ambassadors of friendly powers from penetrating +into their secrets. Charles V. thought it safest to keep them as +far away as possible from his court. So did Francis I.; and, when +affairs were critical, he made his frequent changes of residence +and his hunting expeditions the excuse for escaping from +their presence. Henry VII. forbade his subjects to hold +any intercourse with them, and, later on, set spies upon them +and examined their correspondence—a practice by no means +confined to England. If the system of permanent embassies +survived, it is clear that this was mainly due to the belief of the +sovereigns that they gained more by maintaining “honourable +spies” at foreign courts than they lost by the presence of those +of foreign courts at their own. It was purely a question of the +balance of advantage. Neither among statesmen nor among +theorists was there any premonition of the great part to be +played by the permanent diplomatic body in the development +and maintenance of the concert of Europe. To Paschalius the +permanent embassies were “a miserable outgrowth of a miserable +age.”<a name="fa15d" id="fa15d" href="#ft15d"><span class="sp">15</span></a> Grotius himself condemned them as not only harmful, +but useless, the proof of the latter being that they were unknown +to antiquity.<a name="fa16d" id="fa16d" href="#ft16d"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Development of the Diplomatic Hierarchy.</i>—The history of +the diplomatic body<a name="fa17d" id="fa17d" href="#ft17d"><span class="sp">17</span></a> is, like that of other bodies, that of the +progressive differentiation of functions. The middle ages knew +no classification of diplomatic agents; the person sent on mission +is described indifferently as <i>legatus</i>, <i>orator</i>, <i>nuntius</i>, <i>ablegatus</i>, +<i>commissarius</i>, <i>procurator</i>, <i>mandatarius</i>, <i>agens</i> or <i>ambaxator</i> +(<i>ambassator,</i> &c.). In Gundissalvus, <i>De legato</i> (1485), the oldest +printed work on the subject, the word <i>ambasiator</i>, first found in +a Venetian decree of 1268, is applied to any diplomat. Florence +was the first to make distinction; the <i>orator</i> was appointed by +the council of the republic; the <i>mandatorio</i>, with inferior powers, +by the Council of Ten. In 1500 Machiavelli, who held only the +latter rank, wrote from France urging the Signoria to send +<i>ambasiadori</i>. This was, however, rather a question of powers +than of dignity. But the causes which ultimately led to the +elaborate differentiation of diplomatic ranks were rather questions +of dignity than of functions.<a name="fa18d" id="fa18d" href="#ft18d"><span class="sp">18</span></a> The breakdown of feudalism, +with the consequent rise of a series of sovereign states or of states +claiming to be sovereign, of very various size and importance, led +to a certain confusion in the ceremonial relation between them, +which had been unknown to the comparatively clearly defined +system of the middle ages. The smaller states were eager to +assert the dignity of their actual or practical independence; +the greater powers were equally bent on “keeping them in their +place.” If the emperor, as has been stated above, was too +exalted to send ambassadors, certain of the lesser states were soon +esteemed too humble to be represented at the courts of the great +powers save by agents of an inferior rank. By the second half +of the 16th century, then, there are two classes of diplomatists, +ambassadors and residents or agents, the latter being accounted +ambassadors of the second class.<a name="fa19d" id="fa19d" href="#ft19d"><span class="sp">19</span></a> At first the difference of rank +was determined by the status of the sovereign by whom or to +whom the diplomatic agent was accredited; but early in the 16th +century it became fairly common for powers of the first rank to +send agents of the second class to represent them at courts of +an equal status. The reasons were various, and not unamusing. +First and foremost came the question of expense. The ambassador, +as representing the person of his sovereign, was bound +by the sentiment of the age to display an exaggerated magnificence. +His journeys were like royal progresses, his state entries +surrounded with every circumstance of pomp, and it was held to +be his duty to advertise the munificence of his prince by boundless +largesses. Had this munificence been as unlimited in fact as +in theory, all might have been well, but, in that age of vaulting +ambitions, depleted exchequers were the rule rather than the +exception in Europe; the records are full of pitiful appeals from +ambassadors for arrears of pay, and appointment to an embassy +often meant ruin, even to a man of substance. To give but one +example, Sir Richard Morison, Edward VI.’s ambassador in +Germany, had to borrow money to pay his debts before he could +leave Augsburg (<i>Cal. State Pap. Edw. VI.</i>, No. 467), and later +on he writes from Hamburg (April 9, 1552) that he could buy +nothing, because everyone believed that he had packed up in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> +readiness to flit secretly, for “How must they buy things, where +men know their stuff is ready trussed up, and they fleeting every +day?” (ib. No. 544). But the dignity of ambassador carried +another drawback besides expense; his function of “honourable +spy” was seriously hampered by the trammels of his position. +He was unable to move freely in society, but lived a ceremonial +existence in the midst of a crowd of retainers, through whom alone +it was proper for him to communicate with the world outside. It +followed that, though the office of ambassador was more dignified, +that of agent was more generally useful.</p> + +<p>Yet a third cause, possibly the most immediately potent, +encouraged the growth of the lesser diplomatic ranks: the +question of precedence among powers theoretically equal. +Modern diplomacy has settled a difficulty which caused at one +time much heart-burning and even bloodshed by a simple appeal +to the alphabet. Great Britain feels no humiliation in signing +after France, if the reason be that her name begins with G; had +she not been Great, she would sign before. The vexed question of +the precedence of ambassadors, too, has been settled by the rule, +already referred to above, as to seniority of appointment. But +while the question remained unsettled it was obviously best to +evade it; and this was most easily done by sending an agent +of inferior rank to a court where the precedence claimed for an +ambassador would have been refused.</p> + +<p>Thus set in motion, the process of differentiation continues +until the system is stereotyped in the 19th century. It is unnecessary +to trace this evolution here in any detail. It is mainly +a question of names, and diplomatic titles are no exception to the +general rule by which all titles tend to become cheapened and +therefore, from time to time, need to be reinforced by fresh verbal +devices. The method was the familiar one of applying terms +that had once implied a particular quality in a fashion that +implied actually nothing. The ambassador extraordinary had +originally been one sent on an extraordinary mission; for the +time and purpose of this mission his authority superseded that +of the resident ambassador. But by the middle of the 17th +century the custom had grown up of calling all ambassadors +“extraordinary,” in order to place them on an equality with the +others. The same process was extended to diplomatists of the +second rank; and envoys (<i>envoyé</i> for <i>ablegatus</i>) were always +“extraordinary,” and as such claimed and received precedence +over mere “residents,” who in their day had asserted the same +claim against the agents—all three terms having at one time +been synonymous. Similarly a “minister plenipotentiary” had +originally meant an agent armed with full powers (<i>plein-pouvoir</i>); +but, by a like process, the combination came to mean as little as +“envoy extraordinary”—though a plenipotentiary <i>tout simple</i> is +still an agent, of no ceremonially defined dignity, despatched with +full powers to treat and conclude. Finally, the evolution of the +title of a diplomatist of the second rank is crowned by the high-sounding +combination, now almost exclusively used, of “envoy +extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary.” The ultimate fate +of the simple title “resident” was the same as that of “agent.” +Both had been freely sold by needy sovereigns to all and sundry +who were prepared to pay for what gave them a certain social +status. The “agent” fell thus into utter discredit, and those +“residents” who were still actual diplomatic agents became +“ministers resident” to distinguish them from the common herd.</p> + +<p>The classification of diplomatic agents was for the first time +definitively included in the general body of international law by +the <i>Règlement</i> of the 19th of March 1815 at Vienna<a name="fa20d" id="fa20d" href="#ft20d"><span class="sp">20</span></a>; and the +whole question was finally settled at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle +(November 21, 1818) when, the proposal to establish +precedence by the status of the accrediting powers having wisely +been rejected, diplomatic agents were divided into four classes: +(1) Ambassadors, legates, nuncios; (2) Envoys extraordinary +and ministers plenipotentiary, and other ministers accredited +direct to the sovereign; (3) Ministers resident; (4) Chargés +d’affaires. With a few exceptions (<i>e.g.</i> Turkey), this settlement +was accepted by all states, including the United States of +America.</p> + +<p><i>Rights and Privileges of Diplomatic Agents.</i>—These are partly +founded upon immemorial custom, partly the result of negotiations +embodied in international law. The most important, as it +is the most ancient, is the right of personal <i>inviolability</i> extended +to the diplomatic agent and the members of his suite. This +inviolability is maintained after a rupture between the two +governments concerned, and even after the outbreak of war. +The habit of the Ottoman government of imprisoning in the +Seven Towers the ambassador of a power with which it quarrelled +was but an exception which proved the rule. The second important +right is that of exterritoriality (<i>q.v.</i>), a convenient +fiction by which the house and equipages of the diplomatic agent +are regarded as the territory of the power by whom he is accredited. +This involves the further principle that the agent is in +no way subject to the receiving government. He is exempt from +taxation and from the payment at least of certain local rates. He +also enjoys immunity (1) from civil jurisdiction, <i>e.g.</i> he cannot be +sued, nor can his goods be seized, for debt; (2) from criminal +jurisdiction, <i>e.g.</i> he cannot be arrested and tried for a criminal +offence. For a crime of violence, however, or for plotting against +the state, he can be placed under the necessary restraint and +expelled the country.<a name="fa21d" id="fa21d" href="#ft21d"><span class="sp">21</span></a> These immunities extend to all the +members of an envoy’s suite. The difficulties that might be +supposed to arise from such exemptions have not in practice been +found very serious; for though, in the case of crimes committed +by servants of agents of the first or second class the procedure is +not clearly defined, each case would easily be made the subject +of arrangement. In certain cases, <i>e.g.</i> embassies in Turkey, the +exterritoriality of ambassadors implies a fairly extensive criminal +jurisdiction; in other cases the dismissal of the servant would +deprive him of his diplomatic immunity and bring him under +the law of the land. The right of granting asylum claimed by +diplomatic agents in virtue of that of exterritoriality, at one time +much abused, is now strictly limited. A political or criminal +offender may seek asylum in a foreign embassy; but if, after a +request has been formally made for his surrender, the ambassador +refuses to deliver him up, the authorities may take the measures +necessary to effect his arrest, and even force an entrance into the +embassy for the purpose. The “right of chapel” (<i>droit de +chapelle</i>, or <i>droit de culte</i>), enjoyed by envoys in reference to their +exterritoriality, <i>i.e.</i> the right of free exercise of religious worship +within their house, formerly of great importance, has been +rendered superfluous by the spread of religious toleration. (See +L. Oppenheim, <i>Internat. Law</i> (London, 1905) ,i. p. 441, &c.; +A.W. Haffter, <i>Das europäische Völkerrecht</i> (Berlin, 1888), p. +435, &c.)</p> + +<p><i>The Personnel of the “Corps diplomatique.”</i>—The establishment +of diplomacy as a regular branch of the civil service is of modern +growth, and even now by no means universal. From old time +states naturally chose as their agents those who would best +serve their interests in the matter in hand. In the middle ages +diplomacy was practically a monopoly of the clergy, who as a +class alone possessed the necessary qualifications: and in later +times, when learning had spread to the laity as well, there were +still potent reasons why the clergy should continue to be employed +as diplomatic agents. Of these reasons the most practical was +that of expense; for the wealth of the church formed an inexhaustible +reserve which was used without scruple for secular +purposes. Francis I. of France, who by the Concordat with Rome +had in his hands the patronage of all the sees and abbeys in +France, used this partly to reward his clerical ministers, partly as +a great secret service fund for bribing the ambassadors of other +powers, partly for the payment of those high-placed spies at +foreign courts maintained by the elaborately organized system +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span> +known as the <i>Secret du Roi</i>.<a name="fa22d" id="fa22d" href="#ft22d"><span class="sp">22</span></a> None the less, in the 16th century, +laymen as diplomats are already well in evidence. They are +usually lawyers, rarely soldiers, occasionally even simple +merchants. Not uncommonly they were foreigners, like the +Italian Thomas Spinelly mentioned above, drawn from that +cosmopolitan class of diplomats who were ready to serve any +master. Though nobles were often employed as ambassadors +by all the powers, Venice alone made nobility a condition of +diplomatic service. They were professional in the sense that, for +the most part, diplomacy was the main occupation of their lives; +there was, however, no graded diplomatic service in which, as at +present, it was possible to rise on a fixed system from the position +of simple <i>attaché</i> to that of minister and ambassador. The +“attaché to the embassy” existed<a name="fa23d" id="fa23d" href="#ft23d"><span class="sp">23</span></a>; but he was not, as is +now the case, a young diplomat learning his profession, but an +experienced man of affairs, often a foreigner employed by the +ambassador as adviser, secret service agent and general go-between, +and he was without diplomatic status.<a name="fa24d" id="fa24d" href="#ft24d"><span class="sp">24</span></a> The 18th +century saw the rise of the diplomatic service in the modern sense. +The elaboration of court ceremonial, for which Versailles had set +the fashion, made it desirable that diplomatic agents should +be courtiers, and young men of rank about the court began to be +attached to missions for the express purpose of teaching them the +art of diplomacy. Thus arose that aristocratic diplomatic class, +distinguished by the exquisite refinement of its manners, which +survived from the 18th century into the 19th. Modern democracy +has tended to break with this tradition, but it still widely prevails. +Even in Great Britain, where the rest of the public services have +been thrown open to all classes, a certain social position is still +demanded for candidates for the diplomatic service and the +foreign office, and in addition to passing a competitive examination, +they must be nominated by someone of recognized station +prepared to vouch for their social qualifications. In America, +where no regular diplomatic service exists, all diplomatic agents +are nominated by the president.</p> + +<p>The existence of an official diplomatic service, however, by no +means excludes the appointment of outsiders to diplomatic posts. +It is, in fact, one of the main grievances of the regular diplomatic +body that the great rewards of their profession, the embassies, +are so often assigned to politicians or others who have not passed +through the drudgery of the service. But though this practice +has, doubtless, sometimes been abused, it is impossible to +criticize the wisdom of its occasional application.</p> + +<p>A word may be added as to the part played by women in +diplomacy. So far as their unofficial influence upon it is concerned, +it would be impossible to exaggerate its importance; it +would suffice to mention three names taken at random from +the annals of the 19th century, Madame de Staël, Baroness +von Krüdener, and Princess Lieven. Gentz comments on the +“feminine intrigues” that darkened the counsels of the congresses +of Vienna and Aix-la-Chapelle, and from which the powers +so happily escaped in the bachelor seclusion of Troppau. Nor is +it to be supposed that statesmen will ever renounce a diplomatic +weapon so easy of disguise and so potent for use. A brilliant <i>salon</i> +presided over by a woman of charm may be a most valuable +centre of a political propaganda; and ladies are still widely +employed in the secret diplomacy of the powers. Their employment +as regularly accredited diplomatic agents, however, though +not unknown, has been extremely rare. An interesting instance +is the appointment of Catherine of Aragon, when princess of Wales, +as representative of her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, at the +court of Henry VII. (G. A. Bergenroth, <i>Calendar of State Papers + ... England and Spain—in the Archives at Simancas, &c.</i>, i. pp. +xxxiii, cxix).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>—Besides general works on international law (<i>q.v.</i>) +which necessarily deal with the subject of diplomacy, a vast mass +of treatises on diplomatic agents exists. The earliest printed work +is the <i>Tractatus de legato</i> (Rome, 1485) of Gundissalvus (Gonsalvo de +Villadiego), professor of law at Salamanca, auditor for Spain at the +Roman court of the Rota, and bishop of Oviedo; but the first really +systematic writer on the subject was Albericus Gentilis, <i>De legationibus +libri iii</i>. (London, 1583, 1585, Hanover, 1596, 1607, 1612). For a full +bibliography of works on ambassadors see Baron Diedrich H. L. von +Ompteda, <i>Litteratur des gesammten sowohl natürlichen als positiven +Völkerrechts</i> (Regensburg, 1785), p. 534, &c., which was completed and +continued by the Prussian minister Karl Albert von Kamptz, in +<i>Neue Literatur des Völkerrechts seit dem Jahre 1784</i> (Berlin, 1817), +p. 231. A list of writers, with critical and biographical remarks, is +also given in Ernest Nys’s “Les Commencements de la diplomatie et +le droit d’ambassade jusqu’à Grotius,” in the <i>Revue de droit international</i>, +vol. xvi. p. 167. Other useful modern works on the history +of diplomacy are: E. C. Grenville-Murray, <i>Embassies and Foreign +Courts, a History of Diplomacy</i> (2nd ed., 1856); J. Zeller, <i>La Diplomatie +française vers le milieu du XVI^e siècle</i> (Paris, 1881); A. O. +Meyer, <i>Die englische Diplomatie in Deutschland zur Zeit Eduards VI. +und Mariens</i> (Breslau, 1900); and, above all, Otto Krauske, <i>Die +Entwickelung der ständgien Diplomatie vom fünfzehnten Jahrhundert +bis zu den Beschlüssen von 1815 und 1818</i>, in Gustav Schmoller’s +<i>Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche Forschungen</i>, vol. v. (Leipzig, 1885). +To these may be added, as admirably illustrating in detail the early +developments of modern diplomacy, Logan Pearsall Smith’s <i>Life and +Letters of Sir Henry Wotton</i> (Oxford, 1907). Of works on modern +diplomacy the most important are the <i>Guide diplomatique</i> of Baron +Charles de Martens, new edition revised by F. H. Geffcken, 2 vols. +(Leipzig, 1866), and P. Pradier-Fodéré, <i>Cours de droit diplomatique</i>, +2 vols. (Paris, 1881).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> La Bruyère, <i>Caractères</i>, ii. 77 (ed. P. Jouast, Paris, 1881).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> To Wellesley, in Stapleton’s <i>Canning</i>, i. 374.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the motives of Metternich’s foreign policy see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span> : +<i>History</i> (iii. 332-333).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> <i>A History of Diplomacy in the International Development of +Europe</i>, by D. J. Hill (London and New York, 1905).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For this see Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, i. p. 498.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their +diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their trade +expansion in the Levant early brought them into close contact. For +Byzantine diplomacy see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Empire, Later</a></span> : <i>Diplomacy</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See Eugenio Albèri, <i>Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti al +senato</i>, 15 vols. (Florence, 1839-1863).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The <i>apocrisiarii</i> (<span class="grk" title="apokrisiarioi">ἀποκρισιάριοι</span>) or <i>responsales</i> should perhaps be +mentioned, though they certainly did not set the precedent for the +modern permanent missions. They were resident agents, practically +legates, of the popes at the court of Constantinople. They were +established by Pope Leo I., and continued until the Iconoclastic +controversy broke the intimate ties between East and West. See +Luxardo, <i>Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht der Päpste</i> (Innsbruck, +1878); also Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, i. 501.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> N. Bianchi, <i>Le Materie politiche relative all’ estero degli archivi di +stato piemontese</i> (Bologna, Modena, 1875), p. 29.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10d" id="ft10d" href="#fa10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Ib. Note 2, <i>teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft11d" id="ft11d" href="#fa11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The first ambassador of Venice to visit England was Zuanne da +Lezze, who came in 1319 to demand compensation for the plundering +of Venetian ships by English pirates.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12d" id="ft12d" href="#fa12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Germonius, <i>De legatis principum et populorum libri tres</i> (Rome, +1627), chap. vi. p. 164; Paschalius, <i>Legatus</i> (Rouen, 1598), p. 302. +Étienne Dolet, who had been secretary to Cardinal Jean du Bellay, +and was burned for atheism in 1546, in his <i>De officio legati</i> (1541) +advises ambassadors to surround themselves with taciturn servants, +to employ vigilant spies, and to set afoot all manner of fictions, +especially when negotiating with the court of Rome or with the +Italian princes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13d" id="ft13d" href="#fa13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See Pearsall Smith, <i>Sir Henry Wotton</i>, pp. 49, 126 et seq.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14d" id="ft14d" href="#fa14d"><span class="fn">14</span></a> François de Callières, <i>De la manière de négocier avec les souverains</i> +(Brussels, 1716). See also A. Sorel, <i>Recueil des instructions données +aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France</i> (Paris, 1884), <i>e.g.</i> vol. +<i>Autriche</i>, pp. 77, 88, 102, 112.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15d" id="ft15d" href="#fa15d"><span class="fn">15</span></a> “Nova res est, quod sciam, et infelicis hujus aetatis infelix +partus.... Hinc oriri securitatem universorum, hinc stabiliri pacem +gentium. Quae utinam tam vere dicerentur, quam speciose. Ego +quidem, ne quid dissimulem, ab istis seorsum sentio. Nimirum, +effoeta virtutis, foecunda fraudis haec saecula video peperisse +spissata haec imperia, sive summas potestates, unde, ut e vomitariis, +hae legationes undatim se fundunt.” Paschalius, <i>Legatus</i> (1598), +p. 447. So too Félix de la Mothe Le Vayer (1547-1625), in his +<i>Legatus</i> (Paris, 1579), says “Legatos tunc primum aut non multum +post institutos fuisse cum Pandora malorum omnium semina in hunc +mundum ... demisit.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft16d" id="ft16d" href="#fa16d"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>De jure belli et pacis</i> (Amsterdam, 1621), ii. c. 18, § 3, n. 2.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17d" id="ft17d" href="#fa17d"><span class="fn">17</span></a> The term <i>corps diplomatique</i> originated about the middle of the +18th century. “The Chancellor Furst,” says Ranke (xxx. 47, note), +“does not use it as yet in his report (1754) but he knows it,” and it +would appear that it had just been invented at Vienna. “Corps +diplomatique, nom qu’une dame donna un jour à ce corps nombreux +de ministres étrangers à Vienne.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft18d" id="ft18d" href="#fa18d"><span class="fn">18</span></a> So too Pradier-Fodéré, vol. i. p. 262.</p> + +<p><a name="ft19d" id="ft19d" href="#fa19d"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Thus Charles V. would not allow the representatives of the duke +of Mantua, Ferrara, &c., to style themselves “ambassadors,” on the +ground that this title could be borne only by the agents of kings and +of the republic of Venice, and not by those of states whose sovereignty +was impaired by any feudal relation to a superior power. (See +Krauske p. 155.)</p> + +<p><a name="ft20d" id="ft20d" href="#fa20d"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, i. 265.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21d" id="ft21d" href="#fa21d"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Gentilis, who had been consulted by the government in the case +of the Spanish ambassador, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, expelled +for intriguing against Queen Elizabeth, lays this down definitely. +An ambassador, he says, need not be received, and he may be expelled. +In actual practice a diplomatic agent who has made himself +objectionable is withdrawn by his government on the representations +of that to which he is accredited, and it is customary, before an +ambassador is despatched, to find out whether he is a <i>persona grata</i> +to the power to which he is accredited.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22d" id="ft22d" href="#fa22d"><span class="fn">22</span></a> See Zeller.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23d" id="ft23d" href="#fa23d"><span class="fn">23</span></a> A. O. Meyer, p. 22.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24d" id="ft24d" href="#fa24d"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See the amusing account of the methods of these agents in +Morysine to Cecil (January 23, 1551-1552), <i>Cal. State Pap. Edw. VI.</i>, +No. 530.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPLOMATIC,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> the science of diplomas, founded on the critical +study of the “diplomatic” sources of history: diplomas, +charters, acts, treaties, contracts, judicial records, rolls, chartularies, +registers, &c. The employment of the word “diploma,” +as a general term to designate an historical document, is of comparatively +recent date. The Roman diploma, so called because +it was formed of two sheets of metal which were shut together +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="diploun">διπλοῦν</span>, to double) like the leaves of a book, was the passport +or licence to travel by the public post; also, the certificate +of discharge, conferring privileges of citizenship and marriage +on soldiers who had served their time; and, later, any imperial +grant of privileges. The word was adopted, rather pedantically, +by the humanists of the Renaissance and applied by them to +important deeds and to acts of sovereign authority, to privileges +granted by kings and by great personages; and by degrees the +term became extended and embraced generally the documents of +the middle ages.</p> + +<p><i>History of the Study.</i>—The term “diplomatic,” the French +<i>diplomatique</i>, is a modern adaptation of the Latin phrase <i>res +diplomatica</i> employed in early works upon the subject, and more +especially in the first great text-book, the <i>De re diplomatica</i>, +issued in 1681 by the learned Benedictine, Dom Jean Mabillon, +of the abbey of St Germain-des-Prés. Mabillon’s treatise was +called forth by an earlier work of Daniel van Papenbroeck, the +editor of the <i>Acta Sanctorum</i> of the Bollandists, who, with no +great knowledge or experience of archives, undertook to criticize +the historical value of ancient records and monastic documents, +and raised wholesale suspicions as to their authenticity in his +<i>Propylaeum antiquarium circa veri ac falsi discrimen in vetustis +membranis</i>, which he printed in 1675. This was a rash challenge +to the Benedictines, and especially to the congregation of St Maur, +or confraternity of the Benedictine abbeys of France, whose +combined efforts produced great literary works which still remain +as monuments of profound learning. Mabillon was at that time +engaged in collecting material for a great history of his order. He +worked silently for six years before producing the work above +referred to. His refutation of Papenbroeck’s criticisms was +complete, and his rival himself accepted Mabillon’s system of +the study of diplomatic as the true one. The <i>De re diplomatica</i> +established the science on a secure basis; and it has been the +foundation of all subsequent works on the subject, although the +immediate result of its publication was a flood of controversial +writings between the Jesuits and the Benedictines, which, however, +did not affect its stability.</p> + +<p>In Spain, the Benedictine Perez published, in 1688, a series +of dissertations following the line of Mabillon’s work. In England, +Madox’s <i>Formulare Anglicanum</i>, with a dissertation concerning +ancient charters and instruments, appeared in 1702, and +in 1705 Hickes followed with his <i>Linguarum septentrionalium +thesaurus</i>, both accepting the principles laid down by the learned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span> +Benedictine. In Italy, Maffei appeared with his <i>Istoria diplomatica</i> +in 1727, and Muratori, in 1740, introduced dissertations +on diplomatic into his great work, the <i>Antiquitates Italicae</i>. In +Germany, the first diplomatic work of importance was that by +Bessel, entitled <i>Chronicon Gotwicense</i> and issued in 1732; and +this was followed closely by similar works of Baring, Eckhard +and Heumann.</p> + +<p>France, however, had been the cradle of the science, and that +country continued to be the home of its development. Mabillon +had not taken cognizance of documents later than the 13th +century. Arising out of a discussion relative to the origin of the +abbey of St Victor en Caux and the authenticity of its archives, +a more comprehensive work than Mabillon’s was compiled by +the two Benedictines, Dom Toustain and Dom Tassin, viz. the +<i>Nouveau Traité de diplomatique</i>, in six volumes, 1750-1765, +which embraced more than diplomatic proper and extended to +all branches of Latin palaeography. With great industry the +compilers gathered together a mass of details; but their arrangement +is faulty, and the text is broken up into such a multitude of +divisions and subdivisions that it is tediously minute. However, +its more extended scope has given the <i>Nouveau Traité</i> an advantage +over Mabillon’s work, and modern compilations have +drawn largely upon it.</p> + +<p>As a result of the Revolution, the archives of the middle ages +lost in France their juridical and legal value; but this rather +tended to enhance their historical importance. The taste for +historical literature revived. The Académie des Inscriptions +fostered it. In 1821 the École des Chartes was founded; and, +after a few years of incipient inactivity, it received a further +impetus, in 1829, by the issue of a royal ordinance re-establishing +it. Thenceforth it has been an active centre for the teaching +and for the encouragement of the study of diplomatic throughout +the country, and has produced results which other nations may +envy. Next to France, Germany and Austria are distinguished +as countries where activity has been displayed in the systematic +study of diplomatic archives, more or less with the support of the +state. In Italy, too, diplomatic science has not been neglected. +In England, after a long period of regrettable indifference to the +study of the national and municipal archives of the country, some +effort has been made in recent years to remove the reproach. The +publications of the Public Record Office and of the department of +MSS. in the British Museum are more numerous and are issued +more regularly than in former times; and an awakened interest +is manifested by the foundation in the universities of a few +lectureships in diplomatic and palaeography, and by the attention +which those subjects receive in such an institution as the London +School of Economics, and in the publications of private literary +societies. But such efforts can never show the systematic results +which are to be attained by a special institution of the character +of the French École des Chartes.</p> + +<p><i>Extent of the Science.</i>—The field covered by the study of +diplomatic is so extensive and the different kinds of documents +which it takes into its purview are so numerous and various, that +it is impossible to do more than give a few general indications +of their nature. No nation can have advanced far on the path +of civilization before discovering the necessity for documentary +evidence both in public and in private life. The laws, the +constitutions, the decrees of government, on the one hand, and +private contracts between man and man, on the other, must be +embodied in formal documents, in order to ensure permanent +record. In the case of a nation advancing independently from a +primitive to a later stage of civilization we should have to trace +the origin of its documentary records and examine their development +from a rudimentary condition. But in an inquiry into the +history of the documents of the middle ages in Europe we do +not begin with primitive forms. Those ages inherited the documentary +system which had been created and developed by the +Romans; and, imperfect and limited in number as are the +earliest surviving charters and diplomas of European medieval +history, they present themselves to us fully developed and cast in +the mould and employing the methods and formulae of the earlier +tradition. Based on this foundation the chanceries of the several +countries of Europe, as they came into existence and were +organized, reduced to method and rule on one general system the +various documents which the exigencies of public and of private +life from time to time called into existence, each individual +chancery at the same time following its own line of practice in +detail, and evolving and confirming particular formulas which +have become characteristic of it.</p> + +<p><i>Classification of Documents.</i>—If we classify these documents +under the two main heads of public and private deeds, we shall +have to place in the former category the legislative, administrative, +judicial, diplomatic documents emanating from public +authority in public form: laws, constitutions, ordinances, +privileges, grants and concessions, proclamations, decrees, +judicial records, pleas, treaties; in a word, every kind of deed +necessary for the orderly government of a civilized state. In +early times many of these were comprised under the general +term of “letters,” <i>litterae</i>, and to the large number of them +which were issued in open form and addressed to the community +the specific title of “letters patent,” <i>litterae patentes</i>, was given. +In contradistinction those public documents which were issued +in closed form under seal were known as “close letters,” <i>litterae +clausae</i>.</p> + +<p>Such public documents belong to the state archives of their +several countries, and are the monuments of administrative and +political and domestic history of a nation from one generation to +another. In no country has so perfect a series been preserved as +in our own. Into the Public Record Office in London have been +brought together all the collections of state archives which were +formerly stored in different official repositories of the kingdom. +Beginning with the great survey of Domesday, long series of +enrolments of state documents, in many instances extending +from the times of the Angevin kings to our own day in almost +unbroken sequence, besides thousands of separate deeds of all +descriptions, are therein preserved (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Record</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Under the category of private documents must be included, not +only the deeds of individuals, but also those of corporate bodies +representing private interests and standing in the position of +individual units in relation to the state, such as municipal bodies +and monastic foundations. The largest class of documents of +this character is composed of those numerous conveyances of real +property and other title deeds of many descriptions and dating +from early periods which are commonly described by the generic +name of “charters,” and which are to be found in thousands, not +only in such public repositories as the Public Record Office and +the British Museum, but also in the archives of municipal and +other corporate bodies throughout the country and in the +muniment-rooms of old families. There are also the records +of the manorial courts preserved in countless court-rolls and +registers; also the scattered muniments of the dissolved +monasteries represented by the many collections of charters +and the valuable chartularies, or registers of charters, which +have fortunately survived and exist both in public and in +private keeping.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed that in this enumeration of public and private +documents in England reference is made to rolls. The practice of +entering records on rolls has been in favour in England from a very +early date subsequent to the Norman Conquest; and while in +other countries the comprehensive term of “charters” (literally +“papers”: Gr. <span class="grk" title="chartês">χάρτης</span>) is employed as a general description of +documents of the middle ages, in England the fuller phrase +“charters and rolls” is required. The master of the rolls, +the <i>Magister Rotulorum</i>, is the official keeper of the public +records.</p> + +<p>From the great body of records, both public and private, many +fall easily and naturally into the class in which the text takes +a simpler narrative form; such as judicial records, laws, decrees, +proclamations, registers, &c., which tell their own story in +formulae and phraseology early developed and requiring little +change. These we may leave on one side. For fuller description +we select those deeds which, conferring grants and favours and +privileges, conform more nearly to the idea of the Roman diploma +and have received the special attention of the chanceries in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span> +development and arrangement of their formulae and in their +methods of execution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<p>All such medieval deeds are composed of certain recognized +members or sections, some essential, others special and peculiar to +the most elaborate and solemn documents. A deed of +the more elaborate character is made up of two principal +<span class="sidenote">Structure of medieval diplomas.</span> +divisions: 1. the <span class="sc">Text</span>, in which is set out the object of +the deed, the statement of the considerations and circumstances +which have led to it, and the declaration of the will +and intention of the person executing the deed, together with such +protecting clauses as the particular circumstances of the case may +require; 2. the <span class="sc">Protocol</span> (originally, the first sheet of a papyrus +roll; Gr. <span class="grk" title="prôtos">πρῶτος</span>, first, and <span class="grk" title="kollan">κολλᾶν</span>, to glue), consisting of the +introductory and of the concluding formulae: superscription, +address, salutation, &c., at the beginning, and date, formulae of +execution, &c., at the end, of the deed. The latter portion of the +protocol is sometimes styled the eschatocol (Gr. <span class="grk" title="eschatos">ἔσχατος</span>, last, +and <span class="grk" title="kollan">κολλᾶν</span>, to glue). While the text followed certain formulae which +had become fixed by common usage, the protocol was always special +and varied with the practices of the several chanceries, changing in +a sovereign chancery with each successive reign.</p> + +<p>The different sections of a full deed, taking them in order under +the heads of Initial Protocol, Text and Final Protocol or Eschatocol, +are as follows:—The initial protocol consists of the Invocation, the +Superscription, the Address and the Salutation. 1. The +<span class="sidenote">The Invocation.</span> +<span class="sc">Invocation</span>, lending a character of sanctity to the proceedings, +might be either verbal or symbolic. The verbal +invocation consisted usually of some pious ejaculation, such as <i>In +nomine Dei, In nomine domini nostri Jesu Christi</i>; from the 8th century, +<i>In nomine Sanctae et individuae Trinitatis</i>; and later, <i>In nomine +Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti</i>. The symbolic form was usually +the <i>chrismon</i>, or monogram composed of the Greek initials ΧΡ of the +name of Christ. In the course of the 10th and 11th centuries this +symbol came to be so scrawled that it had probably lost all meaning +with the scribes. From the 9th century the letter C (initial of +<i>Christus</i>) came gradually into use, and in German imperial diplomas +it superseded the <i>chrismon</i>. Stenographic signs of the system known +as Tironian notes were also sometimes added to this symbol down +to the end of the 10th century, expressing such a phrase as <i>Ante +omnia Christus</i>, or <i>Christus</i>, or <i>Amen</i>. From the Merovingian period, +too, a cross was often used. The symbol gradually died out after the +12th century for general use, surviving only in notarial instruments +<span class="sidenote">The Superscription.</span> +and wills. 2. The <span class="sc">Superscription</span> (<i>superscriptio, intitulatio</i>) +expressed the name and titles of the grantor or person +issuing the deed. 3. The <span class="sc">Address</span>. As diplomas were +originally in epistolary form the address was then a +necessity. While in Merovingian deeds the old pattern was adhered +<span class="sidenote">The Address.</span> +to, in the Carolingian period the address was sometimes +omitted. From the 8th century it was not considered necessary, +and a distinction arose in the case of royal acts, those +having the address being styled letters, and those omitting it, +charters. The general form of address ran in phrase as <i>Omnibus</i> +<span class="sidenote">The Salutation.</span> +(or <i>Universis</i>) <i>Christi fidelibus presentes litteras inspecturis</i>. +4. The <span class="sc">Salutation</span> was expressed in such words as +<i>Salutem</i>; <i>Salutem et dilectionem</i>; <i>Salutem et apostolicam +benedictionem</i>, but it was not essential.</p> + + + + + + +<p>Then follows the text in five sections: the Preamble, the Notification, +the Exposition, the Disposition and the Final Clauses. 5. The +<span class="sidenote">The Preamble.</span> +<span class="sc">Preamble</span> (<i>prologus</i>, <i>arenga</i>): an ornamental introduction +generally composed of pious or moral sentiments, a +<i>prefatio ad captandam benevolentiam</i> which <i>facit ad +ornamentum</i>, degenerating into tiresome platitudes. It became +stereotyped at an early age: in the 10th and 11th +<span class="sidenote">The Notification.</span> +centuries it was a most ornate performance; in the +12th century it was cut short; in the 13th century it +died out. 6. The <span class="sc">Notification</span> (<i>notificatio</i>, <i>promulgatio</i>) +was the publication of the purport of the deed introduced by +<span class="sidenote">The Exposition.<br />The Disposition.<br />The Final Clauses.</span> +such a phrase as <i>notum sit</i>, &c. 7. The <span class="sc">Exposition</span> +set out the motives influencing the issue of the deed. 8. The +<span class="sc">Disposition</span> described the object of the deed and the will +and intention of the grantor. 9. The <span class="sc">Final Clauses</span> ensured +the fulfilment of the terms of the deed; guarded +against infringement, by comminatory anathemas and imprecations, +not infrequently of a vehement description, or +by penalties; guaranteed the validity of the deed; enumerated the +formalities of subscription and execution; reserved rights, &c.</p> + +<p>Next comes the final protocol or eschatocol comprising: the Date, +the Appreciation, the Authentication. It was particularly in this +portion of the deed that the varying practices of the several +chanceries led to minute and intricate distinctions at +<span class="sidenote">The Date.</span> +different periods. 10. The <span class="sc">Date</span>. By the Roman law +every act must be dated by the day and the year of execution. +Yet in the middle ages, from the 9th to the 12th century, +a large proportion of deeds bears no date. In the most +ancient charters the date clause was frequently separated from +the body of the deed and placed in an isolated position +at the foot of the sheet. From the 12th century it commonly +followed the text immediately. Certain classes of documents, +such as decrees of councils, notarial deeds, &c., began with +the date. The usual formula was <i>data, datum, actum, factum, scriptum</i>. +In the Carolingian period a distinction grew up between +<i>datum</i> and <i>actum</i>, the former applying to the time, the latter +to the place, of date. In the papal chancery from an early period +down to the 12th century the use of a double date prevailed, the first +following the text and being inserted by the scribe when the deed +was written (<i>scriptum</i>), the second being added at the foot of the +deed on its execution (<i>actum</i>), by the chancellor or other high +functionary. From the Roman custom of dating by the consular +year arose the medieval practice of dating by the regnal year of +emperor, king or pope. Special dates were sometimes employed, +such as the year of some great historical event, battle, siege, pestilence, +&c. 11. The <span class="sc">Appreciation</span>. The <i>feliciter</i> of the +<span class="sidenote">The Appreciation.</span> +Romans became the medieval <i>feliciter in Domino</i>, or +<i>In Dei nomine feliciter</i>, or the more simple <i>Deo gratias</i> +or the still more simple <i>Amen</i>, for the auspicious closing of a deed. +In Merovingian and Carolingian diplomas it follows the date; in +other cases it closes the text. In the greater papal bulls it appears +in the form of a triple <i>Amen</i>. <i>Benevalete</i> was also employed as the +appreciation in early deeds; but in Merovingian diplomas and in +papal bulls this valedictory salutation becomes a mark of authentication, +as will be noticed below. 12. The <span class="sc">Authentication</span> was a +<span class="sidenote">The Authentication.</span> +solemn proceeding which was discharged by more than +one act. The most important was the subscription or +subscriptions of the person or persons from whom the deed +emanated. The laws of the late Roman empire required the +subscriptions and the impressions of the signet seals of the parties +and of the witnesses to the deed. The subscription (<i>subscriptio</i>) comprised +the name, signature and description of the person signing. +The impression of the signet (not the signature) was the <i>signum</i>, +sometimes <i>signaculum</i>, rarely <i>sigillum</i>. The practice of subscribing +with the autograph signature obtained in the early middle ages, as +appears from early documents such as those of Ravenna. But from +the 7th century it began to decline, and by the 12th century it had +practically ceased. In Roman deeds an illiterate person affixed his +mark, or <i>signum manuale</i>, which was attested. The cross being an +easy form for a mark, it was very commonly used and naturally +became connected with the Christian symbol. Hence, in course of +time, it came to be attached very generally to subscriptions, autograph +or otherwise. Great personages who were illiterate required +something more elaborate than a common mark. Hence arose the +use of the monogram, the <i>caracter nominis</i>, composed of the letters of +the name. The emperor Justin, who could not write, made use of +a monogram, as did also Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Those +Merovingian kings, likewise, who were illiterate, had their individual +monograms; and at length Charlemagne adopted the monogram as +his regular form of signature. From his reign down to that of Philip +the Fair the monogram was the recognized sign manual of the +sovereigns of France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Autographs</a></span>). It was employed by the +German emperors down to the reign of Maximilian I. The royal use +of the monogram was naturally imitated by great officers and +ecclesiastics. But another form of sign manual also arose out of +the subscription. The closing word (usually <i>subscripsi</i>), written or +abbreviated as <i>sub.</i>, or <i>ss.</i> or <i>s.</i>, was often finished off with flourishes +and interlacings, sometimes accompanied with Tironian notes, the +whole taking the shape of a domed structure to which the French +have given the name of <i>ruche</i> or bee-hive. Thus in the early middle +ages we have deeds authenticated by the subscription, usually +autograph, giving the name and titles of the person executing, and +stating the part taken by him in the deed, and closing with the +<i>subscripsi</i>, often in shape of the ruche and constituting the <i>signum +manuale</i>. If not autograph, the subscription might be impersonal +in such form as <i>signum</i> (or <i>signum manus</i>) + N. In the Carolingian +period, while phrases were constantly used in the body of the deed +implying that it was executed by autograph subscription, it did +not necessarily follow that such subscription was actually written in +person. The ruche was also adopted by chancellors, notaries and +scribes as their official mark. While autograph subscriptions +continued to be employed, chiefly by ecclesiastics, down to the beginning +of the 12th century, the monogram was perpetuated from the +10th century by the notaries. Their marks, simple at first, became +so elaborate from the end of the 13th century that they found it +necessary to add their names in ordinary writing, or also to employ +a less complicated design. This was the commencement of the +modern practice of writing the signature which first came into vogue +in the 14th century.</p> + +<p>To lend further weight and authority to the subscription, certain +symbols and forms were added at different periods. Imitating, +the corroborative <i>Legi</i> of the Byzantine quaestor and the <i>Legimus</i> +of the Eastern emperors, the Frankish chancery in the West made use +of the same form, notably in the reign of Charles the Bald, in some of +whose diplomas the <i>Legimus</i> appears written in larger letters in red. +The valedictory <i>Benevalete</i>, employed in early deeds as a form of +<span class="sidenote">The Benevalete.</span> +appreciation (see above), appears in Merovingian and in +early Carolingian royal diplomas, and also in papal bulls, +as an authenticating addition to the subscription. In the +diplomas it was written in cursive letters in two lines, <i>Bene valete</i>, +just to the right of the incision cut in the sheet to hold fast the seal, +which sometimes even covered part of the word. In the most ancient +papal bulls it was written by the pope himself at the foot of the deed. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span> +in two lines, generally in larger capital or uncial characters, placed +between two crosses. From the beginning of the 11th century it +became the fashion to link the letters; and, dating from the time of +Leo IX., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1048-1054, the <i>Benevalete</i> was inscribed in form of a +monogram. During Leo’s pontificate it was also accompanied with +a flourish called the <i>Komma</i>, which was only an exaggeration of the +mark of punctuation (<i>periodus</i>) which from the 9th to the 11th +century closed the subscription and generally resembled the modern +semicolon. Leo’s successors abandoned the <i>Komma</i>, but the monogrammatic +<i>Benevalete</i> continued, invariable in form, but from time +to time varying in size. In Leo IX.’s pontificate also was introduced +the <i>Rota</i>. This sign, when it had received its final shape in the +<span class="sidenote">The Rota.</span> +11th century, was in form of a wheel, composed of two +concentric circles, in the space between which was written +the motto or device of the pope (<i>signum papae</i>), usually a +short sentence from one of the Psalms or some other portion of +Scripture; preceded by a small cross, which the pontiff himself +sometimes inscribed. The central space within the wheel was +divided (by cross lines) into four quarters, the two upper ones being +occupied by the names of the apostles St Peter and St Paul, and the +two lower ones by the name of the pope. The <i>Rota</i> was placed on the +left of the subscription, the monogrammatic <i>Benevalete</i> on the right. +The two signs were likewise adopted by certain ecclesiastical +chanceries and by feudal lords, particularly in the 12th century. +From the same period also the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs +adopted the <i>Rota</i>, the <i>signo rodado</i>, which is so conspicuous in the +royal charters of the Peninsula.</p> + +<p>Besides the subscription, an early auxiliary method of authentication +was by the impression of the seal which, as noticed above, was +required by the Roman law. But the general use of +the signet gradually failed, and by the 7th century it +<span class="sidenote">Sealing.</span> +had ceased. Still it survived in the royal chanceries, and the +sovereigns both of the Merovingian and of the Carolingian lines had +their seals; and, in the 8th century, the mayors of the palace likewise. +It is interesting to find instances of the use of antique intaglios +for the purpose by some of them. In England too there is proof that +the Mercian kings Offa and Coenwulf used seals, in imitation of the +Frankish monarchs. In the 7th century, and still more so in the +8th and 9th centuries, the royal seals were of exaggerated size: the +precursors of the great seals of the later sovereigns of western Europe. +The waxen seals of the early diplomas were in all cases <i>en placard</i>: +that is, they were attached to the face of the document and not suspended +from it, being held in position by a cross-cut incision in the +material, through which the wax was pressed and then flattened at +the back. On the cessation of autograph signatures in subscriptions, +the general use of seals revived, beginning in the 10th century and +becoming the ordinary method of authentication from the 12th to +the 15th century inclusive. Even when signatures had once again +become universal, the seal continued to hold its place; and thus +sealing is, to the present day, required for the legal execution of a +deed. The attachment <i>en placard</i> was discontinued, as a general +practice, in the middle of the 11th century; and seals thenceforward +were, for the most part, suspended, leathern thongs being used at +first, and afterwards silken and hempen cords or parchment labels. +In documents of minor importance it was sometimes the custom to +impress the seal or seals on one or more strips of the parchment of the +deed itself, cut, but not entirely detached, from the lower margin, +and left to hang loose. Besides waxen impressions of seals, impressions +in metal, bearing a device on both faces, after the fashion +of a coin, and suspended, were employed from an early period. The +most widely known instances are the <i>bullae</i> attached to papal documents, +generally of lead. The earliest surviving papal <i>bulla</i> is one +of Pope Zacharias, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 746, but earlier examples are known from +drawings. The papal <i>bulla</i> was a disk of metal stamped on both sides. +From the time of Boniface V. to Leo IV., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 617-855, the name of +the pontiff, in the genitive case, was impressed on the obverse, and +his title as pope on the reverse, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Bonifati/ papae</i>. After that +period, for some time, the name was inscribed in a circle round a +central ornament. Other variations followed; but at length in the +pontificate of Paschal II., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1099, the <i>bulla</i> took the form which it +afterwards retained: on the obverse, the heads of the apostles +St Peter and St Paul; on the reverse, the pope’s name, title and +number in succession. In the period of time between his election +and consecration, the pope made use of the half-bull, that is, the +obverse only was impressed. It should be mentioned that, in order +to conform to modern conditions and for convenience of despatch +through the post, Leo XII., in 1878, substituted for the leaden <i>bulla</i> +a red ink stamp bearing the heads of the two apostles with the +name of the pope inscribed as a legend.</p> + +<p>The Carolingian monarchs also used metal <i>bullae</i>. None of +Charlemagne’s have survived, but there are still extant leaden examples +of Charles the Bald. The use of lead was not persisted in +either in the chancery of France or in that of Germany. Golden +<i>bullae</i> were employed on special occasions by both popes and temporal +monarchs; for example, they were attached to the confirmations of +the elections of the emperors in the 12th and 13th centuries; the +bull of Leo X. conferring the title of Defender of the Faith on +Henry VIII. in 1524, and the deed of alliance between Henry and +Francis I. in 1527, had golden <i>bullae</i>; and other examples could be +cited. But lead has always been the common metal to be thus +employed. In the southern countries of Europe, where the warmth +of the climate renders wax an undesirable material, leaden <i>bullae</i> +have been in ordinary use, not only in Italy but also in the Peninsula, +in southern France, and in the Latin East (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seals</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The necessity of conforming to exact phraseology in diplomas and +of observing regularity in expressing formulas naturally led to the +compilation of formularies. From the early middle ages +the art of composition, not only of charters but also of +<span class="sidenote">Formularies.</span> +general correspondence, was commonly taught in the +monasteries. The teacher was the <i>dictator</i>, his method of teaching +was described by the verb <i>dictare</i>, and his teaching was <i>dictamen</i> or +the <i>ars dictaminis</i>. For the use of these monastic schools, formularies +and manuals comprising formulas and models for the composition +of the various acts and documents soon became indispensable. At +a later stage such formularies developed into the models and treatises +for epistolary style which have had their imitations even in modern +times. The widespread use of the formularies had the advantage of +imposing a certain degree of uniformity on the phrasing of documents +of the western nations of Europe. Those compilations which are +of an earlier period than the 11th century have been systematically +examined and are published; those of more recent date still remain +to be thoroughly edited. The early formularies are of the simpler +kind, being collections of formulas without dissertation. The +<i>Formulae Marculfi</i>, compiled by the monk Marculf about the year +650, was the most important work of this nature of the Merovingian +period and became the official formulary of the time; and it continued +in use in a revised edition in the early Carolingian chancery. +Of the same period there are extant formularies compiled at various +centres, such as Angers, Tours, Bourges, Sens, Reichenau, St Gall, +Salzburg, Passau, Regensburg, Cordova, &c. (see Giry, <i>Manuel +de diplomatique</i>, pp. 482-488). The <i>Liber diurnus Romanorum +Pontificum</i> was compiled in the 7th and 8th centuries, and was employed +in the papal chancery to the end of the 11th century. Of the +more developed treatises and manuals of epistolary rhetoric which +succeeded, and which originated in Italy, the earliest example was +the <i>Breviarium de dictamine</i> of the monk Alberic of Monte Cassino, +compiled about the year 1075. Another well-known work, the +<i>Rationes dictandi</i>, is also attributed to the same author. Of later date +was the <i>Ars dictaminis</i> of Bernard of Chartres of the 12th <span class="correction" title="omitted a superfluous (">century</span>. +Among special works on formularies are: E. de Rozière, <i>Recueil +général des formules usitées dans l’empire des Francs</i> (3 vols., Paris, +1861-1871); K. Zeumer, <i>Formulae Merovingici et Karolini aevi</i> +(Hanover, 1886); and L. Rockinger, <i>Briefsteller und Formelbücher +des 11 bis. 14 Jahrhunderts</i> (Munich, 1863-1864).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Organization.</i>—The formalities observed by the different +chanceries of medieval Europe, which are to be learned from a +study of the documents issued by them, are so varied and often so +minute, that it is impossible to give a full account of them within +the limits of the present article. We can only state some of the +results of the investigations of students of diplomatic.</p> + +<p>The chancery which stands first and foremost is the papal +chancery. On account of its antiquity and of its steady development, +it has served as a model for the other chanceries +of Europe. Organized in remote times, it adopted for +<span class="sidenote">Papal Chancery.</span> +the structure of its letters a number of formulas and +rules which developed and became more and more fixed and +precise from century to century. The Apostolic court being +organized from the first on the model of the Roman imperial +court, the early pontiffs would naturally have collected their +archives, as the emperors had done, into <i>scrinia</i>. Pope Julius I., +<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 337-353, reorganized the papal archives under an official +<i>schola notariorum</i>, at the head of which was a <i>primicerius +notariorum</i>. Pope Damasus, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 366-384, built a record office +at the Lateran, <i>archivium sanctae Romanae ecclesiae</i>, where the +archives were kept and registers of them compiled. The collection +and orderly arrangement of the archives provided material +for the establishment of regular diplomatic usages, and the +science of formulae naturally followed.</p> + +<p>For the study of papal documents four periods have been +defined, each successive period being distinguished from its +predecessor by some particular development of forms and +procedure. The first period is reckoned from the earliest times to +the accession of Leo IX., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1048. For almost the whole of the +first eight centuries no original papal documents have survived. +But copies are found in canonical works and registers, many +of them false, and others probably not transcribed in full or in +the original words; but still of use, as showing the growth of +formulas. The earliest original document is a fragment of a letter +of Adrian I., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 788. From that date there is a series, but the +documents are rare to the beginning of the 11th century, all down +to that period being written on papyrus. The latest existing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span> +papyrus document in France is one of Sergius IV., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1011; in +Germany, one of Benedict VIII., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1022. The earliest document +on vellum is one of John XVIII., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1005. The nomenclature +of papal documents even at an early period is rather wide. +In their earliest form they are Letters, called in the documents +themselves, <i>litterae</i>, <i>epistola</i>, <i>pagina</i>, <i>scriptum</i>, sometimes <i>decretum</i>. +A classification, generally accepted, divides them into: 1. Letters +or Epistles: the ordinary acts of correspondence with persons +of all ranks and orders; including constitutions (a later term) or +decisions in matters of faith and discipline, and encyclicals giving +directions to bishops of the whole church or of individual +countries. 2. Decrees, being letters promulgated by the popes +of their own motion. 3. Decretals, decisions on points of +ecclesiastical administration or discipline. 4. Rescripts (called in +the originals <i>preceptum</i>, <i>auctoritas</i>, <i>privilegium</i>), granting requests +to petitioners. But writers differ in their terms, and such subdivisions +must be more or less arbitrary. The comprehensive term +“bull” (the name of the leaden papal seal, <i>bulla</i>, being transferred +to the document) did not come into use until the 13th century.</p> + +<p>Copies of papal deeds were collected into registers or <i>bullaria</i>. +Lists showing the chronological sequence of documents are +catalogues of acts. When into such lists indications from +narrative sources are introduced they become <i>regesta</i> (<i>res gestae</i>): +a term not to be confused with “register.”</p> + +<p>Clearness and conciseness have been recognized as attributes +of early papal letters; but even in those of the 4th century certain +rhythmical periods have been detected in their composition which +became more marked under Leo the Great, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 440-461, and +which developed into the <i>cursus</i> or prose rhythm of the pontifical +chancery of the 11th and 12th centuries.</p> + +<p>In the most ancient deeds the pope styles himself <i>Episcopus</i>, +sometimes <i>Episcopus Catholicae Ecclesiae</i>, or <i>Episcopus Romanae +Ecclesiae</i>, rarely <i>Papa</i>. Gregory I, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 590, was the first to +adopt the form <i>Episcopus, servus servorum Dei</i>, which became +general in the 9th century, and thenceforth was invariable.</p> + +<p>The second period of papal documents extends from Leo IX. to +the accession of Innocent III., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1048-1198. At the beginning +of the period formulae tended to take more definite shape and to +become fixed. In the superscription of bulls a distinction arose: +those which conferred lasting privileges employing the words <i>in +perpetuum</i> to close this clause; those whose benefaction was of +a transitory character using the form of salutation, <i>salutem et +apostolicam benedictionem</i>. But it was under Urban II., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> +1088-1099, that the principal formulae became stereotyped. +Then the distinction between documents of lasting, and those of +transitory, value became more exactly defined; the former class +being known as greater bulls, <i>bullae majores</i> (also called <i>privilegia</i>), +the latter lesser bulls, <i>bullae minores</i>. The leading characteristics +of the greater bulls were these: The first line containing the +superscription and closing with the words <i>in perpetuum</i> (or, sometimes, +<i>ad perpetuam</i>, or <i>aeternam</i>, <i>rei memoriam</i>) was written in +tall and slender ornamental letters, close packed; the final +clauses of the text develop with tendency to fixity; the pope’s +subscription is accompanied with the <i>rota</i> on the left and the +<i>benevalete</i> monogram on the right; and certain elaborate forms +of dating are punctiliously observed. The introduction of +subscriptions of cardinals as witnesses had gradually become a +practice. Under Victor II., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1055-1057, the practice became +more confirmed, and after the time of Innocent II., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1130-1145, +the subscriptions of the three orders were arranged according +to rank, those of the cardinal bishops being placed in the +centre under the papal subscription, those of the priests under the +<i>rota</i> on the left, and those of the deacons under the <i>benevalete</i> on +the right. In the lesser bulls simpler forms were employed; +there was no introductory line of stilted letters; the salutation, +<i>salutem et apostolicam benedictionem</i>, closed the superscription; +the final clauses were shortened; there was neither papal subscription, +nor <i>rota</i>, nor <i>benevalete</i>; the date was simple.</p> + +<p>From the time of Adrian I., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 772-795, the system of double +dating was followed in the larger bulls. The first date was written +by the scribe of the document, <i>scriptum per manum N.</i> with the +month (rarely the day of the month) and year of the indiction. +The second, the actual date of the execution of the deed, was +entered (ostensibly) by some high official,<i> data</i>, or <i>datum, per +manum N.</i>, and contained the day of the month (according to the +Roman calendar), the year of indiction, the year of pontificate +(in some early deeds, also the year of the empire and the post-consulate +year), and the year of the Incarnation, which, however, +was gradually introduced and only became more common in the +course of the 11th century. For example, a common form of a full +date would run thus: <i>Datum Laterani, per manum N., sanctae +Romanae ecclesiae diaconi cardinalis, xiiii. kl. Maii, indictione V., +anno dominicae Incarnationis mxcvii., pontificatus autem domini +papae Urbani secundi Xº</i>. The simpler form of the date of a +lesser bull might be: <i>Datum Laterani, iii. non. Jan., pontificatus +nostri anno iiii</i>.</p> + +<p>By degrees the use of the lesser bulls almost entirely superseded +that of the greater bulls, which became exceptional in the 13th +century and almost ceased after the migration to Avignon in 1309. +In modern times the greater bulls occasionally reappear for very +solemn acts, as <i>bullae consistoriales</i>, executed in the consistory.</p> + +<p>The third period of papal documents extends from Innocent III. +to Eugenius IV., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1198-1431. The pontificate of Innocent +III. was a most important epoch in the history of the development +of the papal chancery. Formulas became more exactly fixed, +definitions more precise, the observation of rules and precedents +more constant. The staff of the chancery was reorganized. The +existing series of registers of papal documents was then commenced. +The growing use of lesser bulls for the business of the +papal court led to a further development in the 13th century. +They were now divided into two classes: <i>Tituli</i> and <i>Mandamenta</i>. +The former conferred favours, promulgated precepts, judgments, +decisions, &c. The latter comprised ordinances, commissions, &c., +and were executive documents. There are certain features which +distinguish the two classes. In the <i>tituli</i>, the initial letter of the +pope’s name is ornamented with openwork and the other letters +are stilted. In the <i>mandamenta</i>, the initial is filled in solid and +the other letters are of the same size as the rest of the text. In +the <i>tituli</i>, enlarged letters mark the beginnings of the text and of +certain clauses; but not in the <i>mandamenta</i>. In the former the +mark of abbreviation is a looped sign; in the latter it is a +horizontal stroke. In the former the old practice of leaving a gap +between the letters s and t, and c and t, whenever they occur +together in a word (<i>e.g.</i> <i>is te</i>, <i>sanc tus</i>), and linking them by +a coupling stroke above the line is continued; in the latter it +disappears. The leaden bulla attached to a <i>titulus</i> (as a permanent +deed) is suspended by cords of red and yellow silks; while that of +a <i>mandamentum</i> (a temporary deed) hangs from a hempen cord.</p> + +<p>In the fourth period, extending from 1431 to the present time, +the <i>tituli</i> and <i>mandamenta</i> have continued to be the ordinary +documents in use; but certain other kinds have also arisen. +Briefs (<i>brevia</i>), or apostolic letters, concerning the personal affairs +of the pope or the administration of the temporal dominion, or +conceding indulgences, came into general use in the 13th century +in the pontificate of Eugenius IV. They are written in the italic +hand on thin white vellum; and the name of the pope with his +style as <i>papa</i> is written at the head of the sheet, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Eugenius +papa iiii</i>. They are closed and sealed with Seal of the Fisherman, +<i>sub anulo Piscatoris</i>. Briefs have almost superseded the +<i>mandamenta</i>. The documents known as Signatures of the court of +Rome or Latin letters, and used principally for the expedition of +indulgences, were first introduced in the 15th century. They were +drawn in the form of a petition to the pope, which he granted by +the words <i>fiat ut petatur</i> written across the top. They were not +sealed; and only the pontifical year appears in the date. Lastly, +the documents to which the name of <i>Motu proprio</i> is given are also +without seal and are used in the administration of the papal court, +the formula <i>placet et ita motu proprio mandamus</i> being signed by +the pope.</p> + +<p>The character of the handwriting employed by the papal +chancery is discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeography</a></span>. Here it will +be enough to state that the early style was derived from the +Lombardic hand, and that it continued in use down to the +beginning of the 12th century; but that, from the 10th century, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span> +owing to the general adoption of the Caroline minuscule writing, +it began to fall and gradually became so unfamiliar to the uninitiated, +that, while it still continued in use for papal bulls, it was +found necessary to accompany them with copies written in the +more intelligible Caroline script. The intricate, fanciful character, +known as the <i>Litera sancti Petri</i>, was invented in the time +of Clement VIII., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1592-1605, was fully developed under +Alexander VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of +the year 1878 by Leo XIII.</p> + +<p>Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as +ninety authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven +are originals, the earliest being of the year 625. The +most ancient examples were written on papyrus, vellum +<span class="sidenote">Merovingian chancery.</span> +superseding that material towards the end of the 7th +century. All these diplomas are technically letters, +having the superscription and address and, at the foot, close +to the seal, the valedictory <i>benevalete</i>. They commence with a +monogrammatic invocation, which, together with the superscription +and address written in fanciful elongated letters, occupies the +first line. The superscription always runs in the form, <i>N. +rex Francorum</i>. The most complete kinds of diplomas were +authenticated by the king’s subscription, that of the <i>referendarius</i> +(the official charged with the custody of the royal seal), the +impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of +prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was +usually autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too +illiterate to write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The +referendary, if he countersigned the royal subscription, added the +word <i>optulit</i> to his own signature; if he subscribed independently, +he wrote <i>recognovit et subscripsit</i>, the end of the last word being +usually lost in flourishes forming a <i>ruche</i>. The date gave the +place, day, month and year of the reign. The Merovingian royal +diplomas are of two classes: (1) Precepts, conferring gifts, +favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the documents +themselves as <i>praeceptum</i>, <i>praeceptio</i>, <i>auctoritas</i>; some drawn up +in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others less +precise and formal. (2) Judgments (<i>judicia</i>), which required no +preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign’s +judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and +were sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were +the <i>cartae de mundeburde</i>, taking persons under the royal protection, +and <i>indiculi</i> or letters transmitting orders or notifying +decisions; but no examples have survived.</p> + +<p>The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural, +but little from those of their predecessors. As mayors of the +palace, Charles Martel and Pippin took the style of +<i>vir inluster</i>. On becoming king, Pippin retained it; +<span class="sidenote">Carolingian chancery.</span> +<i>Pippinus, vir inluster, rex Francorum</i>, and it continued +to be part of the royal title till Charlemagne became +emperor. The royal subscription was in form of a sign-manual +or mark, but Charlemagne elaborated this into a monogram of +the letters of his name built up on a cross. In 775 the royal title +of Charlemagne became <i>Carolus, gratia Dei rex Francorum et +Langobardorum, ac patricius Romanorum</i>, the last words being +assumed on his visit to Rome in 774. On becoming emperor in +800, he was styled <i>Imperator, Romanum gubernans imperium, rex +Francorum et Langobardorum</i>. It is to be noticed that thenceforth +his name was spelt with initial K (as it was on the monogram), +having previously been written with C in the deeds. Most of his +diplomas were authenticated by the subscription of the chancellor +and impression of the seal. A novelty in the form of dating was +also introduced, two words, <i>datum</i> (for time) and <i>actum</i> (for +place), being now employed. The character of the writing of the +diplomas, founded on the Roman cursive hand, which had +become very intricate under the Merovingians, improved under +their successors, yet the reform which was introduced into the +literary script hardly affected the cursive writing of diplomatic +until the latter part of Charlemagne’s reign. The archaic style +was particularly maintained in judgments, which were issued +by the private chancery of the palace, a department more conservative +in its methods than the imperial chancery. It was in +the reign of Louis Debonair, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 814-840, that the Carolingian +diploma took its final shape. A variation now appears in the +monogram, that monarch’s sign-manual being built up, not on a +cross as previously, but on the letter H., the initial of his name +Hludovicus, and serving as the pattern for successive monarchs of +the name of Louis.</p> + +<p>In the Carolingian chancery the staff was exclusively ecclesiastical; +at its head was the chancellor, whose title is traced back +to the <i>cancellarius</i>, or petty officer under the Roman empire, +stationed at the bar or lattice (<i>cancelli</i>) of the basilica or other law +court and serving as usher. As keeper of the royal archives +his subscription was indispensable for royal acts. The diplomas +were drawn up by the notaries, an important body, upon whom +devolved the duty of maintaining the formulae and traditions of +the office. It has been observed that in the 9th century the +documents were drawn carefully, but that in the 10th century +there was a great degeneration in this respect. Under the early +Capetian kings there was great confusion and want of uniformity +in their diplomas; and it was not until the reign of Louis VI., +<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1108, that the formulae were again reduced to rules.</p> + +<p>The acts of the imperial chancery of Germany followed the +patterns of the Carolingian diplomas, with little variation down +to the reign of Frederick Barbarossa, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1152-1190. +The sovereign’s style was <i>N. divina favente clementia +rex</i>; +<span class="sidenote">Imperial German chancery.</span> +after coronation at Rome he became <i>imperator +augustus</i>. At the end of the 10th century, Otto III. +developed the latter title into <i>Romanorum imperator augustus</i>. +Under Henry III., and regularly from the time of Henry V., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> +1106-1125, the title before coronation has been <i>Romanorum rex</i>. +The royal monogram did not necessarily contain all the letters of +the name; but, on the other hand, from the year 976, it became +more complicated and combined the imperial title with the name. +For example, the monogram of Henry II. combines the words +<i>Henricus Romanorum imperator augustus</i>. The flourished <i>ruches</i> +also, as in the Frankish chanceries, were in vogue. Eventually +they were used by certain of the chancellors as a sign-manual and +took fanciful shapes, such as a building with a cupola, or even a +diptych. They disappear early in the 12th century, the period +when in other respects the chancery of the Holy Roman Empire +largely adopted a more simple style in its diplomas. Lists of +witnesses, in support of the royal and official subscriptions, were +sometimes added in the course of the 11th century, and they +appear regularly in documents a hundred years later.</p> + +<p>For the study of diplomatic in England, material exists in two +distinct series of documents, those of the Anglo-Saxon period, and +those subsequent to the Norman Conquest. The Anglo-Saxon +kings appear to have borrowed, partially, the +<span class="sidenote">Diplomatic in England.</span> +style of their diplomas from the chanceries of their +Frankish neighbours, introducing at the same time +modifications which give those documents a particular character +marking their nationality. In some of the earlier examples we +find that the lines of the foreign style are followed more or less +closely; but very soon a simpler model was adopted which, while +it varied in formulas from reign to reign, lasted in general construction +down to the time of the Norman Conquest. The royal +charters were usually drawn up in Latin, sometimes in Anglo-Saxon, +and began with a preamble or exordium (in some instances +preceded by an invocation headed with the chrismon or with a +cross), in the early times of a simple character, but, later, drawn +out not infrequently to great length in involved and bombastic +periods. Then immediately followed the disposing or granting +clause, often accompanied with a few words explaining the motive, +such as, for the good of the soul of the grantor; and the text was +closed with final clauses of varying extent, protecting the deed +against infringement, &c. In early examples the dating clause +gave the day and month (often according to the Roman calendar) +and the year of the indiction; but the year of the Incarnation was +also immediately adopted; and, later, the regnal year also. The +position of this clause in the charter was subject to variation. +The subscriptions of the king and of the personages witnessing +the deed, each preceded by a cross, but all written by the hand +of the scribe, usually closed the charter. A peculiarity was the +introduction, in many instances, either in the body of the charter, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span> +or in a separate paragraph at the end, of the boundaries of the +land granted, written in the native tongue. The sovereigns of +the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, as well as those of the +United Kingdom, usually styled themselves <i>rex</i>. But from the +time of Æthelstan, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 825-840, they also assumed fantastic +titles in the text of their charters, such as: <i>rex et primicerius</i>, <i>rex +et rector</i>, <i>gubernator et rector</i>, <i>monarchus</i>, and particularly the Greek +<i>basileus</i>, and <i>basileus industrius</i>. At the same time the name of +Albion was also frequently used for Britain.</p> + +<p>A large number of documents of the Anglo-Saxon period, dating +from the 7th century, has survived, both original and copies +entered in chartularies. Of distinct documents there are nearly +two hundred; but a large proportion of these must be set aside +as copies (both contemporary and later) or as spurious deeds.</p> + +<p>Although there is evidence, as above stated, of the use of seals +by certain of the Mercian kings, the method of authentication of +diplomas by seal impression was practically unknown to the +Anglo-Saxon sovereigns, save only to Edward the Confessor, who, +copying the custom which obtained upon the continent, adopted +the use of a great seal.</p> + +<p>With the Norman Conquest the old tradition of the Anglo-Saxons +disappeared. The Conqueror brought with him the +practice of the Roman chancery, which naturally followed the +Capetian model; and his diplomas of English origin differed only +from those of Normandy by the addition of his new style, <i>rex +Anglorum</i>, in the superscription. But even from the first there +was a tendency to simplicity in the new English chancery, not +improbably suggested by the brief formalities of Anglo-Saxon +charters, and, side by side with the more formal royal diplomas, +others of shorter form and less ceremony were issued, which by +the reign of Henry II. quite superseded the more solemn documents. +These simpler charters began with the royal superscription, +the address, and the salutation, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Willelmus, Dei gratia rex +Anglorum, N. episcopo et omnibus baronibus et fidelibus suis +Francis et Anglis salutem</i>. Then followed the notification and the +grant, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Sciatis me concessisse</i>, &c., generally without final +clauses, or, if any, brief clauses of protection and warranty; and, +at the end, the list of witnesses and the date. The regnal year +was usually cited; but the year of the Incarnation was also +sometimes given. The great seal was appended. To some of the +Conqueror’s charters his subscription and those of his queen and +sons are attached, written by the scribe, but accompanied with +crosses which may or may not be autograph. By the reign of +John the simpler form of royal charters had taken final shape, +and from this time the acts of the kings of England have been +classified under three heads: viz. (1) Charters, generally of the +pattern described above; (2) Letters patent, in which the address +is general, <i>Universis presentes litteras inspecturis</i>, &c.; the corroborative +clause describes the character of the document, <i>In +cujus rei testimonium has literas nostras fieri fecimus patentes</i>; the +king himself is his own witness, <i>Teste me ipso</i>; and the great seal +is appended; (3) Close letters, administrative documents conveying +orders, the king witnessing, <i>Teste me ipso</i>.</p> + +<p>The style of the English kings down to John was, with few +exceptions, <i>Rex Anglorum</i>; thenceforward, <i>Rex Angliae</i>. Henry +II. added the feudal titles, <i>dux Normannorum et Aquitanorum et +comes Andegavorum</i>, which Henry III. curtailed to <i>dux Aquitaniae</i>. +John added the title <i>dominus Hiberniae</i>; Edward III., on claiming +the crown of France, styled himself rex <i>Angliae et Franciae</i>, +the same title being borne by successive kings down to the year +1801; and Henry VIII., in 1521, assumed the title of <i>fidei +defensor</i>. The formula <i>Dei gratia</i> does not consistently accompany +the royal title until the reign of Henry II., who adopted it in 1173 +(see L. Delisle, <i>Mémoire sur la chronologie des chartes de Henri II.</i>, +in the <i>Bibl. de l’École des Chartes</i>, lxvii. 361-401).</p> + +<p>The forms adopted in the royal chanceries were naturally +imitated in the composition of private deeds which in all countries +form the mass of material for historical and diplomatic +research. The student of English diplomatic will soon +<span class="sidenote">Private deeds.</span> +remark how readily the private charters, especially +conveyances of real property, fall into classes, and how +stereotyped the phraseology and formulae of each class become, +only modified from time to time by particular acts of legislation. +The brevity of the early conveyances is maintained through +successive generations, with only moderate growth as time +progresses through the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries. The +different kinds of deeds which the requirements of society have +from time to time called into existence must be learned by the +student from the text-books. But a particular form of document +which was especially in favour in England should be mentioned. +This was the chirograph (Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheir">χείρ</span>, a hand, <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>, to write), +which is found even in the Anglo-Saxon period, and which got its +name from the word <i>chirographum</i>, <i>cirographum</i> or <i>cyrographum</i> +being written in large letters at the head of the deed. At first the +word was written, presumably, at the head of each of the two +authentic copies which the two parties to a transaction would +require. Then it became the habit to use the word thus written +as a tally, the two copies of the deed being written on one sheet, +head to head, with the word between them, which was then cut +through longitudinally in a straight, or more commonly waved or +indented (<i>in modum dentium</i>) line, each of the two copies thus +having half of the word at the head. Any other word, or a series +of letters, might thus be employed; and more than two copies +of a deed could thus be made to tally. The chirograph was the +precursor of the modern indenture, the commonest form of +English deeds, though no longer a tally. In other countries, the +notarial instrument has performed the functions which the +chirograph and indenture have discharged for us.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—General treatises, handbooks,, &c., are J. Mabillon, +<i>De re diplomatica</i> (1709); Tassin and Toustain, <i>Nouveau Traité de +diplomatique</i> (1750-1765); T. Madox, <i>Formulare Anglicanum</i> (1702); +G. Hickes, <i>Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus</i> (1703-1705); +F. S. Maffei, <i>Istoria diplomatica</i> (1727); G. Marini, <i>I Papiri diplomatici</i> +(1805); G. Bessel, <i>Chronicon Gotwicense (De diplomatibus +imperatorum ac regum Germaniae)</i> (1732); A. Fumagalli, <i>Delle +istituzioni diplomatiche</i> (1802); M. F. Kopp, <i>Palaeographia critica</i> +(1817-1829); K. T. G. Schönemann, <i>Versuch eines vollstandigen +Systems der Diplomatik</i> (1818); T. Sickel, <i>Lehre von den Urkunden +der ersten Karolinger</i> (1867); J. Ficker, <i>Beiträge zur Urkundenlehre</i> +(1877-1878); A. Gloria, <i>Compendio delle lezioni di paleografia e +diplomatica</i> (1870); C. Paoli, <i>Programma scolastico di paleografia +Latina e di diplomatica</i> (1888-1890); H. Bresslau, <i>Handbuch der +Urkundenlehre für Deutschland und Italien</i> (1889); A. Giry, <i>Manuel +de diplomatique</i> (1894); F. Leist, <i>Urkundenlehre</i> (1893); E. M. +Thompson, <i>Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography</i>, cap. xix. +(1906); J. M. Kemble, <i>Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici</i> (1839-1848); +W. G. Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i> (1885-1893); J. Muñoz +y Rivero, <i>Manuel de paleografia diplomatica Española</i> (1890); +M. Russi, <i>Paleografia e diplomatica de’ documenti delle provincie +Napolitane</i> (1883). Facsimiles are given in J. B. Silvestrestre <i>Paléographie +universelle</i> (English edition, 1850); and in the <i>Facsimiles</i>, +&c., published by the Palaeographical Society (1873-1894) and the +New Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.); and also in the following +works:—A. Champollion-Figeac, <i>Chartes et manuscrits sur papyrus</i> +(1840); J. A. Letronne, <i>Diplómes et chartes de l’époque mérovingienne</i> +(1845-1866); J. Tardif, <i>Archives de l’Empire: Facsimilé +de chartes et diplômes mérovingiens et carlovingiens</i> (1866); +G. H. Pettz, <i>Schrifttafeln zum Gebrauch bei diplomatischen +Vorlesungen</i> (1844-1869); H. von Sybel and T. Sickel, <i>Kaiserurkunden +in Abbildungen</i> (1880-1891); J. von Pflugk-Harttung, +<i>Specimina selecta chartarum Pontificum Romanorum</i> (1885-1887); +<i>Specimina palaeographica regestorum Romanorum pontificum</i> (1888); +<i>Recueil de fac-similés à l’usage de l’École des Chartes</i> (not published) +(1880, &c.); J. Muñoz y Rivero, <i>Chrestomathia palaeographica: +scripturae Hispanae veteris specimina</i> (1890); E. A. Bond, <i>Facsimiles +of Ancient Charters in the British Museum</i> (1873-1878): +W. B. Sanders, <i>Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts</i> (charters) +(1878-1884); G. F. Warner and H. J. Ellis, <i>Facsimiles of Royal and +other Charters in the British Museum</i> (1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. M. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPOENUS<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> and <span class="bold">SCYLLIS,</span> early Greek sculptors, who worked +together, and are said to have been pupils of Daedalus. Pliny +assigns to them the date 580 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and says that they worked at +Sicyon, which city from their time onwards became one of the +great schools of sculpture. They also made statues for Cleonae +and Argos. They worked in wood, ebony and ivory, and +apparently also in marble. It is curious that no inscription +bearing their names has come to light.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1673-1734), German theologian +and alchemist, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at the castle of +Frankenstein, near Darmstadt, on the 10th of August 1673. He +studied theology at Giessen. After a short visit to Wittenberg +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span> +he went to Strassburg, where he lectured on alchemy and chiromancy, +and occasionally preached. He gained considerable +popularity, but was obliged after a time to quit the city, owing to +his irregular manner of living. He had up to this time espoused +the cause of the orthodox as against the pietists; but in his two +first works, published under the name “Christianus Democritus,” +<i>Orthodoxia Orthodoxorum</i> (1697) and <i>Papismus vapulans Protestantium</i> +(1698), he assailed the fundamental positions of the +Lutheran theology. He held that religion consisted not in dogma +but exclusively in love and self-sacrifice. To avoid persecution +he was compelled to wander from place to place in Germany, +Holland, Denmark and Sweden. He took the degree of doctor +of medicine at Leiden in 1711. He discovered Prussian blue, +and by the destructive distillation of bones prepared the evil-smelling +product known as Dippel’s animal oil. He died near +Berleburg on the 25th of April 1734.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An enlarged edition of Dippel’s collected works was published at +Berleburg in 1743. See the biographies by J. C. G. Ackermann +(Leipzig, 1781), H. V. Hoffmann (Darmstadt, 1783), K. Henning +(1881) and W. Bender (Bonn, 1882); also a memoir by K. Bucher in +the <i>Historisches Taschenbuch</i> for 1858.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPSOMANIA<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dis">δίψα</span>, thirst, and <span class="grk" title="mania">μανία</span>, madness), +a term formerly applied to the attacks of delirium (<i>q.v.</i>) caused +by alcoholic poisoning. It is now sometimes loosely used as +equivalent to the condition of incurable inebriates, but strictly +should be confined to the pathological and insatiable desire for +alcohol, sometimes occurring in paroxysms.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPTERA<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="dis">δίς</span>, double, <span class="grk" title="ptera">πτερά</span>, wings), a term (first employed +in its modern sense by Linnaeus, <i>Fauna Suecica</i>, 1st +ed., 1746, p. 306) used in zoological classification for one of the +Orders into which the <i>Hexapoda</i>, or Insecta, are divided. The +relation of the Diptera (two-winged flies, or flies proper) to the +other Orders is dealt with under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The chief characteristic of the Diptera is expressed in the name +of the Order, since, with the exception of certain aberrant and +apterous forms, flies possess but a single pair of membranous +wings, which are attached to the meso-thorax. Wing-covers and +hind-wings are alike absent, and the latter are represented by a +pair of little knobbed organs, the halteres or balancers, which +have a controlling and directing function in flight. The other +structural characters of the Order may be briefly summarized +as:—mouth-parts adapted for piercing and sucking, or for +suction alone, and consisting of a proboscis formed of the labium, +and enclosing modifications of the other usual parts of the mouth, +some of which, however, may be wanting; a thorax fused into +a single mass; and legs with five-jointed tarsi. The wings, which +are not capable of being folded, are usually transparent, but +occasionally pigmented and adorned with coloured spots, +blotches or bands; the wing-membrane, though sometimes +clothed with minute hairs, seldom bears scales; the wing-veins, +which are of great importance in the classification of Diptera, +are usually few in number and chiefly longitudinal, there being +a marked paucity of cross-veins. In a large number of Diptera +an incision in the posterior margin of the wing, near the base, +marks off a small lobe, the posterior lobe or alula, while connected +with this but situated on the thorax itself there is a pair of +membranous scales, or squamae, which when present serve to +conceal the halteres. The antennae of Diptera, which are also +extremely important in classification, are thread-like in the more +primitive families, such as the <i>Tipulidae</i> (daddy-long-legs), where +they consist of a considerable number of joints, all of which +except the first two, and sometimes also the last two, are similar +in shape; in the more specialized families, such as the <i>Tabanidae</i> +(horse-flies), <i>Syrphidae</i> (hover-flies) or <i>Muscidae</i> (house-flies, +blue-bottles and their allies), the number of antennal joints is +greatly reduced by coalescence, so that the antennae appear to +consist of only three joints. In these forms, however, the third +joint is really a complex, which in many families bears in addition +a jointed bristle (arista) or style, representing the terminal joints +of the primitive antenna. Although in the case of the majority +of Diptera the body is more or less clothed with hair, the hairy +covering is usually so short that to the unaided eye the insects +appear almost bare; some forms, however, such as the bee-flies +(<i>Bombylius</i>) and certain robber-flies (<i>Asilidae</i>) are conspicuously +hairy. Bristles are usually present on the legs, and in the case of +many families on the body also; those on the head and thorax +are of great importance in classification.</p> + +<p>Between 40,000 and 50,000 species of Diptera are at present +known, but these are only a fraction of those actually in existence. +The species recognized as British number some 2700, but to this +total additions are constantly being made. As a rule flies are of +small or moderate size, and many, such as certain blood-sucking +midges of the genus <i>Ceratopogon</i>, are even minute; as extremes +of size may be mentioned a common British midge, <i>Ceratopogon +varius</i>, the female of which measures only 1¼ millimetre, and the +gigantic <i>Mydaidae</i> of Central and South America as well as certain +Australian robber-flies, which have a body 1¾ in. long, with a +wing-expanse of 3¼ in. In bodily form Diptera present two main +types, either, as in the case of the more primitive and generalized +families, they are gnat- or midge-like in shape, with slender +bodies and long, delicate legs, or else they exhibit a more or less +distinct resemblance to the common house-fly, having compact +and stoutly built bodies and legs of moderate length. Diptera +in general are not remarkable for brilliancy of coloration; as a +rule they are dull and inconspicuous in hue, the prevailing body-tints +being browns and greys; occasionally, however, more +especially in species (<i>Syrphidae</i>) that mimic Hymenoptera, the +body is conspicuously banded with yellow; a few are metallic, +such as the species of <i>Formosia</i>, found in the islands of the East +Indian Archipelago, which are among the most brilliant of all +insects. The sexes in Diptera are usually alike, though in a +number of families with short antennae the males are distinguished +by the fact that their eyes meet together (or nearly so) on the +forehead. Metamorphosis in Diptera is complete; the larvae are +utterly different from the perfect insects in appearance, and, +although varying greatly in outward form, are usually footless +grubs; those of the <i>Muscidae</i> are generally known as maggots. +The pupa either shows the appendages of the perfect insect, +though these are encased in a sheath and adherent to the body, +or else it is entirely concealed within the hardened and contracted +larval integument, which forms a barrel-shaped protecting +capsule or puparium.</p> + +<p>Diptera are divided into some sixty families, the exact classification +of which has not yet been finally settled. The majority +of authors, however, follow Brauer in dividing the order into +two sections, Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha, according to the +manner in which the pupa-case splits to admit of the escape of the +perfect insect. The general characteristics of the pupae in these +two sections have already been described.</p> + +<p>In the Orthorrhapha, in the pupae of which the appendages +of the perfect insect are usually visible, the pupa-case generally +splits in a straight line down the back near the cephalic end; in +front of this longitudinal cleft there may be a small transverse +one, the two together forming a T-shaped fissure. In the +Cyclorrhapha on the other hand, in which the actual pupa is +concealed within the hardened larval skin, the imago escapes +through a circular orifice formed by pushing off or through the +head end of the puparium. The Diptera Orthorrhapha include +the more primitive and less specialized families such as the +<i>Tipulidae</i> (daddy-long-legs), <i>Culicidae</i> (gnats or mosquitoes), +<i>Chironomidae</i> (midges), <i>Mycetophilidae</i> (fungus-midges), <i>Tabanidae</i> +(horse-flies), <i>Asilidae</i> (robber-flies), &c. The Diptera +Cyclorrhapha on the other hand consist of the most highly +specialized families, such as the <i>Syrphidae</i> (hover-flies), <i>Oestridae</i> +(bot and warble flies), and <i>Muscidae</i> (<i>sensu latiore</i>—the house-fly +and its allies, including tsetse-flies, flesh-flies, <i>Tachininae</i>, or flies +the larvae of which are internal parasites of caterpillars, &c). +It is customary to divide the Orthorrhapha into the two divisions +Nematocera and Brachycera, in the former of which the antennae +are elongate and in a more or less primitive condition, as described +above, while in the latter these organs are short, and, as already +explained, apparently composed of only three joints.</p> + +<p>Within the divisions named—Orthorrhapha Nematocera, +Orthorrhapha Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha—the constituent +families are usually grouped into a series of “superfamilies,” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span> +distinguished by features of structure or habit. Certain extremely +aberrant Diptera, which, in consequence of the adoption of a +parasitic mode of life, have undergone great structural modification, +are further remarkable for their peculiar mode of reproduction, +on account of which the families composing the group are +often termed Pupipara. In these forms the pregnant female, +instead of laying eggs, as Diptera usually do, or even producing +a number of minute living larvae, gives birth at one time but to +a single larva, which is retained within the oviduct of the mother +until adult, and assumes the pupal state immediately on extrusion. +The Pupipara are also termed Eproboscidea (although they +actually possess a well-developed and functional proboscis), and +by some dipterists the Eproboscidea are regarded as a suborder +and contrasted as such with the rest of the Diptera, which are +styled the suborder Proboscidea. By other writers Proboscidea +and Eproboscidea are treated as primary divisions of the +Cyclorrhapha. In reality, however, the families designated +Eproboscidea (<i>Hippoboscidae</i>, <i>Braulidae</i>, <i>Nycteribiidae</i> and +<i>Streblidae</i>), are not entitled to be considered as constituting either +a suborder, or even a main division of the Cyclorrhapha; they +are simply Cyclorrhapha much modified owing to parasitism, and +in view of the closely <span class="correction" title="amended from similiar">similar</span> mode of reproduction in the tsetse-flies +the special designation Pupipara should be abandoned. +Before leaving the subject of classification it may be noted in +passing that in 1906 Professor Lameere, of Brussels, proposed a +scheme for the classification of Diptera which as regards both the +limits of the families and their grouping into higher categories +differs considerably from that in current use.</p> + +<p>Little light on the relationship and evolution of the various +families of Diptera is afforded by fossil forms, since as a rule the +latter are readily referable to existing families. With the exception +of a few species from the Solenhofen lithographic Oolite, +fossil Diptera belong to the Tertiary Period, during which +the members of this order attained a high degree of development. +In amber, as proved by the deposits on the shores of the Baltic, +the proverbial “fly” is more numerous than any other creatures, +and with very few exceptions representatives of all the +existing families have been found. The famous Tertiary beds +at Florissant, Colorado, have yielded a considerable number +<span class="correction" title="amended from or">of</span> remarkably well-preserved <i>Tipulidae</i> (in which family are +included the most primitive of existing Diptera), as also species +belonging to other families, such as <i>Mycetophilidae</i> and even +<i>Oestridae</i>.</p> + +<p>Diptera as an order are probably more widely distributed over +the earth’s surface than are the representatives of any similar +division of the animal kingdom. Flies seem capable of adapting +themselves to extremes of cold equally as well as to those of heat, +and species belonging to the order are almost invariably included +in the collections brought back by members of Arctic expeditions. +Others are met with in the most isolated localities; thus the +Rev. A. E. Eaton discovered on the desolate shores of Kerguelen’s +Island apterous and semi-apterous Diptera (<i>Tipulidae</i> and +<i>Ephydridae</i>) of a degraded type adapted to the climatic peculiarities +of the locality. Many bird parasites belonging to the +<i>Hippoboscidae</i> have naturally been carried about the world by +their hosts, while other species, such as the house-fly, blow-fly and +drone-fly, have in like manner been disseminated by human +agency. Most families and a large proportion of genera are +represented throughout the world, but in some cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Glossina</i>—see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tsetse-Fly</a></span>) the distribution of a genus is limited to a +continent. As a rule the general <i>facies</i> as well as dimensions are +remarkably uniform throughout a family, so that tropical species +often differ little in appearance from those inhabiting temperate +regions. Many instances of exaggerated and apparently unnatural +structure nevertheless occur, as in the case of the genera +<i>Pangonia</i>, <i>Nemestrina</i>, <i>Achias</i>, <i>Diopsis</i> and the family <i>Celyphidae</i>, +and, as might be expected, it is chiefly in tropical species that +these peculiarities are found. To a geographical distribution of +the widest extent, Diptera add a range of habits of the most +diversified nature; they are both animal and vegetable feeders, +an enormous number of species acting, especially in the larval +state, as scavengers in consuming putrescent or decomposing +matter of both kinds. The phytophagous species are attached to +various parts of plants, dead or alive; and the carnivorous in like +manner feed on dead or living flesh, or its products, many larvae +being parasitic on living animals of various classes (in Australia +the larva of a species of <i>Muscidae</i> is even a parasite of frogs), +especially the caterpillars of Lepidoptera, which are destroyed in +great numbers by <i>Tachininae</i>. The recent discovery of a bloodsucking +maggot, which is found in native huts throughout the +greater part of tropical and subtropical Africa, and attacks the +inmates when asleep, is of great interest.</p> + +<p>It may confidently be asserted that, of insects which directly +or indirectly affect the welfare of man, Diptera form the vast +majority, and it is a moot point whether the good effected by +many species in the rapid clearing away of animal and vegetable +impurities, and in keeping other insect enemies in check, counterbalances +the evil and annoyance wrought by a large section of the +Order. The part played by certain blood-sucking Diptera in the +dissemination of disease is now well known (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mosquito</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tsetse-Fly</a></span>), and under the term <i>myiasis</i> medical literature +includes a lengthy recital of instances of the presence of Dipterous +larvae in various parts of the living human body, and the +injuries caused thereby. That Diptera of the type of the common +house-fly are often in large measure responsible for the spread +of such diseases as cholera and enteric fever is undeniable, and +as regards blood-sucking forms, in addition to those to which +reference has already been made, it is sufficient to mention the +vast army of pests constituted by the midges, sand-flies, horse-flies, +&c., from the attacks of which domestic animals suffer +equally with man, in addition to being frequently infested with +the larvae of the bot and warble flies (<i>Gastrophilus</i>, <i>Oestrus</i> and +<i>Hypoderma</i>). Lastly, as regards the phytophagous forms, there +can be no doubt that the destruction of grass-lands by “leather-jackets” +(the larvae of crane-flies, or daddy-long-legs,—<i>Tipula +oleracea</i> and <i>T. paludosa</i>), of divers fruits by <i>Ceratitis capitata</i> and +species of <i>Dacus</i>, and of wheat and other crops by the Hessian-fly +(<i>Mayetiola destructor</i>) and species of <i>Oscinis</i>, <i>Chlorops</i>, &c., is of +very serious consequence.</p> + +<p>With many writers it is customary to treat the fleas as a sub-order +of Diptera, under the title Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera. +Since, however, although undoubtedly allied to the Diptera, they +must have diverged from the ancestral stem at an early period, +before the existing forms of Diptera became so extremely +specialized, it seems better to regard the fleas as constituting +an independent order (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flea</a></span>).</p> +<div class="author">(E. E. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPTERAL<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Gr. for “double-winged”), the architectural term +applied to those temples which have a double range of columns in +the peristyle, as in the temple of Diana at Ephesus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIPTYCH<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="diptychos">διπτυχος</span>, two-folding), (1) A tablet made +with a hinge to open and shut, used in the Roman empire for +letters (especially love-letters), and official tokens of the commencement +of a consul’s, praetor’s or aedile’s term of office. The +latter variety of diptych was inscribed with the magistrate’s name +and bore his portrait, and was issued to his friends and the public +generally. They were made of boxwood or maple. More costly +examples were in cedar, ivory (<i>q.v.</i>), silver or sometimes gold. +They were often sent as New Year gifts.</p> + +<p>(2)In the primitive church when the worshippers brought their +own offerings of bread and wine, from which were taken the +Communion elements, the names of the contributors were +recorded on diptychs and read aloud. To these names were early +added those of deceased members of the community whom it was +desired to commemorate. This custom rapidly developed into +a kind of commemoration of saints and benefactors, living and +dead; especially, in each church, were the names of those who +had been its bishops recorded. The custom was maintained until +the lists became so long that it was impossible to read them +through, and the observance in this form had to be abandoned. +The insertion of a name on the diptych, thereby securing the +prayers of the church, was a privilege from which a person could +be excluded on account of suspicion of heresy or by the intrigues +of enemies. His name could, if written, be expunged under +similar circumstances. The names thus written were read from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span> +the ambo, in which the diptych was kept. The reading of these +names during the canon of the mass gave rise to the term <i>canonization</i>. +By various councils it was ordained that the name of the +pope should always be inserted in the diptych list.</p> + +<p>The addition of <i>dates</i> resulted from the custom of recording +baptisms and deaths; and thus the diptych developed into a +calendar and formed the germ of the elaborate system of +festologies, martyrologies and calendars which developed in +the church.</p> + +<p>The diptych went by various names in the early church—mystical +tablets, anniversary books, ecclesiastical matriculation +registers or books of the living. According to the names inscribed, +bishops, the dead or the living, a diptych might be a +<i>diptycha episcoporum</i>, <i>diptycha mortuorum</i> or <i>diptycha vivorum</i>.</p> + +<p>In course of time the list of the names swelled to such proportions +that the space afforded by the diptych was insufficient. A +third fold was consequently provided, and the tablet became a +<i>triptych</i> (though the name <i>diptych</i> was retained as a general term +for the object). Further room was afforded by the insertion of +leaves of parchment or wood between the folds. The custom of +reading names from the diptychs died out about the 8th century. +The diptychs, however, were retained as altar ornaments. From +the original consular documents onwards, the outsides of the +folds had always been richly ornamented, and when they ceased +to be of immediate practical use they became merely decorative. +Instead of the list of names the inside was ornamented +like the outer, and in the middle ages the best painters of the +day would often paint them. When folded, the portraits +of the donor and his wife might be shown; when open there +would be three paintings, one on each fold, of a religious +character.</p> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIR,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> an independent state in the North-West Frontier Province +of India, lying to the north-east of Swat. Its importance chiefly +arises from the fact that it commands the greater part of the route +between Chitral and the Peshawar frontier. The quarrels and +intrigues between the khan of Dir and Umra Khan of Jandol were +among the chief events that led up to the Chitral Campaign of +1895. During that expedition the khan made an agreement with +the British Government to keep the road to Chitral open in return +for a subsidy. Including the Bashkars, an aboriginal tribe allied +to the Torwals and Garhuis, who inhabit Panjkora Kohistan, the +population is estimated at about 100,000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIRCE,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> in Greek legend, daughter of Helios the sun-god, the +second wife of Lycus, king of Thebes. She sorely persecuted +Antiope, his first wife, who escaped to Mount Cithaeron, where +her twin sons Amphion and Zethus were being brought up by a +herdsman who was ignorant of their parentage. Having recognized +their mother, the sons avenged her by tying Dirce to the +horns of a wild bull, which dragged her about till she died. Her +body was cast into a spring near Thebes, which was ever afterwards +called by her name. Her punishment is the subject of the +famous group called “The Farnese Bull,” by Apollonius and +Tauriscus of Tralles, in the Naples museum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, +Plate I. fig. 51).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIRECT MOTION,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> in astronomy, the apparent motion of a body +of the solar system on the celestial sphere in the direction from +west to east; so called because this is the usual direction of +revolution and rotation of the heavenly bodies.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIRECTORS,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> in company law, the agents by whom a trading +or public company acts, the company itself being a legal abstraction +and unable to do anything. As joint-stock companies +have multiplied and their enterprise has extended, the position of +directors has become one of increasing influence and importance. +It is they who control the colossal funds now invested in trading +companies, and who direct their policy (for shareholders are +seldom more than dividend-drawers). Upon their uprightness, +vigilance and sound judgment depends the welfare of the greatest +part of the trade of the country concerned. It is not to be +wondered at that in view of this influence and independence of +action the law courts have held directors to a strict standard +of duty, and that the parliament of the United Kingdom has +singled out directors from other agents for special legislation in +the Directors Liability Act 1890, the Larceny Act 1861, the +Companies Act 1867 and the Winding-up Act 1890.</p> + +<p>The first directors of a company are generally appointed by the +articles of association. Their consent to act must now, under the +Companies Act 1908, be filed with the registrar of joint-stock companies. +Directors other than the first are elected at the annual +general meeting, a certain proportion of the acting directors—usually +one-third—retiring under the articles by rotation each +year, and their places being filled up by election. A share qualification +is nearly always required, on the well-recognized principle +that a substantial stake in the undertaking is the best guarantee +of fidelity to the company’s interests. A director once appointed +cannot be removed during his term of office by the shareholders, +unless there is a special provision for that purpose in the articles +of association; but a company may dismiss a director if the +articles—as is usually the case—authorize dismissal. The +authority and powers of directors are prima facie those necessary +for carrying on the ordinary business of the company, but it is +usual to define the more important of such powers in the articles +of association. For instance, it is commonly prescribed how and +when the directors may make calls, to what amount they may +borrow, how they may invest the funds of the company, in what +circumstances they may forfeit shares, or veto transfers, in what +manner they shall conduct their proceedings, and what shall +constitute a quorum of the board. Whenever, indeed, specific +directions are desirable they may properly be given by the articles. +But superadded to and supplementing these specific powers there +is usually inserted in the articles a general power of management +in terms similar to those of clause 55 of the model regulations for +a company, known as Table A (clause 71 of the revised Table). +The powers, whether general or specific, thus confided to directors +are in the nature of a trust, and the directors must exercise them +with a single eye to the benefit of the company. For instance, in +allotting shares they must consult the interests of the company, +not favour their friends. So in forfeiting shares they must not use +the power collusively for the purpose of relieving the shareholder +from liability. To do so is an abuse of the power and a fraud on +the other shareholders.</p> + +<p>It would give a very erroneous idea of the position and functions +of directors to speak of them—as is sometimes done—as trustees. +They are only trustees in the sense that every agent is. They are +“commercial men managing a trading concern for the benefit of +themselves and the other shareholders.” They have to carry on +the company’s business, to extend and consolidate it, and to do +this they must have a free hand and a large discretion to deal with +the exigencies of the <span class="correction" title="amended from commerical">commercial</span> situation. This large discretion +the law allows them so long as they keep within the limits set +by the company’s memorandum and articles. They are not to be +held liable for mere errors of judgment, still less for being defrauded. +That would make their position intolerable. All that +the law requires of them is that they should be faithful to their +duties as agents—“diligent and honest,” to use the words of Sir +George Jessel, formerly master of the rolls. Thus in the matter of +diligence it is a director’s duty to attend as far as possible all +meetings of the board; at the same time non-attendance, unless +gross, will not amount to negligence such as to render a director +liable for irregularities committed by his co-directors in his +absence. A director again must not sign cheques without informing +himself of the purpose for which they are given. A director, +on the same principle, must not delegate his duties to others unless +expressly authorized to do so, as where the company’s articles +empower the directors to appoint a committee. Directors may, +it is true, employ skilled persons, such as engineers, valuers or +accountants, to assist them, but they must still exercise their +judgment as business men on the materials before them. Then in +the matter of honesty, a director must not accept a present in cash +or shares or in any other form whatever from the company’s +vendor, because such a present is neither more nor less than a bribe +to betray the interests of the company, nor must he make any +profit in the matter of his agency without the knowledge and +consent of his principal, the company. He must not, in other +words, put himself in a position in which his duty to the company +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> +and his own interest conflict or even may conflict. This rule often +comes into play in the case of contracts between a company and a +director. There is nothing in itself invalid in such a contract, but +the onus is on the director if he would keep such a contract to +show that the company assented to his making a profit out of the +contract, and for that purpose he must show that he made full and +fair disclosure to the company of the nature and extent of his +interest under the contract. It is for this reason that when a +company’s vendor is also a director he does not join the board +until his co-directors have exercised an independent judgment on +the propriety of the purchase.</p> + +<p>A director must also bear in mind—what is a fundamental +principle of company management—that the funds of the +company are entrusted to the directors for the objects of the +company as defined by the company’s memorandum of association +and authorized by the general law, and that they must not be +diverted from those objects or applied to purposes which are outside +the objects of the company, <i>ultra vires</i>, as it is commonly +called, or outside the powers of management given by the shareholders +to the directors. This does not abridge the large discretion +allowed to directors in carrying on the business of the +company. The funds embarked in a trading company are +intended to be employed for the acquisition of gain, and risk, +greater or less according to circumstances, is necessarily incidental +to such employment; but it is quite another matter when +directors pay dividends out of capital, or return capital to the +shareholders, or spend money of the company in “rigging” the +market, or in buying the company’s shares or paying commission +for underwriting the shares of the company except where such +commission is authorized under acts of 1900 and 1907, incorporated +in the Companies Act 1908. Directors who in these or +any other ways misapply the funds of the company are guilty +of what is technically known as “misfeasance” or breach +of trust, and all who join in the misapplication are jointly and +severally liable to replace the sums so misapplied. The remedy of +the company for misfeasance, if the company is a going concern, +is by action against the delinquent directors; but where a +company is being wound up, the legislature has, under the +Winding-up Act 1890, provided a summary mode of proceeding, +by which the official receiver or liquidator, or any creditor or +contributory of the company, may take out what is known as a +misfeasance summons, to compel the delinquent director or officer +to repay the misapplied moneys or make compensation. The +departmental committee of the Board of Trade in its report (July +1906) recommended that the court should be given a discretionary +power, analogous to that it already possesses in the case of +trustees under the Judicial Trustees Act 1896, s. 3, to relieve a +director (or a promoter) in certain cases from liability. This +recommendation has been given effect to by s. 279 of the +Companies Act 1908, which provides that, “If in any proceeding +against a director of a company for negligence or breach of trust +it appears to a court that the director is or may be liable in respect +of the negligence or breach of trust, but has acted honestly and +reasonably and ought fairly to be excused for the negligence +or breach of trust, the court may relieve him either wholly or +partly from his liability on such terms as the court may think +proper.”</p> + +<p>Directors who circulate a prospectus containing statements +which they know to be false, with intent to induce any person +to become a shareholder, may be prosecuted under § 84 of the +Larceny Act 1861. They are also liable criminally for falsification +of the company’s books, and for this or any other criminal offence +the court in winding up may, on the application of the liquidator, +direct a prosecution. As to the liability of directors for statements +or omissions in a prospectus see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Company</a></span>.</p> + +<p>In managing the affairs of the company directors must meet +together and act as a body, for the company is entitled to their +collective wisdom in council assembled. Board meetings are held +at such intervals as the directors think expedient. Notice of the +meeting must be given to all directors who are within reach, but +the notice need not specify the particular business to be transacted. +The articles usually fix, or give the directors power to fix, +what number shall constitute a quorum for a board meeting. +They also empower the directors to elect a chairman of the board. +The directors exercise their powers by a resolution of the board +which is recorded in the directors’ minute-book.</p> + +<p>The court will not as a rule interfere with the discretion of +directors honestly exercised in the management of the affairs of +the company. The directors have prima facie the confidence of +the shareholders, and it is not for the court to say that such confidence +is misplaced. If the stockholders are dissatisfied with +the management the remedy is in their own hands—they can +call a meeting and elect a new board.</p> + +<p>A company’s articles usually provide for the payment of a +certain sum to each director for his services during the year. +When this is the case it is an authority to the directors to pay +themselves the amount of such remuneration. The remuneration, +unless otherwise expressly provided, covers all expenses incidental +to the directors’ duties. A director, for instance, cannot claim to +be paid in addition to his fixed remuneration his travelling +expenses for attending board meetings.</p> + +<p>When a company winds up, the directors’ powers of management +come to an end. Their agency is superseded in favour of +that of the liquidator.</p> +<div class="author">(E. Ma.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIRECTORY,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a term meaning literally that which guides or +directs, and so applied to a book or set of rules giving directions +for public worship. The <i>directorium</i> or <i>ordo</i> of the Roman Church +contains regulations as to the Mass and office to be used on each +day throughout the year, and the word is found in the <i>Directory +for the Publick Worship of God</i> drawn up in 1644 at the Westminster +Assembly. The term now usually signifies a book containing +the names, addresses and occupations, &c. of the inhabitants +of a town or district, or of a similar list of the users of a telephone +supply, or of the members of a particular profession or trade. +The name <i>Directoire</i> or Directory was given to the body which +held the executive power in France from October 1795 until +November 1799 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolution</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIRGE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a song or hymn of mourning, particularly one sung at +funerals or at a Service in commemoration of the dead. It is +derived from the first word of the antiphon <i>”Dirige, Domine, +Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam”</i> (Guide, O Lord, my +God, my way in Thy sight), of the opening psalm in the office for +the dead in the Roman Church. The antiphon is adapted from +verse 8 of Psalm v.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIRK,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a dagger, particularly the heavy dagger carried by the +Highlanders of Scotland. The dirk as worn in full Highland +costume is an elaborately ornamented weapon, with cairngorms +or other stones set in the head of the handle, which has no guard. +Inserted in the sheath there may be two small knives. The dirk, +in the shape of a straight blade, with a small guard, some 18 in. +long, is worn by midshipmen in the British navy. The origin of +the word is doubtful. The earlier forms were <i>dork</i> and <i>durk</i>, and +the spelling <i>dirk</i>, adopted by Johnson, represents the pronunciation +of the second form. The name seems to have been early +applied to the daggers of the Highlanders, but the Gaelic word is +<i>biodag</i>, and the Irish <i>duirc</i>, often stated to be the origin, is only an +adaptation of the English word. It may be a corruption of the +German <i>Dolch</i>, a dagger. The suggestion that it is an application +of the Christian name “Dirk,” the short form of “Dieterich,” is +not borne out, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, by any +use of this name for a dagger, and is further disproved by the +earlier English spelling.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIRSCHAU,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, +province of West Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 20 m. S. +from Danzig and at the junction of the important lines of railway +Berlin-Königsberg and Danzig-Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 14,185. +It has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several +schools. The river is here crossed by two fine iron bridges. The +older structure dating from the year 1857, originally used for the +railway, is now given up to road traffic, and the railway carried +by a new bridge completed in 1891. Dirschau has railway workshops +and manufactories of sugar, agricultural implements and +cement. During the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus made +it his headquarters for many months after its capture in 1626.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISABILITY,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a term meaning, in general, want of ability, and +used in law to denote an incapacity in certain persons or classes of +persons for the full enjoyment of duties or privileges, which, but +for their disqualification, would be open to them; hence, legal +disqualification. Thus, married women, persons under age, +insane persons, convicted felons are under disability to do certain +legal acts. This disability may be absolute, wholly disabling the +person so long as it continues, or partial, ceasing on discontinuation +of the disabling state, as attainment of full age.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISCHARGE<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (adapted from the O. Fr. <i>descharge</i>, modern +<i>décharge</i>, from a med. Lat. <i>discargare</i>, to unload, <i>dis-</i> and <i>carricare</i>, +to load, cf. “charge”), a word meaning relief from a load or +burden, hence applied to the unloading of a ship, the firing of +a weapon, the passage of electricity from an electrified body, +the issue from a wound, &c. From the sense of relief from an +obligation, “discharge” is also applied to the release of a soldier +or sailor from military or naval service, or of the crew of a +merchant vessel, or to the dismissal from an office or situation. +In law, it is used of a document or other evidence that can be +accepted as proof of the release from an obligation, as of a receipt, +on payment of money due. Similarly it is applied to the release +in accordance with law of a person in custody on a criminal +charge, and to the legal release of a bankrupt from further +liability for debts provable in the bankruptcy except those +incurred by fraud or debts to the crown. It is also applied to the +reversal of an order of a court. In the case of divorce, where the +rule <i>nisi</i> is not made absolute, the rule is said to be discharged.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISCHARGING ARCH,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> in architecture, an arch built over a +lintel or architrave to take off the superincumbent weight. The +earliest example is found in the Great Pyramid, over the lintels of +the entrance passage to the tomb: it consisted of two stones only, +resting one against the other. The same object was attained in +the Lion Gate and the tomb of Agamemnon, both in Mycenae, and +in other examples in Greece, where the stones laid in horizontal +courses, one projecting over the other, left a triangular hollow +space above the lintel of the door, which was subsequently filled +in by vertical sculptured stone panels. The Romans frequently +employed the discharging arch, and inside the portico of the +Pantheon the architraves have such arches over them. In +the Golden Gateway of the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the +discharging arches, semicircular in form, were adopted as architectural +features and decorated with mouldings. The same is +found in the synagogues in Palestine of the 2nd century; and +later, in Byzantine architecture, these moulded archivolts above +an architrave constitute one of the characteristics of the style. +In the early Christian churches in Rome, where a colonnade +divided off the nave and aisles, discharging arches are turned in +the frieze just above the architraves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISCIPLE,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> properly a pupil, scholar (Lat. <i>discipulus</i>, from +<i>discere</i>, to learn, and root seen in <i>pupillus</i>), but chiefly used of +the personal followers of Jesus Christ, including the inner circle +of the Apostles (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISCIPLES OF CHRIST,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Christians</span>, an American Protestant +denomination, founded by Thomas Campbell, his son +Alexander Campbell (<i>q.v.</i>) and Barton Warren Stone (1772-1844). +Stone had been a Presbyterian minister prominent in the +Kentucky revival of 1801, but had been turned against sectarianism +and ecclesiastical authority because the synod had condemned +Richard McNemar, one of his colleagues in the revival, for +preaching (as Stone himself had done) counter to the Westminster +Confession, on faith and the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion. +He had organized the Springfield Presbytery, but in 1804 with his +five fellow ministers signed “The Last Will and Testament of the +Springfield Presbytery,” giving up that name and calling themselves +“Christians.” Like Stone, Alexander Campbell had +adopted (in 1812) immersion, and, like him, his two great desires +were for Christian unity and the restoration of the ancient order +of things. But the Campbellite doctrines differed widely from the +hyper-Calvinism of the Baptists whom they had joined in 1813, +especially on the points on which Stone had quarrelled with +the Presbyterians; and after various local breaks in 1825-1830, +when there were large additions to the Restorationists from +the Baptist ranks, especially under the apostolic fervour and +simplicity of the preaching of Walter Scott (1796-1861), in 1832 +the Reformers were practically all ruled out of the Baptist communion. +The Campbells gradually lost sight of Christian unity, +owing to the unfortunate experience with the Baptists and to the +tone taken by those clergymen who had met them in debates; +and for the sake of Christian union it was peculiarly fortunate +that in January 1832 at Lexington, Kentucky, the followers of +the Campbells and those of Stone (who had stressed union more +than primitive Christianity) united. Campbell objected to the +name “Christians” as sectarianized by Stone, but “Disciples” +never drove out of use the name “Christians.”</p> + +<p>During the Civil War the denomination escaped an actual +scission by following the neutral views of Campbell, who opposed +slavery, war and abolition. In 1849 the American Christian +Missionary Society was formed; it was immediately attacked as a +“human innovation,” unwarranted by the New Testament, by +literalists led in later years by Benjamin Franklin (secretary of the +missionary society in 1857), who opposed all church music also. +Isaac Errett (1820-1888) was the most prominent leader of the +progressive party, which was considered corrupt and worldly +by the literalists, many of whom, in spite of his efforts, broke off +from the main body, especially in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, +Arkansas and Texas.</p> + +<p>The main body appointed in 1890 a standing committee on +Christian union; their aim in this respect is not for absorption, +as was clearly shown by their answer in 1887 to overtures from +the Protestant Episcopal Church regarding Christian unity. The +credal position of the Disciples is simple: great stress is put upon +the phrase “the Christ, the Son of the living God,” and upon the +recognition by Jesus of this confession as the foundation of His +church; as to baptism, agreement with Baptists is only as to the +mode, immersion; this is considered “the primitive confession +of Christ and a gracious token of salvation,” and as being “for +the remission of sins”; the Disciples generally deny the authority +over Christians of the Old Covenant, and Alexander Campbell in +particular held this view so forcibly that he was accused by +Baptists of “throwing away the Old Testament.” The Lord’s +Supper is celebrated every Sunday, the bread being broken by +the communicants. The Disciples are not Unitarian in fact or +tendency, but they urge the use of simple New Testament +phraseology as to the Godhead. Their church government is +congregational.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The growth of the denomination has been greatest in the states +along the Ohio river, whence they have spread throughout the Union. +In 1908 there were 6673 ministers and 1,285,123 communicants in the +United States. There are churches in Canada, in Great Britain and +in Australia. Bethany College, at Bethany, West Virginia, was +chartered in 1840, and Alexander Campbell, who had founded it as +Buffalo Seminary, was its president until his death in 1866; other +colleges founded by the sect are: Kentucky University, Lexington, +Ky.; Hiram College, Hiram, Ohio (1850, until 1867 known as +Western Reserve Eclectic Institute); Butler College, Indianapolis, +Indiana (1855); Christian University, Canton, Missouri (1851; +coeducational); Eureka College, in Woodford county, Illinois (1855; +coeducational); Union Christian College, Merom, Ind. (1859); +Texas Christian University, Waco, Texas (1873, founded as Add +Ran College at Thorpe’s Springs, removing to Waco in 1895); Drake +University, Des Moines, Iowa (1881); Milligan College, Milligan, +Tennessee (1882); Defiance College, Defiance, O. (1885); Cotner +University, Lincoln, Nebraska (1889); Elon College, Elon, North +Carolina (1890); American University, Harriman, Tenn. (1893); +the Virginia Christian College, Lynchburg, Virginia (1903), and for +negroes, the Southern Christian Institute, Edwards, Mississippi +(1877), and the Christian Bible College, Newcastle, Henry County, +Ky. Theological seminaries are the Berkeley Bible Seminary, +Berkeley, California (1896); the Disciples’ Divinity House, Chicago, +Ill. (1894); and the Eugene Divinity School, Eugene, Oregon +(1895). “Bible chairs” were established in state universities and +elsewhere by the Disciples,—at the University of Michigan (1893), +at the University of Virginia (1899), at the University of Calcutta +(1900) and at the University of Kansas (1901). The denomination has +publishing houses in Cincinnati, St Louis, Louisville and Nashville.</p> + +<p>See Errett Gates’s <i>History of the Disciples of Christ</i> (New +York, 1905), in “The Story of the Churches” series, and his <i>Early +Relation and Separation of Baptists and Disciples</i> (Chicago, 1904), +a University of Chicago doctoral thesis; and B. B. Tyler’s <i>History +of the Disciples of Christ</i> in vol. xii. of “The American Church +History Series” (New York, 1894).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISCLAIMER,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a renunciation, denial or refusal; a disavowal +of claims. In law the term is used more particularly in the +following senses:—(1) In the law of landlord and tenant, the direct +repudiation of that relation by some act on the part of the tenant. +A disclaimer may be verbal or written, but in such case it must be +something more than a mere renunciation of the tenant’s title, or +it may be an act which is wholly inconsistent with the existence of +such relation, as the setting up by the tenant of a distinct title +either in himself or some third party. (2) In the law of bankruptcy, +where any part of the property of a bankrupt consists of +land of any tenure burdened with onerous covenants, of stocks or +shares in companies, of unprofitable contracts, or of any property +that is unsaleable, or not readily saleable, by reason of its binding +the possessor to the performance of any onerous act, the trustee, +notwithstanding that he has endeavoured to sell or has taken +possession of the property, or exercised any act of ownership in +relation to it, may, subject to certain provisions, by writing signed +by him, at any time within twelve months after the first appointment +of a trustee, “disclaim” the property (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>). +(3) In the law of trusts, disclaimer is the refusal or renunciation of +the office or duties of a trustee. It is an undisputed rule that no +one is compellable to undertake a trust, so that as soon as a person +knows he has been appointed a trustee under some instrument, he +should determine whether he will accept the office or not. Disclaimer +of trust should be by deed, as admitting of no ambiguity, +but it may be by conveyance to other accepting trustees, or orally, +or by written declaration, or even by conduct. (4) In the law of +patents, disclaimer is the renunciation, by amendment of specifications, +of the portion of an inventor’s claim to protection.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISCOUNT.<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1) A money-market term for the price paid in +order to obtain immediate realization of a bill not yet due. If a +bill for £100 due six months hence is discounted at the rate of +3% per annum, its holder will obtain £98, 10s. in cash for it. +(2) A Stock-Exchange term applied to a security, not fully paid, +which has fallen below its issue price, and so is said to stand at so +much discount. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Premium</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISCOVERY,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> in law, the revealing or disclosing of any matter. +The English common law courts were originally unable to compel +a litigant before a trial to disclose the facts and documents on +which he relied. In equity, however, a different rule prevailed, +there being an absolute right to discovery of all material facts on +which a case was founded. Now the practice is regulated by the +Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Order 31. Discovery is of two +kinds, namely, by interrogatories and by affidavit of documents, +provision being also made for the production and inspection of +documents. Where a party to a suit can make an affidavit +stating that in his belief certain specified documents are or have +been in the possession of some other party, the court may make an +order that such party state on affidavit whether he has or ever had +any of those documents in his possession, or if he has parted with +them or what has become of them. A further application may +then be made by notice to the party who has admitted possession +of the documents for production and inspection. Copies also may +be taken of the more important documents. There is also discovery +of facts obtained by means of interrogatories, <i>i.e.</i> written +questions addressed on behalf of one party, before trial, to the +other party, who is bound to answer them in writing upon oath. +In order to prevent needless expense the party seeking discovery +must first secure the cost of it by paying into court a sum of +money, generally not less than five pounds. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Evidence</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISCUS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="diskos">δίσκος</span>, disk), a circular plate of stone, later of +metal, which was used by the ancient Greeks for throwing to a +distance as a gymnastic exercise. Judging from specimens found +by excavators, the ancient discus was about 8 or 9 in. in diameter +and weighed from 4 to 5 ℔, although one of bronze, preserved +in the British Museum, weighs over 8 ℔. Sometimes a kind of +quoit, spherical in form, was used, through a hole in which a thong +was passed to assist the athlete in throwing it. The sport of +throwing the discus was common in the time of Homer, who +mentions it repeatedly. It formed a part of the <i>pentathlon</i>, or +quintuple games, in the ancient Olympic Games. Statius, in +<i>Thebais</i>, 646-721, fully describes the use of the discus. In the +British Museum there is a restored copy of a statue by Myron +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, Plate IV. fig. 68) of a discus-thrower (<i>discobolus</i>) +in the act of hurling the missile; but the investigations of N. E. +Norman Gardiner show that a wrong attitude has been adopted +by the restorer.</p> + +<p>Throwing the discus was introduced as an event in modern +athletics at the revived Olympic Games, first held at Athens in +1896, and since that time it has become a recognized event in the +athletic championship meetings of several European nations, as +well as in the United States, where it has become very popular. +According to the American rules the discus must be of a smooth, +hard-wood body without finger-holes, weighted in the centre with +lead disks and capped with polished brass disks, with a steel ring +on the outside. Its weight must be 4½ ℔, its outside diameter +8 in. and its thickness at the centre 2 in. It must be thrown from +a 7-ft. circle, which may not be overstepped in throwing, and the +throw is measured from the spot where the discus first strikes the +ground to the point in the circumference of the circle on a line +between the centre and the point of striking.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISINFECTANTS,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> substances employed to neutralize the action +of pathogenic organisms, and prevent the spread of contagious or +infectious disease. The efficiency of any disinfectant is due to +its power of destroying, or of rendering inert, specific poisons or +disease germs. Therefore antiseptic substances generally are to +this extent disinfectants. So also the deodorizers, which act +by oxidizing or otherwise changing the chemical constitution of +volatile substances disseminated in the air, or which prevent +noxious exhalations from organic substances, are in virtue of +these properties effective disinfectants in certain diseases. A +knowledge of the value of disinfectants, and the use of some of the +most valuable agents, can be traced to very remote times; and +much of the Levitical law of cleansing, as well as the origin of +numerous heathen ceremonial practices, are clearly based on a +perception of the value of disinfection. The means of disinfection, +and the substances employed, are very numerous, as are the +classes and conditions of disease and contagion they are designed +to meet. Nature, in the oxidizing influence of freely circulating +atmospheric air, in the purifying effect of water, and in the +powerful deodorizing properties of common earth, has provided +the most potent ever-present and acting disinfecting media. Of +the artificial disinfectants employed or available three classes may +be recognized:—1st, volatile or vaporizable substances, which +attack impurities in the air; 2nd, chemical agents, for acting on +the diseased body or on the infectious discharges therefrom; and +3rd, the physical agencies of heat and cold. In some of these +cases the destruction of the contagium is effected by the formation +of new chemical compounds, by oxidation, deoxidation or other +reaction, and in others the conditions favourable to life are +removed or life is destroyed by high temperature. Among the +first class, aerial or gaseous disinfectants, formic aldehyde has +of late years taken foremost place. The vapour is a powerful +disinfectant and deodorant, and for the surface disinfection of +rooms, fulfils all requirements when used in sufficient amount. +It acts more rapidly than equal quantities of sulphurous acid, and +it does not affect colours. It is non-poisonous, though irritating +to the eyes and throat. With the exception of iron and steel it +does not attack metals. It can be obtained in paraform tabloids, +and with a specially constructed spirit lamp disinfection can be +carried out by any one. Twenty tabloids must be employed for +every 1000 cubic ft. of space. Disinfection by sulphurous acid +fumes is of great antiquity, and is still in very general use; for +the purpose of destroying vermin it is more powerful than formic +aldehyde. Camphor and some volatile oils have also been +employed as air disinfectants, but their virtues lie chiefly in +masking, not destroying, noxious effluvia. In the 2nd class—non-gaseous +disinfecting compounds—all the numerous antiseptic +substances may be reckoned; but the substances principally employed +in practice are oxidizing agents, as potassium manganates +and permanganates, “Condy’s fluid,” and solutions of the so-called +“chlorides of lime,” soda and potash, with the chlorides of +aluminium and zinc, soluble sulphates and sulphites, solutions of +sulphurous acid, and the tar products—carbolic, cresylic and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> +salicylic acids. Of the physical agents heat and cold, the latter, +though a powerful natural disinfectant, is not practically available +by artificial means; heat is a power chiefly relied on for purifying +and disinfecting clothes, bedding and textile substances generally. +Different degrees of temperature are required for the destruction +of the virus of various diseases; but as clothing, &c., can be +exposed to a heat of about 250° Fahr. without injury, provision is +made for submitting articles to nearly that temperature. For the +thorough disinfection of a sick-room the employment of all three +classes of disinfectants, for purifying the air, for destroying the +virus at its point of origin, and for cleansing clothing, &c., may be +required.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISMAL,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> an adjective meaning dreary, gloomy, and so a name +given to stretches of swampy land on the east coast of the United +States, as the Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina. +The derivation has been much discussed. In the early examples +of the use the word is a substantive, especially in the expression +“in the dismal,” <i>i.e.</i> in the dismal time or days. Later +it became adjectival, especially in combination with “days.” It +has been connected with “decimal,” med. Latin <i>decimalis</i>, +belonging to a tithe or tenth, and thus the “dismal days” are the +unpleasant days connected with the extortion and oppression +of exacting payment of tithes. According to the <i>New English +Dictionary</i>, quoting Professor W. W. Skeat, “dismal” is derived, +through an Anglo-Fr. <i>dis mal</i>, from the Lat. <i>dies mali</i>, evil or +unpropitious days. This Anglo-French expression, explained as +<i>les mal jours</i>, is found in a MS. of Rauf de Linham’s <i>Art de +Kalender</i>, 1256. These days of evil omen were known as <i>Dies +Aegyptiaci</i> (Du Cange, <i>Glossarium, s.v.</i>) or Egyptian days, either +as having been instituted by Egyptian astrologers or with reference +to the “ten plagues”; so Chaucer, “I trowe hit was in +the dismal, That were the ten woundes of Egipte” (<i>Book of +the Duchesse</i>, 1206). There were two such days in each month.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Skeat, Trans. <i>Philol. Soc.</i> (1888), p. 2, and note on the line in +the “Book of the Duchesse,” <i>The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer</i>, +vol. i. (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISORDERLY HOUSE,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> in law, a house in which the conduct of +its inmates is such as to become a public nuisance, or a house +where persons congregate to the probable disturbance of the public +peace or other commission of crime. In England, by the Disorderly +Houses Act 1751, the term includes common bawdy +houses or brothels,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> common gaming houses, common betting +houses and disorderly places of entertainment. The keeping of +such is a misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment, and +in the case of a brothel also punishable on summary conviction by +the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885; the letting out for gain +for indiscriminate prostitution of a room or rooms in a house will +make it as much a brothel in law as if the whole house were let out +for the purpose. Where, however, a woman occupies a house or +room which is frequented by men for the purpose of committing +fornication with her, she cannot be convicted of keeping a disorderly +house. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prostitution</a></span>.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The etymology of this word has been confused by the early +adoption into English usage of the O. Fr. <i>bordel</i>. The two words +are in origin quite distinct. Brothel is an O. Eng. word for a person, +not a place. It meant an abandoned vagabond, one who had gone to +ruin (<i>abréothan</i>). <i>Bordel</i>, on the contrary, is a place, literally a small +hut or shelter, especially for fornication, Med. Lat. <i>bordellum</i>, +diminutive of the Late Lat. <i>borda</i>, board. The words were early +confused, and brothel-house, bordel-house, bordel or brothel, are all +used for a disorderly house, while bordel was similarly misused, and, +like brothel in its proper meaning, was applied to a disorderly person.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISPATCH,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Despatch</span>, to send off immediately, or by +express; particularly in the case of the sending of official +messages, or of the immediate sending of troops to their destination, +or the like. The word is thus used as a substantive of written +official reports of events, battles and the like, sent by ambassadors, +generals, &c., by means of a special messenger, or of express +correspondence generally. From the primary meaning of the +prompt sending of a message, &c., the word is used of the quick +disposal of business, or of the disposal of a person by violence; +hence the word means to execute or murder. The etymology of +the word has been obscured by the connexion with the Fr. +<i>dépêcher</i>, and <i>dépêche</i>, which are in meaning the equivalents of +the Eng. verb and substantive. The Fr. word is made up of the +prefix <i>de-</i>, Lat. <i>dis-</i>, and the root which appears in <i>empêcher</i>, to +embarrass, and means literally to disentangle. The Lat. origin +of <i>dépêcher</i> and <i>empêcher</i> is a Low Lat. <i>pedicare</i>, <i>pedica</i>, a fetter. +The Fr. word came into Eng. as <i>depeach</i>, which was in use from +the 15th century until “despatch” was introduced. This word is +certainly direct from the Ital. <i>dispacciare</i>, or Span, <i>despachar</i>, +which must be derived from the Lat. root appearing in <i>pactus</i>, +fixed, fastened, from <i>pangere</i>. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> finds +the earliest instance of “dispatch” in a letter to Henry VIII. +from Bishop Tunstall, commissioner to Spain in 1516-1517.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISPENSATION,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a term with two main applications, (1) to the +action of administering, arranging or dealing out, and (2) to the +action of allowing certain things, rules, &c., to be done away with, +relaxed. Of these two meanings the first is to be derived from the +classical Latin use of <i>dispensare</i>, literally, to weigh out, hence to +distribute, especially of the orderly arrangement of a household +by a steward; thus <i>dispensatio</i> was, in theology, the word chosen +to translate the Greek <span class="grk" title="oikonomia">οἰκονομία</span>, economy, <i>i.e.</i> divine or +religious systems, as in the Jewish, Mosaic, Christian dispensations. +Dispensation in law is, strictly speaking, the suspension +by competent authority of general rules of law in particular cases. +Its object is to modify the hardships often arising from the +rigorous application of general laws to particular cases, and its +essence is to preserve the law by suspending its operation, <i>i.e.</i> +making it non-existent, in such cases. It follows, then, that dispensation, +in its strict sense, is anticipative, <i>i.e.</i> it does not absolve +from the consequences of a legal obligation already contracted, +but avoids a breach of the law by suspending the obligation to +conform to it, <i>e.g.</i> a dispensation or licence to marry within the +prohibited degrees, or to hold benefices in plurality. The term is, +however, frequently used of the power claimed and exercised by +the supreme legislative authority of altering or abrogating in +particular cases conditions established under the existing law +and of releasing individuals from obligations incurred under it, +<i>e.g.</i> dispensations granted by the pope <i>ex plenitudine potestatis</i> +from the obligation of celibacy, from religious and other vows, +from <i>matrimonium ratum</i>, <i>non consummatum</i>, &c.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Ecclesiastical Law.</i>—In the theory of the canon law the +dispensing power is the corollary of the legislative, the authority +that makes laws, and no other, having power to suspend them. +It follows that the law of nature (<i>jus naturae</i>) and <i>a fortiori</i> the +law of God (<i>jus divinum</i>) are not subject to dispensation of any +earthly authority, and that it is only the disciplinary laws made +by the Church that the Church is empowered to suspend or to +abrogate. Thus, not even the pope could grant a dispensation for +a marriage between persons related in the direct line of ascent +or descent, <i>e.g.</i> father and daughter, or between brother and +sister, while dispensations are granted for marriages within +other prohibited degrees, <i>e.g.</i> uncle and niece.</p> + +<p>The dispensing power, like the legislative authority, was +formerly invested in general councils and even in provincial +synods; but in the West, with the gradual centralization of +authority at Rome, it became ultimately vested in the pope as +the supreme lawgiver of the Church. Subject, however, to the +supreme jurisdiction of the pope, the power of dispensation continued +to reside in the other organs of the Church in exact +proportion to their legislative capacities, <i>i.e.</i> in provincial synods +in respect of regional rules laid down by them, and in bishops in +respect of rules laid down by them for their dioceses. According +to Du Cange, the earliest record of the use of the word <i>dispensatio</i> +in this connexion is in the letter of Pope Gelasius I. of the 11th +of March 494, to the bishops of Lucania (in Jaffé, <i>Reg. Pont. Rom.</i>, +ed. 2, tom. i. no. 636): necessaria rerum Dispensatione constringimur, ... +sic canonum paternorum decreta librare, ... +ut quae praesentium necessitas temporum restaurandis Ecclesiis +relaxanda deposcit, adhibita consideratione diligenti, quantum +fieri potest temperemus.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Dispensations from the observance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span> +of traditional rules were, however, during the early centuries +exceedingly rare, and there are more instances of the popes +repudiating than of their exercising the power to grant them. +Thus Celestine I. (d. 432) wrote: “The rules govern us, not we +the rules: we are subject to the canons, since we are the servants +of the precepts of the canons” (<i>Epist. 3 ad Episcopos Illyrici</i>); +and Pope Zozimus wrote even more strongly: “This see +possesses no authority to make any concession or change; for +with us abides antiquity firmly rooted (<i>inconvulsis radicibus</i>), +reverence for which the decrees of the Fathers enjoined.” As time +went on, however, and the Church expanded, this rigidly conservative +attitude proved impossible to maintain, and the +principle of “tempering” the law when forced to do so “by +the exigencies of affairs or of the times” (<i>rerum vel temporum +angustia</i>), as laid down by Gelasius, was adopted into the canon +law itself. The principle was, of course, singularly open to abuse. +In theory it was laid down from the first that dispensations were +only to be granted in cases of urgent necessity and in the highest +interests of the Church; in practice, from the 11th century +onwards, the power of dispensation was used by the popes as one +of the most potent instruments for extending their influence. +Dispensations to hold benefices in plurality formed, with provisions +and the papal claim to the right of direct appointment, a +powerful means for extending the patronage of the Holy See and +therefore its hold over the clergy, and from the 13th century +onwards this abuse assumed vast proportions (Hinschius iii. p. +250). Even more scandalous was the almost unrestrained traffic +in licences and dispensations at Rome, which grew up, at least +as early as the 14th century, owing to the fees charged for such +dispensations having come to be regarded by the Curia as a +regular source of revenue (Woker, <i>Das kirchliche Finanzwesen der +Päpste</i>, Nördlingen, 1878, pp. 75, 160). Loud complaints of these +abuses were raised in the reforming councils of Constance and +Basel in the 15th century, but nothing was done effectually to +check them.</p> + +<p>The actual practice of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon +the decisions of the council of Trent, which left the medieval +theory intact while endeavouring to guard against its abuses. +The proposal put forward by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to +subordinate the papal power of dispensation to the consent of the +Church in general council was rejected, and even the canons of +the council of Trent itself, in so far as they affected reformation +of morals or ecclesiastical discipline, were decreed “saving the +authority of the Holy See” (<i>Sess.</i> xxv. cap. 21, de ref.). At the +same time it was laid down in respect of all dispensations, whether +papal or other, that they were to be granted only for just and +urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the Church +(urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all +cases <i>gratis</i>. The payment of money for a dispensation was <i>ipso +facto</i> to make the dispensation void (<i>Sess.</i> xxv. cap. 18, de ref.).</p> + +<p>Though verbal dispensations are valid, papal dispensations are +given in writing. Before the constitution <i>Sapienti</i> of Pius X. +(1908) all dispensations in <i>foro externo</i>, especially in matrimonial +causes, were dealt with by the Dataria Apostolica, those <i>in foro +interno</i> by the Penitentiary, which latter also possessed <i>in foro +externo</i> the right to grant dispensations in matrimonial causes +to poor people. Since 1908 the Dataria only deals with dispensations +in matters concerning benefices, dispensations in matrimonial +matters having been transferred to the new Congregation +on the discipline of the sacraments (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curia Romana</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The regular form of dispensation is the <i>forma commissaria</i> +(<i>Trid. Sess.</i> xxii. cap. 5, de ref.), <i>i.e.</i> a mandate to the bishop to +grant the dispensation, after due inquiry, in the pope’s name. In +exceptional cases, <i>e.g.</i> sovereigns or bishops, the dispensation is +sent direct to the petitioner (<i>forma gratiosa</i>). Dispensations are +nominally gratuitous; but the officials are entitled to fees for +drawing them up, and there are customary “compositions” +(<i>compositiones</i>) which are destined for charitable objects in Rome. +These fees were and are regulated according to the capacity of +the petitioners to pay, the result being that the abuses which the +council of Trent had sought to abolish continued to flourish. In +the 17th century a specially privileged class of bankers (<i>banquiers +expéditionnaires</i>) existed at Rome whose sole business was +obtaining dispensations on commission, and one of these, named +Pelletier, published at Paris in 1677, under the royal <i>imprimatur</i>, +a regular tariff of the sums for which in any given case a dispensation +might be obtained. That the “urgent and just cause” +was, in the circumstances, a very minor consideration was to be +expected, and the enlightened pope Benedict XIV., himself a +canon lawyer of eminence, complained “Dispensationem non +raro concedi in Dataria, sine causa, nempe ob eleemosynam quae +praestatur” (Inst. 87, No. 26). It may be added that the worst +abuses of this system have long since disappeared. The bishops +have their own correspondents at Rome, and one of the duties of +the diplomatic representatives of foreign states at the Curia is +to see that their nationals receive their dispensations without +overcharge.</p> + +<p>Bishops are by right (<i>jure ordinario</i>) competent to dispense in +all cases expressly reserved to them by the canon law, <i>e.g.</i> in the +matter of publication of banns of marriage. They possess besides +special powers delegated to them by the pope and renewed every +five years (<i>facultates quinquennales</i>), or by virtue of faculties +granted to them personally (<i>facultates extraordinariae</i>), <i>e.g.</i> to +dispense from rules of abstinence, from simple vows, and with +some exceptions from the prohibition of marriage within prohibited +degrees.</p> + +<p><i>Church of England.</i>—By 25 Henry VIII. cap. 21. sec 2 (1534), it +was enacted that neither the king, his successors, nor any of his +subjects should henceforth sue for licences, dispensations, &c., +to the see of Rome, and that the power to issue such licences, +dispensations, &c., “for causes not being contrary or repugnant +to the Holy Scriptures and laws of God,” should be vested in the +archbishop of Canterbury for the time being, who at his own +discretion was to issue such dispensations, &c., under his seal, +to the king and his subjects. The power of dispensation thus +vested in the archbishops partly fell obsolete, partly has been +curtailed by subsequent statutes, <i>e.g.</i> the Pluralities Act of 1838. +It is now confined to granting dispensations for holding two +benefices at once, to issuing licences for non-residence, and in +matrimonial cases to the issuing of special licences. The dispensing +power of bishops in the Church of England survives only in +the right to grant marriage licences, <i>i.e.</i> dispensations from the +obligation to publish the banns. Though, however, these licences +and dispensations are given under the archiepiscopal and episcopal +seals, they are actually issued by the commissaries of faculties and +vicars-general (chancellors), independently, in virtue of the powers +conferred on them by their patents. This has led, since the passing +of the Divorce Acts and the Marriage with a Deceased Wife’s +Sister Act, to a curiously anomalous position, licences for the +remarriage of divorced persons having been issued under the +bishop’s seal, while the bishop himself publicly protested that +such marriages were contrary to “the law of God,” but that he +himself had no power to prevent his chancellor licensing them.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i> (Berlin, 1883), iii. 250, &c.; article +“Dispensation” by Hinschius in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i> +(Leipzig, 1898); article “Dispensation” in Wetzer and Welte’s +<i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882-1901); +F. Lichtenberger, <i>Encyclopédie des sciences religieuses</i> (Paris, 1878), +<i>s.v.</i> “Dispense”; Phillimore, <i>Eccl. Law</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>Constitutional Law.</i>—The power of dispensation from the +operation of the ordinary law in particular cases is, of course, +everywhere inherent in the supreme legislative authority, however +rarely it may be exercised. Divorce (in Ireland) by act of +parliament may be taken as an example which still actually +occurs. On the other hand, the dispensing power once vested in +the crown in England is now merely of historical interest, though +of great importance in the constitutional struggles of the past. +This power possessed by the crown of dispensing with the statute +law is said to have been copied from the dispensations or non +obstante clauses granted by the popes in matters of canon law; +the parallel between them is certainly very striking, and there can +be no doubt that the principles of the canon law influenced the +decisions of the courts in the matter. It was, for instance, very +generally laid down that the king could by dispensation make it +lawful to do what was <i>malum prohibitum</i> but not to do what was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> +<i>malum in se</i>, a principle of the canon law, but one difficult to +reconcile with English legal principles, since no act is legally +<i>malum</i> unless forbidden by law. This was pointed out by Chief +Justice Vaughan in the celebrated judgment in the case of <i>Thomas</i> +v. <i>Sorrell</i>, when he rejected the distinction between <i>mala in se</i> and +<i>mala prohibita</i> as confusing, and attempted to define the dispensing +power of the crown by limiting it to cases of individual +breaches of penal statutes where no third party loses a right of +action, and where the breach is not continuous, at the same time +denying the power of the crown to dispense with any general +penal law. This judgment, as Sir William Anson points out, only +showed the extreme difficulty of limiting the power ascribed to the +crown, a standing grievance from the time that parliament had +risen to be a constituent part of the state. So long as the legal +principle by which the law was “the king’s law” survived there +was in fact no theoretical basis for such limitation, and the matter +resolved itself into one of the great constitutional questions +between crown and parliament which issued in the Revolution of +1688. The supreme crisis came owing to the use made by James +II. of the dispensing power. His action in dispensing with the +Test Act, in order to enable Roman Catholics to hold office under +the crown, was supported by the courts in the test case of <i>Godden</i> +v. <i>Hales</i>, but it made the Revolution inevitable. By the Bill of +Rights the exercise of the dispensing power was forbidden, except +as might be permitted by statute. At the same time the legality +of its exercise in the past was admitted by the clause maintaining +the validity of dispensations granted in a certain form before +the 23rd of October 1689.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Anson, <i>Law and Custom of the Constitution</i>, part i. “Parliament,” +3rd ed. pp. 311-319; F. W. Maitland, <i>Const. Hist. of England</i> +(Cambridge, 1908), pp. 302, &c.; Stubbs, <i>Const. Hist.</i> ss. 290, +291.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In this quotation the word <i>dispensatio</i> still has its meaning of +“economy”: “we are bound by the necessary economy of things.” +Possibly its use by the pope in this connexion may have led to the +technical meaning of the word <i>dispensatio</i> in the medieval canon law.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISPERSION<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>dispergere</i>, to scatter), the act or +process of separation and distribution. Apart from the technical +use of the term, especially in optics (see below), the expression +particularly applied to the settlements of Jews in foreign +countries outside Palestine. These were either voluntary, for +purposes of trade and commerce, or the results of conquest, such +as the captivities of Assyria and Babylonia. The word <i>diaspora</i> +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="diaspora">διασπορά</span>) is also used of these scattered communities, but +is usually confined to the dispersion among the Hellenic and +Roman peoples, or to the body of Christian Jews outside Palestine +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:213px; height:225px" src="images/img315a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Dispersion</span>, in <span class="sc">Optics</span>. When a beam of light which is not +homogeneous in character, <i>i.e.</i> which does not consist of simple +vibrations of a definite wave-length, undergoes refraction at the +surface of any transparent medium, the different colours corresponding +to the different wave-lengths become separated or +<i>dispersed</i>. Thus, if a ray of white light AO (fig. 1) enters obliquely +into the surface of a block of glass +at O, it gives rise to the divergent +system of rays ORV, varying continuously +in colour from red to +violet, the red ray OR being least +refracted and the violet ray OV +most so. The order of the successive +colours in all colourless transparent +media is red, orange, yellow, green, +blue, indigo and violet. Dispersion +is therefore due to the fact that +rays of different colours possess different +refrangibilities.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:314px; height:180px" src="images/img315b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The simplest way of showing dispersion is to refract a narrow +beam of sunlight through a prism of glass or prismatic vessel +containing water or other clear liquid. As the light is twice +refracted, the dispersion is increased, and the rays, after transmission +through the prism, form a divergent system, which may +be allowed to fall on a sheet of white paper, forming the well-known +solar spectrum. This method was employed by Sir Isaac +Newton, whose experiments constitute the earliest systematic +investigation of the phenomenon. Let O (fig. 2) represent a +small hole in the shutter of a darkened room, and OS a narrow +beam of sunlight which is allowed to fall on a white screen so +as to form an image of the sun at S. If now the prism P +be interposed as in the +figure, the whole beam +is not only refracted upward, +but also spread out +into the spectrum RV, +the horizontal breadth of +the band of colours being +the same as that of the +original image S. In an +experiment similar to +that here represented, +Newton made a small hole in the screen and another small hole in +a second screen placed behind the first. By slightly turning the +prism P, the position of the spectrum on the first screen could +be shifted sufficiently to cause light of any desired colour to pass +through. Some of this light also passed through the second hole, +and thus he obtained a narrow beam of practically homogeneous +light in a fixed direction (the line joining the apertures in the two +screens). Operating on this beam with a second prism, he found +that the homogeneous light was not dispersed, and also that it +was more refracted the nearer the point from which it was taken +approached to the violet end of the spectrum RV. This confirmed +his previous conclusion that the rays increase in refrangibility +from red to violet.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 355px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:171px" src="images/img315c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Method of Crossed Prisms.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Newton also made use of the method of crossed prisms, which +has been found of great use in studying dispersion. The prism P +(fig. 3) refracts upwards, while the prism Q, which has its refracting +edge perpendicular to +that of P, refracts towards +the right. The combined +effect of the two is to produce +a spectrum sloping +up from left to right. The +spectrum will be straight +if the two prisms are similar +in dispersive property, but +if one of them is constructed +of a material which possesses any peculiarity in this +respect it will be revealed by the curvature of the spectrum.</p> + +<p>The coloured borders seen in the images produced by simple +lenses are due to dispersion. The explanation of the colours of +the rainbow, which are also due to dispersion, was given by +Newton, although it was known previously to be due to refraction +in the drops of rain (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rainbow</a></span>).</p> + +<p>According to the wave-theory of light, refraction (<i>q.v.</i>) is due +to a change of velocity when light passes from one medium to +another. The phenomenon of dispersion shows that in dispersive +media the velocity is different for lights of different wave-lengths. +In free space, light of all wave-lengths is propagated with the same +velocity, as is shown by the fact that stars, when occulted by the +moon or planets, preserve their white colour up to the last +moment of disappearance, which would not be the case if one +colour reached the eye later than another. The absence of colour +changes in variable stars or in the appearance of new stars is +further evidence of the same fact. All material media, however, +are more or less dispersive. In air and other gases, at ordinary +pressures, the dispersion is very small, because the refractivity +is small. The dispersive powers of gases are, however, generally +comparable with those of liquids and solids.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Dispersive Power.</i>—In order to find the amount of dispersion caused +by any given prism, the deviations produced by it on two rays of any +definite pure colours may be measured. The angle of difference +between these deviations is called the dispersion for those rays. +For this purpose the C and F lines in the spark-spectrum of hydrogen, +situated in the red and blue respectively, are usually employed. If +δ<span class="su">F</span> and δ<span class="su">C</span> are the angular deviations of these rays, then δ<span class="su">F</span> − δ<span class="su">C</span> is +called the mean dispersion of the prism. If the refracting angle of the +prism is small, then the ratio of the dispersion to the mean deviation +of the two rays is the dispersive power of the material of the prism. +Instead of the mean deviation, ½ (δ<span class="su">F</span> + δ<span class="su">C</span>), it is more usual to take +the deviation of some intermediate ray. The exact position of the +selected ray does not matter much, but the yellow D line of sodium +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span> +is the most convenient. If we denote its deviation by δ<span class="su">D</span>, then we +may put</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Dispersive power</i> = (δ<span class="su">F</span> - δ<span class="su">C</span>)/δ<span class="su">D</span>     (1).</p> + +<p>This quantity may readily be expressed in terms of the refractive +indices for the three colours, for if A is the angle of the prism (supposedly +small)</p> + +<p class="center">δ<span class="su">C</span> = (μ<span class="su">C</span> − 1)A, δ<span class="su">D</span> = (μ<span class="su">D</span> − 1)A, δ<span class="su">F</span> = (μ<span class="su">F</span> − 1)A,</p> + +<p class="noind">where μ<span class="su">C</span>, μ<span class="su">D</span>, μ<span class="su">F</span> are the respective indices of refraction. This gives +at once</p> + +<p class="center"><i>Dispersive power</i> = (μ<span class="su">F</span> − μ<span class="su">C</span>)/(μ<span class="su">D</span> − 1)     (2).</p> + +<p>The second of these two expressions is generally given as the +definition of dispersive power. It is more useful than (1), as the +refractive indices may be measured with a prism of any convenient +angle.</p> + +<p>By studying the dispersion of colours in water, turpentine and +crown glass Newton was led to suppose that dispersion is proportional +to refraction. He concluded that there could be no +refraction without dispersion, and hence that achromatism was +impossible of attainment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aberration</a></span>). This conclusion was +proved to be erroneous when Chester M. Hall in 1733 constructed +achromatic lenses. Glasses can now be made differing considerably +both in refractivity and dispersive power.</p> + +<p><i>Irrationality of Dispersion.</i>—If we compare the spectrum produced +by refraction in a glass prism with that of a diffraction grating, we +find not only that the order of colours is reversed, but also that the +same colours do not occupy corresponding lengths on the two spectra, +the blue and violet being much more extended in the refraction +spectrum. The refraction spectra for different media also differ +amongst themselves. This shows that the connexion between the +refrangibility of light and its wave-length does not obey any simple +law, but depends on the nature of the refracting medium. This +property is referred to as the “irrationality of dispersion.” In a +diffraction spectrum the diffraction is proportional to the wave_length, +and the spectrum is said to be “normal.” If the increase +of the angle of refraction were proportional to the diminution of +wave-length for a prism of any material, the resulting spectrum +would also be normal. This, however, is not the case with ordinary +refracting media, the refrangibility generally increasing more and +more rapidly as the wave-length diminishes.</p> + +<p>The irrationality of dispersion is well illustrated by C. Christiansen’s +experiments on the dispersive properties of white powders. If the +powder of a transparent substance is immersed in a liquid of the same +refractive index, the mixture becomes transparent and a measurement +of the refractive index of the liquid gives the refractivity of +the powder. Christiansen found, in an investigation of this kind, +that the refractivity of the liquid could only be got to match that +of the powder for mono-chromatic light, and that, if white light +were used, brilliant colour effects were obtained, which varied in a +remarkable manner when small changes occurred in the refractive +index of the liquid. These effects are due to the difference in dispersive +power of the powder and the liquid. If the refractive index +is, for instance, the same for both in the case of green light, and a +source of white light is viewed through the mixture, the green component +will be completely transmitted, while the other colours are +more or less scattered by multiple reflections and refractions at the +surfaces of the powdered substance. Very striking colour changes +are observed, according to R. W. Wood, when white light is transmitted +through a paste made of powdered quartz and a mixture of +carbon bisulphide with benzol having the same refractive index as +the quartz for yellow light. In this case small temperature changes +alter the refractivity of the liquid without appreciably affecting the +quartz. R. W. Wood has studied the iridescent colours seen when a +precipitate of potassium silicofluoride is produced by adding silicofluoric +acid to a solution of potassium chloride, and found that they +are due to the same cause, the refractive index of the minute crystals +precipitated being about the same as that of the solution, which +latter can be varied by dilution.</p> + +<p><i>Anomalous Dispersion.</i>—In some media the usual order of the +colours is changed. This curious phenomenon was noticed by +W. H. Fox Talbot about 1840, but does not seem to have become +generally known. In 1860 F. P. Leroux discovered that iodine +vapour refracted the red rays more than the violet, the intermediate +colours not being transmitted; and in 1870 Christiansen found that +an alcoholic solution of fuchsine refracted the violet less than the red, +the order of the successive colours being violet, red, orange, yellow; +the green being absorbed and a dark interval occurring between +the violet and red. A. Kundt found that similar effects occur with +a large number of substances, in particular with all those which +possess the property of “surface colour,” <i>i.e.</i>, which strongly reflect +light of a definite colour, as do many of the aniline dyes. Such +bodies show strong absorption bands in those colours which they +reflect, while of the transmitted light that which is of a slightly +greater wave-length than the absorbed light has an abnormally +great refrangibility, and that of a slightly shorter wave-length an +abnormally small refrangibility. The name given to this phenomenon,—“anomalous +dispersion”—is an unfortunate one, as it has +been found to obey a regular law.</p> + +<p>In studying the dispersion of the aniline dyes, a prism with a very +small refracting angle is made of two glass plates slightly inclined +to each other and enclosing a very thin wedge of the dye, which +is either melted between the plates, or is in the form of a solution +retained in position by surface-tension. Only very thin layers are +sufficiently transparent to show the dispersion near or within an +absorption band, and a large refracting angle is not required, the +dispersion usually being very considerable. Another method, +which has been used by R. W. Wood and C. E. Magnusson, is to +introduce a thin film of the dye into one of the optical paths of a +Michelson interferometer, and to determine the consequent displacement +of the fringes. E. Mach and J. Arbes have used a method +depending on total reflection (Drude’s <i>Theory of Optics</i>, p. 394).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:89px" src="images/img316a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Anomalous Dispersion of Sodium Vapour.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:136px" src="images/img316b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 5.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A very remarkable example of anomalous dispersion, which was +first observed by A. Kundt, is that exhibited by the vapour of sodium. +It has not been found practicable to make a prism of this vapour +in the ordinary way by enclosing it in a glass vessel of the required +shape, as sodium vapour attacks glass, quickly rendering it opaque. +A. E. Becquerel, however, investigated the character of the dispersion +by using prism-shaped flames strongly coloured with sodium. +But the best way of exhibiting the effect is by making use of a +remarkable property of sodium vapour discovered by R. W. Wood +and employed for this purpose in a very ingenious manner. He found +that when sodium is heated in a hard glass tube, the vapour which +is formed is extraordinarily cohesive, only slowly spreading out in +a cloud with well-defined borders, which can be rendered visible by +placing the tube in front of a sodium flame, against which the cloud +appears black. If a long glass tube with plane ends, and containing +some pellets of sodium is heated in the middle by a row of burners, +the cool ends remain practically vacuous and do not become obscured. +The sodium vapour in the middle is very dense on the heated side, +the density diminishing rapidly towards the upper part of the tube, +so that, although not prismatic in form, it refracts like a prism owing +to the variation in density. Thus if a horizontal slit is illuminated +by an arc lamp, and the light-rendered parallel by a collimating +lens—is transmitted through the sodium tube and focused on the +vertical slit of a spectroscope, the effect of the sodium vapour is to +produce its refraction spectrum +vertically on the slit. +The image of this seen +through the glass prism of +the spectroscope will appear +as in fig. 4. The whole of the +light, with the exception of +a small part in the neighbourhood +of the D lines, is +practically undeviated, so that it illuminates only a very short piece +of the slit and is spread out into the ordinary spectrum. But the +light of slightly greater wave-length than the D lines, being refracted +strongly downward by the sodium vapour, illuminates the bottom of +the slit; while that of slightly shorter wave-length is refracted +upward and illuminates the top of the slit. Fig. 4 represents the inverted +image seen in the +telescope. The light corresponding +to the D lines +and the space between +them is absorbed, as evidenced +by the dark interval. +If the sodium is only +gently heated, so as to +produce a comparatively +rarefied vapour, and a grating +spectroscope employed, +the spectrum obtained is like that shown in fig. 5, which was +the effect noticed by Becquerel with the sodium flame. Here the +light corresponding to the space between the D lines is transmitted, +being strongly refracted upward near D<span class="su">1</span>, and downward near D<span class="su">2</span>.</p> + +<p>The theory of anomalous dispersion has been applied in a very +interesting way by W. H. Julius to explain the “flash spectrum” +seen during a solar eclipse at the moment at which totality occurs. +The conditions of this phenomenon have been imitated in the +laboratory by Wood, and the corresponding effect obtained.</p> + +<p><i>Theories of Dispersion.</i>—The first attempt at a mathematical +theory of dispersion was made by A. Cauchy and published in 1835. +This was based on the assumption that the medium in which the +light is propagated is discontinuous and molecular in character, the +molecules being subject to a mutual attraction. Thus, if one molecule +is disturbed from its mean position, it communicates the +disturbance to its neighbours, and so a wave is propagated. +The formula arrived at by Cauchy was</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">n = A +</td> <td>B</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>C</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ ....</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">λ<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="denom">λ<span class="su">4</span></td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">n being the refractive index, λ the wave-length, and A, B, C, &c., +constants depending on the material, which diminish so rapidly that +only the first three as here written need be taken into account. If +suitable values are chosen for these constants, the formula can be +made to represent the dispersion of ordinary transparent media +within the visible spectrum very well, but when extended to the +infra-red region it often departs considerably from the truth, and +it fails altogether in cases of anomalous dispersion. There are also +grave theoretical objections to Cauchy’s formula.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span></p> + +<p>The modern theory of dispersion, the foundation of which was laid +by W. Sellmeier, is based upon the assumption that an interaction +takes place between ether and matter. Sellmeier adopted the +elastic-solid theory of the ether, and imagined the molecules to be +attached to the ether surrounding them, but free to vibrate about +their mean positions within a limited range. Thus the ether within +the dispersive medium is loaded with molecules which are forced to +perform oscillations of the same period as that of the transmitted +wave. It can be shown mathematically that the velocity of propagation +will be greatly increased if the frequency of the light-wave is +slightly greater, and greatly diminished if it is slightly less than the +natural frequency of the molecules; also that these effects become +less and less marked as the difference in the two frequencies increases. +This is exactly in accordance with the observed facts in the case +of substances showing anomalous dispersion. Sellmeier’s theory did +not take account of absorption, and cannot be applied to calculate +the dispersion within a broad absorption band. H. von Helmholtz, +working on a similar hypothesis, but with a frictional term introduced +into his equations, obtained formulae which are applicable to +cases of absorption. A modified form of Helmholtz’s equation, due +to E. Ketteler and known as the Ketteler-Helmholtz formula, has +been much used in calculating dispersion, and expresses the facts +with remarkable accuracy. P. Drude has obtained a similar formula +based on the electromagnetic theory, thus placing the theory of +dispersion on a much more satisfactory basis. The fundamental +assumption is that the medium contains positively and negatively +charged ions or electrons which are acted on by the periodic electric +forces which occur in wave propagation on Maxwell’s theory. The +equations finally arrived at are</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">n²(1 − κ²) = 1 + <span class="f150">Σ</span></td> <td>Dλ²(λ² − λ<span class="su">m</span>²)</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">(λ² − λ<span class="su">m</span>²)² + g²λ²</td></tr></table> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">2n²κ² = <span class="f150">Σ</span></td> <td>Dgλ³</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">(λ² − λ<span class="su">m</span>²)² + g²λ²</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">where λ is the wave-length in free ether of light whose refractive +index is n, and λ<span class="su">m</span> the wave-length of light of the same period as the +electron, κ is a coefficient of absorption, and D and g are constants. +The sign of summation Σ is used in cases where there are several +absorption bands, and consequently several similar terms on the +right-hand side, each with a different value of λ<span class="su">m</span>. This would occur +if there were several kinds of ions, each with its own natural period.</p> + +<p>In a region where there is no absorption, we have κ = 0 and +therefore g = 0, and we have only one equation, namely,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">n² = 1 + <span class="f150">Σ</span></td> <td>Dλ²</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">(λ² − λ<span class="su">m</span>²)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">which is identical with Sellmeier’s result. As λ<span class="su">m</span>, is a wave-length +corresponding to an absorption band, this formula can be used to +find values of λ<span class="su">m</span> which satisfy the observed values of n within the +region of transparency, and so to determine where the absorption +bands are situated. In this way the existence of bands in the infrared +part of the spectrum has been predicted in the case of quartz +and detected by experiments on the selective reflection of the material.</p> + +<p><i>References.</i>—For the theory of dispersion see P. Drude, <i>Theory of +Optics</i> (Eng. trans.); R. W. Wood, <i>Physical Optics</i>; and A. Schuster, +<i>Theory of Optics</i>. For descriptive accounts, see Wood’s <i>Physical +Optics</i>, T. Preston’s <i>Theory of Light</i>, E. Edser’s <i>Light</i>. The last work +contains an elementary treatment of Sellmeier’s theory.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. R. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">D’ISRAELI<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Disraeli</span>), <span class="bold">ISAAC</span> (1766-1848), English man of +letters, father of the earl of Beaconsfield (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Enfield +in May 1766. He belonged to a Jewish family which, having been +driven by the Inquisition from Spain, towards the end of the 15th +century, settled as merchants at Venice, and assumed the name +which has become famous; it was generally spelt D’Israeli until +the middle of the 19th century. In 1748 his father, Benjamin +D’Israeli, then only about eighteen years of age, removed to +England, where, before passing the prime of life, he amassed +a competent fortune, and retired from business. He belonged +to the London congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, +of which his son also remained a nominal member until after +Benjamin D’Israeli died at the end of 1816.</p> + +<p>The strongly marked characteristics which determined Isaac +D’Israeli’s career were displayed to a singular degree even in +his boyhood. He spent his time over books and in long day-dreams, +and evinced the strongest distaste for business and all +the more bustling pursuits of life. These idiosyncrasies met with +no sympathy from either of his parents, whose ambitious plans +for his future career they threatened to disappoint. When he was +about fourteen, in the hope of changing the bent of his mind, his +father sent him to live with his agent at Amsterdam, where he +worked under a tutor for four or five years. Here he studied +Bayle and Voltaire, and became an ardent disciple of Rousseau. +Here also he wrote a long poem against commerce, which he +produced as an exposition of his opinions when, on his return to +England, his father announced his intention of placing him in a +commercial house at Bordeaux. Against such a destiny D’Israeli’s +mind strongly revolted; and he carried his poem, with a letter +earnestly appealing for advice and assistance, to Samuel Johnson; +but when he called again a week after to receive an answer, the +packet was returned unopened—the great Doctor was on his +death-bed. He also addressed a letter to Dr Vicesimus Knox, +master of Tonbridge Grammar School, begging to be received into +his family, that he might enjoy the benefit of his learning and +experience. How this application was answered we do not know. +The evident firmness of his resolve, however, was not without +effect. His parents gave up their purpose for a time. He was +sent to travel in France, and allowed to occupy himself as he +wished; and he had the happiness of spending some months in +Paris, in the society of literary men, and devoted to the literary +pursuits in which he delighted.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of 1788 he returned home, and in the next year +he attacked Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in <i>The Gentleman’s +Magazine</i> in a poem in the manner of Pope, “On the Abuse of +Satire.” The authorship of the poem was much debated, and it +was attributed by some to William Hayley, upon whom it was +actually avenged, with characteristic savageness, by its victim. +It is greatly to Wolcot’s credit that, on learning his mistake, +he sought the acquaintance of his young opponent, whose friend +he remained to the end of his life. Through the success of this +satire D’Israeli made the acquaintance of Henry James Pye, who +helped to persuade his father that it would be a mistake to force +him into a business career, and introduced him into literary circles. +D’Israeli dedicated his first book, <i>A Defence of Poetry</i>, to Pye in +1790. Henceforth his life was passed in the way he best liked—in +quiet and almost uninterrupted study. In 1802 he married Maria +Basevi, by whom he had five children, of whom Benjamin (afterwards +Lord Beaconsfield and Prime Minister of England) was the +second. He was able to maintain his strenuous habits of study +till he reached the advanced age of seventy-two, when he was +forced, by paralysis of the optic nerve, to give up work almost +entirely. He lived ten years longer, and died at his seat at Bradenham +House, Buckinghamshire, on the 19th of January 1848.</p> + +<p>Isaac D’Israeli is most celebrated as the author of the +<i>Curiosities of Literature</i> (1791, subsequent volumes in 1793, 1817, +1823 and 1834). It is a miscellany of literary and historical +anecdotes, of original critical remarks, and of interesting and +curious information of all kinds, animated by genuine literary +feeling, taste and enthusiasm. With the <i>Curiosities of Literature</i> +may be classed D’Israeli’s <i>Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations</i> +(1796), the <i>Calamities of Authors</i> (1812-1813), and the <i>Quarrels of +Authors</i> (1814). Towards the close of his life D’Israeli projected a +continuous history of English literature, three volumes of which +appeared in 1841 under the title of the <i>Amenities of Literature</i>. +But of all his works the most delightful is his <i>Essay on the Literary +Character</i> (1795), which, like most of his writings, abounds in +illustrative anecdotes. In the famous “Pope controversy” he +supported Byron and Campbell against Bowles and Hazlitt by +a defence of Pope in the form of a criticism of Joseph Spence’s +<i>Anecdotes</i> contributed to the <i>Quarterly Review</i> (July 1820). In +1797 D’Israeli published three novels; one of these, <i>Mejnoun and +Leila, the Arabian Petrarch and Laura</i>, was said to be the first +oriental romance in English. His last novel, <i>Despotism, or the Fall +of the Jesuits</i>, appeared in 1811, but none of his romances was +popular. He also published a slight sketch of Jewish history, +and especially of the growth of the Talmud, entitled the <i>Genius +of Judaism</i> (1833).</p> + +<p>He was the author of two historical works—a brief defence of +the literary merit and personal and political character of James I. +(1816), and a learned <i>Commentary on the Life and Reign of King +Charles I.</i> (1828-1831). This was recognized by the University +of Oxford, which conferred upon the author the honorary degree +of D.C.L. As an historian D’Israeli is distinguished by two +characteristics. In the first place, he had small interest in politics, +and no sympathy with the passionate fervour, or adequate +appreciation of the importance, of political struggles. And, +secondly, with a laborious zeal then less common than now among +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span> +historians, he sought to bring to light fresh historical material by +patient search for letters, diaries and other manuscripts of value +which had escaped the notice of previous students. Indeed, the +honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of +the modern school of historical research.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of the amiable personal character and the placid life of Isaac +D’Israeli a charming picture is to be found in the brief memoir +prefixed to the 1849 edition of <i>Curiosities of Literature</i>, by his son +Lord Beaconsfield.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a market town in the southern parliamentary division of +Norfolk, England; near the river Waveney (the boundary with +Suffolk), 95 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern +railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3745. The town lies +pleasantly upon a hill rising above a mere, which drains to the +Waveney, having its banks laid out as public gardens. The church +of St Mary exhibits Decorated and Perpendicular stone and flint +work. There is a corn exchange and the agricultural trade is considerable; +brushes and matting are manufactured. The poet +and satirist, John Skelton (d. 1529), was rector here in the later +part of his life, and is doubtfully considered a native.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISSECTION<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>dissecare</i>, to cut apart), the separation +into parts by cutting, particularly the cutting of an animal or plant +into parts for the purpose of examination or display of its structure.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISSENTER<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Lat. <i>dis-sentire</i>, to disagree), one who dissents +or disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &c. The term “dissenter” +is, however, practically restricted to the special sense +of a member of a religious body in England which has, for one +reason or another, separated from the Established Church. +Strictly, the term includes the English Roman Catholics, who in +the original draft of the Relief Act of 1791 were styled “Protesting +Catholic Dissenters.” It is in practice, however, restricted +to the “Protestant Dissenters” referred to in sec. ii. of the +Toleration Act of 1688. The term is not applied to those bodies +who dissent from the Established Church of Scotland; and in +speaking of members of religious bodies which have seceded +from established churches abroad it is usual to employ the term +“dissidents” (Lat. <i>dissidere</i>, to dissent). In this connotation +the terms “dissenter” and “dissenting,” which had acquired +a somewhat contemptuous flavour, have tended since the middle +of the 19th century to be replaced by “nonconformist,” a term +which did not originally imply secession, but only refusal to +conform in certain particulars (<i>e.g.</i> the wearing of the surplice) +with the authorized usages of the Established Church. Still +more recently the term “nonconformist” has in its turn, as the +political attack on the principle of a state establishment of +religion developed, tended to give place to the style of “Free +Churches” and “Free Churchman.” All three terms are now +in use, “nonconformist” being the most usual, as it is the most +colourless. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congregationalism</a></span>, &c.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISSOCIATION,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a separation or dispersal, the opposite of +association. In chemistry the term is given to chemical +reactions in which a substance decomposes into two or more +substances, and particularly to cases in which associated molecules +break down into simpler molecules. Thus the reactions +NH<span class="su">4</span>Cl ⇔ NH<span class="su">3</span> + HCl, and PCl<span class="su">5</span> ⇔ PCl<span class="su">3</span> + Cl<span class="su">2</span> are instances of the +first type; N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span> ⇔ 2NO<span class="su">2</span>, of the second (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemical Action</a></span>). +Electrolytic or ionic dissociation is the separation of a substance +in solution into ions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrolysis</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solution</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISSOLUTION<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>dissolvere</i>, to break up into parts), +the act of dissolving or reducing to constituent parts, especially +of the bringing to an end an association such as a partnership +or building society, and particularly of the termination of an +assembly. A dissolution of parliament in England is thus the end +of its existence, brought about by the efflux of time in accordance +with the Septennial Act 1716, or by an exercise of the royal +prerogative. This is done either in person, or by commission, if +parliament is sitting; if prorogued, then by proclamation. The +word is used as a synonym for end or death.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISTAFF<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>, in the early forms of spinning, the “rock” or short +stick round one end of which the flax, cotton or wool is loosely +wound, and from which it is spun off by the spindle. The word is +derived from the Old English <i>distaef</i>, the first part of which is +connected with <i>dizen</i>, in modern English seen in “bedizen,” to +deck out or embellish, originally “to equip the distaff with flax, +&c.,” cf. the German dialectal word <i>Diesse</i>, flax. The last part +of the word is “staff.” “Distaff” from early times has been +used to symbolize woman’s work (cf. the use of “spinster” for +an unmarried woman); thus the “distaff” or “spindle” side of +a family refers to the female branch, as opposed to the “spear” +or male branch. The 7th of January, the day after Epiphany, +was formerly known as St Distaff’s day, as women then began +work again after the Christmas holiday.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISTILLATION<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>distillare</i>, more correctly +<i>destillare</i>, to drop or trickle down), an operation consisting in the +conversion of a substance or mixture of substances into vapours +which are afterwards condensed to the liquid form; it has for its +object the separation or purification of substances by taking +advantage of differences in volatility. The apparatus consists of +three parts:—the “retort” or “still,” in which the substance is +heated; the “condenser,” in which the vapours are condensed; +and the “receiver,” in which the condensed vapours are collected. +Generally the components of a mixture will be vaporized in the +order of their boiling-points; consequently if the condensates or +“fractions” corresponding to definite ranges of temperature +be separately collected, it is obvious that a more or less partial +separation of the components will be effected. If the substance +operated upon be practically pure to start with, or the product +of distillation be nearly of constant composition, the operation is +termed “purification by distillation” or “rectification”; the latter +term is particularly used in the spirit industry. If a complex +mixture be operated upon, and a separation effected by collecting +the distillates in several portions, the operation is termed +“fractional distillation.” Since many substances decompose +either at, or below, their boiling-points under ordinary atmospheric +pressure, it is necessary to lower the boiling-point by reducing +the pressure if it be desired to distil them. This variation is +termed “distillation under reduced pressure or in a vacuum.” +The vaporization of a substance below its normal boiling-point +can also be effected by blowing in steam or some other vapour; +this operation is termed “distillation with steam.” “Dry distillation” +is the term used when solid substances which do not liquefy +on heating are operated upon; “sublimation” is the term used +when a solid distils without the intervention of a liquid phase.</p> + +<p>Distillation appears to have been practised at very remote +times. The Alexandrians prepared oil of turpentine by distilling +pine-resin; Zosimus of Panopolis, a voluminous writer of the 5th +century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>, speaks of the distillation of a “divine water” or +“panacea” (probably from the complex mixture of calcium +polysulphides, thiosulphate, &c., and free sulphur, which is +obtained by boiling sulphur with lime and water) and advises +“the efficient luting of the apparatus, for otherwise the valuable +properties would be lost.” The Arabians greatly improved the +earlier apparatus, naming one form the alembic (<i>q.v.</i>); they +discovered many ethereal oils by distilling plants and plant juices, +alcohol by the distillation of wine, and also distilled water. The +alchemists gave great attention to the method, as is shown by +the many discoveries made. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric +acids, all more or less impure, were better studied; and many +ethereal oils were discovered. Prior to about the 18th century +three forms of distillation were practised: (1) <i>destillatio per +ascensum</i>, in which the retort was heated from the bottom, and +the vapours escaped from the top; (2) <i>destillatio per latus</i>, in +which the vapours escaped from the side; (3) <i>destillatio per +descensum</i>, in which the retort was heated at the top, and the +vapours led off by a pipe passing through the bottom. According +to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of destillatio per descensum +occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician who flourished +at about the end of the 5th century.</p> + +<p>In modern times the laboratory practice of distillation was +greatly facilitated by the introduction of the condenser named +after Justus von Liebig; A. Kolbe and E. Frankland introduced +the “reflux condenser,” <i>i.e.</i> a condenser so placed that the +condensed vapours return to the distilling flask, a device permitting +the continued boiling of a substance with little loss; W. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span> +Dittmar and R. Anschütz, independently of one another, introduced +“distillation under reduced pressure”; and “fractional +distillation” was greatly aided by the columns of Wurtz (1855), +E. Linnemann (1871), and of J. A. Le Bel and A. Henninger +(1874). In chemical technology enormous strides have been +made, as is apparent from the coal-gas, coal-tar, mineral oil, +spirits and mineral acids industries.</p> + +<p>The subject is here treated under the following subdivisions: +(1) ordinary distillation, (2) distillation under reduced pressure, +(3) fractional distillation, (4) distillation with steam, (5) theory +of distillation, (6) dry distillation, (7) distillation in chemical +technology and (8) commercial distillation of water.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:411px; height:171px" src="images/img319a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 1.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>Ordinary Distillation.</i>—The apparatus generally used is shown +in fig. 1. The substance is heated in a retort a, which consists of a +large bulb drawn out at the top to form a long neck; it may also +be provided with a tubulure, or opening, which permits the charging +of the retort, and also the insertion of a thermometer b. The retort +may be replaced by a distilling flask, which is a round-bottomed +flask (generally with a lengthened neck) provided with an inclined +side tube. The neck of the retort, or side tube of the flask, is connected +to the condenser c by an ordinary or rubber cork, according +to the nature of the substance distilled; ordinary corks soaked in +paraffin wax are very effective when ordinary or rubber corks cannot +be used. Sometimes an “adapter” is used; this is simply a tapering +tube, the side tube being corked into the wider end, and the condenser +on to the narrower end. The thermometer is placed so that the bulb +is near the neck of the retort or the side tube of the distilling flask. +It generally happens that much of the mercury column is outside the +flask and consequently at a lower temperature than the bulb, hence +a correction of the observed temperature is necessary. If N be the +length of the unheated mercury column in degrees, t the temperature +of this column (generally determined by a small thermometer placed +with its bulb at the middle of the column), and T the temperature +recorded by the thermometer, then the corrected temperature of the +vapour is T + 0.000143 (T − t) N (T. E. Thorpe, <i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i>, +1880, p. 159).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 185px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:135px; height:246px" src="images/img319b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The mode of heating varies with the substance to be distilled. +For highly volatile liquids, <i>e.g.</i> ether, ligroin, &c., immersion of the +flask in warm water suffices; for less volatile liquids a directly +heated water or sand bath is used; for other liquids the flask is +heated through wire gauze or asbestos board, or directly by a Bunsen. +The condensing apparatus must also be conditioned by the volatility. +With difficulty volatile substances, <i>e.g.</i> nitrobenzene, air cooling of +the retort neck or of a straight tube connected with the distilling +flask will suffice; or wet blotting-paper placed on the tube and +the receiver immersed in water may be used. For less volatile liquids +the Liebig condenser is most frequently used. In its original form, +this consists of a long tube surrounded by an outer tube so arranged +that cold water circulates in the annular space between the two. +The vapours pass through the inner tube, and the cold water enters +at the end farthest from the distilling flask. For more efficient +condensation—and also for shortening the apparatus—the central +tube may be flattened, bent into a succession +of V’s, or twisted into a spiral form, the object in +each case being to increase the condensing surface. +Of other common types of condenser, we may +notice the “spiral” or “worm” type, which consists +of a glass, copper or tin worm enclosed in +a vessel in which water circulates; and the ball +condenser, which consists of two concentric +spheres, the vapour passing through the inner +sphere and water circulating in the space between +this and the outer (in another form the vapour +circulates in a shell, on the outside and inside of +which water circulates). A very effective type is +shown in fig. 2. The condensing water enters at +the top and is conducted to the bottom of the +inner tube, which it fills and then flows over the +outside of the outer tube; it collects in the +bottom funnel and is then led off. The vapours +pass between the inner and outer tubes.</p> + +<p>Practically any vessel may serve as a receiver—test tube, flask, +beaker, &c. If noxious vapours come over, it is necessary to have an +air-tight connexion between the condenser and receiver, and to provide +the latter with an outlet tube leading to an absorption column +or other contrivance in which the vapours are taken up. If the +substances operated upon decompose when heated in air, as, for +example, the zinc alkyls which inflame, the air within the apparatus +is replaced by some inert gas, <i>e.g.</i> nitrogen, carbon dioxide, &c., +which is led in at the distilling flask before the process is started, and +a slow current maintained during the operation.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Distillation under Reduced Pressure.</i>—This method is adopted +for substances which decompose at their boiling-points under +ordinary pressure, and, generally, when it is desirable to work at a +lower temperature. The apparatus differs very slightly from that +employed in ordinary distillation. The “receiver” must be connected +on the one side to the condenser, and on the other to the +exhaust pump. A safety vessel and a manometer are generally +interposed between the pump and receiver. For the purpose of +collecting the distillates in fractions, many forms of receivers have +been devised. Brühl’s is one of the simplest. It consists of a +number of tubes mounted vertically on a horizontal circular disk +which rotates about a vertical axis in a cylindrical vessel. This +vessel has two tubulures: through one the end of the condenser +projects so as to be over one of the receiving tubes; the other leads +to the pump. By rotating the disk the tubes may be successively +brought under the end of the condenser. Boiling under reduced +pressure has one very serious drawback, viz. the liquid boils irregularly +or “bumps.” W. Dittmar showed that this may be avoided +by leading a fine, steady stream of dry gas-air, carbon dioxide, +hydrogen, &c., according to the substance operated upon—through +the liquid by means of a fine capillary tube, the lower end of which +reaches to nearly the bottom of the flask. “Bumping” is common +in open boiling when the liquid is free from air bubbles and the +interior of the vessel is very smooth. It may be diminished by +introducing clippings of platinum foil, pieces of porcelain, glass +beads or garnets into the liquid. “Frothing” is another objectionable +feature with many liquids. When cold, froth can be immediately +dissipated by adding a few drops of ether. In boiling liquids its +formation may be prevented by adding paraffin wax; the wax melts +and forms a ring on the surface of the liquid, which boils tranquilly +in the centre.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="6"><img style="width:510px; height:235px" src="images/img319c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Wurtz.</td> +<td class="caption">Linnemann.</td> +<td class="caption">Le Bel-Henninger.</td> +<td class="caption">Glynsky.</td> +<td class="caption">     Young.     </td> +<td class="caption">Kreusler.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc" colspan="6">Fig. 3.</td></tr></table> + +<p>3. <i>Fractional Distillation.</i>—By fractional distillation is meant the +separation of a mixture having components which boil at neighbouring +temperatures. The distilling flask has an elongated neck so that +the less volatile vapours are condensed and return to the flask, +while the more volatile component passes over. The success of the +operation depends upon two factors: (1) that the heating be careful, +slow and steady, and (2) that the column attached to the flask be +efficient to sort out, as it were, the most volatile vapour. Three types +of columns are employed: (1) the elongation is simply a straight or +bulb tube; (2) the column, properly termed a “dephlegmator,” is +so constructed that the vapours have to traverse a column of +previously condensed vapour; (3) the column is encircled by a jacket +through which a liquid circulates at the same temperature as the +boiling-point of the most volatile component. To the first type +belongs the simple straight tube, and the Wurtz tube (see fig. 3), +which is simply a series of bulbs blown on a tube. These forms are +not of much value. Several forms of the second type are in use. In +the Linnemann column the condensed vapours temporarily collect on +platinum gauzes (a) placed at the constrictions of a bulbed tube. +In the Le Bel-Henninger form a series of bulbs are connected consecutively +by means of syphon tubes (b) and having platinum gauzes +(a) at the constrictions, so that when a certain amount of liquid +collects in any one bulb it syphons over into the next lower bulb. +The Glynsky form is simpler, having only one syphon tube; at the +constrictions it is usual to have a glass bead. The “rod-and-disk” +form of Sidney Young is a series of disks mounted on a central +spindle and surrounded by a slightly wider tube. The “pear-shaped” +form of the same author consists of a series of pear-shaped +bulbs, the narrow end of one adjoining the wider end of the next +lower one. In this class may also be placed the Hempel tube, which +is simply a straight tube filled with glass beads. Of the third type +is the Warren column consisting of a spiral kept at a constant +temperature by a liquid bath. Improved forms were devised by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span> +F. D. Brown. Kreusler’s form is easily made and manipulated. A +tube closed at the bottom is traversed by an open narrower tube, and +the arrangement is fitted in the neck of the distilling flask. Water +is led in by the inner tube, and leaves by a side tube fused on the +wider tube. Many comparisons of the effectiveness of dephlegmating +columns have been made (see Sidney Young, <i>Fractional Distillation</i>, +1903). The pear-shaped form is the most effective, second in order +is the Le Bel-Henninger, which, in turn, is better than the Glynsky. +The main objection to the Hempel is the retention of liquid in the +beads, and the consequent inapplicability to the distillation of small +quantities.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Distillation with Steam.</i>—In this process a current of steam, +which is generated in a separate boiler and superheated, if necessary, +by circulation through a heated copper worm, is led into the distilling +vessel, and the mixed vapours condensed as in the ordinary +processes. This method is particularly successful in the case of +substances which cannot be distilled at their ordinary boiling-points +(it will be seen in the following section that distilling with steam +implies a lowering of boiling-point), and which can be readily +separated from water. Instances of its application are found in the +separation of ortho- and para-nitrophenol, the o-compound distilling +and the p- remaining behind; in the separation of aniline from the +mixture obtained by reducing nitrobenzene; of the naphthols from +the melts produced by fusing the naphthalene monosulphonic acids +with potash; and of quinoline from the reaction between aniline, +nitrobenzene, glycerin, and sulphuric acid (the product being first +steam distilled to remove any aniline, nitrobenzene, or glycerin, +then treated with alkali, and again steam distilled when quinoline +comes over). With substances prone to discolorization, as, for +example, certain amino compounds, the operation may be conducted +in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, or the water may be saturated +with sulphuretted hydrogen. Liquids other than water may be used: +thus alcohol separates α-pipecoline and ether nitropropylene.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Theory of Distillation.</i>—The general observation that under a +constant pressure a pure substance boils at a constant temperature +leads to the conclusion that the distillate which comes over while +the thermometer records only a small variation is of practically +constant composition. On this fact depends “rectification or +purification by distillation.” A liquid boils when its vapour pressure +equals the superincumbent pressure (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vaporization</a></span>); consequently +any process which diminishes the external pressure must +also lower the boiling-point. In this we have the theory of “distillation +under reduced pressure.” The theory of fractional distillation, +or the behaviour of liquid mixtures when heated to their +boiling-points, is more complex. For simplicity we confine ourselves +to mixtures of two components, in which experience shows that +three cases are to be recognized according as the components are +(1) completely immiscible, (2) partially miscible, (3) miscible in all +proportions.</p> + +<p>When the components are completely immiscible, the vapour +pressure of the one is not influenced by the presence of the other. +The mixture consequently distils at the temperature at which the +sum of the partial pressures equals that of the atmosphere. Both +components come over in a constant proportion until one disappears; +it is then necessary to raise the temperature in order to distil +the residue. The composition of the distillate is determinate (by +Avogadro’s law) if the molecular weights and vapour pressure of the +components at the temperature of distillation be known. If M<span class="su">1</span>, M<span class="su">2</span>, +and P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span> be the molecular weights and vapour pressures of the +components A and B, then the ratio of A to B in the distillate is +M<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">1</span>/M<span class="su">2</span>P<span class="su">2</span>. Although, as is generally the case, one liquid (say A) +is more volatile than the other (say B), <i>i.e.</i> P<span class="su">1</span> greater than P<span class="su">2</span>, if the +molecular weight of A be much less than that of B, then it is obvious +that the ratio M<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">1</span>/M<span class="su">2</span>P<span class="su">2</span> need not be very great, and hence the +less volatile liquid B would come over in fair amount. These conditions +pertain in cases where distillation with steam is successfully +practised, the relatively high volatility of water being counterbalanced +by the relatively high molecular weight of the other +component; for example, in the case of nitrobenzene and water the +ratio is 1 to 5. In general, when the substance to be distilled has a +vapour pressure of only 10 mm. at 100° C., distillation with steam +can be adopted, if the product can be subsequently separated from +the water.</p> + +<p>When distilling a mixture of partially miscible components a +distillate of constant composition is obtained so long as two layers +are present, <i>i.e.</i> A dissolved in B and B dissolved in A, since both +of these solutions emit vapours of the same composition (this follows +since the same vapour must be in equilibrium with both solutions, +for if it were not so a cyclic system contradicting the second law +of thermodynamics would be realizable). The composition of the +vapour, however, would not be the same as that of either layer. As +the distillation proceeded one layer would diminish more rapidly than +the other until only the latter would remain; this would then distil +as a completely miscible mixture.</p> + +<p>The distillation of completely miscible mixtures is the most +common practically and the most complex theoretically. A coordination +of the results obtained on the distillation of mixtures of +this nature with the introduction of certain theoretical considerations +led to the formation of three groups distinguished by the relative +solubilities of the vapours in the liquid components.</p> + +<p>(i.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in the liquid B, and the +vapour of B readily soluble in the liquid A, there will exist a mixture +of A and B which will have a lower vapour pressure than any other +mixture. The vapour pressure composition curve will be convex +to the axis of compositions, the maximum vapour pressures corresponding +to pure A and pure B, and the minimum to some mixture +of A and B. On distilling such a mixture under constant pressure, a +mixture of the two components (of variable composition) will come +over until there remains in the distilling flask the mixture of minimum +vapour pressure. This will then distil at a constant temperature. +Thus nitric acid, boiling-point 68°, forms a mixture with water, +boiling point 100°, which boils at a constant temperature of 126°, +and contains 68% of acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a similar +mixture which boils at 110° and contains 20.2% of acid. Another +mixture of this type is formic acid and water.</p> + +<p>(ii.) If the vapours be sparingly soluble in the liquids there will +exist a mixture having a greater vapour pressure than that of any +other mixture. The vapour pressure-composition curve will now be +concave to the axis of composition, the minima corresponding to the +pure components. On distilling such a mixture, a mixture of constant +composition will distil first, leaving in the distilling flask one or +other of the components according to the composition of the +mixture. An example is propyl alcohol and water. At one time it +was thought that these mixtures of constant boiling-point (an extended +list is given in Young’s <i>Fractional Distillation</i>) were definite +compounds. The above theory, coupled with such facts as the +variation of the composition of the constant boiling-point fraction +with the pressure under which the mixture is distilled, the proportionality +of the density of all mixtures to their composition, &c., +shows this to be erroneous.</p> + +<p>(iii.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in liquid B, and the +vapour of B sparingly soluble in liquid A, and if the vapour pressure +of A be greater than that of B, then the vapour pressures of mixtures +of A and B will continually diminish as one passes from 100% A +to 100% B. The vapour tension may approximate to a linear +function of the composition, and the curve will then be practically +a straight line. On distilling such a mixture pure A will come over +first, followed by mixtures in which the quantity of B continually +increases; consequently by a sufficient number of distillations +A and B can be completely separated. +Examples are water and methyl or ethyl +alcohol.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:195px; height:193px" src="images/img320.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 4.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Van’t Hoff (<i>Theoretical and Physical +Chemistry</i>, vol. i. p. 51) illustrates the +five cases on one diagram. In fig. 4 let +AB be the axis of composition, AP be the +vapour pressure of pure A, BQ the vapour +pressure of pure B. For immiscible liquids +the vapour pressure curve is the horizontal +line ab, described so that aP = QB +and bQ = AP. For partially miscible +liquids the curve is Pa<span class="su">1</span>b<span class="su">1</span>Q. The horizontal +line a<span class="su">1</span>b<span class="su">1</span> corresponds to the two +layers of liquid, and the inclined lines Pa<span class="su">1</span>Qb<span class="su">1</span> to solutions of B in A +and of A in B. The curves Pa<span class="su">4</span>Q, having a minimum at a<span class="su">4</span>, Pa<span class="su">3</span>Q, +having a maximum at a<span class="su">3</span>, and Pa<span class="su">5</span>Q, with neither a maximum nor +minimum, correspond to the types i., ii., iii. of completely miscible +mixtures.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Dry Distillation.</i>—In this process the substance operated upon +is invariably a solid, the vapours being condensed and collected as +in the other methods. When the substance operated upon is of +uncertain composition, as, for example, coal, wood, coal-tar, &c., the +term destructive distillation is employed. A more general designation +is “pyrogenic processes,” which also includes such operations +as leading vapours through red-hot tubes and condensing the +products. We may also consider here cases of sublimation wherein +a solid vaporizes and the vapour condenses without the occurrence +of the liquid phase.</p> + +<p>Dry distillation is extremely wasteful even when definite substances +or mixtures, such as calcium acetate which yields acetone, are +dealt with, valueless by-products being obtained and the condensate +usually requiring much purification. Prior to 1830, little was known +of the process other than that organic compounds generally yielded +tarry and solid matters, but the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas (of +acetone from acetates), of Mitscherlich (of benzene from benzoates) +and of Persoz (of methane from acetates and lime) brought the operation +into common laboratory practice. For efficiency the operation +must be conducted with small quantities; caking may be prevented +by mixing the substance with sand or powdered pumice, or, better, +with iron filings, which also renders the decomposition more regular +by increasing the conductivity of the mass. The most favourable +retort is a shallow iron pan heated in a sand bath, and provided with +a screwed-down lid bearing the delivery tube. Sidney Young has +suggested conducting the operation in a current of carbon dioxide +which sweeps out the vapours as they are evolved, and also heating +in a vapour bath, <i>e.g.</i> of sulphur.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest red-hot tube syntheses of importance was +the formation of naphthalene from a mixture of alcohol and ether +vapours. Such condensations were especially studied by M. P. E. +Berthelot, and shown to be very fruitful in forming hydrocarbons. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span> +Sometimes reagents are placed in the combustion tube, for example +lead oxide (litharge), which takes up bromine and sulphur. In its +simplest form the apparatus consists of a straight tube, made of +glass, porcelain or iron according to the temperature required and +the nature of the reacting substances, heated in an ordinary combustion +furnace, the mixture entering at one end and the vapours +being condensed at the other. Apparatus can also be constructed +in which the unchanged vapours are continually circulated through +the tube. Operating in a current of carbon dioxide facilitates the +process by preventing overheating.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Distillation in Chemical Technology.</i>—In laboratory practice +use is made of a fairly constant type of apparatus, only trifling +modifications being generally necessary to adapt the apparatus for +any distillation or fractionation; in technology, on the other hand, +many questions have to be considered which generally demand the +adoption of special constructions for the economic distillation of +different substances. The modes of distillation enumerated above +all occur in manufacturing practice. Distillation in a vacuum is +practised in two forms:—if the pump draws off steam as well as +air it is termed a “wet” air-pump; if it only draws off air, it is a +“dry” air-pump. In the glycerin industry the lyes obtained by +saponifying the fats are first evaporated with “wet vacuum” and +finally distilled with closed and live steam and a “dry vacuum.” +Two forms of steam distillation may be distinguished:—in one the +still is simply heated by a steam coil wound inside or outside the +still—this is termed heating by dry steam; in the other steam is +injected into the mass within the still—this is the distillation with +live steam of laboratory practice. The details of the plant—the +material and fittings of the still, the manner of heating, the form +of the condensing plant, receivers, &c.—have to be determined for +each substance to be distilled in order to work with the maximum +economy.</p> + +<p>For the distillation of liquids the retort is usually a cylindrical pot +placed vertically; cast iron is generally employed, in which case +the bottom is frequently incurved and thicker than the sides in order +to take up the additional wear and tear. Sometimes linings of +enamelled iron or other material are employed, which when worn +can be replaced at a far lower cost than that of a new still. Glass +stills heated by a sand bath are sometimes employed in the final +distillation of sulphuric acid; platinum, and an alloy of platinum +and iridium with a lining of gold rolled on (a discovery due to +Heraeus), are used for the same purpose. Cast iron stills are provided +with a hemispherical head or dome, generally attached to the +body of the still by bolts, and of sufficient size to allow for any +frothing. It is invariably provided with an opening to carry off the +vapours produced. In its more complete form a still has in addition +the following fittings:—The dome is provided with openings to +admit (1) the axis of the stirring gear (in some stills the stirring gear +rotates on a horizontal axis which traverses the side and not the head +of the still), (2) the inlet and outlet tubes of a closed steam coil, +(3) a tube reaching to nearly the bottom of the still to carry live +steam, (4) a tube to carry a thermometer, (5) one or more manholes +for charging purposes, (6) sight-holes through which the operation +can be watched, and (7) a safety valve. The body of the still is +provided with one or more openings at different heights to serve for +the discharge of the residue in the still, and sometimes with a glass +gauge to record the quantity of matter in the still. For dry distillations +the retorts are generally horizontal cylinders, the bottom +or lower surface being sometimes flattened. Iron and fireclay are +the materials commonly employed; wrought iron is used in the +manufacture of wood-spirit, fireclay for coal-gas (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gas</a></span>: <i>Manufacture</i>), +phosphorus, zinc, &c. The vertical type, however, is +employed in the manufacture of acetone and of iodine.</p> + +<p>Several modes of heating are adopted. In some cases, especially +in dry distillations, the furnace flames play directly on the retorts, +in others, such as in the case of nitric acid, the whole still comes under +the action of the furnace gases to prevent condensation on the upper +part of the still, while in others the furnace gases do not play directly +on the base or upper portion of the still but are conducted around it +by a system of flues (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal-Tar</a></span>). Steam heating, dry or live, +is employed alone and also as an auxiliary to direct firing.</p> + +<p>The condensing plant varies with the volatility of the distillate. +Air cooling is adopted whenever possible. For example, in the less +modern methods for manufacturing nitric acid the vapours were +conducted directly into double-necked bottles (<i>bombonnes</i>) immersed +in water. A more efficient arrangement consists of a stack of +vertical pipes standing up from a main or collecting trough and +connected at the top in consecutive pairs by a cross tube. By +an arrangement of diaphragms in the lower trough the vapours +are circulated through the system. As an auxiliary to air cooling the +stack may be cooled by a slow stream of water trickling down the +outside of the pipes, or, in certain cases, cold water may be injected +into the condenser in the form of a spray, where it meets the ascending +vapours. Horizontal air-cooling arrangements are also employed. +A common type of condenser consists of a copper worm placed in a +water bath; but more generally straight tubes of copper or cast iron +which cross and recross a rectangular tank are employed, since this +form is more readily repaired and cleansed. Wood-spirit, petroleum +and coal-tar distillates are condensed in plant of the latter type. +In cases where the condenser is likely to become plugged there is a +pipe by means of which live steam can be injected into the condenser. +The supply of water to the condenser is regulated according to the +volatility of the condensate. When the vapours readily condense +to a solid form the condensing plant may take the form of large +chambers; such conditions prevail in the manufacture of arsenic, +sulphur and lampblack: in the latter case (which, however, is not +properly one of distillation) the chamber is hung with sheets on +which the pigment collects. Large chambers are also used in the +condensation of mercury.</p> + +<p>Dephlegmation of the vapours arising from such mixtures as coal-tar +fractions, petroleum and the “wash” of the spirit industry, is +very important, and many types of apparatus are employed in order +to effect a separation of the vapours. The earliest form, invented by +C. B. Mansfield to facilitate the fractionation of paraffin and coal-tar +distillates, consisted in having a pipe leading from the inclined +delivery tube of the still to the still again, so that any vapour which +condensed in the delivery tube was returned to the still. Of really +effective columns Coupier’s was one of the earliest. The vapours +rising from the still traverse a tall vertical column, and are then +conveyed through a series of bulbs placed in a bath kept at the +boiling-point of the most volatile constituent. The more volatile +vapours pass over to the condensing plant, while the less volatile ones +condense in the bulbs and are returned to the column at varying +heights by means of connecting tubes. The French column is similar +in action. The Coffey still is one of the most effective and is +employed in the spirit, ammonia, coal-tar and other industries. It +consists of a vertical column divided into a number of sections by +horizontal plates, which are perforated so that the ascending vapours +have to traverse a layer of liquid. Above this “separator” is a +reflux condenser, termed the “cooler,” maintained at the correct +temperature so that only the more volatile component passes to +the receiver. The success of the operation chiefly depends upon the +proper management of the cooler.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Commercial Distillation of Water.</i>—Distilled water, <i>i.e.</i> water +free from salts and to some extent of the dissolved gases which are +always present in natural waters, is of indispensable value in many +operations both of scientific and industrial chemistry. The apparatus +and process for distilling ordinary water are very simple. +The body of the still is made of copper, with a head and worm, or +condensing apparatus, either of copper or tin. The still is usually +fed continuously by the heated water from the condenser. The +first portion of the distillate brings over the gases dissolved in the +water, ammonia and other volatile impurities, and is consequently +rejected; scarcely two-fifths of the entire quantity of water can be +safely used as pure distilled water.</p> + +<p>Apparatus for the economic production of a potable water from +sea-water is of vital importance in the equipment of ships. The +simple distillation of sea-water, and the production thereby of a +certain proportion of chemically fresh water, is a very simple +problem; but it is found that water which is merely evaporated +and recondensed has a very disagreeable flat taste, and it is only after +long exposure to pure atmospheric air, with continued agitation, or +repeated pouring from one vessel to another, that it becomes +sufficiently aerated to lose its unpleasant taste and smell and +become drinkable. The water, moreover, till it is saturated with +gases, readily absorbs noxious vapours to which it may be exposed. +For the successful preparation of potable water from sea-water, the +following conditions are essential:—1st, aeration of the distilled +product so that it may be immediately available for drinking purposes; +2nd, economy of coal to obtain the maximum of water with +the minimum expenditure of fuel; and 3rd, simplicity of working +parts, to secure the apparatus from breaking down, and enable +unskilled attendants to work it with safety. The problem is a comparatively +old one, for we find that R. Fitzgerald patented a process +in 1683 having for its purpose the “sweetening of sea-water.” A +history of early attempts is given in S. Hales’s <i>Philosophical Experiments</i>, +published in 1739. Among the earlier of the modern forms +of apparatus which came into practical adoption are the inventions +of Dr Normandy and of Chaplin of Glasgow, the apparatus of +Rocher of Nantes, and that patented by Gallé and Mazeline of Havre. +Normandy’s apparatus, although economical and producing water +of good quality, is very complex in its structure, consisting of very +numerous working parts, with elaborate arrangements of pipes, +cocks and other fittings. It is consequently expensive and requires +careful attention for its working. It was extensively adopted in the +British navy, the Cunard line and many other important emigrant +and mercantile lines. Chaplin’s apparatus, which was invented and +patented later, has also since 1865 been sanctioned for use on emigrant, +troop and passenger vessels. The apparatus possesses the great +merit of simplicity and compactness, in consequence of which it is +comparatively cheap and not liable to derangement. It was adopted +by many important British and continental shipping companies, +among others by the Peninsular & Oriental, the Inman, the North +German Lloyd and the Hamburg American companies.</p> + +<p>The modern distilling plant consists of two main parts termed +the evaporator and condenser; in addition there must be a boiler +(sometimes steam is run off the main boilers, but this practice has +several disadvantages), pumps for circulating cold water in the +condenser and for supplying salt water to the evaporator, and a +filter through which the aerated water passes. The evaporator +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span> +consists of a cylindrical vessel having in its lower half a horizontal +copper coil connected to the steam supply. The cylindrical vessel +is filled to a certain level with salt water and the steam turned on. +The water vaporizes and is led from the dome of the evaporator +to the head of the condenser. The water level is maintained in the +evaporator until it contains a certain amount of salt. It is then run +off, and replaced by fresh sea-water. The condenser consists of a +vertical cylinder having manifolds at the head and foot and through +which a number of tubes pass. In some types, <i>e.g.</i> the Weir, the +condensing water circulates upwards through the tubes; in others, +<i>e.g.</i> the Quiggins, the water circulates around the tubes. Various +forms of the tubes have been adopted. In the Pape-Henneberg +condenser, which has been adopted in the German navy, they are +oval in section and tend to become circular under the pressure of +the steam; this alteration in shape makes the tubes self-scaling. +In the Quiggins condenser, which has been widely adopted, <i>e.g.</i> in +the “Lusitania,” the steam traverses vertical copper coils tinned +inside and outside; the coils are crescent-shaped, a form which gives +a greater condensing surface and makes the coils self-scaling. The +aeration of the water is effected by blowing air into the steam before +it is condensed; as an auxiliary, the storage tanks have a false +bottom perforated by fine holes so that if air be injected below it, +the water is efficiently aerated by the air which traverses it in fine +streams. After condensation the water is filtered through charcoal. +The filter is either a separate piece of plant, or, as in the Quiggins +form, it may be placed below the coils in the same outer vessel. In +this plant the aeration is conducted by blowing in air at the base of +the condenser. After filtration the water is pumped to the storage +tanks. Many types of distilling plant are in use in addition to those +mentioned above, for example the Rayner, Kirkaldy, Merlees, +Normand; the United States navy has adopted a form designed by +the Bureau of Engineering.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The general practice of laboratory distillation is +discussed in all treatises on practical organic chemistry; reference +may be made to Lassar-Cohn, <i>Manual of Organic Chemistry</i> (1896), +and <i>Arbeitsmethoden für organisch-chemische Laboratorien</i> (1901); +Hans Meyer, <i>Analyse und Konstitutionermittlung organischer +Verbindungen</i> (1909). The theory of distillation finds a place in all +treatises on physical chemistry. Of especial importance is Sidney +Young, <i>Fractional Distillation</i> (1903). The history of distillation is +to be studied in E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, <i>Die ätherischen +Öle</i> (Berlin, 1899; Eng. tr. by E. Kremers, Milwaukee Press, 1900). +The technology of distillation is best studied in relation to the +several industries in which it is employed; reference should be +made to the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal-Tar</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gas</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Petroleum</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spirits</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nitric +Acid</a></span>, &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. E.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISTRACTION<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>distrahere</i>, to pull asunder), a drawing +away or apart; a word now used generally of a state of mind, +to mean a diversion of attention, or a violent emotion amounting +almost to madness.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISTRESS<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>destrece</i>, <i>destresse</i>, from the past +participle of the Lat. <i>distringere</i>, to pull apart, used in Late Lat. +in the sense of to punish, hence to distrain), pressure, especially +of sorrow, pain or ill-fortune. As a legal term, the action of +distraining or distraint, the right which a landlord has of seizing +the personal chattels of his tenant for non-payment of rent. +Cattle <i>damage feasant</i> (doing damage or trespassing upon a neighbour’s +land) may also be <i>distrained</i>, <i>i.e.</i> may be detained until +satisfaction be rendered for injury they have done. The cattle +or other animals thus distrained are a mere pledge in the hands +of the injured person, who has only power to retain them until +the owner appear to make satisfaction for the mischief they have +done. “Distress damage feasant” is also applicable to inanimate +things on the land if doing damage thereto or to its produce; +things in actual use, however, are exempt. Such distress must +be made during the actual trespass, and by whoever is aggrieved +by the damage. Distress for rent was also at one time regarded as +a mere pledge or security; but the remedy, having been found to +be speedy and efficacious, was rendered more perfect by enactments +allowing the thing taken to be sold. Blackstone notes that +the law of distresses in this respect “has been greatly altered within +a few years last past.” The legislature, in fact, converted an +ancient right of personal redress into a powerful remedy for the +exclusive benefit of a single class of creditors, viz. landlords. +Now that the relation of landlord and tenant in England has +come to be regarded as purely a matter of contract, the language +of the law-books seems to be singularly inappropriate. The +defaulting tenant is a “wrong-doer,” the landlord is the “injured +party,”; any attempt to defeat the landlord’s remedy by carrying +off distrainable goods is denounced as “fraudulent and +knavish.” The operation of the law has, as we shall point out, +been mitigated in some important respects, but it still remains +an almost unique specimen of one-sided legislation.</p> + +<p>At common law distress was said to be incident to <i>rent service</i>, +and by particular reservation to rent charges; but by 4 Geo. II. +c. 28 it was extended to <i>rent seck</i>, <i>rents of assize</i> and chief rents +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rent</a></span>). It is therefore a general remedy for rent certain in +arrear. All personal chattels are distrainable with the following +exceptions:—(1) things in which there can be no property, as +animals <i>ferae naturae</i>; (2) ledgers, daybooks, title-deeds, &c.; +(3) things delivered to a person following a public trade, as a horse +sent to be shod, &c.; (4) things already in the custody of the law; +(5) things which cannot be restored in as good a plight as when +distrained, that is, perishable articles; (6) fixtures; (7) beasts of +the plough and instruments of husbandry while there is other +sufficient distress to be found; (8) instruments of a man’s trade or +profession in actual use at the time the distress is made. If not in +actual use they are only privileged in case there is other sufficient +distress upon the premises. These exceptions, it will be seen, +imply that the thing distrained is to be held as a pledge merely—not +to be sold. They also imply that in general any chattels +found on the land in question are to be available for the benefit of +the landlord, whether they belong to the tenant or not. This +principle worked with peculiar harshness in the case of lodgers, +whose goods might be seized and sold for the payment of the rent +due by their landlord to his superior landlord. By the Lodgers’ +Goods Protection Act 1871, however, where a lodger’s goods have +been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him +with a notice stating that the intermediate landlord has no +interest in the property seized, but that it is the property or in the +lawful possession of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of +the rent due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On payment +or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the +distress against the goods in question. By the Law of Distress +Amendment Act 1908 this protection was extended to under +tenants liable to pay rent by equal quarterly instalments, as well +as to any person whatsoever who is not a tenant of the premises or +any part thereof nor has any beneficial interest therein. The act, +however, excludes certain goods, particularly goods belonging to +the husband or wife of the tenant whose rent is in arrear, goods +comprised in any bill of sale, hire purchase agreement or settlement +made by the tenant, goods in the possession or disposition +of a tenant by the consent and permission of the true owner under +such circumstances as to make the tenant reputed owner, goods +of the partner of an immediate tenant, and goods (not being goods +of a lodger) upon premises where any trade or business is carried +on in which both the immediate tenant and the under tenant +have an interest. The act does not apply where an under tenancy +has been created in breach of a covenant or agreement between +the landlord and his immediate tenant. The Law of Distress +Amendment Act 1888 also absolutely exempted from distress the +tools and implements of trade and wearing apparel and bedding +of a tenant and his family to the value of five pounds, and the +Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895 gave power to a court of +summary jurisdiction to direct that such goods, when distrained +upon, should be restored if not sold, or, if sold, to order their +value to be paid by the persons who levied the distress or directed +it to be levied. Originally the landlord could only seize things +actually on the premises, so that the remedy might be defeated by +the things being taken away. But by an act of 1710, and by the +Distress for Rent Act 1737, he may follow things fraudulently or +clandestinely removed off the premises within thirty days after +their removal, unless they have been in the meantime bona fide +sold for a valuable consideration. The sixth exception mentioned +above was held to extend to sheaves of corn; but by an act +of 1690 corn, when reaped, as well as hay, was made subject to +distress. That act was modified by the Landlord and Tenant Act +1851, under which growing crops seized by the sheriff and sold +under an execution are liable to distress for rent which becomes +due after the seizure and sale, if there is no other sufficient distress +on the premises.</p> + +<p>Excessive or disproportionate distress exposes the distrainer +to an action, and any irregularity formerly made the proceedings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span> +void <i>ab initio</i>, so that the remedy was attended with considerable +risk. The Distress for Rent Act 1737, before alluded to, in the +interests of landlords, protected distresses for <i>rent</i> from the +consequences of irregularity. In all cases of distress for rent, if +the owner do not within five days (by the Law of Distress Amendment +Act 1888, fifteen days, if the tenant make a request in +writing to the person levying the distress and also give security +for any additional cost that may be occasioned by such extension +of time) replevy the same with sufficient security, the thing distrained +may be sold towards satisfaction of the rent and charges, +and the surplus, if any, must be returned to the owner. To +“replevy” is when the person distrained upon applies to the +proper authority (the registrar of the county court) to have +the thing returned to his own possession, on giving security to +try the right of taking it in an action of replevin.</p> + +<p>Duties and penalties imposed by act of parliament (<i>e.g.</i> payment +of rates and taxes) are sometimes enforced by distress.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISTRIBUTION<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (Lat, <i>distribuere</i>, to deal out), a term used in +various connexions with the general meaning of spreading out. +In law, the word is used for the division of the personal estate +of an intestate among the next-of-kin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Intestacy</a></span>). The +important scientific question as to the distribution of plants and +animals on the earth is treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Distribution</i>, and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zoological Distribution</a></span>. In economics the word is used +generally for the transference of commodities from person to +person or from place to place, or the dividing up of large quantities +of commodities into smaller quantities; and in a more technical +sense, for the division of the product of industry amongst the +various members or classes of the community. The theory of +economic distribution, <i>i.e.</i> the causes which determine rent, wages, +profits and interest, forms an important subject-matter in all +text-books. Among recent works, see E. Cannan’s <i>History of +Theories of Production and Distribution, 1776-1848</i> (1893), J. R. +Common’s <i>Distribution of Wealth</i> (1893), and H. J. Davenport’s +<i>Value and Distribution</i> (Chicago, 1908).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISTRICT,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a word denoting in its more general sense, a tract +or extent of a country, town, &c., marked off for administrative +or other purposes, or having some special and distinguishing +characteristics. The medieval Latin <i>districtus</i> (from <i>distringere</i>, +to distrain) is defined by Du Cange as <i>Territorium feudi, seu +tractus, in quo Dominus vassallos et tenentes suos distringere potest</i>; +and as <i>justitiae exercendae in eo tractu facultas</i>. It was also used +of the territory over which the feudal lord exercised his jurisdiction +generally. It may be noted that <i>distringere</i> had a wider +significance than “to distrain” in the English legal sense (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Distress</a></span>). It is defined by Du Cange as <i>compellere ad aliquid +faciendum per mulctam, poenam, vel capto pignore</i>. In English +usage, apart from its general application in such forms as postal +district, registration district and the like, “district” has specific +usages for ecclesiastical and local government purposes. It is thus +applied to a division of a parish under the Church Building Acts, +originally called a “perpetual curacy,” and the church serving +such a division is properly a “district chapel.” Under the Local +Government Act of 1894 counties are divided for the purposes of +the act into urban and rural districts. In British India the word +is used to represent the <i>zillah</i>, an administrative subdivision of +a province or presidency. In the United States of America the +word has many administrative, judicial and other applications. +In South Carolina it was used instead of “county” for the chief +division of the state other than in the coast region. In the +Virginias, Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky and Maryland it answers +to “township” or precinct, elsewhere the principal subdivision of +a county. It is used for an electoral “division,” each state being +divided into Congressional and senatorial districts; and also +for a political subdivision ranking between an unorganized and an +organized Territory—<i>e.g.</i>, the District of Columbia and Alaska.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DISTYLE<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="di-">δι</span>, two, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">στῦλος</span>, column), the +architectural term given to a portico which has two columns +between antae, known as <i>distyle-in-antis</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temple</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DITHMARSCHEN,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ditmarsh</span> (in the oldest form of the +name <i>Thiatmaresgaho</i>, Dietmar’s Gau), a territory between the +Eider, the Elbe and the North Sea, forming the western part of +the old duchy of Holstein, and now included in the Prussian +province of Schleswig-Holstein. It contains about 550 sq. m. +with 90,000 inhabitants. The territory consists to the extent of +one half of good pasture land, which is preserved from inroads of +the sea by banks and dams, the other half being mostly waste. +It was originally colonized mainly from Friesland and Saxony. +The district was subjugated and Christianized by Charlemagne +in 804, and ranked as a separate <i>Gau</i>, included perhaps in the +countship of Stade, or <i>Comitalus utriusque ripae</i>. From the same +century, according to one opinion, or from the year 1182, when +the countship was incorporated with their see, according to +another, the archbishops of Bremen claimed supremacy over the +land; but the inhabitants, who had developed and consolidated +a systematic organism for self-government, made obstinate +resistance, and rather attached themselves to the bishop of +Schleswig. Ditmarsken, to use the Scandinavian form of the +name, continued part of the Danish dominions till the disastrous +battle of Bornhöved in 1227, when its former independence was +regained. The claims of the archbishop of Bremen were now so +far recognized that he exercised the royal rights of <i>Heerbann</i> and +<i>Blutbann</i>,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> enjoyed the consequent emoluments, and was represented +first by a single <i>advocatus</i>, or <i>Vogt</i>, and afterwards by one +for each of the five Döffts, or marks, into which the land was +divided after the establishment of Meldorf. The community was +governed by a <i>Landrath</i> of forty-eight elective consuls, or twelve +from each of the four marks; and even in the 14th century the +power of the episcopal <i>advocati</i> was so slight that a chronicler +quoted by Conrad von Maurer says, <i>De Ditmarschen leven sunder +Heren und Hovedt unde dohn wadt se willen</i>, “the Ditmarschen +live without lord and head, and do what they will.” In 1319 and +in 1404 they succeeded in defeating the invasions of the Holstein +nobles; and though in 1474 the land was nominally incorporated +with the duchy by the emperor Frederick III., the attempt of the +Danish king Hans and the duke of Gottorp to enforce the decree +in 1500 resulted only in their complete rout in the marshes of the +Dussend-Düwels-Warf. During the early part of the century +which began with such prestige for Ditmarsh, it was the scene of +violent internal conflict in regard to the religious questions of +the time; and, thus weakened, it was obliged in 1559 to submit +to partition among its three conquerors—King Frederick II. of +Denmark and Dukes John and Adolphus. A new division took +place on Duke John’s death in 1581, by which Frederick obtained +South Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Meldorf, and Adolphus +obtained North Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Heide; and this +arrangement continued till 1773, when all the Gottorp possessions +were incorporated with the Danish crown.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dahlmann’s edition of Neocorus, <i>Chronik von Dithmarschen</i> +(Kiel, 1827), and <i>Geschichte Dänemarks</i> (1840-1844); Michelsen, +<i>Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Landes Dithmarschen</i> (1834), +<i>Sammlung altdithmarscher Rechtsquellen</i> (1842), and <i>Dithmarschen im +Verhältniss zum bremischen Erzstift</i>; Kolster, <i>Geschichte Dithmarschens, +nach F. R. Dahlmanns Vorlesungen</i> (1873).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> That is, the right of claiming military service, and the right of +bringing capital offenders to justice.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DITHYRAMBIC POETRY,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> the description of poetry in which +the character of the dithyramb is preserved. It remains quite +uncertain what the derivation or even the primitive meaning +of the Greek word <span class="grk" title="dithyrambos">διθύραμβος</span> is, although many conjectures +have been attempted. It was, however, connected from earliest +times with the choral worship of Dionysus. A dithyramb is +defined by Grote as a round choric dance and song in honour +of the wine-god. The earliest dithyrambic poetry was probably +improvised by priests of Bacchus at solemn feasts, and expressed, +in disordered numbers, the excitement and frenzy felt by the +worshippers. This element of unrestrained and intoxicated +vehemence is prominent in all poetry of this class. The dithyramb +was traditionally first practised in Naxos; it spread to +other islands, to Boeotia and finally to Athens. Arion is said to +have introduced it at Corinth, and to have allied it to the worship +of Pan. It was thus “merged,” as Professor G. G. Murray says, +“into the Satyr-choir of wild mountain-goats” out of which sprang +the earliest form of tragedy. But when tragic drama had so far +developed as to be quite independent, the dithyramb did not, on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span> +that account, disappear. It flourished in Athens until after the +age of Aristotle. So far as we can distinguish the form of the +ancient Greek dithyramb, it must have been a kind of irregular +wild poetry, not divided into strophes or constructed with any +evolution of the theme, but imitative of the enthusiasm created +by the use of wine, by what passed as the Dionysiac delirium. It +was accompanied on some occasions by flutes, on others by the +lyre, but we do not know enough to conjecture the reasons of the +choice of instrument. Pindar, in whose hands the ode took such +magnificent completeness, is said to have been trained in the +elements of dithyrambic poetry by a certain Lasus of Hermione. +Ion, having carried off the prize in a dithyrambic contest, +distributed to every Athenian citizen a cup of Chian wine. In the +opinion of antiquity, pure dithyrambic poetry reached its climax +in a lost poem. <i>The Cyclops</i>, by Philoxenus of Cythera, a poet of +the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> After this time, the composition of dithyrambs, +although not abandoned, rapidly declined in merit. It +was essentially a Greek form, and was little cultivated, and always +without success, by the Latins. The dithyramb had a spectacular +character, combining verse with music. In modern literature, +although the adjective “dithyrambic” is often used to describe +an enthusiastic movement in lyric language, and particularly in +the ode, pure dithyrambs have been extremely rare. There are, +however, some very notable examples. The <i>Baccho in Toscana</i> +of Francesco Redi (1626-1698), which was translated from the +Italian, with admirable skill, by Leigh Hunt, is a piece of genuine +dithyrambic poetry. <i>Alexander’s Feast</i> (1698), by Dryden, is +the best example in English. But perhaps more remarkable, +and more genuinely dithyrambic than either, are the astonishing +improvisations of Karl Mikael Bellman (1740-1795), +whose Bacchic songs were collected in 1791 and form one of +the most remarkable bodies of lyrical poetry in the literature +of Sweden.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DITTERSBACH,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province +of Silesia, 3 m. by rail S.E. from Waldenburg and 50 m. S. W. from +Breslau. It has coal-mines, bleach-fields and match factories. +Population (1905) 9371.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1739-1799), Austrian +composer and violinist, was born in Vienna on the 2nd of +November 1739, his father’s name being Ditters. Having shown +as a child marked talent for the violin, he was allowed to play in +the orchestras of St Stephen’s and the <i>Schottenkirche</i>, where he +attracted the attention of a notable patron of music, Prince +Joseph Frederick of Hildburghausen (1702-1787), who is also +remembered as a soldier for his disastrous leading of the forces of +the Empire at Rossbach. The prince gave the boy, now eleven +years old, a place in his private orchestra—the first of the kind +established in Vienna,—and also saw to it that he received +an excellent general education. The Seven Years’ War proved +disastrous to both music and morals; and young Ditters, who +had fallen into evil ways, fled from Hildburghausen, whither he +had gone with the prince, to avoid the payment of his gambling +debts. His patron generously forgave and recalled him, but +soon afterwards gave up his orchestra at Vienna. Ditters now +obtained a place in the Vienna opera; but he was not satisfied, +and in 1761 eagerly accepted an invitation to accompany Gluck, +whose acquaintance, as well as that of Haydn, he had made while +in the service of the prince, on a professional journey to Italy. +His success as a violinist on this occasion was equal to that +of Gluck as composer; and on his return to Vienna he was +recognized as the superior of Antonio Lolli, who as virtuoso +had hitherto held the palm. In 1764 he was again associated +with Gluck in the musical part of the ceremonies at Frankfort, +attending the coronation of the archduke Joseph as King of the +Romans. His next appointment was that of conductor of the +orchestra of the bishop of Grosswardein, a Hungarian magnate, +at Pressburg. He set up a private stage in the episcopal palace, +and wrote for it his first “opera buffa,” <i>Amore in musica</i>. His +first oratorio, <i>Isacco figura del Redentore</i>, was also written during +this time; but the scandal of performances of light opera by the +bishop’s company, even on fast days and during Advent, outweighed +this pious effort; the empress Maria Theresa sharply +called the worldly prelate to order; and he, in a huff, dismissed +his orchestra (1769). After a short interlude, Ditters was again +in the service of an ecclesiastical patron, count von Schafgotsch, +prince bishop of Breslau, at his estate of Johannesberg in Silesia. +Here he displayed so much skill as a sportsman, that the bishop +procured for him the office of forester (<i>Forstmeister</i>) of the +principality of Neisse. He had already, by the same influence, +been made knight of the Golden Spur (1770). At Johannesberg +Ditters also produced a comic opera, <i>Il Viaggiatore americano</i>, +and an oratorio, <i>Davide</i>. The title rôle of the latter was taken +by a pretty Italian singer, Signora Nicolini, whom Ditters +married. In 1773 he was ennobled as Karl von Dittersdorf, and +at the same time was appointed administrator (<i>Amtshauptmann</i>) +of Freyenwaldau, an office which he performed by deputy. In +the same year his oratorio <i>Ester</i> was produced in Vienna. During +the War of Bavarian Succession the prince bishop’s orchestra +was dissolved, and Dittersdorf employed himself in his office at +Freyenwaldau; but after the peace of Tetschen (1779) he again +became conductor of the reconstituted orchestra. From this +time forward his output was enormous. In 1780 ten months +sufficed for the production of his <i>Giobbe</i> (Job) and four operas, +three of which were successful; and besides these he wrote a +large number of “characterized symphonies,” founded on the +<i>Metamorphoses</i> of Ovid. He was now at the height of his fame, +and spent the fortune which it brought him in much luxury. But +after a time his patron fell on evil days, the famous orchestra had +to be reduced, and when the bishop died in 1795 his successor +dismissed the composer with a small money gift. Poor and +broken in health, he accepted the asylum offered to him by Ignaz +Freiherr von Stillfried, on his estate near Neuhaus in Bohemia, +where he spent what strength was left him in a feverish effort +to make money by the composition of operas, symphonies and +pianoforte pieces. He died on the 1st of October 1799, praying +“God’s reward” for whoever should save his family from +starvation. On his death-bed he dictated to his son his +<i>Lebensbeschreibung</i> (autobiography).</p> + +<p>Dittersdorf’s chief talent was for comic opera and instrumental +music in the sonata forms. In both of these branches his work +still shows signs of life, and it is of great historical interest, since +he was not only an excellent musician and a friend of Haydn but +also a thoroughly popular writer, with a lively enough musical wit +and sense of effect to embody in an amusing and fairly artistic +form exactly what the best popular intelligence of the times saw +in the new artistic developments of Haydn. Thus, while in the +amiable monotony and diffuseness of Boccherini we may trace +Haydn as a force tending to disintegrate the polyphonic suite-forms +of instrumental music, in Dittersdorf on the other hand +we see the popular conception of the modern sonata and dramatic +style. Yet, with all his popularity, the reality of his progressive +outlook may be gauged from the fact that, though he was at +least as famous a violinist as Boccherini was a violoncellist, there +is in his string quartets no trace of that tendency to sacrifice the +ensemble to an exhibition of his own playing which in Boccherini’s +chamber music puts the violoncello into the same position as the +first violin in the chamber music of Spohr. In Dittersdorf’s +quartets (at least six of which are worthy of their survival at the +present day) the first violin leads indeed, but not more than is +inevitable in such unsophisticated music where the normal place +for melody is at the top. The appearance of greater vitality +in the texture of Boccherini’s quintets is produced merely by +the fact that, his special instrument being the violoncello, his +displays of brilliance inevitably occur in the inner parts. Six +of Dittersdorf’s symphonies on the <i>Metamorphoses</i> of Ovid were +republished in 1899, the centenary of his death. In them we have +an amusing and sometimes charming illustration of the way in +which at transitional periods music, as at the present day, is ready +to make crutches of literature. The end of the representation of +the conversion of the Lycian peasants into frogs is prophetically +and ridiculously Wagnerian in its ingenious expansion of rhythm +and eminently expert orchestration. Every external feature of +Dittersdorf’s style seems admirably apt for success in German +comic opera on a small scale; and an occasional experimental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span> +performance at the present day of his <i>Doktor und Apotheker</i> is +not less his due than the survival of his best quartets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Lebensbeschreibung</i>, published at Leipzig, 1801 (English +translation by A. D. Coleridge, 1896); an article in the <i>Rivista +musicale</i>, vi. 727; and the article “Dittersdorf” in Grove’s +<i>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DITTO<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>dictum</i>, something said, Ital. <i>detto</i>, +aforesaid), that which has been said before, the same thing. The +word is frequently abbreviated into “do.” In accounts, “ditto” +is indicated by two dots or a dash under the word or figure that +would otherwise be repeated. A “suit of dittos,” a trade or slang +phrase, is a suit in which coat, trousers and waistcoat are all of +the same material.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DITTON, HUMPHRY<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1675-1715), English mathematician, +was born at Salisbury on the 29th of May 1675. He studied +theology, and was for some years a dissenting minister at +Tonbridge, but on the death of his father he devoted himself +to the congenial study of mathematics. Through the influence +of Sir Isaac Newton he was elected mathematical master in +Christ’s hospital. He was author of the following memoirs and +treatises:—“Of the Tangents of Curves, &c.,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. +xxiii.; “A Treatise on Spherical Catoptrics,” published in the +<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. xxiv., from which it was copied and reprinted +in the <i>Acta Eruditorum</i> (1707), and also in the Memoirs of the +Academy of Sciences at Paris; <i>General Laws of Nature and +Motion</i> (1705), a work which is commended by Wolfius as illustrating +and rendering easy the writings of Galileo and Huygens, and +the <i>Principia</i> of Newton; <i>An Institution of Fluxions, containing +the First Principles, Operations, and Applications of that admirable +Method, as invented by Sir Isaac Newton</i> (1706). In 1709 he +published the <i>Synopsis Algebraica</i> of John Alexander, with many +additions and corrections. In his <i>Treatise on Perspective</i> (1712) +he explained the mathematical principles of that art; and +anticipated the method afterwards elaborated by Brook Taylor. +In 1714 Ditton published his <i>Discourse on the Resurrection of +Jesus Christ;</i> and <i>The New Law of Fluids, or a Discourse concerning +the Ascent of Liquids in exact Geometrical Figures, between two +nearly contiguous Surfaces</i>. To this was annexed a tract (“Matter +not a Cogitative Substance”) to demonstrate the impossibility of +thinking or perception being the result of any combination of the +parts of matter and motion. There was also added an advertisement +from him and William Whiston concerning a method for +discovering the longitude, which it seems they had published +about half a year before. Although the method had been approved +by Sir Isaac Newton before being presented to the Board +of Longitude, and successfully practised in finding the longitude +between Paris and Vienna, the board determined against it. +This disappointment, aggravated as it was by certain lines +written by Dean Swift, affected Ditton’s health to such a degree +that he died in the following year, on the 15th of October 1715.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIU,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> an island and town of India, belonging to Portugal, and +situated at the southern extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar. +Area of district, 20 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 14,614. The anchorage +is fairly protected from the sea, but the depth of water is only 3 to +4 fathoms. The channel between the island on Diu and the mainland +is navigable only by fishing boats and small craft. The town +is well fortified on the old system, being surrounded by a wall +with towers at regular intervals. Many of the inhabitants are +the well-known Banyan merchants of the east coast of Africa and +Arabia. Native spirits are distilled from the palm, salt is made +and fish caught. The trade of the town, however, is decayed. +There are remains of several fine ancient buildings. The cathedral +or Sé Matriz, dating from 1601, was formerly a Jesuit college. +The mint, the arsenal and several convents (now ruined or +converted to other uses) are also noteworthy. The Portuguese, +under treaty with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, built a fort here in +1535, but soon quarrelled with the natives and were besieged in +1538 and 1545. The second siege is one of the most famous +in Indo-Portuguese history, and is the subject of an epic by +Jeronymo Corte Real (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. S. Whiteway, <i>Rise of the Portuguese Power in India</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIURETICS<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="diá">διά</span>, through, and <span class="grk" title="ourein">οὐρεῖν</span>, pass urine), +the name given to remedies which, under certain conditions, +stimulate an increased flow of urine. Their mode of action +is various. Some are absorbed into the blood, carried to the +secretory organs (the kidneys), and stimulate them directly, +causing an increased flow of blood; others act as stimulants +through the nervous system. A second class act in congested +conditions of the kidneys by diminishing the congestion. Another +class, such as the saline diuretics, are effectual by virtue of their +osmotic action. A fourth class are diuretic by increasing the blood +pressure within the vessels in general, and the Malpighian tufts +in particular,—some, as digitalis, by increasing the strength of +the heart’s contractions, and others, as water, by increasing the +amount of fluid circulating in the vessels. Some remedies, as +mercury, although not diuretic themselves, when prescribed along +with those which have this action, increase their effect. The +same remedy may act in more than one way, <i>e.g.</i> alcohol, besides +stimulating the secretory organs directly, is a stimulant to the +circulation, and thus increases the pressure within the vessels. +Diuretics are prescribed when the quantity of urine is much +diminished, or when, although the quantity may be normal, it is +wished to relieve some other organ or set of organs of part of their +ordinary work, or to aid in carrying off some morbid product +circulating in the blood, or to hasten the removal of inflammatory +serous exudations, or of dropsical collections of fluid. Caffeine, +which is far the best true diuretic, acts in nearly every way +mentioned above. Together with digitalis it is the most efficient +remedy for cardiac dropsy. A famous diuretic pill, known as +Guy’s pill, consists of a grain each of mercurial pill, digitalis +leaves and squill, made up with extract of henbane. Digitalis, +producing its diuretic effect by its combined action on heart, +vessels and kidneys, is much used in the oedema of mitral disease, +but must be avoided in chronic Bright’s disease, as it increases +the tension of the pulse, already often dangerously high. +Turpentine and cantharides are not now recommended as +diuretics, as they are too irritating to the kidneys.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIURNAL MOTION,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> the relative motion of the earth and the +heavens, which results from the rotation of our globe on its axis in +a direction from west toward east. The actual motion consists in +this rotation. But the term is commonly applied to the resultant +apparent revolution of the heavens from east to west, the axis of +which passes through the celestial poles, and is coincident in +direction with the axis of the earth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVAN<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (Arabic <i>dīwān</i>), a Persian word, derived probably from +Aramaic, meaning a “counting-house, office, bureau, tribunal”; +thence, on one side, the “account-books and registers” of such +an office, and, on another, the “room where the office or tribunal +sits”; thence, again, from “account-book, register,” a “book +containing the poems of an author,” arranged in a definite order +(alphabetical according to the rhyme-words), perhaps because of +the saying, “Poetry is the register (<i>dīwān</i>) of the Arabs,” and +from “bureau, tribunal,” “a long seat, formed of a mattress laid +against the side of the room, upon the floor or upon a raised +structure or frame, with cushions to lean against” (Lane, <i>Lexicon</i>, +930 f.). All these meanings existed and exist, especially “bureau, +tribunal,” “book of poems” and “seat”<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>; but the order of +derivation may have been slightly different. The word first +appears under the caliphate of Omar (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 634-644). Great +wealth, gained from the Moslem conquests, was pouring into +Medina, and a system of business management and administration +became necessary. This was copied from the Persians and given +the Persian name, “divan.” Later, as the state became more +complicated, the term was extended over all the government +bureaus. The divan of the Sublime Porte was for long the +council of the empire, presided over by the grand vizier.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Von Kremer, <i>Culturgeschichte des Orients</i>, i. 64, 198.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. B. Ma.)</div> + + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The divan in this sense has been known in Europe certainly since +about the middle of the 18th century. It was fashionable, roughly +speaking, from 1820 to 1850, wherever the romantic movement in +literature penetrated. All the boudoirs of that generation were +garnished with divans; they even spread to coffee-houses, which +were sometimes known as “divans” or “Turkish divans”; and +a “cigar divan” remains a familiar expression.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVER,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> a name that when applied to a bird is commonly used +in a sense even more vague than that of loom, several of the sea +ducks or <i>Fuligulinae</i> and mergansers being frequently so called, +to say nothing of certain of the auks or <i>Alcidae</i> and grebes; but +in English ornithological works the term diver is generally +restricted to the Family known as <i>Colymbidae</i>, a very well-marked +group of aquatic birds, possessing great, though not exceptional, +powers of submergence, and consisting of a single genus <i>Colymbus</i> +which is composed of three, or at most four, species, all confined +to the northern hemisphere. This Family belongs to the +<i>Cecomorphae</i> of T. H. Huxley, and is usually supposed to occupy +a place between the <i>Alcidae</i> and <i>Podicipedidae</i>; but to which of +these groups it is most closely related is undecided. Professor +Brandt in 1837 (<i>Beitr. Naturgesch. Vögel</i>, pp. 124-132) pointed out +the osteological differences of the grebes and the divers, urging +the affinity of the latter to the auks; while, thirty years later, +Professor Alph. Milne-Edwards (<i>Ois. foss. France</i>, i. pp. 279-283) +inclined to the opposite view, chiefly relying on the similarity of a +peculiar formation of the tibia in the grebes and divers,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which +indeed is very remarkable, and, in the latter group, attracted the +attention of Willughby more than 230 years ago. On the other +hand Professor Brandt, and Rudolph Wagner shortly after +(Naumann’s <i>Vögel Deutschlands</i>, ix. p. 683, xii. p. 395), had +already shown that the structure of the knee-joint in the grebes +and divers differs in that the former have a distinct and singularly +formed <i>patella</i> (which is undeveloped in the latter) in addition to +the prolonged, pyramidally formed, procnemial process—which +last may, from its exaggeration, be regarded as a character almost +peculiar to these two groups.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The evidence furnished by oology +and the newly-hatched young seems to favour Brandt’s views. +The abortion of the <i>rectrices</i> in the gerbes, while these feathers +are fairly developed in the divers, is another point that helps to +separate the two Families.</p> + +<p>The commonest species of <i>Colymbus</i> is <i>C. septentrionalis</i>, known +as the red-throated diver from an elongated patch of dark bay +which distinguishes the throat of the adult in summer dress. +Immature birds want the bay patch, and have the back so much +more spotted that they are commonly known as “speckled +divers.” Next in size is the black-throated diver, <i>C. arcticus</i>, +having a light grey head and a gular patch of purplish-black, +above which is a semicollar of white striped vertically with black. +Still bigger is the great northern diver, <i>C. glacialis</i> or <i>torquatus</i>, +with a glossy black head and neck, two semicollars of white and +black vertical stripes, and nearly the whole of the black back and +upper surface of the wings beautifully marked with white spots, +varying in size and arranged in belts.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Closely resembling this +bird, so as to be most easily distinguished from it by its yellow bill, +is <i>C. adamsi</i>. The divers live chiefly on fish, and are of eminently +marine habit, though invariably resorting for the purpose of +breeding to freshwater lakes, where they lay two dark brown +eggs on the very brink; but they are not unfrequently found far +from the sea, being either driven inland by stress of weather, or +exhausted in their migrations. Like most birds of their build, +they chiefly trust to swimming, whether submerged or on the +surface, as a means of progress, but once on the wing their flight +is strong and they can mount to a great height. In winter their +range is too extensive and varied to be here defined, though it is +believed never to pass, and in few directions to approach, the +northern tropic; but the geographical distribution of the several +forms in summer requires mention. While <i>C. septentrionalis</i> +inhabits the north temperate zone of both hemispheres, <i>C. +arcticus</i> breeds in suitable places from the Hebrides to Scandinavia, +and across the Russian empire, it would seem, to Japan, +reappearing in the north-west of North America,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> though its +eastern limit on that continent cannot be definitely laid down; +but it is not found in Greenland, Iceland, Shetland or Orkney. +<i>C. glacialis</i>, on the contrary, breeds throughout the north-eastern +part of Canada, in Greenland and in Iceland. It has been +said to do so in Scotland as well as in Norway, but the assertion +seems to lack positive proof, and it may be doubted whether, with +the exception of Iceland, it is indigenous to the Old World,<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> since +the form observed in North-eastern Asia is evidently that which +has been called <i>C. adamsi</i>, and is also found in North-western +America; but it may be remarked that one example of this form +has been taken in England (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1859, p. 206) and +at least one in Norway (<i>Nyt Mag. for Naturvidenskaberne</i>, 1877, +p. 134).</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The remains of <i>Colymboides minutus</i>, from the Miocene of Langy, +described by this naturalist in the work just cited, seem to show it to +have been a generalized form. Unfortunately its tibia is unknown.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A. H. Garrod, in his tentative and chiefly myological arrangement +of Birds (<i>Proc Zool. Society</i>, 1874, p. 117), placed the <i>Colymbidae</i> +and <i>Podicipedidae</i> in one order (<i>Anseriformes</i>) and the <i>Alcidae</i> +in another (<i>Charadriiformes</i>); but the artificial nature of this +assignment may be realized by the fact of his considering the other +families of the former order to be <i>Anatidae</i> and <i>Spheniscidae</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The osteology and myology of this species are described by +Dr Coues (<i>Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. History</i>, i. pp. 131-172, pl. 5).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Lawrence’s <i>C. pacificus</i> seems hardly to deserve specific +recognition.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> In this connexion should be mentioned the remarkable occurrence +in Europe of two birds of this species which had been previously +wounded by a weapon presumably of transatlantic origin. One had +“an arrow headed with copper sticking through its neck,” and +was shot on the Irish coast, as recorded by J. Vaughan Thompson +(<i>Nat. Hist. Ireland</i>, iii. p. 201); the other, says Herr H. C. Müller +(<i>Vid. Medd. nat. Forening</i>, 1862, p. 35), was found dead in Kalbaksfjord +in the Faeroes with an iron-tipped bone dart fast under +its wing.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVERS<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> and <span class="bold">DIVING APPARATUS.</span> To “dive” (Old Eng. +<i>dúfan</i>, <i>dŷfan</i>; cf. “dip”) is to plunge under water, and in the +ordinary procedure of swimmers is distinguished from simple +plunging in that it involves remaining under the water for an +interval of more or less duration before coming to the surface. +In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Swimming</a></span> the sport of diving in this sense is +considered. Here we are only concerned with diving as the +function of a “diver,” whose business it is to go under water +(in modern times, assisted by specially devised apparatus) in +order to work.</p> + +<p><i>Unassisted or Natural Diving.</i>—The earliest reference to the +practice of the art of diving for a purpose of utility occurs in the +<i>Iliad</i>, 16, 745-750, where Patroclus compares the fall of Hector’s +charioteer to the action of a diver diving for oysters. Thus it +would seem that the art was known about 1000 years before +the Christian era. Thucydides is the first to mention the employment +of divers for mechanical work under water. He relates that +divers were employed during the siege of Syracuse to saw down +the barriers which had been constructed below the surface of the +water with the object of obstructing and damaging any Grecian +war vessels which might attempt to enter the harbour. At the +siege of Tyre, divers were ordered by Alexander the Great to +impede or destroy the submarine defences of the besieged as they +were erected. The purpose of these obstructions was analogous +to that of the submarine mine of to-day.</p> + +<p>The employment of divers for the salvage of sunken property is +first mentioned by Livy, who records that in the reign of Perseus +considerable treasure was recovered from the sea. By a law of +the Rhodians, their divers were allowed a proportion of the value +recovered, varying with the risk incurred, or the depth from which +the treasure was salved. For instance, if the diver raised it from +a depth of eight cubits (12 ft.) he received one-third for himself; +if from sixteen cubits (24 ft.) one half; but upon goods lost near +the shore, and recovered from a depth of two cubits (36 in.), his +share was only one tenth.</p> + +<p>These are examples of unassisted diving as practised by the +Ancients. Their primitive method, however, is still in vogue in +some parts of the world—notably in the Ceylon pearl fisheries and +in the Mediterranean sponge fisheries, and it may, therefore, be +as well to mention the system adopted by the natural, or naked, +diver of to-day.</p> + +<p>The volume and power of respiration of the lungs vary in +different individuals, some persons being able to hold their breath +longer than others, so that it naturally follows that one man may +be able to stay longer under water than another. The longest +time that a natural diver has been known to remain beneath the +surface is about two minutes. Some pearl and sponge divers rub +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span> +their bodies with oil, and put wool, saturated with oil, in their +ears. Others hold in their mouth a piece of sponge soaked in oil, +which they renew every time they descend. It is doubtful, +however, whether these expedients are beneficial. The men who +dive in this primitive fashion take with them a flat stone with a +hole in the centre; to this is attached a rope, which is secured to +the diving boat and serves to guide them to particular spots below. +When the diver reaches the sea bottom he tears off as much sponge +within reach as possible, or picks up pearl shells, as the case may +be, and then pulls the rope to indicate to the man in the boat that +he wishes to be hauled up. But so exhausting is the work, and so +severe the strain on the system, that, after a number of dives in +deep water, the men often become insensible, and blood <span class="correction" title="amended from sometime">sometimes</span> +bursts from nose, ears and mouth.</p> + +<p><i>Early Diving Appliances.</i>—The earliest mention of any +appliance for assisting divers is by Aristotle, who says that divers +are sometimes provided with instruments for respiration through +which they can draw air from above the water and which thus +enable them to remain a long time under the sea (<i>De Part. Anim.</i> +2, 16), and also that divers breathe by letting down a metallic +vessel which does not get filled with water but retains the air +within it (<i>Problem.</i> 32, 5). It is also recorded that Alexander the +Great made a descent into the sea in a machine called a <i>colimpha</i>, +which had the power of keeping a man dry, and at the same time +of admitting light. Pliny also speaks of divers engaged in the +strategy of ancient warfare, who drew air through a tube, one end +of which they carried in their mouths, whilst the other end was +made to float on the surface of the water. Roger Bacon in +1240, too, is supposed to have invented a contrivance for enabling +men to work under water; and in Vegetius’s <i>De Re Militari</i> +(editions of 1511 and 1532, the latter in the British Museum) is +an engraving representing a diver wearing a tight-fitting helmet +to which is attached a long leathern pipe leading to the surface, +where its open end is kept afloat by means of a bladder. This +method of obtaining air during subaqueous operations was +probably suggested by the action of the elephant when swimming; +the animal instinctively elevates its trunk so that the +end is above the surface of the water, and thus is enabled to +take in fresh air at every inspiration.</p> + +<p>A certain Repton invented “water armour” in the year 1617, +but when tried it was found to be useless. G. A. Borelli in the +year 1679 invented an apparatus which enabled persons to go to a +certain depth under water, and he is credited with being the first +to introduce means of forcing air down to the diver. For this +purpose he used a large pair of bellows. John Lethbridge, a +Devonshire man, in the year 1715 contrived “a watertight leather +case for enclosing the person.” This leather case held about half +a hogshead of air, and was so adapted as to give free play to +arms and legs, so that the wearer could walk on the sea bottom, +examine a sunken vessel and salve her cargo, returning to the +surface when his supply of air was getting exhausted. It is said +that Lethbridge made a considerable fortune by his invention. +The next contrivance worthy of mention, and most nearly +resembling the modern diving-dress, was an apparatus invented +by Kleingert, of Breslau, in 1798. This consisted of an egg-ended +metallic cylinder enveloping the head and the body to the hips. +The diver was encased first of all in a leather jacket having tight-fitting +arms, and in leather drawers with tight-fitting legs. To +these the cylinder was fastened in such a way as to render the +whole equipment airtight. The air supply was drawn through a +pipe which was connected with the mouth of the diver by an ivory +mouthpiece, the surface end being held above water after the +manner mentioned in Vegetius, viz. by means of a floating bladder +attached to it. The foul air escaped through another pipe held in +a similar manner above the surface of the water, inhalation being +performed by the mouth and exhalation by the nose, the act of +inhalation causing the chest to expand and so to expel the vitiated +air through the escape pipe. The diver was weighted when going +under water, and when he wished to ascend he released one of +his weights, and attached it to a rope which he held, and it +was afterwards hauled up.</p> + +<p><i>Modern Apparatus.</i>—This, or equally cumbersome apparatus, +was the only diving gear in use up till 1819, in which year +Augustus Siebe (the founder of the firm of Siebe, Gorman & Co.), +invented his “open” dress, worked in conjunction with an air +force pump. This dress consisted of a metal helmet and shoulder-plate +attached to a watertight jacket, under which, fitting more +closely to the body, were worn trousers, or rather a combination +suit reaching to the armpits. The helmet was fitted with an air +inlet valve, to which one end of a flexible tube was attached, the +other end being connected at the surface with a pump which +supplied the diver with a constant stream of fresh air. The air, +which kept the water well down, forced its way between the jacket +and the under-garment, and escaped to the surface on exactly the +same principle as that of the diving bell; hence the term “open” +as applied to this dress.</p> + +<p>Although most excellent work was accomplished with this dress—work +which could not be attempted before its introduction—it +was still far from perfect. It was absolutely necessary for the +diver to maintain an upright, or but very slightly stooping, +position whilst under water; if he stumbled and fell, the water +filled his dress, and, unless quickly brought to the surface, he was +in danger of being drowned. To overcome this and other defects, +Siebe carried out a large number of experiments extending over +several years, which culminated, in the year 1830, in the introduction +of his “close” dress in combination with a helmet fitted +with air inlet and regulating outlet valves.</p> + +<p>Though, of course, vast improvements have been introduced +since Siebe’s death, in 1872, the fact remains that his principle is +in universal use to this day. The submarine work which it has +been instrumental in accomplishing is incalculable. But some +idea of the importance of the invention may be gathered from the +fact that diving apparatus on Siebe’s principle is universally used +to-day in harbour, dock, pier and breakwater construction, in +the pearl and sponge fisheries, in recovering sunken ships, cargo +and treasure, and that every ship in the British navy and in most +foreign navies carries one set or more of diving apparatus.</p> + +<p>A modern set of diving apparatus consists essentially of six +parts:—(1) an air pump, (2) a helmet with breastplate, (3) a +diving dress, (4) +a pair of heavily +weighted boots, +(5) a pair of back +and chest +weights, (6) a +flexible non-collapsible +air tube.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:379px; height:467px" src="images/img327.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Pump out of chest.<br /> +Two-cylinder, Double-action Air Pump for Two Divers.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>A, Air-distributing arrangement, for one diver or two divers.</p> +<p>B, Water jacket.</p> +<p>C, Suction and discharge valves.</p></td> +<td class="caption1"><p>D, Cylinders.</p> +<p>E, Pressure gauges.</p> +<p>F, Nozzles to which divers’ air pipes are attached.</p></td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Air Pumps.</i>—The +type of air +pump varies with +the depth of water +to which the diver +has to descend; it +will be readily understood +that the +greater the depth +the greater the +quantity of air +required by the +diver. The pattern +most generally +in favour +amongst divers of +all classes is a +three-cylinder +single-acting +pump, which is +suitable for almost +every description +of work which the +diver may be +called upon to +perform, either in +deep or shallow +water. Another +most useful type +is a two-cylinder double-acting pump (figs. 1 and 2), which is +designed to supply two divers working simultaneously in moderate +depths of water, or one diver only in deep water. An air-distributing +arrangement is fitted, whereby, when it is desired to send two men +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span> +down together, each cylinder supplies air independently of the other; +and when it is required to send one diver into deep water, the two +cylinders are connected and the full volume of air from both is +delivered to the one man. The same duty is also performed by a +four-cylinder single-acting pump. Smaller pumps, having one +double-acting or two single-acting cylinders, are also used for +shallow water work.</p> + +<p>In most cases these air pumps are worked by manual power; +this method of working is rendered necessary by the fact that the +machines are usually placed in small boats from which the divers +work and on which other motive power is not available. In cases, +however, where steam or electric power is available the pumps are +sometimes worked by their means—more particularly on harbour +and dock works. In such instances the air is not delivered direct +from the pump to the diver, but is delivered into an intermediate +steel receiver to which the diver’s air pipe is connected, the object +being to ensure a reserve supply of air in case of a breakdown of the +pump. Some of these combinations of pumps and motors are so +arranged that, in the event of an accident to the motor, the pump +can be thrown out of gear with it, and be immediately worked by +hand power. Each pump is fitted with a gauge (or gauges), indicating +not only the pressure of air which the pump is supplying, +but also the depth of water at which the diver is working. The +cylinders are water-jacketed to ensure the air delivered to the diver +being cool, the water being drawn in and circulated round the +cylinders by means of a small metal pump worked from an eccentric +on the main crank-shaft. Filters are sometimes attached to the +suction and delivery sides of the pumps to ensure the inlet of air +being free from dirt, and the discharge of air free from dirt and oil.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:425px; height:387px" src="images/img328a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Pump in chest, ready for work.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Helmet.</i>—The helmet and breastplate (fig. 3) are made from highly +planished tinned copper, with gun-metal valves and other fittings. +The helmet is provided with a non-return air inlet valve to which the +diver’s air pipe is connected; the air when it lifts the inlet valve +passes through three conduits—one having its outlet over the front +glass, the others their outlets over the side glasses. In this way +the diver gets the air fresh as it enters the helmet, and at the same +time it prevents condensation of his breath on the glasses and keeps +them clear. There is a regulating air outlet valve by which the +diver adjusts his supply of air according to his requirements in different +depths of water; the valve is usually made to be adjusted by hand, +but sometimes it is so constructed as to be operated by the diver +knocking his head against it, the spindle being extended through to +the inside of the helmet and fitted at its inner extremity with a +button or disk. By unscrewing the valve, the diver allows air to +escape, and thus the dress is deflated; by screwing it up the air +is retained and the dress inflated. Thus the diver can control his +specific gravity and rise or sink at will. In case by any chance the +diver should inflate the dress inadvertently, and wish to get rid of the +superfluous air quickly, he can do so by opening an emergency cock, +which is fitted on the helmet. Plate glasses in gun-metal frames are +also fitted to the helmet, two, one on each side, being permanently +fixed, while one in front is made either to screw in and out, or to work +on a hinged joint like a ship’s scuttle; the side glasses are usually +protected by metal cross-bars, as is also sometimes the front glass. +Some divers prefer unprotected glasses at the side of the helmet, +instead of protected oval ones.</p> + +<p>The breastplate is fitted on its outer edge with metal screws and +bands. The disposition of the screws corresponds with that of the +holes in the india-rubber collar of the diving dress described below. +There are other methods of making a watertight joint between the +diver’s breastplate and the diving dress, but, as these are only +mechanical differences, it will suffice to describe the Siebe-Gorman +apparatus, as exclusively adopted by the British government. +Whatever the shape or design of the helmet or dress, Siebe’s principle +is the one in universal use to-day.</p> + +<p>The metal tabs are for carrying the diver’s lead weights, which are +fitted with suitable clips; the hooks—one on each side of the helmet—are +for keeping the ropes attached to the back weight in position. +The helmet and breastplate are fitted at their lower and upper parts +respectively with gun-metal segmental neck rings, which make it +possible to connect these two main parts together by one-eighth of +a turn, a catch at the back of the helmet preventing any chance of +unscrewing. The small eyes at the top of the helmet are for securing +the diver’s air pipe and life line in position and preventing them from +swaying.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:518px; height:334px" src="images/img328b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Front view of Helmet.</td> +<td class="caption">Side sectional view of Helmet.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p>A, Helmet.</p> +<p>B, Breastplate.</p> +<p>F, Emergency cock.</p> +<p>G, Glasses in frames.</p> +<p>H, Metal screws and bands.</p> +<p>I, Metal tabs.</p> +<p>J, Hooks for keeping weight ropes in position.</p> +<p>L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured.</p></td> +<td class="tcl f90"><p>K, Segmental neck rings.</p> +<p>D, Air conduits.</p> +<p>M, Telephone receiver.</p> +<p>N, Transmitter.</p> +<p>O, Contact piece to ring bell.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:222px; height:212px" src="images/img328c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:221px; height:215px" src="images/img328d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Back view of Helmet.</td> +<td class="caption">Plan of Helmet.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> </td> +<td class="tcl f90" style="padding-left:3em;"><p>C, Air inlet valve.</p> +<p>E, Regulating outlet valve.</p> +<p>G, Glasses in frames.</p> +<p>L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured.</p> +<p>P, Connexion for telephone cable.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc pt1" colspan="2">Fig. 3.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Diving Dress</i> is a combination suit which envelops the whole +body from feet to neck. It is made of two layers of tanned twill with +pure rubber between, and is fitted at the neck with a vulcanized +india-rubber collar, or band, with holes punched in it corresponding +to the screws in the breastplate. This collar, when clamped tightly +between the bands and the breastplate by means of the nuts, ensures +a watertight joint. The sleeves of the dress are fitted with vulcanized +india-rubber cuffs, which, fitting tightly round the diver’s wrists, +prevent the ingress of water at these parts also.</p> + +<p><i>Boots.</i>—These are generally made with leather uppers, beechwood +inner soles and leaden outer soles, the latter being secured to the others +by copper rivets. Heavy leather straps with brass buckles secure +the boot to the foot. Each boot weighs about 16 ℔. Sometimes the +main part of the boot-golosh, toe and heel, are in one brass casting, +with leather upper part, heavy straps and brass buckles.</p> + +<p><i>Lead Weights.</i>—These weigh 40 ℔ each, and the diver wears one +on his back, another on his chest. These weights and the heavy +boots ensure the diver’s equilibrium when under water.</p> + +<p><i>Belt and Knife and Small Tools.</i>—Every diver wears a heavy +waist-belt in which he carries a strong knife in metal case, and sometimes +other small tools.</p> + +<p><i>Air Pipe.</i>—The diver’s air pipe is of a flexible, non-collapsible +description, being made of alternate layers of strong canvas and +vulcanized india-rubber, with steel or hard drawn metal wire embedded. +At the ends are fitted gun-metal couplings, for connecting +the pipe with the diver’s pump and helmet.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span></p> + +<p><i>Signal Line.</i>—The diver’s signal line (sometimes called life line) +consists of a length of reverse laid Manila rope. In cases where the +telephone apparatus is not used, the diver gives his signals by means +of a series of pulls on the signal line in accordance with a prearranged +code.</p> + +<p><i>Telephonic Apparatus.</i>—Without doubt one of the most useful +adjuncts to the modern diving apparatus is the loud-sounding +telephone (fig. 4), introduced by Siebe, Gorman & Co., which enables +the diver to communicate viva voce with his attendant, and vice +versa. In the British navy the type of submarine telephonic +apparatus used is the Graham-Davis system. This is made on two +plans, (1) a single set of instruments, for communication between +one diver and his attendant direct, (2) an intercommunication set +which is used where two divers are employed. With this type the +attendant can speak to No. 1 or No. 2 diver separately, or with both +at the same time, and vice versa; and No. 1 can be put in communication +with No. 2 whilst they are under water, the attendant at +the surface being able to hear what the men are saying. The +advantages of such a system are obvious. It is more particularly +useful where two divers are working one either side of a ship, or +where the divers may be engaged upon the same piece of work, but +out of sight of one another, or out of touch. It would prove its utility +in a marked degree in cases where a diver got into difficulties; a +second diver sent down to his assistance could receive and give verbal +directions and thus greatly expedite the work of rescue.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:377px; height:371px" src="images/img329a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Diver’s Telephone Communication with the Surface.<br /><br /> +Q, Battery, with switch and bell in case.<br /> +R, Attendant’s receiver and transmitter.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The telephone instruments in the helmet consist of one or more +loud-sounding receivers placed either in the crown of the helmet, +or one on each side in close proximity to the diver’s ears. A transmitter +of a special watertight pattern is placed between the front +glass and one of the side glasses, and a contact piece, which, when +the diver presses his chin against it, rings a bell at the surface, is +fitted immediately below the front glass. A buzzer is sometimes +fixed in the helmet to call the diver’s attention when the attendant +wishes to speak, but as a rule the voice is transmitted so loudly that +this device is unnecessary. A connexion, through which the insulated +wires connecting the instruments pass, terminates in contact pieces, +and the telephone +cable, embedded in +the diver’s signal +line, is connected +with it. The other +end of the signal line +is connected to a +battery box at the +surface. This box +contains, besides +the cells, a receiver +and transmitter for +the attendant, an +electric bell, a terminal +box, and a +special switch, by +means of which various +communications +between diver, or +divers, and attendant +are made. If, +as is sometimes the +case, the diver happens +to be somewhat +deaf, he can, whilst +he is taking a message, +stop the vibration +of the outlet +valve and the noise made by the escaping air, by merely pressing +his finger on a spindle which passes through the disk of the valve, +and thus momentarily ensure absolute silence.</p> + +<p><i>Speaking Tube.</i>—The rubber speaking tube which was the forerunner +of the telephonic apparatus is now practically obsolete, though +it is still used in isolated cases.</p> + +<p><i>Submarine Electric Lamps.</i>—Various forms of submarine lamps +are used, from a powerful arc light to a self-contained hand lamp, +the former giving about 2000 or 3000 candle-power, and requiring +a steam-driven dynamo to supply the necessary current, the latter +(fig. 5) giving a light of about 10 candle-power and having its own +batteries, so that the diver carries both the light and its source in +his hand. These submarine lamps are all constructed on the same +principle, having the incandescent lamps, or carbons as the case +may be, enclosed in a strong glass globe, the mechanism and connexions +being fitted in a metal case above the globe, which is flanged +and secured watertightly to the case.</p> + +<p><i>Self-contained Diving Dress.</i>—The object of the self-contained +diving dress is to make the diver independent of air supply from the +surface. The dress, helmet, boots and weights are of the ordinary +pattern already described, but instead of obtaining his air supply +by means of pumps and pipes, the diver is equipped with a knapsack +consisting of a steel cylinder containing oxygen compressed to a +pressure of 120 atmospheres (= about 1800 ℔) to the square inch, +and chambers containing caustic soda or caustic potash. The +helmet is connected to the chambers by tubes, and the oxygen +cylinder is similarly connected to the chambers. The breath exhaled +by the diver passes through a valve into the caustic soda, which +absorbs the carbonic acid, and it is then again inhaled through +another valve. This process of regeneration goes on automatically, +the requisite amount of oxygen being restored to the breathed air +in its passage through the chambers. This type of apparatus has +been used for shallow water work, but the great majority of divers +prefer the apparatus using pumps as the source of the air supply.</p> + +<p>An emergency dress, using this self-contained system for breathing, +has been designed by Messrs Fleuss and Davis, of the firm of Siebe, +Gorman & Co., primarily as a life-saving apparatus, for enabling men +to escape from disabled submarine boats.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:433px; height:242px" src="images/img329b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without Reflector.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>A, Metal case containing electrical fittings.</p> +<p>B, Glass globe and incandescent lamp.</p></td> +<td class="tcl"><p>C, Stand, which also protects the globe.</p> +<p>D, Ring for suspending lamp.</p> +<p>E, Reflector.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The helmet diver is indispensable in connexion with harbour and +dock construction, bridge-building, pearl and sponge fishing, wreck +raising and the recovery of sunken cargo and treasure. Every ship +in the British navy carries one set or more of diving apparatus, for +use in ease of emergency, for clearing fouled propellers, cleaning +valves or ship’s hull below the water line, repairing hulls if necessary, +and recovering lost anchors, chains, torpedoes, &c.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Greatest Depths attained.</i>—The greatest depth at which useful +work has been performed by a diver is 182 ft. From this depth +a Spanish diver, Angel Erostarbe, recovered £9000 in silver bars +from the wreck of the steamer “Skyro,” sunk off Cape Finisterre; +Alexander Lambert succeeded in salving £70,000 from the +Spanish mail steamer “Alphonso XII,” sunk in 162 ft. of water +off Las Palmas, Grand Canary; W. Ridyard recovered £50,000 in +silver dollars from the “Hamilton Mitchell,” sunk off Leuconna +Reef, China, in 150 ft. There are individual cases where much +larger sums have been recovered, but those mentioned are +particularly notable by reason of the great depth involved and +stand out as the greatest depths at which good work has +been done. The sponge fishers of the Mediterranean work +at a maximum depth of about 150 ft., and the pearl divers of +Australia at 120 ft. But submarine operations on the great +majority of the harbour and dock works of the world are +conducted at a depth of from 30 to 60 ft.</p> + +<p>The weighted tools employed by divers differ very little from +those used by the workmen on <i>terra firma</i>. Pneumatic tools, +worked by compressed air conveyed from the surface through +flexible tubes, are great aids, particularly in rock removal work. +With the rock drill the diver bores a number of holes to a given +depth, inserts in these the charges of dynamite or other explosive +used, attaches one end of a wire to a detonator which is inserted in +the charge, and then comes to the surface. The boat from which +he works is then moved away from the scene of operations, paying +out the wire attached to the detonators, and when at a safe +distance the free end of the wire is connected to a magneto +exploding machine, which is then set in motion.</p> + +<p>A complete set of diving apparatus costs from £75 to £200, +varying with the depth of water for which it is required.</p> + +<p>The pay of a diver depends upon the nature of the work upon +which he is engaged, and also upon the depth of the water. On +harbour and dock work the average wage is 2s. to 2s. 6d. per hour; +on wreck work from 3s. to 5s. an hour, according to depth; on +treasure and cargo recovery so much per day, with a percentage +on the value recovered, generally about 5%. The pearl fishers of +Australia get so much per ton of shell, and the sponge fishers are +also paid by results.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span></p> + +<p>A problem which has been exercising the minds of those +engaged in submarine work is the greatest depth at which it is +possible to work, for, as is well known, many a fine vessel with +valuable cargo and treasure is lying out of reach of the diver owing +to the pressure which he would have to sustain were he to attempt +to reach her. Mr Leonard Hill, and Drs Greenwood and J. J. R. +Macleod conducted experiments in conjunction with Messrs +Siebe, Gorman & Co., with a view to solving this problem, and +their efforts have been attended with some considerable success. +Dr J. S. Haldane has also carried out practical experiments for +the British Admiralty, and under his supervision two naval +officers have succeeded in reaching the unprecedented depth of +210 ft., at which depth the pressure is about 90 ℔ to the square +inch.</p> + +<p><i>Diving Bells.</i>—Every one is familiar with the experiment of +placing an inverted tumbler in a bowl of water, and seeing the +water excluded from the tumbler by the air inside it. Perhaps it +was to some such experiment as this that the conception of the +diving bell was due. As is well known, the pressure of water +increases with the depth, and for all practical purposes this +pressure can be taken at 4¼ ℔ to every 10 ft. The following +table shows the pressure at different depths below the surface +of the water:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Depth.</td> <td class="tcl">  Pressure.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> 20 ft.</td> <td class="tcl"> 8½ lb to the sq. in.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 40 ”</td> <td class="tcl">17¼  ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 80 ”</td> <td class="tcl">34¾  ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">120 ”</td> <td class="tcl">52½  ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">160 ”</td> <td class="tcl">69¾  ”  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">200 ”</td> <td class="tcl">87   ”  ”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>If a diving bell be sunk to a depth of, say, 33 ft., the air inside +it will be compressed to about half its original volume, and the bell +itself will be about half filled with water. But if a supply of air be +maintained at a pressure equal to the depth of water at which the +bell is submerged, not only will the water be kept down to the +cutting edge, but the bell will be ventilated and it will be possible +for its occupants to work for hours at a stretch.</p> + +<p>Tradition gives Roger Bacon, in 1250, the credit for being +the originator of the diving bell, but actual records are lost in +antiquity. Of the records preserved to us, probably one of the +most trustworthy is an account given in Kaspar Schott’s work, +<i>Technica curiosa</i>, published in the year 1664, which quoted from +one John Taisnier, who was in the service of Charles V. This +account describes an experiment which took place at Toledo, +Spain, in the year 1538, before the emperor and some thousands +of spectators, when two Greeks descended into the water in a +large “kettle,” suspended by ropes, with its mouth downwards. +The “kettle” was equipoised by lead fixed round its mouth. +The men came up dry, and a lighted candle, which they had +taken down with them, was still burning.</p> + +<p>Francis Bacon, in the <i>Novum Organum</i>, lib. ii., makes the +following reference to a machine, or reservoir, of air to which +labourers upon wrecks might resort whenever they required to +take breath:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“A hollow vessel, made of metal, was let down equally to the +surface of the water, and thus carried with it to the bottom of the +sea the whole of the air which it contained. It stood upon three +feet—like a tripod—which were in length something less than the +height of a man, so that the diver, when he was no longer able to +contain his breath, could put his head into the vessel, and having +filled his lungs again, return to his work.”</p> +</div> + +<p>But it was to Dr Edmund Halley, secretary of the Royal +Society, that undoubtedly the honour is due of having invented +the first really practical diving bell. This is described in the +<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1717, in a paper on “The Art of +Living Under Water by means of furnishing air at the bottom of +the sea in any ordinary depth.” Halley’s bell was constructed of +wood, and was covered with lead, which gave it the necessary +sinking weight, and was so distributed as to ensure that it kept +a perpendicular position when in the water. It was in the form +of a truncated cone, 3 ft. in diameter at the top, 5 ft. at the +bottom and 8 ft. high. In the roof a lens was introduced for +admitting light, and also a tap to let out the vitiated air. Fresh +air was supplied to the bell by means of two lead-lined barrels, +each having a bung-hole in the top and bottom. To the hole in +the top was fixed a leathern tube, weighted in such a manner that +it always fell below the level of the bottom of the barrel so that no +air could escape. When, however, the tube was turned up by the +attendant in the bell, the pressure of the water rising through the +hole in the bottom of the barrel, forced the air through the tube at +the top and into the diving bell. These barrels were raised and +lowered alternately, with such success that Halley says that he, +with four others, remained at the bottom of the sea, at a depth +of 9 to 10 fathoms, for an hour and a half at a time without +inconvenience of any sort.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:512px; height:516px" src="images/img330.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Ordinary Diving Bell.</td></tr></table> + +<p>This type of bell was used by John Smeaton in repairing the +foundations of Hexham Bridge in 1778, but instead of weighted +barrels, he introduced a force pump for supplying the necessary +air. To Smeaton too we are indebted for the first diving bell +plant in the form with which we are familiar to-day, that celebrated +engineer having designed a square bell of iron, for use on +the Ramsgate harbour works, in 1788. This bell, which measured +4½ ft. in length, 3 ft. in width and 4½ ft. in height, and weighed +2½ tons, was made sufficiently heavy to sink by its own weight. +It afforded room enough for two men to work, and was supplied +with air by a force pump worked from a boat at the surface.</p> + +<p>Though the diving bell has been largely superseded by the +modern diving apparatus, it is still used on certain classes of +work the magnitude of which justifies the expense entailed, for +it is not only a question of the cost of the bell, but of the +powerful steam-driven crane which is needed to lower and raise +it, and also of the gantry on which the crane travels. Sometimes +a barge or other vessel is used for working the bell.</p> + +<p>At the present day, two types of diving bell are employed—the +ordinary bell, and the air-lock bell, which, however, is not so +largely used.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the new national harbour works at Dover, four large diving +bells of the ordinary type (fig. 6) were employed. These bells, in +each of which from four to six men descended at a time, consisted +of steel chambers, open at the bottom, measuring 17 ft. long by +10½ ft. wide by 7 ft. high, and each weighed 35 tons. The ballast, +which at once gives the necessary sinking weight to the bell and +maintains its equilibrium, consisted of slabs of cast iron bolted to +the walls of the bell, inside. Each bell was fitted with loud-sounding +telephonic apparatus, by means of which the occupants could communicate +either with the men attending the crane or the men looking +after the air compressors at the surface. Electric lamps, supplied +with current by a dynamo in the compressor room, gave the necessary +light inside the bell. Seats and foot rails were provided for the +men, and there were racks and hooks for the various tools. Suspended +from the roof was an iron skip into which the men threw the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span> +excavated material, which was emptied out when the bell was brought +to the surface. Air was supplied to the bells by means of steam-driven +compressors worked in a house erected on the gantry. The +air was delivered into a steel air receiver, and thence it passed through +a flexible tube connected to a gun-metal inlet valve in the roof of the +diving bell; the pressure of air was regulated according to the depth +at which the bell happened to be working. The maximum depth +on the Dover works was between 60 and 70 ft., = about 25-30 ℔ to +the square inch. A bell was lowered by means of powerful steam-driven +cranes, travelling on a gantry, to within a few feet of the water, +and the men entered it from a boat. The bell then continued its +descent to the bottom, where the men, with pick and shovel, levelled +the sea bed ready to receive the large concrete blocks, weighing from +30 to 42 tons apiece. Having completed one section, the bell was +moved along to another. The concrete blocks were then lowered and +placed in position by helmet divers. The bell divers, clad in thick +woollen suits and watertight thigh boots, worked in shifts of about +three hours each, and were paid at the rate of from 1s. to 15d. +per hour.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 550px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan ="2"><img style="width:530px; height:822px" src="images/img331.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan ="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Air-lock Diving Bell.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>A, Working chamber.</p> +<p>B, Air-lock.</p> +<p>C, Pulleys and wire ropes for lowering and raising bell.</p></td> +<td class="tcl"><p>D, Iron ladder.</p> +<p>E, Tackles suspended from roof for raising and lowering objects.</p> +<p>F, Air supply pipe.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The cost of an ordinary diving bell, including air compressor, +telephonic apparatus and electric light, is from £600 to £1500, +according to size.</p> + +<p>The <i>Air-lock Diving Bell</i> (fig. 7) comprises an iron or steel working +chamber similar to the ordinary diving bell, but with the addition of +a shaft attached to its roof. At the upper end of the shaft is an airtight +door, and about 8 ft. below this is another similar door. When +the bell divers wish to enter the bell, they pass through the first +door and close it after them, and then open a cock or valve and +gradually let into the space between the two doors compressed air +from the working chamber in order to equalize the pressure; they +then open the second door and pass down into the working chamber, +closing the door after them. When returning to the surface they +reverse the operation. It can readily be imagined that, owing to its +unwieldy character, the employment of the air-lock bell is resorted +to only in those cases where the nature of the sea bed necessitates its +remaining on a given spot for some considerable time, as for instance +in the excavation of hard rock to a given depth.</p> + +<p>An air-lock bell supplied to the British Admiralty, for use in +connexion with the laying of moorings at Gibraltar, has a working +chamber measuring 15 ft. long by 10½ ft. wide, by 7½ ft. high, and a +shaft 37½ ft. high by 3 ft. in diameter. It is built of steel plates, with +cast-iron ballast, and its total weight is about 46 tons. The bell is +electrically lighted, and is fitted with telephonic apparatus communicating +with the air-compressor room and lifting-winch room. +It is worked through a well in the centre of a specially constructed +steel barge 85 ft. long by 40 ft. beam, having a draught of 7 ft. 6 in. +The wire ropes, for lowering and raising the bell, work over pulleys +which are carried on a superstructure erected over the well. Two +sets of air compressors are fitted on the barge—one set for supplying +air to the bell, the other set for working a pneumatic rock drill inside +the bell. The greatest depth at which this particular bell will work +is 40 ft. The cost of the whole plant, including barge, was about +£14,000.</p> + +<p>The diving dress has, however, to a great extent supplanted the +diving bell. This is due not only to the heavier cost of the latter, but +more particularly to the greater mobility of the helmet diver. Bell +divers are naturally limited to the area which their bell for the time +being covers, whereas helmet divers can be distributed over different +parts of a contract and work entirely independently of one another. +The use of the diving bell is, therefore, practically limited to the work +of levelling the sea bed, and the removal of rock.</p> + +<p>See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caisson Disease</a></span> as regards the physiological +effects of compressed air.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. H. D.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVES-SUR-MER,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a small port and seaside resort of north-western +France on the coast of the department of Calvados, on +the Dives, 15 m. N.E. of Caen by road. Pop. (1906) 3286. Dives +is celebrated as the harbour whence William the Conqueror sailed +to England in 1066. In the porch of its church (14th and 15th +centuries) a tablet records the names of some of his companions. +The town has a picturesque inn, adapted from a building dating +partly from the 16th century, and market buildings dating from +the 14th to the 16th centuries. The coast in the vicinity of Dives +is fringed with small watering-places, those of Cabourg (to the +west) and of Beuzeval and Houlgate (to the east) being practically +united with it. There are large metallurgical works with electric +motive power close to the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVIDE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a word used technically as a noun in America and the +British colonies for any high ridge between two valleys, forming +a water-parting; a dividing range. For special senses of the +verb “to divide” (Lat. <i>di-videre</i>, the latter part of the word +coming from a root seen in Lat. <i>vidua</i>, Eng. “widow”), meaning +generally to split up in two or more parts, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Division</a></span>. In a +parliamentary sense, to divide (involving a separation into two +sides, Aye and No) is to take the sense of the House by voting +on the subject before it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVIDEND<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (Lat. <i>dividendum</i>, a thing to be divided), the net +profit periodically divisible among the proprietors of a joint-stock +company in proportion to their respective holdings of its +capital. Dividend is not interest, although the word dividend is +frequently applied to payments of interest; and a failure to pay +dividends to shareholders does not, like a failure to pay interest +on borrowed money, lay a company open to being declared +bankrupt. In bankruptcy a dividend is the proportionate share +of the proceeds of the debtor’s estate received by a creditor. In +England, the Companies Act 1862 provided that no dividend +should be payable except out of the profits arising from the business +of the company, but, in the case of companies incorporated by +special act of parliament for the construction of railways and +other public works which cannot be completed for a considerable +time, it is sometimes provided that interest may during construction +be paid to the subscribers for shares out of capital. Dividends +(excluding occasional distributions in the form of shares) are +ordinarily payable in cash. Most companies divide their capital +into at least two classes, called “preference” shares and +“ordinary” shares, of which the former are entitled out of the +profits of the company to a preferential dividend at a fixed +rate, and the latter to whatever remains after payment of the +preferential dividend and any fixed charges. Before, however, a +dividend is paid, a part of the profits is often carried to a “reserve +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span> +fund.” The dividend on preference shares is either “cumulative” +or contingent on the profits of each separate year or half year. +When cumulative, if the profits of any one year are insufficient +to pay it in full, the deficiency has to be made good out of subsequent +profits. A cumulative preferential dividend is sometimes +said to be “guaranteed,” and preferential dividends payable by +all English companies registered under the Companies Acts 1862 +to 1908 are cumulative unless stipulated to be otherwise. Certain +public companies are forbidden by parliament to pay dividends in +excess of a prescribed maximum rate, but this restriction has +been happily modified in some instances, notably in the case of +gas companies, by the institution of a sliding scale, under which a +gas company may so regulate the price of gas to be charged to +consumers that any reduction of an authorized standard price +entitles the company to make a proportionate increase of the +authorized dividend, and any increase above the standard price +involves a proportionate decrease of dividend. Dividends are +usually declared yearly or half-yearly; and before any dividend +can be paid it is, as a rule, necessary for the directors to submit +to the shareholders, at a general meeting called for the purpose, +the accounts of the company, with a report by the directors on its +position and their recommendation as to the rate of the proposed +dividend. The articles of association of a company usually +provide that the shareholders may accept the director’s recommendation +as to dividend or may declare a lower one, but may +not declare a higher one than the directors recommend. Directors +frequently have power to pay on account of the dividend for the +year, without consulting the shareholders, an “interim dividend,” +which on ordinary shares is generally at a much lower rate than +the final or regular dividend. An exceptionally high dividend +is often distributed in the shape of a dividend at the usual rate +supplemented by an additional dividend or “bonus.” Payment +of dividends is made by means of cheques sent by post, called +“dividend warrants.” All dividends are subject to income-tax, +and by most companies dividends are paid “less income-tax,” +in which case the tax is deducted from the amount of dividend +payable to each proprietor. When paid without such deduction +a dividend is said to be “free of income-tax.” In the latter case, +however, the company has to make provision for payment of the +tax before declaring the dividend, and the amount of its divisible +profits and the rate of dividend which it is able to declare are +consequently to that extent reduced. In respect of consols and +certain other securities, holders of amounts of less than £1000 may +instruct the Bank of England or Bank of Ireland to receive and +invest their dividends. With few exceptions, the prices of +securities dealt in on the London Stock Exchange include any +accruing dividend not paid up to the date of purchase. At a +certain day, after the dividend is declared, the stock or share is +dealt in on the Stock Exchange, as <i>ex dividend</i> (or “x. d.”), which +means that the current dividend is paid not to the buyer but +to the previous holder, and the price of the stock is lower to that +extent. The expression “cum dividend” is used to signify that +the price of the security dealt in includes a dividend which, in +the absence of any stipulation, might be supposed to belong to +the seller of the security. On the New York Stock Exchange the +invariable practice is to sell stock with the “dividend on” until +the company’s books are closed, after which it is usually sold +“ex dividend.”</p> +<div class="author">(S. D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVIDIVI,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> the native and commercial name for the astringent +pods of <i>Caesalpinia coriaria</i>, a leguminous shrub of the suborder +<i>Caesalpinieae</i>, which grows in low marshy tracts in the West +Indies and the north of South America. The plant is between +20 and 30 ft. in height, and bears white flowers. The pods are +flattened, and curl up in drying; they are about ¾ in. broad, from +2 to 3 in. long and of a rich brown colour. Dividivi was first +brought to Europe from Caracas in 1768. It contains about 30% +of ellagitannic acid, whence its value in leather manufacture.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVINATION<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span>, the process of obtaining knowledge of secret or +future things by means of oracles, omens or astrology. The root +of the word, <i>deus</i> (god) or <i>divus</i>, indicates the supposed source of +the soothsayer’s information, just as the equivalent Greek term, +<span class="grk" title="mantikê">μαντική</span>, indicates the spiritual source of the utterances of the seer, +<span class="grk" title="mantis">μάντις</span>. In classical times the view was, in fact, general, as may +be seen by Cicero’s <i>De divinatione</i>, that not only oracles but also +omens were signs sent by the gods; even the astrologer held that +he gained his information, in the last resort, from the same source. +On the side of the Stoics it was argued that if divination was a real +art, there must be gods who gave it to mankind; against this +it was argued that signs of future events may be given without +any god.</p> + +<p>Divination is practised in all grades of culture; its votaries +range from the Australian black to the American medium. There +is no general agreement as to the source of the information; +commonly it is held that it comes from the gods directly or +indirectly. In the Bornean cult of the hawk it seems that the +divine bird itself was regarded as having a foreknowledge of +the future. Later it is regarded as no more than a messenger. +Among the Australian blacks, divination is largely employed to +discover the cause of death, where it is assumed to be due to +magic; in some cases the spirit of the dead man is held to give +the information, in others the living magician is the source of the +knowledge. We find moreover a semi-scientific conception of the +basis of divination; the whole of nature is linked together; just +as the variations in the height of a column of mercury serve to +foretell the weather, so the flight of birds or behaviour of cattle +may help to prognosticate its changes; for the uncultured it is +merely a step to the assumption that animals know things which +are hidden from man. Haruspication, or the inspection of +entrails, was justified on similar grounds, and in the case of omens +from birds or animals, no less than in astrology, it was held that +the facts from which inferences were drawn were themselves in +part the causes of the events which they foretold, thus fortifying +the belief in the possibility of divination.</p> + +<p>From a psychological point of view divinatory methods may be +classified under two main heads: (A) autoscopic, which depend +simply on some change in the consciousness of the soothsayer; +(B) heteroscopic, in which he looks outside himself for guidance +and perhaps infers rather than divines in the proper sense.</p> + +<p>(A) Autoscopic methods depend on (i.) sensory or (ii.) motor +automatisms, or (iii.) mental impressions, for their results. +(i.) Crystal-gazing (<i>q.v.</i>) is a world-wide method of divining, which +is analogous to dreams, save that the vision is voluntarily initiated, +though little, if at all, under the control of the scryer. Corresponding +to crystal-gazing we have <i>shell-hearing</i> and similar +methods, which are, however, less common; in these the information +is gained by hearing a voice. (ii.) The divining rod (<i>q.v.</i>) is +the best-known example of this class; divination depending on +automatic movements of this sort is found at all stages of culture; +in Australia it is used to detect the magician who has caused the +death of a native; in medieval and modern times water-divining +or <i>dowsing</i> has been largely and successfully used. Similar in +principle is <i>coscinomancy</i>, or divining by a sieve held suspended, +which gives indications by turning; and the equally common +divination by a suspended ring, both of which are found from +Europe in the west to China and Japan in the east. The ordeal by +the Bible and key is equally popular; the book is suspended by a +key tied in with its wards between the leaves and supported on +two persons’ fingers, and the whole turns round when the name of +the guilty person is mentioned. Confined to higher cultures on +the other hand, for obvious reasons, is divination by automatic +writing, which is practised in China more especially. The sand +divination so widely spread in Africa seems to be of a different +nature. <i>Trance speaking</i>, on the other hand, may be found in any +stage of culture and there is no doubt that in many cases the +procedure of the magician or shaman induces a state of auto-hypnotism; +at a higher stage these utterances are termed oracles +and are believed to be the result of inspiration (<i>q.v.</i>). (iii.) Another +method of divination is by the aid of mental impressions; +observation seems to show that by some process of this sort, akin +to clairvoyance (<i>q.v.</i>), fortunes are told successfully by means of +palmistry or by laying the cards; for the same “lie” of the cards +may be diversely interpreted to meet different cases. In other +cases the impression is involuntary or less consciously sought, +as in dreams (<i>q.v.</i>), which, however, are sometimes induced, for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span> +purposes of divination, by the process known as incubation or +temple sleep. Dreams are sometimes regarded as visits to or +from gods or the souls of the dead, sometimes as signs to be +interpreted symbolically by means of dream-books, which are +found not only in Europe but in less cultured countries like Siam.</p> + +<p>(B) In heteroscopic divination the process is rather one of +inference from external facts. The methods are very various. +(i.) The casting of lots, <i>sortilege</i>, was common in classical +antiquity; the Homeric heroes prayed to the gods when they cast +lots in Agamemnon’s leather cap, and Mopsus divined with sacred +lots when the Argonauts embarked. Similarly dice are thrown +for purposes of sortilege; the <i>astragali</i> or knucklebones, used +in children’s games at the present day, were implements of +divination in the first instance. In Polynesia the coco-nut is +spun like a teetotum to discover a thief. Somewhat different are +the omens drawn from books; in ancient times the poets were +often consulted, more especially Virgil, whence the name <i>sortes +virgilianae</i>, just as the Bible is used for drawing texts in our own +day, especially in Germany. (ii.) In <i>haruspication</i>, or the inspection +of entrails, in <i>scapulomancy</i> or divination by the speal-bone +or shoulder-blade, in divination by footprints in ashes, found +in Australia, Peru and Scotland, the voluntary element is +prominent, for the diviner must take active steps to secure the +conditions necessary to divination. (iii.) In the case of <i>augury</i> +and <i>omens</i>, on the other hand, that is not necessary. The +behaviour and cries of birds, and <i>angang</i> or meeting with ominous +animals, &c., may be voluntarily observed, and opportunities for +observation made; but this is not necessary for success. (iv.) In +<i>astrology</i> we have a method which still finds believers among +people of good education. The stars are held, not only to prognosticate +the future but also to influence it; the child born when +Mars is in the ascendant will be war-like; Venus has to do with +love; the sign of the Lion presides over places where wild beasts +are found. (v.) In other cases the tie that binds the subject of +divination with the omen-giving object is sympathy. The name +of the life-index is given to a tree, animal or other object believed +to be so closely united by sympathetic ties to a human being that +the fate of the latter is reflected in the condition of the former. +The Polynesians set up sticks to see if the warriors they stood +for were to fall in battle; on Hallowe’en in our own country the +behaviour of nuts and other objects thrown into the fire is held to +prognosticate the lot of the person to whom they have been +assigned. Where, as in the last two cases, the sympathetic +bond is less strong, we find symbolical interpretation playing +an important part.</p> + +<p>Sympathy and symbolism, association of ideas and analogy, +together with a certain amount of observation, are the explanation +of the great mass of heteroscopic divinatory formulae. But +where autoscopic phenomena play the chief part the question of +the origin of divination is less simple. The investigations of the +Society for Psychical Research show that premonitions, though +rare in our own day, are not absolutely unknown. Pseudo-premonitions, +due to hallucinatory memory, are not unknown; +there is also some ground for holding that crystal-gazers are able +to perceive incidents which are happening at a distance from +them. Divination of this sort, therefore, may be due to observation +and experiment of a rude sort, rather than to the unchecked +play of fancy which resulted in heteroscopic divination.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augurs</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oracle</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astrology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Omen</a></span>, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Bouché Leclercq, <i>Histoire de la divination dans +l’antiquité</i>; Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, passim; Maury, “La Magie et +l’astrologie,” <i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i> i. 163, v. 436; <i>Folklore</i>, iii. 193; +Ellis, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, p. 202; <i>Dictionnaire encyclopédique +des sciences médicales</i>, xxx. 24-96; <i>Journ. of Philology</i>, xiii. 273, +xiv. 113; Deubner, <i>De incubatione</i>; Lenormant, <i>La Divination, et +la science de présages chez les Chaldéens</i>; Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>; +J. Johnson, <i>Yoruba Heathenism</i> (1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVINING-ROD.<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> As indicated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magic</a></span>, +<i>Rhabdomancy</i>, or the art of using a divining-rod for discovering +something hidden, is apparently of immemorial antiquity, and +the Roman <i>virgula divina</i>, as used in taking auguries by means of +casting bits of stick, is described by Cicero and Tacitus (see also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divination</a></span>); but the special form of <i>virgula furcata</i>, or forked +twig of hazel or willow (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hazel</a></span>), described by G. Agricola +(<i>De re metallica</i>, 1546), and in Sebastian Munster’s <i>Cosmography</i> +in the early part of the 16th century, used specially for discovering +metallic lodes or water beneath the earth, must be distinguished +from the general superstition. The “dowsing” or divining-rod, +in this sense, has a modern interest, dating from its use by +prospectors for minerals in the German (Harz Mountains) mining +districts; the French chemist M.E. Chevreul<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> assigns its first +mention to Basil Valentine, the alchemist of the late 15th century. +On account of its supposed magical powers, it may be taken +perhaps as an historical analogue to such fairy wands as the +<i>caduceus</i> of Mercury, the golden arrow of Herodotus’s “Abaris +the Hyperborean,” or the medieval witch’s broomstick. But +the existence of the modern water-finder or dowser makes the +divining-rod a matter of more than mythological or superstitious +interest. The <i>Schlagruthe</i> (striking-rod), or forked twig of the +German miners, was brought to England by those engaged in the +Cornish mines by the merchant venturers of Queen Elizabeth’s +day. Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., the chief modern investigator +of this subject, regards its employment, dating as it +does from the revival of learning, as based on the medieval +doctrine of “sympathy,” the drooping of trees and character of +the vegetation being considered to give indications of mineral +lodes beneath the earth’s surface, by means of a sort of attraction; +and such critical works as Robert Boyle’s (1663), or the +<i>Mineralogia Cornubiensis</i> of Pryce (1778), admitted its value in +discovering metals. But as mining declined in Cornwall, the use +of the dowser for searching for lodes almost disappeared, and was +transferred to water-finding. The divining-rod has, however, +also been used for searching for any buried objects. In the south +of France, in the 17th century, it was employed in tracking +criminals and heretics. Its abuse led to a decree of the Inquisition +in 1701, forbidding its employment for purposes of justice.</p> + +<p>In modern times the professional dowser is a “water-finder,” +and there has been a good deal of investigation into the possibility +of a scientific explanation of his claims to be able to locate underground +water, where it is not known to exist, by the use of a +forked hazel-twig which, twisting in his hands, leads him by its +directing-power to the place where a boring should be made. +Whether justified or not, a widespread faith exists, based no doubt +on frequent success, in the dowser’s power; and Professor +Barrett (<i>The Times</i>, January 21, 1905) states that “making +a liberal allowance for failures of which I have not heard, I have +no hesitation in saying that where fissure water exists and the +discovery of underground water sufficient for a domestic supply +is a matter of the utmost difficulty, the chances of success with a +good dowser far exceed mere lucky hits, or the success obtained +by the most skilful observer, even with full knowledge of the local +geology.” Is this due to any special faculty in the dowser, or +has the twig itself anything to do with it? Held in balanced +equilibrium, the forked twig, in the dowser’s hands, moves with a +sudden and often violent motion, and the appearance of actual +life in the twig itself, though regarded as mere stage-play by +some, is popularly associated with the cause of the water-finder’s +success. The theory that there is any direct connexion +(“sympathy” or electrical influence) between the divining-rod +and the water or metal, is however repudiated by modern science. +Professor Barrett, who with Professor Janet and others is satisfied +that the rod twists without any intention or voluntary deception +on the part of the dowser, ascribes the phenomenon to “motor-automatism” +on the part of the dowser (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Automatism</a></span>), a +reflex action excited by some stimulus upon his mind, which may +be either a subconscious suggestion or an actual impression +(obscure in its nature) from an external object or an external +mind; both sorts of stimulus are possible, so that the dowser +himself may make false inferences (and fail) by supposing that +the stimulus is an external object (like water). The divining-rod +being thus “an indicator of any sub-conscious suggestion or +impression,” its indications, no doubt, may be fallacious; but +Professor Barrett, basing his conclusions upon observed successes +and their greater proportion to failures than anything that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span> +chance could produce, advances the hypothesis that some persons +(like the professional dowsers) possess “a genuine super-normal +perceptive faculty,” and that the mind of a good dowser, possessing +the idiosyncrasy of motor-automatism, becomes a blank or +<i>tabula rasa</i>, so that “the faintest impression made by the object +searched for creates an involuntary or automatic motion of the +indicator, whatever it may be.” Like the “homing instinct” of +certain birds and animals, the dowser’s power lies beneath the +level of any conscious perception; and the function of the forked +twig is to act as an index of some material or other mental +disturbance within him, which otherwise he could not interpret.</p> + +<p>It should be added that dowsers do not always use any rod. +Some again use a willow rod, or withy, others a hazel-twig (the +traditional material), others a beech or holly twig, or one from +any other tree; others even a piece of wire or watch-spring. The +best dowsers are said to have been generally more or less illiterate +men, usually engaged in some humble vocation.</p> + +<p>Sir W. H. Preece (<i>The Times</i>, January 16, 1905), repudiating +as an electrician the theory that any electric force is involved, +has recorded his opinion that water-finding by a dowser is due to +“mechanical vibration, set up by the friction of moving water, +acting upon the sensitive ventral diaphragm of certain exceptionally +delicately framed persons.” Another theory is that water-finders +are “exceptionally sensitive to hygrometric influences.” +In any case, modern science approaches the problem as one +concerning which the facts have to be accepted, and explained +by some natural, though obscure, cause.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See for further details Professor Barrett’s longer discussion in parts +32 (1897) and 38 (1900) of the <i>Proceedings of the Society for Psychical +Research</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>La Baguette divinatoire</i> (Paris, 1845).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVISION<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>dividere</i>, to break up into parts, separate), +a general term for the action of breaking up a whole into parts. +Thus, in political economy, the phrase “division of labour” +implies the assignment to particular workmen of the various +portions of a whole piece of work; in mathematics division is +the process of finding how many times one number or quantity, +the “divisor,” is contained in another, the “dividend” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arithmetic</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebra</a></span>); in the musical terminology of the +17th and 18th centuries, the term was used for rapid passages +consisting of a few slow notes amplified into a florid passage, +<i>i.e.</i> into a larger number of quick ones. The word is used also in +concrete senses for the parts into which a thing is divided, <i>e.g.</i> a +division of an army, an administrative or electoral division; +similarly, a “division” is taken in a legislative body when votes +are recorded for and against a proposed measure.</p> + +<p>In logic, division is a technical term for the process by which +a <i>genus</i> is broken up into its <i>species</i>. Thus the genus “animal” +may be divided, according to the habitat of the various kinds, +into animals which live on land, those which live in water, those +which live in the air. Each of these may be subdivided according +to whether their constituent members do or do not possess certain +other qualities. The basis of each of these divisions is called the +<i>fundamentum divisionis</i>. It is clear that there can be no division +in respect of those qualities which make the genus what it is. +The various species are all alike in the possession of the generic +attributes, but differ in other respects; they are “variations on +the same theme” (Joseph, <i>Introduction to Logic</i>, 1906); each one +has the generic, and also certain peculiar, qualities (<i>differentiae</i>), +which latter distinguish them from other species of the same +genus. The process of division is thus the obverse of classification +(<i>q.v.</i>); it proceeds from genus to species, whereas classification +begins with the particulars and rises through species to genus. In +the exact sciences, and indeed in all argument both practical +and theoretical, accurate division is of great importance. It is +governed by the following rules. (1) <i>Division must be exhaustive</i>; +all the members of the genus must find a place in one or other of +the species; a captain who selects for his team skilful batsmen +and bowlers only is guilty of an incomplete division of the whole +function of a cricket team by omitting to provide himself with +good fielders. Rectilinear figures cannot be divided into triangles +and quadrilaterals because there are rectilinear figures which +have more than four sides. On the other hand, triangles can be +divided into equilateral, isosceles and scalene, since no other kind +of triangle can exist. (2) Division <i>must be exclusive</i>, that is, each +species must be complete in itself and not contain members of +another species. No member of a genus must be included in more +than one of the species. (3) In every division <i>there must be but one +principle (fundamentum divisionis)</i>. The members of a genus +may differ from one another in many respects, <i>e.g.</i> books may +be divided according to external form into quarto, octavo, &c., +or according to binding into calf, cloth, paper-backed and so on. +They cannot, however, be divided logically into quarto, paper-backed, +novels and remainders. When more than one principle is +used in a division it is called “cross division.” (4) <i>Division must +proceed gradually</i> (“Divisio non facit saltum”), <i>i.e.</i> the genus +must be resolved into the next highest (“proximate”) species. +To go straight from a <i>summum genus</i> to very small species is of no +scientific value.</p> + +<p>It is to be observed that logical division is concerned exclusively +with universals or concepts; division is of genus and species, not +of particulars. Two other kinds of division are recognized:—<i>metaphysical +division</i>, the separation in thought of the various +qualities possessed by an individual thing (a piece of lead has +weight, colour, &c), and <i>physical division</i> or <i>partition</i>, the +breaking up of an object into its parts (a watch is thought of +as being composed of case, dial, works, &c.). Logical division is +closely allied with logical definition (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIVORCE<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (Lat. <i>divortium</i>, derived from dis-, apart, and +vertere, to turn), the dissolution, in whole or in part, of the tie +of marriage. It includes both the complete abrogation of the +marriage relation known as a divorce <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i>, which +carries with it a power on the part of both parties to the marriage +to remarry other persons or each other, and also that incomplete +severance not involving powers to remarry, which was formerly +known as divorce a <i>mensa et thoro</i>, and has in England been termed +“judicial separation.” Less strictly, divorce is commonly understood +to include judicial declarations of nullity of marriage, which, +while practically terminating the marriage relation, proceed in +law on the basis of the marriage never having been legally +established.</p> + +<p>The conditions under which, in different communities, divorce +has at different times been permitted, vary with the aspects in +which the relation of marriage (<i>q.v.</i>) has been regarded. When +marriage has been deemed to be the acquisition by the husband +of property in the wife, or when it has been regarded as a mere +agreement between persons capable both to form and to dissolve +that contract, we find that marriage has been dissoluble at the +will of the husband, or by agreement of the husband and wife. +Yet even in these cases the interest of the whole community in +the purity of marriage relations, in the pecuniary bearings of this +particular contract, and the condition of children, has led to the +imposition of restrictions on, and the attachment of conditions to, +the termination of the obligations consequent on a marriage +legally contracted. But the main restrictions on liberty of divorce +have arisen from the conception of marriage entertained by +religions, and especially by one religion. Christianity has had no +greater practical effect on the life of mankind than in its belief +that marriage is no mere civil contract, but a vow in the sight +of God binding the parties by obligations of conscience above +and beyond those of civil law. Translating this conception into +practice, Christianity not only profoundly modified the legal +conditions of divorce as formulated in the Roman civil law, but +in its own canon law defined its own rule of divorce, going so far +as in the Western (at least in its unreformed condition), though +not the Eastern, branch of Christendom to forbid all complete +divorces, that is to say, all dissolutions of marriage carrying with +them the right to remarry.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">History</p> + +<p><i>The Roman Law of Divorce before Justinian.</i>—The history of +divorce, therefore, practically begins with the law of Rome. It +took its earliest colour from that conception of the <i>patria potestas</i>, +or the power of the head of the family over its members, which +enters so deeply into the jurisprudence of ancient Rome. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span> +wife was transferred at marriage to the authority of her husband, +<i>in manus</i>, and consequently became so far subject to him that +he could, at his will, renounce his rule over her, and terminate his +companionship, subject at least to an adjustment of the pecuniary +rights which were disturbed by such action. So clearly was the +power of the husband derived from that of the father, that for a +long period a father, in the exercise of his <i>potestas</i>, could take his +daughter from her husband against the wishes of both. It may +be presumed that this power, anomalous as it appears, was not +unexercised, as we find that a constitution of Antoninus Pius +prohibited a father from disturbing a harmonious union, and +Marcus Aurelius afterwards limited this prohibition by allowing +the interference of a father for strong and just cause—<i>magna et +justa causa interveniente</i>. Except in so far as it was restrained +by special legislation, the authority of a husband in the matter +of divorce was absolute. As early indeed, however, as the time of +Romulus, it is said that the state asserted its interest in the +permanence of marriage by forbidding the repudiation of wives +unless they were guilty of adultery or of drinking wine, on pain of +forfeiture of the whole of an offender’s property, one-half of which +went to the wife, the other to Ceres. But the law of the XII. +Tables, in turn, allowed freedom of divorce. It would appear, +however, that the sense of the community was so far shocked by +the inhumanity of treating a wife as mere property, or the risk of +regarding marriage as a mere terminable contract, that, without +crystallizing into positive enactment, it operated to prevent the +exercise of so harsh and dangerous a power. It is said that for +500 years no husband took advantage of his power, and it +was then only by an order of a censor, however obtained, that +Spurius Carvilius Ruga repudiated his wife for barrenness. We +may, however, be permitted to doubt the genuineness of this +censorial order, or at least to conjecture the influence under which +the censor was induced to intervene, when we find that in another +instance, that of L. Antonius, a censor punished an unjust divorce +by expulsion from the senate, and that the exercise of their power +by husbands increased to a great and alarming extent. Probably +few of the admirers of the greatest of Roman orators have not +regretted his summary and wholly informal repudiation of +Terentia. At last the <i>lex Julia de adulteriis</i>, while recognizing a +power of divorce both in the husband and in the wife, imposed on +it, in the public interest, serious restrictions and consequences. +It required a written bill of divorce (<i>libellus repudii</i>) to be given +in the presence of seven witnesses, who must be Roman citizens +of age, and the divorce must be publicly registered. The act was, +however, purely an act of the party performing it, and no idea of +judicial interference or contract seems to have been entertained. +It was not necessary for either husband or wife giving the bill to +acquaint the other with it before its execution, though it was +considered proper to deliver the bill, when made, to the other +party. In this way a wife could divorce a lunatic husband, or the +<i>paterfamilias</i> of a lunatic wife could divorce her from her husband. +But the <i>lex Julia</i> was also the first of a series of enactments by +which pecuniary consequences were imposed on divorce both by +husbands and wives, whether the intention was to restrain divorce +by penalties of this nature, or to readjust pecuniary relations +settled on the basis of marriage and disturbed by its rupture. It +was provided that if the wife was guilty of adultery, her husband +in divorcing her could retain one-sixth of her <i>dos</i>, but if she had +committed a less serious offence, one-eighth. If the husband was +guilty of adultery, he had to make immediate restitution of her +dowry, or if it consisted of land, the annual proceeds for three +years; if he was guilty of a less serious offence, he had six months +within which to restore the <i>dos</i>. If both parties were in fault, no +penalty fell on either. The <i>lex Julia</i> was followed by a series of +acts of legislation extending and modifying its provisions. The +legislation of Constantine, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 331, specified certain causes for +which alone a divorce could take place without the imposition of +pecuniary penalties. There were three causes for which a wife +could divorce her husband with impunity: (1) murder, (2) +preparation of poisons, (3) violation of tombs; but if she divorced +him for any other cause, such as drunkenness, or gambling or +immoral society, she forfeited her dowry and incurred the further +penalty of deportation. There were also three causes for which a +husband could divorce his wife without incurring any penalty: +(1) adultery, (2) preparation of poisons, (3) acting as a procuress. +If he divorced her for any other cause, he forfeited all interest in +her dowry; and if he married again, the first wife could take the +dowry of the second.</p> + +<p>In <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 421 the emperors Honorius and Theodosius enacted +a law of divorce which introduced limitations on the power of +remarriage as an additional penalty in certain cases. As regards a +wife: (1) if she divorced her husband for grave reasons or crime, +she retained her dowry and could remarry after five years; +(2) if she divorced him for criminal conduct or moderate faults, +she forfeited her dowry, became incapable of remarriage, and liable +to deportation, nor could the emperor’s prerogative of pardon be +exerted in her favour. As regards a husband: if he divorced his +wife (1) for serious crime, he retained the dowry and could remarry +immediately; (2) for criminal conduct, he did not retain +the dowry, but could remarry; (3) for mere dislike, he forfeited +the property brought into the marriage and could not +remarry.</p> + +<p>In <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 449 the law of divorce was rendered simpler and +certainly more facile by Theodosius and Valentinian. It was +provided that a wife could divorce her husband without incurring +any penalty if he was convicted of any one of twelve offences: +(1) treason, (2) adultery, (3) homicide, (4) poisoning, (5) forgery, +(6) violating tombs, (7) stealing from a church, (8) robbery, +(9) cattle-stealing, (10) attempting his wife’s life, (11) beating his +wife, (12) introducing immoral women to his house. If the wife +divorced her husband for any other cause, she forfeited her dowry, +and could not marry again for five years. A husband could +divorce his wife without incurring a penalty for any of these +reasons except the last, and also for the following reasons: +(1) going to dine with men other than her relations without +the knowledge or against the wish of her husband; (2) going +from home at night against his wish without reasonable +cause; (3) frequenting the circus, theatre or amphitheatre +after being forbidden by her husband. If a husband divorced +his wife for any other reason, he forfeited all interest in his +wife’s dowry, and also any property he brought into the +marriage.</p> + +<p>The above sketch of the legislation prior to the time of +Justinian, while it indicates a desire to place the husband and wife +on something like terms of equality as regards divorce, indicates +also, by its forbidding remarriage and by its pecuniary provisions +in certain cases, a sense in the community of the importance in +the public interest of restraining the violation of the contract of +marriage. But to the Roman marriage was primarily a contract, +and therefore side by side with this legislation there always +existed a power of divorce by mutual consent. We must now +turn to those principles of the Christian religion which, in +combination with the legislation above described, produced +the law formulated by Justinian.</p> + +<p><i>The Christian View of Divorce.</i>—The Christian law of divorce +as enunciated by its Founder was expressed in a few words, +but these, unfortunately, by no means of agreed interpretation. +To appreciate them it is necessary to consider the enactment of +the Mosaic law, which also was expressed in few words, but of a +meaning involved in much doubt. The phrase in Deut. xxiv. 1-4, +which is translated in the Authorized Version “some uncleanness,” +but in the Revised Version, “some unseemly thing,” and +which is the only cause stated to justify the giving of a “bill of +divorcement,” was limited by the school of Shanmai to moral +delinquency, but was extended by the rival school of Hillel to +causes of trifling importance or even to motives of caprice. The +wider interpretation would seem to be supported by the words +of Christ (Matt. v. 31), who, in indicating His own doctrine in +contradistinction to the law of Moses, said, “Whosoever shall put +away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication (<span class="grk" title="porneias">πορνείας</span>), +causeth her to commit adultery; and whosoever shall marry her +that is divorced committeth adultery.” The meaning of these +words of Christ Himself has been involved in controversy, which +perhaps was nowhere carried on with greater acuteness or under +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span> +more critical conditions than within the walls of the British +parliament during the passage of the Divorce Act of 1857. That +they justify divorce of a complete kind for moral delinquency +of some nature is supported by the opinion probably of every +competent scholar. But scholars of eminence have sought +to restrict the meaning of the <span class="grk" title="logos porneias">λόγος πορνείας</span> to antenuptial +incontinence concealed from the husband, and to exclude +adultery. The effect of this view commends itself to the adherents +of the Church of Rome, because it places the right to separation +between husband and wife, not on a cause supervening after +a marriage, which that Church seeks to regard as absolutely +indissoluble, but on invalidity in the contract of marriage itself, +and which may therefore render the marriage liable to be declared +void without impugning its indissoluble character when rightly +contracted. The narrower view of the meaning of <span class="grk" title="logos porneias">πορνείας</span> has +been maintained by, among others, Dr Döllinger (<i>First Ages of the +Church</i>, ii. 226); but those who will consider the arguments of +Professor Conington in reply to Dr Döllinger (<i>Contemp. Review</i>, +May 1869) will probably assign the palm to the English scholar. +A more general view points in the same direction. It is quite true +that under the Mosaic law antenuptial incontinence was, as was +also adultery, punishable with death. But when we consider +the effect of adultery not only as a moral fault, but as violating +the solemn contract of marriage and vitiating its objects, it is +inconceivable that Christ, in employing a term of general import, +intended to limit it to one kind, and that the less serious, of +incontinence.</p> + +<p><i>Effect of Christianity on the Law of Rome.</i>—The modification +in the civil law of Rome effected by Justinian under the joint +influence of the previous law of Rome and that of Christianity +was remarkable. Gibbon has summed up the change effected in +the law of Rome with characteristic accuracy: “The Christian +princes were the first who specified the just causes of a private +divorce; their institutions from Constantine to Justinian appear +to fluctuate between the customs of the empire and the wishes of +the Church; and the author of the Novels too frequently reforms +the jurisprudence of the Code and Pandects.” Divorce by mutual +consent, hitherto, as we have seen, absolutely free, was prohibited +(Nov. 117) except in three cases: (1) when the husband was +impotent; (2) when either husband or wife desired to enter a +monastery; and (3) when either of them was in captivity for a +certain length of time. It is obvious that the two first of these +exceptions might well commend themselves to the mind of the +Church, the former as being rather a matter of nullity of marriage +than of divorce, the latter as admitting the paramount claims of +the Church on its adherents, and not inconsistent with the spirit +of the words of St Paul himself, who clearly contemplated a +separation between husband and wife as allowable in case either +of them did not hold the Christian faith (1 Cor. vii. 12). At a later +period Justinian placed a further restriction or even prohibition +on divorce by consent by enacting that spouses dissolving a +marriage by mutual consent should forfeit all their property, and +be confined for life in a monastery, which was to receive one-third +of the forfeited property, the remaining two-thirds going to the +children of the marriage. The cause stated for this remarkable +alteration of the law, and the abandonment of the conception of +marriage as a civil contract <i>ut non Dei judicium contemnatur</i> +(Nov. 134), indicates the influence of the Christian idea of +marriage. That influence, however, did not long continue in its +full force. The prohibitions of Justinian on divorce by consent +were repealed by Justin (Nov. 140), his successor. “He yielded,” +says Gibbon, “to the prayers of his unhappy subjects, and +restored the liberty of divorce by mutual consent; the civilians +were unanimous, the theologians were divided, and the ambiguous +word which contains the precept of Christ is flexible to any interpretation +that the wisdom of a legislature can demand.” It was +difficult, the enactment stated, “to reconcile those who once +came to hate each other, and who, if compelled to live together, +frequently attempted each other’s lives.”</p> + +<p>Justinian further re-enacted, with some modifications, the +power of divorce by a husband or wife against the will of the other. +Divorce by a wife was allowed in five cases (Nov. 117): (1) the +husband being party or privy to conspiracy against the state; +(2) attempting his wife’s life, or failing to disclose to her plots +against it; (3) attempting to induce his wife to commit adultery; +(4) accusing his wife falsely of adultery; (5) taking a woman to +live in the house with his wife, or, after warning, frequenting +a house in the same town with any woman other than his wife. +If a wife divorced her husband for one of these reasons, she +recovered her dowry and any property brought into the marriage +by her husband for life with reversion to her children, or if there +were no children, absolutely. But if she divorced him for any +other reason, the provisions of the enactment of Theodosius and +Valentinian were to apply. A husband was allowed to divorce his +wife for any one of seven reasons: (1) failure to disclose to her +husband plots against the state; (2) adultery; (3) attempting or +failing to disclose plots against her husband’s life; (4) frequenting +dinners or balls with other men against her husband’s wishes; +(5) remaining from home against the wishes of her husband +except with her parents; (6) going to the circus, theatre or +amphitheatre without the knowledge or contrary to the prohibition +of her husband; (7) procuring abortion. If the husband +divorced his wife for any one of these reasons he retained the +dowry absolutely, or if there were children, with reversion +to them. If he divorced her for any other reason, the enactments +of Theodosius and Valentinian applied. In any case of +a divorce, if the father or mother of either spouse had advanced +the dowry and it would be forfeited by an unreasonable divorce, +the consent of the father or mother was necessary to render +the divorce valid.</p> + +<p><i>Effect of Divorce on Children in the Law of Rome.</i>—The custody +of the children of divorced parents was dealt with by the Roman +law in a liberal manner. A constitution of Diocletian and +Maximian left it to the judge to determine in his discretion to +which of the parents the children should go. Justinian enacted +that divorce should not impair the rights of children either as to +inheritance or maintenance. If a wife divorced her husband for +good cause, and she remained unmarried, the children were to be +in her custody, but to be maintained by the father; but if the +mother was in fault, the father obtained the custody. If he was +unable, from want of means, to support them, but she was able +to do so, she was obliged to take them and support them. It is +interesting to compare these provisions as to <span class="correction" title="amended from childern">children</span> with the +practice at present under English law, which in this respect +reflects so closely the spirit of the law of Rome.</p> + +<p><i>The Canon Law of Divorce.</i>—The canon law of Rome was based +on two main principles: (1) That there could be no divorce a +<i>vinculo matrimonii</i>, but only <i>a mensa et thoro</i>. The rule was stated +in the most absolute terms: <i>”Quamdiu vivit vir licet adulter sit, +licet sodomita, licet flagitiis omnibus coopertus, et ab uxore propter +haec scelera derelictus, maritus ejus reputatur, cui alterum vivum +accipere non licet”</i> (Caus. 32, Quaest. 7, c. 7). (2) That no +divorce could be had at the will of the parties, but only by the +sentence of a competent, that is to say, an ecclesiastical, court. +In this negation of a right to divorce a <i>vinculo matrimonii</i> lies +the broad difference between the doctrines of the Eastern and +Western Churches of Christendom. The Greek Church, understanding +the words of Christ in the broader sense above mentioned, +has always allowed complete divorce with a right to remarry for +the cause of adultery. And it is said that the form at least of +an anathema of the council of Trent was modified out of respect +to difference on the part of the Greek Church (see Pothier 5. 6. 21). +The papal canon law allowed a divorce a <i>mensa et thoro</i> for six +causes: (1) adultery or unnatural offences; (2) impotency; +(3) cruelty; (4) infidelity; (5) entering into religion; (6) consanguinity. +The Church, however, always assumed to itself +the right to grant licences for an absolute divorce; and further, +by claiming the power to declare marriages null and void, +though professedly this could be done only in cases where +the original contract could be said to be void, it was, and +is to this day, undoubtedly extended in practice to cases in +which it is impossible to suppose the original contract really +void, but in which a complete divorce is on other grounds +desirable.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span></p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Divorce in England</p> + +<p>In England the law of divorce, originally based on the canon +law of Rome, underwent some, though little, permanent change +at the Reformation, but was profoundly modified by the exercise +of the power of the state through legislation. From the canon +law was derived the principle that divorce could legally take +place only by sentence of the court, and never at the will of the +parties. Complete divorce has never been governed by any other +principle than this; and in so far as an incomplete divorce has +become practicable at the will of the parties, it has been by the +intervention of civil tribunals and contrary to the law of the +ecclesiastical courts. Those courts adopted as ground for divorce +<i>a mensa et thoro</i> the main grounds allowed by Roman canon law, +adultery and cruelty (Ayliffe, 22; Co. Lit. 102; 1 Salk. 162; +Godolphin Abridg. 495). The causes of heresy and of entering +into religion, if ever they were recognized in England, ceased to +exist at the Reformation.</p> + +<p>The principles upon which the English ecclesiastical courts +proceeded in divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i> are those which are still in +force, and which (with some modification by statutory enactment) +have been administered by judicial tribunals down to the present +day. The courts by which the ecclesiastical law, and therefore +the law of divorce, was administered were, until 1857, the courts +of the various dioceses, including that of the archbishop of +Canterbury, known as the Court of Arches, and that of the archbishop +of York, known as the Consistory Court of York; but by +statute a suitor was prevented from taking proceedings in any +court except that determined by the residence of the person +against whom proceedings were taken (23 Hen. VIII. c. 9). From +these courts an appeal lay to delegates appointed in each case by +the crown, until the establishment of the judicial committee of +the privy council in 1836, when the appeal was given to the crown +as advised by that body.</p> + +<p>The proof of adultery (to which Isidore in his <i>Book of Etymologies</i> +gives the fanciful derivation of “<i>ad alterius thorum</i>”) +was not by the canon law as received in England restricted by the +operation of arbitrary rules. It was never, for example, required, +as by the law of Mahomet, that the act should have been actually +seen by competent witnesses, nor even that the case should be +based on any particular kind of proof. It was recognized that the +nature of the offence almost inevitably precluded direct evidence. +One rule, however, appears to have commended itself to the +framers of the canon law as too general in its application not to +be regarded as a principle. The mere confession of the parties +was not regarded as a safe ground of conviction; and this rule +was formulated by a decretal epistle of Pope Celestine III., and, +following it, by the 105th of the Canons of 1604. This rule has +now been abrogated; and no doubt it is wiser not to fetter the +discretion of the tribunal charged with the responsibility of deciding +particular cases, but experience of divorce proceedings tends +to confirm the belief that this rule of the canon law was founded +on an accurate appreciation of human nature.</p> + +<p>Although, therefore, with the above exception, no strict rules +of the evidence necessary to establish adultery have ever been +established in the English courts, experience has indicated, and +in former days judges of the ecclesiastical courts often expressed, +the lines upon which such proof may be expected to proceed. It +is necessary and sufficient, in general, to prove two things—first +the guilty affection towards each other of the persons accused, +and, secondly, an opportunity or opportunities of which, if so +minded, their passion may have been gratified. It is obvious that +any strong proof on either of these points renders strict proof on +the other less needful; but when proof on both is afforded, the +common sense of a tribunal, acting with a knowledge of human +nature, may be trusted to draw the inevitable conclusion.</p> + +<p>The definition of cruelty accepted by the ecclesiastical courts +as that of the canon law is the same as that which prevails at +the present time; and the view of the law taken by the House of +Lords in <i>Russell</i> v. <i>Russell</i> (1897 App. Cas. 395) was expressly +based on the view of cruelty taken by the authorities of the +ecclesiastical law. The best definition by older English writers +is probably to be found in Clarke’s <i>Praxis</i> (p. 144): “Si maritus +fuerit erga uxorem crudelis et ferax ac mortem comminatus et +machinatus fuerit, vel eam inhumaniter verbis et verberibus +tractaverit, et aliquando venenum loco potus paraverit vel +aliquod simile commiserit, propter quod sine periculo vitae +cum marito cohabitare aut obsequia conjugalia impendere +non audeat ... consimili etiam causa competit viro contra +mulierem.” Lord Stowell, probably the greatest master of the +civil and canon law who ever sat in an English court of justice, +has in one of his most famous judgments (<i>Evans</i> v. <i>Evans</i>, 1790, +1 Hagg. <i>Consist.</i> 35) echoed the above language in words often +quoted, which have constituted the standard exposition of the +law to the present day. “In the older cases,” he said, “of this +sort which I have had the opportunity of looking into, I have +observed that the danger of life, limb or health is usually insisted +as the ground upon which the court has proceeded to a separation. +This doctrine has been repeatedly applied by the court in the +cases which have been cited. The court has never been driven +off this ground. It has always been jealous of the inconvenience +of departing from it, and I have heard no one case cited in which +the court has granted a divorce without proof given of a reasonable +apprehension of bodily hurt. I say an apprehension, because +assuredly the court is not to wait till the hurt is actually done; +but the apprehension must be reasonable: it must not be an +apprehension arising from an exquisite and diseased sensibility of +mind. Petty vexations applied to such a constitution of mind +may certainly in time wear out the animal machine, but still +they are not cases of legal relief; people must relieve themselves +as well as they can by prudent resistance, by calling in the +succours of religion and the consolation of friends; but the aid of +courts is not to be resorted to in such cases with any effect.” The +risk of personal danger in cohabitation constituted, therefore, +the foundation of legal cruelty. But this does not exclude such +conduct as a course of persistent ill-treatment, though not +amounting to personal violence, especially if such ill-treatment +has in fact caused injury to health. But the person complaining +must not be the author of his or her own wrong. If, accordingly, +one of the spouses by his or her conduct is really the cause of the +conduct complained of, recourse to the court would be had in vain, +the true remedy lying in a reformation of the real cause of the +disagreement.</p> + +<p>In addition to a denial of the charge or charges, the canon law +allowed three grounds of answer: (1) <i>Compensatio criminis</i>, a setoff +of equal guilt or recrimination. This principle is no doubt +derived from the Roman law and it had the effect of refusing to +one guilty spouse the remedy of divorce against the other although +equally guilty. It was always accepted in England, although +not in other countries, such as France and Scotland, which also +followed the canon or civil law. In strictness, recrimination +applied to a similar offence having been committed by the party +charging that offence. But a decision (1888) of the English +courts shows that a wife who had committed adultery could not +bring a suit against her husband for cruelty (<i>Otway</i> v. <i>Otway</i> 13 P. +D. 141). (2) <i>Condonation.</i> If the complaining spouse has, in fact, +forgiven the offence complained of, that constitutes a conditional +bar to any proceedings. The main and usual evidence of such +forgiveness is constituted by a renewal of marital intercourse, +and it is difficult-perhaps impossible-to imagine any case in +which such intercourse would not be held to establish condonation. +But condonation may be proved by other acts, or by words, +having regard to the circumstances of each case. Condonation +is, however, always presumed to be conditional on future good +behaviour, and misconduct even of a different kind revives the +former offence. (3) <i>Connivance</i> constitutes a complete answer to +any charge. Nor need the husband be the active agent of the +misconduct of the wife. Indifference or neglect imputable to a +corrupt intention are sufficient. It will be seen presently that +modern statute law has gone further in this direction. It is to be +added that the connivance need not be of the very act complained +of, but may be of an act of a similar kind. A learned judge, +recalling the classical anecdote of Maecenas and Galba, said, “A +husband is not permitted to say <i>non omnibus dormio</i>.” The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span> +ecclesiastical courts also considered themselves bound to refuse +relief if there was shown to be <i>collusion</i> between the parties. In +its primary and most general sense collusion was understood to be +an agreement between the parties for the purpose of deceiving the +court by false or fictitious evidence; for example, an agreement +to commit, or appear to commit, an act of adultery. Collusion, +however, is not limited to the imposing of other than genuine +evidence on the court. It extends to an agreement to withhold +any material evidence; and indeed is carried further, and held to +extend to any agreement which may have the effect of concealing +the real and complete truth from the court (see <i>Churchward</i> v. +<i>Churchward</i>, 1894, p. 161). This doctrine was of considerable +importance even in the days when only divorces <i>a mensa et thoro</i> +were granted, because at that time the parties were not permitted +to separate by consent. At the present day it has become, with +regard to divorce a <i>vinculo matrimonii</i>, a rule of greater and of +more far-reaching importance.</p> + +<p>The canon law as accepted in England, while allowing divorces +of the nature and for the causes above mentioned, actively interfered +to prevent separation between husband and wife in any +other manner. A suit known as a suit for restitution of conjugal +rights could be brought to compel cohabitation; and on evidence +of the desertion of either spouse, the court ordered a return to +the matrimonial home, though it carried no further its authority +as to the matrimonial relations within the home. To this suit an +agreement between the parties constituted no answer. But an +answer was afforded by any conduct which would have supported +a decree of divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>. It is a question whether, +indeed, the ecclesiastical courts would not have gone further, and +refused a decree of restitution of conjugal rights on grounds which +might appear adequate to justify such refusal, though not +sufficient on which to ground a decree of divorce. The view of the +court of appeal and the House of Lords has given some colour to +this opinion, and certainly the court of appeal has held, although +perhaps somewhat hastily, that the effect of a modern statute has +been to allow the court to refuse restitution of conjugal rights for +causes falling short of what would constitute ground for divorce +(<i>Russell</i> v. <i>Russell</i>, 1895, p. 315).</p> + +<p>The ecclesiastical courts provided for the pecuniary rights of +the wife by granting to her alimony during the progress of the suit, +and a proper allowance after its termination in cases in which she +was successful. Such payments were dependent on the pecuniary +means, or <i>faculties</i>, as they were termed, of the husband, and were +subject to subsequent increase or diminution in proper cases. +But the ecclesiastical courts did not deal with the custody of +the children of the marriage, it being probably considered that +that matter could be determined by the common law rights of +the father, or by the intervention of the court of chancery.</p> + +<p>The canon law fixed no period of limitation, either in respect of +a suit for divorce or for restitution of conjugal rights; but, as +regards at least suits for divorce, any substantial delay might lead +to the imputation of acquiescence or even condonation. To that +extent, at least, the maxim <i>vigilantibus non dormientibus jura +subveniunt</i> applied.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that desertion by either party to a marriage, +except as giving rise to a suit for restitution, was not treated as an +offence by canon law in England. It formed no ground for a suit +for divorce, and constituted no answer to such a suit by way of +recrimination. It might indeed deprive a husband of his remedy +if it amounted to connivance, or perhaps even if it amounted only +to culpable neglect.</p> + +<p>The canon law, as administered in England, has kept clear the +logical distinction which exists between dissolving a marriage and +declaring it null and void. The result has been that, in England +at least, the two proceedings have never been allowed to pass into +one another, and a complete divorce has not been granted on +pretence of a cause really one for declaring the marriage void <i>ab +initio</i>. But for certain causes the courts were prepared to declare +a marriage null and void on the suit of either party. There is, +indeed, a distinction to be drawn between a marriage void or only +voidable, though in both cases it became the subject of a similar +declaration. It was void in the cases of incapacity of the parties +to contract it, arising from want of proper age, or consanguinity, +or from a previous marriage, or from absence of consent, a state +of things which would arise if the marriage were compelled by +force or induced by fraud as to the nature of the contract entered +into or the personality of the parties. It is to be remarked that, +in England at least, the idea of fraud as connected with the +solemnization of marriage has been kept within these narrow +limits. Fraud of a different kind, such as deception as to the +property or position of the husband or wife, or antecedent +impurity of the wife, even if resulting in a concealed pregnancy, +has not in England (though the last-mentioned cause has in other +countries) been held a ground for the vitiation of a marriage +contract. A marriage was voidable, and could be declared void, +on the ground of physical incapacity of either spouse, the absence +of intercourse between the parties after a sufficient period of +opportunity being almost, if not quite, conclusive on this subject.</p> + +<p>With regard to one cause of nullity the legislation interfered +from consideration, it is said, of a case of special hardship. +Before the Marriage Act of 1835 marriages within the prohibited +degrees of consanguinity and affinity were only voidable by a +decree of the court, and remained valid unless challenged during +the lifetime of both the parties. But this act, while providing +that no previous marriage between persons within the prohibited +degrees should be annulled by a decree of the ecclesiastical +court pronounced in a suit depending at the time of the passing +of the act, went on to render all such marriages thereafter contracted +in England “absolutely null and void to all intents and +purposes whatever.”</p> + +<p>Another suit was allowed by the ecclesiastical courts which +should be mentioned, although its bearing on divorce is indirect. +This was the suit for <i>jactitation of marriage</i>, which in the case +of any person falsely asserting his or her marriage to another, +allowed such person to be put to perpetual silence by an order +of the court. This suit, which has been of rare occurrence +(though there was an instance, <i>Thompson</i> v. <i>Rourke</i>, in 1892), +does not appear to have been used for the purpose of determining +the validity of a marriage. The legislature, has, however, in the +Legitimacy Declaration Act of 1858, provided a ready means by +which the validity of marriages and the legitimacy of children +can be determined, and the procedure provided has repeatedly +been utilised.</p> + +<p>It should be added, as a matter closely akin to the proceedings +in the ecclesiastical courts, that the common law took cognizance +of one phase of matrimonial relations by allowing an action by +the husband against a paramour, known as an action for criminal +conversation. In such an action a husband could recover +damages estimated according to the loss he was supposed to have +sustained by the seduction and loss of his wife, the punishment +of the seducer not being altogether excluded from consideration. +Although this action was not unfrequently (and indeed, for the +purposes of a divorce, necessarily) brought, it was one which +naturally was regarded with disfavour.</p> + +<p><i>Effect of the Reformation.</i>—Great as was the indirect effect of +the Reformation upon the law of divorce in England, the direct +effect was small. It might, indeed, have been supposed that the +disappearance of the sacramental idea of marriage entertained by +the Roman Church would have ushered in the greater freedom +of divorce which had been associated with marriage regarded +as a civil contract. And to some extent this was the case. It +was for some time supposed that the sentences of divorce +pronounced by the ecclesiastical courts acquired the effect +of allowing remarriage, and such divorces were in some cases +granted. In <i>Lord Northampton’s</i> case in the reign of Edward VI. +the delegates pronounced in favour of a second marriage after a +divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>. It was, however, finally decided in +<i>Foljambe’s</i> case, in the 44th year of Elizabeth, that a marriage +validly contracted could not be dissolved for any cause. But +the growing sense of the right to a complete divorce for adequate +cause, when no longer any religious law to the contrary could +be validly asserted, in time compelled the discovery of a remedy. +The commission appointed by Henry VIII. and Edward VI. to +reform the ecclesiastical law drew up the elaborate report known +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span> +as the <i>Reformatio Legum</i>, and in this they recommended that +divorces <i>a mensa et thoro</i> should be abolished, and in their place +complete divorce allowed for the causes of adultery, desertion +and cruelty. These proposals, however, never became law. In +1669 a private act of parliament was granted in the case of Lord +de Roos, and this was followed by another in the case of the duke +of Norfolk in 1692. Such acts were, however, rare until the +accession of the House of Hanover, only five acts passing before +that period. Afterwards their number considerably increased. +Between 1715 and 1775 there were sixty such acts, in the next +twenty-five years there were seventy-four, and between 1800 and +1850 there were ninety. In 1829 alone there were seven, and in +1830 nine.</p> + +<p>The jurisdiction thus assumed by parliament to grant absolute +divorces was exercised with great care. The case was fully +investigated before a committee of the House of Lords, and not +only was the substance of justice so secured, but the House of +Lords further required that application to parliament should be +preceded by a successful suit in the ecclesiastical courts resulting +in a decree of divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>, and in the case of a husband +being the applicant, a successful action at common law and the +recovery of damages against the paramour. In this way, and +also, if needful, on its own initiative, the House of Lords provided +that there should be no connivance or collusion. Care was also +taken that a proper allowance was secured to the wife in cases +in which she was not the offending party. This procedure is still +pursued in the case of Irish divorces.</p> + +<p>It is obvious, however, that the necessity for costly proceedings +before the Houses of Parliament imposed great hardship on the +mass of the population, and there can be little doubt that this +hardship was deeply felt. Repeated proposals were made to +parliament with a view to reform of the law, and more than one +commission reported on the subject. It is said that the final +impetus was given by an address to a prisoner by Mr Justice +Maule. The prisoner’s wife had deserted him with her paramour, +and he married again during her lifetime. He was indicted for +bigamy, and convicted, and Mr Justice Maule sentenced him in +the following words:—“Prisoner at the bar: You have been +convicted of the offence of bigamy, that is to say, of marrying +a woman while you had a wife still alive, though it is true she +has deserted you and is living in adultery with another man. +You have, therefore, committed a crime against the laws of your +country, and you have also acted under a very serious misapprehension +of the course which you ought to have pursued. You +should have gone to the ecclesiastical court and there obtained +against your wife a decree <i>a mensa et thoro</i>. You should then +have brought an action in the courts of common law and recovered, +as no doubt you would have recovered, damages against +your wife’s paramour. Armed with these decrees, you should +have approached the legislature and obtained an act of parliament +which would have rendered you free and legally competent to +marry the person whom you have taken on yourself to marry +with no such sanction. It is quite true that these proceedings +would have cost you many hundreds of pounds, whereas you +probably have not as many pence. But the law knows no distinction +between rich and poor. The sentence of the court upon +you, therefore, is that you be imprisoned for one day, which +period has already been exceeded, as you have been in custody +since the commencement of the assizes.” The grave irony of the +learned judge was felt to represent truly a state of things well-nigh +intolerable, and a reform in the law of divorce was felt to be +inevitable. The hour and the man came in 1857, the man in the +person of Sir Richard Bethell (afterwards Lord Westbury), then +attorney-general.</p> + +<p><i>The Act of 1857.</i>—Probably few measures have been conceived +with such consummate skill and knowledge, and few conducted +through parliament with such dexterity and determination. +The leading opponent of the measure was Mr Gladstone, backed +by the zeal of the High Church party and inspired by his own +matchless subtlety and resource. But the contest proved to be +unequal, and after debates in which every line, almost every word, +of the measure was hotly contested, especially in the House of +Commons, the measure emerged substantially as it had been +introduced. Not the least part of the merit and success of the +act of 1857 is due to the skill which, while effecting a great social +change, did so with the smallest possible amount of innovation. +The act (which came into operation on the 1st of January 1858) +embodied two main principles: 1. The constitution of a lay +court for the administration of all matters connected with +divorce. 2. The transfer to that court, with as little change as +possible, of the powers exercised in matrimonial matters by +(a) the House of Lords, (b) the ecclesiastical courts, (c) the courts +of common law.</p> + +<p><i>The Constitution of the Court.</i>—The new court, termed “The +Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes,” was constituted by +the lord chancellor, the chiefs and the senior puisne judges of the +three courts of common law, and the judge of the court of probate +(which was also established in 1857), but the functions of the +court were practically entrusted to the judge of the court of +probate, termed the “Judge Ordinary,” who thus in matters +of probate and divorce became the representative of the former +ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The judge ordinary was empowered +either to sit alone or with one or more of the other judges to +constitute a full court. The parties to a suit obtained the right +of trial by jury of all disputed questions of fact; and the rules +of evidence of the common law courts were made to apply. +An appeal to the full court was given in all matters, which the +judge ordinary was enabled to hear sitting alone.</p> + +<p>1. To this court were transferred all the powers of the ecclesiastical +courts with regard to suits for divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>, to +which the name was given of suits for “judicial separation,” +nullity, restitution of conjugal rights, and jactitation of marriage, +and in all such proceedings it was expressly enacted (sec. 22) that +the court should act on principles and rules as nearly as possible +conformable to the principles and rules of the ecclesiastical +courts. Judicial separation could be obtained by either husband +or wife for adultery, or cruelty, or desertion continued for two +or more years.</p> + +<p>2. There were also transferred to the court powers equivalent +to those exercised by the legislature in granting absolute divorce. +The husband could obtain a divorce for adultery, the wife could +obtain a divorce for adultery coupled with cruelty or desertion +for two or more years, and also for incestuous or bigamous +adultery, or rape, or unnatural offences. The same conditions +as had been required by the legislature were insisted on. A +petition for dissolution (sec. 30) was to be dismissed in case of +connivance, condonation or collusion; and further, the court +had power, though it was not compelled, to dismiss such petition +if the petitioner had been guilty of adultery, or if there had been +unreasonable delay in presenting or prosecuting the petition, or +if the petitioner had been guilty of cruelty or desertion without +reasonable excuse, or of wilful neglect or misconduct conducing +to the adultery. The exercise of these discretionary powers of +the court, just and valuable as they undoubtedly are, has been +attended with some difficulty. But the view of the legislature +has on the whole been understood to be that the adultery of a +petitioner should not constitute a bar to his or her proceeding, +if it has been caused by the misconduct of the respondent, and +that cruelty should not constitute such a bar unless it has caused +or contributed to the misconduct of the respondent. But the +court, while regarding its powers as those of a judicial and not +an arbitrary discretion, has declined to fetter itself by any fixed +rule of interpretation or practice.</p> + +<p>It is to be observed that this act assigned a new force to +desertion. The ecclesiastical law regarded it only as suggestive +of connivance or culpable neglect. But the act of 1857 made it +(1) a ground of judicial separation if continued for two years, +(2) a ground in part of dissolution of marriage if continued for +the same period, (3) a bar, in the discretion of the court, to a +petition for dissolution, though it was not made in a similar way +any bar to a suit for judicial separation. It is also to be observed +that the act was confined to causes of divorce recognized by the +ecclesiastical law as administered in England. It did not either +extend the causes of a suit for nullity by adding such grounds as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span> +antenuptial incontinence, even if accompanied with pregnancy, +nor did it borrow from the civil law of Rome either lunacy or +crime as grounds for divorce.</p> + +<p>Much comment has been made on the different grounds on +which divorce is allowed to a husband and to a wife,—it being +necessary to prove infidelity in both cases, but a wife being +compelled to show either an aggravation of that offence or an +addition to it. Opinions probably will always differ whether the +two sexes should be placed on an equality in this respect, abstract +justice being invoked, and the idea of marriage as a mere contract +pointing in one direction, and social considerations in the other. +But the reason of the legislature for making the distinction is +clear. It is that the wife is entitled to an absolute divorce only +if her reconciliation with her husband is neither to be expected +nor desired. This was no doubt the view taken by the House of +Lords. In 1801 a Mrs Addison claimed an absolute divorce on +the ground of her husband’s incest with her sister. The matter +was long debated, but Lord Thurlow, who appeared in the House +of Lords for the last time in order to support the bill, turned the +scale by arguing that it was improper that the wife should under +such circumstances return to her husband (see Campbell, <i>Lives +of the Chancellors</i>, vii. 145). “Why do you,” he said, “grant to +the husband a divorce for the adultery of the wife? Because he +ought not to forgive her, and separation is inevitable. Where +the wife cannot forgive, and separation is inevitable by reason +of the crime of the husband, the wife is entitled to the like +remedy.”</p> + +<p>The act (sec. 32) provided, in case of dissolution, for maintenance +of the wife by the husband on principles similar to those +recognized by the ecclesiastical courts, and (sec. 45) for the settlement +of the property of a guilty wife on her husband or children; +but this enactment was imperfect, as provision was made only +for a settlement and not for payment of an allowance, and none +was made for altering settlements made in view or in consequence +of a marriage. The act (sec. 35) provides also in all divorce +proceedings, and also in those of nullity, for provision for the +custody, maintenance and education of children by the court: +provisions of great value, which were unfortunately for some +time limited by an erroneous view of the court that the age of the +children to which such provisions applied should be considered +limited to sixteen. The act of 1857 also transferred to the new +court the powers exercised by the common law courts in the +action for criminal conversation. It was made obligatory to join +an alleged adulterer in the suit, and damages (sec. 33) might be +claimed against him, and he might be ordered to pay the cost +of the proceedings (sec. 34), the extent depending upon the +circumstances of each case.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The act of 1857 in one respect went beyond a transfer of the +powers exercised by the ecclesiastical courts or the legislature. +It provided (sec. 21) that a wife deserted by her husband might +apply to a magistrate in petty sessions and obtain an order +which had the effect of protecting her earnings and property, +and during the currency of such order of protection a wife was +to be in the same position as if she had obtained an order for +judicial separation. The effect of this section appears to have +been small; but the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act +1895 has afforded a cheap and speedy remedy to all classes.</p> + +<p>The framers of the act of 1857 were careful to avoid offending +the scruples of clergymen who disapproved of the complete +dissolution of marriage by a lay court. It was provided (secs. +57 and 58) that no clergyman should be compelled to solemnize +the marriage of any person whose former marriage had been +dissolved on the ground of his or her adultery, but should permit +any other clergyman to solemnize the marriage in any church or +chapel in which the parties were entitled to be married. It is +to be feared that this concession, ample as it appears, has not +allayed conscientious objections, which are perhaps from their +nature insuperable. The act made no provision as to the name +to be borne by a wife after a divorce; and this omission led to +litigation in the case of a peer’s wife, in <i>Cowley</i> v. <i>Cowley</i>, in which +Lady Cowley was allowed to retain her status.</p> + +<p><i>Modifications of the Act of 1857.</i>—Subsequent legislation has +made good many of the defects of the act of 1857. In 1859 +power was given to the court, after a decree of dissolution or of +nullity of marriage, to inquire into the existence of ante- and +post-nuptial settlements, and to make orders with respect to the +property settled either for the benefit of children of the marriage +or their parents; and a subsequent act (41 & 42 Vict. c. 19, s. 3) +removed a doubt which was entertained whether these powers +could be exercised if there were no children of the marriage. In +1860 a very important change was made, having for its object a +practical mode of preventing divorces in cases of connivance and +collusion or of misconduct of the petitioner. It was provided +that a claim of dissolution (a provision afterwards extended to +decrees of nullity) should in the first instance be a decree nisi, +which should not be made absolute until the expiration of a period +then fixed at not less than three, but by subsequent legislation +enlarged to not less than six, months. During the interval which +elapsed between the decree nisi and such decree being made +absolute, power was given to any person to intervene in the suit +and show cause why the decree should not be made absolute, +by reason of the same having been obtained by collusion, or by +reason of material facts not brought before the court; and it +was also provided that, at any time before the decree was made +absolute, the queen’s proctor, if led to suspect that the parties +were acting in collusion for the purpose of obtaining a divorce +contrary to the justice of the case, might under the direction of +the attorney-general intervene and allege such case of collusion. +This enactment (extended in the year 1873 to suits for nullity) +was ill drawn and unskilfully conceived. The power given to +any person whomsoever to intervene is no doubt too wide, and +practically has had little or no useful effect as employed by friends +or enemies of parties to a suit. The limitation in terms of the +express power of the queen’s proctor to intervene in cases of +collusion was undoubtedly too narrow. But the queen’s proctor, +or the official by whom that officer was afterwards represented, +has in practice availed himself of the general authority given to +any person to show cause why a decree <i>nisi</i> should not be made +absolute, and has thus been enabled to render such important +service to the administration of justice that it is difficult to +imagine the due execution of the law of divorce by a court without +such assistance. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1866 +power was given to the court to order an allowance to be paid by +a guilty husband to a wife on a dissolution of marriage. This +act also can hardly be considered to have been drawn with +sufficient care, inasmuch as while it provides that if the husband’s +means diminish, the allowance may be diminished or suspended, +it makes no corresponding provision for increase of the allowance +if the husband’s means increase; nor, apparently, does it permit +of an allowance in addition to, but only in substitution for, a +settlement. The act makes no provision for allowance to a guilty +wife, and it certainly is a serious defect that the power to grant +an allowance does not extend to cases of nullity. In 1868 an +appeal to the House of Lords was given in cases of decree for +dissolution or nullity of marriage.</p> + +<p>The great changes effected by the Judicature Acts included the +court for divorce and matrimonial causes. Under their operation +a division of the high court of justice was constituted, under the +designation of the probate division and admiralty division, to +which was assigned that class of legal administration governed +mainly by the principles and practice of the canon and civil law. +The division consists of a president, and a justice of the high +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span> +court, with registrars representing each branch of the jurisdiction. +Appeals lie to the court of appeal, and thence to the +House of Lords.</p> + +<p>In 1884 the legislature interfered to prevent imprisonment +being the result of disobedience to an order for restitution of +conjugal rights. That mode of enforcing the order of the court +was abolished, and the matter was left to a proper adjustment +of the pecuniary relations of the husband and wife; and a +respondent disobeying such an order was held to be guilty +of desertion without reasonable cause, such desertion having +further given to it a similar effect to that assigned to desertion +for two years or upwards. The effect of this provision has been +that the suit for restitution of conjugal rights is most frequently +brought for the purpose of shortening the time within which a +wife can obtain a decree for dissolution of marriage.</p> + +<p>Proceedings in the divorce court have shown the improvement +in the law of evidence which has been effected with regard to other +legal proceedings. The act of 1857 made an inroad on the +former law, which prohibited evidence being given by parties +interested in the proceedings, by allowing a petitioner (sec. 43) +to be called and examined by order of the court, absolving such +petitioner, however, from the necessity of answering any question +tending to show that he or she had been guilty of adultery. In +the next year power was given to the court to dismiss any person, +with whom a party to the suit was alleged to have committed +adultery, from the suit if there should not appear to be sufficient +evidence against him or her, the object being to allow such +person to give evidence; and in 1859 it was provided that, on +a petition by a wife for a divorce on the grounds of cruelty or +desertion with adultery, the husband and wife could be competent +and compellable witnesses as to the cruelty or desertion. A few +years later, however, in 1869, the subject was finally dealt with +by repealing all previous rules which limited the powers to give +evidence on questions of adultery with the safeguard that no +witness in any proceeding can be asked or bound to answer any +question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of +adultery, unless in the same proceeding such witness shall have +given evidence in disproof of his or her alleged adultery. It +has been held that the principles of these enactments apply to +interrogatories as well as to evidence given in court.</p> + +<p>It is a most remarkable omission in the act of 1857, especially +when we remember the high legal authority from whom it proceeded, +that the act nowhere defines the class of persons with +regard to whom the jurisdiction of the court should be exercised. +This omission has given rise to a misapprehension of the law +which, though now set at rest, prevailed for a considerable period, +and has undoubtedly led to the granting of divorce in several +cases in which it could not legally be given. It was supposed +that the court could grant a dissolution of marriage to all persons +who had anything more than a casual and fleeting residence +within the jurisdiction of the court; and this view, although its +correctness was doubted by Lord Penzance, the judge of the +divorce court, was upheld by a majority of the judges of the court +of appeal in the case of <i>Niboyet</i> v. <i>Niboyet</i> (4 P. D. 1). It was +supposed that such residence gave what was termed a matrimonial +domicile. But this view was undoubtedly erroneous as +regards dissolution of marriage, although probably correct as +regards judicial separation, and the true view is no doubt that +indicated with great learning and ability by Lord Watson in a +judgment given by him in the privy council in the case of <i>Le +Mesurier</i> v. <i>Le Mesurier</i> (1895, App. Cas. 517), that the only +true test of jurisdiction for a decree of divorce altering the +status of the parties to a marriage is to be found in the domicile +of the spouses—that is to say, of the husband, as the domicile +of a wife follows that of her husband—at the time of the divorce. +Domicile means a person’s permanent home, the place at which +he resides with no intention of making his home elsewhere, and, +if he leaves it, with the intention of returning to it.</p> + +<p>It is now also clearly recognized as the law of England that the +English courts will not recognize a divorce purporting to be made +by a foreign tribunal with regard to persons domiciled in England. +For a considerable time doubt appears to have clouded the law +on this subject. In a famous case known as <i>Lolley’s</i> case, decided +in 1812, the judges of England (the point arose in connexion with +a criminal charge) unanimously held “that no sentence or act +of any foreign country or any state could dissolve an English +marriage <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i> for grounds on which it was not +liable to be dissolved <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i> in England.” This +case has been frequently understood as deciding that a marriage +celebrated in England cannot be dissolved elsewhere, and on +this point the courts of Scotland differ from the view supposed +to be taken by the English judges. But the matter has been fully +explained in one of the most masterly of Lord Hannen’s judgments +(<i>Harvey</i> v. <i>Fairnie</i>, 5. P. D. 154), afterwards upheld by +the House of Lords in 1882 (8 App. Cas. 43); and it is now clear +that while the parties are domiciled in this country no decree +of any foreign court dissolving their marriage will be recognized +here, unless it proceed on the grounds on which a divorce may +be obtained in this country, and even the exception just +mentioned appears to rest rather on reasoning and principle than +on the authority of any decided case. This principle received +the highest sanction in the prosecution of Earl Russell for bigamy +before the House of Lords (1901), in which it was held that, +where a divorce had been refused him in England, an American +divorce would not relieve a man from the guilt of marrying again.</p> + +<p><i>Summary Proceedings for Separation.</i>—The legislature has +sought to extend the relief afforded by the courts in matrimonial +causes by a procedure fairly to be considered within the reach of +all classes. In 1895 an act was passed which re-enacted in an +improved form the provisions of an act of 1878 of similar effect. +By the act of 1895 power was given to a married woman whose +husband (1) has been guilty of an aggravated assault upon her +within the Offences against the Person Act 1861, or (2) convicted +on indictment of an assault on her and sentenced to pay a fine +of more than £5 or to imprisonment for more than two months, +or (3) shall have deserted her, or (4) been guilty of persistent +cruelty to her or wilful neglect to maintain her or her infant +children, and by such cruelty or neglect shall have caused her +to leave and live apart from him, to apply to a court of summary +jurisdiction and to obtain an order containing all or any of the +following provisions:—(1) that the applicant be not forced to +cohabit with her husband, (2) that the applicant have the custody +of any children under sixteen years of age, (3) that the husband +pay to her an allowance not exceeding £2 a week. The act provides +that no married woman guilty of adultery should be granted +relief, but with the very important proviso, altering as it does the +rule of the common law, that the husband has not conduced +or connived at, or by wilful neglect or misconduct conduced to, +such adultery. The provisions of this act<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> have been largely +put in force, and no doubt to the great advantage of the poorer +classes of the community. It will be observed that the act is +unilateral, and affords no relief to a husband against a wife; +and the complaint is often heard that no misconduct of the wife, +except adultery, relieves the husband from the necessity of +maintaining her and allowing her to share his home, unless he +can obtain access to the high court.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Separation Deeds.</i>—Although nothing in the development of +the law of divorce has tended to give to married persons the right +absolutely to dissolve their marriage by consent, and, on the +contrary, any such agreement would be held to be strong evidence +of collusion, the view of the Church expressed in the ecclesiastical +law has been entirely departed from as regards agreements for +separation. Such agreements were embodied in deeds, and +usually contained mutual covenants not to sue in the ecclesiastical +courts for restitution of conjugal rights. The ecclesiastical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span> +courts, however, wholly disregarded such agreements, and +considered them as affording no answer to a suit for restitution +of conjugal rights. For a considerable period the court of +chancery refused to enforce the covenant in such deeds by restraining +the parties from proceeding to the ecclesiastical courts. +But at last a memorable judgment of Lord Westbury (1861) +asserted the right (<i>Hunt</i> v. <i>Hunt</i>, 4 De G. F. & J. 221; see also +<i>Marshall</i> v. <i>Marshall</i>, 5 P. D. 19) of the court of chancery to +maintain the claim of good faith in this as in other cases, and +restrained a petitioner from suing in the ecclesiastical court contrary +to his covenant. Thereafter these deeds became common, +and no doubt often afford a solution of matrimonial difficulties +of very great value. When the courts of the country became +united under the Judicature Acts, it became practicable to set +up in the divorce division a separation deed in answer to a +suit for restitution of conjugal rights without the necessity of +recourse to any other tribunal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Statistics.</i>—The statistics of divorce in England have for some +years been regularly published in the volumes of judicial statistics +published annually by the Home Office.</p> + +<p>The number of petitions for divorce (including in the term both +divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i> and divorce <i>a vinculo</i>) for the years from +1858 to 1905 inclusive are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc">1858</td> <td class="tcc rb">326</td> <td class="tcc">1874</td> <td class="tcc rb">469</td> <td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcc">644</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1859</td> <td class="tcc rb">291</td> <td class="tcc">1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">451</td> <td class="tcc">1891</td> <td class="tcc">632</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">272</td> <td class="tcc">1876</td> <td class="tcc rb">536</td> <td class="tcc">1892</td> <td class="tcc">629</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1861</td> <td class="tcc rb">236</td> <td class="tcc">1877</td> <td class="tcc rb">551</td> <td class="tcc">1893</td> <td class="tcc">645</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1862</td> <td class="tcc rb">248</td> <td class="tcc">1878</td> <td class="tcc rb">632</td> <td class="tcc">1894</td> <td class="tcc">652</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1863</td> <td class="tcc rb">298</td> <td class="tcc">1879</td> <td class="tcc rb">555</td> <td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcc">683</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1864</td> <td class="tcc rb">297</td> <td class="tcc">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">615</td> <td class="tcc">1896</td> <td class="tcc">772</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1865</td> <td class="tcc rb">284</td> <td class="tcc">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">589</td> <td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcc">781</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1866</td> <td class="tcc rb">279</td> <td class="tcc">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">481</td> <td class="tcc">1898</td> <td class="tcc">750</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1867</td> <td class="tcc rb">294</td> <td class="tcc">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">561</td> <td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcc">727</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1868</td> <td class="tcc rb">303</td> <td class="tcc">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb">647</td> <td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcc">698</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1869</td> <td class="tcc rb">351</td> <td class="tcc">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">541</td> <td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcc">848</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">351</td> <td class="tcc">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">708</td> <td class="tcc">1902</td> <td class="tcc">987</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1871</td> <td class="tcc rb">384</td> <td class="tcc">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">662</td> <td class="tcc">1903</td> <td class="tcc">914</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1872</td> <td class="tcc rb">374</td> <td class="tcc">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">680</td> <td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcc">822</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">1873</td> <td class="tcc rb">416</td> <td class="tcc">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">654</td> <td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcc">844</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It is probably impossible to account for the variations which the +above table discloses. It was no doubt natural that the year immediately +succeeding the passing of the act which originated facilities +for divorces <i>a vinculo</i> should exhibit a larger number of divorces than +its successors for a considerable period. But there does not appear +to be any adequate cause for the comparative increase which seems +to have prevailed in the decade between 1878 and 1888, unless it be +found in the increase of marriages which culminated in 1873 and +1883, falling after each of those years. The number of marriages +again rose high in 1891 and 1892, and this may account for the +increased number of divorces in 1896 and the following years. But +it may certainly be said with confidence that as compared with the +growth of population the number of divorces in England has shown +no alarming increase.</p> + +<p>The total number of petitions in matrimonial causes presented by +husbands exceed those presented by wives, but in no marked degree. +This excess would seem to be due to the fact that the larger number +of petitions for dissolution presented by husbands, owing no doubt +to the difference in the law affecting the two sexes, is not entirely +counterbalanced by the much larger number of petitions for judicial +separation presented by wives. The following figures for various +years may be taken as typical:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1895</td> <td class="tcc allb">1896</td> <td class="tcc allb">1897</td> <td class="tcc allb">1898</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Petitions for Dissolution—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Presented by husbands</td> <td class="tcr rb">353</td> <td class="tcr rb">393</td> <td class="tcr rb">414</td> <td class="tcr rb">401</td> <td class="tcr rb">383</td> <td class="tcr rb">429</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Presented by wives</td> <td class="tcr rb">220</td> <td class="tcr rb">280</td> <td class="tcr rb">269</td> <td class="tcr rb">243</td> <td class="tcr rb">262</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Petitions for Judicial Separation—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Presented by husbands</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Presented by wives</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Totals—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> Presented by husbands</td> <td class="tcr rb">357</td> <td class="tcr rb">396</td> <td class="tcr rb">416</td> <td class="tcr rb">405</td> <td class="tcr rb">387</td> <td class="tcr rb">434</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> Presented by wives</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">326</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">376</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">365</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">345</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">340</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">410</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Speaking generally, it may be said that about 70% of the petitions +presented are successful and result in decrees. This percentage has +a tendency, however, to rise.</p> + +<p>Attempts have been made to ascertain the classes which supply +the petitioners for divorce, but this cannot be done with such +certainty as to warrant any but the most general conclusions. It +may, however, safely be said that while all classes, professions and +occupations are represented, it is certainly not those highest in the +scale that are the largest contributors. The principles of the act of +1857 have beyond question been justified by the relief required by +and afforded to the general community.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Other European Countries</p> + +<p>We may now turn to the law of divorce as administered in the +other countries of the modern world. On the main question +whether marriage is to be considered indissoluble they will be +found to range themselves on one side or the other according to +the influence upon them of the Church of Rome and its canon +law.</p> + +<p>In <i>Scotland</i> it has long been the law that marriage can be dissolved +at the instance of either party by judicial sentence on the +grounds of adultery or of desertion, termed non-adherence, and +the spouses could in such case remarry, except with the paramour,—at +all events if the paramour was named in the decree (and the +name is sometimes omitted for that reason). A divorce <i>a mensa +et thoro</i> could also be granted for cruelty. By the Court of Session +Act 1830, the jurisdiction in divorce was transferred from a body +of commissaries to the court of session.</p> + +<p>By the law of <i>Holland</i> complete divorce could be granted +by judicial sentence on the grounds of adultery or of wilful and +malicious desertion, to which were added unnatural offences and +imprisonment for life, and such divorce gave the power of remarriage, +except with the person with whom adultery was proved +to have been committed, but there would seem to be a doubt +whether this power extended to the guilty party (Voet, <i>De +divortiis</i>, lit. 24, tit. 2). Divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i> could be granted +on the grounds allowed by the canon law.</p> + +<p>The Code of <i>Prussia</i> of 1794 contained elaborate provisions +which gave great facility of divorce. A complete divorce could +be obtained by judicial sentence for the following causes:—(1) +Adultery or unnatural offences; and adultery by a husband +formed no bar to his obtaining a divorce against his wife for +adultery; and even an illicit intimacy, from which a presumption +of adultery might arise, was held sufficient for a divorce. (2) Wilful +desertion. (3) Obstinate refusal of the rights of marriage, +which was considered as equivalent to desertion. (4) Incapacity +to perform the duties of marriage, even if arising subsequent to +the marriage; and the same effect was assigned to other incurable +bodily defects that excited disgust and horror. (5) Lunacy, +if after a year there was no reasonable hope of recovery. (6) +An attempt on the life of one spouse by the other, or gross and +unlawful attack on the honour or personal liberty. (7) Incompatibility +of temper and quarrelsome disposition, if rising to the +height of endangering life or health. (8) Opprobrious crime for +which either spouse has suffered imprisonment, or a knowingly +false accusation of such crime by one spouse of the other. (9) If +either spouse by unlawful transactions endangers the life, honour, +office or trade of the other, or commences an ignominious employment. +(10) Change of religion. In addition to these causes, +marriages, when there were no children, could be dissolved by +mutual consent if there be no reason to suspect levity, precipitation +or compulsion; and a judge had also power to dissolve a +marriage in cases in which a strongly rooted dislike appeared to +him to exist. In all cases of divorce, but sometimes subject to +the necessity of obtaining a licence, remarriage was permissible +(see Burge, <i>Commentaries on Colonial and Foreign Law</i>, vol. i. +649).</p> + +<p>Before 1876 only a divorce <i>a vinculo</i> could be obtained in +some of the German states, especially if the petitioner were a +Roman Catholic. The only relief afforded was a “perpetual +separation.” By the Personal Status Act 1875 perpetual separation +orders were abolished and divorce decrees allowed in cases +where the petitioners would, under the former law, have been +entitled to a perpetual separation order. However, two Drafting +Commissions under the act declined to alter the new rule, but +under pressure from the Roman Catholic party the Reichstag +passed a law introducing a modified separation order, termed +“dissolution of the conjugal community” (<i>Aufhebung der +ehelichen Gemeinschaft</i>). This order can be converted into a +dissolution of the marriage at the option of either party. Under +the Civil Code of 1900 a petitioner can obtain a divorce or judicial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span> +separation on “absolute” or “relative” grounds. In the +former case if the facts are established the petitioner is entitled +to the relief prayed for; in the latter case, it is left to judicial +discretion. The absolute grounds are adultery, bigamy, sodomy, +an attempt against the petitioner’s life or wilful desertion. The +relative grounds are (a) such grave breach of marital duty or +dishonourable or immoral conduct as would disturb the marital +relation to such an extent that the marriage could not reasonably +be expected to continue; (b) insanity, continued for more than +three years during the marriage, and of so severe a nature that +intellectual community between the parties has ceased and is not +likely to be re-established. A divorced wife, if not exclusively +the guilty party, may retain her husband’s name; but if exclusively +guilty, her former husband may compel her to resume +her maiden name.</p> + +<p>By the law of <i>Denmark</i>, according to the Code of King Christian +the Fifth, complete divorce could be obtained for incest; for +leprosy, whether contracted before or after marriage; for transportation +for crime or flight from justice, after three years, +though not for crime itself; and for exile not arising from crime, +after seven years.</p> + +<p>In <i>Sweden</i> complete divorce is granted by judicial sentence for +adultery, and in <i>Russia</i> for that cause and also for incompatibility +of temper (Ayliffe, Par. 49). On the other hand, in <i>Spain</i> +marriage is indissoluble, and the ecclesiastical courts have +retained their exclusive cognizance of matrimonial causes. In +<i>Italy</i> certain articles of the Civil Code deal with separation, +voluntary and judicial, but divorce is not allowed in any form.</p> + +<p>In <i>France</i> the law of divorce has had a chequered history. +Before the Revolution the Roman canon law prevailed, marriage +was considered indissoluble, and only divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>, +known as <i>la séparation d’habitation</i>, was permitted; though it +would appear that in the earliest age of the monarchy divorce <i>a +vinculo matrimonii</i> was allowed. <i>La séparation d’habitation</i> was +granted at the instance of a wife for cruelty by her husband or +false accusation of a capital crime, or for habitual treatment with +contempt before the inmates of the house; but a wife could not +obtain a separation for adultery by her husband, although he +had his remedy in case of adultery by his wife. In every case +the sentence of a judicial tribunal, which took precautions against +collusion, was necessary. But the Revolution may be said to +have swept away marriage among the institutions which it overwhelmed, +and by the law of the 20th of September 1792 so great +facility was given for divorce <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i> as practically +to terminate the obligations of marriage. A reaction came with +the Code Napoléon, yet even under that system of law divorce +remained comparatively easy. Mutual consent, expressed in +the manner and continued for a period specified by the law, was +cause for a divorce (the principle of the Roman law being adopted +on this point), but such consent could not take place unless the +husband was twenty-five years of age and the wife twenty-one, +unless they had been married for two years, nor after twenty +years of marriage, nor after the wife had completed her forty-fifth +year; and further, the approval of the parents of both parties +was required. In case of divorce by consent, the law required +that a proper agreement should be made for the maintenance +of the wife and the custody of the children. A husband could +obtain a divorce <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i> for adultery, but the wife +had no such power unless the husband had brought his mistress +to the home. Both husband and wife could claim divorce on the +ground of outrage, or grievous bodily injury, or condemnation +for an infamous crime. If the divorce was for adultery, the +erring party could not marry the partner of his or her guilt. A +divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i> could be obtained on the same grounds as +a divorce <i>a vinculo</i>, but not by mutual consent; and if the divorce +<i>a mensa et thoro</i> continued in force for three years, the defendant +party could claim a divorce <i>a vinculo</i>. On the restoration of +royalty in 1816 divorce <i>a vinculo</i> was abolished, and pending suits +for divorce <i>a vinculo</i> were converted into suits for separation only.</p> + +<p>Divorce in France, after the repeal of the provisions respecting +it in the Code Napoléon in 1816, was re-enacted by a law of the +27th of July 1884, the provisions of which were simplified by +laws of 1886 and 1907. But a wide departure was made by these +laws from the terms of the Code Napoléon. Divorce by consent +disappeared, and the following became the causes for which +divorce was allowed: (1) Adultery by either party to the +marriage at the suit of the other, without, in the case of adultery +by the husband, the aggravation of introduction of the concubine +into the home required by the Code; (2) violence (<i>excès</i>) or +cruelty (<i>sévices</i>); (3) <i>injures graves</i>; and (4) <i>peine afflictive et +infamante</i>. <i>Excès</i> is defined by Locié as “a generic expression +comprising all acts tending to compromise the safety of the +person, without distinction as to their object or motive, premeditation +as well as furious anger, attempts upon life as well as +serious woundings.” <i>Sévices</i> are acts of ill-treatment less grave +in character, which, while not endangering life, render existence +in common intolerable (Kelly’s <i>French Law of Marriage</i>, p. 122). +<i>Injures graves</i>, as to which the courts have considered themselves +entitled to exercise a wide discretion, have been defined as acts, +writings or words which reflect upon the honour or the reputation +of the party against whom they are directed. The courts have +held that retraction at the trial does not relieve the party from +the consequences of an <i>injure grave</i>, and that publicity is an aggravating +but not a necessary element. A letter from one spouse to +the other may constitute an <i>injure</i> and the courts have further +held themselves at liberty to consider letters written after +divorce proceedings have been commenced. <i>Injures graves</i> have +also been considered to include material injuries, and among +these have been classed habitual and groundless refusal of +matrimonial rights, communication of disease and refusal to +consent to a religious ceremony of marriage. Habitual but not +occasional drunkenness has also been held to fall within the +definition of an <i>injure grave</i>. <i>Peine afflictive et infamante</i> signifies +a legal punishment involving corporal confinement and moral +degradation.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>In addition to its recognition of full divorce, the French law +recognizes separation of two kinds, one <i>séparation de biens</i> and the +other <i>séparation de corps</i>. The effect of <i>séparation de biens</i> is +merely to put an end to the community of goods between the +spouses. It necessarily follows, but may be decreed independently +of <i>séparation de corps</i>. The grounds of <i>séparation de corps</i> are the +same as those for a divorce; and if a <i>séparation de corps</i> has +existed for three years, it may be turned into a divorce upon the +application of either party to the court.</p> + +<p>Until 1893 a wife <i>séparée de corps</i> obtained only the capacity +attaching to a concomitant <i>séparation de biens</i>; that is to say, +she recovered the enjoyment and management of her separate +property, but could not deal with real property, nor take legal +proceedings, without the sanction of her husband or of the court. +But by a law of the 6th of February 1893 a wife <i>séparée de corps</i> +obtains “the full exercise of her civil capacity, so that she shall +not need to resort to the authority of her husband or of the court.” +In case of reconciliation, the wife returns to the limited capacity +of a wife <i>séparée de biens</i>, and after the prescribed notification of +such change of status it becomes binding on third persons.</p> + +<p>The provisions of French law with regard to the custody of +the children of a dissolved marriage, and with regard to property, +do not differ materially from those prescribed by the English acts. +The custody of children is given to the party who has obtained +the divorce, unless the court, on the application of the family, or +the <i>ministère public</i>, consider it better, in the interests of the +children, that custody should be given to the other party or a +third person; but in every case the right of both father and +mother to supervise the maintenance and education of the +children, and their liability to contribute to their support, are +continued.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span></p> + +<p>The law in France as to property on a divorce has been +accurately stated as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“Divorce in France effects a dissolution of the matrimonial régime +of property as well as of the marriage itself. The decree appoints a +notary, who is charged with the settlement of the pecuniary interests +of the parties. By a stereotyped form of procedure the appointment +is made invariably for the purpose of liquidating <i>la communauté +ayant existé entre les époux</i>, irrespective of whether the régime really +was that of community or another. In the case of aliens, therefore, +married under the rule of separate property, it is necessary carefully +to set this out in the notarial deed of liquidation, in order to defeat +the presumption which might be raised by the wording of the decree +that a community really did exist. The party against whom the +divorce has been pronounced loses the benefit of all settlements made +upon him or her by the other party, either by the marriage contract +or since the marriage. On the other hand, the party in whose favour +the divorce has been pronounced preserves the benefit of all settlements +made in his or her favour by the unsuccessful party. If no +such settlements were made, or if those made appear inadequate to +ensure the subsistence of the successful party, the court may grant +him or her permanent alimony out of the property of the other party, +not to exceed one-third of the income, and revocable in case it ceases +to be necessary” (Kelly, p. 130).</p> +</div> + +<p>On a divorce both parties are at liberty to remarry. The +husband could remarry at once; but the wife (art. 296 of the +Code) was only allowed to remarry after an interval of ten months. +By the act of 1907, this article was abolished, and the wife +allowed to remarry as soon as the judgment or decree granting +the divorce has been entered, providing 300 days have elapsed +since the first judgment was pronounced. A divorced husband +may remarry his divorced wife, but if he does so, he cannot be +again divorced, except on the ground of a sentence to a <i>peine +afflictive et infamante</i> passed on one of them since their remarriage. +There is, however, this limitation on the power of remarriage of +divorced persons, that the party to the marriage against whom +the decree has been pronounced is not allowed to marry the +person with whom his or her guilt has been established. Such +person, however, has no such rights as are recognized in him or +her according to English law, and cannot take any part in the +proceedings. But his or her name is referred to in the proceedings +only by an initial; and French law goes even further in the +avoidance of publicity, inasmuch as the publication of divorce +proceedings in the press is forbidden, under heavy penalties.</p> + +<p>By a law of the 6th of February 1893 French jurisprudence, +more complete at least, and perhaps wiser, than English, dealt +with a matter previously in controversy, and decided that after a +divorce the wife shall resume her maiden name, and may not +continue to use the name of her divorced husband; nor may the +husband, for business or other purposes, continue to use the name +of his wife.</p> + +<p>By the law of 1886 the special procedure in divorce previously +in force under the Code and under the law of 1884 was abolished, +and it was provided that matrimonial causes should be tried +according to the ordinary rules of procedure. The action therefore, +when brought, follows the methods of procedure common to +other civil proceedings. But there still remain certain necessary +preliminaries to an action of divorce. A petition must be +presented by a petitioner in person to the president of the court +sitting in chambers, with the object of a reconciliation being +effected. This is known as the <i>première comparation</i>. If the +petitioner still determines to proceed, there follows the <i>seconde +comparation</i>, on which occasion both parties appear before the +president. If the president fails to effect a reconciliation, he +makes an order permitting the petitioner to proceed, and deals +with the matters necessary to be dealt with <i>pendente lite</i>, such +matters being (1) separate residence, (2) alimony, (3) possession of +personal effects, (4) custody of children. As regards residence, +the wife is compelled to adhere during the proceedings to the +residence assigned to her, but no similar restriction is placed +on the husband. Alimony <i>pendente lite</i> is in the discretion of +the court, having regard to the means of the parties, and +includes a proper provision for costs. As regards the custody of +children, the Code and the law of 1884 gave it to the husband, +unless the court otherwise orders, but the law of 1886 leaves +the matter wholly in the discretion of the court.</p> + +<p>There are certain technical rules of evidence on the trial of +a divorce action. It is a general principle of the French law of +evidence that documentary evidence is the best evidence, and oral +testimony only secondary. In divorce cases adultery <i>flagrante +delicto</i> can be proved by the official certificate of the commissary +of police. Letters between the husband and wife are admissible +in evidence. As to letters between the parties and third persons, +the law, which has been doubtful, now appears to be that the wife +may produce only such letters from third parties to her husband +as have come into her possession accidentally, and without any +ruse or artifice on her part; but the husband may put in evidence +any letters written to or by his wife which he has obtained by any, +short of criminal, means. If the documents put in evidence are +not sufficient to satisfy the court, there follows an investigation +by means of witnesses, termed an <i>enquête</i>. A schedule of allegations +is drawn up, and a judge, termed a <i>juge-commissaire</i>, is +specially appointed to conduct the inquiry. Relatives and servants, +though not competent witnesses in ordinary civil actions, +are so in divorce proceedings. Cross petitions may be entered; +the substantiation of a cross petition, however, does not have the +effect, in some cases given to it by English law, of barring a +divorce, but a divorce may be, and often is, granted in favour +of and against both parties <i>pour torts réciproques</i>. When a case +comes on for trial, it is in the power of the court to order an +adjournment for a period not exceeding six months, which is termed +a <i>temps d’épreuve</i>, in order to afford an opportunity for reconciliation. +It is said, however, that this power is seldom exercised. +An appeal may be brought against a decree of divorce within two +months; and a decree made on appeal is subject to revision by +the court of cassation within two months. Both references to +the court of appeal and the court of cassation operate as a stay of +execution. A decree must, by the law of 1886, be transcribed on +the register of marriages within two months from its date, and +failing this transcription, the decree is void. The transcription +must be made at the place of celebration of the marriage, or, if the +parties are married abroad, at the place where the parties were +last domiciled in France. If the parties, after having married +abroad, return to France, it has been provided, by a circular of +the <i>Procureur de la République</i> in 1887, that the transcription may +be made at the place of their actual domicile at the time of action +brought, a rule which has been held to apply to the divorce of +aliens in France. The effect of transcription does not relate back +to the date of the decree.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Opinions may differ as to the relative merits of the English and +French law relating to divorce. But it cannot be denied that the +French law presents a singularly complete and well-considered +system, and one which, obviously with the English system in view, has +endeavoured to graft on it provisions supplementing its omissions, +and modifying certain of its terms in accordance with the light +afforded by experience and the changed feelings of the modern world. +The effect of the laws of 1884 and 1886 in France has been great. The +act of 1907 dealing with divorce, coupled with that of the 21st of July +of the same year dealing with marriage, may also be said to mark an +epoch in the laws relating to women. During the five years from +1884 to 1888 the courts granted divorces in 21,064 cases, rejecting +applications for divorce in 1524. In addition, there were 12,242 +applications for judicial separation, of which 10,739 were granted. +A distinguished French writer, the author of a work of singular +completeness and accuracy on the judicial system of Great Britain +has compared these figures with the corresponding result of the +English act of 1857. His conclusion is expressed in these words: +“On voit qu’en cinq années nos tribunaux out prononcé trois fois +plus de divorces que la haute cour d’Angleterre n’en a prononcé en +trente ans. Je n’insiste pas sur les conclusions morales à tirer de ce +rapprochement” (Comte de Franqueville, <i>Le Système judiciaire de +la Grande-Bretagne</i>, ii. p. 171). It is, however, practically impossible +to compare the number of divorces in France and in England with +exact justice, because, as will have been seen above, the causes of +divorce in France materially exceed those recognized by English +law; and the absence in France of any official performing the +functions assigned to the king’s proctor in England cannot but have +great influence on the number of applications for divorce, as well as +on their results.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(St H.)</div> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">United States</p> + +<p>According to American practice, divorce is the termination +by proper legal authority, sometimes legislatively but usually +judicially, of a marriage which up to the time of the decree +was legal and binding. It is to be distinguished from a decree of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span> +nullity of marriage, which is simply a legal determination that +no legal marriage has ever existed between the two parties. It is +also to be distinguished from a decree of separation, which permits +or commands the parties to live apart, but does not completely +and for all purposes sever the marriage tie. The matrimonial law +of England, as at the time of the declaration of independence, +forms part of the common law of the United States. But as no +ecclesiastical courts have ever existed there, the law must be +considered to have been inoperative. There is no Federal +jurisdiction in divorce, and it is a question for the law of each +separate state; and though it is competent to Congress to +authorize divorces in the Territories, still it appears that this +subject like others is usually left to the territorial legislature. In +the different states, and in England, divorces were at first granted +by the legislatures, whether directly or by granting special +authority to the tribunals to deal with particular cases. This +practice fell into general disrepute, and by the constitution of +some states such divorces are expressly prohibited.</p> + +<p>Upon the subject of divorce in the United States, and, to some +extent, in foreign countries, a careful investigation was made by +the American Bureau of Labour, and its report covered the years +1867 to 1886; a further report for the period 1887 to 1906 has +also been published by the Federal Census Bureau. The number +of divorces was in 1886 over 25,000, and in 1906 was over 72,000, +about double the number reported for that year from all the +rest of the Christian world. As divorce presupposes a legal +marriage, the amount of divorce, or the divorce-rate, is best stated +as the ratio between the number of divorces decreed during a year +and the number of subsisting marriages or married couples. The +usual basis is 100,000 married couples. In 1898-1902 the divorce-rate +was 200 divorces (400 people) to 100,000 married couples. +This is equivalent to more than one divorce annually to each 1400 +people. The several states differ in divorce-rate, from South +Carolina, with no provision for legal divorce, to Montana and +Washington, where the rate is two and a half times the average for +the country. In general the rate is about the same in the North +as in the South, but greater in the Central states than in the East, +and in the Western than in the Central states; but to this rule +the New England states, Louisiana, New Mexico and Arizona +are exceptions. The New England states have a higher rate than +their geographical position would lead one to expect, and the +other three, owing doubtless, in part at least, to the influence of +the Roman Catholic Church, have a lower rate than the states +about them. The several state groups had in 1900 the following +divorce-rates per 100,000: South Atlantic, 196; North Atlantic, +200; South Central, 558; North Central, 510; Western, 712. +The divorce-rate in the United States increased rapidly and +steadily in forty years from 27 in 1867 to 86 in 1906. But distinct +tendencies are traceable in different regions. In the North Atlantic +group the rate rose by 58%, in the North Central by 158%, in the +Western by 223%, in the South Atlantic by 437%, and in the South +Central by 685%. The great increase in the South was mainly +due to the spread of divorce among the emancipated negroes. +Each state determines for itself the causes for which divorce may +be granted, and no general statement is therefore possible.</p> + +<p>The ground pleaded for a divorce is seldom an index to the +motives which caused the suit to be brought. This is determined +by the character of the law rather than by the state of mind of the +parties; and so far as the individuals are concerned, the ground +alleged is thus a cloak rather than a clue or revelation. Still +those causes which have been enacted into law by the various +state legislatures do indicate the pleas which have been endorsed +by the social judgment of the respective communities. In the +United States exclusive of Alaska and the recent insular accessions +there are forty-nine different jurisdictions in the matter of divorce. +Six out of every seven allow divorce for desertion, adultery or +cruelty; and of the 945,625 divorces reported with their causes +during the twenty years 1887-1906 nearly 78% were granted for +some one of these three causes, viz. 39% for desertion, 22% for +adultery, and 16% for cruelty. Probably nearly 9% more were +for some combination of these causes. Three other grounds for +divorce are admitted as legal in many or most American states, viz. +imprisonment in 39, habitual drunkenness in 38, and neglect to +provide in 22. About 98% of American divorces are granted on +some one or more of these six grounds. In general the legislation +on the subject of the causes allowed for divorce is most restrictive +in the states on the Atlantic coast, from New York to South Carolina +inclusive, and is least so in the Western states. The slight +expense of obtaining a divorce in many of the states, and the lack +of publicity which is given to the suit, are also important reasons +for the great number of decrees issued. The importance of the +former consideration is reflected in the fact that the divorce-rate +for the United States as a whole shows clearly, in its fluctuations, +the influences of good and bad times. When times are good +and the income of the working and industrial classes likely to be +assured, the divorce-rate rises. In periods of industrial depression +it falls, fluctuating thus in the same way and probably for the +same reason that the marriage-rate in industrial communities +fluctuates. In two-thirds of the divorce suits the wife is the +plaintiff, and the proportion slightly increased in the forty years. +In the Northern states the percentage issued to wives (1887-1906) +was 71, while in the Southern states it was only 56. But where +both parties desire a decree, and each has a legal ground to urge, +a jury will usually listen more favourably to a woman’s suit.</p> + +<p>Divorce is probably especially frequent among the native +population of the United States, and among these probably more +common in the city than in the country. This statement cannot +be established absolutely, since statistics afford no means of +distinguishing the native from the foreign-born applicants. It is, +however, the most obvious reason for explaining the fact that, +while in Europe the city divorce-rate is from three to five times +as great as that of the surrounding country, the difference in the +United States between the two regions is very much less. In +other words, the great number of foreigners in American cities +probably tends to obscure by a low divorce-rate the high rate of +the native population. Divorce is certainly more common in the +New England states than in any others on the Atlantic coast +north of Florida, and it is not unlikely that wherever the New +England families have gone divorce is more frequent than elsewhere. +For example, it is much more common in the northern +counties of Ohio settled largely from New England than in the +southern counties settled largely from the Middle Atlantic states.</p> + +<p>There are two statements frequently made regarding divorce in +the United States which do not find warrant in the statistics on +the subject. The first is, that the real motive for divorce with +one or both parties is the desire for marriage to a third person. +The second is, that a very large proportion of divorces are granted +to persons who move from one jurisdiction to another in order +to avail themselves of lax divorce laws. On the first point the +American statistics are practically silent, since, in issuing a +marriage licence to parties one or both of whom have been +previously divorced, no record is generally made of the fact. In +Connecticut, however, for a number of years this information was +required; and, if the statements were trustworthy, the number +of persons remarrying each year was about one-third the total +number of persons divorcing, which is probably a rate not widely +different from that of widows and widowers of the same age. +Foreign figures for Switzerland, Holland and Berlin indicate that +in those regions the proportion of the divorced who remarry +speedily is about the same as that of widows and widowers. +What statistical evidence there is on the subject therefore tends +to discredit this popular opinion. The evidence on the second +point is more conclusive, and has gone far towards decreasing +the demand for a constitutional amendment allowing a federal +marriage and divorce law. About four-fifths of all the divorces +granted in the United States were issued to parties who were +married in the state in which the decree of divorce was later +made; and when from the remaining one-fifth are deducted those +in which the parties migrated for other reasons than a desire to +obtain an easy divorce, the remainder would constitute a very +small, almost a negligible, fraction of the total number.</p> + +<p>It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say how far the frequency of +divorce in the United States has been or is a social injury; how far +it has weakened or undermined the ideal of marriage as a lifelong +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span> +union between man and woman. In this respect the question +is very like that of illegitimacy; and as the most careful students +of the latter subject agree that almost no trustworthy inference +regarding the moral condition of a community can be derived +from the proportion of illegitimate children born, so one may say +regarding the prevalence of divorce that from this fact almost no +inferences are warranted regarding the moral or social condition +of the population. It is by no means impossible, for example, +that the spread of divorce among the negro population in the +South marks a step in advance from the condition of largely +unregulated and illegal unions characteristic of the race immediately +after the war. The prevalence of divorce in the United +States among the native population, in urban communities, +among the New England element, in the middle classes of society, +and among those of the Protestant faith, indicates how closely +this social phenomenon is interlaced with much that is characteristic +and valuable in American civilization. In this respect, too, +the United States perhaps represent the outcome of a tendency +which has been at work in Europe at least since the Reformation. +Certainly the divorce-rate is increasing in nearly every civilized +country. Decrees of nullity of marriage and decrees of separation +not absolutely terminating the marriage relation are relatively +far less prevalent than they were in the medieval and early +modern period, and many persons who under former conditions +would have obtained relief from unsatisfactory unions through +one or the other of these avenues now resort to divorce. The +increasing proportion of the community who have an income +sufficient to pay the requisite legal fees is also a factor of great +importance. The belief in the family as an institution ordained +of God, decreed to continue “till death us do part,” and in its +relations typifying and perpetuating many holy religious ideas, +probably became weakened in the United States during the 19th +century, along with a weakening of other religious conceptions; +and it is yet to be determined whether a substitute for these ideas +can be developed under the guidance of the motive of social +utility or individual desire. In this respect the United States is, +as Mr Gladstone once wrote, a <i>tribus praerogativa</i>, but one who +knows anything of the family and home life of America will not +readily despond of the outcome.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The great source of American statistical information is the +governmental report of over 1000 pages, <i>A Report on Marriage and +Divorce in the United States 1867 to 1886, including an Appendix +relating to Marriage and Divorce in Certain Countries of Europe</i>, by +Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labour; together with the +further report for 1887 to 1906. The statistics contained in the +former volume have been analysed and interpreted in W. F. Willcox’s +<i>The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics</i> (Columbia University, +New York, 1891, 1897). Further interpretations are contained in +an article in the <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> for March 1893, entitled +“A Study in Vital Statistics.” The best legal treatise is probably +Bishop on <i>Marriage, Divorce, and Judicial Separation</i>. See also +J. P. Lichtenberger, <i>Divorce: A Study in Social Causation</i> (New +York, 1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. F. W.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In <i>Constantinidi</i> v. <i>Constantinidi and Lance</i> (1903), in which both +parties were guilty of misconduct, it was held by Sir Francis Jeune +(Lord St Helier) that where a wife has by her misconduct broken +up the home (the husband’s misconduct not having conduced to the +wife’s adultery) the court would exercise its discretion in favour of +the husband petitioner, and, further, the wife being a rich woman, +it was justifiable to give her husband a portion of her income, in +order to preserve to him the position he would have occupied as her +husband, the broad principle being that a guilty respondent should +not be allowed to profit by divorce. But further litigation concerning +this case occurred as to the variation of the marriage settlements +in favour of the husband, and the decision of the court of appeal in +July 1905 considerably modified the decision of Sir Francis Jeune.—Ed. <i>E. B.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is to be noted that by a decision of the court of appeal in +<i>Harriman</i> v. <i>Harriman</i> in 1909, where a wife has been deserted by +her husband and has obtained a separation order within two years from +the time when the desertion commenced, she loses her right to plead +desertion under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, and is therefore +not entitled to a divorce after two years’ desertion, upon proof of +adultery. See also <i>Dodd</i> v. <i>Dodd</i>, 1906, 22 T. L. R. 484.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In 1909 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the +law of divorce, with special reference to the position of the poorer +classes.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It is interesting to observe how, according to the latest decisions +of the House of Lords, cruelty, according to English law, includes +some but not others of the forms of injury for which, under the term +of <i>injures graves</i>, the French law affords a remedy. It may well +be doubted whether the view taken by the minority of the peers in +<i>Russell</i> v. <i>Russell</i>, which would have included in the definition of +cruelty all, or nearly all, of that which the French law deems either +<i>sévices</i> or <i>injures graves</i>, would not have better satisfied both the +principles of English jurisprudence and the feelings of modern life.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIWANIEH,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a small town in Turkish Asia, about 40 m. below +Hillah, on both banks of the Euphrates (31° 58′ 47″ N., 44° 58′ +18″ E.), which is here spanned by a floating bridge. Formerly +a military post for the control of the Affech territory, and a +telegraph station, it was in 1893 made the capital of the sanjak, +instead of Hillah, on account of its more strategical position. +This transfer of the seat of government represented a step in the +development of Turkish control over the central regions of Irak.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1802-1887), American philanthropist, +was born at Hampden, Maine, on the 4th of April 1802. +Her parents were poor and shiftless, and at an early age she was +taken into the home in Boston of her grandmother, Dorothea +Lynde, wife of Dr Elijah Dix. Here she was reared in a distinctly +Puritanical atmosphere. About 1821 she opened a school +in Boston, which was patronized by the well-to-do families; +and soon afterwards she also began teaching poor and neglected +children at home. But her health broke down, and from 1824 +to 1830 she was chiefly occupied with the writing of books of +devotion and stories for children. Her <i>Conversations on Common +Things</i> (1824) had reached its sixtieth edition by 1869. In 1831 +she established in Boston a model school for girls, and conducted +this successfully until 1836, when her health again failed. In +1841 she became interested in the condition of gaols and almshouses, +and spent two years in visiting every such institution +in Massachusetts, investigating especially the treatment of the +pauper insane. Her memorial to the state legislature dealing +with the abuses she discovered resulted in more adequate +provision being made for the care and treatment of the insane, +and she then extended her work into many other states. By 1847 +she had travelled from Nova Scotia to the Gulf of Mexico, and +had visited 18 state penitentiaries, 300 county gaols and houses +of correction, and over 500 almshouses. Her labours resulted +in the establishment of insane asylums in twenty states and in +Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and in the founding of many +additional gaols and almshouses conducted on a reformed plan. +In 1853 she secured more adequate equipment for the life-saving +service on Sable Island, then rightly called “the graveyard of +ships.” In 1854 she secured the passage by Congress of a bill +granting to the states 12,250,000 acres of public lands, to be +utilized for the benefit of the insane, deaf, dumb and blind; +but the measure was vetoed by President Pierce. After this disappointment +she went to England for rest, but at once became +interested in the condition of the insane in Scotland, and her +report to the home secretary opened the way for sweeping +reforms. She extended her work into the Channel Islands, and +then to France, Italy, Austria, Greece, Turkey, Russia, Sweden, +Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and a part of Germany. +Her influence over Arinori Mori, the Japanese <i>chargé d’affaires</i> at +Washington, led eventually to the establishment of two asylums +for the insane in Japan. At the outbreak of the Civil War she +offered her services to the Federal government and was appointed +superintendent of women nurses. In this capacity she served +throughout the war, without a day’s furlough; and her labours +on behalf of defectives were continued after the war. After a +lingering illness of six years she died at Trenton, New Jersey, on +the 17th of July 1887.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Francis Tiffany, <i>Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix</i> (Boston, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIX, JOHN ADAMS<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1798-1879), American soldier and +political leader, was born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the +24th of July 1798. He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy in +1810-1811 and at the College of Montreal in 1811-1812, and as +a boy took part in the War of 1812, becoming a second lieutenant +in March 1814. In July 1828, having attained the rank of captain, +he resigned from the army, and for two years practised law +at Cooperstown, New York. In 1830-1833 he was adjutant-general +of New York. He soon became prominent as one of the +leaders of the Democratic party in the state, and for many years +was a member of the so-called “Albany Regency,” a group of +Democrats who between about 1820 and 1850 exercised a +virtual control over their party in New York, dictating nominations +and appointments and distributing patronage. From 1833 +to 1839 he was secretary of state and superintendent of schools +in New York, and in this capacity made valuable reports concerning +the public schools of the state, and a report (1836) which +led to the publication of the <i>Natural History of the State of New +York</i> (1842-1866). In 1842 he was a member of the New York +assembly. In 1841-1843 he was editor of <i>The Northern Light</i>, a +literary and scientific journal published in Albany. From 1845 +to 1849 he was a United States senator from New York; and +as chairman of the committee on commerce was author of the +warehouse bill passed by Congress in 1846 to relieve merchants +from immediate payment of duties on imported goods. In 1848 +he was nominated for governor of New York by the Free Soil +party, but was defeated by Hamilton Fish. His acceptance of +the nomination, however, earned him the enmity of the southern +Democrats, who prevented his appointment by Pierce as secretary +of state and as minister to France in 1853. In this year Dix was +for a few weeks assistant U.S. treasurer in New York city. In +May 1860 he became postmaster of New York city, and from +January until March 1861 he was secretary of the treasury of the +United States, in which capacity he issued (January 29, 1861) to +a revenue officer at New Orleans a famous order containing the +words, “if any one attempts to haul down the American flag, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span> +shoot him on the spot.” He rendered important services in +hurrying forward troops in 1861, was appointed major-general +of volunteers in June 1861, and during the Civil War commanded +successively the department of Maryland (July 1861-May 1862), +Fortress Monroe (May 1862-July 1863), and the department of +the East (July 1863-July 1865). He was minister to France +from 1866 to 1869, and in 1872 was elected by the Republicans +governor of New York, but was defeated two years later. He had +great energy and administrative ability, was for a time president +of the Chicago & Rock Island and of the Mississippi & Missouri +railways, first president of the Union Pacific in 1863-1868, and +for a short time in 1872 president of the Erie. He died in New +York city on the 21st of April 1879. Among his publications are +<i>A Winter in Madeira and a Summer in Spain and Florence</i> (1850), +and <i>Speeches and Occasional Addresses</i> (1864). He wrote excellent +English versions of the <i>Dies irae</i> and the <i>Stabat mater</i>.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Morgan Dix</span> (1827-1908), graduated at Columbia in +1848 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1852, and was +ordained deacon (1852) and priest (1853) in the Protestant +Episcopalian church. In 1855-1859 he was assistant minister, +and in 1859-1862 assistant rector, of Trinity Church, New York +city, of which he was rector from 1862 until his death. He +published sermons and lectures; <i>A History of the Parish of +Trinity Church, New York City</i> (4 vols., 1898-1905); and a +biography of his father. <i>Memoirs of John Adams Dix</i> (2 vols., +New York, 1883).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIXON, GEORGE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1755?-1800), English navigator. He +served under Captain Cook in his third expedition, during which +he had an opportunity of learning the commercial capabilities +of the north-west coast of North America. After his return from +Cook’s expedition he became a captain in the royal navy. In the +autumn of 1785 he sailed in the “Queen Charlotte,” in the service +of the King George’s Sound Company of London, to explore the +shores of the present British Columbia, with the special object of +developing the fur trade. His chief discoveries were those of +Queen Charlotte’s Islands and Sound (the latter only partial), +Port Mulgrave, Norfolk Bay, and Dixon’s Entrance and Archipelago. +After visiting China, where he disposed of his cargo, +he returned to England (1788), and published (1799) <i>A Voyage +round the World, but more particularly to the North-West Coast of +America</i>, the bulk of which consists of descriptive letters by +William Beresford, his supercargo. His own contribution to the +work included valuable charts and appendices. He is usually, +though not with absolute certainty, identified with the George +Dixon who was author of <i>The Navigator’s Assistant</i> (1791) and +teacher of navigation at Gosport.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIXON, HENRY HALL<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1822-1870), English sporting writer +over the <i>nom de plume</i> “The Druid,” was born at Warwick +Bridge, Cumberland, on the 16th of May 1822, and was educated +at Rugby and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated +in 1846. He took up the profession of the law, but, though called +to the bar in 1853, soon returned to sporting journalism, in which +he had already made a name for himself, and began to write +regularly for the <i>Sporting Magazine</i>, in the pages of which +appeared three of his novels, <i>Post and Paddock</i> (1856), <i>Silk and +Scarlet</i> (1859), and <i>Scott and Sebright</i> (1862). He also published +a legal compendium entitled <i>The Law of the Farm</i> (1858), which +ran through several editions. His other more important works +were <i>Field and Fern</i> (1865), giving an account of the herds and +flocks of Scotland, and <i>Saddle and Sirloin</i> (1870), treating in the +same manner those of England. He died at Kensington on the +16th of March 1870.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Hon. Francis Lawley, <i>Life and Times of “The Druid”</i> (London, +1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIXON, RICHARD WATSON<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1833-1900), English poet and +divine, son of Dr James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister, was born +on the 5th of May 1833. He was educated at King Edward’s +school, Birmingham, and on proceeding to Pembroke College, +Oxford, became one of the famous “Birmingham group” there +who shared with William Morris and Burne-Jones in the Pre-Raphaelite +movement. He took only a second class in moderations +in 1854, and a third in <i>Literae Humaniores</i> in 1856; but in +1858 he won the Arnold prize for an historical essay, and in 1863 +the English Sacred Poem prize. He was ordained in 1858, was +second master of Carlisle high school, 1863-1868, and successively +vicar of Hayton, Cumberland, and Warkworth, Northumberland. +He became minor canon and honorary librarian of Carlisle in +1868, and honorary canon in 1874, he was proctor in convocation +(1890-1894), and received the honorary degree of D.D. from +Oxford in 1899. He died at Warkworth on the 23rd of January +1900. Canon Dixon’s first two volumes of verse, <i>Christ’s +Company</i> and <i>Historical Odes</i>, were published in 1861 and 1863 +respectively; but it was not until 1883 that he attracted +conspicuous notice with <i>Mano</i>, an historical poem in <i>terza +rima</i>, which was enthusiastically praised by Mr Swinburne. This +success he followed up by three privately printed volumes. <i>Odes +and Eclogues</i> (1884), <i>Lyrical Poems</i> (1886), and <i>The Story of +Eudocia</i> (1888). Dixon’s poems were during the last fifteen +years of his life recognized as scholarly and refined exercises, +touched with both dignity and a certain severe beauty, but he +never attained any general popularity as a poet, the appeal of +his poetry being directly to the scholar. A great student of +history, his studies in that direction colour much of his poetry. +The romantic atmosphere is remarkably preserved in <i>Mano</i>, a +successful metrical exercise in the difficult <i>terza rima</i>. His typical +poems have charm and melody, without introducing any new +note or variety of rhythm. He is contemplative, sober and +finished in literary workmanship, a typical example of the Oxford +school. Pleasant as his poetry is, however, he will probably be +longest remembered by the work to which he gave the best years +of his life, his <i>History of the Church of England from the Abolition +of the Roman Jurisdiction</i> (1878-1902). At the time of his death +he had completed six volumes, two of which were published +posthumously. This fine work, covering the period from 1529 to +1570, is built upon elaborate research, and presents a trustworthy +and unprejudiced survey of its subject.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Dixon’s <i>Selected Poems</i> were published in 1909 with a memoir of +the author by Robert Bridges.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1821-1879), English author +and traveller, was born at Great Ancoats, Manchester, on the +30th of June 1821, a member of an old Lancashire family. +Beginning life as a clerk at Manchester, he decided, in 1846, to +take up literature as a career. After gaining some journalistic +experience at Cheltenham he settled in London, on the recommendation +of Douglas Jerrold, and contributed to the <i>Athenaeum</i> +and <i>Daily News</i>. His series of papers—“The Literature of the +Lower Orders”—in the last-named journal, and a further series, +“London Prisons,” were widely noticed. In 1849 appeared his +<i>John Howard and the Prison World of Europe</i>, which proved a +great popular success. These were followed by a <i>Life of William +Penn</i> (1851), in which he replied to Macaulay’s attack on Penn; +<i>Life of Blake</i> (1852); and <i>Personal History of Lord Bacon</i> (1861), +supplemented by <i>The Story of Lord Bacon’s Life</i> (1862). From +1853 to 1869 he was editor of the <i>Athenaeum</i>. In 1863 he visited +the East, and on his return helped to found the Palestine +Exploration Fund, and published (1865) <i>The Holy Land</i>. In +1866 he travelled through the United States, publishing, in 1867, +<i>New America</i>, and, the following year, <i>Spiritual Wives</i>, two supplementary +volumes. In the autumn of 1867 he journeyed through +the Baltic Provinces, publishing an account of his trip in <i>Free +Russia</i> (1870). In 1871 he was in Switzerland, and in 1872 in +Spain, where he wrote the greater part of his <i>History of Two +Queens</i>. In 1874 he revisited the United States, giving the +impressions of his tour in <i>The White Conquest</i> (1875). His other +works, besides some fiction, were <i>British Cyprus</i> (1879) and +<i>Royal Windsor</i>. He died on the 26th of December 1879. His +daughter, Ella N. Hepworth Dixon, became known as a journalist +and novelist.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIXON,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a city and the county seat of Lee county, Illinois, +U.S.A., on the Rock river, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. +(1890) 5161; (1900) 7917 (879 foreign-born); (1910) 7216. It +is served by the Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois +Central railways, and is connected with Sterling by an electric +line; freight is shipped over the Hennepin Canal. The city +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span> +has two parks of 159 and 6 acres respectively, and there is a +Chautauqua Park, where an annual Chautauqua Assembly is +held. Dixon is the seat of the Northern Illinois normal school +(incorporated in 1884), and of the Rock River military academy. +The river furnishes water power for the street railways, electric +lighting and a number of manufacturing establishments. +Among the manufactures are condensed milk, boxes, wire screens +and wire cloth, lawn mowers, gas engines, cement, agricultural +implements, shoes and wagons. The place was laid out in +1835 by John Dixon (1784-1876), the first white settler of Lee +county. A bronze tablet in the Howells Building, at the intersection +of First and Peoria Streets, marks the site of his cabin, +and in the city cemetery a granite shaft has been erected to his +memory. Dixon was chartered as a city in 1859.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DIZFUL,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Diz-Pul</span> (“fort-bridge”), a town of Persia, in the +province of Arabistan, 36 m. N.W. of Shushter, in 32° 25′ N., +48° 28′ E. Pop. about 25,000. It has post and telegraph offices. +It is situated on the left bank of the Dizful river, a tributary +of the Karun, crossed by a fine bridge of twenty-two arches, 430 +yds. in length, constructed on ancient foundations. Dizful is +the chief place of a small district of the same name and the +residence of the governor of Arabistan during the winter months. +The district has twelve villages and a population of about 35,000 +(5000 Arabs of the Ali i Kethīr tribe), and pays a yearly tribute +of about £6000. The city was formerly known as Andamish, and +in its vicinity are many remains of ancient canals and buildings +which afford conclusive proof of former importance. 16 m. S.W. +are the ruins of Susa, and east of them and half-way between +Dizful and Shushter stood the old city of Junday Shapur.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DJAKOVO<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (sometimes written <i>Djakovar</i>, Hungarian <i>Diakovár</i>), +a city of Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; in the county of Virovitica, +100 m. E. by S. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 6824. Djakovo is a +Roman Catholic episcopal see, whose occupant bears the title +“Bishop of Bosnia, Slavonia and Sirmium.” During the life of +Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) it was one of the chief centres of +religious and political activity among the Croats. The cathedral, +a vast basilica built of brick and white stone, with a central dome +and two lofty spires above the north entrance, was founded in +1866 and consecrated in 1882. Its style is Romanesque, chosen +by Strossmayer as symbolical of the position of his country +midway between east and west. The interior is magnificently +decorated with mosaics, mural paintings and statuary, chiefly +the work of local artists. Other noteworthy buildings are the +nunnery, ecclesiastical seminary and episcopal palace. Djakovo +has a thriving trade in agricultural produce. Many Roman +remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood, but the +earliest mention of the city is in 1244, when Béla IV. of Hungary +confirmed the title-deeds of its owners, the bishops of Bosnia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a full description of the cathedral, in Serbo-Croatian and +French, see the finely illustrated folio <i>Stolna Crkva u Djakovu</i>, published +by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DLUGOSZ, JAN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Johannes Longinus</span>] (1415-1480), Polish +statesman and historian, was the son of Jan Dlugosz, burgrave +of Bozeznica. Born in 1415, he graduated at the university of +Cracow and in 1431 entered the service of Bishop Zbygniew +Olesnicki (1389-1455), the statesman and diplomatist. He +speedily won the favour of his master, who induced him to take +orders and made him his secretary. His preferment was rapid. +In 1436 we find him one of the canons of Cracow and the administrator +of Olesnicki’s vast estates. In 1440, on returning from +Hungary, whither his master had escorted King Wladislaus II., +Dlugosz saved the life of Olesnicki from robbers. The prelate +now employed Dlugosz on the most delicate and important +political missions. Dlugosz brought Olesnicki the red hat from +Rome in 1449, and shortly afterwards was despatched to Hungary +to mediate between Hunyadi and the Bohemian condottiere +Giszkra, a difficult mission which he most successfully accomplished. +Both these embassies were undertaken contrary to +the wishes of King Casimir IV., who was altogether opposed to +Olesnicki’s ecclesiastical policy. But though he thus sacrificed his +own prospects to the cardinal’s good pleasure, Dlugosz was far too +sagacious to approve of the provocative attitude of Olesnicki, and +frequently and fearlessly remonstrated with him on his conduct. +In his account, however, of the quarrel between Casimir and +Olesnicki concerning the question of priority between the cardinal +and the primate of Poland he warmly embraced the cause of the +former, and even pronounced Casimir worthy of dethronement. +Such outbursts against Casimir IV. are not infrequent in +Dlugosz’s <i>Historia Polonica</i>, and his strong personal bias must +certainly be taken into consideration in any critical estimate of +that famous work. Yet as a high-minded patriot Dlugosz had +no sympathy whatever with Olesnicki’s opposition to Casimir’s +Prussian policy, and steadily supported the king during the whole +course of the war with the Teutonic knights. When Olesnicki +died in 1455 he left Dlugosz his principal executor. The office of +administering the cardinal’s estate was a very ungrateful one, for +the family resented the liberal benefactions of their kinsman to +the Church and the <span class="correction" title="amended from univesity">university</span>, and accused Dlugosz of exercising +undue influence, from which charge he triumphantly vindicated +himself. It was in the year of his patron’s death that he began to +write his <i>Historia Polonica</i>. This great book, the first and still +one of the best historical works on Poland in the modern sense of +the word, was only undertaken after mature consideration and +an exhaustive study of all the original sources then available, +some of which are now lost. The principal archives of Poland +and Hungary were ransacked for the purpose, and in his account of +his own times Dlugosz’s intimate acquaintance with the leading +scholars and statesmen of his day stood him in good stead. The +style is modelled on that of Livy, of whom Dlugosz was a warm +admirer. As a proof of the thoroughness and conscientiousness of +Dlugosz it may be mentioned that he learned the Cyrillic alphabet +and took up the study of Ruthenian, “in order that this our +history may be as plain and perfect as possible.” The first of the +numerous imprints of the <i>Historia Polonica</i> appeared in 1614, the +first complete edition in 1711.</p> + +<p>Dlugosz’s literary labours did not interfere with his political +activity. In 1467 the generous and discerning Casimir IV. +entrusted Dlugosz with the education of his sons, the eldest of +whom, Wladislaus, at the urgent request of the king, he accompanied +to Prague when in 1471 the young prince was elected +king of Bohemia. Dlugosz refused the archbishopric of Prague +because of his strong dislike of the land of the Hussites; but seven +years later he accepted the archbishopric of Lemberg. His last +years were devoted to his history, which he completed in 1479. +He died on the 19th of May 1480, at Piatek.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Aleksander Semkowicz, <i>Critical Considerations of the Polish +Works of Dlugosz</i> (Pol.; Cracow, 1874); Michael Bobrzynski and +Stanislaw Smolka, <i>Life of Dlugosz and his Position in Literature</i> (Pol.; +Cracow, 1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1760-1837), Russian statesman +and poet, was born at his father’s estate in the government of +Simbirsk. In consequence of the revolt of Pugachev the family +had to flee to St Petersburg, and there Ivan was entered at the +school of the Semenov Guards, and afterwards obtained a post +in the military service. On the accession of Paul to the imperial +throne he quitted the army with the title of colonel; and +his appointment as procurator for the senate was soon after +renounced for the position of privy councillor. During the four +years from 1810 to 1814 he served as minister of justice under the +emperor Alexander; but at the close of this period he retired into +private life, and though he lived more than twenty years, he never +again took office, but occupied himself with his literary labours +and the collection of books and works of art. In the matter of +language he sided with Karamsin, and did good service by his +own pen against the Old Slavonic party. His poems include songs, +odes, satires, tales, epistles, &c., as well as the fables—partly +original and partly translated from Fontaine, Florian and Arnault—on +which his fame chiefly rests. Several of his lyrics have +become thoroughly popular from the readiness with which they +can be sung; and a short dramatico-epic poem on Yermak, the +Cossack conqueror of Siberia, is well known.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings occupy three volumes in the first five editions; in the +6th (St Petersburg, 1823) there are only two. His memoirs, to +which he devoted the last years of his life, were published at Moscow +in 1866.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DNIEPER,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> one of the most important rivers of Europe (the +<i>Borysthenes</i> of the Greeks, <i>Danapris</i> of the Romans, <i>Uzi</i> or <i>Uzu</i> of +the Turks, Eksi of the Tatars, <i>Elice</i> of Visconti’s map (1381), +<i>Lerene</i> of Contarini (1437), <i>Luosen</i> of Baptista of Genoa (1514), +and <i>Lussem</i> in the same century). It belongs entirely to Russia, +and rises in the government of Smolensk, in a swampy district +(alt. 930 ft.) at the foot of the Valdai Hills, not far from the +sources of the Volga and the Dvina, in 55° 52’ N. and 33° 41’ E. +Its length is about 1410 m. and it drains an area of 202,140 sq. m. +In the first part of its course, which may be said to end at +Dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating country of Carboniferous +formation; in the second it passes west to Orsha, south +through the fertile plain of Chernigov and Kiev, and then south-east +across the rocky steppe of the Ukraine to Ekaterinoslav. +About 45 m. S. of this town it has to force its way across the same +granitic offshoot of the Carpathian mountains which interrupts +the course of the Dniester and the Bug, and for a distance of about +25 m. rapid succeeds rapid. The fall of the river in that distance +is 155 ft. The Dnieper, having got clear of the rocks, continues +south-west through the grassy plains of Kherson and Taurida, +and enters the Black Sea, or rather a <i>liman</i> or bay of the Black +Sea, by a considerable estuary in 46° 30′ N. and 32° 20′ E. On +this ramifying <i>liman</i>, into which the Bug also pours its waters, +stand Nikolaiev and the fortified town of Ochakov. Navigation +extends as far up as Dorogobuzh, where the depth is about 12 ft., +and rafts are floated down from the higher reaches. The banks +are generally high, more particularly the left bank. About the +town of Smolensk the breadth is 455 ft., at the confluence of the +Pripet 1400, and in some parts of the Ekaterinoslav district more +than 1¼ m. In the course above the rapids the channel varies +very greatly in nature and depth, and it is not infrequently +interrupted by shallows. The rapids, or <i>porogs</i>, form a serious +obstacle to navigation; it is only for a few weeks when the river +is in flood that they are passable, and even then the venture is not +without risk and can only be undertaken with the assistance of +special pilots. It is from these falls that the Cossacks of the +Ukraine came to be known as Zaporogian Cossacks. As early +as 1732 an attempt was made to improve the channel. A canal, +which ultimately proved too small for use, was constructed at +Nenasitets in 1780 at private expense; blastings were carried out +in 1798 and 1799 at various parts; in 1805 a canal was formed at +Kaindatski, and the channel straightened at Sursk; by 1807 a +new canal was completed at Nenasitets; in 1833 a passage was +cleared through the Staro-kaindatski porog; and in the period +1843 to 1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. The result +has been not only to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural +channel, but also to furnish a series of artificial canals by which +vessels can make their way when the river is low. Of the +tributaries of the Dnieper the following are navigable,—the +Berezina and the Pripet from the right, and the Sozh and the +Desna from the left. By means of the Dnieper-Bug (King’s) +canal, and the Berezina and Oginski canals, this river has a sort +of water connexion with the Baltic Sea. In the estuary the +fisheries give employment to large numbers of people. At Kiev +the river is free from ice on an average of 234 days in the year, at +Ekaterinoslav 270 and at Kherson 277.</p> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DNIESTER<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (<i>Tyras</i> and <i>Danaster</i> or <i>Danastris</i> of classical +authors, <i>Nistrul</i> of the Rumanians, and <i>Turla</i> of the Turks), a +river of south-eastern Europe belonging to the basin of the Black +Sea. It rises on the northern slope of the Carpathian mountains +in Austrian Galicia, and belongs for the first 350 m. of its course +to Austrian, for the remaining 515 m. to Russian, territory. It +drains an area of 29,670 sq. m., of which 16,500 sq. m. belong to +Russia. It is excessively meandering, and the current in most +parts even during low water is decidedly rapid as compared with +Russian rivers generally, the mean rate being calculated at 1<span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">11</span> m. +per hour. The average width of the channel is from 500 to 750 ft., +but in some places it attains as much as 1400 ft.; the depth is +various and changeable. The principal interruption in the +navigable portion of the river, besides a sprinkling of rocks in the +bed and the somewhat extensive shallows, is occasioned by a +granitic spur from the Carpathians, which gives rise to the Yampol +Rapids. For ordinary river craft the passage of these rapids is +rendered possible, but not free from danger, by a natural channel +on the left side, and by a larger and deeper artificial channel on +the right; for steamboats they form an insuperable barrier. The +river falls into the sea by several arms, passing through a shallow +<i>liman</i> or lagoon, a few miles S.W. of Odessa. There are two +periodical floods,—the earlier and larger caused by the breaking +up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of February or in +March; and the later due to the melting of the snows in the +Carpathians, and taking place about June. The spring flood +raises the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of +the river submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent +country. In some years the general state of the water is so low +that navigation is possible only for three or four weeks, while +in other years it is so high that navigation continues without +interruption; but in recent years considerable improvements +have been effected at government expense. In consequence +the traffic has increased, the Dniester tapping regions of great +productiveness, especially in cereals and timber, namely, Galicia, +Podolia and Bessarabia. Steamboat traffic was introduced in the +lower reaches in 1840. The fisheries of the lower course and of +the estuary are of considerable importance; and these, together +with those of the lakes which are formed by the inundations, +furnish a valuable addition to the diet of the people in the shape +of carp, pike, tench, salmon, sturgeon and eels. Its tributaries +are numerous, but not of individual importance, except perhaps +the Sereth in Galicia.</p> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOAB,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duab</span> or <span class="sc">Dooab</span>, a name, like the Greek Mesopotamia, +applied in India, according to its derivation (<i>do</i>, two, and <i>ab</i>, +river), to the stretch of country lying between any two rivers, as +the Bari Doab between the Sutlej and the Ravi, the Rechna Doab +between the Ravi and the Chenab, the Jech Doab between the +Chenab and Jhelum, and the Sind Sagar Doab between the +Jhelum and the Indus, but frequently employed, without any +distinctive adjunct, as the proper name for the region between +the Ganges and its great tributary the Jumna. In like manner +the designation of Doab canal is given to the artificial channel +which breaks off from the Jumna near Fyzabad, and flows almost +parallel with the river till it reunites with it at Delhi.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1799-1859), American +churchman, Protestant Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, was born +in Trenton, New Jersey, on the 27th of May 1799. He graduated +at Union College, Schenectady, New York, in 1818, studied +theology and, in 1821, was ordained deacon and in 1823 priest by +Bishop Hobart, whom he assisted in Trinity church, New York. +With George Upfold (1796-1872), bishop of Indiana from 1849 +to 1872, Doane founded St Luke’s in New York City. In 1824-1828 +he was professor of belles-lettres in Washington (now +Trinity) College, Hartford, Connecticut, and at this time he was +one of the editors of the <i>Episcopal Watchman</i>. He was assistant +in 1828-1830 and rector in 1830-1832 of Christ church, Boston, +and was bishop of New Jersey from October 1832 to his death at +Burlington, New Jersey, on the 27th of April 1859. The diocese +of New Jersey was an unpromising field, but he took up his work +there with characteristic vigour, especially in the foundation of +St Mary’s Hall (1837, for girls) and Burlington College (1846) as +demonstrations of his theory of education under church control. +His business management of these schools got him heavily into +debt, and in the autumn of 1852 a charge of lax administration +came before a court of bishops, who dismissed it. The schools +showed him an able and wise disciplinarian, and his patriotic +orations and sermons prove him a speaker of great power. +He belonged to the High Church party and was a brilliant +controversialist. He published <i>Songs by the Way</i> (1824), a +volume of poems; and his hymns beginning “Softly now the +light of day” and “Thou art the Way” are well known.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Writings of George Washington Doane</i> (4 vols., New +York, 1860-1861), edited by his son, William Croswell Doane +(b. 1832), first bishop of Albany.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBBS FERRY,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a village of Westchester county, New York, +on the E. bank of the Hudson river 2 m. N. of Yonkers. Pop. +(1890) 2083; (1900) 2888; (1910 U. S. census) 3455. Dobbs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span> +Ferry is served by the Hudson River division of the New York +Central railway. There are many fine country places, two private +schools—the Mackenzie school for boys and the Misses Masters’ +school for girls—and the children’s village (with about thirty +cottages) of the New York juvenile asylum. The name of the +village was derived from a Swede, Jeremiah Dobbs, whose family +probably moved hither from Delaware, and who at the beginning +of the last quarter of the 18th century had a skiff ferry, +which was kept up by his family for a century afterwards. +Because Dobbs Ferry had been a part of Philipse Manor all lands +in it were declared forfeit at the time of the War of American +Independence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yonkers</a></span>), and new titles were derived from +the commissioners of forfeitures. The position of the village +opposite the northernmost end of the Palisades gave it importance +during the war. The region was repeatedly raided by camp +followers of each army; earthworks and a fort, commanding +the Hudson ferry and the ferry to Paramus, New Jersey, were +built; the British army made Dobbs Ferry a rendezvous, after +the battle of White Plains, in November 1776, and the continental +division under General Benjamin Lincoln was here at the +end of January 1777. The American army under Washington +encamped near Dobbs Ferry on the 4th of July 1781, and started +thence for Yorktown in the following month. In the Van Brugh +Livingston house on the 6th of May 1783, Washington and +Governor George Clinton met General Sir Guy Carleton, afterwards +Lord Dorchester, to negotiate for the evacuation by the +British troops of the posts they still held in the United States. +In 1873 the village was incorporated as Greenburgh, from the +township of the same name which in 1788 had been set apart +from the manor of Phillipsburgh; but the name Dobbs Ferry +was soon resumed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1824-1874), English poet +and critic, was born on the 5th of April 1824 at Cranbrook, Kent. +His father was a wine merchant, his mother a daughter of Samuel +Thompson (1766-1837), a London political reformer. The +family moved to Cheltenham when Dobell was twelve years old. +He was educated privately, and never attended either school or +university. He refers to this in some lines on Cheltenham College +in imitation of Chaucer, written in his eighteenth year. After +a five years’ engagement he married, in 1844, Emily Fordham, a +lady of good family. An acquaintance with Mr (subsequently Sir +James) Stansfeld and with the Birmingham preacher-politician, +George Dawson (1821-1876), which afterwards led to the +foundation of the Society of the Friends of Italy, fed the young +enthusiast’s ardour for the liberalism of the day. Meanwhile, +Dobell wrote a number of minor poems, instinct with a passionate +desire for political reform. <i>The Roman</i> appeared in 1850, under +the <i>nom de plume</i> of “Sydney Yendys.” Next year he travelled +through Switzerland with his wife; and after his return he +formed friendships with Robert Browning, Philip Bailey, George +MacDonald, Emanuel Deutsch, Lord Houghton, Ruskin, Holman +Hunt, Mazzini, Tennyson and Carlyle. His second long poem, +<i>Balder</i>, appeared in 1854. The three following years were spent +in Scotland. Perhaps his closest friend at this time was Alexander +Smith, in company with whom he published, in 1855, a number +of sonnets on the Crimean War, which were followed by a +volume on <i>England in Time of War</i>. Although by no means +a rich man he was always ready to help needy men of letters, +and it was through his exertions that David Gray’s poems +were published. In 1869 a horse, which he was riding, fell and +rolled over with him. His health, which had for several years +necessitated his wintering abroad, was seriously affected by this +accident, and he was from this time more or less of an invalid, +until his death on the 22nd of August 1874.</p> + +<p>As a poet Dobell belongs to the “spasmodic school,” as it was +named by Professor Aytoun, who parodied its style in <i>Firmilian</i>. +The epithet, however, was first applied by Carlyle to Byron. +The school includes George Gilfillan, Philip James Bailey, John +Stanyan Bigg (1826-1865), Dobell, Alexander Smith, and, +according to some critics, Gerald Massey. It was characterized +by an under-current of discontent with the mystery of existence, +by vain effort, unrewarded struggle, sceptical unrest, and an +uneasy straining after the unattainable. It thus faithfully +reflected a certain phase of 19th century thought. The productions +of the school are marked by an excess of metaphor +and a general extravagance of language. On the other hand, +they exhibit freshness and originality often lacking in more +conventional writings. Dobell’s poem, <i>The Roman</i>, dedicated +to the interests of political liberty in Italy, is marked by +pathos, energy and passionate love of freedom, but it is overlaid +with monologue, which is carried to a dreary excess in +<i>Balder</i>, relieved though the latter is by fine descriptive passages, +and by some touching songs. Dobell’s suggestive, but too +ornate prose writings were collected and edited with an introductory +note by Professor J. Nichol (<i>Thoughts on Art, Philosophy +and Religion</i>) in 1876. In his religious views Dobell was a +Christian of the Broad Church type; and socially he was one of +the most amiable and true-hearted of men. His early interest +in the cause of oppressed nationalities, shown in his friendship +with Kossuth, Emanuel Deutsch and others, never lessened, +although his views of home politics underwent some change from +the radical opinions of his youth. In Gloucestershire Dobell +was well known as an advocate of social reform, and he was a +pioneer in the application of the co-operative system to private +enterprise.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The standard edition of his poems (1875) by Professor Nichol +includes a memoir.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÖBELN,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on +the (Freiberg) Mulde, two arms of which embrace the town as +an island, 35 m. S.E. from Leipzig by rail, and at the junction of +lines to Dresden, Chemnitz, Riesa and Oschatz. Pop. (1905) +including the garrison, 18,907. It has two Evangelical churches, +of which the Nikolai-kirche, dating in its present form from 1485, +is a handsome edifice; a medieval town hall, a former Benedictine +nunnery and a monument to Luther. There are an agricultural +and a commercial school. The industries include wool-spinning, +iron-founding, carriage, agricultural implement, and metal-printing +and stamping works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBERAN,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dobberan</span>, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy +of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, about 2 m. from the shores of +the Baltic and 7 W. of Rostock by rail. Pop. 5000. Besides the +ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded by Pribislaus, prince of +Mecklenburg, in 1173, and secularized in 1552, it possesses an +Evangelical Gothic church of the 14th century, one of the finest in +north Germany, a grand-ducal palace, a theatre, an exchange and +a concert hall. Owing to its delightful situation amid beech +forests and to its chalybeate waters, Doberan has become a +favourite summer resort. Numerous villa residences have been +erected and promenades and groves laid out. In 1793 Duke +Frederick Francis caused the first seaside watering-place in +Germany to be established on the neighbouring coast, 4 m. +distant, at the spot where the Heiligen-Damm, a great bank of +rocks about 1000 ft. broad and 15 ft. high, stretches out into the +sea and forms an excellent bathing ground. Though no longer +so popular as in the early part of the 19th century, it is still +frequented, and is connected with Doberan by a tramway.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÖBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1780-1849), German +chemist, was born near Hof in Bavaria on the 15th of December +1780. After studying pharmacy at Münchberg, he started a +chemical manufactory in 1803, and in 1810 was appointed +professor of chemistry, pharmacy and technology at Jena, +where he died on the 24th of March 1849. The Royal Society’s +<i>Catalogue</i> enumerates 171 papers by him on various chemical +topics, but his name is best known for his experiments on +platinum in a minute state of division and on the oxidation +products of alcohol. In 1822 he showed that when a mass +of platinum black, supplied with alcohol by a wick is enclosed +in a jar to which the air has limited access, acetic acid and water +are produced; this experiment formed the basis of the Schützenbach +Quick Vinegar Process. A year later he noticed that +spongy platinum in presence of oxygen can bring about the ignition +of hydrogen, and utilized this fact to construct his “hydrogen +lamp,” the prototype of numerous devices for the self-ignition of +coal-gas burners. He studied the formation of aldehyde from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span> +alcohol by various methods, also obtaining its crystalline compound +with ammonia, and he was the discoverer of furfurol. +An early observation of the diffusion of gases was recorded by +him in 1823 when he noticed the escape of hydrogen from a +cracked jar, attributing it to the capillary action of fissures. +His works included treatises on pneumatic chemistry (1821-1825) +and the chemistry of fermentation (1822).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A correspondence which he carried on with Goethe and Charles +August, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, was collected and published +at Weimar by Schade in 1856.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBREE, PETER PAUL<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1782-1825), English classical scholar +and critic, was born in Guernsey. He was educated at Reading +school under Richard Valpy and at Trinity College, Cambridge, +where he was elected fellow. He was appointed regius professor +of Greek in 1823, and died in Cambridge on the 24th of September +1825. He was an intimate friend of Porson, whom he took as his +model in textual criticism, although he showed less caution in +conjectural emendation. After Porson’s death (1808) Dobree +was commissioned with Monk and Blomfield to edit his literary +remains, which had been bequeathed to Trinity College. Illness +and a subsequent journey to Spain delayed the work until 1820, +when Dobree brought out the <i>Plutus</i> of Aristophanes (with his +own and Porson’s notes) and all Porson’s <i>Aristophanica</i>. Two +years later he published the <i>Lexicon</i> of Photius from Porson’s +transcript of the Gale MS. in Trinity College library, to which he +appended a <i>Lexicon rhetoricum</i> from the margin of a Cambridge +MS. of Harpocration. James Scholefield, his successor in the +Greek professorship, brought out selections from his notes +(<i>Adversaria</i>, 1831-1833) on Greek and Latin authors (especially +the orators), and a reprint of the <i>Lexicon rhetoricum</i>, together +with notes on inscriptions (1834-1835). The latest edition of the +<i>Adversaria</i> is by William Wagner (in Bohn’s <i>Collegiate Series</i>, +1883).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An appreciative estimate of Dobree as a scholar will be found in +J. Bake’s <i>Scholica hypomnemata</i>, ii. (1839) and in the <i>Philological +Museum</i>, i. (1832) by J. C. Hare.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÖBRENTEI, GABOR<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Gabriel</span>] (1786-1851), Hungarian +philologist and antiquary, was born at Nagyszöllös in 1786. +He completed his studies at the universities of Wittenberg and +Leipzig, and was afterwards engaged as a tutor in Transylvania. +At this period he originated and edited the <i>Erdélyi Muzeum</i>, +which, notwithstanding its important influence on the development +of the Magyar language and literature, soon failed for want +of support. In 1820 Döbrentei settled at Pest, and there he spent +the rest of his life. He held various official posts, but continued +zealously to pursue the studies for which he had early shown a +strong preference. His great work is the <i>Ancient Monuments of +the Magyar Language</i> (<i>Régi Magyar Nyelvemlékek</i>), the editing +of which was entrusted to him by the Hungarian Academy. The +first volume was published in 1838 and the fifth was in course +of preparation at the time of his death. Döbrentei was one of +the twenty-two scholars appointed in 1825 to plan and organize, +under the presidency of Count Teleki, the Hungarian Academy. +In addition to his great work he wrote many valuable papers +on historical and philological subjects, and many biographical +notices of eminent Hungarians. These appeared in the Hungarian +translation of Brockhaus’s <i>Conversations-Lexikon</i>. He translated +into Hungarian <i>Macbeth</i> and other plays of Shakespeare, Sterne’s +letters from Yorick to Eliza (1828), several of Schiller’s tragedies, +and Molière’s <i>Avare</i>, and wrote several original poems. Döbrentei +does not appear to have taken any part in the revolutionary +movement of 1848. He died at his country house, near Pest, +on the 28th of March 1851.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBRITCH,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hajiolupazarjik</span>, the principal town in the +Bulgarian Dobrudja. Pop. (1901) 13,436. The town is noted +for its <i>panaïr</i> or great fair, chiefly for horses and cattle, held +annually in the summer, which formerly attracted a large +concourse from all parts of eastern Europe, but has declined in +importance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1717-1791), Austrian Roman +Catholic missionary, was born at Gratz, in Styria. He joined the +Society of Jesus in 1736, and in 1749 proceeded to Paraguay, +where for eighteen years he worked devotedly first among the +Guaranis, and then among the Abipones. Returning to Europe +on the expulsion of the Jesuits from South America, he settled at +Vienna, obtained the friendship of Maria Theresa, survived the +extinction of his order, composed the history of his mission, and +died on the 17th of July 1791. The lively if rather garrulous book +on which his title to remembrance rests, appeared at Vienna in +1784, in the author’s own Latin, and in a German translation by +Professor Krail of the university of Pest. Of its contents some idea +may be obtained from its extended title:—<i>Historia de Abiponibus, +Equestri Bellicosaque Paraguariae Natione, locupletata Copiosis +Barbararum Gentium, Urbium, Fluminum, Ferarum, Amphibiorum, +Insectorum, Serpentium praecipuorum, Piscium, Avium, +Arborum, Plantarum aliarumque ejusdem Provinciae Proprietatum +Observationibus</i>. In 1822 there appeared in London an anonymous +translation sometimes ascribed to Southey, but really the +work of Sara Coleridge, who had undertaken the task to defray +the college expenses of one of her brothers. A delicate compliment +was paid to the translator by Southey in the third canto of +his <i>Tale of Paraguay</i>, the story of which was derived from the +pages of Dobrizhoffer’s narrative:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“And if he could in Merlin’s glass have seen</p> +<p class="i05">By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught,</p> +<p class="i05">The old man would have felt as pleased, I ween,</p> +<p class="i05">As when he won the ear of that great Empress Queen.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1753-1829), Hungarian philologist, +was born of Bohemian parentage at Gjermet, near Raab, in +Hungary. He received his first education in the German school +at Bischofteinitz, made his first acquaintance with Bohemian +at the Deutschbrod gymnasium, studied for some time under +the Jesuits at Klattau, and then proceeded to the university of +Prague. In 1772 he was admitted among the Jesuits at Brünn; +but on the dissolution of the order in 1773 he returned to Prague +to study theology. After holding for some time the office of tutor +in the family of Count Nostitz, he obtained an appointment first +as vice-rector, and then as rector, in the general seminary at +Hradisch; but in 1790 he lost his post through the abolition +of the seminaries throughout Austria, and returned as a guest +to the house of the count. In 1792 he was commissioned by +the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit Stockholm, Abo, +Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which had +been scattered by the Thirty Years’ War; and on his return +he accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy. His +reason began to give way in 1795, and in 1801 he had to be +confined in a lunatic asylum; but by 1803 he had completely +recovered. The rest of his life was mainly spent either in Prague +or at the country seats of his friends Counts Nostitz and Czernin; +but his death took place at Brünn, whither he had gone in 1828 +to make investigations in the library. While his fame rests +chiefly on his labours in Slavonic philology his botanical studies +are not without value in the history of the science.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following is a list of his more important works, <i>Fragmentum +Pragense evangelii S. Marci, vulgo autographi</i> (1778); a periodical +for Bohemian and Moravian Literature (1780-1787); <i>Scriptores +rerum Bohemicarum</i> (2 vols., 1783); <i>Geschichte der böhm. Sprache +und ältern Literatur</i> (1792); <i>Die Bildsamkeit der slaw. Sprache</i> (1799); +a <i>Deutsch-böhm. Wörterbuch</i> compiled in collaboration with Leschka-Puchmayer +and Hanka (1802-1821); <i>Entwurf eines Pflanzensystems +nach Zahlen und Verhältnissen</i> (1802); <i>Glagolitica</i> (1807); <i>Lehrgebäude +der böhm. Sprache</i> (1809); <i>Institutiones linguae slavicae dialecti +veteris</i> (1822); <i>Entwurf zu einem allgemeinen Etymologikon der +slaw. Sprachen</i> (1813); <i>Slowanka zur Kenntniss der slaw. Literatur</i> +(1814); and a critical edition of Jordanes, <i>De rebus Geticis</i>, for +Pertz’s <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>. See Palacky, <i>J. Dobrowskys +Leben und gelehrtes Wirken</i> (1833).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBRUDJA<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (Bulgarian <i>Dobritch</i>, Rumanian <i>Dobrogea</i>), also +written <span class="sc">Dobrudscha</span>, and <span class="sc">Dobruja</span>, a region of south-eastern +Europe, bounded on the north and west by the Danube, on the +east by the Black Sea, and on the south by Bulgaria. Pop. (1900) +267,808; area, 6000 sq. m. The strategic importance of this +territory was recognized by the Romans, who defended it on +the south by “Trajan’s Wall,” a double rampart, drawn from +Constantza, on the Black Sea, to the Danube. In later times it +was utilized by Russians and Turks, as in the wars of 1828, 1854 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span> +and 1878, when it was finally wrested from Turkey. By the treaty +of Berlin, in 1878, the Russians rewarded their Rumanian allies +with this land of mountains, fens and barren steppes, peopled by +Turks, Bulgarians, Tatars, Jews and other aliens; while, to add +to the indignation of Rumania, they annexed instead the fertile +country of Bessarabia, largely inhabited by Rumans. After 1880, +however, the steady decrease of aliens, and the development of +the Black Sea ports, rendered the Dobrudja a source of prosperity +to Rumania.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBSINA<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Dobschau</i>), a town of Hungary, 165 m. N.E. of +Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 5109. It is situated in the county +of Gömör, at the foot of the Radzim (3200 ft. high) in the central +Carpathians, and lies to the south of the beautiful Straczena +valley, watered by the river Göllnitz, and enclosed on all sides +by mountains. In the vicinity are mines of iron, cobalt, copper +and mercury, some of them being very ancient. But the most +remarkable feature is a large cavern some 3¾ m. N.W., in which +is an icefield nearly 2 acres in extent, containing formations +which are at once most curious and strikingly beautiful. This +cavern, which lies in the above-mentioned Straczena valley, +was discovered in 1870. The place was founded in the first half +of the 14th century by German miners.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1840-  ), English poet and man +of letters, was born at Plymouth on the 18th of January 1840, +being the eldest son of George Clarisse Dobson, a civil engineer, +and on his grandmother’s side of French descent. When he was +about eight years old the family moved to Holyhead, and his +first school was at Beaumaris, in the Isle of Anglesea. He was +afterwards educated at Coventry, and the Gymnase, Strassburg, +whence he returned at the age of sixteen with the intention +of becoming a civil engineer. He had a taste for art, and in +his earlier years at the office continued to study it at South +Kensington, at his leisure, but without definite ambition. In +December 1856 he entered the Board of Trade, gradually rising to +a principalship in the harbour department, from which he withdrew +in the autumn of 1901. He married in 1868 Frances Mary, +daughter of Nathaniel Beardmore of Broxbourne, Herts, and +settled at Ealing. His official career was industrious though +uneventful, but as poet and biographer he stands among the most +distinguished of his time. The student of Mr Austin Dobson’s +work will be struck at once by the fact that it contains nothing +immature: there are no <i>juvenilia</i> to criticize or excuse. It was +about 1864 that Mr Dobson first turned his attention to composition +in prose and verse, and some of his earliest known pieces +remain among his best. It was not until 1868 that the appearance +of <i>St Paul’s</i>, a magazine edited by Anthony Trollope, afforded +Mr Dobson an opportunity and an audience; and during the next +six years he contributed to its pages some of his favourite poems, +including “Tu Quoque,” “A Gentleman of the Old School,” “A +Dialogue from Plato,” and “Une Marquise.” Many of his poems +in their original form were illustrated—some, indeed, actually +written to support illustrations. By the autumn of 1873 Mr +Dobson had produced sufficient verse for a volume, and put forth +his <i>Vignettes in Rhyme</i>, which quickly passed through three +editions. During the period of their appearance in the magazine +the poems had received unusual attention, George Eliot, among +others, extending generous encouragement to the anonymous +author. The little book at once introduced him to a larger public. +The period was an interesting one for a first appearance, since +the air was full of metrical experiment. Swinburne’s bold and +dithyrambic excursions into classical metre had given the clue +for an enlargement of the borders of English prosody; and, since +it was hopeless to follow him in his own line without necessary loss +of vigour, the poets of the day were looking about for fresh forms +and variations. It was early in 1876 that a small body of English +poets lit upon the French forms of Theodore de Banville, Marot +and Villon, and determined to introduce them into English verse. +Mr Austin Dobson, who had already made successful use of the +triolet, was at the head of this movement, and in May 1876 he +published in <i>The Prodigals</i> the first original ballade written in +English. This he followed by English versions of the rondel, +rondeau and villanelle. An article in the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> by +Mr Edmund Gosse, “A Plea for Certain Exotic Forms of Verse,” +appearing in July 1877, simultaneously with Mr Dobson’s second +volume, <i>Proverbs in Porcelain</i>, drew the general eye to the +possibilities and achievements of the movement. The experiment +was extremely fortunate in its introduction. Mr Dobson is above +all things natural, spontaneous and unaffected in poetic method; +and in his hands a sheaf of metrical forms, essentially artificial +and laborious, was made to assume the colour and bright +profusion of a natural product. An air of pensive charm, of +delicate sensibility, pervades the whole of these fresh revivals; +and it is perhaps this personal touch of humanity which has +given something like stability to one side of a movement otherwise +transitory in influence. The fashion has faded, but the +flowers of Mr Dobson’s French garden remain bright and +scented.</p> + +<p>In 1883 Mr Dobson published <i>Old-World Idylls</i>, a volume which +contains some of his most characteristic work. By this time his +taste was gradually settling upon the period with which it has +since become almost exclusively associated; and the spirit of +the 18th century is revived in “The Ballad of Beau Brocade” +and in “The Story of Rosina,” as nowhere else in modern English +poetry. In “Beau Brocade,” indeed, the pictorial quality of his +work, the dainty economy of eloquent touches, is at its very +best: every couplet has its picture, and every picture is true and +vivacious. The touch has often been likened to that of Randolph +Caldecott, with which it has much in common; but Mr Dobson’s +humour is not so “rollicking,” his portraiture not so broad, as +that of the illustrator of “John Gilpin.” The appeal is rather +to the intellect, and the touches of subdued pathos in the +“Gentleman” and “Gentlewoman of the Old School” are +addressed directly to the heart. We are in the 18th century, but +see it through the glasses of to-day; and the soft intercepting +sense of change which hangs like a haze between ourselves and +the subject is altogether due to the poet’s sympathy and sensibility. +<i>At the Sign of the Lyre</i> (1885) was the next of Mr Dobson’s +separate volumes of verse, although he has added to the body of +his work in a volume of <i>Collected Poems</i> (1897). <i>At the Sign of the +Lyre</i> contains examples of all his various moods. The admirably +fresh and breezy “Ladies of St James’s” has precisely the +qualities we have traced in his other 18th-century poems; there +are ballades and rondeaus, with all the earlier charm; and in +“A Revolutionary Relic,” as in “The Child Musician” of the +<i>Old-World Idylls</i>, the poet reaches a depth of true pathos which +he does not often attempt, but in which, when he seeks it, he +never fails. At the pole opposite to these are the light occasional +verses, not untouched by the influence of Praed, but also quite +individual, buoyant and happy. But the chief novelty in <i>At the +Sign of the Lyre</i> was the series of “Fables of Literature and Art,” +founded in manner upon Gay, and exquisitely finished in +scholarship, taste and criticism. It is in these perhaps, more than +in any other of his poems, that we see how with much felicity Mr +Dobson interpenetrates the literature of fancy with the literature +of judgment. After 1885 Mr Dobson was engaged principally +upon critical and biographical prose, by which he has added very +greatly to the general knowledge of his favourite 18th century. +His biographies of <i>Fielding</i> (1883), <i>Bewick</i> (1884), <i>Steele</i> (1886), +<i>Goldsmith</i> (1888), <i>Walpole</i> (1890) and <i>Hogarth</i> (1879-1898) are +studies marked alike by assiduous research, sympathetic presentation +and sound criticism. It is particularly noticeable that +Mr Dobson in his prose has always added something, and often a +great deal, to our positive knowledge of the subject in question, +his work as a critic never being solely aesthetic. In <i>Four Frenchwomen</i> +(1890), in the three series of <i>Eighteenth-Century Vignettes</i> +(1892-1894-1896), and in <i>The Paladin of Philanthropy</i> (1899), +which contain unquestionably his most delicate prose work, +the accurate detail of each study is relieved by a charm of +expression which could only be attained by a poet. In 1901 +he collected his hitherto unpublished poems in a volume entitled +<i>Carmina Votiva</i>. Possessing an exquisite talent of defined +range, Mr Austin Dobson may be said in his own words to +have “held his pen in trust for Art” with a service sincere and +distinguished.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOBSON, WILLIAM<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1610-1646), English portrait and +historical painter, was born in London. His father was master of +the alienation office, but by improvidence had fallen into reduced +circumstances. The son was accordingly bound an apprentice +to a stationer and picture dealer in Holborn Bridge; and while +in his employment he began to copy the pictures of Titian and +Van Dyck. He also took portraits from life under the advice +and instruction of Francis Cleyn, a German artist of considerable +repute. Van Dyck, happening to pass a shop in Snow Hill where +one of Dobson’s pictures was exposed, sought out the artist, and +presented him to Charles I., who took Dobson under his protection, +and not only sat to him several times for his own portrait, +but caused the prince of Wales, Prince Rupert and many others +to do the same. The king had a high opinion of his artistic ability, +styled him the English Tintoretto, and appointed him serjeant-painter +on the death of Van Dyck. After the fall of Charles, +Dobson was reduced to great poverty, and fell into dissolute +habits. He died at the early age of thirty-six. Excellent +examples of Dobson’s portraits are to be seen at Blenheim, +Chatsworth and several other country seats throughout England. +The head in the “Decollation of St John the Baptist” at Wilton +is said to be a portrait of Prince Rupert.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCETAE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span>, a name applied to those thinkers in the early +Christian Church who held that Christ, during his life, had not +a real or natural, but only an apparent (<span class="grk" title="dokein">δοκεῖν</span>, to appear) or +phantom body. Other explanations of the <span class="grk" title="dokêsis">δόκησις</span> or appearance +have, however, been suggested, and, in the absence of any +statement by those who first used the word of the grounds on +which they did so, it is impossible to determine between them +with certainty. The name Docetae is first used by Theodoret +(<i>Ep.</i> 82) as a general description, and by Clement of Alexandria +as the designation of a distinct sect,<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of which he says that Julius +Cassianus was the founder. Docetism, however, undoubtedly +existed before the time of Cassianus. The origin of the heresy is +to be sought in the Greek, Alexandrine and Oriental philosophizing +about the imperfection or rather the essential impurity of +matter. Traces of a Jewish Docetism are to be found in Philo; +and in the Christian form it is generally supposed to be combated +in the writings of John,<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and more formally in the epistles of +Ignatius.<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> It differed much in its complexion according to the +points of view adopted by the different authors. Among the +Gnostics and Manichaeans it existed in its most developed type, +and in a milder form it is to be found even in the writings of the +orthodox teachers. The more thoroughgoing Docetae assumed +the position that Christ was born without any participation of +matter; and that all the acts and sufferings of his human life, +including the crucifixion, were only apparent. They denied +accordingly, the resurrection and the ascent into heaven. To this +class belonged Dositheus, Saturninus, Cerdo, Marcion and their +followers, the Ophites, Manichaeans and others. Marcion, for +example, regarded the body of Christ merely as an “umbra,” a +“phantasma.” His denial (due to his abhorrence of the world) +that Jesus was born or subjected to human development, is in +striking contrast to the value which he sets on Christ’s death on +the cross. The other, or milder school of Docetae, attributed to +Christ an ethereal and heavenly instead of a truly human body. +Amongst these were Valentinus, Bardesanes, Basilides, Tatian +and their followers. They varied considerably in their estimation +of the share which this body had in the real actions and sufferings +of Christ. Clement and Origen, at the head of the Alexandrian +school, took a somewhat subtle view of the Incarnation, and +Docetism pervades their controversies with the Monarchians. +Hilary especially illustrates the prevalence of naive Docetic views +as regards the details of the Incarnation. Docetic tendencies +have also been developed in later periods of ecclesiastical history, +as for example by the Priscillianists and the Bogomils, and also +since the Reformation by Jacob Boehme, Menno Simons and a +small fraction of the Anabaptists. Docetism springs from the +same roots as Gnosticism, and the Gnostics generally held +Docetic views (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gnosticism</a></span>).</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Not a distinct sect, but a continuous type of Christology. Hippolytus, +however (<i>Philosophumena</i>, viii. 8-11), speaks of a definite party +who called themselves Docetae.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> 1 <i>Ep.</i> iv. 2, ii. 22, v. 6, 20; 2 <i>Ep.</i> 7, cf. Jerome (<i>Dial. adv. +Lucifer</i>. § 23 “Apostolis adhuc in saeculo superstitibus, adhuc apud +Judaeam Christi sanguine recenti, phantasma Domini corpus +asserebatur”).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Ad Trall.</i> 9 f., <i>Ad Smyrn.</i> 2, 4, <i>Ad Ephes.</i> 7. Cf. Polycarp, +<i>Ad Phil.</i> 7.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCHMIAC<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dochmê">δοχμή</span>, a hand’s breadth), a form of +verse, consisting of <i>dochmii</i> or pentasyllabic feet (usually o _ _ o -).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCK<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span>, a word applied to (1) a plant (see below), (2) an +artificial basin for ships (see below), (3) the fleshy solid part of +an animal’s tail, and (4) the railed-in enclosure in which a +prisoner is placed in court at his trial. Dock (1) in O.E. is +<i>docce</i>, represented by Ger. <i>Dockea-blatter</i>, O.Fr. <i>docque</i>, Gael. +<i>dogha</i>; Skeat compares Gr. <span class="grk" title="daukos">δαῦκος</span>, a kind of parsnip. Dock (2) +appears in Dutch (<i>dok</i>) and English in the 16th century; thence +it was adopted into other languages. It has been connected with +Med. Lat. <i>doga</i>, cap, Gr. <span class="grk" title="dochê">δοχή</span>, receptacle, from <span class="grk" title="dechesthai">δέχεσθαι</span>, to receive. +Dock (3), especially used of a horse or dog, appears in English +in the 14th century; a parallel is found in Icel. <i>docke</i>, stumpy +tail, and Ger. <i>Docke</i>, bundle, skein, is also connected with it. +This word has given the verb “to dock,” to cut short, curtail, +especially used of the shortening of an animal’s tail by severing +one or more of the vertebrae. The English Kennel Club (Rules, +1905, revised 1907) disqualifies from prize-winning dogs whose +tails have been docked; several breeds are, however, excepted, +<i>e.g.</i> varieties of terriers and spaniels, poodles, &c., and such +foreign dogs as may from time to time be determined by the +club. The prisoners’ dock (4) is apparently to be referred to +Flem. <i>dok</i>, pen or hutch. It was probably first used in thieves’ +slang; according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> it was known +after 1610 in “bail-dock,” a room at the corner of the Old +Bailey left open at the top, “in which during the trials are put +some of the malefactors” (<i>Scots. Mag.</i>, 1753).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCK<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span>, in botany, the name applied to the plants constituting +the section <i>Lapathum</i> of the genus <i>Rumex</i>, natural order Polygonaceae. +They are biennial or perennial herbs with a stout root-stock, +and glabrous linear-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaves +with a rounded, obtuse or hollowed base and a more or less wavy +or crisped margin. The flowers are arranged in more or less +crowded whorls, the whole forming a denser or looser panicle; +they are generally perfect, with six sepals, six stamens and a +three-sided ovary bearing three styles with much-divided stigmas. +The fruit is a triangular nut enveloped in the three enlarged +leathery inner sepals, one or all of which bear a tubercle. In the +common or broad-leaved dock, <i>Rumex obtusifolius</i>, the flower-stem +is erect, branching, and 18 in. to 3 ft. high, with large radical +leaves, heart-shaped at the base, and more or less blunt; the +other leaves are more pointed, and have shorter stalks. The +whorls are many-flowered, close to the stem and mostly leafless. +The root is many-headed, black externally and yellow within. +The flowers appear from June to August. In autumn the whole +plant may become of a bright red colour. It is a troublesome +weed, common by roadsides and in fields, pastures and waste +places throughout Europe. The great water dock, <i>R. hydrolapathum</i>, +believed to be the <i>herba britannica</i> of Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> +xxv. 6), is a tall-growing species; its root is used as an antiscorbutic. +Other British species are <i>R. crispus</i>; <i>R. conglomeratus</i>, +the root of which has been employed in dyeing; <i>R. sanguineus</i> +(bloody dock, or bloodwort); <i>R. palustris</i>; <i>R. pulcher</i> (fiddle +dock), with fiddle-shaped leaves; <i>R. maritimus</i>; <i>R. aquaticus</i>; +<i>R. pratensis</i>. The naturalized species, <i>R. alpinus</i>, or “monk’s +rhubarb,” was early cultivated in Great Britain, and was accounted +an excellent remedy for ague, but, like many other such +drugs, is now discarded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCK<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span>, in marine and river engineering. Vessels require to +lie afloat alongside quays provided with suitable appliances in +sheltered sites in order to discharge and take in cargoes conveniently +and expeditiously; and a basin constructed for this +purpose, surrounded by quay walls, is known as a dock. The +term is specially applied to basins adjoining tidal rivers, or close +to the sea-coast, in which the water is maintained at a fairly +uniform level by gates, which are closed when the tide begins to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> +fall, as exemplified by the Liverpool and Havre docks (figs. 1 +and 2). Sometimes, however, at ports situated on tidal rivers +near their tidal limit, as at Glasgow (fig. 3), Hamburg and +Rouen, and at some ports near the sea-coast, such as Southampton +(fig. 4) and New York, the tidal range is sufficiently moderate +for dock gates to be dispensed with, and for open basins and river +quays to serve for the accommodation of vessels. For ports +established on the sea-coast of tideless seas, such as the Mediterranean, +on account of the rivers being barred by deltas at +their outlets, like the Rhone and the Tiber, and thus rendered +inaccessible, open basins, provided with quays and protected by +breakwaters, furnish the necessary commercial requirements for +sea-going vessels, as for example at Marseilles (fig. 5), Genoa, +Naples and Trieste. These open basins, however, are precisely +the same as closed docks, except for the absence of dock gates, +and the accommodation for shipping at the quays round basins +in river ports is so frequently supplemented by river quays, +that closed docks, open basins and river quays are all naturally +included in the general consideration of dock works.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:226px" src="images/img354a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Liverpool Docks, North End. Scale <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">20,000</span>.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:753px; height:386px" src="images/img354b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Havre Docks and Outer Harbour.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:277px" src="images/img354c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Glasgow Docks.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:408px; height:447px" src="images/img354d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Southampton Docks and River Quays.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Low-lying land adjoining a tidal river or estuary frequently +provides suitable sites for docks; for the position, being more +or less inland, is sheltered; the low level reduces the excavation +required for forming the docks, and enables the excavated +<span class="sidenote">Sites for Docks.</span> +materials to be utilized in raising the ground at the +sides for quays, and the river furnishes a sheltered +approach channel. Notable instances of these are the +docks of the ports of London, Liverpool, +South Wales, Southampton, +Hull, Belfast, St Nazaire, Rotterdam, +Antwerp and Hamburg. Sometimes +docks are partially formed on +foreshores reclaimed from estuaries, +as at Hull, Grimsby, Cardiff, Liverpool, +Leith and Havre; whilst at +Bristol, a curved portion of the river +Avon was appropriated for a dock, +and a straight cut made for the river. +By carrying docks across sharp bends +of tidal rivers, upper and lower entrances +can be provided, thereby conveniently +separating the inland and +sea-going traffic; and of this the +London, Surrey Commercial, West +India, and Victoria and Albert docks +are examples on the Thames and +Chatham dockyard on the Medway. +Occasionally, when a small tidal river +has a shallow entrance, or an estuary exhibits signs of silting up, +docks alongside, formed on foreshores adjoining the sea-coast, +are provided with a sheltered entrance direct from the sea, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span> +as exemplified by the Sunderland docks adjacent to the +mouth of the river Wear, and the Havre docks at the outlet +of the Seine estuary (fig. 2). Some old ports, originally established +on sandy coasts where a creek, maintained by the influx +and efflux of the tide from low-lying spaces near the shore, +afforded some shelter and an outlet to the sea across the beach, +have had their access improved by parallel jetties and dredging; +and docks have been readily formed in the low-lying land only +separated by sand dunes from the sea, as at Calais, Dunkirk +(fig. 6) and Ostend (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>). In sheltered places on +the sea-coast, docks have sometimes been constructed on low-lying +land bordering the shore, with direct access to the sea, +as at Barrow and Hartlepool; whilst at Mediterranean ports +open basins have been formed in the sea, by establishing quays +along the foreshore, from which wide, solid jetties, lined with +quay walls, are carried into the sea at intervals at right angles to +the shore, being sheltered by an outlying breakwater +parallel to the coast, and reached at each +end through the openings left between the projecting +jetties and the breakwater, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) +and Trieste, and at the extensions at Genoa (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>) and Naples. Where, however, the basins +are formed within the partial protection of a bay, +as in the old ports of Genoa and Naples, the requisite +additional shelter has been provided by +converging breakwaters across the opening of the +bay; and an entrance to the port is left between +the breakwaters. The two deep arms of the sea at +New York, known as the Hudson and East rivers, +are so protected by Staten Island and Long Island +that it has been only necessary to form open basins +by projecting wide jetties or quays into them from +the west and east shores of Manhattan Island, and +from the New Jersey and Brooklyn shores, at intervals, +to provide adequate accommodation for Atlantic liners +and the sea-going trade of New York.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:410px" src="images/img355a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Port of Marseilles. Basins and Extensions.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The accessibility of a port depends upon the depth of its +approach channel, which also determines the depth of the docks +or basins to which it leads; for it is useless to give a +depth to a dock much in excess of the depth down to +<span class="sidenote">Approach channels.</span> +which there is a prospect of carrying the channel by +which it is reached. The great augmentation, however, in the +power and capacity for work of modern dredgers, and especially +of suction dredgers in sand (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dredge</a></span>), together with the +increasing draught of vessels, has resulted in a considerable +increase being made in the available depth of rivers and channels +leading to docks, and has necessitated the making of due +allowance for the possibility of a reasonable improvement in +determining the depth to be given to a new dock. On the other +hand, there is a limit to the deepening of an approach channel, +depending upon its length, the local conditions as regards +silting, and the resources and prospects of trade of the port, for +every addition to the depth generally involves a corresponding +increase in the cost of maintenance.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:636px; height:323px" src="images/img355b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Dunkirk Docks and Jetty Channel.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:353px; height:469px" src="images/img356a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Tilbury Docks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>At tidal ports the available depth for vessels should be +reckoned from high water of the lowest neap tides, as the standard +which is certain to be reached at high tide; and the period +during which docks can be entered at each tide depends upon the +nature of the approach channel, the extent of the tidal range and +the manner in which the entrance to the docks is effected. Thus +where the tidal range is very large, as in the Severn estuary, the +approach channels to some of the South Wales ports are nearly +dry at low water of spring tides, and it would be impossible to +make these ports accessible near low tide; whereas at high +water, even of neap tides, vessels of large draught can enter their +docks. At Liverpool, with a rise of 31 ft. at equinoctial spring +tides, owing to the deep channel between Liverpool and +Birkenhead and into the outer estuary of the Mersey in Liverpool +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span> +Bay, maintained by the powerful tidal scour resulting from the +filling and emptying of the large inner estuary, access to the +river by the largest vessels has been rendered possible, at any +state of the tide, by dredging a channel through the Mersey bar; +but the docks cannot be entered till the water has risen above +half-tide level, and the gates are closed directly after high water. +A large floating +landing-stage, +however, about +half a mile in +length, in front of +the centre of the +docks, connected +with the shore by +several hinged +bridges and rising +and falling with +the tide, enables +Atlantic liners to +come alongside and +take on board or +disembark their +passengers at any +time.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:668px; height:458px" src="images/img356b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Barry Docks.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Comparatively +small tidal rivers +offer the best +opportunity of a +considerable improvement +in the +approach channel +to a port; for they +can be converted into artificially deep channels by dredging, +and their necessary maintenance is somewhat aided by the +increased influx and efflux of tidal water due to the lowering +of the low-water line by the outflow of the ebb tide being facilitated +by the deepening. Thus systematic, continuous dredging +in the Tyne and the Clyde has raised the Tyne ports and +Glasgow into first-class ports. In large tidal rivers and estuaries, +docks should be placed alongside a concave bank which the deep +navigable channel hugs, as effected at Hull and Antwerp, or +close to a permanently deep channel in an estuary, such as chosen +for Garston and the entrance to the Manchester ship canal at +Eastham in the inner Mersey estuary, and for Grimsby and the +authorized Illingham dock in the Humber estuary; for a channel +carried across an estuary to deep water requires constant dredging +to maintain its depth. Occasionally, extensive draining works +and dredging have to be executed to form an adequately deep +channel through a shifting estuary and shallow river to a port, +as for instance on the Weser to Bremerhaven and Bremen, on +the Seine to Honfleur and Rouen, on the Tees to Middlesborough +and Stockton, on the Ribble to Preston, on the Maas to Rotterdam +and on the Nervion to Bilbao (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">River Engineering</a></span>). Southampton +possesses the very rare combination of advantages of a +well-sheltered and fairly deep estuary, a rise of only 12 ft. at +spring tides, and a position at the head of Southampton Water +at the confluence of two rivers (fig. 4), so that, with a moderate +amount of dredging and the construction of quays along the lower +ends of the river with a depth of 35 ft. in front of them at low +water, it is possible for vessels of the largest draught to come +alongside or leave the quays at any state of the tide. This +circumstance has enabled Southampton to attract some of the +Atlantic steamers formerly running to Liverpool.</p> + +<p>Ports on tideless seas have to be placed where deep water +approaches the shore, and where there is an absence of littoral +drift. The basins of such ports are always accessible for vessels +of the draught they provide for; but they require most efficient +protection, and, unlike tidal ports, they are not able <span class="correction" title="amended from to">on</span> exceptional +occasions to admit a vessel of larger draught than the +basins have been formed to accommodate. Occasionally, an old +port whose approach channel has become inadequate for modern +vessels, or from which the sea has receded, has been provided +with deep access from the sea by a ship canal, as exemplified by +Amsterdam and Bruges; whilst Manchester has become a seaport +by similar works (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manchester Ship Canal</a></span>). In such +cases, however, perfectly sheltered open basins are formed inland +at the head of the ship canal, in the most convenient available +site; and the size of vessels that can use the port depends wholly +on the dimensions and facility of access of the ship canal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<p>Docks require to be so designed that they may provide the +maximum length of quays in proportion to the water area consistent +with easy access for vessels to the quays; but often the space +available does not admit of the adoption of +<span class="sidenote">Design of Docks.</span> +the best forms, and the design has +to be made as suitable as practicable +under the existing conditions. +On this account, and owing to the small size +of vessels in former times, the docks of old +ports present a great variety in size and +arrangement, being for the most part narrow +and small, forming a sort of string of docks +communicating with one another, and provided +with locks or entrances at suitable +points for their common use, as noticeable +in the older London and Liverpool docks. +Though narrow timber jetties were introduced +in some of the wider London docks for increasing +the length of quays by placing +vessels alongside them, no definite arrangement +of docks was adopted in carrying out +the large Victoria and Albert docks between +1850 and 1880; whilst the Victoria dock was +made wide with solid quays, provided with +warehouses, projecting from the northern +quay wall, thereby affording a large accommodation +for vessels lying end on to the +north quay, the Albert dock subsequently +constructed was given about half the width +of the earlier dock, but made much longer, so +that vessels lie alongside the north and south +quays in a long line. This change of form, +however, was probably dictated by the +advantage of stretching across the remainder +of the wide bend, in order to obtain a second +entrance in a lower reach of the river. The +Tilbury docks, the latest and lowest docks +on the Thames, were constructed on the most approved modern +system, consisting of a series of branch docks separated by wide, +well-equipped solid quays, and opening straight into a main dock +or basin communicating with the entrance lock, in which vessels +can turn on entering or leaving the docks (fig. 7). The most +recently constructed Liverpool docks, also, at the northern end +have been given this form; and the older docks adjoining them +to the south have been transformed by reconstruction into a +similar series of branch docks opening into a dock alongside the +river wall, leading to a half-tide basin or river entrances (fig. 1). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span> +The Manchester and Salford docks were laid out on a precisely +similar system, which was also adopted for the most recent docks +at Dunkirk (fig. 6) and Prince’s dock at Glasgow (fig. 3), and +at some of the principal Rhine ports; whilst the Alexandra dock at +Hull resembles it in principle. The basins in tideless seas have +naturally been long formed in accordance with this system (fig. 5). +The Barry docks furnish an example of the special arrangements +for a coal-shipping port, with numerous coal-tips served by sidings +(fig. 8).</p> + +<p>Tidal basins, as they are termed, are generally interposed in the +docks of London between the entrance locks and the docks, with the +object of facilitating the passage of vessels out of and into +the docks before and after high water, by lowering the +<span class="sidenote">Tidal and half-tide basins.</span> +water in the basin as soon as the tide has risen sufficiently, +and opening the lock gates directly a level has been +formed with the tide in the river. Then the vessels which have +collected in the basin, when level with the dock, are readily passed +successively into the river. The incoming vessels are next brought +into the basin, and the gates are closed; and the water in the basin +having been raised to the level in the dock, the gates shutting off +the basin from the dock when the water was lowered are opened, and +the vessels are admitted to the dock. In this manner, by means of +an inner pair of gates, the basin can be used as a large lock without +unduly altering the water-level in the dock, and saves the delay of +locking most of the vessels out and in, the lock being only used for +the smaller vessels leaving early or coming in late on the tide. Similar +tidal basins have also been provided at Cardiff, Penarth, Barry (fig. 8), +Sunderland, Antwerp and other docks.</p> + +<p>The large half-tide docks introduced at the most modern Liverpool +docks (fig. 1) serve a similar purpose as tidal basins; but being much +larger, and approached by entrances instead of locks, the exit and +entrance of vessels are effected by lowering their water-level on a +rising tide, and opening the gates, which are then closed at high water +to prevent the lowering of the water-level in the dock, and to avoid +closing the gates against a strong issuing current.</p> + +<p>The tidal basins outside the locks at Tilbury and Barry are +quite open to the tide, and have been carried down to 24 ft. and 16 ft. +respectively below low water of spring tides, in order to afford vessels +a deep sheltered approach to the lock in each case, available at or +near low water (figs. 7 and 8). Such basins, however, open to a +considerable tidal range where the water is densely charged with +silt, are exposed to a large deposit in the fairly still water, and their +depth has to be constantly maintained by sluicing or dredging.</p> + +<p>Where the range of tide is moderate, or on large inland rivers, +docks or basins are usefully supplemented by river quays, which +though subject to changes in the water-level, and exposed +to currents in the river, are very convenient for access, +<span class="sidenote">River quays.</span> +and are sometimes very advantageously employed in +regulating a river and keeping up its banks when deepened by +dredging. Generally 10 to 12 ft. is the limit of the tidal range convenient +for the adoption of open basins and river quays; but the +banks of the Tyne have been utilized for quays, jetties and coal-staiths, +with a somewhat larger maximum tidal range; and a long +line of quays stretching along the right bank of the Scheldt in front +of Antwerp, constructed so as to regulate this reach of the river, +accommodates a large sea-going traffic, with a rise at spring tides +of 15 ft.</p> + +<p>When a dock has to be formed on land, the excavation is effected +by men with barrows and powerful steam navvies, loading into +wagons drawn in trains by locomotives to the place of +deposit, usually to raise the land at the sides for forming +<span class="sidenote">Excavations for docks.</span> +quays. Directly the underground water-level is reached, +the water has to be removed from the excavations by +pumps raising the inflowing water from sumps, lined with timber, +sunk down below the lowest foundations at suitable positions, so +that the lower portions of the dock walls and sills of the lock or +entrance may be built out of water. A cofferdam has to be constructed +extending out from the bank of the river or approach channel +in front of the site of the proposed entrance or lock, so that the +excavations for the entrance to the dock may be pushed forwards, +and the lock or entrance built under its protection. Sometimes the +lowest portion of the excavation for the dock can be accomplished +economically by dredging, after the dock walls and lock have been +completed and the water admitted.</p> + +<p>Where a dock is partially or wholly constructed on reclaimed land, +the reclamation bank for enclosing the site and excluding the tide +has to be undertaken first by tipping an embankment from each +end with wagons, protected and consolidated along its outer toe +by rubble stone or chalk. When the ends of the embankments are +approaching one another, it is essential to connect them by a long +low bank of selected materials brought up gradually in successive +layers, and retaining the water in the enclosure to the level of this +bank, so that the influx and efflux of the tide, filling and emptying +the reclaimed area, may take place over a long length, and in smaller +volume as the low bank is raised. In this way a reduction is effected +of the tidal current in and out, which in the case of a large enclosure +and a considerable tidal range, would create such a scour in the +narrowing gap between two high embankments as to wash away +their ends and prevent the closing of the gap. Occasionally the final +closure is effected by lowering timber panels in grooves between +a series of piles driven down at intervals across the gap. On the +closing of the reclamation bank the water is pumped out; and +the excavation is carried on in the ordinary manner. It is very +important that such an embankment should be carried well above +the level of the highest tide which might be raised by a high wind; +and in exposed sites, the outer slope of the bank should be protected +by pitching from the action of waves, for any overtopping or erosion +of the bank might result in a large breach through it, and the flooding +of the works inside.</p> + +<p>Docks are generally surrounded by walls retaining the quays, +alongside which vessels lie for discharging and taking in cargoes. +In order to ascertain the nature of the strata upon which +these walls have to be founded, borings are taken at the +<span class="sidenote">Foundations for dock walls.</span> +outset to the requisite depth at intervals near the line +of the walls, but inside the dock area if the piercing of +quicksand is anticipated, as in excavating for the foundations, these +holes might give rise to the outflow, under pressure, of underlying +quicksand into the foundations. As docks are generally formed near +rivers or estuaries, these strata are commonly alluvial; but being +situated at some depth below the surface, they are usually fairly +hard. When they consist of gravel, clay or firm sand, the walls +can be founded on the natural bottom excavated a few feet below +the bottom of the dock, their weight being somewhat distributed by +making them rest on a broad bed of concrete filling up the excavation +at the bottom. When, however, fine sand or silt charged with +water, or quicksand is met with at the required depth, the necessary +pumping and excavation for the foundations might occasion the +influx of sand or silt with the water into the excavations, leading +to settlement and slips; or the soft stratum might be too thick to +remove. The wall may then be founded on bearing piles driven down +to a solid stratum, and having their tops joined together by walings +and planking, or by a layer of concrete, upon which the wall is built. +Or the soft stratum can be enclosed with a double row of sheet piling +along the front and back of the line of wall, by which it sometimes +becomes sufficiently confined and consolidated to sustain the weight +of the wall on a broad foundation of concrete; or it can be excavated +without any danger of sand or silt running in from outside; whilst +the sheet piling at the back relieves the wall to some extent from +the pressure of the earth behind it, and in front retains the wall from +sliding forwards. Firmer foundations have been obtained by sinking +brick, concrete or masonry wells through soft ground to a solid +stratum, upon which the dock wall is built. Clusters of small concrete +cylinders, in sets of three in front, and a line of double cylinders at +the back, were used for the foundations of the walls of Prince’s dock +at Glasgow. Wells of rubble masonry were sunk in the silty foreshore +of the Seine estuary for the walls of the Bellot docks at Havre; +and they served as piers, connected by arches, for the foundations of a +continuous dock wall above, being carried down to a considerable +depth through alluvium at the St Nazaire, Bordeaux and Rochefort +docks. These well foundations, derived from the old Indian system, +are built up upon a curb, sometimes furnished with a cutting edge +underneath, and gradually sunk by excavating inside; and eventually +the central hollow is filled up solid with concrete or masonry.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:181px; height:251px" src="images/img357.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Havre Bellot +Dock Wall.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:171px; height:318px" src="images/img358a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Liverpool +Dock Wall.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:209px; height:317px" src="images/img358b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Tilbury Basin +Wall.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:220px; height:279px" src="images/img358c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Barry Dock +Wall.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The walls round a dock serve as retaining walls to keep up the +quays; and though they have the support of the water in front of +them when the docks are in use, they have to sustain the full pressure +of the filling at the back on the completion of the dock before the +water is admitted. They have, accordingly, to be increased in +<span class="sidenote">Dock walls.</span> +thickness downwards to support the pressure increasing +with the depth. This pressure, with perfectly dry material, +would be represented by the weight of half the prism of +filling between the natural slope of the material behind and the back +of the wall; but the pressure is often increased by the accumulation +of water at the back, which, with fine silty +backing, is liable to exert a sort of fluid +pressure against the wall proportionate to +the density of the mixture of silt and water. +The increase of thickness towards the base +used formerly to be effected by a batter on +the face, as well as by steps out at the back; +but the vertical form now given to the sides +of large vessels necessitates a corresponding +fairly vertical face for the wall, to prevent +the upper part of the vessel being kept +unduly away from the quay. Examples of +the most modern types of dock walls are +given in figs. 9 to 12.</p> + +<p>The height of a dock wall depends upon +the depth of water always available for +vessels, at tideless sea-ports and at ports +removed from tidal influences, such as Manchester, +Bruges and the ports on the Rhine; +this depth should not be less than 28 to 30 ft. for large sea-going +vessels, together with a margin of 5 to 8 ft. above the normal water-level +for the quays, and the foundations below. At tidal ports, +however, an addition has to be made equal to the difference in +height between the high-water levels of spring and neap tides; so +that at ports with a large tidal range, such as the South Wales +ports on the Severn estuary and Liverpool, specially high dock +walls are necessary. Under normal conditions, a dock wall should +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span> +be given a width at a height half-way between dock-bottom and +quay-level, equal to one-third of its height above dock-bottom, and +a width of half this height at dock-bottom.</p> + +<p>Dock walls are constructed of masonry, +brickwork or concrete, or of concrete with a +facing of masonry or brickwork. Masonry is +adopted where large stone quarries are readily +accessible, in the form of rubble masonry with +dressed stone on the face, as for instance at +the Hull and Barry docks, and forms a very +durable wall; but strong overhead staging +carrying powerful gantries is necessary for +laying large blocks. Brickwork has been often +used where bricks are the ordinary building +material of the district or can be made on the +works, and requires only ordinary scaffolding; +and harder or pressed bricks are employed for +the facework. Concrete is very commonly +resorted to now where sand and stones are +readily procured; and where clean, sharp +sand and gravel are found in thick layers in +the excavations for a dock, as in the alluvial +strata bordering the Thames, dock walls can +be constructed cheaply and economically with +concrete deposited within timber framing, +dispensing with regular scaffolding and skilled +labour. Such walls require to be given a facing of stronger concrete, +or of blue bricks, as at Tilbury, to guard against abrasion +by vessels, chains and ropes; and dock walls are commonly provided +at the top with granite or other hard stone coping where the +wear is greatest. The foundations for dock walls are excavated in +a trench below dock-bottom, only lined +with timbering where the faces of the +trench cannot stand for a short time +without support, and with sheet piling +through very unstable silt or sand; and +the trench is conveniently filled up solid +with concrete, carried out in short lengths +in untrustworthy ground. To reduce +the amount of filling behind the wall, the +excavation at the back above dock-bottom, +preparatory for the trench, is +given as steep a slope as practicable, +supported sometimes towards the base +by timbering and struts; but occasionally +the wall is built within a timbered +trench carried down to the required +depth, before the excavation for the +dock in front of it has been executed, as +effected at Tilbury. The filling at the +back is thus reduced to a minimum, and +the lower portion of the excavation can +be accomplished by dredging, if expedient, +after the admission of the water, the +dock wall in this way being exposed to the least possible pressure behind.</p> + +<p>The walls of open basins are often constructed out of water +precisely like dock walls, as in the case of the basins forming the +Manchester, Bruges and Glasgow docks; and basin walls open +to the tide, as at Glasgow and in the tidal basin outside Tilbury +docks (fig. 7), differ only from dock +walls in being exposed to variations +in the pressure at the back resulting +from the lowering of the water-level +in front, which is, indeed, shared to +some extent by the walls round closed +docks where the difference in the high-water +levels of springs and neaps +is considerable. The walls, however, +round basins in tideless seas, such as +Marseilles, occasionally those inside +harbours, and especially quay walls +along rivers and round open basins +alongside rivers, have to be constructed +under water.</p> + +<p style="clear: both;"> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:295px; height:269px" src="images/img358d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Marseilles Quay Wall.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:352px; height:388px" src="images/img358e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>—Antwerp Quay Wall, founded by +compressed air.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:331px; height:290px" src="images/img358f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Caracciolo Jetty Quay Wall, +Genoa.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:374px; height:277px" src="images/img359a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Glasgow River Quay Wall.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:313px; height:313px" src="images/img359b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Rouen Quay Wall.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>At Marseilles, the simple expedient +was long ago adopted of constructing +the quay walls lining the basins formed +in the sea, by depositing tiers of large +concrete blocks on a rubble foundation, +one on top of the other, till they +<span class="sidenote">Open basin and river quay walls founded under water.</span> +reached sea-level, and then building a solid masonry quay wall +out of water on the top up to quay-level, faced with ashlar +(fig. 13), the wall being backed by rubble for some distance +behind up to the water-level. The same system was employed +for the quay walls at Trieste, and at Genoa and +other Italian ports. A quay wall inside Marmagao harbour, +on the west coast of India, was erected on a foundation +layer of rubble by the sloping-block system, to +provide against unequal settlement on the soft bottom (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Breakwater</a></span>). +The quay walls alongside the river Liffey, and round the +adjacent basins below Dublin, were erected under water by building +rubble-concrete blocks of 360 tons on staging carried out into the +water, from which they +were lifted one by one by a +powerful floating derrick, +which conveyed the block +to the site, and deposited +it on a levelled bottom at +low tide in a depth of 28 +ft., raising the wall a little +above low water. After a +row of these blocks had +been laid, and connected +together by filling the +grooves formed at the sides +and the interstices between +the blocks with concrete, +a continuous masonry wall +faced with ashlar was built +on the top out of water. A +quay wall was built up to +a little above low water on +a similar principle at Cork, with three smaller blocks as a foundation, +in lengths of 8 ft. Cylindrical well foundations have been +extensively used for the foundations of the quay walls along the +Clyde, formerly made of brick, but subsequently of concrete, sunk +through a considerable variety of alluvial strata, but mostly sand +and gravel fully +charged with water. +Compressed air in +bottomless caissons +has been increasingly +employed in +recent years for +carrying down the +subaqueous foundations +of river quay +walls, through alluvial +deposits, to a +solid stratum. +About 1880, a long +line of river quays +was commenced in +front of Antwerp, +extending in the +central portion a +considerable distance +out into the +Scheldt, with the +object of regulating +the width of the +river simultaneously +with the provision +of deep quays for +sea-going vessels; +and the quay wall was erected, out of water, on the flat tops of a +series of wrought-iron caissons, 82 ft. long and 29½ ft. wide, constructed +on shore, floated out one by one to their site in the river +between two barges, and gradually lowered as the wall was built up +inside a plate-iron enclosure round the roof of the caisson, which +was eventually sunk by +aid of compressed air +through the bed of the +river to a compact +stratum (fig. 14). The +weight of the wall +counteracted the tendency +of the caisson +and the enclosure +above it to float; and +the caisson, furnished +with seven circular +wrought-iron shafts, +provided with air-locks +at the top for the admission +of men and +materials and for the +removal of the excavations, +was gradually +carried down by excavating +inside the +working chamber at +the bottom, 6¼ ft. high, till a good foundation was reached. The +working chamber was then filled with concrete through some of the +shafts, the plate-iron sides of the upper enclosure were removed to +be used for another length of wall, the shafts were drawn out and +the hollows left by them filled with concrete, the apertures between +adjacent lengths were closed at each face with wooden panels and +filled with concrete, and a continuous quay wall was completed +above. The most recent quay walls constructed in the old harbour +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> +at Genoa were founded under water on a rubble mound in a similar +manner by the aid of compressed air (fig. 15). Quay walls also on +the Clyde have been founded on caissons, consisting of a bottomless +steel structure, surmounted by a brick superstructure having +hollows filled with concrete, in lengths of 80 ft. and 27 ft., and +widths of 18 ft. and 21 ft. respectively, carried down by means of +compressed air from 54 to 70 ft. below quay-level, on the top +of which a continuous wall of concrete, faced with brickwork, +and having a +granite coping, +was built up from +near low-water +level (fig. 16). In +many cases where +soft strata extend +to considerable +depths, river +quays and basin +walls have been +constructed by +building a light +quay wall upon a +series of bearing +and raking piles +driven into, and +if possible +through, the soft +alluvium. Thus +the walls along the Seine, and round the basins at Rouen, were built +upon bearing piles carried down through the alluvial bed of the river +to the chalk. The lower portion of the quay wall was constructed +of concrete faced with brickwork within water-tight timber caissons, +resting upon the piles at a depth of 9¾ ft. below low water; and upon +this a rubble wall faced with bricks was erected from low water to +quay-level, backed by rubble stone laid on a timber flooring supported +by piles, together with chalk, to form a quay right back to +the top of the slope of the bank of the deepened river (fig. 17). The +quay walls of the open +basins bordering the +Hudson river at New +York have had, in certain +parts, to be founded +on bearing piles combined +with raking piles, +driven into a thick bed +of soft silt where no firm +stratum could be reached, +and where, therefore, the +weight could only be +borne by the adherence +of the long piles in the +silt. Before driving the +piles, however, the silt +round the upper part of +the piles and under the +quay wall was consolidated +by depositing small +stones in a trench dredged +to a depth of 30 ft. below +low water; the piles +were driven through these stones, and were further kept in place +by a long toe of rubble stone in front and a backing of rubble stone +behind carried nearly up to quay-level, behind which a light filling +of ashes and earth was raised to quay-level. The slight quay wall +resting upon the front rows of bearing piles was carried up under +water by 70-ton concrete blocks deposited by means of a floating +derrick; and the upper part of the wall was built of concrete faced +with ashlar masonry (fig. 18). The basin and quay walls at Bremen, +Bremerhaven and Hamburg were built on a series of bearing and +raking piles driven down to a firm stratum, the wall being begun +a few feet below low water. At Southampton, ferro-concrete piles +were employed in constructing the deep quays; and a wharfing of +timber pilework has been frequently used for river quays.</p> + +<p>Where the increase of trade is moderate and the conditions of the +traffic permit, and also at coal-shipping ports, economy in construction +is obtained by giving sloping sides to a portion of a dock in place +of dock walls, the slope being pitched where necessary with stone; +and the length of the slope projecting into a dock is sometimes +reduced by substituting sheet piling for the slope at the toe up to +a certain height. By this arrangement jetties can be carried out +across the slope as required, enabling vessels to lie against their +ends; and coal-tips are very conveniently extended out across the +slope at suitable intervals (fig. 8).</p> + +<p>As dock walls, especially before the admission of water into the +dock, constitute high retaining walls, not infrequently founded upon +soft or slippery strata, and backed up with the excavated materials +from alluvial beds, into which water is liable to percolate, +<span class="sidenote">Failures of dock walls.</span> +they are naturally exposed under unfavourable conditions +to the danger of failure. A dock wall erected on unsatisfactory +foundations is liable, where the bottom is soft, to +settle down at its toe, owing to the pressure at the back, and to +fall forwards into the dock, as occurred at Belfast; or where the +silty bottom slips forward under the weight of the backing, the +wall may follow the slip at the bottom and settle down at the back, +falling to some extent backwards, as exemplified by the failure of +the Empress basin wall at Southampton. The most common form, +however, of failure is the sliding forwards of a dock wall, with little +or no subsidence, on a silty or slippery stratum under the pressure +imposed by the backing. Thus the Kidderpur dock walls furnish an +instance of sliding forwards on muddy silt, and part of the South +West India dock walls on two underlying, detached, slippery seams +of London clay.</p> + +<p>To avoid these failures with untrustworthy foundations, great care +has to be exercised in selecting the best hard material available, +unaffected by water, for the backing, which should be brought up +in thin, horizontal layers carefully consolidated; and where there +is a possibility of water accumulating at the back, pipes should be +introduced at intervals near the bottom right through the wall in +building it, and rubble stone deposited close to the back of the wall, +so as to carry off any water from behind, these pipes being stopped up +just before the water is let into the dock. These precautions, moreover, +are assisted by reducing the amount of backing to a minimum +in the construction of the wall, best effected by building the wall +inside a timbered trench. The liability to slide forwards can be +obviated by carrying down the foundations of the wall sufficiently +below dock-bottom to provide an efficient buttress of earth in front +of the wall, and also by making the base of the wall slope down +towards the back, thereby forcing the wall in sliding forwards to +mount the slope, or to push forward a larger mass of earth; whilst +a row of sheet piling in front of the foundations offers a very effectual +impediment to a forward movement, and, in combination with +bearing piles, prevents settlement at the toe in soft ground. In +very treacherous foundations it may be advisable to defer the +completion of the backing till after the admission of the water; but +the additional stability given to a retaining wall or reservoir dam by +an ample batter in front, is precluded in dock walls by the modern +requirements of vessels.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:505px; height:279px" src="images/img359c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—New York Quay Wall, Hudson river.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Silt accumulates in docks where the lowering of the water-level +by locking, the drawing down of half-tide basins, and the raising of +the water at spring tides, involve the admission of considerable +volumes of tidal water heavily charged with silt, +which is deposited in still water and has to be periodically +<span class="sidenote">Maintenance of depth.</span> +removed by dredging. To avoid this, the water is sometimes +replenished from some clear inland source, an arrangement +adopted at some of the South Wales ports opening into the muddy +Severn estuary, and at the Alexandra dock, Hull, to exclude the +silty waters of the Humber. At the Kidderpur docks on the Húgli, +the water from the river for replenishing the docks is conducted by a +circuitous canal, in which it deposits its burden of silt before it is +pumped into the docks.</p> +</div> + +<p>In order to deal expeditiously with the cargoes and goods +brought into and despatched from docks, numerous sidings +communicating with the railways of the district are +arranged along the quays, which are also provided +<span class="sidenote">Equipment on quays.</span> +with steam, hydraulic or electric travelling cranes at +intervals alongside the docks, basins or river, for discharging +or loading vessels, and with sheds and warehouses for the storage +of merchandise, &c., the arrangements depending largely upon +the special trade of the port. Though different sources of power +are sometimes made use of at different parts of the same port, +as for example at Hamburg, where the numerous cranes are +worked by steam, hydraulic power or most recently by electricity, +and a few by gas engines, it is generally most convenient +to work the various installations by one form of power from a +central station. Water-pressure has been very commonly used +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span> +as the motive power at docks, being generated by a steam-engine +and stored up by one or more accumulators, from which +the water is transmitted under pressure through strong cast-iron +pipes to the hydraulic engines which actuate the cranes, lifts, +coal-tips, capstans, swing-bridges and gate machinery throughout +the docks (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Power Transmission</a></span>: <i>Hydraulic</i>). The +intermittent working of the machinery in docks results in a +considerable variation in the power needed at different times; +but economical working is secured by arranging that when the +accumulators are full, steam is automatically shut off from the +pumping engines, but is supplied again as soon as water is drawn +off. Electricity affords another means for the economical transmission +of power to a distance suited for intermittent working; +as far back as 1902 it was being adopted at Hamburg as the +source of power for the machinery of the extensive additional +basins then recently opened for traffic.</p> + +<p>At ports where the principal trade is the export of coal from +neighbouring collieries, special provision has to be made for its +rapid shipment. Coal-tips, accordingly, are erected +at the sides of the dock in these ports, with sidings on +<span class="sidenote">Coal-tips.</span> +the quays at the back for receiving the trains of coal trucks, from +which two lines of way diverge to each coal-tip, one serving for +the conveyance of the full wagons one by one to the tip, after +passing over a weigh-bridge, and the other for the return of the +empty wagons to the siding where the empty train is made up +for returning to the colliery (fig. 8). Each full wagon is either +run at a low level upon a cradle at the tip, then raised on the +cradle within a wrought-iron lattice tower to a suitable height, +and lastly, tipped up at the back for discharging the coal; or it +is brought along a high-level road on to a cradle raised to this +level on the tower, and tipped up at this or some slightly modified +level. The coal is discharged down an adjustable iron shoot, +gradually narrowed so as to check the fall; and on first discharging +into the hold of a vessel, an anti-breakage box is suspended +below the mouth of the shoot. When full, this is lowered +to the bottom of the hold and emptied, thereby gradually forming +a cone of coal upon which the coal can be discharged directly +from the shoot without danger of breakage. Other contrivances +are also adopted with the same object.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<p>In designing dock works, it is expedient to make provision, as +far as possible, for future extensions as the trade of the port increases. +Generally this can be effected alongside tidal rivers and estuaries +by utilizing sites lower down the river, as carried out on +<span class="sidenote">Dock extensions.</span> +the Thames for the port of London, or reclaiming unoccupied +foreshores of an estuary, as adopted for extensions +of the ports of Liverpool, Hull and Havre. At ports on the sea-coast +of tideless seas, it is only necessary to extend the outlying breakwater +parallel to the shore line, and form additional basins under its +shelter, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and Genoa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>). Quays +also along rivers furnish very valuable opportunities of readily +extending the accommodation of ports. Ports, however, established +inland like Manchester, though extremely serviceable in converting +an inland city into a seaport, are at the disadvantage of having to +acquire very valuable land for any extensions that may be required; +but, nevertheless, some compensation is afforded by the complete +shelter in which the extensions can be carried out, when compared +with Liverpool, where the additions to the docks can only be effected +by troublesome reclamation works along the foreshore to the north, +in increasingly exposed situations.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Dock Entrances and Locks.</i>—The size of vessels which a port +can admit depends upon the depth and width of the entrance +to the docks; for, though the access of vessels is also governed +by the depth of the approach channel, this channel is often +capable of being further deepened to some extent by dredging; +whereas the entrance, formed of solid masonry or concrete, +cannot be adapted, except by troublesome and costly works +sometimes amounting to reconstruction, to the increasing +dimensions of vessels. Accordingly, in designing new dock +works with entrances and locks, it is essential to look forward +to the possible future requirements of vessels. The necessity for +such forethought is illustrated by the rapid increase which has +taken place in the size of the largest ocean liners. Thus the +“City of Rome,” launched in 1881, is 560 ft. long, and 52¼ ft. beam, +and has a maximum recorded draught of 27½ ft.; the “Campania” +and “Lucania,” in 1893, measure 600 ft. by 65 ft.; the “Oceanic,” +in 1899, 685½ ft. by 68¼ ft., with a maximum draught of 31<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> ft.; +the “Baltic,” in 1903, 709 ft. by 75 ft., with a maximum draught +of 31¾ ft.; and the “Lusitania” and “Mauretania,” launched in +1906, 787½ ft. by 88 ft.</p> + +<p>The width and depth of access to docks are of more importance +than the length of locks; for docks which are reached through +entrances with a single pair of gates have to admit +vessels towards high water when the water-level in the +<span class="sidenote">Dimensions of entrances and locks.</span> +dock is the same as in the approach channel, or through +a half-tide basin drawn down to the level of the water +outside, and are therefore accessible to vessels of any length, +provided the width of the entrance and depth over the sill are +adequate; whilst at docks which are entered through locks, +vessels which are longer than the available length of the lock can +get in at high water when both pairs of gates of the lock are open. +Open basins are generally given an ample width of entrance, and +river quays also are always accessible to the longest and broadest +vessels; but in a tidal river the available depth has to be reckoned +from the lowest low water of spring tides, instead of from the +lowest high water of neap tides, if the vessels in the open basins +and alongside the river quays have to be always afloat.</p> + +<p>Many years ago the Canada lock at Liverpool, the outer North +lock at Birkenhead, the Ramsden lock and entrance at Barrow-in-Furness, +and the Eure entrance at Havre, were given a width +of 100 ft. Probably this was done with the view of admitting +paddle steamers, since subsequent entrances at Liverpool were +given widths of 80 and 65 ft.; whereas none of the locks in +the port of London has been made wider than 80 ft., which has +been the standard maximum width since the completion of the +Victoria dock in 1866. The widest locks at Cardiff are 80 ft., and +the entrance to the Barry docks is the same; but the lock of the +Alexandra dock, Hull, opened in 1885, was made 85 ft. wide. +At Liverpool, where the access to the docks is mainly through +entrances, on account of the small width between the river and +the high ground rising at the back, and where ample provision +has to be made for the largest Atlantic liners, though the entrances +to the Langton dock, completed in 1881, leading to the latest +docks at the northern end were made 65 ft. wide, with their sills +3 ft. below low water of spring tides and 20½ ft. below high water +of the lowest neap tides, the two new entrances to the deepened +Brunswick dock near the southern end, giving access to the +adjacent reconstructed docks, completed in 1906, were made 80 +and 100 ft. wide, with sills 28 ft. below high water of the lowest +neap tides. Moreover, the three new entrances to the new Sandon +half-tide dock, completed in 1906, communicating with the +reconstructed line of docks to the south of the Canada basin, and +with the latest northern extensions of the Liverpool docks, were +made 40 ft. wide with a depth over the sill of 24½ ft., and 80 and +100 ft. wide on each end of the central entrance, with sills 29 ft. +below high water of the lowest neap tides, each entrance being +provided with two pairs of gates, in case of any accident occurring +to one pair, according to the regular custom at Liverpool. +Powers were also obtained in 1906 for the construction of a half-tide +dock and two branch docks to the north of the Hornby dock, +which are to be reached from the river by two entrances designed +to be 130 ft. wide, with sills 38½ ft. below high water of the lowest +neap tides, so as to meet fully the assumed future increase in the +beam and draught of the largest vessels; whilst the authorized +extension of the river wall northwards will enable additional +docks to be constructed in communication with these entrances +when required.</p> + +<p>Though, with the exception of Southampton and Dover, other +British ports do not aim, like Liverpool, at accommodating the +largest Atlantic liners at all times, the depths of the sills at the +principal ports have been increased in the most recent extensions. +Thus at the port of London the sills of the first lock of the Albert +dock were 26½ ft. below high water of neap tides, and of the +second lock adjoining, 32½ ft. deep; whilst the sills of the lock +of the Tilbury docks are 40½ ft. below high water of neap tides. +Moreover, in spite of the great range of tide at the South Wales +ports on the Severn estuary, the available depth at high water +of neap tides of 25 ft. at the Roath lock, Cardiff, was increased +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span> +in the lock of the new dock to 31½ ft.; the depth at the entrance +to the Barry docks, opened in 1889, was 29½ ft., but at the lock +opened in 1896 was made 41<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> ft.; whilst a depth of 34 ft. has +been proposed for the new lock of the Alexandra dock extension +at Newport, nearly 10 ft. deeper than the existing lock sills there. +Similar improvements in depth have also been made or designed +at other ports to provide for the increasing draught of vessels.</p> + +<p>The length of locks has also been increased, from 550 ft. at the +Albert dock, to 700 ft. at Tilbury in the port of London, from +300 ft. to 550 ft. at Hull, and from 350 ft. to 660 ft. at Cardiff. +The lock at the Barry docks is 647 ft. long, though only 65 ft. +wide. A lock constructed in connexion with the improvement +works at Havre, carried out in 1896-1907, was given an available +length of 805 ft. and a width of 98½ ft., with a depth over the sills +of 34¾ ft. at high water of neap tides.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:527px; height:541px" src="images/img361.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Barry Docks, Entrance.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<p>Entrances with a single pair of gates, closing against a raised sill +at the bottom and meeting in the centre, have to be made long +enough to provide a recess in each side wall at the back to receive +the gates when they are opened, and to form a buttress in front on +<span class="sidenote">Entrances to docks.</span> +each side to bear the thrust of the gates when closed +against a head of water inside. A masonry floor is laid +on the bottom in continuation of the sill, serving as an +apron against erosion by water leaking between or under the gates, +and by the current through the sluiceways in the gates, when +opened for scouring the entrance channel or to assist in lowering the +water in a half-tide dock for opening the gates (fig. 19). A sluiceway +in each side wall, closed by a vertical sluice-gate, generally +provided in duplicate in case of accidents and worked by a machine +actuated by hydraulic pressure, enables the half-tide basin to be +brought down to the level of the approach channel outside with a +rising tide, so that vessels may be brought into or passed out of the +basin towards high water. The advantages of these entrances are, +that they occupy comparatively little room where the space is limited, +and are much less costly than locks; whilst in conjunction with a +half-tide basin they serve the same purpose as a lock with a rising +tide. Vessels also pass more readily through the short entrances +than through locks; and as entrances are only used towards high +water, their sills need not be placed so low as the outer sills of locks +to accommodate vessels of large draught. On the other hand, they +are accessible for a more limited period at each tide than locks; +and they do not allow of the exclusion of silt-bearing tidal water, +and therefore necessitate a greater amount of dredging in the docks, +and especially in half-tide basins, for maintenance. Entrances, +however, at large ports are frequently supplemented by the addition +of a lock at some convenient site, rendering the ports accessible for +the smaller class of vessels for some time before and after high water, +as for instance at Liverpool, Barry, Havre and St Nazaire. A +small basin with an entrance at each end—an arrangement often +adopted—is in reality, for all practical purposes, a lock with a very +large lock-chamber. An entrance or passage with gates has also to +be provided at the inner end of a large half-tide basin like the basins +adopted at Liverpool, to shut off the half-tide basin from the docks +to which it gives access, and maintain their water-level when the +water is drawn down in the basin to admit vessels before high tide.</p> + +<p>Reverse gates pointing outwards are sometimes added in passages +to docks and at entrances, to render the water-level in one set of +docks independent of adjacent docks, to exclude silty tidal water and +very high tides, and also to protect the gates of outer entrances in +exposed situations from swell, which might force them open slightly +and lead to a damaging shock on their closing again.</p> + +<p>Locks differ from entrances in having a pair of gates with arrangements +similar to an entrance at each end, separated from one +another by a lock-chamber, which should be large enough +to receive the longest and broadest vessel coming regularly +<span class="sidenote">Locks at docks.</span> +to the port. These dock locks are similar in principle to +locks on canals and canalized rivers, but are on a much larger scale. +The lock-chamber has its water raised or lowered in proportion to +the difference in level between the water-level in the dock and the +water in the entrance channel, by passing water, when the gates are +closed at both ends, from the dock into the lock-chamber or from +the lock-chamber into the entrance channel, through large sluiceways +in the side walls, controlled, as at entrances, by vertical sluice-gates. +In this way the vessel is raised or lowered in the chamber, till, when +a level has been reached, the intervening pair of gates is opened +and the vessel is passed into the dock or out to the channel. Generally +the upper and lower sills of a lock are at the same level, a foot +or two higher than dock-bottom; and the depth at which they are +laid is governed by the same considerations as the sill of an entrance. +Vessels longer than the available length between the two pairs of +gates can be admitted close to high water, when the water in the +dock and outside is at the same level, and both pairs of gates can be +opened. When the range of tide at a port is large, and the depth in +the approach channel is sufficient to allow vessels to come up or go out +some time before and after high water, and also where the water in +the dock is kept up to a high level from an inland source to exclude +very silty tidal water, it is expedient to reduce the cost of construction +by limiting the depth of the excavations for the dock, and +consequently also the height of the dock walls, to what is necessary +to provide a sufficient depth of water below high water of the lowest +neap tides, or below the water-level to which the water in the dock is +always maintained, for the vessels of largest draught frequenting the +port, or those which may be reasonably expected in the near future. +The upper sill of the lock is then determined by the level of dock-bottom; +but the lower sill is taken down approximately to the depth +of the bottom of the approach channel, or to the depth to which it +can be carried by dredging, so as to enable the lock to admit or let +out at any time all vessels which can navigate the approach channel. +Thus, for instance, the outer and intermediate sills of the lock at the +Barry docks are 9 ft. lower then the upper sill.</p> + +<p>The foundations for the sill and side walls at each end of a lock, +and also for the side walls and invert commonly enclosing the lock-chamber +at the sides and bottom, are generally constructed simultaneously +with the dock works, under shelter of a cofferdam across +the entrance channel, and in the excavations kept dry by means of +pumps. The foundations under the sills and adjacent side walls are +carried down to a lower level than the rest, and if possible to a water-tight +stratum, to prevent infiltration of water under them owing to +the water-pressure on the upper side of the gates; or sometimes one +or two rows of sheet piling have been driven across the lock under the +sills to an impermeable stratum, to stop any flow. The foundations +for the sills consist usually of concrete deposited in a trench extended +out under the adjoining side walls. The sill, projecting generally +about 2 ft. above the adjacent gate floor over which the gates turn, +is built of granite; and the same material is also used for the hollow +quoins in which the heelpost, or pivot, of the dock gates turns, and +which, together with the sills, are exposed to considerable wear. +The side walls of the lock-chamber are very similar in construction +to the dock walls; but they are strengthened against the loss of +water-pressure in front of them when the water is lowered in the +chamber by an inverted arch of masonry, brickwork or concrete, +termed an “invert,” laid across the bottom of the chamber along +its whole length, against which the toe of each side wall abuts and +effectually prevents any forward movement. The side walls also, +alongside the gates at each end, abut against a thick level gate floor +and apron, and, moreover, are considerably widened to provide space +for the sluiceways and gate machinery.</p> + +<p>The new Florida lock (fig. 20), forming the main entrance through +the new approach harbour and tidal harbour to the Eure dock and +other docks of the port of Havre, is the largest lock hitherto constructed. +It has an available length of chamber between the gates +of 805 ft., a width of 98½ ft., and depths over the sills of 15¾ ft. at +the lowest low water of spring tides, 23½ ft. at low water of neap tides, +35 ft. at high water of neap tides, and 40½ ft. at high water of spring +tides. Owing to the alluvial stratum at the site of the lock close to +the Seine estuary, of which it doubtless at one time formed part, the +foundations for the sill and side walls or heads at each end of the +lock were executed by aid of compressed air. The foundations for +these heads were carried down to an impermeable stratum by means +of two bottomless caissons, filled eventually with concrete, 213½ ft. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span> +long across the lock and 105 ft. wide in the line of the lock at the upper +end, and 206¾ ft. long and 116½ ft. wide at the lower end, to a depth +of 18 ft. below the sill at the upper end, and 41 ft. at the lower end, +owing to the dip down seawards and southward of the water-tight +stratum. These caissons were provided for their sinkage with +temporary dams of masonry closing the opening of the lock at the +extremities of each caisson, enabling the gates to be subsequently +erected under their shelter. The junctions between the foundations +of the heads and the adjacent foundations were effected by small +movable caissons carried down in recesses provided in the buried +caissons. The connexions with the adjacent quay walls were accomplished +by two supplementary side caissons at the end of each +head; and the north side wall of the lock was founded by means of +seven bottomless caissons sunk by aid of compressed air, on account +of the proximity of the tidal harbour on that side. The south side +wall was founded for a length of about 200 ft. at its western end in +an excavated trench kept dry by pumping; but the greater portion +was founded in a dredged trench in which bearing piles were driven +under water, on which the masonry was built in successive layers, +about 3¼ ft. thick, in a movable caisson 93½ ft. long and 37¾ ft. wide; +whilst a bottomless caisson, left in the work, was employed for +founding about 100 ft. of wall at the eastern end. The bed of concrete +also, 10 ft. thick, forming the floor of the chamber, was carried +out for 82 ft. at the western end in the open air, and the remainder in +the same movable caisson as used for the south wall. Two sluiceways +on each side running the whole length of the lock, differing 6½ ft. +in level, communicate with the lock-chamber through openings in +the side walls, 67¼ ft. apart, and provide for the filling and emptying +of the chamber.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:283px" src="images/img362a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—Florida Lock, Havre Docks, Sections and Plan.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The gates closing the entrances and locks at docks are made of +wood or of iron. In iron gates, the heelpost, or a vertical closing strip +attached to the outer side of the gate close to the heelpost, +the meeting-post at the end of each gate closing against +<span class="sidenote">Dock gates.</span> +each other when the gates are shut, and the sill piece fitting +against the sill are generally made of wood. Wooden gates consist of +a series of horizontal framed beams, made thicker and put closer together +towards the bottom to resist the water-pressure increasing with +the depth, fastened to the heelpost and meeting-post at the two ends +and to intermediate uprights, and supporting water-tight planking on +the inner face (fig. 21). Iron gates have generally an outer as well as an +inner skin of iron plates braced vertically and horizontally by plate-iron +ribs, the horizontal ribs being placed nearer together and the +plates made thicker towards the bottom (figs. 22 and 23). Greenheart +is the wood used for gates exposed to salt water, as it resists +the attack of the teredo in temperate climates. +As cellular iron gates are made water-tight, and +have to be ballasted with enough water to +prevent their flotation, or are provided with +air chambers below and are left open to the +rising tide on the outer side above, the gates +are light in the water and are easily moved; +whereas greenheart gates with their fastenings +are considerably heavier than water, so that +a considerable weight has to be moved when +the water is somewhat low in the dock and the +gates therefore only partially immersed. On +the other hand, wooden gates are less liable +than iron gates to be seriously damaged if run +into by a vessel.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:687px; height:534px" src="images/img362b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—Wooden Dock Gate.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—Iron Segmental Dock Gate.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—Straight Iron Dock Gate.</td> +</tr></table> + +<p>Dock gates are sometimes made straight, +closing against a straight sill (figs. 20 and 23); +and occasionally they are made segmental with +the inner faces forming a continuous circular +arc and closing against a sill corresponding to +the outer curves of the gates (fig. 22), or by +means of a projecting sill piece against a +straight sill (fig. 21). More frequently the +gates, curved on both faces, meet at an angle +forming a Gothic arch in plan, and close by +aid of a projecting piece against a straight sill, +which in the Barry entrance gates is modified +by making the outer faces nearly straight +(fig. 19), giving an unusual width to the centre +of the gates. The pressures produced by a +head of water against these gates when closed +depends not only on the form of the gates, but +also upon the projection given to the angle of +the sill in proportion to the width of the lock, +which is known as the rise, and is generally +placed at a distance along the centre line of +the lock, from a line joining the centres of the +heel-posts, of about one-fourth the width. With straight gates, the +stresses consist, first of a transverse stress due to the water-pressure +against the gate, which increases with the head of water and +length of the gate; and secondly, of a compressive stress along +the gate, resulting from the pressure of the other gate against its +meeting-post, which is equal to half the water-pressure on the gate +multiplied by the tangent of half the angle between the closed gates, +varying inversely with the rise. Though an increase in the rise +reduces this stress, it increases the length of the gate and the transverse +stress, and also the length of the lock. By curving the gates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span> +suitably, the transverse stress is reduced and the longitudinal +compressive stress is augmented, till at last, when the gates form a +horizontal segmental arch, the stresses become wholly compressive and +uniform in each horizontal section, increasing with the depth; +and the total stress is equal to the pressure on a unit of surface +multiplied by the radius of curvature. Though the water-pressure is most +uniformly and economically borne by cylindrical gates, they are longer, +and encroach more upon the lines of quay with their curved recesses than +straighter gates; and, consequently, Gothic-arched gates are often +preferred. Straight gates afford the greatest simplicity in construction.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:508px; height:461px" src="images/img363a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24</span>.—Sliding Caisson.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25</span>.—Ship Caisson.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Gates in wide entrances or locks are generally supported towards their +outer end by a roller running along a castiron roller-path on the gate +floor (figs. 19, 21 and 22), as well as by the heelpost, fitted over a +steel pivot at the bottom, and tied back against the hollow quoins at +the top by anchor straps and bolts, on which the gate turns. In some +cases, by placing the water ballast in iron gates close to the heelpost, +a roller has been dispensed with, even, for instance, at the wide +entrance at Havre (fig. 23). The gates are opened and closed, either by +an opening and a closing chain for each gate, fastened on either side +and worked from opposite side walls by hydraulic power, or by a single +hydraulic piston or bar hinged to the inner side of each gate (figs. +19 and 20). The latter system has the advantages of being simpler +and occupying less space in the side walls, of avoiding the slight loss +of available depth over the sill due to the two closing chains crossing +on the sill when the gates are open, and especially of keeping the gates +closed against a swell in exposed sites.</p> + +<p>A sliding or rolling caisson is occasionally placed across each end of a +lock in place of a pair of dock gates, being Caissons drawn back into a +recess at the side for opening docks. the lock. As a caisson chamber has +to be covered for over to provide a continuous quay or roadway on the +<span class="sidenote">Caissons for docks.</span> +top, a lowering platform is supplied to enable the caisson to pass under +the small girders spanning the top of the chamber, or the caisson is +sunk down sufficiently (fig. 24). The caisson is furnished with an air +chamber to give it flotation, which is adjusted by ballast according to +the depth of water. The advantages of a caisson, as compared with a pair +of gates, are that the gate recesses, gate floor, hollow quoins and +arrangements for working in the side walls are dispensed with, so that +the lock can be made shorter, and the work at each head is rendered less +complicated. The caisson itself also serves as a very strong movable +bridge, and therefore is often preferred at dockyards to dock gates. By +improvements in the hauling machinery, a caisson can open or close a +lock as quickly as dock gates; the caissons at Zeebrugge lock, at the +entrance to the Bruges ship canal, are drawn across the lock or into +their chamber by electricity in two minutes. A caisson is specially +useful in cases where there may be a head of water on either side, as +then it takes the place of two pairs of gates pointing in opposite +directions, or for closing an entrance against a current. A caisson, +however, requires a much larger amount of material than a pair of dock +gates, and a considerable width on one side for its chamber, so that +under ordinary conditions gates are generally used at docks.</p> + +<p>A ship caisson, so called from its presenting some resemblance in +section to the hull of a vessel, occupies too much time in being towed, +floated into position, and sunk into grooves at the bottom and sides of +an entrance for closing it, and then refloated and towed away for +opening the entrance again, to be used at entrances and locks to docks +(fig. 25). Being, however, simple in construction, taking up little +space, and requiring no chamber or machinery for moving it, this form of +caisson is generally used for closing the entrance to a graving dock, +where it remains for several days in place during the execution of +repairs to a vessel in the dock. A ship caisson only requires the +admission of sufficient water to sink it when in position across the +entrance to a graving dock; and this water has to be pumped out before +it can be floated, and removed to some vacant position in the +neighbouring dock till it is again required. Like a sliding or rolling +caisson, it provides a bridge for crossing over the entrance of the +graving dock when in position.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Graving Docks.</i> - Provision has to be made at ports for the repairs of +vessels frequenting them. The simplest arrangement is a timber gridiron, +on which a vessel settles with a falling tide, and can then be inspected +and slightly cleaned and repaired till the tide floats it again. +Inclined slipways are sometimes provided, up which a vessel resting in a +cradle on wheels can be drawn out of the water; and they are also used +for shipbuilding, the vessel when ready for launching being allowed to +slide down them into the water. Graving or dry docks, however, opening +out of a dock, are the usual means provided for enabling the cleaning +and repairs of vessels to be carried out.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:209px" src="images/img363b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26</span>.—Plan of Southampton Graving Dock.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:598px; height:235px" src="images/img363c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27</span>.—Cross Section of Southampton Graving Dock.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A graving dock consists of an enclosure, surrounded by side walls +stepped on the face, and paved at the bottom with a thick floor +sloping slightly down from the centre to drains along the sides, long +enough to receive the longest vessel likely to come to the port. Its +entrance, at the end adjoining the dock, is just wide enough to admit +the vessel of greatest beam, and deep enough over the sill to receive +the vessel of greatest draught, when light, at the lowest water-level of +the dock (figs. 26 and 27). Graving docks are constructed of +masonry, brickwork or concrete, or formerly in America of timber; they +should be founded on a solid impervious stratum, or, where that is +impracticable, they should be built upon bearing piles and enclosed +within sheet piling, to prevent settlement and the infiltration of water +under pressure below the dock. Keel blocks are laid along the centre +line of the dock, for the keel of the vessel to rest on when the water +is pumped out; and the vessel is further supported on each side by +timber shores supported on the steps or “altars” of the side walls, +which are lined with granite or other hard stone, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span> +blue bricks, or, when constructed of concrete, with a facing of stronger +concrete, to enable these altars to withstand the wear and shocks +to which they are subjected. Steps and slides are provided at convenient +places at the sides to give access for men and materials to +the bottom of the dock; and culverts and drains lead the water +to pumps for removing the water from the dock when the entrance +has been closed, and to keep it dry whilst a vessel is under repair. +Culverts in the side walls of the entrance enable water to be admitted +for filling the dock to let the vessel out. Graving docks are generally +closed by ship caissons; but where they open direct on to a tidal +river, and there is some exposure, gates are adopted, or sometimes +sliding caissons.</p> + +<p>The dimensions of graving docks vary considerably with the +nature of the trade and the date of construction; and sometimes +an intermediate entrance is provided to accommodate two smaller +vessels. The sizes of some of the largest graving docks are as follows: +Liverpool, Canada dock, 925½ ft. long, 94 ft. width of entrance, and +29 ft. depth at the ordinary water-level in the dock; Southampton, +851¾ ft. by 90 ft., and 29½ ft. depth at high-water neaps (figs. 26 and +27); Tilbury, 875 ft. by 70 ft. by 31½ ft.; and Glasgow, 880 ft. by +80 ft. by 26½ ft.</p> + +<p><i>Floating Dry Docks.</i>—Where there is no site available for a graving +dock, or the ground is very treacherous, floating dry docks, built +originally of wood, but more recently of iron or steel, have occasionally +been resorted to. The first Bermuda dock towed across the +Atlantic in 1869, and the new dock launched in 1902, 545 ft. by 100 ft., +are notable examples. Water is admitted into the pontoon at the +bottom to sink the dock sufficiently to admit a vessel at its open end; +and then the water is pumped out of compartments in the pontoon +till the vessel is raised out of water. It is only necessary to find a +sheltered site, with a sufficient depth of water, for conducting the +operations.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. F. V.-H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCKET<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (perhaps from “dock,” to curtail or cut short, with +the diminutive suffix <i>et</i>, but the origin of the word is obscure; it +has come into use since the 15th century), in law, a brief summary +or digest of a case, or a memorandum of legal decisions; also +the alphabetical list of cases down for trial, or of suits pending. +Such cases are said to be “on the docket.” In commercial use, a +docket is a warrant from the custom-house, stating that the duty +on goods entered has been paid, or the label fastened to goods, +showing their destination, value, contents, &c., and, generally, +any indorsement on the back of a document, briefly setting out +its contents.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCK WARRANT<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span>, in law, a document by which the owner of a +marine or river dock certifies that the holder is entitled to goods +imported and warehoused in the docks. In the Factors Act 1889 +it is included in the phrase “document of title” and is defined +as any document or writing, being evidence of the title of any +person therein named ... to the property in any goods or +merchandise lying in any warehouse or wharf and signed or +certified by the person having the custody of the goods. It +passes by indorsement and delivery and transfers the absolute +right to the goods described in it. A dock warrant is liable to a +stamp duty of threepence, which may be denoted by an adhesive +stamp, to be cancelled by the person by whom the instrument is +executed or issued.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCKYARDS.<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> In the fullest meaning of the word, a “dock-yard” +(or “navy yard” in America) is a government establishment +where warships of every kind are built and repaired, and +supplied with the men and stores required to maintain them in +a state of efficiency for war. Thus a dockyard in this extended +sense would include slips for building ships, workshops for +manufacturing their machinery, dry docks for repairing them, +stores of arms, ammunition, coal, provisions, &c., with basins in +which they may lie while being supplied with such things, and an +establishment for providing the <i>personnel</i> necessary for manning +them. But in practice few, if any, existing dockyards are of so +complete a nature; many of them, for instance, do not undertake +the building of ships at all, while others are little more than +harbours where a ship may replenish her stores of coal, water and +provisions and carry out minor repairs. Private firms are relied +upon for the construction of many ships down to an advanced +stage, the government dockyards completing and equipping them +for commission.</p> + +<p><i>Great Britain.</i>—Previous to the reign of Henry VIII., the +kings of England had neither naval arsenals nor dockyards, nor +any regular establishment of civil or naval officers to provide +ships of war, or to man them. There are, however, strong evidences +of the existence of dockyards, or of something answering +thereto, at very early dates, at Rye, Shoreham and Winchelsea. +In November 1243 the sheriff of Sussex was ordered to enlarge +the house at Rye in which the king’s galleys were kept, so that it +might contain seven galleys. In 1238 the keepers of some of the +king’s galleys were directed to cause those vessels to be breamed, +and a house to be built at Winchelsea for their safe custody. In +1254 the bailiffs of Winchelsea and Rye were ordered to repair +the buildings in which the king’s galleys were kept at Rye. At +Portsmouth and at Southampton there seem to have been +at all times depôts for both ships and stores, though there was +no regular dockyard at Portsmouth till the middle of the 16th +century. It would appear, from a curious poem in Hakluyt’s +<i>Collection</i> called “The Policie of Keeping the Sea,” that Littlehampton, +unfit as it now is, was the port at which Henry VIII. +built</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + +<p style="margin-left:10em;">“his great <i>Dromions</i></p> +<p>Which passed other great shippes of the commons.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The “dromion,” “dromon,” or “dromedary” was a large warship, +the prototype of which was furnished by the Saracens. +Roger de Hoveden, Richard of Devizes and Peter de Longtoft +celebrate the struggle which Richard I., in the “Trench the Mer,” +on his way to Palestine, had with a huge dromon,—“a marvellous +ship! a ship than which, except Noah’s ship, none greater was +ever read of.” This vessel had three masts, was very high out +of the water, and is said to have had 1500 men on board. It +required the united force of the king’s galleys, and an obstinate +fight, to capture the dromon.</p> + +<p>The foundation of a regular British navy, by the establishment +of dockyards, and the formation of a board, consisting of certain +commissioners for the management of its affairs, was first laid +by Henry VIII., and the first dockyard erected during his reign +was that of Woolwich. Those of Portsmouth, Deptford, Chatham +and Sheerness followed in succession. Plymouth was founded by +William III. Pembroke was established in 1814, a small yard +having previously existed at Milford.</p> + +<p>The most important additions yet made at any one period to +the dockyard and harbour works required to meet the necessities +of the British fleet were those sanctioned by the Naval Works +Acts of 1895 and subsequent years, the total estimated cost, as +stated in the act of 1899, being over 23½ millions sterling. The +works proposed under these acts were classified under three heads, +viz. (a) the enclosure and defence of harbours against torpedo +attacks; (b) adapting naval ports to the present needs of the +fleet; (c) naval barracks and hospitals. Under the first heading +were included the defensive harbours at Portland, Dover and +Gibraltar. Under heading (b) were included the deepening of +harbours and approaches, the dockyard extensions at Gibraltar, +Keyham (Devonport), Simons Bay, and Hong-Kong, with +sundry other items. Under heading (c) were included the naval +barracks at Chatham, Portsmouth and Keyham; the naval +hospitals at Chatham, Haslar and Haulbowline; the colleges +at Keyham and Dartmouth; and other items.</p> + +<p>Great Britain possesses dockyards at Portsmouth, Devonport, +Chatham, Malta and Gibraltar, each in charge of an admiral-superintendent, +and at Sheerness and Pembroke in charge of a +captain-superintendent, together with establishments at Ascension, +Bermuda, Simons Town (Cape of Good Hope), Queenstown +(Haulbowline); Hong-Kong, Portland, Sydney and Weihaiwei. +The Indian Government has dockyards at Bombay and Calcutta. +The medical establishments include Ascension, Bermuda, Cape +of Good Hope, Chatham, Dartmouth, Deal, Gibraltar, Haslar, +Haulbowline, Hong-Kong, Malta, Osborne, Plymouth, Portland, +Portsmouth, Sheerness, Sydney, Yarmouth, Yokohama and +Weihaiwei.</p> + +<p>The arrangements for the administrative control of the dockyards +have varied with those adopted for the regulation of the +navy as a whole. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Admiralty Administration</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Navy</a></span>: +<i>History</i>.) At the present time, whether at home or abroad, they +lie within the province of the controller of the navy (the third lord +of the board of admiralty); and the director of dockyards, whose +office, replacing that of surveyor of dockyards was created in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span> +December 1885, is responsible to the controller for the building of +ships, boats, &c., in dockyards, and for the maintenance and +repair of ships and boats, and of all steam machinery in ships, +boats, dockyards and factories. The director of naval construction, +who is also deputy-controller, is responsible, not only for +the design of ships, but for their construction, in the sense that he +approves great numbers of working drawings of structural parts +prepared at the dockyards. But the director of dockyards is +the admiralty official under whose instructions the work goes +on, involving the employment and supervision of an army of +artisans and labourers. Instructions, therefore, emanate from +the admiralty, but the details lie with the dockyard officials, and +in practice there is a considerable decentralization of duties.</p> + +<p>The chief function of a dockyard is the building and maintaining +of ships in efficiency. The constructive work is carried out +under the care of the chief constructor of the yard, in accordance +with plans sent down from the admiralty. The calculations for +displacement, involving the draught of water forward and aft, +have already been made, and, in order to ensure accuracy in the +carrying out of the design, an admirable system has been devised +for weighing everything that is built into the new ships or that +goes on board; and it is astonishing how very closely the actual +displacement approximates to that which was intended, particularly +when the tendency of weights to increase, in perfecting +a ship for commission, is considered.</p> + +<p>The ship having been built to her launching weight, the duty of +putting her into the water devolves upon the chief constructor of +the yard, and failures in this matter are so extremely rare that +it may almost be said they do not occur. As soon as the ship +is water-borne the responsibility falls upon the king’s harbour +master, who has charge of her afloat and of moving her into the +fitting basins. When the ship has been brought alongside the +wharf, the responsibility of the chief constructor of the yard +is resumed, and the ship is carried forward to completion by +the affixing of armour plating (if that has not been done before +launching), the mounting of guns, the instalment of engines, +boilers, and electrical and hydraulic gear, and the fitting of cabins +for officers, mess places for men, and storerooms, and a vast +volume of other work unnecessary to be specified. In regard to +the complicated details of guns and torpedoes, the captains of the +gunnery and torpedo schools have a function of supervision. The +captain of the fleet reserve also closely watches the work, because, +when the heads of all departments have reported the ship to be +ready, she has to be inspected by the commander-in-chief at +the port, and then passed into the fleet reserve as ready for sea, +and there the captain of the fleet reserve is responsible for her +efficiency. Other important officers of a dockyard are the chief +engineer; the superintendent civil engineer, who has charge of +the work involved in keeping all buildings, docks, basins, caissons, +roads, &c., in repair; the naval store officer, who has charge of +most of the stores in the dockyard; and the cashier of the yard, +whose name sufficiently expresses his duties.</p> + +<p>The system of conducting business at the dockyards is analogous +to that which prevails at the admiralty. There is personal communication +between the officers responsible for the work, and +facilities are afforded for coming to rapid decisions upon matters +that are in hand, and the operations are conducted with an ease +which contributes much to efficiency. In 1844 the custom was +introduced of all the principal officers of the dockyard meeting +at the superintendent’s office at 9.30 A.M. every day, to hear the +orders from the admiralty and discuss the work of the day. But +this system of “readings” was abolished at the beginning of +1906, the naval establishments inquiry committee considering +that the assembling of the officials was unnecessary since the +communications after reception are copied and sent to the +departments concerned.</p> + +<p>The police force necessary in a dockyard is in some cases +supplied from the London metropolitan police, and is under +the orders of the superintendent of the yard for duties connected +with it, and under the commissioner of police for the discipline +and disposition of the force. The charges are, of course, paid by +the admiralty, and the system answers well.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—The shore stations under control of the +Navy Department (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Admiralty Administration</a></span>), and +collectively known as naval stations, are under different names +according to their nature. Of those called <i>Navy Yards</i>, and +intended for the general purpose of sources of supply and for +repairs of ships, there are within the United States eight in +number. Two of them are on the Pacific coast, situated on Puget +Sound, at Bremerton, Washington; and at Mare Island, near +San Francisco. The other six are on the Atlantic coast, and +are situated at Portsmouth, N.H.; Boston, Mass.; Brooklyn, +N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Washington, D.C.; and Norfolk, Va. +There are also naval stations at Port Royal and Charleston, S.C.; +Key West and Pensacola, Fla.; New Orleans, La.; Guantanamo, +Cuba; Culebra and San Juan, Porto Rico; Honolulu, +H.I.; Cavite, P.I.; Tutuila, Samoa; and Island of Guam, in +the Ladrones Islands. The floating dock Dewey, having a lifting +capacity of 18,500 gross tons with a free-board of 2 ft., was +stationed in the Philippine Islands in 1906.</p> + +<p>Besides these, there are important naval stations established +for special purposes, which in some cases are also available for +ports of supply and for repairs. These are: the U.S. Naval +Academy, Annapolis, Md., for the instruction of naval cadets; +the training stations at Newport, R.I., and Yerba Buena Island, +Cal., for the instruction of apprentices; the proving ground at +Indian Head, Md., on the Potomac river, where all government-built +ordnance is tested; the War College at Newport, R.I., for +the instruction of officers; the torpedo station at Newport, for +the instruction of officers and men in torpedoes, electricity and +submarine diving; the naval observatory at Washington; and +the marine post at Sitka, Alaska. Coaling depôts have been +established at Honolulu, Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, and at +Manila, P.I. Naval hospitals are located at the Portsmouth, +Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk and Mare +Island yards; at Las Animas, Colo.; at Newport, R.I.; Cañacao, +P.I.; Sitka, Alaska; and Yokohama, Japan.</p> + +<p>The commandant of a navy yard and station, who is usually +a rear-admiral, is its commander-in-chief. His official assistants +are called heads of departments. The captain of the yard, who +is next in succession to command, has general charge of the water +front and the ships moored there, and of the police of the navy +yard; it is his duty to keep the commandant informed as to the +nature and efficiency of all work in progress. The equipment +officer has charge of anchors, chains, rigging, sails and the electric +generating plant. The other heads of departments are the +ordnance officer, the naval constructor, the engineering officer, +the general storekeeper, the paymaster of the yard, the surgeon +and the civil engineer. The clerks and draughtsmen employed +by these officers are appointed under civil service rules, and +their employment is continuous so long as funds are available. +The foremen are selected by competitive examination, and their +number is fixed. In the employment of mechanics and labourers, +veterans are given preference, after which follow persons previously +employed who have displayed especial efficiency and good +conduct. The rates of wages are determined semi-annually by +a board of officers, who ascertain the wages paid by private +establishments in the vicinity of the navy yard. Eight hours +constitute the legal work day. When emergencies necessitate +longer hours the workmen are paid at the ordinary rate plus +50%.</p> + +<p>The nature and extent of work to be performed upon naval +vessels is determined by the secretary of the navy; the commandant +then issues the necessary orders. The material required +is obtained by a system of requisitions, which provide for the +purchase from the lowest bidder after open competition. Heads +of departments initiate the purchase of materials which are +peculiar to their own work; ordinary commercial articles, +however, are usually carried in a special stock called the “Naval +Supply Fund,” which may be drawn upon by any head of department. +All materials are inspected, both as to quantity and +quality, by a board of inspectors consisting of three officers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>France.</i>—The French coast is divided into five naval arrondissements, +which have their headquarters at the five naval ports of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span> +which Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon are the most important, Lorient +and Rochefort being of lesser degree. All are building and fitting-out +yards. Corsica, which has naval stations at Ajaccio, Porto Vecchio, +Bonifacio and other places, is a dependency of the arsenal at Toulon. +On the African coast there are docking facilities in Algeria. Bizerta, +the Tunisian port, has been made a naval base by the deepening +and fortifying of the canal which is the approach to the inner +lake. There are arsenals also at Saïgon and Hai-phong, and an +establishment at Diego Suarez.</p> + +<p>The subsidiary establishments in France are the gun foundry at +Ruelle; the steel and iron works at Guérigny, where anchors, chains +and armour-plate are made; and the works at Indret, on an island +in the lower Loire, where machinery is constructed. There are +many private shipbuilding establishments in the country, the most +important being the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée at La +Seyne, on the lesser roadstead at Toulon where many French and +foreign warships of the largest classes have been built. The same +company has a building yard at Havre. Other establishments are +the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire, at Saint Nazaire; the Normand +Yard, at Havre; and the Chantiers de la Gironde, near Bordeaux.</p> + +<p>Each of the arrondissements above mentioned is divided into +sous-arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial +ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the men +of the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with the dockyards +as naval arsenals. In each arrondissement the vice-admiral, +who is naval prefect, is the immediate representative of the minister +of marine, and has full direction and command of the arsenal, which +is his headquarters. He is thus commander-in-chief, as also governor-designate +for time of war, but his authority does not extend to ships +belonging to organized squadrons or divisions. The naval prefect is +assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff (except at Lorient and +Rochefort, where the office is filled by a captain), and a certain number +of officers, the special functions of the chief of the staff having +relation principally to the efficiency and <i>personnel</i> of the fleet, while +the “major-general,” who is usually a rear-admiral, is concerned +chiefly with the <i>matériel</i>. There are also directors of stores, of naval +construction, of the medical service and of the submarine defences +(which are concerned with torpedoes, mines and torpedo-boats), +as well as of naval ordnance and works. The prefect directs the +operations of the arsenal, and is responsible for its efficiency and for +that of the ships which are there in reserve. In regard to the constitution +and maintenance of the naval forces, the administration of the +arsenals is divided into three principal departments, the first concerned +with naval construction, the second with ordnance, including +gun-mountings and small-arms, and the third with the so-called +submarine defences, dealing with all torpedo <i>matériel</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Germany.</i>—With the expansion of the German navy considerable +additions have been made to the two principal dockyards. These +are Wilhelmshaven, the naval headquarters on the North Sea, and +Kiel, the headquarters on the Baltic, Danzig being an establishment +of lesser importance, and Kiao-chau an undeveloped base in the +Shantung peninsula, China. The chief official at each home dockyard +is the superintendent (<i>Oberwerftdirektor</i>), who is a rear-admiral +or senior captain directly responsible to the naval secretary of state. +Under the superintendent’s orders are the chief of the Ausrüstung +department, or captain of the fleet reserve, the directors of ordnance, +torpedoes, navigation, naval construction, engineering and harbour +works, with some other officers. The chiefs of the constructive and +engineering departments are responsible for the building of ships and +machinery, and for the maintenance of the hulls and machinery of +existing vessels; while the works department has charge of all work +on the quays, docks, &c., in the dockyard and port. A great advance +has been made in increasing the efficiency and capabilities of the +imperial dockyards by introducing a system of continuous work in +the building of new ships and effecting alterations in others, and +German material is exclusively used. The Schichau Works at +Elbing and Danzig, the Vulkan Yard at Bredow, near Stettin, the +Weser Company at Bremen, and the establishment of Blohm and +Voss at Hamburg, are important establishments which have built +many vessels for the German navy, as well as for foreign states.</p> + +<p><i>Italy.</i>—The principal Italian state dockyards are Spezia, Naples +and Venice, the first named being by far the most important. It +covers an area, including the water spaces, of 629 acres, and there +are five dry docks, three being 433 ft. long and 105 ft. wide, and two +361 ft. long and 98 ft. 6 in. wide. The dockyard is very completely +equipped with machinery of the best British, German and Italian +makes, and it has built several of the finest Italian ships. The +number of hands employed in the yard averages 4000. There are +two building slips, and for smaller vessels there are two in the +neighbouring establishment of San Bartolommeo (which is the headquarters +for submarine mining), and one at San Vito, where is a +Government gun factory. Castellammare di Stabia is subsidiary +to Naples. A large dry dock has been built at Taranto. There is +a small naval establishment at Maddalena Island on the Strait of +Bonifacio. The Italian Government has no gun or torpedo factories, +nearly all the ordnance coming from the Armstrong factory at +Pozzuoli near Naples, and the torpedoes from the Schwarzkopf +factory at Venice, while armour-plates are produced at the important +works at Terni. Machinery is supplied by the firms of +Ansaldo, Odero, Orlando, Guppy & Hawthorn and Pattison. The +three establishments first named have important shipbuilding yards, +and have constructed vessels for the Italian and foreign navies. +The Orlando Yard at Leghorn is Government property, but is +leased by the firm, and possesses five building slips.</p> + +<p><i>Austria-Hungary.</i>—The naval arsenal is on the well-protected +harbour of Pola, in Istria, which is the headquarters of the national +navy, and includes establishments of all kinds for the maintenance +of the fleet. There are large building and docking facilities, and a +number of warships have been built there. There is a construction +yard also at Trieste. A new coaling and torpedo station is at Teodo, +large magazines and stores are at Vallelunga, and the mining establishment +is at Ficella. The shipbuilding branch of the navy is under the +direction of a chief constructor (<i>Oberster-Ingenieur</i>), assisted by seven +constructors, of whom two are of the first class. The engineering and +ordnance branches are similarly organized.</p> + +<p><i>Spain.</i>—The Spanish dockyards are of considerable antiquity, but +of diminishing importance. There is an establishment at Ferrol, +another at Cartagena, and a third at Cadiz. They are well equipped +in all necessary respects, but are not provided with continuous work. +A recent arrangement is the specialization of the yards, Ferrol being +designed for larger, and Carthagena for smaller, building work. The +ordnance establishment is at Carraca.</p> + +<p><i>Russia.</i>—In Russia the naval ports are of two classes. The most +important are Kronstadt, St Petersburg and Nikolayev. Of lesser +importance are Reval, Sveaborg, Sevastopol, Batum, Baku and +Vladivostok. The administration of the larger ports, except St +Petersburg, which is under special regulations, is in the hands of +vice-admirals, who are commanders-in-chief, while the smaller ports +are under the direction of rear-admirals. All are directly under the +minister of marine, except that the Black Sea ports and Astrabad, +on the Caspian, are subordinate to the commander-in-chief at +Nikolayev. Sevastopol has grown in importance, and become +mainly a naval harbour, the commercial harbour being removed to +Theodosia. The Russian government has also proposed to remodel +the harbour works at St Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Emperor +Alexander III. Port at Libau, on the Baltic, is in a region less liable +to be icebound in the winter. There are no strictly private yards for +the building of large vessels in Russia, except that of the Black Sea +Company at Nikolayev. Messrs Creighton build torpedo-boats at +Åbo in Finland, and the admiralty has steel works at Ijora, where +some torpedo-boats have been built. Other ordnance and steel +works are at Obukhov and Putilov.</p> + +<p><i>Japan.</i>—The principal Japanese dockyard, which was established +by the Shogunate in 1866, is Yokosuka. French naval constructors +and engineers were employed, and several wooden ships were built. +The Japanese took the administration into their own hands in 1875, +and built a number of vessels of small displacement in the yard. +The limit of size was about 5000 tons, but the establishment has been +enlarged so that vessels of the first class may be built there. There +is a first-class modern dry dock which will take the largest battleship. +Shipbuilding would be undertaken to a larger extent but for the fact +that nearly all material has to come from abroad. Down to 1905 +all the important vessels of the Japanese navy were built in Great +Britain, France, Germany and the United States, but at the end of +that year a first-class cruiser of 13,500 tons (the “Tsukuba”) was +launched from the important yard at Kure. There are other yards +at Sassebo and Maisuru.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCTOR<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (Lat. for “teacher”), the title conferred by the +highest university degree. Originally there were only two +degrees, those of bachelor and master, and the title doctor was +given to certain masters as a merely honorary appellation. +The process by which it became established as a degree superior +to that of master cannot be clearly traced. At Bologna it seems +to have been conferred in the faculty of law as early as the +12th century. Paris conferred the degree in the faculty of +divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150. In +England it was introduced in the 13th century; and both in +England and on the continent it was long confined to the faculties +of law and divinity. Though the word is so commonly used as +synonymous with “physician,” it was not until the 14th century +that the doctor’s degree began to be conferred in medicine. The +tendency since has been to extend it to all faculties; thus in +Germany, in the faculty of arts, it has replaced the old title of +<i>magister</i>. The doctorate of music was first conferred at Oxford +and Cambridge.</p> + +<p><i>Doctors of the Church</i> are certain saints whose doctrinal writings +have obtained, by the universal consent of the Church +or by papal decree, a special authority. In the case of the great +schoolmen a characteristic qualification was added to the title +doctor, <i>e.g.</i> “angelicus” (Aquinas), “mellifluus” (Bernard). +The doctors of the Church are: for the East, SS. Athanasius, +Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom; for +the West, SS. Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span> +Great, Anselm, Bernard, Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas. +To these St Alphonso dei Liguori was added by Pope Pius IX.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCTORS’ COMMONS,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> the name formerly applied to a +society of ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct +profession for the practice of the civil and canon laws. Some +members of the profession purchased in 1567 a site near St Paul’s, +on which at their own expense they erected houses (destroyed in +the great fire, but rebuilt in 1672) for the residence of the judges +and advocates, and proper buildings for holding the ecclesiastical +and admiralty courts. In 1768 a royal charter was obtained +by virtue of which the then members of the society and their +successors were incorporated under the name and title of “The +College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and +Admiralty Courts.” The college consisted of a president (the +dean of Arches for the time being) and of those doctors of law +who, having regularly taken that degree in either of the universities +of Oxford or Cambridge, and having been admitted +advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the archbishop of +Canterbury, were elected fellows in the manner prescribed by +the charter. There were also attached to the college thirty-four +proctors, whose duties were analogous to those of solicitors. +The judges of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected +from this college. By the Court of Probate Act 1857 the +college was empowered to sell its real and personal estate and +to surrender its charter, and it was enacted that on such +surrender the college should be dissolved and the property +thereof belong to the then existing members as tenants in +common for their own use and benefit. The college was accordingly +dissolved, and the various ecclesiastical courts which +sat at Doctors’ Commons (the Court of Arches, the Prerogative +Court, the Faculty Court and the Court of Delegates) are now +open to the whole bar.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCTRINAIRES,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> the name given to the leaders of the moderate +and constitutional Royalists in France after the second restoration +of Louis XVIII. in 1815. The name, as has often been the +case with party designations, was at first given in derision, and +by an enemy. In 1816 the <i>Nain jaune réfugié</i>, a French paper +published at Brussels by Bonapartist and Liberal exiles, began +to speak of M. Royer-Collard as the “doctrinaire” and also as +<i>le père Royer-Collard de la doctrine chrétienne</i>. The <i>pères de la +doctrine chrétienne</i>, popularly known as the “doctrinaires,” were +a French religious order founded in 1592 by César de Bus. The +choice of a nickname for M. Royer-Collard does credit to the +journalistic insight of the contributors to the <i>Nain jaune réfugié</i>, +for he was emphatically a man who made it his business to preach +a doctrine and an orthodoxy. The popularity of the name and +its rapid extension to M. Royer-Collard’s colleagues is the sufficient +proof that it was well chosen and had more than a personal +application. These colleagues came, it is true, from various +quarters. The duc de Richelieu and M. de Serre had been Royalist +<i>émigrés</i> during the revolutionary and imperial epoch. MM. +Royer-Collard himself, Lainé, and Maine de Biran had sat in the +revolutionary Assemblies. MM. Pasquier, Beugnot, de Barante, +Cuvier, Mounier, Guizot and Decazes had been imperial officials. +But they were closely united by political principle, and also by a +certain similarity of method. Some of them, notably Guizot and +Maine de Biran, were theorists and commentators on the principles +of government. M. de Barante was an eminent man of letters. +All were noted for the doctrinal coherence of their principles and +the dialectical rigidity of their arguments. The object of the +party as defined by M. (afterwards the duc) Decazes was to +“nationalize the monarchy and to royalize France.” The means +by which they hoped to attain this end were a loyal application +of the charter granted by Louis XVIII., and the steady co-operation +of the king with the moderate Royalists to defeat the +extreme party known as the Ultras, who aimed at the complete +undoing of the political and social work of the Revolution. The +Doctrinaires were ready to allow the king a large discretion in +the choice of his ministers and the direction of national policy. +They refused to allow that ministers should be removed in +obedience to a hostile vote in the chamber. Their ideal in fact +was a combination of a king who frankly accepted the results +of the Revolution, and who governed in a liberal spirit, with the +advice of a chamber elected by a very limited constituency, in +which men of property and education formed, if not the whole, +at least the very great majority of the voters. Their views were +set forth by Guizot in 1816 in his treatise <i>Du gouvernement +représentatif et de l’état actuel de la France.</i> The chief organs of +the party in the press were the <i>Indépendent</i>, renamed the <i>Constitutionnel</i> +in 1817, and the <i>Journal des débats</i>. The supporters +of the Doctrinaires in the country were chiefly ex-officials of the +empire,—who believed in the necessity for monarchical government +but had a lively memory of Napoleon’s tyranny and a +no less lively hatred of the <i>ancien régime</i>—merchants, manufacturers +and members of the liberal professions, particularly the +lawyers. The history of the Doctrinaires as a separate political +party began in 1816 and ended in 1830. In 1816 they obtained +the co-operation of Louis XVIII., who had been frightened by +the violence of the Ultras in the <i>Chambre introuvable</i> of 1815. +In 1830 they were destroyed by Charles X. when he took the +Ultra prince de Polignac as his minister and entered on the conflict +with Liberalism in France which ended in his overthrow. +During the revolution of 1830 the Doctrinaires became absorbed +in the Orleanists, from whom they had never been separated on +any ground of principle (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p> + +<p>The word “doctrinaire” has become naturalized in English +terminology, as applied, in a slightly contemptuous sense, to a +theorist, as distinguished from a practical man of affairs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Duvergier de Hauranne, <i>Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire +en France</i> (Paris, 1857-1871), vol. iii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DOCUMENT<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span>, strictly, in law, that which can serve as evidence +or proof, and is written or printed, or has an inscription or any +significance that can be “read”; thus a picture, authenticated +photograph, seal or the like would furnish “documentary +evidence.” More generally the word is used for written or printed +papers that provide information or evidence on a subject. The +Latin <i>documentum</i>, from which the word is derived, meant, in +classical times, a lesson, example or proof (<i>docere</i>, to teach), and +only in medieval Latin came to be applied to an <i>instrumentum</i>, or +record in writing. The classical Latin use is found in English; +thus Jeremy Taylor (Works, ed. 1835, i. 815) speaks of punishment +being a “single and sudden document if instantly inflicted” +(see <span class="sc">Diplomatic</span>; and <span class="sc">Evidence</span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODD, WILLIAM<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1729-1777), English divine, was born at +Bourne in Lincolnshire in May 1729. He was admitted a sizar +of Clare Hall, Cambridge, in 1745, and took the degree of B.A. +in 1750, being fifteenth wrangler. On leaving the university he +married a young woman of a more than questionable reputation, +whose extravagant habits helped to ruin him. In 1751 he +was ordained deacon, and in 1753 priest, and he soon became a +popular and celebrated preacher. His first preferment was the +lectureship of West-Ham and Bow. In 1754 he was also chosen +lecturer of St Olave’s, Hart Street; and in 1757 he took the +degree of M.A. at Cambridge, subsequently becoming LL.D. +He was a strenuous supporter of the Magdalen hospital, founded +in 1758, and soon afterwards became preacher at the chapel of +that charity. In 1763 he obtained a prebend at Brecon, and in +the same year he was appointed one of the king’s chaplains,—soon +after which the education of Philip Stanhope, afterwards +earl of Chesterfield, was committed to his care. In 1768 he had +a fashionable congregation and was held in high esteem, but +indiscreet ambition led to his ruin. On the living of St George’s, +Hanover Square, becoming vacant in 1774, Mrs Dodd wrote +an anonymous letter to the wife of the lord chancellor, offering +three thousand guineas if, by her assistance, Dodd were promoted +to the benefice. This letter having been traced, a complaint was +immediately made to the king, and Dodd was dismissed from his +office as chaplain. After residing for some time at Geneva and +Paris, he returned to England in 1776. He still continued to +exercise his clerical functions, but his extravagant habits soon +involved him in difficulties. To meet his creditors he forged +a bond on his former pupil Lord Chesterfield for £4200, and +actually received the money. He was detected, committed to +prison, tried at the Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> +death; and, in spite of numerous applications for mercy, he was +executed at Tyburn on the 27th of June 1777. Samuel Johnson +was very zealous in pleading for a pardon, and a petition from +the city of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr Dodd was a +voluminous writer and possessed considerable abilities, with but +little judgment and much vanity. He wrote one or two comedies, +and his <i>Beauties of Shakespeare</i>, published in 1752, was long a +well-known work; while his <i>Thoughts in Prison</i>, a poem in blank +verse, written between his conviction and execution, naturally +attracted much attention. He published a large number of +sermons and other theological works, including a <i>Commentary +on the Bible</i> (1765-1770). A list of his fifty-five writings and an +account of the writer is included in the <i>Thoughts in Prison</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also P. Fitzgerald, <i>A Famous Forgery</i> (1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<p><span class="bold">DODDER<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (Frisian <i>dodd</i>, a bunch; Dutch <i>dot</i>, ravelled thread), +the popular name of the annual, leafless, twining, parasitic plants +forming the genus +<i>Cuscuta</i>, formerly +regarded as representing +a distinct +natural order +Cuscutaceae, but +now generally +ranked as a tribe +of the natural +order Convolvulaceae. +The genus +contains nearly +100 species and is +widely distributed +in the temperate +and warmer parts +of the earth. The +slender thread-like +stem is white, +yellow, or red in +colour, bears no +leaves, and attaches +itself by +suckers to the stem +or leaves of some +other plant round +which it twines +and from which it +derives its nourishment. +It bears +clusters of small +flowers with a +four- or five-toothed +calyx, a +cup-shaped corolla +with four or five +stamens inserted +on its tube, and +sometimes a ring +of scales below the +stamens; the two-celled +ovary becomes when ripe a capsule splitting by a ring +just above the base. The seeds are angular and contain a +thread-like spirally coiled embryo which bears no cotyledons. +On coming in contact with the living stem of some other plant +the seedling dodder throws out a sucker, by which it attaches +itself and begins to absorb the sap of its foster-parent; it then +soon ceases to have any connexion with the ground. As it +grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself firmly on +the host-plant (fig. 2). After making a few turns round one stem +the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining +and branching till it resembles “fine, closely-tangled, wet catgut.” +The injury done to flax, clover, hop and bean crops by +species of dodder is often very great. <i>C. europaea</i>, the greater +dodder (fig. 1) is found parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches and +the hop; <i>C. Epilinum</i>, on flax; <i>C. Epithymum</i>, on furze, ling +and thyme. <i>C. Trifolii</i>, the Clover Dodder, is perhaps a subspecies +of the last mentioned.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:354px; height:685px" src="images/img368a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:313px; height:397px" src="images/img368b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—<i>Cuscuta europaea</i>, Dodder.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—<i>Cuscuta glomerata</i>. Section +through union between parasite and host.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>1. Flower removed from 2, Calyx.</p> +<p>3. Ovary cut across.</p> +<p>4. Fruit enveloped by a persistent corolla.</p> +<p>5. Seed.</p> +<p>6. Embryo.     1-6 enlarged.</p></td> + +<td class="tcl" style="padding-left: 3em;"><p>c, stem of host.</p> +<p>d, stem of <i>Cuscuta</i>.</p> +<p>h, haustoria.</p> +<p>   (After Dodel-Port.)</p> +</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODDRIDGE, PHILIP<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1702-1751), English Nonconformist +divine, was born in London on the 26th of June 1702. His +father, Daniel Doddridge, was a London merchant, and his +mother the orphan daughter of the Rev. John Bauman, a +Lutheran clergyman who had fled from Prague to escape religious +persecution, and had held for some time the mastership of the +grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. Before he could +read, his mother taught him the history of the Old and New +Testament by the assistance of some blue Dutch chimney-tiles. +He afterwards went to a private school in London, and in 1712 +to the grammar school +at Kingston-upon-Thames. +About 1715 +he was removed to a +private school at St +Albans, where he was +much influenced by the +Presbyterian minister, +Samuel Clarke. He declined +offers which would +have led him into the +Anglican ministry or the +bar, and in 1719 entered +the very liberal academy +for dissenters at Kibworth +in Leicestershire, +taught at that time by +the Rev. John Jennings, +whom Doddridge succeeded +in the ministry +at that place in 1723, +declining overtures from +Coventry, Pershore and +London (Haberdashers’ +Hall). In 1729, at a +general meeting of Nonconformist +ministers, he was chosen to conduct the academy +established in that year at Market Harborough. In the same +year he received an invitation from the independent congregation +at Northampton, which he accepted. Here he continued +his multifarious labours; but the church seems to have decreased, +and his many engagements and bulky correspondence +interfered seriously with his pulpit work, and with the discipline +of his academy, where he had some 200 students to whom he +lectured on philosophy and theology in the mathematical or +Spinozistic style. In 1751 his health, which had never been +good, broke down, and he sailed for Lisbon on the 30th of +September of that year; but the change was unavailing, and +he died there on the 26th of October. His popularity as a +preacher is said to have been chiefly due to his “high susceptibility, +joined with physical advantages and perfect sincerity.” +His sermons were mostly practical in character, and his great +aim was to cultivate in his hearers a spiritual and devotional +frame of mind. He laboured for the attainment of a united +Nonconformist body, which should retain the cultured element +without alienating the uneducated. His principal works are, +<i>The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul</i> (1745), which best +illustrates his religious genius, and has been widely translated; +<i>The Family Expositor</i> (6 vols., 1739-1756), <i>Life of Colonel +Gardiner</i> (1747); and a <i>Course of Lectures on Pneumatology, +Ethics and Divinity</i> (1763). He also published several courses +of sermons on particular topics, and is the author of many well-known +and justly admired hymns, <i>e.g.</i> “O God of Bethel, by +whose hand.” In 1736 both the universities at Aberdeen gave +him the degree of D.D.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoirs</i>, by Rev. Job Orton (1766); <i>Letters to and from +Dr Doddridge</i>, by Rev. Thomas Stedman (1790); and <i>Correspondence +and Diary</i>, in 5 vols., by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys +(1829). The best life is Stanford’s <i>Philip Doddridge</i> (1880). Doddridge’s +academy is now represented by New College, Hampstead, in +the library of which there is a large collection of his manuscripts.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODDS, ALFRED AMÉDÉE<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1842-  ), French general, was +born at St Louis, Senegal, on the 6th of February 1842; his +father’s family was of Anglo-French origin. He was educated at +Carcassonne and at St Cyr, and in 1864 joined the marine infantry +as a sub-lieutenant. He was promoted captain for his services +during the disturbances in Réunion in 1868-69, in the course +of which he was wounded. He served as a company commander +in the Franco-German War, was taken prisoner at Sedan but +escaped, and took part in the campaigns of the Loire and of the +East. In 1872 he was sent to West Africa, and, except when on +active service in Cochin China (1878) and Tong-King (1883), he +remained on duty in Senegal for the next twenty years, taking +a prominent part in the operations which brought the countries +of the Upper Senegal and Upper Niger under French rule. He +led the expeditions against the Boal and Kayor (1889), the +Serreres (1890) and the Futa (1891), and from 1888 to 1891 was +colonel commanding the troops in Senegal. At the close of 1891 +he returned to France to command the eighth marine infantry +at Toulon. In April 1892 Dodds was selected to command the +expeditionary force in Dahomey; he occupied Abomey, the +hostile capital, in November, and in a second campaign (1894) +he completed the subjugation of the country. He was then +appointed inspector-general of the marine infantry, and after a +tour of the French colonies was given the command of the XX. +(Colonial) Army Corps, subsequently becoming inspector-general +of colonial troops and a member of the <i>Conseil supérieur de +guerre</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODECAHEDRON<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dôdeka">δώδεκα</span>, twelve, and <span class="grk" title="hedra">ἕδρα</span>, a face +or base), in geometry, a solid enclosed by twelve plane faces. The +“ordinary dodecahedron” is one of the Platonic solids (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polyhedron</a></span>). The Greeks discovered that if a line be divided in +extreme and mean proportion, then the whole line and the greater +segment are the lengths of the edge of a cube and dodecahedron +inscriptible in the same sphere. The “small stellated dodecahedron,” +the “great dodecahedron” and the “great stellated +dodecahedron” are Kepler-Poinsot solids; and the “truncated” +and “snub dodecahedra” are Archimedean solids (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polyhedron</a></span>). +In crystallography, the regular or ordinary dodecahedron +is an impossible form since the faces cut the axes in +irrational ratios; the “pentagonal dodecahedron” of crystallographers +has irregular pentagons for faces, while the geometrical +solid, on the other hand, has regular ones. The “rhombic +dodecahedron,” one of the geometrical semiregular solids, is +an important crystal form. Many other dodecahedra exist as +crystal forms, for which see <span class="sc">Crystallography</span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODECASTYLE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dôdeka">δώδεκα</span>, twelve, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">στῦλος</span>, column), +the architectural term given to a temple where the portico has +twelve columns in front, as in the portico added to the temple +of Demeter at Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the +arsenal at the Peiraeus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DÖDERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> +(1791-1863), German philologist, was born at Jena on the 19th +of December 1791. His father, Johann Christoph Döderlein, +professor of theology at Jena, was celebrated for his varied +learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and for the important +influence he exerted in guiding the transition movement +from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Döderlein, +after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and +Schulpforta (Pforta), studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen +and Berlin. He devoted his chief attention to philology under the +instruction of such men as F. Thiersch, G. F. Creuzer, J. H. Voss, +F. A. Wolf, August Böckh and P. K. Buttmann. In 1815, soon +after completing his studies at Berlin, he accepted the appointment +of ordinary professor of philology in the academy of Bern. +In 1819 he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became second +professor of philology in the university and rector of the +gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and +rhetoric and director of the philological seminary. He died on +the 9th of November 1863. Döderlein’s most elaborate work as a +philologist was marred by over-subtlety, and lacked method +and clearness. He is best known by his <i>Lateinische Synonymen +und Etymologien</i> (1826-1838), and his <i>Homerisches Glossarium</i> +(1850-1858). To the same class belong his <i>Lateinische Wortbildung</i> +(1838), <i>Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik</i> (1839), +and the <i>Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologie</i> (1841), besides +various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use +of schools and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been +translated into English. To critical philology Döderlein contributed +valuable editions of Tacitus (<i>Opera</i>, 1847; <i>Germania</i>, +with a German translation) and Horace (<i>Epistolae</i>, with a German +translation, 1856-1858; <i>Satirae</i>, 1860). His <i>Reden und Aufsätze</i> +(Erlangen, 1843-1847) and <i>Offentliche Reden</i> (1860) consist +chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various subjects in +paedagogy and philology.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1842-1909), American +soldier and military writer, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, +on the 28th of May 1842. He received a military education in +Germany and subsequently studied at Heidelberg and London +University, returning to the United States in 1861. At the outbreak +of the Civil War he at once enlisted in the federal army, and +he soon rose to commissioned rank. He served in the Army of +the Potomac until Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. Incapacitated +for further active service, he continued to be employed in administrative +posts to the end of the war, and for several years thereafter +he served at army headquarters, becoming captain in 1866 +and brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He retired in 1870. His +works include <i>The Campaign of Chancellorsville</i> (1881), <i>A Bird’s +Eye View of our Civil War</i> (1882, later edition 1897), a complete, +accurate and remarkably concise account of the whole war, +<i>Patroclus and Penelope, a Chat in the Saddle</i> (1883), <i>Great Captains</i> +(1886), a series of lectures, <i>Riders of Many Lands</i> (1893), and +a series of large illustrated volumes entitled <i>A History of the Art of +War</i>, being lives of “Great Captains,” including <i>Alexander</i> (2 vols., +1888), <i>Hannibal</i> (2 vols., 1889), <i>Caesar</i> (2 vols., 1892), <i>Gustavus +Adolphus</i> (2 vols., 1896) and <i>Napoleon</i> (4 vols., 1904-1907). He +died in France, at Versailles, on the 26th of October 1909.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> [<span class="sc">”Lewis Carroll”</span>] +(1832-1898), English mathematician and author, son of the Rev. +Charles Dodgson, vicar of Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that +village on the 27th of January 1832. The literary life of “Lewis +Carroll” became familiar to a wide circle of readers, but the +private life of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was retired and practically +uneventful. After four years’ schooling at Rugby, Dodgson +matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850; and from +1852 till 1870 held a studentship there. He took a first class in +the final mathematical school in 1854, and the following year was +appointed mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he +continued to fill till 1881. In 1861 he was ordained deacon, but +he never took priest’s orders, possibly because of a stammer which +prevented reading aloud. His earliest publications, beginning +with <i>A Syllabus of Plane Algebraical Geometry</i> (1860) and <i>The +Formulae of Plane Trigonometry</i> (1861), were exclusively mathematical; +but late in the year 1865 he published, under the +pseudonym of “Lewis Carroll,” <i>Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland</i>, +a work that was the outcome of his keen sympathy with the +imagination of children and their sense of fun. Its success was +immediate, and the name of “Lewis Carroll” has ever since been +a household word. A dramatic version of the “Alice” books by +Mr Savile Clarke was produced at Christmas, 1886, and has since +enjoyed many revivals. Mr Dodgson was always very fond of +children, and it was an open secret that the original of “Alice” +was a daughter of Dean Liddell. <i>Alice</i> was followed (in the +“Lewis Carroll” series) by <i>Phantasmagoria</i>, in 1869; <i>Through +the Looking-Glass</i>, in 1871; <i>The Hunting of the Snark</i> (1876); +<i>Rhyme and Reason</i> (1883); <i>A Tangled Tale</i> (1885); and +<i>Sylvie and Bruno</i> (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He wrote skits +on Oxford subjects from time to time. <i>The Dynamics of a +Particle</i> was written on the occasion of the contest between +Gladstone and Mr Gathorne Hardy (afterwards earl of +Cranbrook); and <i>The New Belfry</i> in ridicule of the erection put +up at Christ Church for the bells that were removed from the +Cathedral tower. While “Lewis Carroll” was delighting +children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson periodically published mathematical +works—<i>An Elementary Treatise on Determinants</i> (1867); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span> +<i>Euclid, Book V., proved Algebraically</i> (1874); <i>Euclid and his +Modern Rivals</i> (1879), the work on which his reputation as a +mathematician largely rests; and <i>Curiosa Mathematica</i> (1888). +Throughout this dual existence Mr Dodgson pertinaciously +refused to acquiesce in being publicly identified with “Lewis +Carroll.” Though the fact of his authorship of the “Alice” +books was well known, he invariably stated, when occasion called +for such a pronouncement, that “Mr Dodgson neither claimed nor +acknowledged any connexion with the books not published under +his name.” He died at Guildford, on the 14th of January 1898. +His memory is appropriately kept green by a cot in the Children’s +Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London, which was endowed +perpetually by a public subscription.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. D. Collingwood, <i>Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODO<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (from the Portuguese <i>Dóudo</i>, a simpleton), a large bird +formerly inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct—the +<i>Didus ineptus</i> of Linnaeus. When, in 1507, the Portuguese +discovered the island which we now know as Mauritius they named +it <i>Ilha do Cerné</i>, from a notion that it must be the island of that +name mentioned by Pliny; but most authors have insisted that +it was known to the seamen of that nation as <i>Ilha do Cisne</i>—perhaps +but a corruption of Cerne, and brought about by their +finding it stocked with large fowls, which, though not aquatic, +they likened to swans, the most familiar to them of bulky birds. +In 1598 the Dutch, under Van Neck, took possession of the island +and renamed it Mauritius. A narrative of this voyage was +published, in 1601, if not earlier, and has been often reprinted. +Here we have birds spoken of as big as swans or bigger, with large +heads, no wings, and a tail consisting of a few curly feathers. The +Dutch called them <i>Walgvögels</i> (the word is variously spelled), <i>i.e.</i> +nauseous birds, either because no cooking made them palatable, +or because this island-paradise afforded an abundance of fare so +much superior. De Bry gives two admirably quaint prints of +the doings of the Hollanders, and in one of them the <i>Walgvögel</i> +appears, being the earliest published representation of its unwieldy +form, with a footnote stating that the voyagers brought +an example alive to Holland. Among the company there was a +draughtsman, and from a sketch of his, Clusius, a few years after, +gave a figure of the bird, which he vaguely called “<i>Gallinaceus +Gallus peregrinus</i>,” but described rather fully. Meanwhile two +other Dutch fleets had visited Mauritius. One of them had rather +an accomplished artist on board, and his drawings fortunately still +exist (see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bird</a></span>). Of the other a journal kept by one of +the skippers was subsequently published. This in the main +corroborates what has been before said of the birds, but adds the +curious fact that they were now called by some <i>Dodaarsen</i> and by +others <i>Dronten</i>.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>Henceforth Dutch narrators, though several times mentioning +the bird, fail to supply any important fact in its history. Their +navigators, however, were not idle, and found work for their +naturalists and painters. Clusius says that in 1605 he saw at +Pauw’s House in Leyden a dodo’s foot,<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> which he minutely +describes. In a copy of Clusius’s work in the high school of +Utrecht is pasted an original drawing by Van de Venne superscribed +“Vera effigies huius avis <i>Walghvögel</i> (quae & a nautis +<i>Dodaers</i> propter foedam posterioris partis crassitiem nuncupatur), +qualis viua Amsterodamum perlata est ex insula Mauritii. Anno +M.DC.XXVI.” Now a good many paintings of the dodo drawn +from life by Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) exist; and the paintings +by him at Berlin and Vienna—dated 1626 and 1628—as +well as the picture by Goiemare, belonging to the duke of +Northumberland, dated 1627, may be with greater plausibility +than ever considered portraits of a captive bird. It is even +probable that this was not the first example painted in Europe. +In the private library of the emperor Francis I. of Austria was a +series of pictures of various animals, supposed to be by the Dutch +artist Hoefnagel, who was born about 1545. One of these +represents a dodo, and, if there be no mistake in Von Frauenfeld’s +ascription, it must almost certainly have been painted before +1626, while there is reason to think that the original may have +been kept in the <i>vivarium</i> of the emperor Rudolf II., and that the +portion of a dodo’s head, which was found in the museum at +Prague about 1850, belonged to this example. The other pictures +by Roelandt Savery, like those in the possession of the Zoological +Society of London and others, are undated, but were probably all +painted about the same time—1626-1628. The large picture in +the British Museum, once belonging to Sir Hans Sloane, by an +unknown artist, but supposed to be by Roelandt Savery, is also +undated; while the still larger one at Oxford (considered to be by +the younger Savery) bears a much later date, 1651. Undated also +is a picture in Holland said to be by Pieter Holsteyn.</p> + +<p>In 1628 we have the evidence of the first English observer of +the bird—one Emanuel Altham, who mentions it in two letters +written on the same day from Mauritius to his brother at home +(<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1874, pp. 447-449). In one he says: “You +shall receue ... a strange fowle: which I had at the Iland +Mauritius called by ye portingalls a Do Do: which for the rareness +thereof I hope wilbe welcome to you.” The passage in the +other letter is to the same effect, with the addition of the words +“if it liue.” In the same fleet with Altham sailed Sir Thomas +Herbert, whose <i>Travels</i> ran through several editions. It is plain +that he could not have reached Mauritius till 1629, though 1627 +has been usually assigned as the date of his visit. The fullest +account he gives of the bird is in his edition of 1638: “The Dodo +comes first to a description: here, and in <i>Dygarrois</i><a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (and no +where else, that ever I could see or heare of) is generated the Dodo +(a Portuguize name it is, and has reference to her simpleness,) a +Bird which for shape and rareness might be call’d a Phoenix +(wer’t in Arabia:)” &c. Herbert was weak as an etymologist, +but his positive statement, corroborated as it is by Altham, +cannot be set aside, and hence we do not hesitate to assign a +Portuguese derivation for the word.<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Herbert also gave a figure +of the bird.</p> + +<p>Proceeding chronologically we next come upon a curious bit +of evidence. This is contained in a MS. diary kept between 1626 +and 1640, by Thomas Crossfield of Queen’s College, Oxford, where, +under the year 1634, mention is casually made of one Mr Gosling +“who bestowed the Dodar (a blacke Indian bird) vpon ye +Anatomy school.” Nothing more is known of it. About 1638, +Sir Hamon Lestrange tells us, as he walked London streets he saw +the picture of a strange fowl hung out on a cloth canvas, and +going in to see it found a great bird kept in a chamber “somewhat +bigger than the largest Turky cock, and so legged and footed, but +shorter and thicker.” The keeper called it a dodo and showed +the visitors how his captive would swallow “large peble stones +... as bigge as nutmegs.”</p> + +<p>In 1651 Morisot published an account of a voyage made by +François Cauche, who professed to have passed fifteen days in +Mauritius, or “l’isle de Saincte Apollonie,” as he called it, in +1638. According to De Flacourt the narrative is not very +trustworthy, and indeed certain statements are obviously +inaccurate. Cauche says he saw there birds bigger than swans, +which he describes so as to leave no doubt of his meaning dodos; +but perhaps the most important facts (if they be facts) that he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span> +relates are that they had a cry like a gosling (“il a un cry comme +l’oison”), and that they laid a single white egg (“gros comme un +pain d’un sol”) on a mass of grass in the forests. He calls them +“oiseaux de Nazaret,” perhaps, as a marginal note informs us, +from an island of that name which was then supposed to lie more +to the northward, but is now known to have no existence.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:543px" src="images/img371a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Skeleton of a Dodo, <i>Didus ineptus</i>, Museum of Zoology, +Cambridge, and cast of a Head in Oxford.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the catalogue of Tradescant’s <i>Collection of Rarities, preserved +at South Lambeth</i>, published in 1656, we have entered among the +“Whole Birds,” a “Dodar from the island <i>Mauritius</i>; it is not +able to flie being so big.” This specimen may well have been the +skin of the bird seen by Lestrange some eighteen years before, but +anyhow we are able to trace the specimen through Willughby, +Edward Llwyd and Thomas Hyde, till it passed in or before 1684 +to the Ashmolean collection at Oxford. In 1755 it was ordered +to be destroyed, but, in accordance with the original orders of +Ashmole, its head and right foot were preserved, and still ornament +the museum of that university. In the second edition of a +<i>Catalogue of many Natural Rarities</i>, &c., “to be seen at the place +formerly called the Music House, near the West End of St Paul’s +Church,” collected by one Hubert <i>alias</i> Forbes, and published in +1665, mention is made of a “legge of a Dodo, a great heavy bird +that cannot fly; it is a Bird of the Mauricius Island.” This is +supposed to have subsequently passed into the possession of the +Royal Society. At all events such a specimen is included in +Grew’s list of their treasures which was published in 1681. This +was afterwards transferred to the British Museum. It is a left +foot, without the integuments, but it differs sufficiently in size +from the Oxford specimen to forbid its having been part of the +same individual. In 1666 Olearius brought out the <i>Gottorffische +Kunst Kammer</i>, wherein he describes the head of a <i>Walghvögel</i> +which some sixty years later was removed to the museum at +Copenhagen, and is now preserved there, having been the means +of first leading zoologists, under the guidance of Prof. J. Th. +Reinhardt, to recognize the true affinities of the bird.</p> + +<p>We have passed over all but the principal narratives of voyagers +or other notices of the bird. A compendious bibliography, up to +the year 1848, will be found in Strickland’s classical work,<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and +the list was continued by Von Frauenfeld<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> for twenty years later. +The last evidence we have of the dodo’s existence is furnished by a +journal kept by Benj. Harry, and now in the British Museum +(<i>MSS. Addit. 3668.</i> II. D). This shows its survival till 1681, but +the writer’s sole remark upon it is that its “fflesh is very hard.” +The successive occupation of the island by different masters +seems to have destroyed every tradition relating to the bird, and +doubts began to arise whether such a creature had ever existed. +Dr Henry Duncan, Scottish minister and journalist, in 1828, +showed how ill-founded these doubts were, and some ten years +later William John Broderip with much diligence collected all the +available evidence into an admirable essay, which in its turn was +succeeded by Strickland’s monograph just mentioned. But in +the meanwhile little was done towards obtaining any material +advance in our knowledge, Prof. Reinhardt’s determination of its +affinity to the pigeons (<i>Columbae</i>) excepted; and it was hardly +until George Clark’s discovery in 1865 of a large number of dodos’ +remains in the mud of a pool (the Mare aux Songes) that zoologists +generally were prepared to accept that affinity without question. +The examination of bone after bone by Sir R. Owen (<i>Trans. +Zool. Soc.</i> vi. p. 49) confirmed the judgment of the Danish +naturalist.</p> + +<p>In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the government of Mauritius, +sent a great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward +Newton.<a name="fa7m" id="fa7m" href="#ft7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a> From these the first correctly restored and properly +mounted skeleton was prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded +to the museum of Mauritius. Good specimens are in the British +Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge, England.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:319px; height:580px" src="images/img371b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—The Solitaire of Rodriguez +(<i>Pezophaps solitarius</i>). From Leguat’s +figure.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny +hook; the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow. +The plumage was dark +ash-coloured, with +whitish breast and +tail, yellowish white +wings (incapable of +flight). The short tail +formed a curly tuft.</p> + +<p>The dodo is said to +have inhabited forests +and to have laid one +large white egg on a +mass of grass. Besides +man, hogs and other +imported animals +seem to have exterminated +it. But the +dodo is not the only +member of its family +that has vanished. +The little island which +has successively borne +the name of Mascaregnas, +England’s +Forest, Bourbon and +Réunion, and lies to +the southward of +Mauritius, had also an +allied bird, now dead +and gone. Of this not +a relic has been +handled by any naturalist. +The latest description +of it, by Du +Bois in 1674, is very +meagre, while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure, apparently intended +to represent it. It was originally called the “solitaire,” but this +name was also applied to <i>Pezophaps solitarius</i> of Rodriguez by +the Huguenot exile Leguat, who described and figured it about +1691.</p> + +<p>The solitaire, Didus solitarius of Gmelin, referred by Strickland +to a district genus Pezophaps, is supposed to have lingered in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span> +island of Rodriguez until about 1761. Leguat<a name="fa8m" id="fa8m" href="#ft8m"><span class="sp">8</span></a> has given a +delightful description of its quaint habits. The male stood about +2 ft. 9 in. high; its colour was brownish grey, that of its mate +more inclined to brown, with a whitish breast. The wings were +rudimentary, the tail very small, almost hidden, and the thigh +feathers were thick and curled “like shells.” A round mass of +bone, “as big as a musket ball,” was developed on the wings of +the males, and they used it as a weapon of offence while they +whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five +minutes, making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The +mien was fierce and the walk stately, the birds living singly or +in pairs. The nest was a heap of palm leaves a foot high, and +contained a single large egg which was incubated by both parents. +The food consisted of seeds and leaves, and the birds aided +digestion by swallowing large stones; these were used by the +Dutch sailors to sharpen their knives with. One of these stones, +nearly an inch and a half in length, of extremely hard volcanic +rock, is in the Cambridge museum. The fighting knobs mentioned +above, are very interesting, large exostoses on one of the wrist-bones +of either wing; they were undoubtedly covered with a +thick, callous skin. Thousands of bones of this curious flightless +pigeon were collected through Sir E. Newton’s<a name="fa9m" id="fa9m" href="#ft9m"><span class="sp">9</span></a> exertions, and +by H. H. Sclater on behalf of the Royal Society of London. The +results are several almost complete skeletons of both sexes, +composed however out of the enormous mass of the dissociated +bones.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.; H. F. G.)</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:625px" src="images/img372.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Skeleton of a male Solitaire, <i>Pezophaps solitarius</i>, +Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.</td></tr></table> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The etymology of these names has been much discussed. That of +the latter, which has generally been adopted by German and French +authorities, seems to defy investigation, but the former has been +shown by Prof. Schlegel (<i>Versl. en Mededeel. K. Akad. Wetensch.</i> +ii. pp. 255 et seq.) to be the homely name of the dabchick or little +grebe (<i>Podiceps minor</i>), of which the Dutchmen were reminded by +the round stern and tail diminished to a tuft that characterized +the dodo. The same learned authority suggests that dodo is a +corruption of <i>Dodaars</i>, but, as will presently be seen, we herein think +him mistaken.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> What has become of the specimen (which may have been a relic +of the bird brought home by Van Neck’s squadron) is not known. +Broderip and Dr Gray have suggested its identity with that now in +the British Museum, but on what grounds is not apparent.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> Rodriguez; an error.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Hence we venture to dispute Prof. Schlegel’s supposed origin of +“Dodo.” The Portuguese must have been the prior nomenclators, +and if, as is most likely, some of their nation, or men acquainted +with their language, were employed to pilot the Hollanders, we see +at once how the first Dutch name <i>Walghvögel</i> would give way. The +meaning of <i>Doudo</i> not being plain to the Dutch, they would, as is +the habit of sailors, convert it into something they did understand. +Then <i>Dodaers</i> would easily suggest itself.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>The Dodo and its Kindred</i>, by H. E. Strickland and A. G. Melville +(London, 1848, 4to).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Neu aufgefundene Abbildung des Dronte</i>, by Georg Ritter von +Frauenfeld (Wien, 1868, fol.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> E. Newton and H. Gadow, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> xiii. (1893) pp. +281-302, pls.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8m" id="ft8m" href="#fa8m"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Voyage et aventures de François Leguat</i>, &c. (2 vols., London, +1708). An English translation, edited with many additional illustrations +by Captain Oliver, has been published by the Hakluyt +Society (2 vols., 1891).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9m" id="ft9m" href="#fa9m"><span class="fn">9</span></a> E. Newton and J. W. Clark, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> clix. (1869), pp. 327-362; +clxviii. (1879), pp. 448-451.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODONA<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span>, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and venerable +of all Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near +Tsacharovista. In later times the Greeks of the south looked on +the inhabitants of Epirus as barbarians; nevertheless for Dodona +they always preserved a certain reverence, and the temple there +was the object of frequent missions from them. This temple was +dedicated to Zeus, and connected with the temple was an oracle +which enjoyed more reputation in Greece than any other save +that at Delphi, and which would seem to date from earlier times +than the worship of Zeus; for the normal method of gathering +the responses of the oracle was by listening to the rustling of +an old oak tree, which was supposed to be the seat of the deity. +We seem here to have a remnant of the very ancient and widely +diffused tree-worship. Sometimes, however, auguries were taken +in other manners, being drawn from the moaning of doves in the +branches, the murmur of a fountain which rose close by, or the +resounding of the wind in the brazen caldrons which formed +a circle all round the temple. Croesus proposed to the oracle +his well-known question; Lysander sought to obtain from it a +sanction for his ambitious views; the Athenians frequently +appealed to its authority during the Peloponnesian War. But +the most frequent votaries were the neighbouring tribes of the +Acarnanians and Aetolians, together with the Boeotians, who +claimed a special connexion with the district.</p> + +<p>Dodona is not unfrequently mentioned by ancient writers. It is +spoken of in the <i>Iliad</i> as the stormy abode of Selli who sleep on the +ground and wash not their feet, and in the <i>Odyssey</i> an imaginary +visit of Odysseus to the oracle is referred to. A Hesiodic fragment +gives a complete description of the Dodonaea or Hellopia, which +is called a district full of corn-fields, of herds and flocks and +of shepherds, where is built on an extremity (<span class="grk" title="ep eschatiê">ἐπ᾽ ἐσχατίῃ</span>) +Dodona, where Zeus dwells in the stem of an oak (<span class="grk" title="phêgos">φηγός</span>). The +priestesses were called doves (<span class="grk" title="peleiai">πέλειαι</span>) and Herodotus tells a +story which he learned at Egyptian Thebes, that the oracle of +Dodona was founded by an Egyptian priestess who was carried +away by the Phoenicians, but says that the local legend substitutes +for this priestess a black dove, a substitution in which +he tries to find a rational meaning. From inscriptions and later +writers we learn that in historical times there was worshipped, +together with Zeus, a consort named Dione (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zeus</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oracle</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dione</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The ruins, consisting of a theatre, the walls of a town, and some +other buildings, had been conjectured to be those of Dodona by +Wordsworth in 1832, but the conjecture was changed into +ascertained fact by the excavations of Constantin Carapanos. In +1875 he made some preliminary investigations; soon after, an +extensive discovery of antiquities was made by peasants, digging +without authority; and after this M. Carapanos made a systematic +excavation of the whole site to a considerable depth. The +topographical and architectural results are disappointing, and +show either that the site always retained its primitive simplicity, +or else that whatever buildings once existed have been very +completely destroyed.</p> + +<p>To the south of the hill, on which are the walls of the town, and +to the east of the theatre, is a plateau about 200 yds. long and 50 +yds. wide. Towards the eastern end of this terrace are the scanty +remains of a building which can hardly be anything but the +temple of Zeus; it appears to have consisted of pronaos, naos +or cella, and opisthodomus, and some of the lower drums of the +internal columns of the cella were still resting on their foundations. +No trace of any external colonnade was found. The +temple was about 130 ft. by 80 ft. It had been converted into a +Christian church, and hardly anything of its architecture seems to +have survived. In it and around it were found the most interesting +products of excavation—statuettes and decorative bronzes, +many of them bearing dedications to Zeus Naïus and Dione, and +inscriptions, including many small tablets of lead which contained +the questions put to the oracle. Farther to the west, on the same +terrace, were two rectangular buildings, which M. Carapanos +conjectures to have been connected with the oracle, but which +show no distinguishing features.</p> + +<p>Below the terrace was a precinct, surrounded by walls and +flanked with porticoes and other buildings; it is over 100 yds. in +length and breadth, and of irregular shape. One of the buildings +on the south-western side contained a pedestal or altar, and is +identified by M. Carapanos as a temple of Aphrodite, on the +insufficient evidence of a single dedicated object; it does not +seem to have any of the characteristics of a temple. In front of +the porticoes are rows of pedestals, which once bore statues and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span> +other dedications. At the southern corner of the precinct is a +kind of gate or propylaeum, flanked with two towers, between +which are placed two coarse limestone drums. If these are <i>in situ</i> +and belong to the original gateway, it must have been of a very +rough character; it does not seem probable that they carried, +as M. Carapanos suggests, the statuette and bronze bowl by +which divinations were carried on.</p> + +<p>The chief interest of the excavation centres in the smaller +antiquities discovered, which have now been transferred from +M. Carapanos’s collection to the National Museum in Athens. +Among the dedications, the most interesting historically are a +set of weapons dedicated by King Pyrrhus from the spoils of +the Romans, including characteristic specimens of the pilum. +The leaden tablets of the oracle contain no certain example of a +response, though there are many questions, varying from matters +of public policy or private enterprise to inquiries after stolen +goods.</p> + +<p>The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the Aetolians in 219 +<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, but the oracle survived to the times of Pausanias and even of +the emperor Julian.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Wordsworth, <i>Greece</i> (1839), p. 247; Constantin Carapanos, +<i>Dodone et ses ruines</i> (Paris, 1878). For the oracle inscriptions, see +E. S. Roberts in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, vol. i. p. 228. (E. GR.)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODS, MARCUS<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1834-1909), Scottish divine and biblical +scholar, was born at Belford, Northumberland, the youngest son +of Rev. Marcus Dods, minister of the Scottish church of that town. +He was trained at Edinburgh Academy and Edinburgh University, +graduating in 1854. Having studied theology for five years +he was licensed in 1858, and in 1864 became minister of Renfield +Free Church, Glasgow, where he worked for twenty-five years. In +1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament Exegesis in +the New College, Edinburgh, of which he became principal on the +death of Dr Rainy in 1907. He died in Edinburgh on the 26th of +April 1909. Throughout his life, both ministerial and professorial, +he devoted much time to the publication of theological books. +Several of his writings, especially a sermon on Inspiration +delivered in 1878, incurred the charge of unorthodoxy, and +shortly before his election to the Edinburgh professorship he +was summoned before the General Assembly, but the charge was +dropped by a large majority, and in 1891 he received the honorary +degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University. He edited Lange’s +<i>Life of Christ</i> in English (Edinburgh, 1864, 6 vols.), Augustine’s +works (1872-1876), and, with Dr Alexander Whyte, Clark’s +“Handbooks for Bible Classes” series. In the Expositor’s +Bible series he edited Genesis and 1 Corinthians, and he was also a +contributor to the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> +and Hastings’ <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>. Among other important +works are: <i>The Epistle to the Seven Churches</i> (1865); <i>Israel’s Iron +Age</i> (1874); <i>Mohammed, Buddha and Christ</i> (1877); <i>Handbook +on Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi</i> (1879); <i>The Gospel according +to St John</i> (1897), in the Expositor’s Greek Testament; <i>The +Bible, its Origin and Nature</i> (1904), the Bross Lectures, in which +he gave an able sketch of the use of Old Testament criticism, and +finally set forth his Theory of Inspiration. Apart from his great +services to Biblical scholarship he takes high rank among those +who have sought to bring the results of technical criticism within +the reach of the ordinary reader.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODSLEY, ROBERT<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1703-1764), English bookseller and +miscellaneous writer, was born in 1703 near Mansfield, +Nottinghamshire, where his father was master of the free school. +He is said to have been apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in +Mansfield, from whom he ran away, taking service as a footman. +In 1729 Dodsley published his first work, <i>Servitude; a Poem ... +written by a Footman</i>, with a preface and postscript ascribed to +Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, <i>A Muse in Livery, +or the Footman’s Miscellany</i>, was published by subscription in +1732, Dodsley’s patrons comprising many persons of high rank. +This was followed by a satirical farce called <i>The Toyshop</i> (Covent +Garden, 1735), in which the toyman indulges in moral observations +on his wares, a hint which was probably taken from Thomas +Randolph’s <i>Conceited Pedlar</i>. The profits accruing from the sale +of his works enabled Dodsley to establish himself with the help of +his friends—Pope lent him £100—as a bookseller at the “Tully’s +Head” in Pall Mall in 1735. His enterprise soon made him one +of the foremost publishers of the day. One of his first publications +was Dr Johnson’s <i>London</i>, for which he gave ten guineas in +1738. He published many of Johnson’s works, and he suggested +and helped to finance the <i>English Dictionary</i>. Pope also made +over to Dodsley his interest in his letters. In 1738 the publication +of Paul Whitehead’s <i>Manners</i>, voted scandalous by the Lords, +led to a short imprisonment. Dodsley published for Edward +Young and Mark Akenside, and in 1751 brought out Thomas +Gray’s <i>Elegy</i>. He also founded several literary periodicals: <i>The +Museum</i> (1746-1767, 3 vols.); <i>The Preceptor containing a general +course of education</i> (1748, 2 vols.), with an introduction by Dr +Johnson; <i>The World</i> (1753-1756, 4 vols.); and <i>The Annual +Register</i>, founded in 1758 with Edmund Burke as editor. To +these various works, Horace Walpole, Akenside, Soame Jenyns, +Lord Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield, Burke and others were +contributors. Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor of +two collections: <i>Select Collection of Old Plays</i> (12 vols., 1744; +2nd edition with notes by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition, +by W. C. Hazlitt, 1874-1876, 15 vols.); and <i>A collection of Poems +by Several Hands</i> (1748, 3 vols.), which passed through many +editions. In 1737 his <i>King and the Miller of Mansfield</i>, a +“dramatic tale” of King Henry II., was produced at Drury +Lane, and received with much applause; the sequel, <i>Sir John +Cockle at Court</i>, a farce, appeared in 1738. In 1745 he published a +collection of his dramatic works, and some poems which had been +issued separately, in one volume under the modest title of <i>Trifles</i>. +This was followed by <i>The Triumph of Peace, a Masque occasioned +by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle</i> (1749); a fragment, entitled +<i>Agriculture</i>, of a long tedious poem in blank verse on <i>Public +Virtue</i> (1753); <i>The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green</i> (acted at +Drury Lane 1739, printed 1741); and an ode, <i>Melpomene</i> (1757). +His tragedy of <i>Cleone</i> (1758) had a long run at Covent Garden, +2000 copies being sold on the day of publication, and it passed +through four editions within the year. Lord Chesterfield is, +however, almost certainly the author of the series of mock +chronicles of which <i>The Chronicle of the Kings of England</i> by +“Nathan ben Saddi” (1740) is the first, although they were +included in the <i>Trifles</i> and “ben Saddi” was received as Dodsley’s +pseudonym. <i>The Economy of Human Life</i> (1750), a collection of +moral precepts frequently reprinted, is also by Lord Chesterfield. +In 1759 Dodsley retired, leaving the conduct of the business to his +brother James (1724-1797), with whom he had been many years +in partnership. He published two more works, <i>The Select Fables +of Aesop translated by R. D.</i> (1764) and the <i>Works of William +Shenstone</i> (3 vols., 1764-1769). He died at Durham while on +a visit to his friend the Rev. Joseph Spence, on the 23rd of +September 1764.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>Shadows of the Old Booksellers</i>, by Charles Knight (1865), +pp. 189-216; “At Tully’s Head” in <i>Eighteenth Century Vignettes</i>, +2nd series, by Austin Dobson (1894); E. Solly in <i>The Bibliographer</i>, +v. (1884) pp. 57-61. Dodsley’s poems are reprinted with a memoir +in A. Chalmers’s <i>Works of English Poets</i>, vol. xv. (1810).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">DODSWORTH, ROGER<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1585-1654), English antiquary, was +born near Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire. He devoted himself early to +antiquarian research, in which he was greatly assisted by the +fact that his father, Matthew Dodsworth, was registrar of York +cathedral, and could give him access to the records preserved +there. He married the widow of Laurence Rawsthorne of Hutton +Grange, where he subsequently resided till his death in August +1654. At various times in his life he was enabled to study the +records in the library of Sir Robert Cotton, in Skipton Castle, +and in the Tower of London. He collected a vast store of +materials for a history of Yorkshire, a <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>, +and an English baronage. The second of these was published +with considerable additions by Sir William Dugdale (2 vols., +1655 and 1661). The MSS. were left to Thomas, third Lord +Fairfax, who by his will bequeathed them (160 volumes in all) to +the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Portions have been printed +by the Yorkshire Archaeological Society (<i>Dodsworth’s Yorkshire +Notes</i>, 1884) and the Chetham Society (copies of Lancashire postmortem +inquisitions, 1875-1876).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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