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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5
+       "Dinard" to "Dodsworth"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: June 4, 2010 [EBook #32689]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) Letters with a dot below are represented as [x.].
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article DIPLOMATIC: "Of later date was the Ars dictaminis of
+      Bernard of Chartres of the 12th century." Omitted a superfluous '('.
+
+    Article DIPTERA: "they are simply Cyclorrhapha much modified owing
+      to parasitism, and in view of the closely similar mode of
+      reproduction in the tsetse-flies the special designation Pupipara
+      should be abandoned." 'similar' amended from 'similiar'.
+
+    Article DIPTERA: "The famous Tertiary beds at Florissant, Colorado,
+      have yielded a considerable number of remarkably well-preserved
+      Tipulidae." 'of' amended from 'or'.
+
+    Article DIRECTORS: "They have to carry on the company's business,
+      to extend and consolidate it, and to do this they must have a free
+      hand and a large discretion to deal with the exigencies of the
+      commercial situation." 'commercial' amended from 'commerical'.
+
+    Article DIVERS: "But so exhausting is the work, and so severe the
+      strain on the system, that, after a number of dives in deep water,
+      the men often become insensible, and blood sometimes bursts from
+      nose, ears and mouth." 'sometimes' amended from 'sometime'.
+
+    Article DIVORCE: "It is interesting to compare these provisions as
+      to children with the practice at present under English law, which
+      in this respect reflects so closely the spirit of the law of Rome."
+      'children' amended from 'childern'.
+
+    Article DLUGOSZ, JAN: "The office of administering the cardinal's
+      estate was a very ungrateful one, for the family resented the
+      liberal benefactions of their kinsman to the Church and the
+      university, and accused Dlugosz of exercising undue influence".
+      'university' amended from 'univesity'.
+
+    Article DOCK: "The basins of such ports are always accessible for
+      vessels of the draught they provide for; but they require most
+      efficient protection, and, unlike tidal ports, they are not able on
+      exceptional occasions to admit a vessel of larger draught than the
+      basins have been formed to accommodate." 'on' amended from 'to'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VIII, SLICE V
+
+            Dinard to Dodsworth
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  DINARD                           DISSECTION
+  DINDIGUL                         DISSENTER
+  KARL WILHELM DINDORF             DISSOCIATION
+  D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-VINCENT       DISSOLUTION
+  DINEIR                           DISTAFF
+  DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON           DISTILLATION
+  DINGHY                           DISTRACTION
+  DINGLE                           DISTRESS
+  DINGO                            DISTRIBUTION
+  DINGWALL                         DISTRICT
+  DINKA                            DISTYLE
+  DINKELSBÜHL                      DITHMARSCHEN
+  DINNER                           DITHYRAMBIC POETRY
+  DINOCRATES                       DITTERSBACH
+  DINOFLAGELLATA                   DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON
+  DINOTHERIUM                      DITTO
+  DINWIDDIE, ROBERT                DITTON, HUMPHRY
+  DIO CASSIUS                      DIU
+  DIOCESE                          DIURETICS
+  DIO CHRYSOSTOM                   DIURNAL MOTION
+  DIOCLETIAN                       DIVAN
+  DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF             DIVER
+  DIODATI, GIOVANNI                DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS
+  DIODORUS CRONUS                  DIVES-SUR-MER
+  DIODORUS SICULUS                 DIVIDE
+  DIODOTUS                         DIVIDEND
+  DIOGENES                         DIVIDIVI
+  DIOGENES APOLLONIATES            DIVINATION
+  DIOGENES LAËRTIUS                DIVINING-ROD
+  DIOGENIANUS                      DIVISION
+  DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO            DIVORCE
+  DIOMEDES (Greek legend)          DIWANIEH
+  DIOMEDES (Latin grammarian)      DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE
+  DION                             DIX, JOHN ADAMS
+  DIONE                            DIXON, GEORGE
+  DIONYSIA                         DIXON, HENRY HALL
+  DIONYSIUS (pope)                 DIXON, RICHARD WATSON
+  DIONYSIUS (tyrant of Syracuse)   DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH
+  DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS          DIXON
+  DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS                DIZFUL
+  DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS       DJAKOVO
+  DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES             DLUGOSZ, JAN
+  DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS          DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH
+  DIONYSIUS THRAX                  DNIEPER
+  DIONYSUS                         DNIESTER
+  DIOPHANTUS                       DOAB
+  DIOPSIDE                         DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON
+  DIOPTASE                         DOBBS FERRY
+  DIORITE                          DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON
+  DIP                              DÖBELN
+  DIPHENYL                         DOBERAN
+  DIPHILUS                         DÖBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG
+  DIPHTHERIA                       DOBREE, PETER PAUL
+  DIPLODOCUS                       DÖBRENTEI, GABOR
+  DIPLOMACY                        DOBRITCH
+  DIPLOMATIC                       DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN
+  DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS             DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH
+  DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD            DOBRUDJA
+  DIPSOMANIA                       DOBSINA
+  DIPTERA                          DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN
+  DIPTERAL                         DOBSON, WILLIAM
+  DIPTYCH                          DOCETAE
+  DIR                              DOCHMIAC
+  DIRCE                            DOCK
+  DIRECT MOTION                    DOCK (botany)
+  DIRECTORS                        DOCK (marine and river engineering)
+  DIRECTORY                        DOCKET
+  DIRGE                            DOCK WARRANT
+  DIRK                             DOCKYARDS
+  DIRSCHAU                         DOCTOR
+  DISABILITY                       DOCTORS' COMMONS
+  DISCHARGE                        DOCTRINAIRES
+  DISCHARGING ARCH                 DOCUMENT
+  DISCIPLE                         DODD, WILLIAM
+  DISCIPLES OF CHRIST              DODDER
+  DISCLAIMER                       DODDRIDGE, PHILIP
+  DISCOUNT                         DODDS, ALFRED AMÉDÉE
+  DISCOVERY                        DODECAHEDRON
+  DISCUS                           DODECASTYLE
+  DISINFECTANTS                    DÖDERLEIN, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG
+  DISMAL                           DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT
+  DISORDERLY HOUSE                 DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE
+  DISPATCH                         DODO
+  DISPENSATION                     DODONA
+  DISPERSION                       DODS, MARCUS
+  D'ISRAELI, ISAAC                 DODSLEY, ROBERT
+  DISS                             DODSWORTH, ROGER
+
+
+
+
+DINARD, a seaside town of north-western France, in the department of
+Ille-et-Vilaine. The town, which is the chief watering-place of
+Brittany, is situated on a rocky promontory at the mouth of the Rance
+opposite St Malo, which is about 1 m. distant. It is a favourite resort
+of English and Americans as well as of the French, its attractions being
+the beauty of its situation, the mildness of the climate and the good
+bathing. It has two casinos and numerous luxurious hotels and elegant
+villas. Together with the adjoining watering-place of St Enogat, Dinard
+has a population of 4882 (1906).
+
+
+
+
+DINDIGUL, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, 880
+ft. above the sea, 40 m. from Madura by rail. Pop. (1901) 25,182.
+Dindigul has risen into importance as the centre of a trade in tobacco
+and manufacture of cigars, which are exported to England. There are two
+large European cigar factories here. The town has manufactures of silk,
+muslin and blankets, and an export trade in hides and cardamoms; and
+there is a large native Christian population, with two churches. The
+ancient fort, well preserved, stands on a rock rising 350 ft. above the
+town; this was formerly a position of great strategic importance,
+commanding passes into Madura from Coimbatore, and figured prominently
+in the military operations of the Mahrattas in the 17th and 18th
+centuries, and of Hyder Ali in 1755 seq., being thrice captured by the
+British (1767, 1783, 1790). After the two first captures it was restored
+to Hyder Ali under treaty; after the third it was ceded to the East
+India Company.
+
+
+
+
+KARL WILHELM DINDORF (1802-1883), German classical scholar, was born at
+Leipzig on the 2nd of January 1802. From his earliest years he showed a
+strong taste for classical studies, and after completing F. Invernizi's
+edition of Aristophanes at an early age, and editing several grammarians
+and rhetoricians, was in 1828 appointed extraordinary professor of
+literary history in his native city. Disappointed at not obtaining the
+ordinary professorship when it became vacant in 1833, he resigned his
+post in the same year, and devoted himself entirely to study and
+literary work. His attention had at first been chiefly given to
+Athenaeus, whom he edited in 1827, and to the Greek dramatists, all of
+whom he edited separately and combined in his _Poetae scenici Graeci_
+(1830 and later editions). He also wrote a work on the metres of the
+Greek dramatic poets, and compiled special lexicons to Aeschylus and
+Sophocles. He edited Procopius for Niebuhr's _Corpus_ of the Byzantine
+writers, and between 1846 and 1851 brought out at Oxford an important
+edition of Demosthenes; he also edited Lucian and Josephus for the Didot
+classics. His last important editorial labour was his _Eusebius of
+Caesarea_ (1867-1871). Much of his attention was occupied by the
+republication of Stephanus's _Thesaurus_ (Paris, 1831-1865), chiefly
+executed by him and his brother Ludwig, a work of prodigious labour and
+utility. His reputation suffered somewhat through the imposture
+practised upon him by the Greek Constantine Simonides, who succeeded in
+deceiving him by a fabricated fragment of the Greek historian Uranius.
+The book was printed, and a few copies had been circulated, when the
+forgery was discovered, just in time to prevent its being given to the
+world under the auspices of the university of Oxford. Shortly after the
+death of his brother, he lost all his property and his library by rash
+speculations. He died on the 1st of August 1883.
+
+His brother LUDWIG (1805-1871) was born at Leipzig on the 3rd of January
+1805, and died there on the 6th of September 1871. He never held any
+academical position, and led so secluded a life that many doubted his
+existence, and declared that he was a mere pseudonym. The important
+share which he took in the edition of the _Thesaurus_ is nevertheless
+authenticated by his own signature to his contributions. He also
+published valuable editions of Polybius, Dio Cassius and other Greek
+historians.
+
+
+
+
+D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THÉODORE-VINCENT (1851-   ), French musical composer,
+was born in Paris, on the 27th of March 1851. He studied composition and
+the organ at the Paris Conservatoire under César Franck, and obtained
+the grand prize offered by the city of Paris in 1885 with _Le Chant de
+la Cloche_, a dramatic legend after Schiller. His principal works,
+beside the above, are the symphonic trilogy _Wallenstein_, the symphonic
+works entitled _Saugefleurie_, _La Forêt enchantée_, _Istar_, _Symphonie
+sur un air montagnard français_; overture to _Anthony and Cleopatra_;
+_Ste Marie Magdeleine_, a cantata; _Attendez-moi sous l'orme_, a one-act
+opera; _Fervaal_, a musical drama in three acts. Vincent d'Indy is
+perhaps the most prominent among the disciples of César Franck. Imbued
+with very high aims, he was always guided by a lofty ideal, and few
+musicians have attained so complete a mastery over the art of
+instrumentation. His music, however, lacks simplicity, and can never
+become popular in the widest sense. His opera _Fervaal_, which is styled
+"action musicale", is constructed upon the system of _Leit-motifs_. Its
+legendary subject recalls both _Parsifal_ and _Tristan_, and the music
+is also suggestive of Wagnerian influence. D'Indy can scarcely be
+considered so typical a representative of modern French music as his
+juniors Alfred Bruneau, the composer of _Le Rêve_, _L'Attaque du
+moulin_, _Messidor_, or Gustave Charpentier, the author of _Louise_, who
+chose subjects of modern life for their operatic works.
+
+
+
+
+DINEIR, a small town in Asia Minor, built amidst the ruins of
+Celaenae-Apamea, near the sources of the Maeander (Menderes). It is the
+terminus of the Smyrna-Aidin-Dineir railway. Pop. 1400. (See APAMEA.)
+
+
+
+
+DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON (1814-1881), German poet and dramatist, was born
+at Halsdorf, in Hesse Cassel, on the 30th of June 1814. Having studied
+at the university of Marburg, he became in 1836 a master at the Lyceum
+in Cassel, from which he was transferred to Fulda in 1838. In 1839 he
+produced a novel, _Unter der Erde_, which obtained considerable success,
+and in 1841 published the book by which he is best remembered, the
+_Lieder eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwächters_. These poems, animated as
+they are by a spirit of bitter opposition to everything that savours of
+despotism, were an effective contribution to the political poetry of the
+day. The popularity of this book determined Dingelstedt to take up a
+literary career, and in 1841 he obtained an appointment on the staff of
+the _Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung_. In 1843, however, the satirist of
+German princes accepted, to the general surprise, the appointment of
+private librarian to the king of Württemberg, and in the same year he
+married the celebrated Bohemian opera singer, Jenny Lutzer. In 1845 he
+published a volume of poems, some of which, treating of modern life,
+possessed great literary rather than strictly poetical merit. A
+subsequent collection, published in 1852, attracted little attention.
+The success of his tragedy _Das Haus der Barneveldt_ (1850) obtained for
+him the position of intendant at the court theatre at Munich, where he
+soon became the centre of literary society. He incurred, however, the
+animosity of the Jesuit clique at the court, and in 1856 was suddenly
+dismissed on the most frivolous charges. A similar position was offered
+to him at Weimar through the influence of Liszt, and he remained there
+until 1867. His administration was most successful, and he especially
+distinguished himself by presenting all Shakespeare's historical plays
+upon the stage in an unbroken cycle. In 1867 he became director of the
+court opera house in Vienna, and in 1872 of the Hofburgtheater, a
+position he held until his death on the 15th of May 1881. Among his
+other works may be noticed an autobiographical sketch of his Munich
+career, entitled _Münchener Bilderbogen_ (1879), _Die Amazone_, an art
+novel of considerable merit (1869), translations of several of
+Shakespeare's comedies, and several writings dealing with questions of
+practical dramaturgy. He was ennobled in 1867 by the king of Bavaria and
+in 1876 was created _Freiherr_ by the emperor of Austria.
+
+  Dingelstedt's _Sämtliche Werke_ appeared in 12 vols. (1877-1878), but
+  this edition is far from complete. On his life see, besides the
+  autobiography mentioned above, J. Rodenberg, _Heimaterinnerungen an F.
+  Dingelstedt_ (Berlin, 1882), and by the same author, _F. Dingelstedt,
+  Blätter aus seinem Nachlass_ (2 vols., 1891). Also an essay by A.
+  Stern in _Zur Literatur der Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+DINGHY, or DINGEY (from the Hindu _d[=e]ng[=i]_ a small boat, the
+diminutive of _denga_, a sloop or coasting vessel), a boat of greatly
+varying size and shape, used on the rivers of India; the term is applied
+also, in certain districts, to a larger boat used for coasting purposes.
+The name was adopted by the merchantmen trading with India, and is now
+generally used to designate the small extra boat kept for general
+purposes on a man-of-war or merchant vessel, and also, on the Thames,
+for small pleasure boats built for one or two pairs of sculls.
+
+
+
+
+DINGLE, a seaport and market town of county Kerry, Ireland, in the west
+parliamentary division, the terminus of the Tralee and Dingle railway.
+Pop. (1901) 1786. This may be considered the most westerly town in the
+United Kingdom unless Knightstown at Valencia Island be excepted; it
+lies on the south side of the northernmost of the great promontories
+which protrude into the Atlantic on the south-western coast of Ireland,
+on the fine natural harbour of Dingle Bay, in a wild hilly district
+abundant in relics of antiquity. The town, which is the centre of a
+considerable fishing industry, especially in mackerel, was in the 16th
+century of no little importance as a seaport; it had also a noted
+manufacture of linen. It was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, and
+returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union.
+
+
+
+
+DINGO, a name applied apparently by Europeans to the warrigal, or native
+Australian dog, the Canis dingo of J. F. Blumenbach. The dingo is a
+stoutly-built, rather short-legged, sandy-coloured dog, intermediate in
+size between a jackal and a wolf, and measuring about 51 in. in total
+length, of which the tail takes up about eleven. In general appearance
+it is very like some of the pariah dogs of India and Egypt; and, except
+on distributional grounds, there is no reason for regarding it as
+specifically distinct from such breeds. Dingos, which are found both
+wild and tame, interbreed freely with European dogs introduced into the
+country, and it may be that the large amount of black on the back of
+many specimens may be the result of crossing of this nature.
+
+The main point of interest connected with the dingo relates to its
+origin; that is to say, whether it is a member of the indigenous
+Australian fauna (among which it is the only large placental mammal), or
+whether it has been introduced into the country by man. There seems to
+be no doubt that fossilized remains of the dingo occur intermingled with
+those of the extinct Australian mammals, such as giant kangaroos, giant
+wombats and the still more gigantic _Diprotodon_. And since remains of
+man have apparently not yet been detected in these deposits, it has been
+thought by some naturalists that the dingo must be an indigenous
+species. This was the opinion of Sir Frederick McCoy, by whom the
+deposits in question were regarded as probably of Pliocene age. A
+similar view is adopted by D. Ogilvy in a _Catalogue of Australian
+Mammals_, published at Sydney in 1892; the writer going however one step
+further and expressing the belief that the dingo is the ancestor of all
+domesticated dogs. The latter contention cannot for a moment be
+sustained; and there are also strong arguments against the indigenous
+origin of the dingo. That the animal now occurs in a wild state is no
+argument whatever as to its being indigenous, seeing that a domesticated
+breed introduced by man into a new country abounding in game would
+almost certainly revert to the wild state. The apparent absence of human
+remains in the beds yielding dingo teeth and bones (which are almost
+certainly not older than the Pleistocene) is of only negative value, and
+liable to be upset by new discoveries. Then, again (as has been pointed
+out by R. I. Pocock in the first part of the _Kennel Encyclopaedia_,
+1907), the absence of any really wild species of the typical group of
+the genus _Canis_ between Burma and Siam on the one hand and Australia
+on the other is a very strong argument against the dingo being
+indigenous, seeing that, whether brought by man or having travelled
+thither of its own accord, the dingo must have reached its present
+habitat by way of the Austro-Malay archipelago. If it had followed that
+route in the course of nature, it is inconceivable that it would not
+still be found on some portions of the route. On the supposition that
+the dingo was introduced by man, we have now fairly decisive evidence
+that the native Australian, in place of being (as formerly supposed) a
+member of the negro stock, is a low type of Caucasian allied to the
+Veddahs of Ceylon and the Toalas of Celebes. Consequently the Australian
+natives must be presumed to have reached the island-continent by way of
+Malaya; and if this be admitted, nothing is more likely than that they
+should have been accompanied by pariah dogs of the Indian type.
+Confirmation of this is afforded by the occurrence in the mountains of
+Java of a pariah-like dog which has reverted to an almost completely
+wild condition; and likewise by the fact that the old voyagers met with
+dogs more or less similar to the dingo in New Guinea, New Zealand and
+the Solomon and certain other of the smaller Pacific islands. On the
+whole, then, the most probable explanation of the case is that the dingo
+is an introduced species closely allied to the Indian pariah dog.
+Whether the latter represents a truly wild type now extinct, cannot be
+determined. If so, all pariahs should be classed with the Australian
+warrigal under the name of _Canis dingo_. If, on the other hand,
+pariahs, and consequently the dingo, cannot be separated specifically
+from the domesticated dogs of western Europe, then the dingo should be
+designated _Canis familiaris dingo_.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+DINGWALL, a royal and police burgh and county town of the shire of Ross
+and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2519. It is situated near the head
+of Cromarty Firth where the valley of the Peffery unites with the
+alluvial lands at the mouth of the Conon, 18½ m. N.W. of Inverness by
+the Highland railway. Its name, derived from the Scandinavian
+_Thingvöllr_, "field or meeting-place of the _thing_," or local
+assembly, preserves the Norse origin of the town; its Gaelic designation
+is Inverpefferon, "the mouth of the Peffery." The 18th-century town
+house, and some remains of the ancient mansion of the once powerful
+earls of Ross still exist. There is also a public park. An obelisk, 57
+ft. high, was erected over the grave of the 1st earl of Cromarty. The
+town belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs. It is a
+flourishing distributing centre and has an important corn market and
+auction marts. Some shipping is carried on at the harbour at the mouth
+of the Peffery, about a mile below the burgh. Branch lines of the
+Highland railway run to Strathpeffer and to Strome Ferry and Kyle of
+Lochalsh (for Skye). Alexander II. created Dingwall a royal borough in
+1226, and its charter was renewed by James IV. On the top of Knockfarrel
+(Gaelic, _cnoc_, hill; _faire_, watch, or guard), a hill about 3 m. to
+the west, is a large and very complete vitrified fort with ramparts.
+
+
+
+
+DINKA (called by the Arabs _Jange_), a widely spread negro people
+dwelling on the right bank of the White Nile to about 12° N., around the
+mouth of the Babr-el-Ghazal, along the right bank of that river and on
+the banks of the lower Sobat. Like the Shilluk, they were greatly
+harried from the north by Nuba-Arabic tribes, but remained comparatively
+free owing to the vast extent of their country, estimated to cover
+40,000 sq. m., and their energy in defending themselves. They are a tall
+race with skins of almost blue black. The men wear practically no
+clothes, married women having a short apron, and unmarried girls a
+fringe of iron cones round the waist. They tattoo themselves with tribal
+marks, and extract the lower incisors; they also pierce the ears and lip
+for the attachment of ornaments, and wear a variety of feather, iron,
+ivory and brass ornaments. Nearly all shave the head, but some give the
+hair a reddish colour by moistening it with animal matter. Polygamy is
+general; some headmen have as many as thirty or more wives; but six is
+the average number. They are great cattle and sheep breeders; the men
+tend their beasts with great devotion, despising agriculture, which is
+left to the women; the cattle are called by means of drums. Save under
+stress of famine cattle are never killed for food, the people subsisting
+largely on durra. The Dinkas reverence the cow, and snakes, which they
+call "brothers." Their folklore recognizes a good and evil deity; one of
+the two wives of the good deity created man, and the dead go to live
+with him in a great park filled with animals of enormous size. The evil
+deity created cripples. The Dinka came, in 1899, under the control of
+the Sudan government, justice being administered as far as possible in
+accord with tribal custom. A compendium of Dinka laws was compiled by
+Captain H. D. E. O'Sullivan.
+
+  See G. A. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_ (1874); W. Junker,
+  _Travels in Africa_, Eng. edit. (London, 1890-1892); _The
+  Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+DINKELSBÜHL, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the
+Wörnitz, 16 m. N. from Nördlingen, on the railway to Dombühl. Pop. 5000.
+It is an interesting medieval town, still surrounded by old walls and
+towers, and has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches. Notable
+is the so-called _Deutsches Haus_, the ancestral home of the counts of
+Drechsel-Deufstetten, a fine specimen of the German renaissance style of
+wooden architecture. There are a Latin and industrial school, several
+benevolent institutions, and a monument to Christoph von Schmid
+(1768-1854), a writer of stories for the young. The inhabitants carry on
+the manufacture of brushes, gloves, stockings and gingerbread, and deal
+largely in cattle.
+
+Fortified by the emperor Henry I., Dinkelsbühl received in 1305 the same
+municipal rights as Ulm, and obtained in 1351 the position of a free
+imperial city, which it retained till 1802, when it passed to Bavaria.
+Its municipal code, the _Dinkelsbuhler Recht_, published in 1536, and
+revised in 1738, contained a very extensive collection of public and
+private laws.
+
+
+
+
+DINNER, the chief meal of the day, eaten either in the middle of the
+day, as was formerly the universal custom, or in the evening. The word
+"dine" comes through Fr. from Med. Lat. _disnare_, for _disjejunare_, to
+break one's fast (_jejunium_); it is, therefore, the same word as Fr.
+_déjeuner_, to breakfast, in modern France, to take the midday meal,
+_dîner_ being used for the later repast. The term "dinner-wagon,"
+originally a movable table to hold dishes, is now used of a two-tier
+sideboard.
+
+
+
+
+DINOCRATES, a great and original Greek architect, of the age of
+Alexander the Great. He tried to captivate the ambitious fancy of that
+king with a design for carving Mount Athos into a gigantic seated
+statue. This plan was not carried out, but Dinocrates designed for
+Alexander the plan of the new city of Alexandria, and constructed the
+vast funeral pyre of Hephaestion. Alexandria was, like Peiraeus and
+Rhodes (see HIPPODAMUS), built on a regular plan; the streets of most
+earlier towns being narrow and confused.
+
+
+
+
+DINOFLAGELLATA, so called by O. Bütschli (= the CILIOFLAGELLATA of E.
+Claparide and H. Lachmann), a group of Protozoa, characterized as
+Mastigophora, provided with two flagella, the one anterior extended in
+locomotion, the other coiled round its base, or lying in a transverse
+groove. The body is bounded by a firm pellicle, often supplemented by an
+armour ("lorica") of cuticular cellulose plates, with usually a marked
+longitudinal groove from which the anterior flagellum springs, and an
+oblique or spiral transverse groove for the second flagellum. In
+_Polykrikos_ (fig. 2, 9) there are eight transverse grooves each with
+its flagellum. The armour-plates are often exquisitely sculptured, and
+may be produced into spines or perpendicular plates to give greater
+surface extension, as we find in other plankton organisms. The cortical
+plasma may protrude pseudopodia in the longitudinal groove; it contains
+trichocysts in several species, true nematocysts in _Polykrikos_. It
+contains chromatophores in many species, coloured by a mixed lipochrome
+pigment which appears to be distinct from diatomin. The endoplasm is
+ramified between alveoli; it contains a large nucleus (in _Polykrikos_
+there are eight nuclei, accompanied by smaller, more numerous bodies
+regarded by O. Butschli as micro-nuclei). Besides the other spaces are
+definite rounded or oval vacuoles with a permanent pellicular wall
+termed by Schutt "pusules"; these open by a duct or ducts into the
+longitudinal groove. They enlarge and diminish, and are possibly
+excretory like the "contractile vacuoles" of other Protista; though it
+has been suggested that by their communication with the medium they
+subserve nutrition. Nutrition is of course holozoic or saprophytic in
+the colourless forms, holophytic in the coloured; but these divergent
+methods are exhibited by different species of the same genus, or even by
+individuals of one and the same species under different conditions.
+Binary fission has been widely observed, both in the active condition or
+after loss of the flagella: it differs from that of true Flagellates in
+not being longitudinal, but transverse or oblique (fig, 2, 2). Repeated
+fission (brood-formation) within a cyst has also been observed, as in
+_Pyrocystis_ and _Ceratium_; and possibly the chains of _Ceratium_ and
+other (fig. 2, 5 and 6) genera are due to the non-separation of the
+brood-cells. Conjugation of adults has been observed in several species,
+the most complete account being that of Zederbauer on _Ceratium
+hirundinella_ (marine): either mate puts forth a tube which meets and
+opens into that of the other (as in some species of _Chlamydomonas_ and
+Desmids); the two cell-bodies fuse in this tube, and encyst to form a
+resting zygospore. The Dinoflagellates are relatively large for
+Mastigophora, many attaining 50 µ (1/500") in length. The majority are
+marine; but some genera (_Ceratium_, _Peridinium_) include fresh-water
+species. Many are highly phosphorescent and some by their abundance
+colour the water of the sea or pool which they dwell in. Like so many
+coloured Protista, they frequently possess a pigmented "eye-spot" in
+which may be sunk a spheroidal refractive body ("lens").
+
+[Illustration: After F. Schutt in Engler and Prantl's
+_Pflanzenfamilien_, by permission of Wm Engelmann.
+
+FIG. 1.--_Peridinium divergens_ showing longitudinal and transverse
+grooves in which lie the respective flagella l.f., t.f.; s.p., large
+"sack pusule" discharging through a tube by pore o'; c.p., "collective
+pusule discharging at o, and surrounded by a ring of formative" or
+"daughter pusules"; n, nucleus.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+
+From Delage and Hérouard's _Traité de zoologie concrete_, by permission
+of Schleicher Frères.
+
+  1. Modified from Schütt, _Ornithoceras_.
+  2. Diagram of transverse fission of a Dinoflagellate.
+  3. After Schutt, _Exuviaeella_.
+  4. After Stein, _Prorocentrum_.
+  5, 6. _Ceratium_, single and series.
+  7. _Pouchetia fusus_ (Schutt).
+  8. _Citharistes_.
+  9. After Butschli, _Polykrikos_.]
+
+The affinities of the Dinoflagellata are certainly with those
+Cryptomonadine Flagellates which possess two unequal flagella; the
+zoospores or young of the Cystoflagellates are practically colourless
+Dinoflagellates.
+
+  1. _Gymnodiniaceae_: body naked, or with a simple cellulose or
+  gelatinous envelope; both grooves present. _Pyrocystis_ (Murray),
+  often encysted, spherical or crescentic, becoming free within cyst
+  wall, and escaping whole or after brood-divisions as a form like
+  _Gymnodinium_; _Gymnodinium_ (Stein); _Hemidinium_ (Stein);
+  _Pouchetia_ (Schütt) (fig. 2, 7) with complex eye-spot; to this group
+  we may refer _Polykrikos_ (Bütschli) (fig. 2, 9), with its metameric
+  transverse grooves and flagella.
+
+  2. _Prorocentraceae_ (Schütt) ( = the Adinida of Bergh); body
+  surrounded by a firm shell of two valves without a girdle band;
+  transverse groove absent; transverse flagellum coiled round base of
+  longitudinal. _Exuviaeella_ (Cienk.) (fig. 2, 3); _Prorocentrum_
+  (Ehrb.) (fig. 2, 4).
+
+  3. _Peridiniaceae_ (Schütt); body with a shell of plates, a girdle
+  band along the transverse groove, in which the transverse flagellum
+  lies. Genera, _Peridinium_ (Ehrb.) (fig. 1), fresh-water and marine;
+  _Ceratium_ (Schrank) (fig. 2, 5, 6), fresh-water and marine;
+  _Citharistes_ (Stein); _Ornithoceras_ (Claparède and Lachmann) (fig.
+  2, 1).
+
+  LITERATURE.--R. S. Bergh, "Der Organismusder Cilioflagellaten,"
+  _Morphol. Jahrbuch_, vii. (1881); F. von Stein, _Organismus der
+  Infusionsthiere_, Abth. 3, 2. Hälfte; _Die Naturgeschichte der
+  arthrodelen Flagellaten_ (1883); Bütschli, "Mastigophora" (in Bronn's
+  _Thierreich_, i. Abth. 2), 1881-1887; G. Pouchet, various observations
+  on Dinoflagellates, _Journal de l'anatomie et de la physiologie_
+  (1885, 1887, 1891); F. Schütt, "Die Peridineen der Plankton
+  Expedition" (_Ergebnisse d. Pl. Exed._ i. Th. vol. iv. 1895); and
+  "Peridiniales" in Engler and Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_, vol. i. Abt.
+  2 b. (1896); Zederbauer, _Berichte d. deutschen botanischen
+  Gesellschaft_, vol. xx. (1900); Delage and Hérouard, _Traité de
+  zoologie concrète_, vol. i. _La Cellule et les protozoaires_ (1896).
+       (M. HA.)
+
+
+
+
+DINOTHERIUM, an extinct mammal, fossil remains of which occur in the
+Miocene beds of France, Germany, Greece and Northern India. These
+consist chiefly of teeth and the bones of the head. An entire skull,
+obtained from the Lower Pliocene beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in
+1836, measured 4½ ft. in length and 3 ft. in breadth, and indicates an
+animal exceeding the elephant in size. The upper jaw is apparently
+destitute of incisor and canine teeth, but possesses five molars on each
+side, with a corresponding number in the jaw beneath. The most
+remarkable feature, however, consists in the front part of the lower jaw
+being bent downwards and bearing two tusk-like incisors also directed
+downwards and backwards. _Dinotherium_ is a member of the group
+Proboscidea, of the line of descent of the elephants.
+
+
+
+
+DINWIDDIE, ROBERT (1693-1770), English colonial governor of Virginia,
+was born near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1693. From the position of customs
+clerk in Bermuda, which he held in 1727-1738, he was promoted to be
+surveyor-general of the customs "of the southern ports of the continent
+of America," as a reward for having exposed the corruption in the West
+Indian customs service. In 1743 he was commissioned to examine into the
+customs service in the Barbadoes and exposed similar corruption there.
+In 1751-1758 he was lieutenant-governor of Virginia, first as the deputy
+of Lord Albemarle and then, from July 1756 to January 1758, as deputy
+for Lord Loudon. He was energetic in the discharge of his duties, but
+aroused much animosity among the colonists by his zeal in looking after
+the royal quit-rents, and by exacting heavy fees for the issue of
+land-patents. It was his chief concern to prevent the French from
+building in the Ohio Valley a chain of forts connecting their
+settlements in the north with those on the Gulf of Mexico; and in the
+autumn of 1753 he sent George Washington to Fort Le Boeuf, a newly
+established French post at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, with a
+message demanding the withdrawal of the French from English territory.
+As the French refused to comply, Dinwiddie secured from the reluctant
+Virginia assembly a grant of £10,000 and in the spring of 1754 he sent
+Washington with an armed force toward the forks of the Ohio river "to
+prevent the intentions of the French in settling those lands." In the
+latter part of May Washington encountered a French force at a spot
+called Great Meadows, near the Youghiogheny river, in what is now
+south-western Pennsylvania, and a skirmish followed which precipitated
+the French and Indian War. Dinwiddie was especially active at this time
+in urging the co-operation of the colonies against the French in the
+Ohio Valley; but none of the other governors, except William Shirley of
+Massachusetts, was then much concerned about the western frontier, and
+he could accomplish very little. His appeals to the home government,
+however, resulted in the sending of General Edward Braddock to Virginia
+with two regiments of regular troops; and at Braddock's call Dinwiddie
+and the governors of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland
+met at Alexandria, Virginia, in April 1755, and planned the initial
+operations of the war. Dinwiddie's administration was marked by a
+constant wrangle with the assembly over money matters; and its obstinate
+resistance to military appropriations caused him in 1754 and 1755 to
+urge the home government to secure an act of parliament compelling the
+colonies to raise money for their protection. In January 1758 he left
+Virginia and lived in England until his death on the 27th of July 1770
+at Clifton, Bristol.
+
+  _The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor of
+  Virginia_ (1751-1758), published in two volumes, at Richmond, Va., in
+  1883-1884, by the Virginia Historical Society, and edited by R. A.
+  Brock, are of great value for the political history of the colonies in
+  this period.
+
+
+
+
+DIO CASSIUS (more correctly CASSIUS DIO), COCCEIANUS (c. A.D. 150-235),
+Roman historian, was born at Nicaea in Bithynia. His father was Cassius
+Apronianus, governor of Dalmatia and Cilicia under Marcus Aurelius, and
+on his mother's side he was the grandson of Dio Chrysostom, who had
+assumed the surname of Cocceianus in honour of his patron the emperor
+Cocceius Nerva. After his father's death, Dio Cassius left Cilicia for
+Rome (180) and became a member of the senate. During the reign of
+Commodus, Dio practised as an advocate at the Roman bar, and held the
+offices of aedile and quaestor. He was raised to the praetorship by
+Pertinax (193), but did not assume office till the reign of Septimius
+Severus, with whom he was for a long time on the most intimate footing.
+By Macrinus he was entrusted with the administration of Pergamum and
+Smyrna; and on his return to Rome he was raised to the consulship about
+220. After this he obtained the proconsulship of Africa, and again on
+his return was sent as legate successively to Dalmatia and Pannonia. He
+was raised a second time to the consulship by Alexander Severus, in 229;
+but on the plea of ill health soon afterwards retired to Nicaea, where
+he died. Before writing his history of Rome ([Greek: Rhômaika] or
+[Greek: Rhômaikê Historia]), Dio Cassius had dedicated to the emperor
+Severus an account of various dreams and prodigies which had presaged
+his elevation to the throne (perhaps the [Greek: Enodia] attributed to
+Dio by Suidas), and had also written a biography of his
+fellow-countryman Arrian. The history of Rome, which consisted of
+eighty books,--and, after the example of Livy, was divided into
+decades,--began with the landing of Aeneas in Italy, and was continued
+as far as the reign of Alexander Severus (222-235). Of this great work
+we possess books 36-60, containing the history of events from 68
+B.C.-A.D. 47; books 36 and 55-60 are imperfect. We also have part of 35
+and 36-80 in the epitome of John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century Byzantine
+monk. For the earlier period the loss of Dio's work is partly supplied
+by the history of Zonaras, who followed him closely. Numerous fragments
+are also contained in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Dio's
+work is a most important authority for the history of the last years of
+the republic and the early empire. His industry was great and the
+various important offices he held afforded him ample opportunities for
+historical investigation. His style, though marred by Latinisms, is
+clearer than that of his model Thucydides, and his narrative shows the
+hand of the practised soldier and politician; the language is correct
+and free from affectation. But he displays a superstitious regard for
+miracles and prophecies; he has nothing to say against the arbitrary
+acts of the emperors, which he seems to take as a matter of course; and
+his work, although far more than a mere compilation, is not remarkable
+for impartiality, vigour of judgment or critical historical faculty.
+
+  The best edition with notes is that of H. S. Reimar (1750-1752), new
+  ed. by F. G. Sturz (1824-1836); text by I. Melber (1890 foll.), with
+  account of previous editions, and U. P. Boissevain (1895-1901);
+  translation by H. B. Foster (Troy, New York, 1905 foll.), with full
+  bibliography; see also W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen
+  Litteratur_ (1898), p. 675; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa's
+  _Realencyclopadie_, iii. pt. 2 (1899); C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in
+  das Studium der alten Geschichte_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+DIOCESE (formed on Fr. _diocèse_, in place of the Eng. form
+_diocess_--current until the 19th century--from Lat. _dioecesis_, med.
+Lat. variant _diocesis_, from Gr. [Greek: dioikêsis], "housekeeping,"
+"administration," [Greek: dioikein], "to keep house," "to govern"), the
+sphere of a bishop's jurisdiction. In this, its sole modern sense, the
+word diocese (_dioecesis_) has only been regularly used since the 9th
+century, though isolated instances of such use occur so early as the
+3rd, what is now known as a diocese having been till then usually called
+a _parochia_ (parish). The Greek word [Greek: dioikêsis], from meaning
+"administration," came to be applied to the territorial circumscription
+in which administration was exercised. It was thus first applied e.g. to
+the three districts of Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada, which were added to
+Cilicia in Cicero's time (between 56 and 50 B.C.). The word is here
+equivalent to "assize-districts" (Tyrrell and Purser's edition of Cicero
+_Epist. ad fam._ iii. 8. 4; xiii. 67; cf. Strabo xiii. 628-629). But in
+the reorganization of the empire, begun by Diocletian and completed by
+Constantine, the word "diocese" acquired a more important meaning, the
+empire being divided into twelve dioceses, of which the
+largest--Oriens--embraced sixteen provinces, and the
+smallest--Britain--four (see ROME: _Ancient History_; and W. T. Arnold,
+_Roman Provincial Administration_, pp. 187, 194-196, which gives a list
+of the dioceses and their subdivisions). The organization of the
+Christian church in the Roman empire following very closely the lines of
+the civil administration (see CHURCH HISTORY), the word diocese, in its
+ecclesiastical sense, was at first applied to the sphere of
+jurisdiction, not of a bishop, but of a metropolitan.[1] Thus Anastasius
+Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886), in his life of Pope Dionysius, says that he
+assigned churches to the presbyters, and established dioceses
+(_parochiae_) and provinces (_dioeceses_). The word, however, survived
+in its general sense of "office" or "administration," and it was even
+used during the middle ages for "parish" (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.
+"Dioecesis" 2).
+
+The practice, under the Roman empire, of making the areas of
+ecclesiastical administration very exactly coincide with those of the
+civil administration, was continued in the organization of the church
+beyond the borders of the empire, and many dioceses to this day preserve
+the limits of long vanished political divisions. The process is well
+illustrated in the case of English bishoprics. But this practice was
+based on convenience, not principle; and the limits of the dioceses,
+once fixed, did not usually change with the changing political
+boundaries. Thus Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, complains that not only
+his metropolitanate (_dioecesis_) but his bishopric (_parochia_) is
+divided between two realms under two kings; and this inconvenient
+overlapping of jurisdictions remained, in fact, very common in Europe
+until the readjustments of national boundaries by the territorial
+settlements of the 19th century. In principle, however, the subdivision
+of a diocese, in the event of the work becoming too heavy for one
+bishop, was very early admitted, e.g. by the first council at Lugo in
+Spain (569), which erected Lugo into a metropolitanate, the consequent
+division of diocese being confirmed by the king of the second council,
+held in 572. Another reason for dividing a diocese, and establishing a
+new see, has been recognized by the church as duly existing "if the
+sovereign should think fit to endow some principal village or town with
+the rank and privileges of a city" (Bingham, lib. xvii. c. 5). But there
+are canons for the punishment of such as might induce the sovereign so
+to erect any town into a city, solely with the view of becoming bishop
+thereof. Nor could any diocese be divided without the consent of the
+primate.
+
+In England an act of parliament is necessary for the creation of new
+dioceses. In the reign of Henry VIII. six new dioceses were thus created
+(under an act of 1539); but from that time onward until the 19th century
+they remained practically unchanged. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners
+Act 1836, which created two new dioceses (Ripon and Manchester),
+remodelled the state of the old dioceses by an entirely new adjustment
+of the revenues and patronage of each see, and also extended or
+curtailed the parishes and counties in the various jurisdictions.
+
+By the ancient custom of the church the bishop takes his title, not from
+his diocese, but from his see, i.e. the place where his cathedral is
+established. Thus the old episcopal titles are all derived from cities.
+This tradition has been broken, however, by the modern practice of
+bishops in the United States and the British colonies, e.g. archbishop
+of the West Indies, bishop of Pennsylvania, Wyoming, &c. (see BISHOP).
+
+  See Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, ii. 38, &c.; Joseph Bingham, _Origines
+  ecclesiasticae_, 9 vols. (1840); Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.
+  "Dioecesis"; _New English Dictionary_ (Oxford, 1897), s. "Diocese."
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For exceptions see Hinschius ii. p. 39, note 1.
+
+
+
+
+DIO CHRYSOSTOM (c. A.D. 40-115), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born
+at Piusa (mod. _Brusa_), a town at the foot of Mount Olympus in
+Bithynia. He was called Chrysostom ("golden-mouthed") from his
+eloquence, and also to distinguish him from his grandson, the historian
+Dio Cassius; his surname Cocceianus was derived from his patron, the
+emperor Cocceius Nerva. Although he did much to promote the welfare of
+his native place, he became so unpopular there that he migrated to Rome,
+but, having incurred the suspicion of Domitian, he was banished from
+Italy. With nothing in his pocket but Plato's _Phaedo_ and Demosthenes'
+_De falsa legatione_, he wandered about in Thrace, Mysia, Scythia and
+the land of the Getae. He returned to Rome on the accession of Nerva,
+with whom and his successor Trajan he was on intimate terms. During this
+period he paid a visit to Prusa, but, disgusted at his reception, he
+went back to Rome. The place and date of his death are unknown; it is
+certain, however, that he was alive in 112, when the younger Pliny was
+governor of Bithynia.
+
+Eighty orations, or rather essays on political, moral and philosophical
+subjects, have come down to us under his name; the _Corinthiaca_,
+however, is generally regarded as spurious, and is probably the work of
+Favorinus of Arelate. Of the extant orations the following are the most
+important:--_Borysthenitica_ (xxxvi.), on the advantages of monarchy,
+addressed to the inhabitants of Olbia, and containing interesting
+information on the history of the Greek colonies on the shores of the
+Black Sea; _Olympica_ (xii.), in which Pheidias is represented as
+setting forth the principles which he had followed in his statue of
+Zeus, one passage being supposed by some to have suggested Lessing's
+_Laocoon_; _Rhodiaca_ (xxxi.), an attack on the Rhodians for altering
+the names on their statues, and thus converting them into memorials of
+famous men of the day (an imitation of Demosthenes' _Leptines_); _De
+regno_ (i.-iv.), addressed to Trajan, a eulogy of the monarchical form
+of government, under which the emperor is the representative of Zeus
+upon earth; _De Aeschylo et Sophocle et Euripide_ (lii.), a comparison
+of the treatment of the story of Philoctetes by the three great Greek
+tragedians; and _Philoctetes_ (lix.), a summary of the prologue to the
+lost play by Euripides. In his later life, Dio, who had originally
+attacked the philosophers, himself became a convert to Stoicism. To this
+period belong the essays on moral subjects, such as the denunciation of
+various cities (Tarsus, Alexandria) for their immorality. Most pleasing
+of all is the _Euboica_ (vii.), a description of the simple life of the
+herdsmen and huntsmen of Euboea as contrasted with that of the
+inhabitants of the towns. _Troica_ (xi.), an attempt to prove to the
+inhabitants of Ilium that Homer was a liar and that Troy was never
+taken, is a good example of a sophistical rhetorical exercise. Amongst
+his lost works were attacks on philosophers and Domitian, and _Getica_
+(wrongly attributed to Dio Cassius by Suïdas), an account of the manners
+and customs of the Getae, for which he had collected material on the
+spot during his banishment. The style of Dio, who took Plato and
+Xenophon especially as his models, is pure and refined, and on the whole
+free from rhetorical exaggeration. With Plutarch he played an important
+part in the revival of Greek literature at the end of the 1st century of
+the Christian era.
+
+  Editions: J. J. Reiske (Leipzig, 1784); A. Emperius (Brunswick, 1844);
+  L. Dindorf (Leipzig, 1857), H. von Arnim (Berlin, 1893-1896). The
+  ancient authorities for his life are Philostratus, _Vit. Soph._ i. 7;
+  Photius, _Bibliotheca_, cod. 209; Suidas, s.v.; Synesius, [Greek:
+  Diôn]. On Dio generally see H. von Arnim, _Leben und Werke des Dion
+  von Prusa_ (Berlin, 1898); C. Martha, _Les Moralistes sous l'empire
+  romain_ (1865); W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_
+  (1898), § 520; J. E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (2nd
+  ed., 1906); W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, v. pt. 1
+  (1905). The _Euboica_ has been abridged by J. P. Mahaffy in _The Greek
+  World under Roman Sway_ (1890), and there is a translation of _Select
+  Essays_ by Gilbert Wakefield (1800).
+
+
+
+
+DIOCLETIAN (GAIUS AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245-313), Roman
+emperor 284-305, is said to have been born at Dioclea, near Salona, in
+Dalmatia. His original name was Diocles. Of humble origin, he served
+with high distinction and held important military commands under the
+emperors Probus and Aurelian, and accompanied Carus to the Persian War.
+After the death of Numerianus he was chosen emperor by the troops at
+Chalcedon, on the 17th of September 284, and slew with his own hands
+Arrius Aper, the praefect of the praetorians. He thus fulfilled the
+prediction of a druidess of Gaul, that he would mount a throne as soon
+as he had slain a wild boar (_aper_). Having been installed at
+Nicomedia, he received general acknowledgment after the murder of
+Carinus. In consequence of the rising of the Bagaudae in Gaul, and the
+threatening attitude of the German peoples on the Rhine, he appointed
+Maximian Augustus in 286; and, in view of further dangers and
+disturbances in the empire, proclaimed Constantius Chlorus and Galerius
+Caesars in 293. Each of the four rulers was placed at a separate
+capital--Nicomedia, Mediolanum (Milan), Augusta Trevirorum (Trier),
+Sirmium. This amounted to an entirely new organization of the empire, on
+a plan commensurate with the work of government which it now had to
+carry on. At the age of fifty-nine, exhausted with labour, Diocletian
+abdicated his sovereignty on the 1st of May 305, and retired to Salona,
+where he died eight years afterwards (others give 316 as the year of his
+death). The end of his reign was memorable for the persecution of the
+Christians. In defence of this it may be urged that he hoped to
+strengthen the empire by reviving the old religion, and that the church
+as an independent state over whose inner life at least he possessed no
+influence, appeared to be a standing menace to his authority. Under
+Diocletian the senate became a political nonentity, the last traces of
+republican institutions disappeared, and were replaced by an absolute
+monarchy approaching to despotism. He wore the royal diadem, assumed the
+title of lord, and introduced a complicated system of ceremonial and
+etiquette, borrowed from the East, in order to surround the monarchy and
+its representative with mysterious sanctity. But at the same time he
+devoted his energies to the improvement of the administration of the
+empire; he reformed the standard of coinage, fixed the price of
+provisions and other necessaries of daily life, remitted the tax upon
+inheritances and manumissions, abolished various monopolies, repressed
+corruption and encouraged trade. In addition, he adorned the city with
+numerous buildings, such as the thermae, of which extensive remains are
+still standing (Aurelius Victor, _De Caesaribus_, 39; Eutropius ix. 13;
+Zonaras xii. 31).
+
+  See A. Vogel, _Der Kaiser Diocletian_ (Gotha, 1857), a short sketch,
+  with notes on the authorities; T. Preuss, _Kaiser Diocletian und seine
+  Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1869); V. Casagrandi, _Diocleziano_ (Faenza, 1876); H.
+  Schiller, _Gesch. der römischen Kaiserzeit_, ii. (1887); T. Bernhardt,
+  _Geschichte Roms von Valerian bis zu Diocletians Tod_ (1867); A. J.
+  Mason, _The Persecution of Diocletian_ (1876); P. Allard, _La
+  Persécution de Dioclétien_ (1890); V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie_, iv. (1898); Gibbon.
+  _Decline and Fall_, chaps. 13 and 16; A. W. Hunzinger, _Die
+  Diocletianische Staatsreform_ (1899); O. Seeck, "Die Schatzungsordnung
+  Diocletians" in _Zeitschrift für Social- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte_
+  (1896), a valuable paper with notes containing references to sources;
+  and O. Seeck, _Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt_, vol. i.
+  cap. 1. On his military reforms see T. Mommsen in _Hermes_, xxiv., and
+  on his tariff system, Diocletian, Edict of.
+
+
+
+
+DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (_De pretiis rerum venalium_), an imperial edict
+promulgated in A.D. 301, fixing a maximum price for provisions and other
+articles of commerce, and a maximum rate of wages. Incomplete copies of
+it have been discovered at various times in various places, the first
+(in Greek and Latin) in 1709, at Stratonicea in Caria, by W. Sherard,
+British consul at Smyrna, containing the preamble and the beginning of
+the tables down to No. 403. This partial copy was completed by W. Bankes
+in 1817. A second fragment (now in the museum at Aix in Provence) was
+brought from Egypt in 1809; it supplements the preamble by specifying
+the titles of the emperors and Caesars and the number of times they had
+held them, whereby the date of publication can be accurately determined.
+For other fragments and their localities see _Corpus Inscriptionum
+Latinarum_ (iii., 1873, pp. 801 and 1055; and supplement i, 1893, p.
+1909); special mention may be made of those of Elatea, Plataea and
+Megalopolis. Latin being the official language all over the empire,
+there was no official Greek translation (except for Greece proper), as
+is shown by the variations in those portions of the text of which more
+than one Greek version is extant. Further, all the fragments come from
+the provinces which were under the jurisdiction of Diocletian, from
+which it is argued that the edict was only published in the eastern
+portion of the empire; certainly the phrase _universo orbi_ in the
+preamble is against this, but the words may merely be an exaggerated
+description of Diocletian's special provinces, and if it had been
+published in the western portion as well, it is curious that no traces
+have been found of it. The articles mentioned in the edict, which is
+chiefly interesting as giving their relative values at the time, include
+cereals, wine, oil, meat, vegetables, fruits, skins, leather, furs,
+foot-gear, timber, carpets, articles of dress, and the wages range from
+the ordinary labourer to the professional advocate. The unit of money
+was the denarius, not the silver, but a copper coin introduced by
+Diocletian, of which the value has been fixed approximately at 1/5th of
+a penny. The punishment for exceeding the prices fixed was death or
+deportation. The edict was a well-intended but abortive attempt, in
+great measure in the interests of the soldiers, to meet the distress
+caused by several bad harvests and commercial speculation. The actual
+effect was disastrous: the restrictions thus placed upon commercial
+freedom brought about a disturbance of the food supply in non-productive
+countries, many traders were ruined, and the edict soon fell into
+abeyance.
+
+  See Lactantius, _De mortibus persecutorum_, vii., a contemporary who,
+  as a Christian, writes with natural bias against Diocletian; T.
+  Mommsen, _Das Edict Diocletians_ (1851); W. M. Leake, _An Edict of
+  Diocletian_ (1826); W. H. Waddington, _L'Édit de Dioclétien_ (1864),
+  and E. Lépaulle, _L'Édit de maximum_ (1886), both containing
+  introductions and ample notes; J. C. Rolfe and F. B. Tarbell in
+  _Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens_, v.
+  (1892) (Plataea); W. Loring in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xi.
+  (1890) (Megalopolis); P. Paris in _Bulletin de correspondance
+  hellénique_, ix. (1885) (Elatea). There is an edition of the whole by
+  Mommsen, with notes by H. Blümner (1893).
+
+
+
+
+DIODATI, GIOVANNI (1576-1649), Swiss Protestant divine, was born at
+Geneva on the 6th of June 1576, of a noble family originally belonging
+to Lucca, which had been expatriated on account of its Protestantism. At
+the age of twenty-one he was nominated professor of Hebrew at Geneva on
+the recommendation of Theodor Beza. In 1606 he became professor of
+theology, in 1608 pastor, or parish minister, at Geneva, and in the
+following year he succeeded Beza as professor of theology. As a preacher
+he was eloquent, bold and fearless. He held a high place among the
+reformers of Geneva, by whom he was sent on a mission to France in 1614.
+He had previously visited Italy, and made the acquaintance of Paolo
+Sarpi, whom he endeavoured unsuccessfully to engage in a reformation
+movement. In 1618-1619 he attended the synod of Dort, and took a
+prominent part in its deliberations, being one of the six divines
+appointed to draw up the account of its proceedings. He was a thorough
+Calvinist, and entirely sympathized with the condemnation of the
+Arminians. In 1645 he resigned his professorship, and died at Geneva on
+the 3rd of October 1649. Diodati is chiefly famous as the author of the
+translation of the Bible into Italian (1603, edited with notes, 1607).
+He also undertook a translation of the Bible into French, which appeared
+with notes in 1644. Among his other works are his _Annotationes in
+Biblia_ (1607), of which an English translation (_Pious and Learned
+Annotations upon the Holy Bible_) was published in London in 1648, and
+various polemical treatises, such as _De fictitio Pontificiorum
+Purgatorio_ (1619); _De justa secessione Reformatorum ab Ecclesia
+Romana_ (1628); _De Antichristo_, &c. He also published French
+translations of Sarpi's _History of the Council of Trent_, and of Edwin
+Sandys's _Account of the State of Religion in the West_.
+
+
+
+
+DIODORUS CRONUS (4th century B.C.), Greek philosopher of the Megarian
+school. Practically nothing is known of his life. Diogenes Laërtius (ii.
+111) tells a story that, while staying at the court of Ptolemy Soter,
+Diodorus was asked to solve a dialectical subtlety by Stilpo. Not being
+able to answer on the spur of the moment, he was nicknamed [Greek: ho
+Kronos] (the God, equivalent to "slowcoach") by Ptolemy. The story goes
+that he died of shame at his failure. Strabo, however, says (xiv. 658;
+xvii. 838) that he took the name from Apollonius, his master. Like the
+rest of the Megarian school he revelled in verbal quibbles, proving that
+motion and existence are impossible. His was the famous sophism known as
+the [Greek: Kyrieyôn]. The impossible cannot result from the possible; a
+past event cannot become other than it is; but if an event, at a given
+moment, had been possible, from this possible would result something
+impossible; therefore the original event was impossible. This problem
+was taken up by Chrysippus, who admitted that he could not solve it.
+Apart from these verbal gymnastics, Diodorus did not differ from the
+Megarian school. From his great dialectical skill he earned the title
+[Greek: ho dialektikos], or [Greek: dialektikôtatos], a title which was
+borne by his five daughters, who inherited his ability.
+
+  See Cicero, _De Fato_, 6, 7, 9; Aristotle, _Metaphysica_, [theta] 3;
+  Sext. Empiric., _adv. Math._ x. 85; Ritter and Preller, _Hist. philos.
+  Gr. et Rom._ chap. v. §§ 234-236 (ed. 1869); and bibliography appended
+  to article MEGARIAN SCHOOL.
+
+
+
+
+DIODORUS SICULUS, Greek historian, born at Agyrium in Sicily, lived in
+the times of Julius Caesar and Augustus. From his own statements we
+learn that he travelled in Egypt between 60-57 B.C. and that he spent
+several years in Rome. The latest event mentioned by him belongs to the
+year 21 B.C. He asserts that he devoted thirty years to the composition
+of his history, and that he undertook frequent and dangerous journeys in
+prosecution of his historical researches. These assertions, however,
+find little credit with recent critics. The history, to which Diodorus
+gave the name [Greek: bibliothêkê historikê] (_Bibliotheca historica_,
+"Historical Library"), consisted of forty books, and was divided into
+three parts. The first treats of the mythic history of the non-Hellenic,
+and afterwards of the Hellenic tribes, to the destruction of Troy; the
+second section ends with Alexander's death; and the third continues the
+history as far as the beginning of Caesar's Gallic War. Of this
+extensive work there are still extant only the first five books,
+treating of the mythic history of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Ethiopians
+and Greeks; and also the 11th to the 20th books inclusive, beginning
+with the second Persian War, and ending with the history of the
+successors of Alexander, previous to the partition of the Macedonian
+empire (302). The rest exists only in fragments preserved in Photius and
+the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The faults of Diodorus
+arise partly from the nature of the undertaking, and the awkward form of
+annals into which he has thrown the historical portion of his narrative.
+He shows none of the critical faculties of the historian, merely setting
+down a number of unconnected details. His narrative contains frequent
+repetitions and contradictions, is without colouring, and monotonous;
+and his simple diction, which stands intermediate between pure Attic and
+the colloquial Greek of his time, enables us to detect in the narrative
+the undigested fragments of the materials which he employed. In spite of
+its defects, however, the _Bibliotheca_ is of considerable value as to
+some extent supplying the loss of the works of older authors, from which
+it is compiled. Unfortunately, Diodorus does not always quote his
+authorities, but his general sources of information were--in history and
+chronology, Castor, Ephorus and Apollodorus; in geography, Agatharchides
+and Artemidorus. In special sections he followed special
+authorities--e.g. in the history of his native Sicily, Philistus and
+Timaeus.
+
+  _Editio princeps_, by H. Stephanus (1559); of other editions the best
+  are: P. Wesseling (1746), not yet superseded; L. Dindorf (1828-1831);
+  (text) L. Dindorf (1866-1868, revised by F. Vogel, 1888-1893 and C. T.
+  Fischer, 1905-1906). The standard works on the sources of Diodorus are
+  C. G. Heyne, _De fontibus et auctoribus historiarum Diodori_, printed
+  in Dindorf's edition, and C. A. Volquardsen, _Die Quellen der
+  griechischen und sicilischen Geschichten bei Diodor_ (1868); A. von
+  Mess, _Rheinisches Museum_ (1906); see also L. O. Bröcker,
+  _Untersuchungen über Diodor_ (1879), short, but containing much
+  information; O. Maass, _Kleitarch und Diodor_ (1894- ); G. J.
+  Schneider, _De Diodori fontibus_, i.-iv. (1880); C. Wachsmuth,
+  _Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte_ (1895); GREECE;
+  _Ancient History_, "Authorities."
+
+
+
+
+DIODOTUS, Seleucid satrap of Bactria, who rebelled against Antiochus II.
+(about 255) and became the founder of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom
+(Trogus, _Prol._ 41; Justin xli. 4, 5, where he is wrongly called
+Theodotus; Strabo xi. 515). His power seems to have extended over the
+neighbouring provinces. Arsaces, the chieftain of the nomadic (Dahan)
+tribe of the Parni, fled before him into Parthia and here became the
+founder of the Parthian kingdom (Strabo l.c.). When Seleucus II. in 239
+attempted to subjugate the rebels in the east he seems to have united
+with him against the Parthians (Justin xli. 4, 9). Soon afterwards he
+died and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II., who concluded a peace
+with the Parthians (Justin l.c.). Diodotus II. was killed by another
+usurper, Euthydemus (Polyb. xi. 34, 2). Of Diodotus I. we possess gold
+and silver coins, which imitate the coins of Antiochus II.; on these he
+sometimes calls himself Soter, "the saviour." As the power of the
+Seleucids was weak and continually attacked by Ptolemy II., the eastern
+provinces and their Greek cities were exposed to the invasion of the
+nomadic barbarians and threatened with destruction (Polyb. xi. 34, 5);
+thus the erection of an independent kingdom may have been a necessity
+and indeed an advantage to the Greeks, and this epithet well deserved.
+Diodotus Soter appears also on coins struck in his memory by the later
+Graeco-Bactrian kings Agathocles and Antimachus. Cf. A. v. Sallet, _Die
+Nachfolger Alexanders d. Gr. in Baktrien und Indien_; Percy Gardner,
+_Catal. of the Coins of the Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and
+India_ (Brit. Mus.); see also BACTRIA.     (ED. M.)
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENES, "the Cynic," Greek philosopher, was born at Sinope about 412
+B.C., and died in 323 at Corinth, according to Diogenes Laërtius, on the
+day on which Alexander the Great died at Babylon. His father, Icesias, a
+money-changer, was imprisoned or exiled on the charge of adulterating
+the coinage. Diogenes was included in the charge, and went to Athens
+with one attendant, whom he dismissed, saying, "If Manes can live
+without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?" Attracted by the
+ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, he became his pupil, despite the
+brutality with which he was received, and rapidly excelled his master
+both in reputation and in the austerity of his life. The stories which
+are told of him are probably true; in any case, they serve to
+illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured himself
+to the vicissitudes of weather by living in a tub belonging to the
+temple of Cybele. The single wooden bowl he possessed he destroyed on
+seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his hands. On a voyage to
+Aegina he was captured by pirates and sold as a slave in Crete to a
+Corinthian named Xeniades. Being asked his trade, he replied that he
+knew no trade but that of governing men, and that he wished to be sold
+to a man who needed a master. As tutor to the two sons of Xeniades, he
+lived in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted entirely to
+preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. At the Isthmian games
+he lectured to large audiences who turned to him from Antisthenes. It
+was, probably, at one of these festivals that he craved from Alexander
+the single boon that he would not stand between him and the sun, to
+which Alexander replied "If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes."
+On his death, about which there exist several accounts, the Corinthians
+erected to his memory a pillar on which there rested a dog of Parian
+marble. His ethical teaching will be found in the article CYNICS (q.v.).
+It may suffice to say here that virtue, for him, consisted in the
+avoidance of all physical pleasure; that pain and hunger were positively
+helpful in the pursuit of goodness; that all the artificial growths of
+society appeared to him incompatible with truth and goodness; that
+moralization implies a return to nature and simplicity. He has been
+credited with going to extremes of impropriety in pursuance of these
+ideas; probably, however, his reputation has suffered from the undoubted
+immorality of some of his successors. Both in ancient and in modern
+times, his personality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to
+painters. Ancient busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre
+and the Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is
+represented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani.
+Rubens, Jordaens, Steen, Van der Werff, Jeaurat, Salvator Rosa and Karel
+Dujardin have painted various episodes in his life.
+
+  The chief ancient authority for his life is Diogenes Laërtius vi. 20;
+  see also Mayor's notes on Juvenal, _Satires_, xiv. 305-314; and
+  article CYNICS.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENES APOLLONIATES (c. 460 B.C.), Greek natural philosopher, was a
+native of Apollonia in Crete. Although of Dorian stock, he wrote in the
+Ionic dialect, like all the _physiologi_ (physical philosophers). There
+seems no doubt that he lived some time at Athens, where it is said that
+he became so unpopular (probably owing to his supposed atheistical
+opinions) that his life was in danger. The views of Diogenes are
+transferred in the _Clouds_ (264 ff.) of Aristophanes to Socrates. Like
+Anaximenes, he believed air to be the one source of all being, and all
+other substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction.
+His chief advance upon the doctrines of Anaximenes is that he asserted
+air, the primal force, to be possessed of intelligence--"the air which
+stirred within him not only prompted, but instructed. The air as the
+origin of all things is necessarily an eternal, imperishable substance,
+but as soul it is also necessarily endowed with consciousness." In fact,
+he belonged to the old Ionian school, whose doctrines he modified by the
+theories of his contemporary Anaxagoras, although he avoided his
+dualism. His most important work was [Greek: Peri physeôs] (_De
+natura_), of which considerable fragments are extant (chiefly in
+Simplicius); it is possible that he wrote also Against the Sophists and
+_On the Nature of Man_, to which the well-known fragment about the veins
+would belong; possibly these discussions were subdivisions of his great
+work.
+
+  Fragments in F. Mullach, _Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum_, i.
+  (1860); F. Panzerbieter, _Diogenes Apolloniates_ (1830), with
+  philosophical dissertation; J. Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_
+  (1892); H. Ritter and L. Preller, _Historia philosophiae_ (4th ed.,
+  1869), §§ 59-68; E. Krause, _Diogenes von Apollonia_ (1909). See
+  IONIAN SCHOOL.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENES LAËRTIUS (or LAËRTIUS DIOGENES), the biographer of the Greek
+philosophers, is supposed by some to have received his surname from the
+town of Laërte in Cilicia, and by others from the Roman family of the
+Laërtii. Of the circumstances of his life we know nothing. He must have
+lived after Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), whom he mentions, and
+before Stephanus of Byzantium (c. A.D. 500), who quotes him. It is
+probable that he flourished during the reign of Alexander Severus (A.D.
+222-235) and his successors. His own opinions are equally uncertain. By
+some he was regarded as a Christian; but it seems more probable that he
+was an Epicurean. The work by which he is known professes to give an
+account of the lives and sayings of the Greek philosophers. Although it
+is at best an uncritical and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as
+giving us an insight into the private life of the Greek sages, justly
+led Montaigne to exclaim that he wished that instead of one Laërtius
+there had been a dozen. He treats his subject in two divisions which he
+describes as the Ionian and the Italian schools; the division is quite
+unscientific. The biographies of the former begin with Anaximander, and
+end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and Chrysippus; the latter begins
+with Pythagoras, and ends with Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its
+various branches, is classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and
+sceptics are treated under the Italic. The whole of the last book is
+devoted to Epicurus, and contains three most interesting letters
+addressed to Herodotus, Pythocles and Menoeceus. His chief authorities
+were Diocles of Magnesia's _Cursory Notice_ ([Greek: Epidromê]) _of
+Philosophers_ and Favorinus's _Miscellaneous History_ and _Memoirs_.
+From the statements of Burlaeus (Walter Burley, a 14th-century monk) in
+his _De vita et moribus philosophorum_ the text of Diogenes seems to
+have been much fuller than that which we now possess. In addition to the
+_Lives_, Diogenes was the author of a work in verse on famous men, in
+various metres.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Editio princeps_ (1533); H. Hübner and C. Jacobitz
+  with commentary (1828-1833); C. G. Cobet (1850), text only. See F.
+  Nietzsche, "De Diogenis Laërtii fontibus" in _Rheinisches Museum_,
+  xxiii., xxiv. (1868-1869); J. Freudenthal, "Zu Quellenkunde Diog.
+  Laërt.," in _Hellenistische Studien_, iii. (1879); O. Maass, _De
+  biographis Graecis_ (1880); V. Egger, _De fontibus Diog. Laërt._
+  (1881). There is an English translation by C. D. Yonge in Bohn's
+  Classical Library.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENIANUS, of Heraclea on the Pontus (or in Caria), Greek grammarian,
+flourished during the reign of Hadrian. He was the author of an
+alphabetical lexicon, chiefly of poetical words, abridged from the great
+lexicon ([Greek: Peri glossôn]) of Pamphilus of Alexandria (fl. A.D. 50)
+and other similar works. It was also known by the title [Greek:
+Periergopenêtes] (for the use of "industrious poor students"). It formed
+the basis of the lexicon, or rather glossary, of Hesychius of
+Alexandria, which is described in the preface as a new edition of the
+work of Diogenianus. We still possess a collection of proverbs under his
+name, probably an abridgment of the collection made by himself from his
+lexicon (ed. by E. Leutsch and F. W. Schneidewin in _Paroemiographi
+Graeci_, i. 1839). Diogenianus was also the author of an Anthology of
+epigrams, of treatises on rivers, lakes, fountains and promontories; and
+of a list (with map) of all the towns in the world.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO, one of the early Christian apologies. Diognetus,
+of whom nothing is really known, has expressed a desire to know what
+Christianity really means--"What is this new race" of men who are
+neither pagans nor Jews? "What is this new interest which has entered
+into men's lives now and not before?" The anonymous answer begins with a
+refutation of the folly of worshipping idols, fashioned by human hands
+and needing to be guarded if of precious material. The repulsive smell
+of animal sacrifices is enough to show their monstrous absurdity. Next
+Judaism is attacked. Jews abstain from idolatry and worship one God, but
+they fall into the same error of repulsive sacrifice, and have absurd
+superstitions about meats and sabbaths, circumcision and new moons. So
+far the task is easy; but the mystery of the Christian religion "think
+not to learn from man." A passage of great eloquence follows, showing
+that Christians have no obvious peculiarities that mark them off as a
+separate race. In spite of blameless lives they are hated. Their home is
+in heaven, while they live on earth. "In a word, what the soul is in a
+body, this the Christians are in the world.... The soul is enclosed in
+the body, and yet itself holdeth the body together: so Christians are
+kept in the world as in a prison-house, and yet they themselves hold the
+world together." This strange life is inspired in them by the almighty
+and invisible God, who sent no angel or subordinate messenger to teach
+them, but His own Son by whom He created the universe. No man could have
+known God, had He not thus declared Himself. "If thou too wouldst have
+this faith, learn first the knowledge of the Father. For God loved men,
+for whose sake He made the world.... Knowing Him, thou wilt love Him and
+imitate His goodness; and marvel not if a man can imitate God; he can,
+if God will." By kindness to the needy, by giving them what God has
+given to him, a man can become "a god of them that receive, an imitator
+of God." "Then shalt thou on earth behold God's life in heaven; then
+shalt thou begin to speak the mysteries of God." A few lines after this
+the letter suddenly breaks off.
+
+Even this rapid summary may show that the writer was a man of no
+ordinary power, and there is no other early Christian writing outside
+the New Testament which appeals so strongly to modern readers. The
+letter has been often classed with the writings of the Apostolic
+Fathers, and in some ways it seems to mark the transition from the
+sub-apostolic age to that of the Apologists. Bishop Lightfoot, who
+speaks of the letter as "one of the noblest and most impressive of early
+Christian apologies," places it c. A.D. 150, and inclines to identify
+Diognetus with the tutor of Marcus Aurelius. Harnack and others would
+place it later, perhaps in the 3rd century. There are some striking
+parallels in method and language to the Apology of Aristides (q.v.), and
+also to the early "Preaching of Peter."
+
+The one manuscript which contained this letter perished by fire at
+Strassburg in 1870, but happily it had been accurately collated by Reuss
+nine years before. It formed part of a collection of works supposed to
+be by Justin Martyr, and to this mistaken attribution its preservation
+is no doubt due. Both thought and language mark the author off entirely
+from Justin. The end of the letter is lost, but there followed in the
+codex the end of a homily,[1] which was attached without a break to the
+epistle: this points to the loss in some earlier codex of pages
+containing the end of the letter and the beginning of the homily.
+
+  The Epistle may be read in J. B. Lightfoot's _Apostolic Fathers_ (ed.
+  min.), where there is also a translation into English.     (J. A. R.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Chapters xi. and xii., which Lightfoot suggested might be the work
+    of Pantaenus.
+
+
+
+
+DIOMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Tydeus, one of the bravest of the
+heroes of the Trojan War. In the _Iliad_ he is the favourite of Athena,
+by whose aid he not only overcomes all mortals who venture to oppose
+him, but is even enabled to attack the gods. In the post-Homeric story,
+he made his way with Odysseus by an underground passage into the citadel
+of Troy and carried off the Palladium, the presence of which within the
+walls secured Troy against capture (Virgil, _Aeneid_, ii. 164). On his
+return to Argos, finding that his wife had been unfaithful, he removed
+to Aetolia, and thence to Daunia (Apulia), where he married the daughter
+of King Daunus. He was buried or mysteriously disappeared on one of the
+islands in the Adriatic called after him Diomedeae, his sorrowing
+companions being changed into birds by the gods out of compassion (Ovid,
+_Metam._ xiv. 457 ff.). He was the reputed founder of Argyrippa (Arpi)
+and other Italian cities (_Aeneid_, xi. 243 ff.). He was worshipped as a
+hero not only in Greece, but on the coast of the Adriatic, as at Thurii
+and Metapontum. At Argos, his native place, during the festival of
+Athena, his shield was carried through the streets as a relic, together
+with the Palladium, and his statue was washed in the river Inachus.
+
+
+
+
+DIOMEDES, Latin grammarian, flourished at the end of the 4th century
+A.D. He was the author of an extant _Ars grammatica_ in three books,
+dedicated to a certain Athanasius. The third book is the most important,
+as containing extracts from Suetonius's _De poëtis_. Diomedes wrote
+about the same time as Charisius (q.v.) and used the same sources
+independently. The works of both grammarians are valuable, but whereas
+much of Charisius has been lost, the Ars of Diomedes has come down to us
+complete. In book i. he treats of the eight parts of speech; in ii. of
+the elementary ideas of grammar and of style; in iii. of quantity and
+metres.
+
+  The best edition is in H. Keil's _Grammatici Latini_, i.; see also C.
+  von Paucker, _Kleinere Studien_, i. (1883), on the Latinity of
+  Diomedes.
+
+
+
+
+DION, tyrant of Syracuse (408-353 B.C.), the son of Hipparinus, and
+brother-in-law of Dionysius the Elder. In his youth he was an admirer
+and pupil of Plato, whom Dionysius had invited to Syracuse; and he used
+every effort to inculcate the maxims of his master in the mind of the
+tyrant. The stern morality of Dion was distasteful to the younger
+Dionysius, and the historian Philistus, a faithful supporter of despotic
+power, succeeded in procuring his banishment on account of alleged
+intrigues with the Carthaginians. The exiled philosopher retired to
+Athens, where he was at first permitted to enjoy his revenues in peace;
+but the intercession of Plato (who had again visited Syracuse to procure
+Dion's recall) only served to exasperate the tyrant, and at length
+provoked him to confiscate the property of Dion, and give his wife to
+another. This last outrage roused Dion. Assembling a small force at
+Zacynthus, he sailed to Sicily (357) and was received with
+demonstrations of joy. Dionysius, who was in Italy, returned to Sicily,
+but was defeated and obliged to flee. Dion himself was soon after
+supplanted by the intrigues of Heracleides, and again banished. The
+incompetency of the new leader and the cruelties of Apollocrates, the
+son of Dionysius, soon led to his recall. He had, however, scarcely made
+himself master of Sicily when the people began to express their
+discontent with his tyrannical conduct, and he was assassinated by
+Callippus, an Athenian who had accompanied him in his expedition.
+
+  See _Lives_ by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi. 6-20)
+  and in modern times by T. Lau (1860); see also SYRACUSE and SICILY:
+  _History_.
+
+
+
+
+DIONE, in the earliest Greek mythology, the wife of Zeus. As such she is
+associated with Zeus Naïus (the god of fertilizing moisture) at Dodona
+(Strabo vii. p. 329), by whose side she sits, adorned with a bridal veil
+and garland and holding a sceptre. As the oracle declined in importance,
+her place as the wife of Zeus was taken by Hera. It is probable that in
+very early times the cult of Dione existed in Athens, where she had an
+altar before the Erechtheum. After her admission to the general
+religious system of the Greeks, Dione was variously described. In the
+_Iliad_ (v. 370) she is the mother by Zeus of Aphrodite, who is herself
+in later times called Dione (the epithet Dionaeus was given to Julius
+Caesar as claiming descent from Venus). In Hesiod (_Theog._ 353) she is
+one of the daughters of Oceanus; in Pherecydes (ap. schol. _Iliad_,
+xviii. 486), one of the nymphs of Dodona, the nurses of Dionysus; in
+Euripides (frag. 177), the mother of Dionysus; in Hyginus (fab. 9. 82),
+the daughter of Atlas, wife of Tantalus and mother of Pelops and Niobe.
+Others make her a Titanid, the daughter of Uranus and Gaea (Apollodorus
+i. 1). Speaking generally, Dione may be regarded as the female
+embodiment of the attributes of Zeus, to whose name her own is related
+as Juno (= Jovino) to Jupiter.
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIA, festivals in honour of the god Dionysus generally, but in
+particular the festivals celebrated in Attica and by the branches of the
+Attic-Ionic race in the islands and in Asia Minor. In Attica there were
+two festivals annually. (1) The lesser Dionysia, or [Greek: ta kat
+agrous], was held in the country places for four days (about the 19th to
+the 22nd of December) at the first tasting of the new wine. It was
+accompanied by songs, dance, phallic processions and the impromptu
+performances of itinerant players, who with others from the city
+thronged to take part in the excitement of the rustic sports. A
+favourite amusement was the Ascoliasmus, or dancing on one leg upon a
+leathern bag ([Greek: askos]), which had been smeared with oil. (2) The
+_greater_ Dionysia, or [Greek: ta en astei], was held in the city of
+Athens for six days (about the 28th of March to the 2nd of April). This
+was a festival of joy at the departure of winter and the promise of
+summer, Dionysus being regarded as having delivered the people from the
+wants and troubles of winter. The religious act of the festival was the
+conveying of the ancient image of the god, which had been brought from
+Eleutherae to Athens, from the ancient sanctuary of the Lenaeum to a
+small temple near the Acropolis and back again, with a chorus of boys
+and a procession carrying masks and singing the dithyrambus. The
+festival culminated in the production of tragedies, comedies and satyric
+dramas in the great theatre of Dionysus. Other festivals in honour of
+Dionysus were the Anthesteria (q.v.); the Lenaea (about the 28th to the
+31st of January), or festival of vats, at which, after a great public
+banquet, the citizens went through the city in procession to attend the
+dramatic representations; the Oschophoria (October-November), a vintage
+festival, so called from the branches of vine with grapes carried by
+twenty youths from the ephebi, two from each tribe, in a race from the
+temple of Dionysus in Athens to the temple of Athena Sciras in Phalerum.
+
+  See A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); L. Preller,
+  _Griechische Mythologie_; L. C. Purser in Smith's _Dictionary of
+  Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1890); article DIONYSOS in W. H. Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and the exhaustive account with bibliography
+  by J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_.
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS, pope from 259 to 268. To Dionysius, who was elected pope in
+259 after the persecution of Valerian, fell the task of reorganizing the
+Roman church, which had fallen into great disorder. At the protest of
+some of the faithful at Alexandria, he demanded from the bishop of
+Alexandria, also called Dionysius, explanations touching his doctrine.
+He died on the 26th of December 268.
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS (c. 432-367 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, began life as a clerk
+in a public office, but by courage and diplomacy succeeded in making
+himself supreme (see SYRACUSE). He carried on war with Carthage with
+varying success; his attempts to drive the Carthaginians entirely out of
+the island failed, and at his death they were masters of at least a
+third of it. He also carried on an expedition against Rhegium and its
+allied cities in Magna Graecia. In one campaign, in which he was joined
+by the Lucanians, he devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton and
+Locri. After a protracted siege he took Rhegium (386), and sold the
+inhabitants as slaves. He joined the Illyrians in an attempt to plunder
+the temple of Delphi, pillaged the temple of Caere on the Etruscan
+coast, and founded several military colonies on the Adriatic. In the
+Peloponnesian War he espoused the side of the Spartans, and assisted
+them with mercenaries. He also posed as an author and patron of
+literature; his poems, severely criticized by Philoxenus, were hissed at
+the Olympic games; but having gained a prize for a tragedy on the
+_Ransom of Hector_ at the Lenaea at Athens, he was so elated that he
+engaged in a debauch which proved fatal. According to others, he was
+poisoned by his physicians at the instigation of his son. His life was
+written by Philistus, but the work is not extant. Dionysius was regarded
+by the ancients as a type of the worst kind of despot--cruel, suspicious
+and vindictive. Like Peisistratus, he was fond of having distinguished
+literary men about him, such as the historian Philistus, the poet
+Philoxenus, and the philosopher Plato, but treated them in a most
+arbitrary manner.
+
+  See Diod. Sic. xiii., xiv., xv.; J. Bass, _Dionysius I. von Syrakus_
+  (Vienna, 1881), with full references to authorities in footnotes;
+  articles SICILY and SYRACUSE.
+
+His son DIONYSIUS, known as "the Younger," succeeded in 367 B.C. He was
+driven from the kingdom by Dion (356) and fled to Locri; but during the
+commotions which followed Dion's assassination, he managed to make
+himself master of Syracuse. On the arrival of Timoleon he was compelled
+to surrender and retire to Corinth (343), where he spent the rest of his
+days in poverty (Diodorus Siculus xvi.; Plutarch, _Timoleon_).
+
+  See SYRACUSE and TIMOLEON; and, on both the Dionysii, articles by B.
+  Niese in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, v. pt. 1 (1905).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS (or "the Areopagite"), named in Acts xvii. 34 as
+one of those Athenians who believed when they had heard Paul preach on
+Mars Hill. Beyond this mention our only knowledge of him is the
+statement of Dionysius, bishop of Corinth (fl. A.D. 171), recorded by
+Eusebius (_Church Hist._ iii. 4; iv. 23), that this same Dionysius the
+Areopagite was the first "bishop" of Athens. Some hundreds of years
+after the Areopagite's death, his name was attached by the
+Pseudo-Areopagite to certain theological writings composed by the
+latter. These were destined to exert enormous influence upon medieval
+thought, and their fame led to the extension of the personal legend of
+the real Dionysius. Hilduin, abbot of St Denys (814-840), identified him
+with St Denys, martyr and patron-saint of France. In Hilduin's
+_Areopagitica_, the Life and Passion of the most holy Dionysius (Migne,
+_ Patrol. Lat._ tome 106), the Areopagite is sent to France by Clement
+of Rome, and suffers martyrdom upon the hill where the monastery called
+St Denys was to rise in his honour. There is no earlier trace of this
+identification, and Gregory of Tours (d. 594) says (_Hist. Francorum_,
+i. 18) that St Denys came to France in the reign of Decius (A.D. 250),
+which falls about midway between the presumptive death of the real
+Areopagite and the probable date of the writings to which he owed his
+adventitious fame.
+
+Traces of the influence of these writings appear in the works of Eastern
+theologians in the early part of the 6th century. They also were cited
+at the council held in Constantinople in 533, which is the first certain
+dated reference to them. In the West, Gregory the Great (d. 604) refers
+to them in his thirty-fourth sermon on the gospels (Migne, _Pat. Lat._
+tome 76, col. 1254). They did not, however, become generally known in
+the Western church till after the year 827, when the Byzantine emperor
+Michael the Stammerer sent a copy to Louis the Pious. It was given over
+to the care of the above-mentioned abbot Hilduin. In the next generation
+the scholar and philosopher Joannes Scotus Erigena (q.v.) translated the
+Dionysian writings into Latin. This appears to have been the only Latin
+translation until the 12th century when another was made, followed by
+several others.
+
+Thus, the author, date and place of composition of these writings are
+unknown. External evidence precludes a date later than the year 500, and
+the internal evidence from the writings themselves precludes any date
+prior to 4th-century phases of Neo-platonism. The extant writings of the
+Pseudo-Areopagite are: (a) [Greek: Peri tês ouranias hierarchias],
+_Concerning the Celestial Hierarchy_, in fifteen chapters. (b) [Greek:
+Peri tês ekklêsiastikês hierarchias], _Concerning the Ecclesiastical
+Hierarchy_, in seven chapters. (c) [Greek: Peri theiôn onomatôn],
+_Concerning Divine Names_, in thirteen chapters. (d) [Greek: Peri
+mystikês theologias], _Concerning Mystic Theology_, in five chapters.
+(e) Ten letters addressed to various worthies of the apostolic period.
+
+Although these writings seem complete, they contain references to others
+of the same author. But of the latter nothing is known, and they may
+never have existed.
+
+The writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite are of great interest, first as a
+striking presentation of the heterogeneous elements that might unite in
+the mind of a gifted man in the 5th century, and secondly, because of
+their enormous influence upon subsequent Christian theology and art.
+Their ingredients--Christian, Greek, Oriental and Jewish--are not
+crudely mingled, but are united into an organic system. Perhaps
+theological philosophic fantasy has never constructed anything more
+remarkable. The system of Dionysius was a proper product of its
+time,--lofty, apparently complete, comparable to the _Enneads_ of
+Plotinus which formed part of its materials. But its materials abounded
+everywhere, and offered themselves temptingly to the hand strong enough
+to build with them. There was what had entered into Neo-platonism, both
+in its dialectic form as established by Plotinus, and in its
+magic-mystic modes devised by Iamblichus (d. c. 333). There was Jewish
+angel lore and Eastern mood and fancy; and there was Christianity so
+variously understood and heterogeneously constituted among Syro-Judaic
+Hellenic communities. Such Christianity held materials for formula and
+creed; also principles of liturgic and sacramental doctrine and priestly
+function; also a mass of popular beliefs as to intermediate superhuman
+beings who seemed nearer to men than any member of the Trinity.
+
+Out of this vast spiritual conglomerate, Pseudo-Dionysius formed his
+system. It was not juristic,--not Roman, Pauline or Augustinian. Rather
+he borrowed his constructive principles from Hellenism in its last great
+creation, Neo-platonism. That had been able to gather and arrange within
+itself the various elements of latter-day paganism. The Neo-platonic
+categories might be altered in name and import, and yet the scheme
+remain a scheme; since the general principle of the transmission of life
+from the ultimate Source downward through orders of mediating beings
+unto men, might readily be adapted to the Christian God and his
+ministering angels. Pseudo-Dionysius had lofty thoughts of the sublime
+transcendence of the ultimate divine Source. That source was not remote
+or inert; but a veritable Source from which life streamed to all lower
+orders of existence,--in part directly, and in part indirectly as power
+and guidance through the higher orders to the lower. Life, creation,
+every good gift, is from God directly; but his flaming ministers also
+intervene to guide and aid the life of man; and the life which through
+love floods forth from God has its counterflow whereby it draws its own
+creations to itself. God is at once absolutely transcendent and
+universally immanent. To live is to be united with God; evil is the
+nonexistent, that is, severance from God. Whatever is, is part of the
+forth-flowing divine life which ever purifies, enlightens and perfects,
+and so draws all back to the Source.
+
+The transcendent Source, as well as the universal immanence, is the
+Triune God. Between that and men are ranged the three triads of the
+Celestial Hierarchy: Seraphim, Cherubim and Thrones; Dominations,
+Virtues, Powers; Principalities, Archangels, Angels. Collectively their
+general office is to raise mankind to God through purification,
+illumination and perfection; and to all may be applied the term angel.
+The highest triad, which is nearest God, contemplates the divine
+effulgence, and reflects it onward to the second; the third, and more
+specifically angelic triad, immediately ministers to men. The sources of
+these names are evident: seraphim and cherubim are from the Old
+Testament; later Jewish writings gave names to archangels and angels,
+who also fill important functions in the New Testament. The other names
+are from Paul (Eph. i. 21; Col. i. 16).
+
+Such is the system of Pseudo-Dionysius, as presented mainly in _The
+Celestial Hierarchy_. That work is followed by _The Ecclesiastical
+Hierarchy_, its counterpart on earth. What the primal triune Godhead is
+to the former, Jesus is to the latter. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy
+likewise is composed of Triads. The first includes the symbolic
+sacraments: Baptism, Communion, Consecration of the Holy Chrism. Baptism
+signifies purification; Communion signifies enlightening; the Holy
+Chrism signifies perfecting. The second triad is made up of the three
+orders of Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons, or rather, as the Areopagite
+names them: Hierarchs, Light-bearers, Servitors. The third triad
+consists of monks, who are in a state of perfection, the initiated
+laity, who are in a state of illumination, and the catechumens, in a
+state of purification. All worship, in this treatise, is a celebration
+of mysteries, and the pagan mysteries are continually suggested by the
+terms employed.
+
+The work _Concerning the Divine Names_ is a noble discussion of the
+qualities which may be predicated of God, according to the warrant of
+the terms applied to him in Scripture. The work _Concerning Mystic
+Theology_ explains the function of symbols, and shows that he who would
+know God truly must rise above them and above the conceptions of God
+drawn from sensible things.
+
+The works of Pseudo-Dionysius began to influence theological thought in
+the West from the time of their translation into Latin by Erigena. Their
+use may be followed through the writings of scholastic philosophers,
+e.g. Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas and many others. In
+poetry we find their influence in Dante, Spenser, Milton. The fifteenth
+chapter of _The Celestial Hierarchy_ constituted the canon of symbolical
+angelic lore for the literature and art of the middle ages. Therein the
+author explains in what respect theology ascribes to angels the
+qualities of fire, why the thrones are said to be _fiery_ ([Greek:
+pyrinous]); why the seraphim are _burning_ ([Greek: emprêstas]) as their
+name indicates. The fiery form signifies, with Celestial Intelligences,
+likeness to God. Dionysius explains the significance of the parts of the
+human body when given to celestial beings: feet are ascribed to angels
+to denote their unceasing movement on the divine business, and their
+feet are winged to denote their celerity. He likewise explains the
+symbolism of wands and axes, of brass and precious stones, when joined
+to celestial beings; and what wheels and a chariot denote when furnished
+to them,--and much more besides.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is an enormous literature on Pseudo-Dionysius.
+  The reader may be first referred to the articles in Smith's
+  _Dictionary of Christian Biography_ and Hauck's _Realencyklopadie fur
+  protestantische Theologie_ (Leipzig, 1898). The bibliography in the
+  latter is very full. Some other references, especially upon the later
+  influence of these works, are given in H. O. Taylor's _Classical
+  Heritage of the Middle Ages_ (Macmillan, 1903). The works themselves
+  are in Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, tomes 3 and 4, with a Latin
+  version. Erigena's version is in Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ t. 122. _Vita
+  Dionysii_ by Hilduin is in Migne, _Pat. Lat._ 106. There is an English
+  version by Parker (London, 1894 and 1897).     (H. O. T.)
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS, one of the most learned men of the 6th century, and
+especially distinguished as a chronologist, was, according to the
+statement of his friend Cassiodorus, a Scythian by birth, "_Scytha
+natione_." This may mean only that he was a native of the region
+bordering on the Black Sea, and does not necessarily imply that he was
+not of Greek origin. Such origin is indicated by his name and by his
+thorough familiarity with the Greek language. His surname "Exiguus" is
+usually translated "the Little," but he probably assumed it out of
+humility. He was living at Rome in the first half of the 6th century,
+and is usually spoken of as abbot of a Roman monastery. Cassiodorus,
+however, calls him simply "monk," while Bede calls him "abbot." But as
+it was not unusual to apply the latter term to distinguished monks who
+were not heads of their houses, it is uncertain whether Dionysius was
+abbot in fact or only by courtesy. He was in high repute as a learned
+theologian, was profoundly versed in the Holy Scriptures and in canon
+law, and was also an accomplished mathematician and astronomer. We owe
+to him a collection of 401 ecclesiastical canons, including the
+apostolical canons and the decrees of the councils of Nicaea,
+Constantinople, Chalcedon and Sardis, and also a collection of the
+decretals of the popes from Siricius (385) to Anastasius II. (498).
+These collections, which had great authority in the West (see CANON
+LAW), were published by Justel in 1628. Dionysius did good service to
+his contemporaries by his translations of many Greek works into Latin;
+and by these translations some works, the originals of which have
+perished, have been handed down to us. His name, however, is now perhaps
+chiefly remembered for his chronological labours. It was Dionysius who
+introduced the method of reckoning the Christian era which we now use
+(see CHRONOLOGY). His friend Cassiodorus depicts in glowing terms the
+character of Dionysius as a saintly ascetic, and praises his wisdom and
+simplicity, his accomplishments and his lowly-mindedness, his power of
+eloquent speech and his capacity of silence. He died at Rome, some time
+before A.D. 550.
+
+  His works have been published in Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, tome 67;
+  see especially A. Tardif, _Histoire des sources du droit canonique_
+  (Paris, 1887), and D. Pitra, _Analecta novissima, Spicilegii
+  Solesmensis continuatio_, vol. i. p. 36 (Paris, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS ("of Halicarnassus"), Greek historian and
+teacher of rhetoric, flourished during the reign of Augustus. He went to
+Rome after the termination of the civil wars, and spent twenty-two years
+in studying the Latin language and literature and preparing materials
+for his history. During this period he gave lessons in rhetoric, and
+enjoyed the society of many distinguished men. The date of his death is
+unknown. His great work, entitled [Greek: Rômaikê archaiologia] (Roman
+Antiquities), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical period to
+the beginning of the first Punic War. It was divided into twenty
+books,--of which the first nine remain entire, the tenth and eleventh
+are nearly complete, and the remaining books exist in fragments in the
+excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus and an epitome discovered by
+Angelo Mai in a Milan MS. The first three books of Appian, and
+Plutarch's _Life of Camillus_ also embody much of Dionysius. His chief
+object was to reconcile the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon
+the good qualities of their conquerors. According to him, history is
+philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried out from
+the point of view of the Greek rhetorician. But he has carefully
+consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of Livy are the
+only connected and detailed extant accounts of early Roman history.
+
+Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in which
+he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic models:--_The Art
+of Rhetoric_ (which is rather a collection of essays on the theory of
+rhetoric), incomplete, and certainly not all his work; _The Arrangement
+of Words_ ([Greek: Peri syntheseôs onomatôn]), treating of the
+combination of words according to the different styles of oratory; _On
+Imitation_ ([Greek: Peri mimêseôs]), on the best models in the different
+kinds of literature and the way in which they are to be imitated--a
+fragmentary work; _Commentaries on the Attic Orators_ ([Greek: Peri tôn
+archaiôn rhêtorôn hypomnêmatismoi]), which, however, only deal with
+Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates and (by way of supplement) Dinarchus; _On the
+admirable Style of Demosthenes_ ([Greek: Peri tês lektikês Dêmosthenous
+deinotêtos]); and _On the Character of Thucydides_ ([Greek: Peri tou
+Thoukydidou charakteros]), a detailed but on the whole an unfair
+estimate. These two treatises are supplemented by letters to Cn.
+Pompeius and Ammaeus (two).
+
+  Complete edition by J. J. Reiske (1774-1777); of the _Archaeologia_ by
+  A. Kiessling and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885-1891); Opuscula by
+  Usener and Radermacher (1899); Eng. translation by E. Spelman (1758).
+  A full bibliography of the rhetorical works is given in W. Rhys
+  Roberts's edition of the Three Literary Letters (1901); the same
+  author published an edition of the _De compositione verborum_ (1910,
+  with trans.); see also M. Egger, _Denys d'Halicarnasse_ (1902), a very
+  useful treatise. On the sources of Dionysius see O. Bocksch, "De
+  fontibus Dion. Halicarnassensis" in _Leipziger Studien_, xvii. (1895).
+  Cf. also J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (1906).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, author of a [Greek: Periêgêsis tês oikoumenês], a
+description of the habitable world in Greek hexameter verse, written in
+a terse and elegant style. Nothing certain is known of the date or
+nationality of the writer, but there is some reason for believing that
+he was an Alexandrian, who wrote in the time of Hadrian (some put him as
+late as the end of the 3rd century). The work enjoyed a high degree of
+popularity in ancient times as a school-book; it was translated into
+Latin by Rufus Festus Avienus, and by the grammarian Priscian. The
+commentary of Eustathius is valuable.
+
+  The best editions are by G. Bernhardy (1828) and C. Müller (1861) in
+  their _Geographici Graeci minores_; see also E. H. Bunbury, _Ancient
+  Geography_ (ii. p. 480), who regards the author as flourishing from
+  the reign of Nero to that of Trajan, and U. Bernays, _Studien zu Dion.
+  Perieg._ (1905). There are two old English translations: T. Twine
+  (1572, black letter), J. Free (1789, blank verse).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS ("of Tell-Ma[h.]r[=e]"), patriarch or supreme
+head of the Syrian Jacobite Church during the years 818-848, was born at
+Tell-Ma[h.]r[=e] near Ra[k.][k.]a (ar-Ra[k.][k.]ah) on the Bal[=i]kh. He
+was the author of an important historical work, which has seemingly
+perished except for some passages quoted by Barhebraeus and an extract
+found by Assemani in Cod. _Vat._ 144 and published by him in the
+_Bibliotheca orientalis_ (ii. 72-77). He spent his earlier years as a
+monk at the convent of [K.]en-neshr[=e] on the upper Euphrates; and when
+this monastery was destroyed by fire in 815, he migrated northwards to
+that of Kais[=u]m in the district of Samos[=a]ta. At the death of the
+Jacobite patriarch Cyriacus in 817, the church was agitated by a dispute
+about the use of the phrase "heavenly bread" in connexion with the
+Eucharist. An anti-patriarch had been appointed in the person of Abraham
+of [K.]artam[=i]n, who insisted on the use of the phrase in opposition
+to the recognized authorities of the church. The council of bishops who
+met at Ra[k.][k.]a in the summer of 818 to choose a successor to
+Cyriacus had great difficulty in finding a worthy occupant of the
+patriarchal chair, but finally agreed on the election of Dionysius,
+hitherto known only as an honest monk who devoted himself to historical
+studies. Sorely against his will he was brought to Ra[k.][k.]a, ordained
+deacon and priest on two successive days, and raised to the supreme
+ecclesiastical dignity on the 1st of August. From this time he showed
+the utmost zeal in fulfilling the duties of his office, and undertook
+many journeys both within and without his province. The ecclesiastical
+schism continued unhealed during the thirty years of his patriarchate.
+The details of this contest, of his relations with the caliph Ma'm[=u]n,
+and of his many travels--including a journey to Egypt, on which he
+viewed with admiration the great Egyptian monuments,--are to be found in
+the _Ecclesiastical Chronicle_ of Barhebraeus.[1] He died in 848, his
+last days having been especially embittered by Mahommedan oppression.
+We learn from Michael the Syrian that his _Annals_ consisted of two
+parts each divided into eight chapters, and covered a period of 260
+years, viz. from the accession of the emperor Maurice (582-583) to the
+death of Theophilus (842-843).
+
+In addition to the lost _Annals_, Dionysius was from the time of
+Assemani until 1896 credited with the authorship of another important
+historical work--a _Chronicle_, which in four parts narrates the history
+of the world from the creation to the year A.D. 774-775 and is preserved
+entire in _Cod. Vat._ 162. The first part (edited by Tullberg, Upsala,
+1850) reaches to the epoch of Constantine the Great, and is in the main
+an epitome of the Eusebian Chronicle.[2] The second part reaches to
+Theodosius II. and follows closely the _Ecclesiastical History_ of
+Socrates; while the third, extending to Justin II., reproduces the
+second part of the _History_ of John of Asia or Ephesus, and also
+contains the well-known chronicle attributed to Joshua the Stylite. The
+fourth part[3] is not like the others a compilation, but the original
+work of the author, and reaches to the year 774-775--apparently the date
+when he was writing. On the publication of this fourth part by M.
+Chabot, it was discovered and clearly proved by Nöldeke (_Vienna
+Oriental Journal_, x. 160-170), and Nau (_Bulletin critique_, xvii.
+321-327), who independently reached the same conclusion, that Assemani's
+opinion was a mistake, and that the chronicle in question was the work
+not of Dionysius of Tell-Ma[h.]r[=e] but of an earlier writer, a monk of
+the convent of Zu[k.]n[=i]n near [=A]mid (Diarbekr) on the upper Tigris.
+Though the author was a man of limited intelligence and destitute of
+historical skill, yet the last part of his work at least has
+considerable value as a contemporary account of events during the middle
+period of the 8th century.     (N. M.)
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Ed. Abbeloos and Lamy, i. 343-386; cf. Wright, _Syriac
+    Literature_, 196-200, and Chabot's introduction to his translation of
+    the fourth part of the _Chronicle_ of (pseudo) Dionysius.
+
+  [2] See the studies by Siegfried and Gelzer, _Eusebii canonum epitome
+    ex Dionysii Telmaharensis chronico petita_ (Leipzig, 1884), and von
+    Gutschmid, _Untersuchungen über die syrische Epitome der Eusebischen
+    Canones_ (Stuttgart, 1886).
+
+  [3] Text and translation by J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS THRAX (so called because his father was a Thracian), the
+author of the first Greek grammar, flourished about 100 B.C. He was a
+native of Alexandria, where he attended the lectures of Aristarchus, and
+afterwards taught rhetoric in Rhodes and Rome. His [Greek: Technê
+grammatikê], which we possess (though probably not in its original
+form), begins with the definition of grammar and its functions. Dealing
+next with accent, punctuation marks, sounds and syllables, it goes on to
+the different parts of speech (eight in number) and their inflections.
+No rules of syntax are given, and nothing is said about style. The
+authorship of Dionysius was doubted by many of the early middle-age
+commentators and grammarians, and in modern times its origin has been
+attributed to the oecumenical college founded by Constantine the Great,
+which continued in existence till 730. But there seems no reason for
+doubt; the great grammarians of imperial times (Apollonius Dyscolus and
+Herodian) were acquainted with the work in its present form, although,
+as was natural considering its popularity, additions and alterations may
+have been made later. The [Greek: Technê] was first edited by J. A.
+Fabricius from a Hamburg MS. and published in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_,
+vi. (ed. Harles). An Armenian translation, belonging to the 4th or 5th
+century, containing five additional chapters, was published with the
+Greek text and a French version, by M. Cirbied (1830). Dionysius also
+contributed much to the criticism and elucidation of Homer, and was the
+author of various other works--amongst them an account of Rhodes, and a
+collection of [Greek: Meletai] (literary studies), to which the
+considerable fragment in the _Stromata_ (v. 8) of Clement of Alexandria
+probably belongs.
+
+  Editions, with scholia, by I. Bekker in _Anecdota Graeca_, ii. and G.
+  Uhlig (1884), reviewed exhaustively by P. Egenolff in Bursian's
+  _Jahresbericht_, vol. xlvi. (1888); Scholia, ed. A. Hilgard (1901);
+  see also W. Hörschelmann, _De Dionysii Thracis interpretibus
+  veteribus_ (1874); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, i.
+  (1906).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSUS (probably = "son of Zeus," from [Greek: Dios] and [Greek:
+nysos], a Thracian word for "son"), in Greek mythology, originally a
+nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially of the vine;
+hence, distinctively, the god of wine. The names Bacchus ([Greek:
+Bakchos], in use among the Greeks from the 5th century), Sabazius, and
+Bassareus, are also Thracian names of the god. The two first (like
+Iacchus, Bromius and Euios) have been connected with the loud "shout"
+([Greek: sabazein = bazein = eúazein]) of his worshippers, Bassareus
+with [Greek: bassárai], the fox-skin garments of the Thracian
+Bacchanals. It has been suggested (J. E. Harrison _Prolegomena to Greek
+Religion_) that Sabazius and Bromius = "beer-god," "god of a cereal
+intoxicant" (cf. Illyrian _sabaia_ and modern Greek [Greek: brômi],
+"oats"), while W. Ridgeway (_Classical Review_, January 1896), comparing
+Apollo Smintheus, interprets Bassareus as "he who keeps away the foxes
+from the vineyards" (for various interpretations of these and other
+cult-titles, see O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. pp. 1408,
+1532, especially the notes).
+
+In Homer, notwithstanding the frequent mention of the use of wine,
+Dionysus is never mentioned as its inventor or introducer, nor does he
+appear in Olympus; Hesiod is the first who calls wine the gift of
+Dionysus. On the other hand, he is spoken of in the _Iliad_ (vi. 130
+foll., a passage belonging to the latest period of epic), as "raging,"
+an epithet that indicates that in those comparatively early times the
+orgiastic character of his worship was recognized. In fact, Dionysus may
+be regarded under two distinct aspects: that of a popular national Greek
+god of wine and cheerfulness, and that of a foreign deity, worshipped
+with ecstatic and mysterious rites introduced from Thrace. According to
+the usual tradition, he was born at Thebes--originally the local centre
+of his worship in Greece--and was the son of Zeus, the fertilizing rain
+god, and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, a personification of earth.
+Before the child was mature, Zeus appeared to Semele at her request in
+his majesty as god of lightning, by which she was killed, but the infant
+was saved from the flames by Zeus (or Hermes). The epithet [Greek:
+perikionios], originally referring to an ivy-crowned, pillar-shaped
+fetish of the god, afterwards gave rise to the legend of a miraculous
+growth of ivy "round the pillars" of the royal palace, whereby the
+infant Dionysus was preserved from the flames. Zeus took him up,
+enclosed him within his own thigh till he came to maturity, and then
+brought him to the light, so that he was twice born; it was to celebrate
+this double birth that the _dithyrambus_ (also used as an epithet of the
+god) was sung (see _Etym. Mag._ s.v.). It has been suggested that this
+is an allusion to the _couvade_ of certain barbarous tribes, amongst
+whom it is customary, when a child is born, for the husband to take to
+his bed and receive medical treatment, as if he shared the pains of
+maternity (see COUVADE, and references there). Dionysus was then
+conveyed by Hermes to be brought up by the nymphs of Nysa, a purely
+imaginary spot, afterwards localized in different parts of the world,
+which claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the god. As
+soon as Dionysus was grown up, he started on a journey through the
+world, to teach the cultivation of the vine and spread his worship among
+men. While so engaged he met with opposition, even in his own country,
+as in the case of Pentheus, king of Thebes, who opposed the orgiastic
+rites introduced by Dionysus among the women of Thebes, and, having been
+discovered watching one of these ceremonies, was mistaken for some
+animal of the chase, and slain by his own mother (see A. G. Bather,
+_Journ. Hell. Studies_, xiv. 1894). A similar instance is that of
+Lycurgus, a Thracian king, from whose attack Dionysus saved himself by
+leaping into the sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis. Lycurgus
+was blinded by Zeus and soon died, or became frantic and hewed down his
+own son, mistaking him for a vine. At Orchomenus, the three daughters of
+Minyas refused to join the other women in their nocturnal orgies, and
+for this were transformed into birds (see AGRIONIA). These and similar
+stories point to the vigorous resistance offered to the introduction of
+the mystic rites of Dionysus, in places where an established religion
+already existed. On the other hand, when the god was received hospitably
+he repaid the kindness by the gift of the vine, as in the case of
+Icarius of Attica (see ERIGONE).
+
+The worship of Dionysus was actively conducted in Asia Minor,
+particularly in Phrygia and Lydia. Here, as Sabazius, he was associated
+with the Phrygian goddess Cybele, and was followed in his expeditions by
+a _thiasos_ (retinue) of centaurs, and satyrs, with Pan and Silenus. In
+Lydia his triumphant return from India was celebrated by an annual
+festival on Mount Tmolus; in Lydia he assumed the long beard and long
+robe which were afterwards given him in his character of the "Indian
+Bacchus," the conqueror of the East, who, after the campaigns of
+Alexander, was reported to have advanced as far as the Ganges. The other
+incidents in which he appears in a purely triumphal character are his
+transforming into dolphins the Tyrrhene pirates who attacked him, as
+told in the Homeric hymn to Dionysus and represented on the monument of
+Lysicrates at Athens, and his part in the war of the gods against the
+giants. The former story has been connected with the sailors' custom of
+hanging vine leaves, ivy and bunches of grapes round the masts of
+vessels in honour of vintage festivals. The adventure with the pirates
+occurred on his voyage to Naxos, where he found Ariadne abandoned by
+Theseus. At Naxos Ariadne (probably a Cretan goddess akin to Aphrodite)
+was associated with Dionysus as his wife, by whom he was the father of
+Oenopion (wine-drinker), Staphylus (grape), and Euanthes (blooming), and
+their marriage was annually celebrated by a festival. Having compelled
+all the world to recognize his divinity, he descended to the underworld
+to bring up his mother, who was afterwards worshipped with him under the
+name of Thyone ("the raging"), he himself being called after her
+Thyoneus.
+
+Another phase in the myth of Dionysus originated in observing the decay
+of vegetation in winter, to suit which he was supposed to be slain and
+to join the deities of the lower world. This phase of his character was
+developed by the Orphic poets, he having here the name of Zagreus ("torn
+in pieces"), and being no longer the Theban god, but a son of Zeus and
+Persephone. The child was brought up secretly, watched over by Curetes;
+but the jealous Hera discovered where he was, and sent Titans to the
+spot, who, finding him at play, tore him to pieces, and cooked and ate
+his limbs, while Hera gave his heart to Zeus. The tearing in pieces is
+referred by some to the torture experienced by the grape
+(_Naturschmerz_) when crushed for making into wine (cf. Burns's _John
+Barleycorn_); but it is better to refer it to the tearing of the flesh
+of the victim at sacrifices at which the deity or the sacred animal was
+slain, and sacramentally eaten raw (cf. the title [Greek: ômêstês] given
+to Dionysus in certain places, probably pointing to human sacrifice.) To
+connect this with the myth of the Theban birth of Dionysus, it is said
+that Zeus gave the child's heart to Semele, or himself swallowed it and
+gave birth to the new Dionysus (called Iacchus from his worshippers' cry
+of rejoicing), who was cradled and swung in a winnowing fan ([Greek:
+liknos]; see J. E. Harrison, _Journ. Hellenic Studies_, xxiii.), the
+swinging being supposed to act as a charm in awakening vegetation from
+its winter sleep. The conception of Zagreus, or the winter Dionysus,
+appears to have originated in Crete, but it was accepted also in Delphi,
+where his grave was shown, and sacrifice was secretly offered at it
+annually on the shortest day. The story is in many respects similar to
+that of Osiris. According to others, Zagreus was originally a god of the
+chase, who became a hunter of men and a god of the underworld, more akin
+to Hades than to Dionysus (see also TITANS).
+
+Dionysus further possessed the prophetic gift, and his oracle at Delphi
+was as important as that of Apollo. Like Hermes, Dionysus was a god of
+the productiveness of nature, and hence Priapus was one of his regular
+companions, while not only in the mysteries but in the rural festivals
+his symbol, the phallus, was carried about ostentatiously. His symbols
+from the animal kingdom were the bull (perhaps a totemistic attribute
+and identified with him), the panther, the lion, the tiger, the ass, the
+goat, and sometimes also the dolphin and the snake. His personal
+attributes are an ivy wreath, the thyrsus (a staff with pine cone at the
+end), the laurel, the pine, a drinking cup, and sometimes the horn of a
+bull on his forehead. Artistically he was represented mostly either as a
+youth of soft, nearly feminine form, or as a bearded and draped man, but
+frequently also as an infant, with reference to his birth or to his
+bringing up in "Nysa." His earliest images were of wood with the
+branches still attached in parts, whence he was called Dionysus
+Dendrites, an allusion to his protection of trees generally (according
+to Pherecydes in C. W. Müller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ iv. p. 637, the word
+[Greek: nysa] signified "tree"). It is suggested that the cult of
+Dionysus absorbed that of an old tree-spirit. He was figured also, like
+Hermes, in the form of a pillar or term surmounted by his head. For the
+connexion of Dionysus with Greek tragedy see DRAMA.
+
+  See Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, v. (1910); also O. Rapp,
+  _Beziehungen des Dionysuskultus zu Thrakien_ (1882); O. Ribbeck,
+  _Anfange und Entwickelung des Dionysuskultes in Attica_ (1869); A.
+  Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_, ii. p. 241; L. Dyer, _The Gods in
+  Greece_ (1891); J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
+  Religion_ (1903); J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, ii (1900), pp.
+  160, 291, who regards the bull and goat form of Dionysus as
+  expressions of his proper character as a deity of vegetation; F. A.
+  Voigt in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; L. Preller, _Griechische
+  Mythologie_ (4th ed. by C. Robert); F. Lenormant (s.v. "Bacchus") in
+  Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_; O. Kern in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_ (with list of cult titles); W.
+  Pater, _Greek Studies_ (1895); E. Rohde, _Psyche_, ii., who finds the
+  origin of the Hellenic belief in the immortality of the soul in the
+  "enthusiastic" rites of the Thracian Dionysus, which lifted persons
+  out of themselves, and exalted them to a fancied equality with the
+  gods; O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte_, ii.
+  (1907), who considers Boeotia, not Thrace, to have been the original
+  home of Dionysus; P. Foucart, "Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique" in
+  _Mémoires de l'Institut national de France_, xxxvii. (1906), who finds
+  the prototype of Dionysus in Egypt. _The Great Dionysiak Myth_
+  (1877-1878) by R. Brown contains a wealth of material, but is weak in
+  scholarship. For a striking survival of Dionysiac rites in Thrace
+  (Bizye), see Dawkins, in _J.H.S._ (1906), p. 191.
+
+
+
+
+DIOPHANTUS, of Alexandria, Greek algebraist, probably flourished about
+the middle of the 3rd century. Not that this date rests on positive
+evidence. But it seems a fair inference from a passage of Michael
+Psellus (_Diophantus_, ed. P. Tannery, ii. p. 38) that he was not later
+than Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea from A.D. 270, while he is not quoted
+by Nicomachus (fl. c. A.D. 100), nor by Theon of Smyrna (c. A.D. 130),
+nor does Greek arithmetic as represented by these authors and by
+Iamblichus (end of 3rd century) show any trace of his influence, facts
+which can only be accounted for by his being later than those
+arithmeticians at least who would have been capable of understanding him
+fully. On the other hand he is quoted by Theon of Alexandria (who
+observed an eclipse at Alexandria in A.D. 365); and his work was the
+subject of a commentary by Theon's daughter Hypatia (d. 415). The
+_Arithmetica_, the greatest treatise on which the fame of Diophantus
+rests, purports to be in thirteen Books, but none of the Greek MSS.
+which have survived contain more than six (though one has the same text
+in seven Books). They contain, however, a fragment of a separate tract
+on _Polygonal Numbers_. The missing books were apparently lost early,
+for there is no reason to suppose that the Arabs who translated or
+commented on Diophantus ever had access to more of the work than we now
+have. The difference in form and content suggests that the _Polygonal
+Numbers_ was not part of the larger work. On the other hand the
+_Porisms_, to which Diophantus makes three references ("we have it in
+the Porisms that ..."), were probably not a separate book but were
+embodied in the _Arithmetica_ itself, whether placed all together or, as
+Tannery thinks, spread over the work in appropriate places. The
+"Porisms" quoted are interesting propositions in the theory of numbers,
+one of which was clearly that _the difference between two cubes can be
+resolved into the sum of two cubes_. Tannery thinks that the solution of
+a complete quadratic promised by Diophantus himself (I. def. 11), and
+really assumed later, was one of the Porisms.
+
+  Among the great variety of problems solved are problems leading to
+  determinate equations of the first degree in one, two, three or four
+  variables, to determinate quadratic equations, and to indeterminate
+  equations of the first degree in one or more variables, which are,
+  however, transformed into determinate equations by arbitrarily
+  assuming a value for one of the required numbers, Diophantus being
+  always satisfied with a rational, even if fractional, result and not
+  requiring a solution in integers. But the bulk of the work consists of
+  problems leading to indeterminate equations of the second degree, and
+  these universally take the form that one or two (and never more)
+  linear or quadratic functions of one variable x are to be made
+  rational square numbers by finding a suitable value for x. A few
+  problems lead to indeterminate equations of the third and fourth
+  degrees, an easy indeterminate equation of the sixth degree being
+  also found. The general type of problem is to find two, three or four
+  numbers such that different expressions involving them in the first
+  and second, and sometimes the third, degree are squares, cubes, partly
+  squares and partly cubes, &c. E.g. _To find three numbers such that
+  the product of any two added to the sum of those two gives a square_
+  (III. 15, ed. Tannery); _To find four numbers such that, if we take
+  the square of their sum ± any one of them singly, all the resulting
+  numbers are squares_ (III. 22); _To find two numbers such that their
+  product ± their sum gives a cube_ (IV. 29); _To find three squares
+  such that their continued product added to any one of them gives a
+  square_ (V. 21). Book VI. contains problems of finding rational
+  _right-angled triangles_ such that different functions of their parts
+  (the sides and the area) are squares. A word is necessary on
+  Diophantus' notation. He has only one symbol (written somewhat like a
+  final sigma) for an unknown quantity, which he calls [Greek: arithmos]
+  (defined as "an undefined number of units"); the symbol may be a
+  contraction of the initial letters [alpha][rho], as [Delta]^[Upsilon],
+  [Kappa]^[Upsilon], [Delta]^[Upsilon][Delta], &c., are for the powers
+  of the unknown ([Greek: dynamis], square; [Greek: kubos], cube;
+  [Greek: dynamodynamis], fourth power, &c.). The only other algebraical
+  symbol is [graphic: /|\] for minus; plus being expressed by merely
+  writing terms one after another. With one symbol for an unknown, it
+  will easily be understood what scope there is for adroit assumptions,
+  for the required numbers, of expressions in the one unknown which are
+  at once seen to satisfy some of the conditions, leaving only one or
+  two to be satisfied by the particular value of x to be determined.
+  Often assumptions are made which lead to equations in x which cannot
+  be solved "rationally," i.e. would give negative, surd or imaginary
+  values; Diophantus then traces how each element of the equation has
+  arisen, and formulates the auxiliary problem of determining how the
+  assumptions must be corrected so as to lead to an equation (in place
+  of the "impossible" one) which can be solved rationally. Sometimes his
+  x has to do duty twice, for different unknowns, in one problem. In
+  general his object is to reduce the final equation to a simple one by
+  making such an assumption for the side of the square or cube to which
+  the expression in x is to be equal as will make the necessary number
+  of coefficients vanish. The book is valuable also for the propositions
+  in the theory of numbers, other than the "porisms," stated or assumed
+  in it. Thus Diophantus knew that _no number of the form 8n + 7 can be
+  the sum of three squares_. He also says that, if 2n + 1 is to be the
+  sum of two squares, "n must not be odd" (i.e. _no number of the form
+  4n + 3, or 4n - 1, can be the sum of two squares_), and goes on to
+  add, practically, the condition stated by Fermat, "and the double of
+  it [n] increased by one, when divided by the greatest square which
+  measures it, must not be divisible by a prime number of the form 4n -
+  1," except for the omission of the words "when divided ... measures
+  it."
+
+  # AUTHORITIES.--The first to publish anything on Diophantus in Europe
+  was Rafael Bombelli, who embodied in his Algebra (1572) all the
+  problems of Books I.-IV. and some of Book V. interspersing them with
+  his own problems. Next Xylander (Wilhelm Holzmann) published a Latin
+  translation (Basel, 1575), an altogether meritorious work, especially
+  having regard to the difficulties he had with the text of his MS. The
+  Greek text was first edited by C. G. Bachet (_Diophanti Alexandrini
+  arithmeticorum libri sex, et de numeris multangulis liber unus, nunc
+  primum graece et latine editi atque absolutissimis commentariis
+  illustrati_ ... Lutetiae Parisiorum ... MDCXXI.). A reprint of 1670 is
+  only valuable because it contains P. de Fermat's notes; as far as the
+  Greek text is concerned it is much inferior to the other. There are
+  two German translations, one by Otto Schulz (1822) and the other by G.
+  Wertheim (Leipzig, 1890), and an English edition in modern notation
+  (T. L. Heath, _Diophantos of Alexandria: A Study in the History of
+  Greek Algebra_ (Cambridge, 1885)). The Greek text has now been
+  definitively edited (with Latin translation, Scholia, &c.) by P.
+  Tannery (Teubner, vol. i., 1893; vol. ii., 1895). General accounts of
+  Diophantus' work are to be found in H. Hankel and M. Cantor's
+  histories of mathematics, and more elaborate analyses are those of
+  Nesselmann (_Die Algebra der Griechen_, Berlin, 1842) and G. Loria
+  (_Le Scienze esatte nell' antica Grecia_, libro v., Modena, 1902, pp.
+  95-158).     (T. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+DIOPSIDE, an important member of the pyroxene group of rock-forming
+minerals. It is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate, CaMg(SiO3)2, and
+crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Usually some iron is present
+replacing magnesium, and when this predominates there is a passage to
+hedenbergite, CaFe(SiO3)2, a closely allied variety of monoclinic
+pyroxene. These are distinguished from augite by containing little or no
+aluminium. Diopside is colourless, white, pale green to dark green or
+nearly black in colour, the depth of the colour depending on the amount
+of iron present. The specific gravity and optical constants also vary
+with the chemical composition; the sp. gr. of diopside is 3.2,
+increasing to 3.6 in hedenbergite, and the angle of optical extinction
+in the plane of symmetry varies between 38° and 47° in the two extremes
+of the series. Crystals are usually prismatic in habit with a
+rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure: the angle between the
+prism faces m, parallel to which there are perfect cleavages, is 92°
+50´.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Several varieties, depending on differences in structure and chemical
+composition, have been distinguished, viz. coccolite (from [Greek:
+kokkos], a grain), a granular variety; salite or sahlite, from Sala in
+Sweden; malacolite; diallage; violane, a lamellar variety of a dark
+violet-blue colour; chrome-diopside, a bright green variety containing a
+small amount of chromium; and many others. Belonging to the same series
+with diopside and hedenbergite is a manganese pyroxene, known as
+schefierite, which has the composition (Ca, Mg) (Fe, Mn) (Si03)2.
+
+Diopside is the characteristic pyroxene of metamorphic rocks, occurring
+especially in crystalline limestones, and often in association with
+garnet and epidote. It is also an essential constituent of some
+pyroxene-granites, diorites and a few other igneous rocks, but the
+characteristic pyroxene of this class of rocks is augite. Fine
+transparent crystals of a pale green colour occur, with crystals of
+yellowish-red garnet (hessonite) and chlorite, in veins traversing
+serpentine in the Ala valley near Turin in Piedmont: a crystal of this
+variety ("alalite") is represented in the accompanying figure. These, as
+well as the long, transparent, bottle-green crystals from the Zillerthal
+in the Tyrol, have occasionally been cut as gem-stones. Good crystals
+have been found also at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals,
+Traversella near Ivrea in Piedmont ("traversellite"), Nordmark in
+Sweden, Monroe in New York, Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and
+several other places: at Nordmark the large, rectangular black crystals
+occur with magnetite in the iron mines.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+DIOPTASE, a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper
+orthosilicate, H2CuSiO4, crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemihedral
+class of the rhombohedral system. The degree of symmetry is the same as
+in the mineral phenacite, there being only an axis of triad symmetry and
+a centre of symmetry. The crystals have the form of a hexagonal prism m
+terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alternate edges between these being
+sometimes replaced by the faces of a rhombohedron s. The faces are
+striated parallel to the edges between r, s and m. There are perfect
+cleavages parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which truncate the
+polar edges of r: from the cleavage cracks internal reflections are
+often to be seen in the crystal, and it was on account of this that the
+mineral was named dioptase, by R. J. Haüy in 1797, from [Greek:
+diopteuein], "to see into." The crystals vary from transparent to
+translucent with a vitreous lustre, and are bright emerald-green in
+colour; they thus have a certain resemblance to emerald, hence the early
+name emerald-copper (German, _Kupfer-Smaragd_). Hardness 5; sp. gr. 3.3.
+The mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of
+gelatinous silica. At a red heat it blackens and gives off water. The
+fine crystals from Mount Altyn-Tübe on the western slopes of the Altai
+Mountains in the Kirghiz Steppes, Asiatic Russia, line cavities in a
+compact limestone; they were first sent to Europe in 1785 by Achir
+Mahmed, a Bucharian merchant, after whom the mineral has been named
+archirite. More recently, in 1890, good crystals of similar habit, but
+rather darker in colour, have been found with quartz and malachite near
+Komba in the French Congo. As drusy crystalline crusts it has been found
+at Copiapo in Chile and in Arizona.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially in Russia
+and Persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of hardness and the
+transparency is imperfect.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+DIORITE (from the Gr. [Greek: diorizein] to distinguish, from [Greek:
+dia] through, [Greek: oros], a boundary), in petrology, the name given
+by Haüy to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of
+plagioclase felspar and hornblende. As they are richer in the dark
+coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark grey,
+and have a higher specific gravity than granite. They also rarely show
+visible quartz. But there are diorites of many kinds, as the name
+applies rather to a family of rocks than to a single species. Some
+contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene; many have a small amount
+of quartz. Orthoclase is rarely entirely absent, and when it is fairly
+common the rock becomes a tonalite; in this way a transition is
+furnished between diorites and granites. It is rare to find the pure
+types of "hornblende-diorite," "augite-diorite," &c., but in most cases
+the rocks contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such
+combinations as "hornblende-biotite-diorite" are commonest in nature.
+
+The felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase to
+labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers being
+more alkaline than the internal. Small fluid enclosures and black
+grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great numbers.
+Weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and kaolin. The biotite
+is always brown or yellow; the hornblende usually green, but sometimes
+brown or yellowish brown in those diorites which have affinities to
+lamprophyres. The augite is nearly always green but sometimes has a
+reddish tinge; bronzite and hypersthene have their usual green and brown
+shades. Apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present;
+sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite, chlorite,
+muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary. The structure is
+not essentially different from that of granite. The ferromagnesian
+minerals crystallize comparatively early and have some idiomorphism; the
+felspar usually follows and only in part shows good crystalline
+outlines. Orthoclase and quartz, if present, are last to separate out,
+and fill the spaces between the other minerals; often they
+interpenetrate to form micropegmatite. In many diorites the plagioclase
+felspar has crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has
+less perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply
+formed individuals of felspar. This produces the ophitic structure (very
+common also in the dolerites). More rarely biotite and augite exhibit
+the same relations to the plagioclase. Orbicular structure also
+occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact the orbicular diorite of
+Corsica (also called "Napoleonite" or "Corsite") was for a long time the
+best-known example of this structure. The rock seems composed of
+spheroids, about an inch in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of
+dark-coloured dioritic matrix. The spheroids have a radiate structure
+and often show concentric dark and pale shells. These consist of
+hornblende (dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and
+bytownite (grey or nearly white). Occasionally diorites have a parallel
+banded or foliated structure, but these must not be confounded with the
+epidiorites, which are metamorphic rocks and also have a conspicuous
+foliation.
+
+Diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros, which
+contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally olivine; but
+the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are admittedly somewhat
+vague, e.g. some authors would call rocks gabbro which others would
+regard as augite-diorite. The hornblendites differ from the diorites in
+containing little felspar, and consist principally of hornblende. Among
+varietal designations given to rocks of the diorite family are
+"banatite" for an augite-diorite with or without quartz (from the
+Schemnitz district), "granodiorite" for a quartz-hornblende-diorite
+(essentially the same as tonalite) from California, &c., "adamellite"
+for the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of Monte Adamello (Alps),
+"ornite" for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from Sweden.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+DIP (Old Eng. _dyppan_, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in
+"deep"), the angle which the magnetic needle makes with the horizon. A
+freely suspended magnetic needle will not maintain a horizontal position
+except at the magnetic equator. Over the N. magnetic pole the
+north-seeking end of the needle points directly downwards and dips at an
+intermediate angle at intermediate distances between the magnetic poles
+and equator. There are secular progressive variations of dip as well as
+of declination and the maxima are independent of each other. In 1576
+the dip at London was 71° 50', in 1720 (max.) 74° 42', in 1900 67° 9'.
+(For Dip Circle see INCLINOMETER.)
+
+
+
+
+DIPHENYL (phenyl benzene), C6H5·C6H5, a hydrocarbon found in that
+fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between 240-300° C., from
+which it may be obtained by warming with sulphuric acid, separating the
+acid layer and strongly cooling the undissolved oil. It may be
+artificially prepared by passing benzene vapour through a red-hot tube;
+by the action of sodium on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action
+of stannous chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of
+solid phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (R. Möhlau, _Berichte,
+1893, 26_, 1997) C6H5N2·HSO4 + C6H6 = H2SO4 + N2 + C6H5·C6H5. L.
+Gattermann (_Berichte, 1890, 23_, 1226) has also prepared it by the
+decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate with alcohol and
+copper powder. It crystallizes in plates (from alcohol) melting at
+70-71° C. and boiling at 254° C. It is oxidized by chromic acid in
+glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid, dilute nitric acid and
+chromic acid mixture being without effect. It is not reduced by
+hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium in the presence of amyl
+alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl C12H14.
+
+  Many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitution
+  derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. Of the
+  disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from
+  diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (q.v.).
+
+  _Orthoaminodiphenyl_,
+
+         NH2
+     __   |__
+    /  \__/  \ ,
+    \__/  \__/
+
+  is prepared by the action of bromine and caustic soda on
+  orthophenylbenzamide (R. Hirsch, _Berichte, 1892, 25_, 1974); when its
+  vapour is passed over heated lime, carbazol (q.v.) is formed.
+
+  _Diorthodiaminodiphenyl_,
+
+    NH2 NH2
+     __|  |__
+    /  \__/  \ ,
+    \__/  \__/
+
+  is obtained by the reduction of the corresponding nitro compound
+  (obtained by the action of ethyl nitrite at 0° C. on
+  metadinitrobenzidine hydrochloride). Its tetrazo compound on reduction
+  gives a hydrazine which, on warming with hydrochloric acid at 150° C.,
+  decomposes into ammonium chloride and _phenazone_,
+
+       N = N
+     __|   |__
+    /  \___/  \
+    \__/   \__/
+
+  (C12H8N2). One of the most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the
+  theoretical point of view, is _diphenic acid_ or diorthodiphenyl
+  carboxylic acid, which can be obtained from
+  diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid,
+         __    __
+    H2N /  \__/  \ NH2 ,
+        \__/  \__/
+           |  |
+        HOOC  COOH
+
+  or from phenanthrene (q.v.), the constitution of which it determines.
+  See BENZIDINE for diparadiaminodiphenyl.
+
+
+
+
+DIPHILUS, of Sinope, poet of the new Attic comedy and contemporary of
+Menander (342-291 B.C.). Most of his plays were written and acted at
+Athens, but he led a wandering life, and died at Smyrna. He was on
+intimate terms with the famous courtesan Gnathaena (Athenaeus xiii. pp.
+579, 583). He is said to have written 100 comedies, the titles of fifty
+of which are preserved. He sometimes acted himself. To judge from the
+imitations of Plautus. (_Casina_ from the [Greek: Klêroumenoi],
+_Asinaria_ from the [Greek: Onagos], _Rudens_ from some other play), he
+was very skilful in the construction of his plots. Terence also tells us
+that he introduced into the _Adelphi_ (ii. 1) a scene from the [Greek:
+Synapothnêskontes], which had been omitted by Plautus in his adaptation
+(_Commorientes_) of the same play. The style of Diphilus was simple and
+natural, and his language on the whole good Attic; he paid great
+attention to versification, and was supposed to have invented a peculiar
+kind of metre. The ancients were undecided whether to class him among
+the writers of the New or Middle comedy. In his fondness for
+mythological subjects (_Hercules_, _Theseus_) and his introduction on
+the stage (by a bold anachronism) of the poets Archilochus and Hipponax
+as rivals of Sappho, he approximates to the spirit of the latter.
+
+  Fragments in H. Koch, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, ii.; see J.
+  Denis, _La Comédie grecque_ (1886), ii. p. 414; R. W. Bond in
+  _Classical Review_ (Feb. 1910, with trans. of _Emporos_ fragm.).
+
+
+
+
+DIPHTHERIA (from [Greek: diphthera], a skin or membrane), the term
+applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by a
+membranous exudation on a mucous surface, generally on the tonsils and
+back of the throat or pharynx.
+
+In general the symptoms at the commencement of an attack of diphtheria
+are comparatively slight, being those commonly accompanying a cold, viz.
+chilliness and depression. Sometimes more severe phenomena usher in the
+attack, such as vomiting and diarrhoea. A slight feeling of uneasiness
+in the throat is experienced along with some stiffness of the back of
+the neck. When looked at the throat appears reddened and somewhat
+swollen, particularly in the neighbourhood of the tonsils, the soft
+palate and upper part of pharynx, while along with this there is
+tenderness and swelling of the glands at the angles of the jaws. The
+affection of the throat spreads rapidly, and soon the characteristic
+exudation appears on the inflamed surface in the form of greyish-white
+specks or patches, increasing in extent and thickness until a
+yellowish-looking false membrane is formed. This deposit is firmly
+adherent to the mucous membrane beneath or incorporated with it, and if
+removed leaves a raw, bleeding, ulcerated surface, upon which it is
+reproduced in a short period. The appearance of the exudation has been
+compared to wet parchment or washed leather, and it is more or less
+dense in texture. It may cover the whole of the back of the throat, the
+cavity of the mouth, and the posterior nares, and spread downwards into
+the air-passages on the one hand and into the alimentary canal on the
+other, while any wound on the surface of the body is liable to become
+covered with it. This membrane is apt to be detached spontaneously, and
+as it loosens it becomes decomposed, giving a most offensive and
+characteristic odour to the breath. There is pain and difficulty in
+swallowing, but unless the disease has affected the larynx no affection
+of the breathing. The voice acquires a snuffling character. When the
+disease invades the posterior nares an acrid, fetid discharge, and
+sometimes also copious bleeding, takes place from the nostrils. Along
+with these local phenomena there is evidence of constitutional
+disturbance of the most severe character. There may be no great amount
+of fever, but there is marked depression and loss of strength. The pulse
+becomes small and frequent, the countenance pale, the swelling of the
+glands of the neck increases, which, along with the presence of albumen
+in the urine, testifies to a condition of blood poisoning. Unless
+favourable symptoms emerge death takes place within three or four days
+or sooner, either from the rapid extension of the false membrane into
+the air-passage, giving rise to asphyxia, or from a condition of general
+collapse, which is sometimes remarkably sudden. In cases of recovery the
+change for the better is marked by an arrest in the extension of the
+false membrane, the detachment and expectoration of that already formed,
+and the healing of the ulcerated mucous membrane beneath. Along with
+this there is a general improvement in the symptoms, the power of
+swallowing returns, and the strength gradually increases, while the
+glandular enlargement of the neck diminishes, and the albumen disappears
+from the urine. Recovery, however, is generally slow, and it is many
+weeks before full convalescence is established. Even, however, where
+diphtheria ends thus favourably, the peculiar sequelae already mentioned
+are apt to follow, generally within a period of two or three weeks after
+all the local evidence of the disease has disappeared. These secondary
+affections may occur after mild as well as after severe attacks, and
+they are principally in the form of paralysis affecting the soft palate
+and pharynx, causing difficulty in swallowing with regurgitation of food
+through the nose, and giving a peculiar nasal character to the voice.
+There are, however, other forms of paralysis occurring after diphtheria,
+especially that affecting the muscles of the eye, which produces a loss
+of the power of accommodation and consequent impairment of vision. There
+may be, besides, paralysis of both legs, and occasionally also of one
+side of the body (hemiplegia). These symptoms, however, after continuing
+for a variable length of time, almost always ultimately disappear.
+
+Under the name of the _Malum Egyptiacum_, Aretaeus in the 2nd century
+gives a minute description of a disease which in all its essential
+characteristics corresponds to diphtheria. In the 16th, 17th and 18th
+centuries epidemics of diphtheria appear to have frequently prevailed
+in many parts of Europe, particularly in Holland, Spain, Italy, France,
+as well as in England, and were described by physicians belonging to
+those countries under various titles; but it is probable that other
+diseases of a similar nature were included in their descriptions, and no
+accurate account of this affection had been published till M. Bretonneau
+of Tours in 1821 laid his celebrated treatise on the subject before the
+French Academy of Medicine. By him the term _La Diphthérite_ was first
+given to the disease.
+
+Great attention has been paid to diphtheria in recent years, with some
+striking results. Its cause and nature have been definitely ascertained,
+the conditions which influence its prevalence have been elucidated, and
+a specific "cure" has been found. In the last respect it occupies a
+unique position at the present time. In the case of several other
+zymotic diseases much has been done by way of prevention, little or
+nothing for treatment; in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed,
+but treatment has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin,
+which constitutes the most important contribution to practical medicine
+as yet made by bacteriology.
+
+
+  Causation.
+
+The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified by
+Klebs and Loffler in 1883 (see PARASITIC DISEASES). It has been shown by
+experiment that the symptoms of diphtheria, including the after-effects,
+are produced by a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which lodge in
+the air-passages and multiply in a susceptible subject. The natural
+history of the organism outside the body is not well understood, but
+there is some reason to believe that it lives in a dormant condition in
+suitable soils. Recent research does not favour the theory that it is
+derived from defective drains or "sewer gas," but these things, like
+damp and want of sunlight, probably promote its spread, by lowering the
+health of persons exposed to them, and particularly by causing an
+unhealthy condition of the throat, rendering it susceptible to the
+contagion. Defective drainage, or want of drainage, may also act, by
+polluting the ground, and so providing a favourable soil for the germ,
+though it is to be noted that "the steady increase in the diphtheria
+mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improvement in
+regard of such sanitary circumstances as water supply, sewerage, and
+drainage" (Thorne Thorne). Cats and cows are susceptible to the
+diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys and other birds have been
+known to suffer from a disease like diphtheria, but other domestic
+animals appear to be more or less resistant or immune. In human beings
+the mere presence of the germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there
+must also be susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists.
+Individuals exhibit all degrees of resistance up to complete immunity.
+Children are far more susceptible than adults, but even children may
+have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without showing any
+symptoms of illness. Altogether there are many obscure points about this
+micro-organism, which is apt to assume a puzzling variety of forms.
+Nevertheless its identification has greatly facilitated the diagnosis of
+the disease, which was previously a very difficult matter, often
+determined in an arbitrary fashion on no particular principles.
+
+Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore throat in
+which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found, the illness is
+regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms are quite
+unmistakable. One result of this is a large transference of registered
+mortality from other throat affections, and particularly from croup, to
+diphtheria. Croup, which never had a well-defined application, and is
+not recognized by the College of Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria,
+appears to be dying out from the medical vocabulary in Great Britain. In
+France the distinction has never been recognized.
+
+
+  Prevalence.
+
+Diphtheria is endemic in all European and American countries, and is
+apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly. It is far more
+prevalent on the continent than in England, and still more so in the
+United States and Canada. The following table, compiled from figures
+collected by Dr Newsholme, shows how London compares with some foreign
+cities. The figures give the mean death-rate from diphtheria and croup
+for the term of years during which records have been kept. The period
+varies in different cases, and therefore the comparison is only a rough
+one.
+
+  _Mean Death-Rates from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living._
+
+    New York           1610   |   Munich               990
+    Chicago            1400   |   Milan                990
+    Buenos Aires       1360   |   Florence             830
+    Trieste            1300   |   Vienna               770
+    Dresden            1290   |   Stockholm            720
+    Berlin             1190   |   St Petersburg        650
+    Boston             1160   |   Moscow               640
+    Marseilles         1130   |   Paris                630
+    Christiania        1090   |   Hamburg              490
+    Budapest           1880   |   London               386
+
+There is comparatively little diphtheria in India and Japan, but in
+Egypt, the Cape and Australasia it prevails very extensively among the
+urban populations. The mortality varies greatly from year to year in all
+countries and cities. In Berlin, for instance, it has oscillated between
+a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum of 340 in 1896; in New York
+between 2760 in 1877 and 680 in 1868; in Christiania between 3290 in
+1887 and 170 in 1871. In some American cities still higher maxima have
+been recorded. In other words, diphtheria, though always endemic,
+exhibits at times a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or
+even pandemic. The following table for 1859-99 shows fairly well the
+periodical rise and fall in England and Wales. Diphtheria and croup are
+given both separately and together, showing the increasing transference
+from one to the other of late years. Diphtheria was first entered
+separately in the year 1859.
+
+  _Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in
+  England and Wales._
+
+    +---------------+-------------+----------+-------------+
+    | Years.        | Diphtheria. |  Croup.  | Diphtheria  |
+    |               |             |          | and Croup.  |
+    +---------------+-------------+----------+-------------+
+    | 1859          |     517     |   286    |     803     |
+    | 1860          |     261     |   220    |     481     |
+    | 1861-70       |     185     |   246    |     431     |
+    | 1871-80       |     121     |   168    |     289     |
+    | 1881-90       |     163     |   144    |     307     |
+    | 1891-95       |     254     |    70    |     324     |
+    | 1896-97       |     269     |    43    |     312     |
+    | 1898          |     244     |    27    |     271     |
+    | 1899          |     293     |    32    |     325     |
+    +---------------+-------------+----------+-------------+
+
+  The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years
+  are:--(1900) 316; (1901) 296; (1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184;
+  (1905) 174; (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166.
+
+Several facts are roughly indicated by the table. It begins with an
+extremely severe epidemic, which has not been approached since. Then
+follows a fall extending over twenty years. On the whole this diminution
+was progressive, though not in reality so steady as the decennial
+grouping makes it appear, being interrupted by smaller oscillations in
+single years and groups of years. Still the main fact holds good. After
+1880 an opposite movement began, likewise interrupted by minor
+oscillations, but on the whole progressive, and culminating in the year
+1893 with a death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865. After
+1896 a marked fall again took place. This is partly accounted for by the
+use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable scale in 1895, and
+did not become general until a year or two later at least. Its effects
+were only then fully felt. The registrar-general's returns record
+mortality, not prevalence--that is to say, the number of deaths, not of
+cases.
+
+On the whole, we get clear evidence of an epidemic rise and fall, which
+may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions. The belief, held
+until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in Great Britain
+was obviously premature; it did rise over a series of years, but has now
+ebbed again. Moreover, the general prevalence during the last thirty
+years has been notably less than in the previous twelve years. Yet it is
+during years since 1870 that compulsory education has been in existence
+and main drainage chiefly carried out. It follows that neither school
+attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence over the
+epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions. What are those
+conditions? Dr Newsholme has advanced the theory, based on an elaborate
+examination of statistics in various countries, that the activity of
+diphtheria is connected with the rainfall, and he lays down the
+following general induction from the facts: "Diphtheria only becomes
+epidemic in years in which the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics
+are on the largest scale when three or more years of deficient rainfall
+follow each other." He points out that the comparative rarity of
+diphtheria in tropical climates, which are characterized by excessive
+rainfall, and its greater prevalence in continental than in insular
+countries, confirm his theory. His observations seem quite contrary to
+the view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted, that
+wet weather favours diphtheria. The two, however, are not
+irreconcilable. The key to the problem--and possibly to many other
+epidemiological problems--may perhaps be found in the movements of the
+subsoil water. It has been suggested by different observers, and
+particularly by Mr M. A. Adams, who has for some years made a study of
+the subsoil water at Maidstone, that there is a definite connexion
+between it and diphtheria. In England the underground water normally
+reaches its lowest level at the end of the summer; then it gradually
+rises, fed by percolation from the winter rains, reaching a maximum
+level about the end of March, after which it gradually sinks. This
+maximum level Mr Adams calls the annual spring cleaning of the soil, and
+his observations go to show that when the normal movement is arrested or
+disturbed, diphtheria becomes active. Now that is what happens in
+periods of drought. The underground water does not rise to its usual
+level, and there is no spring cleaning. The hypothesis, then, is this:
+The diphtheria bacillus lives in the soil, but is "drowned out" in wet
+periods by the subsoil water. In droughty ones it lives and flourishes
+in the warm, dry soil; then when rain comes, it is driven out with the
+ground air into the houses. This process will continue for some time, so
+that epidemic outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet. But
+they begin in drought, and are stopped by long-continued periods of
+copious rainfall. This is quite in keeping with the observed fact that
+diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the last
+quarter of the year. The summer develops the poison in the soil, the
+autumnal rains bring it out. The fact that the same cause does not
+produce the same effect in tropical countries may perhaps be explained
+by the extreme violence of the alternations, which are too great to suit
+this particular micro-organism, or possibly the regularity of the
+rainfall prevents its development.
+
+The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good deal of evidence, and
+notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic or pandemic prevalence
+in Great Britain, culminating in 1859, with a prolonged period of
+exceptionally deficient rainfall. Again, the highest death-rate
+registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year of similarly exceptional
+drought. But it is no more than an hypothesis, and the fate of former
+theories is a warning against drawing conclusions from statistics and
+records extending over too short a period of time. The warning is
+particularly necessary in connexion with meteorological conditions,
+which are apt to upset all calculations. As it happens, a period of
+deficient rainfall even greater than that of 1854-1858 has recently been
+experienced. It began in 1893 and culminated in the extraordinary season
+of 1899. The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896, 1898 and 1899, and the
+deficiency of rainfall was not made good by any considerable excess in
+1894 and 1897. It surpassed all records at Greenwich; streams and wells
+ran dry all over the country, and the flow of the Thames and Lea was
+reduced to the lowest point ever recorded. There should be, according to
+the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of
+diphtheria. To a certain extent it has held good. There was a marked
+rise in 1893-1896 over the preceding period, though not so large as
+might have been expected, but it was followed by a decided fall in
+1897-1898. The experience of 1898 contradicts, that of 1899 supports,
+the theory. Further light is therefore required; but perhaps the failure
+of the recent drought to produce results at all comparable with the
+epidemic of the 'fifties may be due to variations in the resistance of
+the disease, which differs widely in different years. It may also be due
+in part to improved sanitation, to the notification of infectious
+diseases, the use of isolation hospitals, which have greatly developed
+in quite recent years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of
+antitoxin. If these be the real explanations, then scientific and
+administrative work has not been thrown away after all in combating this
+very painful and fatal enemy of the young.
+
+
+  Dissemination.
+
+The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria, and its
+epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do not touch the
+question of actual dissemination. The contagion is spread by means which
+are in constant operation, whether the general amount of disease is
+great or small. Water, so important in some epidemic diseases, is
+believed not to be one of them, though a negative proof based on absence
+of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. On the other hand, milk is
+undoubtedly a means of dissemination. Several outbreaks of an almost
+explosive character, besides minor extensions of disease from one place
+to another, have been traced to this cause. Milk may be contaminated in
+various ways--at the dairy, for instance, or on the way to
+customers,--but several cases, investigated by the officers of the Local
+Government Board and others, have been thought to point to infection
+from cows suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder. The part
+played by aërial convection is undetermined, but there is no reason to
+suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any distance by wind or
+air currents. Instances which seem to point to the contrary may be
+explained in other ways, and particularly by the fact, now fully
+demonstrated, that persons suffering from minor sore throats, not
+recognized as diphtheria, may carry the disease about and introduce it
+into other localities. Human intercourse is the most important means of
+dissemination, the contagion passing from person to person either by
+actual contact, as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and
+articles, or by mere proximity. In the last case the germs must be
+supposed to be air-borne for short distances, and to enter with the
+breath. Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of
+diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons using
+them. At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth Asylum in 1898 the
+infection clung obstinately to a particular ward, in spite of the prompt
+removal of all cases, and fresh ones continued to occur until it had
+been thoroughly disinfected, after which there were no more. The part
+played by human intercourse in fostering the spread of the disease
+suggests that it would naturally be more prevalent in urban communities,
+where people congregate together more, than in rural ones. This is at
+variance with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this
+country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated
+districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still rather a
+rural disease. That view is based upon an analysis of the distribution
+by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 1880, and it has been
+generally accepted and repeated until it has become a sort of axiom. Of
+course the facts of distribution are facts, but the general inference
+drawn from them, that diphtheria peculiarly affects the country and is
+changing its _habitat_, may be erroneous. Dr Newsholme, by taking a
+wider basis of experience, has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and
+finds that diphtheria does not, in fact, flourish more in
+sparsely-peopled districts. "When a sufficiently long series of years is
+taken," he says, "it appears clear that there is more diphtheria in
+urban than in rural communities." The rate for London has always been in
+excess of that for the whole of England and Wales. Its distribution at
+any given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by their
+incidental co-operation, not by any property or predilection for town or
+country inherent in the disease. There are the epidemic conditions of
+soil and rainfall, previously discussed, which vary widely in different
+localities at different times; there is the steady influence of regular
+intercourse, and the accidental element of special distribution by
+various means. These things may combine to alter the incidence. In
+short, accident plays too great a part to permit any general conclusion
+to be drawn from distribution, except from a very wide basis of
+experience. The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden. For
+instance, the county of London for some years headed the list, having a
+far higher death-rate than any other. In 1898 it dropped to the fifth
+place, and was surpassed by Rutland, a purely rural county, which had
+the lowest mortality of all in the previous year and very nearly the
+lowest for the previous ten years. Again, South Wales, which had had a
+low mortality for some years, suddenly came into prominence as a
+diphtheria district, and in 1898 had the highest death-rate in the
+country. Staffordshire and Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an
+urban, the other a rural, county. All the northern counties, both rural
+and urban,--namely, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland,
+Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lincolnshire,--had a very high rate
+in 1861-1870, and a low one in 1896-1898. It is obviously unsafe to draw
+general conclusions from distribution data on a small scale. Diphtheria
+appears to creep about very slowly, as a rule, from place to place, and
+from one part of a large town to another; it forsakes one district and
+appears in another; occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great
+energy, presumably because the local conditions are exceptionally
+favourable, which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the
+susceptibility of the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground.
+But through it all personal infection is the chief means of spread.
+
+The acceptance of this doctrine has directed great attention to the
+practical question of school influence. There is no doubt whatever that
+it plays a very considerable part in spreading diphtheria. The incidence
+of the disease is chiefly on children, and nothing so often and
+regularly brings large numbers together in close contact under the same
+roof as school attendance. Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and
+extensive opportunities for personal infection. Many outbreaks have
+definitely been traced to schools. In London the subject has been very
+fully investigated by Sir Shirley Murphy, the medical officer of health
+to the London County Council, and by Dr W. R. Smith, formerly medical
+officer of health to the London School Board. Sir Shirley Murphy has
+shown that a special incidence on children of school age began to
+manifest itself after the adoption of compulsory education, and that the
+summer holidays are marked by a distinct diminution of cases, which is
+succeeded by an increase on the return to school. Dr W. R. Smith's
+observations are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school
+influence, and to showing that it is less important than other factors;
+which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked. It appears that
+the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school age, and that
+liability diminishes progressively after school age is reached. But this
+by no means disposes of the importance of school influence, as the
+younger children at home may be infected by older ones, who have picked
+up the contagion at school, but, being less susceptible, are less
+severely affected and exhibit no worse symptoms than a sore throat. From
+a practical point of view the problem is a difficult one to deal with,
+as it is virtually impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection,
+on account of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering
+how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of
+schools, it would probably be to the advantage of the authorities to
+discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children with sore
+throats. A fact of some interest revealed by statistics is that in the
+earliest years of life the incidence of diphtheria is greater upon male
+than upon female children, but from three years onwards the position is
+reversed, and with every succeeding year the relative female liability
+becomes greater. This is probably due to the habit of kissing maintained
+among females, but more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood
+onwards.
+
+All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating the sick
+in isolation hospitals. Of late years this preventive measure has been
+carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to the better provision of
+such hospitals and the greater willingness of the public to make use of
+them; and probably the improvement so effected has had some share in
+keeping down the prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate
+proportions. Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons
+is hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence of
+symptoms, exhibited by some individuals. A further difficulty arises
+with reference to the discharge of patients. It has been proved that
+the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the air-passages in
+certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it does persist for
+several weeks after convalescence. On returning home such cases may, and
+often do, infect others.
+
+
+  Treatment.
+
+Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has overshadowed
+all other methods. We owe this drug originally to the Berlin school of
+bacteriologists, and particularly to Dr Behring. The idea of making use
+of serum arose about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with
+Mechnikov's theory of phagocytosis, by which is meant the action of the
+phagocytes or white corpuscles of the blood in destroying the bacteria
+of disease. It was shown by the German bacteriologists that the serum or
+liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more important part in
+resisting disease, and the idea of combating the toxins produced by
+pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum injected into the blood
+presented itself to several workers. The idea was followed up and worked
+out independently in France and Germany, so successfully that by the
+year 1894 the serum treatment had been tried on a considerable scale
+with most encouraging results. Some of these were published in Germany
+in the earlier part of that year, and at the International Hygienic
+Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut
+Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than that of his
+German colleagues, read a paper giving the result of several hundred
+cases treated in Paris. When all allowance for errors had been made,
+they showed a remarkable and even astonishing reduction of mortality,
+fully confirming the conclusions drawn from the German experiments. This
+consensus of independent opinion proved a great stimulus to further
+trial, and before long one _clinique_ after another told the same tale.
+The evidence was so favourable that Professor Virchow--the last man to
+be carried away by a novelty--declared it "the imperative duty of
+medical men to use the new remedy" (_The Times_, 19th October 1894).
+Since then an enormous mass of facts has accumulated from all quarters
+of the globe, all testifying to the value of antitoxin in the treatment
+of diphtheria. The experience of the hospitals of the London
+Metropolitan Asylums Board for five years before and after antitoxin may
+be given as a particularly instructive illustration; but the subsequent
+reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11.3 in 1901, 10.8 in
+1902, 9.3 in 1903, and an average of 9 in 1904-1908) added further
+confirmation.
+
+  _Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board's
+  Hospitals._
+
+      Before Antitoxin.      |       After Antitoxin.
+                  Mortality  |                  Mortality
+    Year.         per cent.  |    Year.          per cent.
+                             |
+    1890            33.55    |    1895            22.85
+    1891            30.61    |    1896            21.20
+    1892            29.51    |    1897            17.79
+    1893            30.42    |    1898            15.37
+    1894            29.29    |    1899            13.95
+
+The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years was 32,835,
+or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result is a reduction of
+mortality by more than one-half. It is a fair inference that the
+treatment saves the lives of about 1000 children every year in London
+alone. This refers to all cases. Those which occur in the hospitals as a
+sequel to scarlet fever, and consequently come under treatment from the
+commencement, show very much more striking results. The case mortality,
+which was 46.8% in 1892 and 58.8% in 1893, has been reduced to 3.6%
+since the introduction of antitoxin. But the evidence is not from
+statistics alone. The beneficial effect of the treatment is equally
+attested by clinical observation. Dr Roux's original account has been
+confirmed by a cloud of witnesses year after year. "One may say," he
+wrote, "that the appearance of most of the patients is totally different
+from what it used to be. The pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in
+the wards; the expression of the children is brighter and more lively."
+Adult patients have described the relief afforded by inoculation; it
+acts like a charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like a
+cloud in the course of a few hours. Finally, the counteracting effect of
+antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the diphtheritic
+toxin on the nervous tissues has been demonstrated pathologically. There
+are some who still affect scepticism as to the value of this drug. They
+cannot be acquainted with the evidence, for if the efficacy of antitoxin
+in the treatment of diphtheria has not been proved, then neither can the
+efficacy of any treatment for anything be said to be proved.
+Prophylactic properties are also claimed for the serum; but protection
+is necessarily more difficult to demonstrate than cure, and though there
+is some evidence to support the claim, it has not been fully made out.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Adams, _Public Health_, vol. vii.; Thorne Thorne,
+  _Milroy Lectures_ (1891); Newsholme, _Epidemic Diphtheria_; W. R.
+  Smith, _Harben Lectures_ (1899); Murphy, _Report to London County
+  Council_ (1894); Sims Woodhead, _Report to Metropolitan Asylums Board_
+  (1901).
+
+
+
+
+DIPLODOCUS, a gigantic extinct land reptile discovered in rocks of Upper
+Jurassic age in western North America, the best-known example of a
+Sauropodous Dinosaur. The first scattered remains of a skeleton were
+found in 1877 by Prof. S.W. Williston near Cañon City, Colorado; and the
+tail and hind-limb of this specimen were described in the following year
+by Prof. O.C. Marsh. He noticed that in the part of the tail which
+dragged on the ground, each chevron bone below the vertebral column
+consisted of a pair of bars; and as so peculiar an arrangement for the
+protection of the artery and vein beneath the tail had not previously
+been observed in any animal, he proposed the name _Diplodocus_ ("double
+beam" or "double bar") for the new reptile, adding the specific name
+_longus_ in allusion to the elongated shape of the tail vertebrae. In
+1884 Prof. Marsh described the head, vertebrae and pelvis of the same
+skeleton, which is now in the National Museum, Washington. In 1897 the
+next important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments,
+apparently of _Diplodocus longus_, was obtained by the American Museum
+of Natural History, New York, from Como Bluffs, Wyoming. In 1899-1900
+large parts of two skeletons of another species, in a remarkable state
+of preservation, were disinterred by Messrs J. L. Wortman, O. A.
+Peterson and J. B. Hatcher in Sheep Creek, Albany county, Wyo., and
+these are now exhibited with minor discoveries in the Carnegie Museum,
+Pittsburg. There are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the
+University of Wyoming. In 1901 Mr J. B. Hatcher studied the new species
+at Pittsburg, named it _Diplodocus carnegii_, and published the first
+restored sketch of a complete skeleton. Shortly afterwards plaster casts
+of the finest specimens were prepared under the direction of Mr J. B.
+Hatcher and Dr W. J. Holland, and these were skilfully combined to form
+the cast of a completely reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to
+the British Museum by Andrew Carnegie in 1905. This reconstruction is
+based primarily on a well-preserved chain of vertebrae, extending from
+the second cervical to the twelfth caudal, associated with the ribs,
+pelvis and several limb-bones. The tail is completed from two other
+specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals 13 to 36 and 37 to 73
+respectively in apparently unbroken series. Prof. Marsh's specimen in
+Washington supplied the greater part of the skull; and the fore-foot is
+copied from a specimen in New York.
+
+[Illustration: Reconstructed Skeleton of _Diplodocus carnegii_, Hatcher,
+about one-hundredth natural size. A and B, Caudal Vertebrae Nos. 36 and
+70 of the same are about one-quarter natural size.]
+
+The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of _Diplodocus carnegii_ measures
+84 ft. in length and 12 ft. 9 in. in maximum height at the hind-limbs.
+It displays the elongated neck and tail and the relatively small head so
+characteristic of the Sauropodous Dinosaurs. The skull is inclined to
+the axis of the neck, denoting a browsing animal; while the feeble blunt
+teeth and flat expanded snout suggest feeding among succulent
+water-weeds. The large narial opening at the highest point of the head
+probably indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have been
+a soft valve to close the nostrils when under water. The diminutive
+brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a walnut, is noteworthy.
+There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in the neck, 11 in the back, 5 in
+the sacrum and 73 in the tail. The presacral vertebrae are of remarkably
+light construction, the plates and struts of bone being arranged to give
+the greatest strength with the least weight. The end of the tail is a
+flexible lash, which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail
+of some existing lizards. The feet, notwithstanding the weight they had
+to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a crocodile, with claws
+only on the three inner toes. There is no external armour.
+
+  See O. C. Marsh, _Amer. Journ. Sci._ ser. 3, vol. xvi. (1878), p. 414,
+  pl. viii., and loc. cit. vol. xxvii. (1884), p. 161, pls. iii., iv.;
+  H. F. Osborn, Mem. _Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vol. i. pt. v. (1899); J.
+  B. Hatcher, _Mem. Carnegie Mus._ vol. i. No. 1 (1901), and vol. ii.
+  No. 1 (1903); W. J. Holland, _Mem. Carnegie Mus._ vol. ii. No. 6
+  (1906).     (A. S. Wo.)
+
+
+
+
+DIPLOMACY (Fr. _diplomatie_), the art of conducting international
+negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, has the same
+derivation as Diplomatic (q.v.), and, according to the _New English
+Dictionary_, was first used in England so late as 1796 by Burke. Yet
+there is no other word in the English language that could supply its
+exact sense. The need for such a term was indeed not felt; for what we
+know as diplomacy was long regarded, partly as falling under the _Jus
+gentium_ or international law, partly as a kind of activity morally
+somewhat suspect and incapable of being brought under any system.
+Moreover, though in a certain sense it is as old as history, diplomacy
+as a uniform system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed
+by a diplomatic hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of
+quite modern growth even in Europe. It was finally established only at
+the congresses of Vienna (1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), while its
+effective extension to the great monarchies of the East, beyond the
+bounds of European civilization, was comparatively an affair of
+yesterday. So late as 1876 it was possible for the writer on this
+subject in the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ to say that
+"it would be an historical absurdity to suppose diplomatic relations
+connecting together China, Burma and Japan, as they connect the great
+European powers."
+
+_Principles._--Though diplomacy has been usually treated under the head
+of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant with the facts
+to place international law under diplomacy. The principles and rules
+governing the intercourse of states, defined by a long succession of
+international lawyers, have no sanction save the consensus of the
+powers, established and maintained by diplomacy (see BALANCE OF POWER);
+in so far as they have become, by international agreement, more than
+mere pious opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for
+mutual convenience, which it is the function of diplomacy to safeguard
+or to use for its own ends. In any case they by no means cover the whole
+field of diplomatic activity; and, were they swept away, the art of
+diplomacy, developed through long ages of experience, would survive.
+
+This experience may perhaps be called the science, as distinct from the
+art, of diplomacy. It covers not only the province of international law,
+but the vast field of recorded experience which we know as history, of
+which indeed international law is but a part; for, as Bielfeld in his
+_Institutions politiques_ (La Haye, 1760, t. I. ch. ii. § 13) points
+out, "public law is founded on facts. To know it we must know history,
+which is the soul of this science as of politics in general." The broad
+outlook on human affairs implied in "historical sense" is more necessary
+to the diplomatist under modern conditions than in the 18th century,
+when international policy was still wholly under the control of princes
+and their immediate advisers. Diplomacy was then a game of wits played
+in a narrow circle. Its objects too were narrower; for states were
+practically regarded as the property of their sovereigns, which it was
+the main function of their "agents" to enlarge or to protect, while
+scarcely less important than the preservation or rearrangement of
+territorial boundaries was that of precedence and etiquette generally,
+over which an incredible amount of time was wasted. The _haute
+diplomatie_ thus resolved itself into a process of exalted haggling,
+conducted with an utter disregard of the ordinary standards of morality,
+but with the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever more
+and more elaborate rules. Much of the outcome of these dead debates has
+become stereotyped in the conventions of the diplomatic service; but the
+character of diplomacy itself has undergone a great change. This change
+is threefold: firstly, as the result of the greater sense of the
+community of interests among nations, which was one of the outcomes of
+the French Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of democracy, with
+its expression in parliamentary assemblies and in the press; thirdly,
+through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic agent, due to
+modern means of communication.
+
+The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of Count Kaunitz
+of the 17th of July 1791, in which, in face of the Revolution, he
+impressed upon the powers the duty of making common cause for the
+purpose of preserving "public peace, the tranquillity of states, the
+inviolability of possessions, and the faith of treaties." The duty of
+watching over the common interests of Europe, or of the world, was thus
+for the first time officially recognized as a function of diplomacy,
+since common action could only be taken as the result of diplomatic
+negotiations. It would be easy to exaggerate the effective results of
+this idea, even when it had crystallized in the Grand Alliance of 1814
+and been proclaimed to the world in the Holy Alliance of the 26th of
+September 1815 and the declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle. The cynical
+picture given by La Bruyère of the diplomatist of the 18th century still
+remained largely true: "His talk is only of peace, of alliances, of the
+public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality he is
+thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his master or of
+his republic."[1] The proceedings of the congress of Vienna proved how
+little the common good weighed unless reinforced by particular
+interests; but the conception of "Europe" as a political entity none the
+less survived. The congresses, notably the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(q.v.) in 1818, were in a certain sense European parliaments, and their
+ostensible object was the furtherance of common interests. Had the
+imperial dreamer Alexander I. of Russia had his way, they would have
+been permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance,
+and would have included, not the great powers only, but representatives
+of every state (see ALEXANDER I. and EUROPE: _History_). Whatever the
+effective value of that "Concert of Europe" which was the outcome of the
+period of the congresses, it certainly produced a great effect on the
+spirit and the practice of diplomacy. In the congresses and conferences
+diplomacy assumes international functions both legislative and
+administrative. The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own
+government, but to "Europe." Thus Castlereagh was accused of
+subordinating the interests of Great Britain to those of Europe; and the
+same charge was brought, perhaps with greater justice, against
+Metternich in respect of Austria. Canning's principle of "Every nation
+for itself and God for us all!" prevailed, it is true, over that of
+Alexander's "Confederation of Europe"; yet, as one outcome of the
+congresses, every diplomatic agent, though he represents the interests
+of his own state, has behind him the whole body of the treaties which
+constitute the public law of the world, of which he is in some sort the
+interpreter and the guardian.
+
+Parallel with this development runs the second process making for
+change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public opinion. To
+discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is impossible; but the
+subject is too important to be altogether passed over, since it is one
+of the main problems of modern international intercourse, and concerns
+every one who by his vote may influence the policy of the state to which
+he belongs. The question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public
+discussion of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of
+diplomacy for better or for worse? To the diplomatist of the old school
+the answer seems clear. For him diplomacy was too delicate and too
+personal an art to survive the glare and confusion of publicity.
+Metternich, the last representative of the old _haute diplomatie_, lived
+to moralize over the ruin caused by the first manifestations of the "new
+diplomacy," the outcome of the rise of the power of public opinion. He
+had early, from his own point of view, unfavourably contrasted the
+"limited" constitutional monarchies of the west with the "free"
+autocracies of the east of Europe, free because they were under no
+obligation to give a public account of their actions. He himself was a
+master of the old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose
+under a cloud of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal
+fascination. But public opinion was for him only a dangerous force to be
+kept under control; and, even had he realized the necessity for
+appealing to it, he had none of the qualities that would have made the
+appeal successful. In direct antagonism to him was George Canning, who
+may be called the great prototype of the "new diplomacy," and to
+Metternich was a "malevolent meteor hurled by divine providence upon
+Europe." Canning saw clearly the immense force that would be added to
+his diplomatic action if he had behind him the force of public opinion.
+In answer to Metternich's complaint of the tone of speeches in
+parliament and of the popular support given in England to revolutionary
+movements, he wrote, "Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad,
+must be secure in its sources of strength at home: and the sources of
+that strength are in the sympathy between the people and the government;
+in the union of the public sentiment with the public counsels; in the
+reciprocal confidence of the House of Commons and the crown."[2]
+
+It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning was wholly
+right and Metternich wholly wrong. The conditions of the Habsburg
+monarchy were not those of Great Britain,[3] and even if it had been
+possible to speak of a public opinion in the Austrian empire at all, it
+certainly possessed no such organ as the British parliament. But the
+argument may be carried yet further. In the abstract the success of the
+policy of a minister in a democratic state must ultimately rest upon the
+support of public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the
+conduct of foreign affairs its peculiar dangers. In the difficult game
+of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary. Secret sources of
+information would be dried up were they to be lightly revealed; a plain
+exposition of policy would often give an undue advantage to the other
+party to a negotiation. Thus, even in Great Britain, the diplomatic
+correspondence laid before parliament is carefully edited, and all
+governments are jealous of granting access to their modern archives. Yet
+a representative assembly is apt to be resentful of such reservations.
+Its members know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign
+affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated by
+explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness. Canning himself
+had experience of this in the affair of the capture of the Danish fleet
+at Copenhagen; and Castlereagh's diplomacy was hampered by the bitter
+attacks of an opposition which accused him, with little justice, of
+pursuing a policy which he dared not reveal in its full scope to
+parliament. Moreover, the appeal to public opinion may be used as a
+diplomatic weapon for ends no less "selfish" than any aimed at by the
+old diplomacy. Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as
+that of Metternich, was a master of the art of taking the world into his
+confidence--when it suited him to do so; and the "reptile press," hired
+to give a seemingly independent support to his policy, was one of his
+most potent weapons. So far the only necessary consequence of the growth
+of the power of public opinion on the art of diplomacy has been to
+extend the sphere of its application; it is but one more factor to be
+dealt with; and experience has proved that it is subject to the wiles of
+a skilful diplomatist no less than were the princes and statesmen with
+whom the old diplomacy was solely concerned.
+
+The third factor making for change--the revolution in the means of
+communication which has brought all the world into closer touch--remains
+to be discussed. It is obvious that before the invention of the
+telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far more responsible position
+than he is now, when he can, in most cases, receive immediate
+instructions from his government on difficult questions as they arise.
+When communication was still slow there was often no time to await
+instructions, or the instructions when they arrived were not seldom
+already out of date and had to be set aside on the minister's own
+responsibility. It would, however, be easy to exaggerate the importance
+of this change as affecting the character and status of diplomatic
+agents. It is true that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign
+affairs to hold the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far
+greater extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend
+for information and advice on the "man on the spot," and the success of
+their policy largely depends upon his qualities of discretion and
+judgment. The growth of democracy, moreover, has given to the ambassador
+a new and peculiar importance; for he represents not only the sovereign
+to the sovereign, but the nation to the nation; and, as a succession of
+notable American ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his
+personal qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and
+ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations. It marks an
+immense advance in the comity of international intercourse when the
+representatives of friendly powers are no longer regarded as "spies
+rather than ambassadors," to be "quickly heard and dismissed," as
+Philippe de Commines would have them, but as agreeable guests to be
+parted from with regret.
+
+As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly impossible to
+lay down a general rule, for the same qualities are obviously not
+required in Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris as in Pekin. Yet the
+effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks largely in the works of the
+earlier theorists, and the demands they make are sufficiently alarming.
+Ottaviano Maggi, himself a diplomatist of the brilliant age of the
+Renaissance, has left us in his _De legato_ (Hanoviae, 1596) his idea of
+what an ambassador should be. He must not only be a good Christian but a
+learned theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotle
+and Plato, and able at a moment's notice to solve in correct dialectical
+form the most abstruse problems; he must be well read in the classics,
+and an expert in mathematics, architecture, music, physics and civil and
+canon law. He must not only know how to write and speak Latin with
+classical refinement, but he must be a master of Greek, Spanish, French,
+German and Turkish. He must have a sound knowledge of history, geography
+and the science of war; but at the same time is not to neglect the
+poets, and never to be without his Homer. Add to this that he must be
+well born, rich and of a handsome presence, and we have a portrait of a
+diplomatist whose original can hardly have existed even in that age of
+brilliant versatility. The Dutchman Frederikus de Marselaer, in his
+[Greek: kêrukeion] _sive legationum insigne_ (Antwerp, 1618), is
+scarcely less exacting than the Venetian. His ideal ambassador is a
+nobleman of fine presence and in the prime of life, famous, rich,
+munificent, abstemious, not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no
+flatterer, learned, eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good
+linguist, widely read, prudent and cautious, but brave and--as he adds
+somewhat superfluously--many-sided.
+
+With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the
+qualifications demanded by the exigencies of practical politics may be
+cited by way of illuminating contrast. At the court of the empress
+Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of diplomatic success
+than all the talents and virtues, and the princess of Zerbst (mother of
+the empress Catherine II.) wrote to Frederick of Prussia advising him to
+replace his elderly ambassador by a handsome young man with a good
+complexion; and the essential qualification for an ambassador to
+Switzerland, Germany, Poland, Denmark and Russia used to be that he
+should be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood
+to strong liquors, under the table.
+
+_History._--In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of the
+intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a mere brute
+struggle for the mastery;[4] in a narrower sense, with which the present
+article is alone concerned, it is that of the methods and spirit of
+diplomatic intercourse and of the character and status of diplomatic
+agents. Earlier writers on the office and functions of ambassadors, such
+as Gentilis or Archbishop Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin
+to God himself, who created the angels to be his legates; and they
+fortify their arguments by copious examples drawn from ancient history,
+sacred and profane. But, whatever the influence upon it of earlier
+practice, modern diplomacy really dates from the rise of permanent
+missions, and the consequent development of the diplomatic hierarchy as
+an international institution. Of this the first beginnings are traceable
+to the 15th century and to Italy. There had, of course, during the
+middle ages been embassies and negotiations; but the embassies had been
+no more than temporary missions directed to a particular end and
+conducted by ecclesiastics or nobles of a dignity appropriate to each
+occasion; there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a
+professional diplomatic class. To the evolution of such a class the
+Italy of the Renaissance, the nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave
+the first impetus. This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous
+independent states, between which there existed a lively intercourse and
+a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in miniature the modern states'
+system of Europe. In feudal Europe there had been little room for
+diplomacy; but in northern and central Italy feudalism had never taken
+root, and in the struggles of the peninsula diplomacy had early played a
+part as great as, or greater than, war. Where all were struggling for
+the mastery, the existence of each depended upon alliances and
+counter-alliances, of which the object was the maintenance of the
+balance of power. In this school there was trained a notable succession
+of men of affairs. Thus, in the 13th and 14th centuries Florence counted
+among her envoys Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and later on could boast
+of agents such as Capponi, Vettori, Guicciardini and Machiavelli. Papal
+Rome, too, as was to be expected, had always been a fruitful
+nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some authorities have traced the
+beginnings of modern diplomacy to a conscious imitation of her legatine
+system.[5]
+
+It is, however, in Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy are to
+be sought.[6] So early as the 13th century the republic, with a view to
+safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a series of rules
+for the conduct of its ambassadors. Thus, in 1236, envoys to the court
+of Rome are forbidden to procure a benefice for anyone without leave of
+the doge and little council; in 1268 ambassadors are commanded to
+surrender on their return any gifts they may have received, and by
+another decree they are compelled to take an oath to conduct affairs to
+the honour and advantage of the republic. About the same time it was
+decided that diplomatic agents were to hand in, on their return, a
+written account of their mission; in 1288 this was somewhat expanded by
+a law decreeing that ambassadors were to deposit, within fifteen days of
+their return, a written account of the replies made to them during their
+mission, together with anything they might have seen or heard to the
+honour or in the interests of the republic. These provisions, which were
+several times renewed, notably in 1296, 1425 and 1533, are the origin of
+the famous reports of the Venetian ambassadors to the senate, which are
+at once a monument to the political genius of Venetian statesmen and a
+mine of invaluable historical material.[7]
+
+These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations, many
+others also dating to the 13th century, by which the Venetian government
+sought to systematize its diplomatic service. That permanent diplomatic
+agencies were not established by it earlier than was the case is
+probably due to the distrust of its agents by which most of this
+legislation of the republic is inspired. In the 13th century two or
+three months was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to
+reside at a foreign court; in the 15th century the period of residence
+was extended to two years, and in the 16th century to three. This latter
+rule continued till the end of the republic; the embassy had become
+permanent, but the ambassador was changed every three years.
+
+The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions has been
+the subject of much debate and controversy. The theory that it was due,
+in the first instance, to the evolution of the Venetian consulates
+(_bajulats_) in the Levant into permanent diplomatic posts, and that the
+idea was thence transferred to the West, is disproved by the fact that
+Venice had established other permanent embassies before the baylo (q.v.)
+at Constantinople was transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first
+rank. Nor is the first known instance of the appointment of a permanent
+ambassador Venetian. The earliest record[8] is contained in the
+announcement by Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1455, of his
+intention to maintain a permanent embassy at Genoa[9]; and in 1460 the
+duke of Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, archdeacon of Vercelli, as his
+permanent representative to the Curia.[10] Though, however, the early
+records of such appointments are rare, the practice was probably common
+among the Italian states. Its extension to countries outside Italy was a
+somewhat later development. In 1494 Milan is already represented in
+France by a permanent ambassador. In 1495 Zacharia Contarini, Venetian
+ambassador to the emperor Maximilian, is described by Sanuto (_Diarii_,
+i. 294) as _stato ambasciatore_; and from the time of Charles V.
+onwards the succession of ambassadors of the republic at the imperial
+court is fairly traceable. In 1496 "as the way to the British Isles is
+very long and very dangerous," two merchants resident in London, Pietro
+Contarini and Luca Valaressa, were appointed by the republic
+_subambasciatores_; and in June of the same year Andrea Trevisano
+arrived in London as permanent ambassador at the court of Henry VII.[11]
+Florence, too, from 1498 onwards, was represented at the courts of
+Charles V. and of France by permanent ambassadors.
+
+During the same period the practice had been growing up among the other
+European powers. Spain led the way in 1487 by the appointment of Dr
+Roderigo Gondesalvi de Puebla as ambassador in England. As he was still
+there in 1500, the Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the
+oldest still surviving post of the new permanent diplomacy. Other states
+followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the 16th
+century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm. The
+precarious relations between the European powers during the 16th
+century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of the system. Thus
+it was not till after good relations had been established with France by
+the treaty of London that, in 1519, Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr West were
+sent to Paris as resident English ambassadors, and, after the renewed
+breach between the two countries, no others were appointed till the
+reign of Elizabeth. Nine years before, Sir Robert Wingfield, whose
+simplicity earned him the nickname of "Summer-shall-be-green," had been
+sent as ambassador to the court of Charles V., where he remained from
+1510 to 1517; and in 1520 the mutual appointment of resident ambassadors
+was made a condition of the treaty between Henry VIII. and Charles V. In
+1517 Thomas Spinelly, who had for some years represented England at the
+court of the Netherlands, was appointed "resident ambassador to the
+court of Spain," where he remained till his death on the 22nd of August
+1522. These are the most important early instances of the new system.
+Alone of the great powers, the emperor remained permanently
+unrepresented at foreign courts. In theory this was the result of his
+unique dignity, which made him superior to all other potentates;
+actually it was because, as emperor, he could not speak for the
+practically independent princes nominally his vassals. It served all
+practical purposes if he were represented abroad by his agents as king
+of Spain or archduke of Austria.
+
+All the evidence now available goes to prove that the establishment of
+permanent diplomatic agencies was not an unconscious and accidental
+development of previous conditions, but deliberately adopted as an
+obvious convenience. But, while all the powers were agreed as to the
+convenience of maintaining such agencies abroad, all were equally agreed
+in viewing the representatives accredited to them by foreign states with
+extreme suspicion. This attitude was abundantly justified by the
+peculiar ethics of the new diplomacy. The old "orators" of the
+Summer-shall-be-green type could not long hold their own against the new
+men who had studied in the school of Italian statecraft, for whom the
+end justified the means. Machiavelli had gathered in _The Prince_ and
+_The Discourses on Livy_ the principles which underlay the practice of
+his day in Italy; Francis I., the first monarch to establish a
+completely organized diplomatic machinery, did most to give these
+principles a European extension. By the close of the 16th century
+diplomacy had become frankly "Machiavellian," and the ordinary rules of
+morality were held not to apply to the intercourse between nations. This
+was admitted in theory as well as in practice. Germonius, after a
+vigorous denunciation of lying in general, argues that it is permissible
+for the safety or convenience (_commodo_) of princes, since _salus
+populi suprema lex_, and _quod non permittit naturalis ratio, admittit
+civilis_; and he adduces in support of this principle the answer given
+by Ulysses to Neoptolemus, in the _Ajax_ of Sophocles, and the examples
+of Abraham, Jacob and David. Paschalius, while affirming that an
+ambassador must study to speak the truth, adds that he is not such a
+"rustic boor" as to say that an "official lie" (_officiosum mendacium_)
+is never to be employed, or to deny that an ambassador should be, on
+occasion, _splendide mendax_.[12] The situation is summed up in the
+famous definition of Sir Henry Wotton, which, though excused by himself
+as a jest, was held to be an indiscreet revelation of the truth: "An
+ambassador is an honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his
+country."[13] The most successful liar, in fact, was esteemed the most
+successful diplomatist. "A prime article of the catechism of
+ambassadors," says Bayle in his _Dictionnaire critique_ (1699),
+"whatever their religion, is to invent falsehoods and to go about making
+society believe them." So universally was this principle adopted that,
+in the end, no diplomatist even expected to be believed; and the best
+way to deceive was--as Bismarck cynically avowed--to tell the truth.
+
+But, in addition to being a liar _ex officio_, the ambassador was also
+"an honourable spy." "The principal functions of an envoy," says
+Francois de Callières, himself an ex-ambassador of Louis XIV., "are two;
+the first is to look after the affairs of his own prince; the second is
+to discover the affairs of the other." A clever minister, he maintains,
+will know how to keep himself informed of all that goes on in the mind
+of the sovereign, in the councils of ministers or in the country; and
+for this end "good cheer and the warming effect of wine" are excellent
+allies.[14] This being so, it is hardly to be wondered at that foreign
+ambassadors were commonly regarded as perhaps necessary, but certainly
+very unwelcome, guests. The views of Philippe de Commines have already
+been quoted above, and they were shared by a long series of theoretical
+writers as well as by men of affairs. Gentilis is all but alone in his
+protest against the view that all ambassadors were _exploratores magis
+quam oratores_, and to be treated as such. So early as 1481 the
+government of Venice had decreed the penalty of banishment and a heavy
+fine for any one who should talk of affairs of state with a foreign
+envoy, and though the more civilized princes did not follow the example
+of the sultan, who by way of precaution locked the ambassador of
+Ferdinand II., Jerome Laski, into "a dark and stinking place without
+windows," they took the most minute precautions to prevent the
+ambassadors of friendly powers from penetrating into their secrets.
+Charles V. thought it safest to keep them as far away as possible from
+his court. So did Francis I.; and, when affairs were critical, he made
+his frequent changes of residence and his hunting expeditions the excuse
+for escaping from their presence. Henry VII. forbade his subjects to
+hold any intercourse with them, and, later on, set spies upon them and
+examined their correspondence--a practice by no means confined to
+England. If the system of permanent embassies survived, it is clear that
+this was mainly due to the belief of the sovereigns that they gained
+more by maintaining "honourable spies" at foreign courts than they lost
+by the presence of those of foreign courts at their own. It was purely a
+question of the balance of advantage. Neither among statesmen nor among
+theorists was there any premonition of the great part to be played by
+the permanent diplomatic body in the development and maintenance of the
+concert of Europe. To Paschalius the permanent embassies were "a
+miserable outgrowth of a miserable age."[15] Grotius himself condemned
+them as not only harmful, but useless, the proof of the latter being
+that they were unknown to antiquity.[16]
+
+_Development of the Diplomatic Hierarchy._--The history of the
+diplomatic body[17] is, like that of other bodies, that of the
+progressive differentiation of functions. The middle ages knew no
+classification of diplomatic agents; the person sent on mission is
+described indifferently as _legatus_, _orator_, _nuntius_, _ablegatus_,
+_commissarius_, _procurator_, _mandatarius_, _agens_ or _ambaxator_
+(_ambassator_, &c.). In Gundissalvus, _De legato_ (1485), the oldest
+printed work on the subject, the word _ambasiator_, first found in a
+Venetian decree of 1268, is applied to any diplomat. Florence was the
+first to make distinction; the _orator_ was appointed by the council of
+the republic; the _mandatorio_, with inferior powers, by the Council of
+Ten. In 1500 Machiavelli, who held only the latter rank, wrote from
+France urging the Signoria to send _ambasiadori_. This was, however,
+rather a question of powers than of dignity. But the causes which
+ultimately led to the elaborate differentiation of diplomatic ranks were
+rather questions of dignity than of functions.[18] The breakdown of
+feudalism, with the consequent rise of a series of sovereign states or
+of states claiming to be sovereign, of very various size and importance,
+led to a certain confusion in the ceremonial relation between them,
+which had been unknown to the comparatively clearly defined system of
+the middle ages. The smaller states were eager to assert the dignity of
+their actual or practical independence; the greater powers were equally
+bent on "keeping them in their place." If the emperor, as has been
+stated above, was too exalted to send ambassadors, certain of the lesser
+states were soon esteemed too humble to be represented at the courts of
+the great powers save by agents of an inferior rank. By the second half
+of the 16th century, then, there are two classes of diplomatists,
+ambassadors and residents or agents, the latter being accounted
+ambassadors of the second class.[19] At first the difference of rank was
+determined by the status of the sovereign by whom or to whom the
+diplomatic agent was accredited; but early in the 16th century it became
+fairly common for powers of the first rank to send agents of the second
+class to represent them at courts of an equal status. The reasons were
+various, and not unamusing. First and foremost came the question of
+expense. The ambassador, as representing the person of his sovereign,
+was bound by the sentiment of the age to display an exaggerated
+magnificence. His journeys were like royal progresses, his state entries
+surrounded with every circumstance of pomp, and it was held to be his
+duty to advertise the munificence of his prince by boundless largesses.
+Had this munificence been as unlimited in fact as in theory, all might
+have been well, but, in that age of vaulting ambitions, depleted
+exchequers were the rule rather than the exception in Europe; the
+records are full of pitiful appeals from ambassadors for arrears of pay,
+and appointment to an embassy often meant ruin, even to a man of
+substance. To give but one example, Sir Richard Morison, Edward VI.'s
+ambassador in Germany, had to borrow money to pay his debts before he
+could leave Augsburg (_Cal. State Pap. Edw. VI._, No. 467), and later on
+he writes from Hamburg (April 9, 1552) that he could buy nothing,
+because everyone believed that he had packed up in readiness to flit
+secretly, for "How must they buy things, where men know their stuff is
+ready trussed up, and they fleeting every day?" (ib. No. 544). But the
+dignity of ambassador carried another drawback besides expense; his
+function of "honourable spy" was seriously hampered by the trammels of
+his position. He was unable to move freely in society, but lived a
+ceremonial existence in the midst of a crowd of retainers, through whom
+alone it was proper for him to communicate with the world outside. It
+followed that, though the office of ambassador was more dignified, that
+of agent was more generally useful.
+
+Yet a third cause, possibly the most immediately potent, encouraged the
+growth of the lesser diplomatic ranks: the question of precedence among
+powers theoretically equal. Modern diplomacy has settled a difficulty
+which caused at one time much heart-burning and even bloodshed by a
+simple appeal to the alphabet. Great Britain feels no humiliation in
+signing after France, if the reason be that her name begins with G; had
+she not been Great, she would sign before. The vexed question of the
+precedence of ambassadors, too, has been settled by the rule, already
+referred to above, as to seniority of appointment. But while the
+question remained unsettled it was obviously best to evade it; and this
+was most easily done by sending an agent of inferior rank to a court
+where the precedence claimed for an ambassador would have been refused.
+
+Thus set in motion, the process of differentiation continues until the
+system is stereotyped in the 19th century. It is unnecessary to trace
+this evolution here in any detail. It is mainly a question of names, and
+diplomatic titles are no exception to the general rule by which all
+titles tend to become cheapened and therefore, from time to time, need
+to be reinforced by fresh verbal devices. The method was the familiar
+one of applying terms that had once implied a particular quality in a
+fashion that implied actually nothing. The ambassador extraordinary had
+originally been one sent on an extraordinary mission; for the time and
+purpose of this mission his authority superseded that of the resident
+ambassador. But by the middle of the 17th century the custom had grown
+up of calling all ambassadors "extraordinary," in order to place them on
+an equality with the others. The same process was extended to
+diplomatists of the second rank; and envoys (_envoyé_ for _ablegatus_)
+were always "extraordinary," and as such claimed and received precedence
+over mere "residents," who in their day had asserted the same claim
+against the agents--all three terms having at one time been synonymous.
+Similarly a "minister plenipotentiary" had originally meant an agent
+armed with full powers (_plein-pouvoir_); but, by a like process, the
+combination came to mean as little as "envoy extraordinary"--though a
+plenipotentiary _tout simple_ is still an agent, of no ceremonially
+defined dignity, despatched with full powers to treat and conclude.
+Finally, the evolution of the title of a diplomatist of the second rank
+is crowned by the high-sounding combination, now almost exclusively
+used, of "envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary." The
+ultimate fate of the simple title "resident" was the same as that of
+"agent." Both had been freely sold by needy sovereigns to all and sundry
+who were prepared to pay for what gave them a certain social status. The
+"agent" fell thus into utter discredit, and those "residents" who were
+still actual diplomatic agents became "ministers resident" to
+distinguish them from the common herd.
+
+The classification of diplomatic agents was for the first time
+definitively included in the general body of international law by the
+_Règlement_ of the 19th of March 1815 at Vienna[20]; and the whole
+question was finally settled at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(November 21, 1818) when, the proposal to establish precedence by the
+status of the accrediting powers having wisely been rejected, diplomatic
+agents were divided into four classes: (1) Ambassadors, legates,
+nuncios; (2) Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, and
+other ministers accredited direct to the sovereign; (3) Ministers
+resident; (4) Chargés d'affaires. With a few exceptions (e.g. Turkey),
+this settlement was accepted by all states, including the United States
+of America.
+
+_Rights and Privileges of Diplomatic Agents._--These are partly founded
+upon immemorial custom, partly the result of negotiations embodied in
+international law. The most important, as it is the most ancient, is the
+right of personal _inviolability_ extended to the diplomatic agent and
+the members of his suite. This inviolability is maintained after a
+rupture between the two governments concerned, and even after the
+outbreak of war. The habit of the Ottoman government of imprisoning in
+the Seven Towers the ambassador of a power with which it quarrelled was
+but an exception which proved the rule. The second important right is
+that of exterritoriality (q.v.), a convenient fiction by which the house
+and equipages of the diplomatic agent are regarded as the territory of
+the power by whom he is accredited. This involves the further principle
+that the agent is in no way subject to the receiving government. He is
+exempt from taxation and from the payment at least of certain local
+rates. He also enjoys immunity (1) from civil jurisdiction, e.g. he
+cannot be sued, nor can his goods be seized, for debt; (2) from criminal
+jurisdiction, e.g. he cannot be arrested and tried for a criminal
+offence. For a crime of violence, however, or for plotting against the
+state, he can be placed under the necessary restraint and expelled the
+country.[21] These immunities extend to all the members of an envoy's
+suite. The difficulties that might be supposed to arise from such
+exemptions have not in practice been found very serious; for though, in
+the case of crimes committed by servants of agents of the first or
+second class the procedure is not clearly defined, each case would
+easily be made the subject of arrangement. In certain cases, e.g.
+embassies in Turkey, the exterritoriality of ambassadors implies a
+fairly extensive criminal jurisdiction; in other cases the dismissal of
+the servant would deprive him of his diplomatic immunity and bring him
+under the law of the land. The right of granting asylum claimed by
+diplomatic agents in virtue of that of exterritoriality, at one time
+much abused, is now strictly limited. A political or criminal offender
+may seek asylum in a foreign embassy; but if, after a request has been
+formally made for his surrender, the ambassador refuses to deliver him
+up, the authorities may take the measures necessary to effect his
+arrest, and even force an entrance into the embassy for the purpose. The
+"right of chapel" (_droit de chapelle_, or _droit de culte_), enjoyed by
+envoys in reference to their exterritoriality, i.e. the right of free
+exercise of religious worship within their house, formerly of great
+importance, has been rendered superfluous by the spread of religious
+toleration. (See L. Oppenheim, _Internat. Law_ (London, 1905), i. p. 441,
+&c.; A.W. Haffter, _Das europäische Völkerrecht_ (Berlin, 1888), p. 435,
+&c.)
+
+_The Personnel of the "Corps diplomatique."_--The establishment of
+diplomacy as a regular branch of the civil service is of modern growth,
+and even now by no means universal. From old time states naturally chose
+as their agents those who would best serve their interests in the matter
+in hand. In the middle ages diplomacy was practically a monopoly of the
+clergy, who as a class alone possessed the necessary qualifications: and
+in later times, when learning had spread to the laity as well, there
+were still potent reasons why the clergy should continue to be employed
+as diplomatic agents. Of these reasons the most practical was that of
+expense; for the wealth of the church formed an inexhaustible reserve
+which was used without scruple for secular purposes. Francis I. of
+France, who by the Concordat with Rome had in his hands the patronage of
+all the sees and abbeys in France, used this partly to reward his
+clerical ministers, partly as a great secret service fund for bribing
+the ambassadors of other powers, partly for the payment of those
+high-placed spies at foreign courts maintained by the elaborately
+organized system known as the _Secret du Roi_.[22] None the less, in
+the 16th century, laymen as diplomats are already well in evidence. They
+are usually lawyers, rarely soldiers, occasionally even simple
+merchants. Not uncommonly they were foreigners, like the Italian Thomas
+Spinelly mentioned above, drawn from that cosmopolitan class of
+diplomats who were ready to serve any master. Though nobles were often
+employed as ambassadors by all the powers, Venice alone made nobility a
+condition of diplomatic service. They were professional in the sense
+that, for the most part, diplomacy was the main occupation of their
+lives; there was, however, no graded diplomatic service in which, as at
+present, it was possible to rise on a fixed system from the position of
+simple _attaché_ to that of minister and ambassador. The "attaché to the
+embassy" existed[23]; but he was not, as is now the case, a young
+diplomat learning his profession, but an experienced man of affairs,
+often a foreigner employed by the ambassador as adviser, secret service
+agent and general go-between, and he was without diplomatic status.[24]
+The 18th century saw the rise of the diplomatic service in the modern
+sense. The elaboration of court ceremonial, for which Versailles had set
+the fashion, made it desirable that diplomatic agents should be
+courtiers, and young men of rank about the court began to be attached to
+missions for the express purpose of teaching them the art of diplomacy.
+Thus arose that aristocratic diplomatic class, distinguished by the
+exquisite refinement of its manners, which survived from the 18th
+century into the 19th. Modern democracy has tended to break with this
+tradition, but it still widely prevails. Even in Great Britain, where
+the rest of the public services have been thrown open to all classes, a
+certain social position is still demanded for candidates for the
+diplomatic service and the foreign office, and in addition to passing a
+competitive examination, they must be nominated by someone of recognized
+station prepared to vouch for their social qualifications. In America,
+where no regular diplomatic service exists, all diplomatic agents are
+nominated by the president.
+
+The existence of an official diplomatic service, however, by no means
+excludes the appointment of outsiders to diplomatic posts. It is, in
+fact, one of the main grievances of the regular diplomatic body that the
+great rewards of their profession, the embassies, are so often assigned
+to politicians or others who have not passed through the drudgery of the
+service. But though this practice has, doubtless, sometimes been abused,
+it is impossible to criticize the wisdom of its occasional application.
+
+A word may be added as to the part played by women in diplomacy. So far
+as their unofficial influence upon it is concerned, it would be
+impossible to exaggerate its importance; it would suffice to mention
+three names taken at random from the annals of the 19th century, Madame
+de Staël, Baroness von Krüdener, and Princess Lieven. Gentz comments on
+the "feminine intrigues" that darkened the counsels of the congresses of
+Vienna and Aix-la-Chapelle, and from which the powers so happily escaped
+in the bachelor seclusion of Troppau. Nor is it to be supposed that
+statesmen will ever renounce a diplomatic weapon so easy of disguise and
+so potent for use. A brilliant _salon_ presided over by a woman of charm
+may be a most valuable centre of a political propaganda; and ladies are
+still widely employed in the secret diplomacy of the powers. Their
+employment as regularly accredited diplomatic agents, however, though
+not unknown, has been extremely rare. An interesting instance is the
+appointment of Catherine of Aragon, when princess of Wales, as
+representative of her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, at the court of
+Henry VII. (G. A. Bergenroth, _Calendar of State Papers ... England and
+Spain--in the Archives at Simancas, &c._, i. pp. xxxiii, cxix).
+
+  LITERATURE.--Besides general works on international law (q.v.) which
+  necessarily deal with the subject of diplomacy, a vast mass of
+  treatises on diplomatic agents exists. The earliest printed work is
+  the _Tractatus de legato_ (Rome, 1485) of Gundissalvus (Gonsalvo de
+  Villadiego), professor of law at Salamanca, auditor for Spain at the
+  Roman court of the Rota, and bishop of Oviedo; but the first really
+  systematic writer on the subject was Albericus Gentilis, _De
+  legationibus libri iii_. (London, 1583, 1585, Hanover, 1596, 1607,
+  1612). For a full bibliography of works on ambassadors see Baron
+  Diedrich H. L. von Ompteda, _Litteratur des gesammten sowohl
+  natürlichen als positiven Völkerrechts_ (Regensburg, 1785), p. 534,
+  &c., which was completed and continued by the Prussian minister Karl
+  Albert von Kamptz, in _Neue Literatur des Völkerrechts seit dem Jahre
+  1784_ (Berlin, 1817), p. 231. A list of writers, with critical and
+  biographical remarks, is also given in Ernest Nys's "Les Commencements
+  de la diplomatie et le droit d'ambassade jusqu'à Grotius," in the
+  _Revue de droit international_, vol. xvi. p. 167. Other useful modern
+  works on the history of diplomacy are: E. C. Grenville-Murray,
+  _Embassies and Foreign Courts, a History of Diplomacy_ (2nd ed.,
+  1856); J. Zeller, _La Diplomatie française vers le milieu du XVI^e
+  siècle_ (Paris, 1881); A. O. Meyer, _Die englische Diplomatie in
+  Deutschland zur Zeit Eduards VI. und Mariens_ (Breslau, 1900); and,
+  above all, Otto Krauske, _Die Entwickelung der ständgien Diplomatie
+  vom fünfzehnten Jahrhundert bis zu den Beschlüssen von 1815 und 1818_,
+  in Gustav Schmoller's _Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche
+  Forschungen_, vol. v. (Leipzig, 1885). To these may be added, as
+  admirably illustrating in detail the early developments of modern
+  diplomacy, Logan Pearsall Smith's _Life and Letters of Sir Henry
+  Wotton_ (Oxford, 1907). Of works on modern diplomacy the most
+  important are the _Guide diplomatique_ of Baron Charles de Martens,
+  new edition revised by F. H. Geffcken, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1866), and P.
+  Pradier-Fodéré, _Cours de droit diplomatique_, 2 vols. (Paris, 1881).
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] La Bruyère, _Caractères_, ii. 77 (ed. P. Jouast, Paris, 1881).
+
+  [2] To Wellesley, in Stapleton's _Canning_, i. 374.
+
+  [3] For the motives of Metternich's foreign policy see
+    AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_ (iii. 332-333).
+
+  [4] e.g. _A History of Diplomacy in the International Development of
+    Europe_, by D. J. Hill (London and New York, 1905).
+
+  [5] For this see Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i. p. 498.
+
+  [6] The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their
+    diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their trade
+    expansion in the Levant early brought them into close contact. For
+    Byzantine diplomacy see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER: _Diplomacy_.
+
+  [7] See Eugenio Albèri, _Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti al
+    senato_, 15 vols. (Florence, 1839-1863).
+
+  [8] The _apocrisiarii_ ([Greek: apokrisiarioi]) or _responsales_
+    should perhaps be mentioned, though they certainly did not set the
+    precedent for the modern permanent missions. They were resident
+    agents, practically legates, of the popes at the court of
+    Constantinople. They were established by Pope Leo I., and continued
+    until the Iconoclastic controversy broke the intimate ties between
+    East and West. See Luxardo, _Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht
+    der Päpste_ (Innsbruck, 1878); also Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i.
+    501.
+
+  [9] N. Bianchi, _Le Materie politiche relative all' estero degli
+    archivi di stato piemontese_ (Bologna, Modena, 1875), p. 29.
+
+  [10] Ib. Note 2, _teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum._
+
+  [11] The first ambassador of Venice to visit England was Zuanne da
+    Lezze, who came in 1319 to demand compensation for the plundering of
+    Venetian ships by English pirates.
+
+  [12] Germonius, _De legatis principum et populorum libri tres_ (Rome,
+    1627), chap. vi. p. 164; Paschalius, _Legatus_ (Rouen, 1598), p. 302.
+    Étienne Dolet, who had been secretary to Cardinal Jean du Bellay, and
+    was burned for atheism in 1546, in his _De officio legati_ (1541)
+    advises ambassadors to surround themselves with taciturn servants, to
+    employ vigilant spies, and to set afoot all manner of fictions,
+    especially when negotiating with the court of Rome or with the
+    Italian princes.
+
+  [13] See Pearsall Smith, _Sir Henry Wotton_, pp. 49, 126 et seq.
+
+  [14] François de Callières, _De la manière de négocier avec les
+    souverains_ (Brussels, 1716). See also A. Sorel, _Recueil des
+    instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France_ (Paris,
+    1884), e.g. vol. _Autriche_, pp. 77, 88, 102, 112.
+
+  [15] "Nova res est, quod sciam, et infelicis hujus aetatis infelix
+    partus.... Hinc oriri securitatem universorum, hinc stabiliri pacem
+    gentium. Quae utinam tam vere dicerentur, quam speciose. Ego quidem,
+    ne quid dissimulem, ab istis seorsum sentio. Nimirum, effoeta
+    virtutis, foecunda fraudis haec saecula video peperisse spissata haec
+    imperia, sive summas potestates, unde, ut e vomitariis, hae legationes
+    undatim se fundunt." Paschalius, _Legatus_ (1598), p. 447. So too
+    Félix de la Mothe Le Vayer (1547-1625), in his _Legatus_ (Paris,
+    1579), says "Legatos tunc primum aut non multum post institutos fuisse
+    cum Pandora malorum omnium semina in hunc mundum ... demisit."
+
+  [16] _De jure belli et pacis_ (Amsterdam, 1621), ii. c. 18, § 3, n. 2.
+
+  [17] The term _corps diplomatique_ originated about the middle of the
+    18th century. "The Chancellor Furst," says Ranke (xxx. 47, note),
+    "does not use it as yet in his report (1754) but he knows it," and it
+    would appear that it had just been invented at Vienna. "Corps
+    diplomatique, nom qu'une dame donna un jour à ce corps nombreux de
+    ministres étrangers à Vienne."
+
+  [18] So too Pradier-Fodéré, vol. i. p. 262.
+
+  [19] Thus Charles V. would not allow the representatives of the duke
+    of Mantua, Ferrara, &c., to style themselves "ambassadors," on the
+    ground that this title could be borne only by the agents of kings and
+    of the republic of Venice, and not by those of states whose
+    sovereignty was impaired by any feudal relation to a superior power.
+    (See Krauske p. 155.)
+
+  [20] See Pradier-Fodéré, i. 265.
+
+  [21] Gentilis, who had been consulted by the government in the case
+    of the Spanish ambassador, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, expelled for
+    intriguing against Queen Elizabeth, lays this down definitely. An
+    ambassador, he says, need not be received, and he may be expelled. In
+    actual practice a diplomatic agent who has made himself objectionable
+    is withdrawn by his government on the representations of that to
+    which he is accredited, and it is customary, before an ambassador is
+    despatched, to find out whether he is a _persona grata_ to the power
+    to which he is accredited.
+
+  [22] See Zeller.
+
+  [23] A. O. Meyer, p. 22.
+
+  [24] See the amusing account of the methods of these agents in
+    Morysine to Cecil (January 23, 1551-1552), _Cal. State Pap. Edw.
+    VI._, No. 530.
+
+
+
+
+DIPLOMATIC, the science of diplomas, founded on the critical study of
+the "diplomatic" sources of history: diplomas, charters, acts, treaties,
+contracts, judicial records, rolls, chartularies, registers, &c. The
+employment of the word "diploma," as a general term to designate an
+historical document, is of comparatively recent date. The Roman diploma,
+so called because it was formed of two sheets of metal which were shut
+together (Gr. [Greek: diploun], to double) like the leaves of a book,
+was the passport or licence to travel by the public post; also, the
+certificate of discharge, conferring privileges of citizenship and
+marriage on soldiers who had served their time; and, later, any imperial
+grant of privileges. The word was adopted, rather pedantically, by the
+humanists of the Renaissance and applied by them to important deeds and
+to acts of sovereign authority, to privileges granted by kings and by
+great personages; and by degrees the term became extended and embraced
+generally the documents of the middle ages.
+
+_History of the Study._--The term "diplomatic," the French
+_diplomatique_, is a modern adaptation of the Latin phrase _res
+diplomatica_ employed in early works upon the subject, and more
+especially in the first great text-book, the _De re diplomatica_, issued
+in 1681 by the learned Benedictine, Dom Jean Mabillon, of the abbey of
+St Germain-des-Prés. Mabillon's treatise was called forth by an earlier
+work of Daniel van Papenbroeck, the editor of the _Acta Sanctorum_ of
+the Bollandists, who, with no great knowledge or experience of archives,
+undertook to criticize the historical value of ancient records and
+monastic documents, and raised wholesale suspicions as to their
+authenticity in his _Propylaeum antiquarium circa veri ac falsi
+discrimen in vetustis membranis_, which he printed in 1675. This was a
+rash challenge to the Benedictines, and especially to the congregation
+of St Maur, or confraternity of the Benedictine abbeys of France, whose
+combined efforts produced great literary works which still remain as
+monuments of profound learning. Mabillon was at that time engaged in
+collecting material for a great history of his order. He worked silently
+for six years before producing the work above referred to. His
+refutation of Papenbroeck's criticisms was complete, and his rival
+himself accepted Mabillon's system of the study of diplomatic as the
+true one. The _De re diplomatica_ established the science on a secure
+basis; and it has been the foundation of all subsequent works on the
+subject, although the immediate result of its publication was a flood of
+controversial writings between the Jesuits and the Benedictines, which,
+however, did not affect its stability.
+
+In Spain, the Benedictine Perez published, in 1688, a series of
+dissertations following the line of Mabillon's work. In England, Madox's
+_Formulare Anglicanum_, with a dissertation concerning ancient charters
+and instruments, appeared in 1702, and in 1705 Hickes followed with his
+_Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus_, both accepting the principles
+laid down by the learned Benedictine. In Italy, Maffei appeared with
+his _Istoria diplomatica_ in 1727, and Muratori, in 1740, introduced
+dissertations on diplomatic into his great work, the _Antiquitates
+Italicae_. In Germany, the first diplomatic work of importance was that
+by Bessel, entitled _Chronicon Gotwicense_ and issued in 1732; and this
+was followed closely by similar works of Baring, Eckhard and Heumann.
+
+France, however, had been the cradle of the science, and that country
+continued to be the home of its development. Mabillon had not taken
+cognizance of documents later than the 13th century. Arising out of a
+discussion relative to the origin of the abbey of St Victor en Caux and
+the authenticity of its archives, a more comprehensive work than
+Mabillon's was compiled by the two Benedictines, Dom Toustain and Dom
+Tassin, viz. the _Nouveau Traité de diplomatique_, in six volumes,
+1750-1765, which embraced more than diplomatic proper and extended to
+all branches of Latin palaeography. With great industry the compilers
+gathered together a mass of details; but their arrangement is faulty,
+and the text is broken up into such a multitude of divisions and
+subdivisions that it is tediously minute. However, its more extended
+scope has given the _Nouveau Traité_ an advantage over Mabillon's work,
+and modern compilations have drawn largely upon it.
+
+As a result of the Revolution, the archives of the middle ages lost in
+France their juridical and legal value; but this rather tended to
+enhance their historical importance. The taste for historical literature
+revived. The Académie des Inscriptions fostered it. In 1821 the École
+des Chartes was founded; and, after a few years of incipient inactivity,
+it received a further impetus, in 1829, by the issue of a royal
+ordinance re-establishing it. Thenceforth it has been an active centre
+for the teaching and for the encouragement of the study of diplomatic
+throughout the country, and has produced results which other nations may
+envy. Next to France, Germany and Austria are distinguished as countries
+where activity has been displayed in the systematic study of diplomatic
+archives, more or less with the support of the state. In Italy, too,
+diplomatic science has not been neglected. In England, after a long
+period of regrettable indifference to the study of the national and
+municipal archives of the country, some effort has been made in recent
+years to remove the reproach. The publications of the Public Record
+Office and of the department of MSS. in the British Museum are more
+numerous and are issued more regularly than in former times; and an
+awakened interest is manifested by the foundation in the universities of
+a few lectureships in diplomatic and palaeography, and by the attention
+which those subjects receive in such an institution as the London School
+of Economics, and in the publications of private literary societies. But
+such efforts can never show the systematic results which are to be
+attained by a special institution of the character of the French École
+des Chartes.
+
+_Extent of the Science._--The field covered by the study of diplomatic
+is so extensive and the different kinds of documents which it takes into
+its purview are so numerous and various, that it is impossible to do
+more than give a few general indications of their nature. No nation can
+have advanced far on the path of civilization before discovering the
+necessity for documentary evidence both in public and in private life.
+The laws, the constitutions, the decrees of government, on the one hand,
+and private contracts between man and man, on the other, must be
+embodied in formal documents, in order to ensure permanent record. In
+the case of a nation advancing independently from a primitive to a later
+stage of civilization we should have to trace the origin of its
+documentary records and examine their development from a rudimentary
+condition. But in an inquiry into the history of the documents of the
+middle ages in Europe we do not begin with primitive forms. Those ages
+inherited the documentary system which had been created and developed by
+the Romans; and, imperfect and limited in number as are the earliest
+surviving charters and diplomas of European medieval history, they
+present themselves to us fully developed and cast in the mould and
+employing the methods and formulae of the earlier tradition. Based on
+this foundation the chanceries of the several countries of Europe, as
+they came into existence and were organized, reduced to method and rule
+on one general system the various documents which the exigencies of
+public and of private life from time to time called into existence, each
+individual chancery at the same time following its own line of practice
+in detail, and evolving and confirming particular formulas which have
+become characteristic of it.
+
+_Classification of Documents._--If we classify these documents under the
+two main heads of public and private deeds, we shall have to place in
+the former category the legislative, administrative, judicial,
+diplomatic documents emanating from public authority in public form:
+laws, constitutions, ordinances, privileges, grants and concessions,
+proclamations, decrees, judicial records, pleas, treaties; in a word,
+every kind of deed necessary for the orderly government of a civilized
+state. In early times many of these were comprised under the general
+term of "letters," _litterae_, and to the large number of them which
+were issued in open form and addressed to the community the specific
+title of "letters patent," _litterae patentes_, was given. In
+contradistinction those public documents which were issued in closed
+form under seal were known as "close letters," _litterae clausae_.
+
+Such public documents belong to the state archives of their several
+countries, and are the monuments of administrative and political and
+domestic history of a nation from one generation to another. In no
+country has so perfect a series been preserved as in our own. Into the
+Public Record Office in London have been brought together all the
+collections of state archives which were formerly stored in different
+official repositories of the kingdom. Beginning with the great survey of
+Domesday, long series of enrolments of state documents, in many
+instances extending from the times of the Angevin kings to our own day
+in almost unbroken sequence, besides thousands of separate deeds of all
+descriptions, are therein preserved (see RECORD).
+
+Under the category of private documents must be included, not only the
+deeds of individuals, but also those of corporate bodies representing
+private interests and standing in the position of individual units in
+relation to the state, such as municipal bodies and monastic
+foundations. The largest class of documents of this character is
+composed of those numerous conveyances of real property and other title
+deeds of many descriptions and dating from early periods which are
+commonly described by the generic name of "charters," and which are to
+be found in thousands, not only in such public repositories as the
+Public Record Office and the British Museum, but also in the archives of
+municipal and other corporate bodies throughout the country and in the
+muniment-rooms of old families. There are also the records of the
+manorial courts preserved in countless court-rolls and registers; also
+the scattered muniments of the dissolved monasteries represented by the
+many collections of charters and the valuable chartularies, or registers
+of charters, which have fortunately survived and exist both in public
+and in private keeping.
+
+It will be noticed that in this enumeration of public and private
+documents in England reference is made to rolls. The practice of
+entering records on rolls has been in favour in England from a very
+early date subsequent to the Norman Conquest; and while in other
+countries the comprehensive term of "charters" (literally "papers": Gr.
+[Greek: chartês]) is employed as a general description of documents of
+the middle ages, in England the fuller phrase "charters and rolls" is
+required. The master of the rolls, the _Magister Rotulorum_, is the
+official keeper of the public records.
+
+From the great body of records, both public and private, many fall
+easily and naturally into the class in which the text takes a simpler
+narrative form; such as judicial records, laws, decrees, proclamations,
+registers, &c., which tell their own story in formulae and phraseology
+early developed and requiring little change. These we may leave on one
+side. For fuller description we select those deeds which, conferring
+grants and favours and privileges, conform more nearly to the idea of
+the Roman diploma and have received the special attention of the
+chanceries in the development and arrangement of their formulae and in
+their methods of execution.
+
+
+    Structure of medieval diplomas.
+
+  All such medieval deeds are composed of certain recognized members or
+  sections, some essential, others special and peculiar to the most
+  elaborate and solemn documents. A deed of the more elaborate character
+  is made up of two principal divisions: 1. the TEXT, in which is set
+  out the object of the deed, the statement of the considerations and
+  circumstances which have led to it, and the declaration of the will
+  and intention of the person executing the deed, together with such
+  protecting clauses as the particular circumstances of the case may
+  require; 2. the PROTOCOL (originally, the first sheet of a papyrus
+  roll; Gr. [Greek: prôtos], first, and [Greek: kollan], to glue),
+  consisting of the introductory and of the concluding formulae:
+  superscription, address, salutation, &c., at the beginning, and date,
+  formulae of execution, &c., at the end, of the deed. The latter
+  portion of the protocol is sometimes styled the eschatocol (Gr.
+  [Greek: eschatos], last, and [Greek: kollan], to glue). While the text
+  followed certain formulae which had become fixed by common usage, the
+  protocol was always special and varied with the practices of the
+  several chanceries, changing in a sovereign chancery with each
+  successive reign.
+
+
+    The Invocation.
+
+    The Superscription.
+
+    The Address.
+
+    The Salutation.
+
+  The different sections of a full deed, taking them in order under the
+  heads of Initial Protocol, Text and Final Protocol or Eschatocol, are
+  as follows:--The initial protocol consists of the Invocation, the
+  Superscription, the Address and the Salutation. 1. The INVOCATION,
+  lending a character of sanctity to the proceedings, might be either
+  verbal or symbolic. The verbal invocation consisted usually of some
+  pious ejaculation, such as _In nomine Dei, In nomine domini nostri
+  Jesu Christi_; from the 8th century, _In nomine Sanctae et individuae
+  Trinitatis_; and later, _In nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus
+  Sancti_. The symbolic form was usually the _chrismon_, or monogram
+  composed of the Greek initials [Chi][Rho] of the name of Christ. In
+  the course of the 10th and 11th centuries this symbol came to be so
+  scrawled that it had probably lost all meaning with the scribes. From
+  the 9th century the letter C (initial of _Christus_) came gradually
+  into use, and in German imperial diplomas it superseded the
+  _chrismon_. Stenographic signs of the system known as Tironian notes
+  were also sometimes added to this symbol down to the end of the 10th
+  century, expressing such a phrase as _Ante omnia Christus_, or
+  _Christus_, or _Amen_. From the Merovingian period, too, a cross was
+  often used. The symbol gradually died out after the 12th century for
+  general use, surviving only in notarial instruments and wills. 2. The
+  SUPERSCRIPTION (_superscriptio, intitulatio_) expressed the name and
+  titles of the grantor or person issuing the deed. 3. The ADDRESS. As
+  diplomas were originally in epistolary form the address was then a
+  necessity. While in Merovingian deeds the old pattern was adhered to,
+  in the Carolingian period the address was sometimes omitted. From the
+  8th century it was not considered necessary, and a distinction arose
+  in the case of royal acts, those having the address being styled
+  letters, and those omitting it, charters. The general form of address
+  ran in phrase as _Omnibus_ (or _Universis_) _Christi fidelibus
+  presentes litteras inspecturis_. 4. The SALUTATION was expressed in
+  such words as _Salutem_; _Salutem et dilectionem_; _Salutem et
+  apostolicam benedictionem_, but it was not essential.
+
+
+    The Preamble.
+
+    The Notification.
+
+    The Exposition.
+
+    The Disposition.
+
+    The Final Clauses.
+
+  Then follows the text in five sections: the Preamble, the
+  Notification, the Exposition, the Disposition and the Final Clauses.
+  5. The PREAMBLE (_prologus_, _arenga_): an ornamental introduction
+  generally composed of pious or moral sentiments, a _prefatio ad
+  captandam benevolentiam_ which _facit ad ornamentum_, degenerating
+  into tiresome platitudes. It became stereotyped at an early age: in
+  the 10th and 11th centuries it was a most ornate performance; in the
+  12th century it was cut short; in the 13th century it died out. 6. The
+  NOTIFICATION (_notificatio_, _promulgatio_) was the publication of the
+  purport of the deed introduced by such a phrase as _notum sit_, &c. 7.
+  The EXPOSITION set out the motives influencing the issue of the deed.
+  8. The DISPOSITION described the object of the deed and the will and
+  intention of the grantor. 9. The FINAL CLAUSES ensured the fulfilment
+  of the terms of the deed; guarded against infringement, by comminatory
+  anathemas and imprecations, not infrequently of a vehement
+  description, or by penalties; guaranteed the validity of the deed;
+  enumerated the formalities of subscription and execution; reserved
+  rights, &c.
+
+
+    The Date.
+
+    The Appreciation.
+
+    The Authentication.
+
+  Next comes the final protocol or eschatocol comprising: the Date, the
+  Appreciation, the Authentication. It was particularly in this portion
+  of the deed that the varying practices of the several chanceries led
+  to minute and intricate distinctions at different periods. 10. The
+  DATE. By the Roman law every act must be dated by the day and the year
+  of execution. Yet in the middle ages, from the 9th to the 12th
+  century, a large proportion of deeds bears no date. In the most
+  ancient charters the date clause was frequently separated from the
+  body of the deed and placed in an isolated position at the foot of the
+  sheet. From the 12th century it commonly followed the text
+  immediately. Certain classes of documents, such as decrees of
+  councils, notarial deeds, &c., began with the date. The usual formula
+  was _data, datum, actum, factum, scriptum_. In the Carolingian period
+  a distinction grew up between _datum_ and _actum_, the former applying
+  to the time, the latter to the place, of date. In the papal chancery
+  from an early period down to the 12th century the use of a double date
+  prevailed, the first following the text and being inserted by the
+  scribe when the deed was written (_scriptum_), the second being added
+  at the foot of the deed on its execution (_actum_), by the chancellor
+  or other high functionary. From the Roman custom of dating by the
+  consular year arose the medieval practice of dating by the regnal year
+  of emperor, king or pope. Special dates were sometimes employed, such
+  as the year of some great historical event, battle, siege, pestilence,
+  &c. 11. The APPRECIATION. The _feliciter_ of the Romans became the
+  medieval _feliciter in Domino_, or _In Dei nomine feliciter_, or the
+  more simple _Deo gratias_ or the still more simple _Amen_, for the
+  auspicious closing of a deed. In Merovingian and Carolingian diplomas
+  it follows the date; in other cases it closes the text. In the greater
+  papal bulls it appears in the form of a triple _Amen_. _Benevalete_
+  was also employed as the appreciation in early deeds; but in
+  Merovingian diplomas and in papal bulls this valedictory salutation
+  becomes a mark of authentication, as will be noticed below. 12. The
+  AUTHENTICATION was a solemn proceeding which was discharged by more
+  than one act. The most important was the subscription or subscriptions
+  of the person or persons from whom the deed emanated. The laws of the
+  late Roman empire required the subscriptions and the impressions of
+  the signet seals of the parties and of the witnesses to the deed. The
+  subscription (_subscriptio_) comprised the name, signature and
+  description of the person signing. The impression of the signet (not
+  the signature) was the _signum_, sometimes _signaculum_, rarely
+  _sigillum_. The practice of subscribing with the autograph signature
+  obtained in the early middle ages, as appears from early documents
+  such as those of Ravenna. But from the 7th century it began to
+  decline, and by the 12th century it had practically ceased. In Roman
+  deeds an illiterate person affixed his mark, or _signum manuale_,
+  which was attested. The cross being an easy form for a mark, it was
+  very commonly used and naturally became connected with the Christian
+  symbol. Hence, in course of time, it came to be attached very
+  generally to subscriptions, autograph or otherwise. Great personages
+  who were illiterate required something more elaborate than a common
+  mark. Hence arose the use of the monogram, the _caracter nominis_,
+  composed of the letters of the name. The emperor Justin, who could not
+  write, made use of a monogram, as did also Theodoric, king of the
+  Ostrogoths. Those Merovingian kings, likewise, who were illiterate,
+  had their individual monograms; and at length Charlemagne adopted the
+  monogram as his regular form of signature. From his reign down to that
+  of Philip the Fair the monogram was the recognized sign manual of the
+  sovereigns of France (see AUTOGRAPHS). It was employed by the German
+  emperors down to the reign of Maximilian I. The royal use of the
+  monogram was naturally imitated by great officers and ecclesiastics.
+  But another form of sign manual also arose out of the subscription.
+  The closing word (usually _subscripsi_), written or abbreviated as
+  _sub._, or _ss._ or _s._, was often finished off with flourishes and
+  interlacings, sometimes accompanied with Tironian notes, the whole
+  taking the shape of a domed structure to which the French have given
+  the name of _ruche_ or bee-hive. Thus in the early middle ages we have
+  deeds authenticated by the subscription, usually autograph, giving the
+  name and titles of the person executing, and stating the part taken by
+  him in the deed, and closing with the _subscripsi_, often in shape of
+  the ruche and constituting the _signum manuale_. If not autograph, the
+  subscription might be impersonal in such form as _signum_ (or _signum
+  manus_) + N. In the Carolingian period, while phrases were constantly
+  used in the body of the deed implying that it was executed by
+  autograph subscription, it did not necessarily follow that such
+  subscription was actually written in person. The ruche was also
+  adopted by chancellors, notaries and scribes as their official mark.
+  While autograph subscriptions continued to be employed, chiefly by
+  ecclesiastics, down to the beginning of the 12th century, the monogram
+  was perpetuated from the 10th century by the notaries. Their marks,
+  simple at first, became so elaborate from the end of the 13th century
+  that they found it necessary to add their names in ordinary writing,
+  or also to employ a less complicated design. This was the commencement
+  of the modern practice of writing the signature which first came into
+  vogue in the 14th century.
+
+
+    The Benevalete.
+
+    The Rota.
+
+  To lend further weight and authority to the subscription, certain
+  symbols and forms were added at different periods. Imitating, the
+  corroborative _Legi_ of the Byzantine quaestor and the _Legimus_ of
+  the Eastern emperors, the Frankish chancery in the West made use of
+  the same form, notably in the reign of Charles the Bald, in some of
+  whose diplomas the _Legimus_ appears written in larger letters in red.
+  The valedictory _Benevalete_, employed in early deeds as a form of
+  appreciation (see above), appears in Merovingian and in early
+  Carolingian royal diplomas, and also in papal bulls, as an
+  authenticating addition to the subscription. In the diplomas it was
+  written in cursive letters in two lines, _Bene valete_, just to the
+  right of the incision cut in the sheet to hold fast the seal, which
+  sometimes even covered part of the word. In the most ancient papal
+  bulls it was written by the pope himself at the foot of the deed. in
+  two lines, generally in larger capital or uncial characters, placed
+  between two crosses. From the beginning of the 11th century it became
+  the fashion to link the letters; and, dating from the time of Leo IX.,
+  A.D. 1048-1054, the _Benevalete_ was inscribed in form of a monogram.
+  During Leo's pontificate it was also accompanied with a flourish
+  called the _Komma_, which was only an exaggeration of the mark of
+  punctuation (_periodus_) which from the 9th to the 11th century closed
+  the subscription and generally resembled the modern semicolon. Leo's
+  successors abandoned the _Komma_, but the monogrammatic _Benevalete_
+  continued, invariable in form, but from time to time varying in size.
+  In Leo IX.'s pontificate also was introduced the _Rota_. This sign,
+  when it had received its final shape in the 11th century, was in form
+  of a wheel, composed of two concentric circles, in the space between
+  which was written the motto or device of the pope (_signum papae_),
+  usually a short sentence from one of the Psalms or some other portion
+  of Scripture; preceded by a small cross, which the pontiff himself
+  sometimes inscribed. The central space within the wheel was divided
+  (by cross lines) into four quarters, the two upper ones being occupied
+  by the names of the apostles St Peter and St Paul, and the two lower
+  ones by the name of the pope. The _Rota_ was placed on the left of the
+  subscription, the monogrammatic _Benevalete_ on the right. The two
+  signs were likewise adopted by certain ecclesiastical chanceries and
+  by feudal lords, particularly in the 12th century. From the same
+  period also the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs adopted the _Rota_,
+  the _signo rodado_, which is so conspicuous in the royal charters of
+  the Peninsula.
+
+
+    Sealing.
+
+  Besides the subscription, an early auxiliary method of authentication
+  was by the impression of the seal which, as noticed above, was
+  required by the Roman law. But the general use of the signet gradually
+  failed, and by the 7th century it had ceased. Still it survived in the
+  royal chanceries, and the sovereigns both of the Merovingian and of
+  the Carolingian lines had their seals; and, in the 8th century, the
+  mayors of the palace likewise. It is interesting to find instances of
+  the use of antique intaglios for the purpose by some of them. In
+  England too there is proof that the Mercian kings Offa and Coenwulf
+  used seals, in imitation of the Frankish monarchs. In the 7th century,
+  and still more so in the 8th and 9th centuries, the royal seals were
+  of exaggerated size: the precursors of the great seals of the later
+  sovereigns of western Europe. The waxen seals of the early diplomas
+  were in all cases _en placard_: that is, they were attached to the
+  face of the document and not suspended from it, being held in position
+  by a cross-cut incision in the material, through which the wax was
+  pressed and then flattened at the back. On the cessation of autograph
+  signatures in subscriptions, the general use of seals revived,
+  beginning in the 10th century and becoming the ordinary method of
+  authentication from the 12th to the 15th century inclusive. Even when
+  signatures had once again become universal, the seal continued to hold
+  its place; and thus sealing is, to the present day, required for the
+  legal execution of a deed. The attachment _en placard_ was
+  discontinued, as a general practice, in the middle of the 11th
+  century; and seals thenceforward were, for the most part, suspended,
+  leathern thongs being used at first, and afterwards silken and hempen
+  cords or parchment labels. In documents of minor importance it was
+  sometimes the custom to impress the seal or seals on one or more
+  strips of the parchment of the deed itself, cut, but not entirely
+  detached, from the lower margin, and left to hang loose. Besides waxen
+  impressions of seals, impressions in metal, bearing a device on both
+  faces, after the fashion of a coin, and suspended, were employed from
+  an early period. The most widely known instances are the _bullae_
+  attached to papal documents, generally of lead. The earliest surviving
+  papal _bulla_ is one of Pope Zacharias, A.D. 746, but earlier examples
+  are known from drawings. The papal _bulla_ was a disk of metal stamped
+  on both sides. From the time of Boniface V. to Leo IV., A.D. 617-855,
+  the name of the pontiff, in the genitive case, was impressed on the
+  obverse, and his title as pope on the reverse, e.g. _Bonifati/ papae_.
+  After that period, for some time, the name was inscribed in a circle
+  round a central ornament. Other variations followed; but at length in
+  the pontificate of Paschal II., A.D. 1099, the _bulla_ took the form
+  which it afterwards retained: on the obverse, the heads of the
+  apostles St Peter and St Paul; on the reverse, the pope's name, title
+  and number in succession. In the period of time between his election
+  and consecration, the pope made use of the half-bull, that is, the
+  obverse only was impressed. It should be mentioned that, in order to
+  conform to modern conditions and for convenience of despatch through
+  the post, Leo XII., in 1878, substituted for the leaden _bulla_ a red
+  ink stamp bearing the heads of the two apostles with the name of the
+  pope inscribed as a legend.
+
+  The Carolingian monarchs also used metal _bullae_. None of
+  Charlemagne's have survived, but there are still extant leaden
+  examples of Charles the Bald. The use of lead was not persisted in
+  either in the chancery of France or in that of Germany. Golden
+  _bullae_ were employed on special occasions by both popes and temporal
+  monarchs; for example, they were attached to the confirmations of the
+  elections of the emperors in the 12th and 13th centuries; the bull of
+  Leo X. conferring the title of Defender of the Faith on Henry VIII. in
+  1524, and the deed of alliance between Henry and Francis I. in 1527,
+  had golden _bullae_; and other examples could be cited. But lead has
+  always been the common metal to be thus employed. In the southern
+  countries of Europe, where the warmth of the climate renders wax an
+  undesirable material, leaden _bullae_ have been in ordinary use, not
+  only in Italy but also in the Peninsula, in southern France, and in
+  the Latin East (see SEALS).
+
+
+    Formularies.
+
+  The necessity of conforming to exact phraseology in diplomas and of
+  observing regularity in expressing formulas naturally led to the
+  compilation of formularies. From the early middle ages the art of
+  composition, not only of charters but also of general correspondence,
+  was commonly taught in the monasteries. The teacher was the
+  _dictator_, his method of teaching was described by the verb
+  _dictare_, and his teaching was _dictamen_ or the _ars dictaminis_.
+  For the use of these monastic schools, formularies and manuals
+  comprising formulas and models for the composition of the various acts
+  and documents soon became indispensable. At a later stage such
+  formularies developed into the models and treatises for epistolary
+  style which have had their imitations even in modern times. The
+  widespread use of the formularies had the advantage of imposing a
+  certain degree of uniformity on the phrasing of documents of the
+  western nations of Europe. Those compilations which are of an earlier
+  period than the 11th century have been systematically examined and are
+  published; those of more recent date still remain to be thoroughly
+  edited. The early formularies are of the simpler kind, being
+  collections of formulas without dissertation. The _Formulae Marculfi_,
+  compiled by the monk Marculf about the year 650, was the most
+  important work of this nature of the Merovingian period and became the
+  official formulary of the time; and it continued in use in a revised
+  edition in the early Carolingian chancery. Of the same period there
+  are extant formularies compiled at various centres, such as Angers,
+  Tours, Bourges, Sens, Reichenau, St Gall, Salzburg, Passau,
+  Regensburg, Cordova, &c. (see Giry, _Manuel de diplomatique_, pp.
+  482-488). The _Liber diurnus Romanorum Pontificum_ was compiled in the
+  7th and 8th centuries, and was employed in the papal chancery to the
+  end of the 11th century. Of the more developed treatises and manuals
+  of epistolary rhetoric which succeeded, and which originated in Italy,
+  the earliest example was the _Breviarium de dictamine_ of the monk
+  Alberic of Monte Cassino, compiled about the year 1075. Another
+  well-known work, the _Rationes dictandi_, is also attributed to the
+  same author. Of later date was the _Ars dictaminis_ of Bernard of
+  Chartres of the 12th century. Among special works on formularies are:
+  E. de Rozière, _Recueil général des formules usitées dans l'empire des
+  Francs_ (3 vols., Paris, 1861-1871); K. Zeumer, _Formulae Merovingici
+  et Karolini aevi_ (Hanover, 1886); and L. Rockinger, _Briefsteller und
+  Formelbücher des 11 bis. 14 Jahrhunderts_ (Munich, 1863-1864).
+
+_Organization._--The formalities observed by the different chanceries of
+medieval Europe, which are to be learned from a study of the documents
+issued by them, are so varied and often so minute, that it is impossible
+to give a full account of them within the limits of the present article.
+We can only state some of the results of the investigations of students
+of diplomatic.
+
+
+  Papal Chancery.
+
+The chancery which stands first and foremost is the papal chancery. On
+account of its antiquity and of its steady development, it has served as
+a model for the other chanceries of Europe. Organized in remote times,
+it adopted for the structure of its letters a number of formulas and
+rules which developed and became more and more fixed and precise from
+century to century. The Apostolic court being organized from the first
+on the model of the Roman imperial court, the early pontiffs would
+naturally have collected their archives, as the emperors had done, into
+_scrinia_. Pope Julius I., A.D. 337-353, reorganized the papal archives
+under an official _schola notariorum_, at the head of which was a
+_primicerius notariorum_. Pope Damasus, A.D. 366-384, built a record
+office at the Lateran, _archivium sanctae Romanae ecclesiae_, where the
+archives were kept and registers of them compiled. The collection and
+orderly arrangement of the archives provided material for the
+establishment of regular diplomatic usages, and the science of formulae
+naturally followed.
+
+For the study of papal documents four periods have been defined, each
+successive period being distinguished from its predecessor by some
+particular development of forms and procedure. The first period is
+reckoned from the earliest times to the accession of Leo IX., A.D. 1048.
+For almost the whole of the first eight centuries no original papal
+documents have survived. But copies are found in canonical works and
+registers, many of them false, and others probably not transcribed in
+full or in the original words; but still of use, as showing the growth
+of formulas. The earliest original document is a fragment of a letter of
+Adrian I., A.D. 788. From that date there is a series, but the documents
+are rare to the beginning of the 11th century, all down to that period
+being written on papyrus. The latest existing papyrus document in
+France is one of Sergius IV., A.D. 1011; in Germany, one of Benedict
+VIII., A.D. 1022. The earliest document on vellum is one of John XVIII.,
+A.D. 1005. The nomenclature of papal documents even at an early period
+is rather wide. In their earliest form they are Letters, called in the
+documents themselves, _litterae_, _epistola_, _pagina_, _scriptum_,
+sometimes _decretum_. A classification, generally accepted, divides them
+into: 1. Letters or Epistles: the ordinary acts of correspondence with
+persons of all ranks and orders; including constitutions (a later term)
+or decisions in matters of faith and discipline, and encyclicals giving
+directions to bishops of the whole church or of individual countries. 2.
+Decrees, being letters promulgated by the popes of their own motion. 3.
+Decretals, decisions on points of ecclesiastical administration or
+discipline. 4. Rescripts (called in the originals _preceptum_,
+_auctoritas_, _privilegium_), granting requests to petitioners. But
+writers differ in their terms, and such subdivisions must be more or
+less arbitrary. The comprehensive term "bull" (the name of the leaden
+papal seal, _bulla_, being transferred to the document) did not come
+into use until the 13th century.
+
+Copies of papal deeds were collected into registers or _bullaria_. Lists
+showing the chronological sequence of documents are catalogues of acts.
+When into such lists indications from narrative sources are introduced
+they become _regesta_ (_res gestae_): a term not to be confused with
+"register."
+
+Clearness and conciseness have been recognized as attributes of early
+papal letters; but even in those of the 4th century certain rhythmical
+periods have been detected in their composition which became more marked
+under Leo the Great, A.D. 440-461, and which developed into the _cursus_
+or prose rhythm of the pontifical chancery of the 11th and 12th
+centuries.
+
+In the most ancient deeds the pope styles himself _Episcopus_, sometimes
+_Episcopus Catholicae Ecclesiae_, or _Episcopus Romanae Ecclesiae_,
+rarely _Papa_. Gregory I, A.D. 590, was the first to adopt the form
+_Episcopus, servus servorum Dei_, which became general in the 9th
+century, and thenceforth was invariable.
+
+The second period of papal documents extends from Leo IX. to the
+accession of Innocent III., A.D. 1048-1198. At the beginning of the
+period formulae tended to take more definite shape and to become fixed.
+In the superscription of bulls a distinction arose: those which
+conferred lasting privileges employing the words _in perpetuum_ to close
+this clause; those whose benefaction was of a transitory character using
+the form of salutation, _salutem et apostolicam benedictionem_. But it
+was under Urban II., A.D. 1088-1099, that the principal formulae became
+stereotyped. Then the distinction between documents of lasting, and
+those of transitory, value became more exactly defined; the former class
+being known as greater bulls, _bullae majores_ (also called
+_privilegia_), the latter lesser bulls, _bullae minores_. The leading
+characteristics of the greater bulls were these: The first line
+containing the superscription and closing with the words _in perpetuum_
+(or, sometimes, _ad perpetuam_, or _aeternam_, _rei memoriam_) was
+written in tall and slender ornamental letters, close packed; the final
+clauses of the text develop with tendency to fixity; the pope's
+subscription is accompanied with the _rota_ on the left and the
+_benevalete_ monogram on the right; and certain elaborate forms of
+dating are punctiliously observed. The introduction of subscriptions of
+cardinals as witnesses had gradually become a practice. Under Victor
+II., A.D. 1055-1057, the practice became more confirmed, and after the
+time of Innocent II., A.D. 1130-1145, the subscriptions of the three
+orders were arranged according to rank, those of the cardinal bishops
+being placed in the centre under the papal subscription, those of the
+priests under the _rota_ on the left, and those of the deacons under the
+_benevalete_ on the right. In the lesser bulls simpler forms were
+employed; there was no introductory line of stilted letters; the
+salutation, _salutem et apostolicam benedictionem_, closed the
+superscription; the final clauses were shortened; there was neither
+papal subscription, nor _rota_, nor _benevalete_; the date was simple.
+
+From the time of Adrian I., A.D. 772-795, the system of double dating
+was followed in the larger bulls. The first date was written by the
+scribe of the document, _scriptum per manum N._ with the month (rarely
+the day of the month) and year of the indiction. The second, the actual
+date of the execution of the deed, was entered (ostensibly) by some high
+official, _data_, or _datum, per manum N._, and contained the day of the
+month (according to the Roman calendar), the year of indiction, the year
+of pontificate (in some early deeds, also the year of the empire and the
+post-consulate year), and the year of the Incarnation, which, however,
+was gradually introduced and only became more common in the course of
+the 11th century. For example, a common form of a full date would run
+thus: _Datum Laterani, per manum N., sanctae Romanae ecclesiae diaconi
+cardinalis, xiiii. kl. Maii, indictione V., anno dominicae Incarnationis
+mxcvii., pontificatus autem domini papae Urbani secundi Xº_. The simpler
+form of the date of a lesser bull might be: _Datum Laterani, iii. non.
+Jan., pontificatus nostri anno iiii_.
+
+By degrees the use of the lesser bulls almost entirely superseded that
+of the greater bulls, which became exceptional in the 13th century and
+almost ceased after the migration to Avignon in 1309. In modern times
+the greater bulls occasionally reappear for very solemn acts, as _bullae
+consistoriales_, executed in the consistory.
+
+The third period of papal documents extends from Innocent III. to
+Eugenius IV., A.D. 1198-1431. The pontificate of Innocent III. was a
+most important epoch in the history of the development of the papal
+chancery. Formulas became more exactly fixed, definitions more precise,
+the observation of rules and precedents more constant. The staff of the
+chancery was reorganized. The existing series of registers of papal
+documents was then commenced. The growing use of lesser bulls for the
+business of the papal court led to a further development in the 13th
+century. They were now divided into two classes: _Tituli_ and
+_Mandamenta_. The former conferred favours, promulgated precepts,
+judgments, decisions, &c. The latter comprised ordinances, commissions,
+&c., and were executive documents. There are certain features which
+distinguish the two classes. In the _tituli_, the initial letter of the
+pope's name is ornamented with openwork and the other letters are
+stilted. In the _mandamenta_, the initial is filled in solid and the
+other letters are of the same size as the rest of the text. In the
+_tituli_, enlarged letters mark the beginnings of the text and of
+certain clauses; but not in the _mandamenta_. In the former the mark of
+abbreviation is a looped sign; in the latter it is a horizontal stroke.
+In the former the old practice of leaving a gap between the letters s
+and t, and c and t, whenever they occur together in a word (e.g. _is
+te_, _sanc tus_), and linking them by a coupling stroke above the line
+is continued; in the latter it disappears. The leaden bulla attached to
+a _titulus_ (as a permanent deed) is suspended by cords of red and
+yellow silks; while that of a _mandamentum_ (a temporary deed) hangs
+from a hempen cord.
+
+In the fourth period, extending from 1431 to the present time, the
+_tituli_ and _mandamenta_ have continued to be the ordinary documents in
+use; but certain other kinds have also arisen. Briefs (_brevia_), or
+apostolic letters, concerning the personal affairs of the pope or the
+administration of the temporal dominion, or conceding indulgences, came
+into general use in the 13th century in the pontificate of Eugenius IV.
+They are written in the italic hand on thin white vellum; and the name
+of the pope with his style as _papa_ is written at the head of the
+sheet, e.g. _Eugenius papa iiii_. They are closed and sealed with Seal
+of the Fisherman, _sub anulo Piscatoris_. Briefs have almost superseded
+the _mandamenta_. The documents known as Signatures of the court of Rome
+or Latin letters, and used principally for the expedition of
+indulgences, were first introduced in the 15th century. They were drawn
+in the form of a petition to the pope, which he granted by the words
+_fiat ut petatur_ written across the top. They were not sealed; and only
+the pontifical year appears in the date. Lastly, the documents to which
+the name of _Motu proprio_ is given are also without seal and are used
+in the administration of the papal court, the formula _placet et ita
+motu proprio mandamus_ being signed by the pope.
+
+The character of the handwriting employed by the papal chancery is
+discussed in the article PALAEOGRAPHY. Here it will be enough to state
+that the early style was derived from the Lombardic hand, and that it
+continued in use down to the beginning of the 12th century; but that,
+from the 10th century, owing to the general adoption of the Caroline
+minuscule writing, it began to fall and gradually became so unfamiliar
+to the uninitiated, that, while it still continued in use for papal
+bulls, it was found necessary to accompany them with copies written in
+the more intelligible Caroline script. The intricate, fanciful
+character, known as the _Litera sancti Petri_, was invented in the time
+of Clement VIII., A.D. 1592-1605, was fully developed under Alexander
+VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of the year 1878 by
+Leo XIII.
+
+
+  Merovingian chancery.
+
+Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as ninety
+authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven are originals,
+the earliest being of the year 625. The most ancient examples were
+written on papyrus, vellum superseding that material towards the end of
+the 7th century. All these diplomas are technically letters, having the
+superscription and address and, at the foot, close to the seal, the
+valedictory _benevalete_. They commence with a monogrammatic invocation,
+which, together with the superscription and address written in fanciful
+elongated letters, occupies the first line. The superscription always
+runs in the form, _N. rex Francorum_. The most complete kinds of
+diplomas were authenticated by the king's subscription, that of the
+_referendarius_ (the official charged with the custody of the royal
+seal), the impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of
+prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was usually
+autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too illiterate to
+write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The referendary, if he
+countersigned the royal subscription, added the word _optulit_ to his
+own signature; if he subscribed independently, he wrote _recognovit et
+subscripsit_, the end of the last word being usually lost in flourishes
+forming a _ruche_. The date gave the place, day, month and year of the
+reign. The Merovingian royal diplomas are of two classes: (1) Precepts,
+conferring gifts, favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the
+documents themselves as _praeceptum_, _praeceptio_, _auctoritas_; some
+drawn up in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others
+less precise and formal. (2) Judgments (_judicia_), which required no
+preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign's
+judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and were
+sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were the _cartae
+de mundeburde_, taking persons under the royal protection, and
+_indiculi_ or letters transmitting orders or notifying decisions; but no
+examples have survived.
+
+
+  Carolingian chancery.
+
+The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural, but
+little from those of their predecessors. As mayors of the palace,
+Charles Martel and Pippin took the style of _vir inluster_. On becoming
+king, Pippin retained it; _Pippinus, vir inluster, rex Francorum_, and
+it continued to be part of the royal title till Charlemagne became
+emperor. The royal subscription was in form of a sign-manual or mark,
+but Charlemagne elaborated this into a monogram of the letters of his
+name built up on a cross. In 775 the royal title of Charlemagne became
+_Carolus, gratia Dei rex Francorum et Langobardorum, ac patricius
+Romanorum_, the last words being assumed on his visit to Rome in 774. On
+becoming emperor in 800, he was styled _Imperator, Romanum gubernans
+imperium, rex Francorum et Langobardorum_. It is to be noticed that
+thenceforth his name was spelt with initial K (as it was on the
+monogram), having previously been written with C in the deeds. Most of
+his diplomas were authenticated by the subscription of the chancellor
+and impression of the seal. A novelty in the form of dating was also
+introduced, two words, _datum_ (for time) and _actum_ (for place), being
+now employed. The character of the writing of the diplomas, founded on
+the Roman cursive hand, which had become very intricate under the
+Merovingians, improved under their successors, yet the reform which was
+introduced into the literary script hardly affected the cursive writing
+of diplomatic until the latter part of Charlemagne's reign. The archaic
+style was particularly maintained in judgments, which were issued by the
+private chancery of the palace, a department more conservative in its
+methods than the imperial chancery. It was in the reign of Louis
+Debonair, A.D. 814-840, that the Carolingian diploma took its final
+shape. A variation now appears in the monogram, that monarch's
+sign-manual being built up, not on a cross as previously, but on the
+letter H., the initial of his name Hludovicus, and serving as the
+pattern for successive monarchs of the name of Louis.
+
+In the Carolingian chancery the staff was exclusively ecclesiastical; at
+its head was the chancellor, whose title is traced back to the
+_cancellarius_, or petty officer under the Roman empire, stationed at
+the bar or lattice (_cancelli_) of the basilica or other law court and
+serving as usher. As keeper of the royal archives his subscription was
+indispensable for royal acts. The diplomas were drawn up by the
+notaries, an important body, upon whom devolved the duty of maintaining
+the formulae and traditions of the office. It has been observed that in
+the 9th century the documents were drawn carefully, but that in the 10th
+century there was a great degeneration in this respect. Under the early
+Capetian kings there was great confusion and want of uniformity in their
+diplomas; and it was not until the reign of Louis VI., A.D. 1108, that
+the formulae were again reduced to rules.
+
+
+  Imperial German chancery.
+
+The acts of the imperial chancery of Germany followed the patterns of
+the Carolingian diplomas, with little variation down to the reign of
+Frederick Barbarossa, A.D. 1152-1190. The sovereign's style was _N.
+divina favente clementia rex_; after coronation at Rome he became
+_imperator augustus_. At the end of the 10th century, Otto III.
+developed the latter title into _Romanorum imperator augustus_. Under
+Henry III., and regularly from the time of Henry V., A.D. 1106-1125, the
+title before coronation has been _Romanorum rex_. The royal monogram did
+not necessarily contain all the letters of the name; but, on the other
+hand, from the year 976, it became more complicated and combined the
+imperial title with the name. For example, the monogram of Henry II.
+combines the words _Henricus Romanorum imperator augustus_. The
+flourished _ruches_ also, as in the Frankish chanceries, were in vogue.
+Eventually they were used by certain of the chancellors as a sign-manual
+and took fanciful shapes, such as a building with a cupola, or even a
+diptych. They disappear early in the 12th century, the period when in
+other respects the chancery of the Holy Roman Empire largely adopted a
+more simple style in its diplomas. Lists of witnesses, in support of the
+royal and official subscriptions, were sometimes added in the course of
+the 11th century, and they appear regularly in documents a hundred years
+later.
+
+
+  Diplomatic in England.
+
+For the study of diplomatic in England, material exists in two distinct
+series of documents, those of the Anglo-Saxon period, and those
+subsequent to the Norman Conquest. The Anglo-Saxon kings appear to have
+borrowed, partially, the style of their diplomas from the chanceries of
+their Frankish neighbours, introducing at the same time modifications
+which give those documents a particular character marking their
+nationality. In some of the earlier examples we find that the lines of
+the foreign style are followed more or less closely; but very soon a
+simpler model was adopted which, while it varied in formulas from reign
+to reign, lasted in general construction down to the time of the Norman
+Conquest. The royal charters were usually drawn up in Latin, sometimes
+in Anglo-Saxon, and began with a preamble or exordium (in some instances
+preceded by an invocation headed with the chrismon or with a cross), in
+the early times of a simple character, but, later, drawn out not
+infrequently to great length in involved and bombastic periods. Then
+immediately followed the disposing or granting clause, often accompanied
+with a few words explaining the motive, such as, for the good of the
+soul of the grantor; and the text was closed with final clauses of
+varying extent, protecting the deed against infringement, &c. In early
+examples the dating clause gave the day and month (often according to
+the Roman calendar) and the year of the indiction; but the year of the
+Incarnation was also immediately adopted; and, later, the regnal year
+also. The position of this clause in the charter was subject to
+variation. The subscriptions of the king and of the personages
+witnessing the deed, each preceded by a cross, but all written by the
+hand of the scribe, usually closed the charter. A peculiarity was the
+introduction, in many instances, either in the body of the charter, or
+in a separate paragraph at the end, of the boundaries of the land
+granted, written in the native tongue. The sovereigns of the several
+kingdoms of the Heptarchy, as well as those of the United Kingdom,
+usually styled themselves _rex_. But from the time of Æthelstan, A.D.
+825-840, they also assumed fantastic titles in the text of their
+charters, such as: _rex et primicerius_, _rex et rector_, _gubernator et
+rector_, _monarchus_, and particularly the Greek _basileus_, and
+_basileus industrius_. At the same time the name of Albion was also
+frequently used for Britain.
+
+A large number of documents of the Anglo-Saxon period, dating from the
+7th century, has survived, both original and copies entered in
+chartularies. Of distinct documents there are nearly two hundred; but a
+large proportion of these must be set aside as copies (both contemporary
+and later) or as spurious deeds.
+
+Although there is evidence, as above stated, of the use of seals by
+certain of the Mercian kings, the method of authentication of diplomas
+by seal impression was practically unknown to the Anglo-Saxon
+sovereigns, save only to Edward the Confessor, who, copying the custom
+which obtained upon the continent, adopted the use of a great seal.
+
+With the Norman Conquest the old tradition of the Anglo-Saxons
+disappeared. The Conqueror brought with him the practice of the Roman
+chancery, which naturally followed the Capetian model; and his diplomas
+of English origin differed only from those of Normandy by the addition
+of his new style, _rex Anglorum_, in the superscription. But even from
+the first there was a tendency to simplicity in the new English
+chancery, not improbably suggested by the brief formalities of
+Anglo-Saxon charters, and, side by side with the more formal royal
+diplomas, others of shorter form and less ceremony were issued, which by
+the reign of Henry II. quite superseded the more solemn documents. These
+simpler charters began with the royal superscription, the address, and
+the salutation, e.g. _Willelmus, Dei gratia rex Anglorum, N. episcopo et
+omnibus baronibus et fidelibus suis Francis et Anglis salutem_. Then
+followed the notification and the grant, e.g. _Sciatis me concessisse_,
+&c., generally without final clauses, or, if any, brief clauses of
+protection and warranty; and, at the end, the list of witnesses and the
+date. The regnal year was usually cited; but the year of the Incarnation
+was also sometimes given. The great seal was appended. To some of the
+Conqueror's charters his subscription and those of his queen and sons
+are attached, written by the scribe, but accompanied with crosses which
+may or may not be autograph. By the reign of John the simpler form of
+royal charters had taken final shape, and from this time the acts of the
+kings of England have been classified under three heads: viz. (1)
+Charters, generally of the pattern described above; (2) Letters patent,
+in which the address is general, _Universis presentes litteras
+inspecturis_, &c.; the corroborative clause describes the character of
+the document, _In cujus rei testimonium has literas nostras fieri
+fecimus patentes_; the king himself is his own witness, _Teste me ipso_;
+and the great seal is appended; (3) Close letters, administrative
+documents conveying orders, the king witnessing, _Teste me ipso_.
+
+The style of the English kings down to John was, with few exceptions,
+_Rex Anglorum_; thenceforward, _Rex Angliae_. Henry II. added the feudal
+titles, _dux Normannorum et Aquitanorum et comes Andegavorum_, which
+Henry III. curtailed to _dux Aquitaniae_. John added the title _dominus
+Hiberniae_; Edward III., on claiming the crown of France, styled himself
+rex _Angliae et Franciae_, the same title being borne by successive
+kings down to the year 1801; and Henry VIII., in 1521, assumed the title
+of _fidei defensor_. The formula _Dei gratia_ does not consistently
+accompany the royal title until the reign of Henry II., who adopted it
+in 1173 (see L. Delisle, _Mémoire sur la chronologie des chartes de
+Henri II._, in the _Bibl. de l'École des Chartes_, lxvii. 361-401).
+
+
+  Private deeds.
+
+The forms adopted in the royal chanceries were naturally imitated in the
+composition of private deeds which in all countries form the mass of
+material for historical and diplomatic research. The student of English
+diplomatic will soon remark how readily the private charters, especially
+conveyances of real property, fall into classes, and how stereotyped the
+phraseology and formulae of each class become, only modified from time
+to time by particular acts of legislation. The brevity of the early
+conveyances is maintained through successive generations, with only
+moderate growth as time progresses through the 12th, 13th and 14th
+centuries. The different kinds of deeds which the requirements of
+society have from time to time called into existence must be learned by
+the student from the text-books. But a particular form of document which
+was especially in favour in England should be mentioned. This was the
+chirograph (Gr. [Greek: cheir], a hand, [Greek: graphein], to write),
+which is found even in the Anglo-Saxon period, and which got its name
+from the word _chirographum_, _cirographum_ or _cyrographum_ being
+written in large letters at the head of the deed. At first the word was
+written, presumably, at the head of each of the two authentic copies
+which the two parties to a transaction would require. Then it became the
+habit to use the word thus written as a tally, the two copies of the
+deed being written on one sheet, head to head, with the word between
+them, which was then cut through longitudinally in a straight, or more
+commonly waved or indented (_in modum dentium_) line, each of the two
+copies thus having half of the word at the head. Any other word, or a
+series of letters, might thus be employed; and more than two copies of a
+deed could thus be made to tally. The chirograph was the precursor of
+the modern indenture, the commonest form of English deeds, though no
+longer a tally. In other countries, the notarial instrument has
+performed the functions which the chirograph and indenture have
+discharged for us.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--General treatises, handbooks,, &c., are J. Mabillon, _De
+  re diplomatica_ (1709); Tassin and Toustain, _Nouveau Traité de
+  diplomatique_ (1750-1765); T. Madox, _Formulare Anglicanum_ (1702); G.
+  Hickes, _Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus_ (1703-1705); F. S.
+  Maffei, _Istoria diplomatica_ (1727); G. Marini, _I Papiri
+  diplomatici_ (1805); G. Bessel, _Chronicon Gotwicense (De diplomatibus
+  imperatorum ac regum Germaniae)_ (1732); A. Fumagalli, _Delle
+  istituzioni diplomatiche_ (1802); M. F. Kopp, _Palaeographia critica_
+  (1817-1829); K. T. G. Schönemann, _Versuch eines vollstandigen Systems
+  der Diplomatik_ (1818); T. Sickel, _Lehre von den Urkunden der ersten
+  Karolinger_ (1867); J. Ficker, _Beiträge zur Urkundenlehre_
+  (1877-1878); A. Gloria, _Compendio delle lezioni di paleografia e
+  diplomatica_ (1870); C. Paoli, _Programma scolastico di paleografia
+  Latina e di diplomatica_ (1888-1890); H. Bresslau, _Handbuch der
+  Urkundenlehre für Deutschland und Italien_ (1889); A. Giry, _Manuel de
+  diplomatique_ (1894); F. Leist, _Urkundenlehre_ (1893); E. M.
+  Thompson, _Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography_, cap. xix.
+  (1906); J. M. Kemble, _Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici_ (1839-1848);
+  W. G. Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_ (1885-1893); J. Muñoz y Rivero,
+  _Manuel de paleografia diplomatica Española_ (1890); M. Russi,
+  _Paleografia e diplomatica de' documenti delle provincie Napolitane_
+  (1883). Facsimiles are given in J. B. Silvestrestre _Paléographie
+  universelle_ (English edition, 1850); and in the _Facsimiles_, &c.,
+  published by the Palaeographical Society (1873-1894) and the New
+  Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.); and also in the following
+  works:--A. Champollion-Figeac, _Chartes et manuscrits sur papyrus_
+  (1840); J. A. Letronne, _Diplómes et chartes de l'époque
+  mérovingienne_ (1845-1866); J. Tardif, _Archives de l'Empire:
+  Facsimilé de chartes et diplômes mérovingiens et carlovingiens_
+  (1866); G. H. Pettz, _Schrifttafeln zum Gebrauch bei diplomatischen
+  Vorlesungen_ (1844-1869); H. von Sybel and T. Sickel, _Kaiserurkunden
+  in Abbildungen_ (1880-1891); J. von Pflugk-Harttung, _Specimina
+  selecta chartarum Pontificum Romanorum_ (1885-1887); _Specimina
+  palaeographica regestorum Romanorum pontificum_ (1888); _Recueil de
+  fac-similés à l'usage de l'École des Chartes_ (not published) (1880,
+  &c.); J. Muñoz y Rivero, _Chrestomathia palaeographica: scripturae
+  Hispanae veteris specimina_ (1890); E. A. Bond, _Facsimiles of Ancient
+  Charters in the British Museum_ (1873-1878): W. B. Sanders,
+  _Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts_ (charters) (1878-1884); G. F.
+  Warner and H. J. Ellis, _Facsimiles of Royal and other Charters in the
+  British Museum_ (1903).     (E. M. T.)
+
+
+
+
+DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS, early Greek sculptors, who worked together, and
+are said to have been pupils of Daedalus. Pliny assigns to them the date
+580 B.C., and says that they worked at Sicyon, which city from their
+time onwards became one of the great schools of sculpture. They also
+made statues for Cleonae and Argos. They worked in wood, ebony and
+ivory, and apparently also in marble. It is curious that no inscription
+bearing their names has come to light.
+
+
+
+
+DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD (1673-1734), German theologian and alchemist, son
+of a Lutheran pastor, was born at the castle of Frankenstein, near
+Darmstadt, on the 10th of August 1673. He studied theology at Giessen.
+After a short visit to Wittenberg he went to Strassburg, where he
+lectured on alchemy and chiromancy, and occasionally preached. He gained
+considerable popularity, but was obliged after a time to quit the city,
+owing to his irregular manner of living. He had up to this time espoused
+the cause of the orthodox as against the pietists; but in his two first
+works, published under the name "Christianus Democritus," _Orthodoxia
+Orthodoxorum_ (1697) and _Papismus vapulans Protestantium_ (1698), he
+assailed the fundamental positions of the Lutheran theology. He held
+that religion consisted not in dogma but exclusively in love and
+self-sacrifice. To avoid persecution he was compelled to wander from
+place to place in Germany, Holland, Denmark and Sweden. He took the
+degree of doctor of medicine at Leiden in 1711. He discovered Prussian
+blue, and by the destructive distillation of bones prepared the
+evil-smelling product known as Dippel's animal oil. He died near
+Berleburg on the 25th of April 1734.
+
+  An enlarged edition of Dippel's collected works was published at
+  Berleburg in 1743. See the biographies by J. C. G. Ackermann (Leipzig,
+  1781), H. V. Hoffmann (Darmstadt, 1783), K. Henning (1881) and W.
+  Bender (Bonn, 1882); also a memoir by K. Bucher in the _Historisches
+  Taschenbuch_ for 1858.
+
+
+
+
+DIPSOMANIA (from [Gr. dipsa], thirst, and [Greek: mania], madness), a
+term formerly applied to the attacks of delirium (q.v.) caused by
+alcoholic poisoning. It is now sometimes loosely used as equivalent to
+the condition of incurable inebriates, but strictly should be confined
+to the pathological and insatiable desire for alcohol, sometimes
+occurring in paroxysms.
+
+
+
+
+DIPTERA ([Greek: dis], double, [Greek: ptera], wings), a term (first
+employed in its modern sense by Linnaeus, _Fauna Suecica_, 1st ed.,
+1746, p. 306) used in zoological classification for one of the Orders
+into which the _Hexapoda_, or Insecta, are divided. The relation of the
+Diptera (two-winged flies, or flies proper) to the other Orders is dealt
+with under Hexapoda (q.v.).
+
+The chief characteristic of the Diptera is expressed in the name of the
+Order, since, with the exception of certain aberrant and apterous forms,
+flies possess but a single pair of membranous wings, which are attached
+to the meso-thorax. Wing-covers and hind-wings are alike absent, and the
+latter are represented by a pair of little knobbed organs, the halteres
+or balancers, which have a controlling and directing function in flight.
+The other structural characters of the Order may be briefly summarized
+as:--mouth-parts adapted for piercing and sucking, or for suction alone,
+and consisting of a proboscis formed of the labium, and enclosing
+modifications of the other usual parts of the mouth, some of which,
+however, may be wanting; a thorax fused into a single mass; and legs
+with five-jointed tarsi. The wings, which are not capable of being
+folded, are usually transparent, but occasionally pigmented and adorned
+with coloured spots, blotches or bands; the wing-membrane, though
+sometimes clothed with minute hairs, seldom bears scales; the
+wing-veins, which are of great importance in the classification of
+Diptera, are usually few in number and chiefly longitudinal, there being
+a marked paucity of cross-veins. In a large number of Diptera an
+incision in the posterior margin of the wing, near the base, marks off a
+small lobe, the posterior lobe or alula, while connected with this but
+situated on the thorax itself there is a pair of membranous scales, or
+squamae, which when present serve to conceal the halteres. The antennae
+of Diptera, which are also extremely important in classification, are
+thread-like in the more primitive families, such as the _Tipulidae_
+(daddy-long-legs), where they consist of a considerable number of
+joints, all of which except the first two, and sometimes also the last
+two, are similar in shape; in the more specialized families, such as the
+_Tabanidae_ (horse-flies), _Syrphidae_ (hover-flies) or _Muscidae_
+(house-flies, blue-bottles and their allies), the number of antennal
+joints is greatly reduced by coalescence, so that the antennae appear to
+consist of only three joints. In these forms, however, the third joint
+is really a complex, which in many families bears in addition a jointed
+bristle (arista) or style, representing the terminal joints of the
+primitive antenna. Although in the case of the majority of Diptera the
+body is more or less clothed with hair, the hairy covering is usually so
+short that to the unaided eye the insects appear almost bare; some
+forms, however, such as the bee-flies (_Bombylius_) and certain
+robber-flies (_Asilidae_) are conspicuously hairy. Bristles are usually
+present on the legs, and in the case of many families on the body also;
+those on the head and thorax are of great importance in classification.
+
+Between 40,000 and 50,000 species of Diptera are at present known, but
+these are only a fraction of those actually in existence. The species
+recognized as British number some 2700, but to this total additions are
+constantly being made. As a rule flies are of small or moderate size,
+and many, such as certain blood-sucking midges of the genus
+_Ceratopogon_, are even minute; as extremes of size may be mentioned a
+common British midge, _Ceratopogon varius_, the female of which measures
+only 1¼ millimetre, and the gigantic _Mydaidae_ of Central and South
+America as well as certain Australian robber-flies, which have a body 1¾
+in. long, with a wing-expanse of 3¼ in. In bodily form Diptera present
+two main types, either, as in the case of the more primitive and
+generalized families, they are gnat- or midge-like in shape, with
+slender bodies and long, delicate legs, or else they exhibit a more or
+less distinct resemblance to the common house-fly, having compact and
+stoutly built bodies and legs of moderate length. Diptera in general are
+not remarkable for brilliancy of coloration; as a rule they are dull and
+inconspicuous in hue, the prevailing body-tints being browns and greys;
+occasionally, however, more especially in species (_Syrphidae_) that
+mimic Hymenoptera, the body is conspicuously banded with yellow; a few
+are metallic, such as the species of _Formosia_, found in the islands of
+the East Indian Archipelago, which are among the most brilliant of all
+insects. The sexes in Diptera are usually alike, though in a number of
+families with short antennae the males are distinguished by the fact
+that their eyes meet together (or nearly so) on the forehead.
+Metamorphosis in Diptera is complete; the larvae are utterly different
+from the perfect insects in appearance, and, although varying greatly in
+outward form, are usually footless grubs; those of the _Muscidae_ are
+generally known as maggots. The pupa either shows the appendages of the
+perfect insect, though these are encased in a sheath and adherent to the
+body, or else it is entirely concealed within the hardened and
+contracted larval integument, which forms a barrel-shaped protecting
+capsule or puparium.
+
+Diptera are divided into some sixty families, the exact classification
+of which has not yet been finally settled. The majority of authors,
+however, follow Brauer in dividing the order into two sections,
+Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha, according to the manner in which the
+pupa-case splits to admit of the escape of the perfect insect. The
+general characteristics of the pupae in these two sections have already
+been described.
+
+In the Orthorrhapha, in the pupae of which the appendages of the perfect
+insect are usually visible, the pupa-case generally splits in a straight
+line down the back near the cephalic end; in front of this longitudinal
+cleft there may be a small transverse one, the two together forming a
+T-shaped fissure. In the Cyclorrhapha on the other hand, in which the
+actual pupa is concealed within the hardened larval skin, the imago
+escapes through a circular orifice formed by pushing off or through the
+head end of the puparium. The Diptera Orthorrhapha include the more
+primitive and less specialized families such as the _Tipulidae_
+(daddy-long-legs), _Culicidae_ (gnats or mosquitoes), _Chironomidae_
+(midges), _Mycetophilidae_ (fungus-midges), _Tabanidae_ (horse-flies),
+_Asilidae_ (robber-flies), &c. The Diptera Cyclorrhapha on the other
+hand consist of the most highly specialized families, such as the
+_Syrphidae_ (hover-flies), _Oestridae_ (bot and warble flies), and
+_Muscidae_ (_sensu latiore_--the house-fly and its allies, including
+tsetse-flies, flesh-flies, _Tachininae_, or flies the larvae of which
+are internal parasites of caterpillars, &c). It is customary to divide
+the Orthorrhapha into the two divisions Nematocera and Brachycera, in
+the former of which the antennae are elongate and in a more or less
+primitive condition, as described above, while in the latter these
+organs are short, and, as already explained, apparently composed of only
+three joints.
+
+Within the divisions named--Orthorrhapha Nematocera, Orthorrhapha
+Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha--the constituent families are usually
+grouped into a series of "superfamilies," distinguished by features of
+structure or habit. Certain extremely aberrant Diptera, which, in
+consequence of the adoption of a parasitic mode of life, have undergone
+great structural modification, are further remarkable for their peculiar
+mode of reproduction, on account of which the families composing the
+group are often termed Pupipara. In these forms the pregnant female,
+instead of laying eggs, as Diptera usually do, or even producing a
+number of minute living larvae, gives birth at one time but to a single
+larva, which is retained within the oviduct of the mother until adult,
+and assumes the pupal state immediately on extrusion. The Pupipara are
+also termed Eproboscidea (although they actually possess a
+well-developed and functional proboscis), and by some dipterists the
+Eproboscidea are regarded as a suborder and contrasted as such with the
+rest of the Diptera, which are styled the suborder Proboscidea. By other
+writers Proboscidea and Eproboscidea are treated as primary divisions of
+the Cyclorrhapha. In reality, however, the families designated
+Eproboscidea (_Hippoboscidae_, _Braulidae_, _Nycteribiidae_ and
+_Streblidae_), are not entitled to be considered as constituting either
+a suborder, or even a main division of the Cyclorrhapha; they are simply
+Cyclorrhapha much modified owing to parasitism, and in view of the
+closely similar mode of reproduction in the tsetse-flies the special
+designation Pupipara should be abandoned. Before leaving the subject of
+classification it may be noted in passing that in 1906 Professor
+Lameere, of Brussels, proposed a scheme for the classification of
+Diptera which as regards both the limits of the families and their
+grouping into higher categories differs considerably from that in
+current use.
+
+Little light on the relationship and evolution of the various families
+of Diptera is afforded by fossil forms, since as a rule the latter are
+readily referable to existing families. With the exception of a few
+species from the Solenhofen lithographic Oolite, fossil Diptera belong
+to the Tertiary Period, during which the members of this order attained
+a high degree of development. In amber, as proved by the deposits on the
+shores of the Baltic, the proverbial "fly" is more numerous than any
+other creatures, and with very few exceptions representatives of all the
+existing families have been found. The famous Tertiary beds at
+Florissant, Colorado, have yielded a considerable number of remarkably
+well-preserved _Tipulidae_ (in which family are included the most
+primitive of existing Diptera), as also species belonging to other
+families, such as _Mycetophilidae_ and even _Oestridae_.
+
+Diptera as an order are probably more widely distributed over the
+earth's surface than are the representatives of any similar division of
+the animal kingdom. Flies seem capable of adapting themselves to
+extremes of cold equally as well as to those of heat, and species
+belonging to the order are almost invariably included in the collections
+brought back by members of Arctic expeditions. Others are met with in
+the most isolated localities; thus the Rev. A. E. Eaton discovered on
+the desolate shores of Kerguelen's Island apterous and semi-apterous
+Diptera (_Tipulidae_ and _Ephydridae_) of a degraded type adapted to the
+climatic peculiarities of the locality. Many bird parasites belonging to
+the _Hippoboscidae_ have naturally been carried about the world by their
+hosts, while other species, such as the house-fly, blow-fly and
+drone-fly, have in like manner been disseminated by human agency. Most
+families and a large proportion of genera are represented throughout the
+world, but in some cases (e.g. _Glossina_--see TSETSE-FLY) the
+distribution of a genus is limited to a continent. As a rule the general
+_facies_ as well as dimensions are remarkably uniform throughout a
+family, so that tropical species often differ little in appearance from
+those inhabiting temperate regions. Many instances of exaggerated and
+apparently unnatural structure nevertheless occur, as in the case of the
+genera _Pangonia_, _Nemestrina_, _Achias_, _Diopsis_ and the family
+_Celyphidae_, and, as might be expected, it is chiefly in tropical
+species that these peculiarities are found. To a geographical
+distribution of the widest extent, Diptera add a range of habits of the
+most diversified nature; they are both animal and vegetable feeders, an
+enormous number of species acting, especially in the larval state, as
+scavengers in consuming putrescent or decomposing matter of both kinds.
+The phytophagous species are attached to various parts of plants, dead
+or alive; and the carnivorous in like manner feed on dead or living
+flesh, or its products, many larvae being parasitic on living animals of
+various classes (in Australia the larva of a species of _Muscidae_ is
+even a parasite of frogs), especially the caterpillars of Lepidoptera,
+which are destroyed in great numbers by _Tachininae_. The recent
+discovery of a bloodsucking maggot, which is found in native huts
+throughout the greater part of tropical and subtropical Africa, and
+attacks the inmates when asleep, is of great interest.
+
+It may confidently be asserted that, of insects which directly or
+indirectly affect the welfare of man, Diptera form the vast majority,
+and it is a moot point whether the good effected by many species in the
+rapid clearing away of animal and vegetable impurities, and in keeping
+other insect enemies in check, counterbalances the evil and annoyance
+wrought by a large section of the Order. The part played by certain
+blood-sucking Diptera in the dissemination of disease is now well known
+(see MOSQUITO and TSETSE-FLY), and under the term _myiasis_ medical
+literature includes a lengthy recital of instances of the presence of
+Dipterous larvae in various parts of the living human body, and the
+injuries caused thereby. That Diptera of the type of the common
+house-fly are often in large measure responsible for the spread of such
+diseases as cholera and enteric fever is undeniable, and as regards
+blood-sucking forms, in addition to those to which reference has already
+been made, it is sufficient to mention the vast army of pests
+constituted by the midges, sand-flies, horse-flies, &c., from the
+attacks of which domestic animals suffer equally with man, in addition
+to being frequently infested with the larvae of the bot and warble flies
+(_Gastrophilus_, _Oestrus_ and _Hypoderma_). Lastly, as regards the
+phytophagous forms, there can be no doubt that the destruction of
+grass-lands by "leather-jackets" (the larvae of crane-flies, or
+daddy-long-legs,--_Tipula oleracea_ and _T. paludosa_), of divers fruits
+by _Ceratitis capitata_ and species of _Dacus_, and of wheat and other
+crops by the Hessian-fly (_Mayetiola destructor_) and species of
+_Oscinis_, _Chlorops_, &c., is of very serious consequence.
+
+With many writers it is customary to treat the fleas as a sub-order of
+Diptera, under the title Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera. Since, however,
+although undoubtedly allied to the Diptera, they must have diverged from
+the ancestral stem at an early period, before the existing forms of
+Diptera became so extremely specialized, it seems better to regard the
+fleas as constituting an independent order (see FLEA).     (E. E. A.)
+
+
+
+
+DIPTERAL (Gr. for "double-winged"), the architectural term applied to
+those temples which have a double range of columns in the peristyle, as
+in the temple of Diana at Ephesus.
+
+
+
+
+DIPTYCH (Gr. [Greek: diptychos], two-folding), (1) A tablet made with a
+hinge to open and shut, used in the Roman empire for letters (especially
+love-letters), and official tokens of the commencement of a consul's,
+praetor's or aedile's term of office. The latter variety of diptych was
+inscribed with the magistrate's name and bore his portrait, and was
+issued to his friends and the public generally. They were made of
+boxwood or maple. More costly examples were in cedar, ivory (q.v.),
+silver or sometimes gold. They were often sent as New Year gifts.
+
+(2)In the primitive church when the worshippers brought their own
+offerings of bread and wine, from which were taken the Communion
+elements, the names of the contributors were recorded on diptychs and
+read aloud. To these names were early added those of deceased members of
+the community whom it was desired to commemorate. This custom rapidly
+developed into a kind of commemoration of saints and benefactors, living
+and dead; especially, in each church, were the names of those who had
+been its bishops recorded. The custom was maintained until the lists
+became so long that it was impossible to read them through, and the
+observance in this form had to be abandoned. The insertion of a name on
+the diptych, thereby securing the prayers of the church, was a privilege
+from which a person could be excluded on account of suspicion of heresy
+or by the intrigues of enemies. His name could, if written, be expunged
+under similar circumstances. The names thus written were read from the
+ambo, in which the diptych was kept. The reading of these names during
+the canon of the mass gave rise to the term _canonization_. By various
+councils it was ordained that the name of the pope should always be
+inserted in the diptych list.
+
+The addition of _dates_ resulted from the custom of recording baptisms
+and deaths; and thus the diptych developed into a calendar and formed
+the germ of the elaborate system of festologies, martyrologies and
+calendars which developed in the church.
+
+The diptych went by various names in the early church--mystical tablets,
+anniversary books, ecclesiastical matriculation registers or books of
+the living. According to the names inscribed, bishops, the dead or the
+living, a diptych might be a _diptycha episcoporum_, _diptycha
+mortuorum_ or _diptycha vivorum_.
+
+In course of time the list of the names swelled to such proportions that
+the space afforded by the diptych was insufficient. A third fold was
+consequently provided, and the tablet became a _triptych_ (though the
+name _diptych_ was retained as a general term for the object). Further
+room was afforded by the insertion of leaves of parchment or wood
+between the folds. The custom of reading names from the diptychs died
+out about the 8th century. The diptychs, however, were retained as altar
+ornaments. From the original consular documents onwards, the outsides of
+the folds had always been richly ornamented, and when they ceased to be
+of immediate practical use they became merely decorative. Instead of the
+list of names the inside was ornamented like the outer, and in the
+middle ages the best painters of the day would often paint them. When
+folded, the portraits of the donor and his wife might be shown; when
+open there would be three paintings, one on each fold, of a religious
+character.     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+DIR, an independent state in the North-West Frontier Province of India,
+lying to the north-east of Swat. Its importance chiefly arises from the
+fact that it commands the greater part of the route between Chitral and
+the Peshawar frontier. The quarrels and intrigues between the khan of
+Dir and Umra Khan of Jandol were among the chief events that led up to
+the Chitral Campaign of 1895. During that expedition the khan made an
+agreement with the British Government to keep the road to Chitral open
+in return for a subsidy. Including the Bashkars, an aboriginal tribe
+allied to the Torwals and Garhuis, who inhabit Panjkora Kohistan, the
+population is estimated at about 100,000.
+
+
+
+
+DIRCE, in Greek legend, daughter of Helios the sun-god, the second wife
+of Lycus, king of Thebes. She sorely persecuted Antiope, his first wife,
+who escaped to Mount Cithaeron, where her twin sons Amphion and Zethus
+were being brought up by a herdsman who was ignorant of their parentage.
+Having recognized their mother, the sons avenged her by tying Dirce to
+the horns of a wild bull, which dragged her about till she died. Her
+body was cast into a spring near Thebes, which was ever afterwards
+called by her name. Her punishment is the subject of the famous group
+called "The Farnese Bull," by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, in
+the Naples museum (see GREEK ART, Plate I. fig. 51).
+
+
+
+
+DIRECT MOTION, in astronomy, the apparent motion of a body of the solar
+system on the celestial sphere in the direction from west to east; so
+called because this is the usual direction of revolution and rotation of
+the heavenly bodies.
+
+
+
+
+DIRECTORS, in company law, the agents by whom a trading or public
+company acts, the company itself being a legal abstraction and unable to
+do anything. As joint-stock companies have multiplied and their
+enterprise has extended, the position of directors has become one of
+increasing influence and importance. It is they who control the colossal
+funds now invested in trading companies, and who direct their policy
+(for shareholders are seldom more than dividend-drawers). Upon their
+uprightness, vigilance and sound judgment depends the welfare of the
+greatest part of the trade of the country concerned. It is not to be
+wondered at that in view of this influence and independence of action
+the law courts have held directors to a strict standard of duty, and
+that the parliament of the United Kingdom has singled out directors from
+other agents for special legislation in the Directors Liability Act
+1890, the Larceny Act 1861, the Companies Act 1867 and the Winding-up
+Act 1890.
+
+The first directors of a company are generally appointed by the articles
+of association. Their consent to act must now, under the Companies Act
+1908, be filed with the registrar of joint-stock companies. Directors
+other than the first are elected at the annual general meeting, a
+certain proportion of the acting directors--usually one-third--retiring
+under the articles by rotation each year, and their places being filled
+up by election. A share qualification is nearly always required, on the
+well-recognized principle that a substantial stake in the undertaking is
+the best guarantee of fidelity to the company's interests. A director
+once appointed cannot be removed during his term of office by the
+shareholders, unless there is a special provision for that purpose in
+the articles of association; but a company may dismiss a director if the
+articles--as is usually the case--authorize dismissal. The authority and
+powers of directors are prima facie those necessary for carrying on the
+ordinary business of the company, but it is usual to define the more
+important of such powers in the articles of association. For instance,
+it is commonly prescribed how and when the directors may make calls, to
+what amount they may borrow, how they may invest the funds of the
+company, in what circumstances they may forfeit shares, or veto
+transfers, in what manner they shall conduct their proceedings, and what
+shall constitute a quorum of the board. Whenever, indeed, specific
+directions are desirable they may properly be given by the articles. But
+superadded to and supplementing these specific powers there is usually
+inserted in the articles a general power of management in terms similar
+to those of clause 55 of the model regulations for a company, known as
+Table A (clause 71 of the revised Table). The powers, whether general or
+specific, thus confided to directors are in the nature of a trust, and
+the directors must exercise them with a single eye to the benefit of the
+company. For instance, in allotting shares they must consult the
+interests of the company, not favour their friends. So in forfeiting
+shares they must not use the power collusively for the purpose of
+relieving the shareholder from liability. To do so is an abuse of the
+power and a fraud on the other shareholders.
+
+It would give a very erroneous idea of the position and functions of
+directors to speak of them--as is sometimes done--as trustees. They are
+only trustees in the sense that every agent is. They are "commercial men
+managing a trading concern for the benefit of themselves and the other
+shareholders." They have to carry on the company's business, to extend
+and consolidate it, and to do this they must have a free hand and a
+large discretion to deal with the exigencies of the commercial
+situation. This large discretion the law allows them so long as they
+keep within the limits set by the company's memorandum and articles.
+They are not to be held liable for mere errors of judgment, still less
+for being defrauded. That would make their position intolerable. All
+that the law requires of them is that they should be faithful to their
+duties as agents--"diligent and honest," to use the words of Sir George
+Jessel, formerly master of the rolls. Thus in the matter of diligence it
+is a director's duty to attend as far as possible all meetings of the
+board; at the same time non-attendance, unless gross, will not amount to
+negligence such as to render a director liable for irregularities
+committed by his co-directors in his absence. A director again must not
+sign cheques without informing himself of the purpose for which they are
+given. A director, on the same principle, must not delegate his duties
+to others unless expressly authorized to do so, as where the company's
+articles empower the directors to appoint a committee. Directors may, it
+is true, employ skilled persons, such as engineers, valuers or
+accountants, to assist them, but they must still exercise their judgment
+as business men on the materials before them. Then in the matter of
+honesty, a director must not accept a present in cash or shares or in
+any other form whatever from the company's vendor, because such a
+present is neither more nor less than a bribe to betray the interests of
+the company, nor must he make any profit in the matter of his agency
+without the knowledge and consent of his principal, the company. He must
+not, in other words, put himself in a position in which his duty to the
+company and his own interest conflict or even may conflict. This rule
+often comes into play in the case of contracts between a company and a
+director. There is nothing in itself invalid in such a contract, but the
+onus is on the director if he would keep such a contract to show that
+the company assented to his making a profit out of the contract, and for
+that purpose he must show that he made full and fair disclosure to the
+company of the nature and extent of his interest under the contract. It
+is for this reason that when a company's vendor is also a director he
+does not join the board until his co-directors have exercised an
+independent judgment on the propriety of the purchase.
+
+A director must also bear in mind--what is a fundamental principle of
+company management--that the funds of the company are entrusted to the
+directors for the objects of the company as defined by the company's
+memorandum of association and authorized by the general law, and that
+they must not be diverted from those objects or applied to purposes
+which are outside the objects of the company, _ultra vires_, as it is
+commonly called, or outside the powers of management given by the
+shareholders to the directors. This does not abridge the large
+discretion allowed to directors in carrying on the business of the
+company. The funds embarked in a trading company are intended to be
+employed for the acquisition of gain, and risk, greater or less
+according to circumstances, is necessarily incidental to such
+employment; but it is quite another matter when directors pay dividends
+out of capital, or return capital to the shareholders, or spend money of
+the company in "rigging" the market, or in buying the company's shares
+or paying commission for underwriting the shares of the company except
+where such commission is authorized under acts of 1900 and 1907,
+incorporated in the Companies Act 1908. Directors who in these or any
+other ways misapply the funds of the company are guilty of what is
+technically known as "misfeasance" or breach of trust, and all who join
+in the misapplication are jointly and severally liable to replace the
+sums so misapplied. The remedy of the company for misfeasance, if the
+company is a going concern, is by action against the delinquent
+directors; but where a company is being wound up, the legislature has,
+under the Winding-up Act 1890, provided a summary mode of proceeding, by
+which the official receiver or liquidator, or any creditor or
+contributory of the company, may take out what is known as a misfeasance
+summons, to compel the delinquent director or officer to repay the
+misapplied moneys or make compensation. The departmental committee of
+the Board of Trade in its report (July 1906) recommended that the court
+should be given a discretionary power, analogous to that it already
+possesses in the case of trustees under the Judicial Trustees Act 1896,
+s. 3, to relieve a director (or a promoter) in certain cases from
+liability. This recommendation has been given effect to by s. 279 of the
+Companies Act 1908, which provides that, "If in any proceeding against a
+director of a company for negligence or breach of trust it appears to a
+court that the director is or may be liable in respect of the negligence
+or breach of trust, but has acted honestly and reasonably and ought
+fairly to be excused for the negligence or breach of trust, the court
+may relieve him either wholly or partly from his liability on such terms
+as the court may think proper."
+
+Directors who circulate a prospectus containing statements which they
+know to be false, with intent to induce any person to become a
+shareholder, may be prosecuted under § 84 of the Larceny Act 1861. They
+are also liable criminally for falsification of the company's books, and
+for this or any other criminal offence the court in winding up may, on
+the application of the liquidator, direct a prosecution. As to the
+liability of directors for statements or omissions in a prospectus see
+COMPANY.
+
+In managing the affairs of the company directors must meet together and
+act as a body, for the company is entitled to their collective wisdom in
+council assembled. Board meetings are held at such intervals as the
+directors think expedient. Notice of the meeting must be given to all
+directors who are within reach, but the notice need not specify the
+particular business to be transacted. The articles usually fix, or give
+the directors power to fix, what number shall constitute a quorum for a
+board meeting. They also empower the directors to elect a chairman of
+the board. The directors exercise their powers by a resolution of the
+board which is recorded in the directors' minute-book.
+
+The court will not as a rule interfere with the discretion of directors
+honestly exercised in the management of the affairs of the company. The
+directors have prima facie the confidence of the shareholders, and it is
+not for the court to say that such confidence is misplaced. If the
+stockholders are dissatisfied with the management the remedy is in their
+own hands--they can call a meeting and elect a new board.
+
+A company's articles usually provide for the payment of a certain sum to
+each director for his services during the year. When this is the case it
+is an authority to the directors to pay themselves the amount of such
+remuneration. The remuneration, unless otherwise expressly provided,
+covers all expenses incidental to the directors' duties. A director, for
+instance, cannot claim to be paid in addition to his fixed remuneration
+his travelling expenses for attending board meetings.
+
+When a company winds up, the directors' powers of management come to an
+end. Their agency is superseded in favour of that of the liquidator.
+     (E. MA.)
+
+
+
+
+DIRECTORY, a term meaning literally that which guides or directs, and so
+applied to a book or set of rules giving directions for public worship.
+The _directorium_ or _ordo_ of the Roman Church contains regulations as
+to the Mass and office to be used on each day throughout the year, and
+the word is found in the _Directory for the Publick Worship of God_
+drawn up in 1644 at the Westminster Assembly. The term now usually
+signifies a book containing the names, addresses and occupations, &c. of
+the inhabitants of a town or district, or of a similar list of the users
+of a telephone supply, or of the members of a particular profession or
+trade. The name _Directoire_ or Directory was given to the body which
+held the executive power in France from October 1795 until November 1799
+(see FRENCH REVOLUTION).
+
+
+
+
+DIRGE, a song or hymn of mourning, particularly one sung at funerals or
+at a Service in commemoration of the dead. It is derived from the first
+word of the antiphon _"Dirige, Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam
+meam"_ (Guide, O Lord, my God, my way in Thy sight), of the opening
+psalm in the office for the dead in the Roman Church. The antiphon is
+adapted from verse 8 of Psalm v.
+
+
+
+
+DIRK, a dagger, particularly the heavy dagger carried by the Highlanders
+of Scotland. The dirk as worn in full Highland costume is an elaborately
+ornamented weapon, with cairngorms or other stones set in the head of
+the handle, which has no guard. Inserted in the sheath there may be two
+small knives. The dirk, in the shape of a straight blade, with a small
+guard, some 18 in. long, is worn by midshipmen in the British navy. The
+origin of the word is doubtful. The earlier forms were _dork_ and
+_durk_, and the spelling _dirk_, adopted by Johnson, represents the
+pronunciation of the second form. The name seems to have been early
+applied to the daggers of the Highlanders, but the Gaelic word is
+_biodag_, and the Irish _duirc_, often stated to be the origin, is only
+an adaptation of the English word. It may be a corruption of the German
+_Dolch_, a dagger. The suggestion that it is an application of the
+Christian name "Dirk," the short form of "Dieterich," is not borne out,
+according to the _New English Dictionary_, by any use of this name for a
+dagger, and is further disproved by the earlier English spelling.
+
+
+
+
+DIRSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, province of West
+Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 20 m. S. from Danzig and at
+the junction of the important lines of railway Berlin-Königsberg and
+Danzig-Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 14,185. It has a Roman Catholic and a
+Protestant church and several schools. The river is here crossed by two
+fine iron bridges. The older structure dating from the year 1857,
+originally used for the railway, is now given up to road traffic, and
+the railway carried by a new bridge completed in 1891. Dirschau has
+railway workshops and manufactories of sugar, agricultural implements
+and cement. During the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus made it his
+headquarters for many months after its capture in 1626.
+
+
+
+
+DISABILITY, a term meaning, in general, want of ability, and used in law
+to denote an incapacity in certain persons or classes of persons for the
+full enjoyment of duties or privileges, which, but for their
+disqualification, would be open to them; hence, legal disqualification.
+Thus, married women, persons under age, insane persons, convicted felons
+are under disability to do certain legal acts. This disability may be
+absolute, wholly disabling the person so long as it continues, or
+partial, ceasing on discontinuation of the disabling state, as
+attainment of full age.
+
+
+
+
+DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. _descharge_, modern _décharge_, from
+a med. Lat. _discargare_, to unload, _dis-_ and _carricare_, to load,
+cf. "charge"), a word meaning relief from a load or burden, hence
+applied to the unloading of a ship, the firing of a weapon, the passage
+of electricity from an electrified body, the issue from a wound, &c.
+From the sense of relief from an obligation, "discharge" is also applied
+to the release of a soldier or sailor from military or naval service, or
+of the crew of a merchant vessel, or to the dismissal from an office or
+situation. In law, it is used of a document or other evidence that can
+be accepted as proof of the release from an obligation, as of a receipt,
+on payment of money due. Similarly it is applied to the release in
+accordance with law of a person in custody on a criminal charge, and to
+the legal release of a bankrupt from further liability for debts
+provable in the bankruptcy except those incurred by fraud or debts to
+the crown. It is also applied to the reversal of an order of a court. In
+the case of divorce, where the rule _nisi_ is not made absolute, the
+rule is said to be discharged.
+
+
+
+
+DISCHARGING ARCH, in architecture, an arch built over a lintel or
+architrave to take off the superincumbent weight. The earliest example
+is found in the Great Pyramid, over the lintels of the entrance passage
+to the tomb: it consisted of two stones only, resting one against the
+other. The same object was attained in the Lion Gate and the tomb of
+Agamemnon, both in Mycenae, and in other examples in Greece, where the
+stones laid in horizontal courses, one projecting over the other, left a
+triangular hollow space above the lintel of the door, which was
+subsequently filled in by vertical sculptured stone panels. The Romans
+frequently employed the discharging arch, and inside the portico of the
+Pantheon the architraves have such arches over them. In the Golden
+Gateway of the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the discharging arches,
+semicircular in form, were adopted as architectural features and
+decorated with mouldings. The same is found in the synagogues in
+Palestine of the 2nd century; and later, in Byzantine architecture,
+these moulded archivolts above an architrave constitute one of the
+characteristics of the style. In the early Christian churches in Rome,
+where a colonnade divided off the nave and aisles, discharging arches
+are turned in the frieze just above the architraves.
+
+
+
+
+DISCIPLE, properly a pupil, scholar (Lat. _discipulus_, from _discere_,
+to learn, and root seen in _pupillus_), but chiefly used of the personal
+followers of Jesus Christ, including the inner circle of the Apostles
+(q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or CHRISTIANS, an American Protestant denomination,
+founded by Thomas Campbell, his son Alexander Campbell (q.v.) and Barton
+Warren Stone (1772-1844). Stone had been a Presbyterian minister
+prominent in the Kentucky revival of 1801, but had been turned against
+sectarianism and ecclesiastical authority because the synod had
+condemned Richard McNemar, one of his colleagues in the revival, for
+preaching (as Stone himself had done) counter to the Westminster
+Confession, on faith and the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion. He
+had organized the Springfield Presbytery, but in 1804 with his five
+fellow ministers signed "The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield
+Presbytery," giving up that name and calling themselves "Christians."
+Like Stone, Alexander Campbell had adopted (in 1812) immersion, and,
+like him, his two great desires were for Christian unity and the
+restoration of the ancient order of things. But the Campbellite
+doctrines differed widely from the hyper-Calvinism of the Baptists whom
+they had joined in 1813, especially on the points on which Stone had
+quarrelled with the Presbyterians; and after various local breaks in
+1825-1830, when there were large additions to the Restorationists from
+the Baptist ranks, especially under the apostolic fervour and
+simplicity of the preaching of Walter Scott (1796-1861), in 1832 the
+Reformers were practically all ruled out of the Baptist communion. The
+Campbells gradually lost sight of Christian unity, owing to the
+unfortunate experience with the Baptists and to the tone taken by those
+clergymen who had met them in debates; and for the sake of Christian
+union it was peculiarly fortunate that in January 1832 at Lexington,
+Kentucky, the followers of the Campbells and those of Stone (who had
+stressed union more than primitive Christianity) united. Campbell
+objected to the name "Christians" as sectarianized by Stone, but
+"Disciples" never drove out of use the name "Christians."
+
+During the Civil War the denomination escaped an actual scission by
+following the neutral views of Campbell, who opposed slavery, war and
+abolition. In 1849 the American Christian Missionary Society was formed;
+it was immediately attacked as a "human innovation," unwarranted by the
+New Testament, by literalists led in later years by Benjamin Franklin
+(secretary of the missionary society in 1857), who opposed all church
+music also. Isaac Errett (1820-1888) was the most prominent leader of
+the progressive party, which was considered corrupt and worldly by the
+literalists, many of whom, in spite of his efforts, broke off from the
+main body, especially in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and
+Texas.
+
+The main body appointed in 1890 a standing committee on Christian union;
+their aim in this respect is not for absorption, as was clearly shown by
+their answer in 1887 to overtures from the Protestant Episcopal Church
+regarding Christian unity. The credal position of the Disciples is
+simple: great stress is put upon the phrase "the Christ, the Son of the
+living God," and upon the recognition by Jesus of this confession as the
+foundation of His church; as to baptism, agreement with Baptists is only
+as to the mode, immersion; this is considered "the primitive confession
+of Christ and a gracious token of salvation," and as being "for the
+remission of sins"; the Disciples generally deny the authority over
+Christians of the Old Covenant, and Alexander Campbell in particular
+held this view so forcibly that he was accused by Baptists of "throwing
+away the Old Testament." The Lord's Supper is celebrated every Sunday,
+the bread being broken by the communicants. The Disciples are not
+Unitarian in fact or tendency, but they urge the use of simple New
+Testament phraseology as to the Godhead. Their church government is
+congregational.
+
+  The growth of the denomination has been greatest in the states along
+  the Ohio river, whence they have spread throughout the Union. In 1908
+  there were 6673 ministers and 1,285,123 communicants in the United
+  States. There are churches in Canada, in Great Britain and in
+  Australia. Bethany College, at Bethany, West Virginia, was chartered
+  in 1840, and Alexander Campbell, who had founded it as Buffalo
+  Seminary, was its president until his death in 1866; other colleges
+  founded by the sect are: Kentucky University, Lexington, Ky.; Hiram
+  College, Hiram, Ohio (1850, until 1867 known as Western Reserve
+  Eclectic Institute); Butler College, Indianapolis, Indiana (1855);
+  Christian University, Canton, Missouri (1851; coeducational); Eureka
+  College, in Woodford county, Illinois (1855; coeducational); Union
+  Christian College, Merom, Ind. (1859); Texas Christian University,
+  Waco, Texas (1873, founded as Add Ran College at Thorpe's Springs,
+  removing to Waco in 1895); Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa (1881);
+  Milligan College, Milligan, Tennessee (1882); Defiance College,
+  Defiance, O. (1885); Cotner University, Lincoln, Nebraska (1889); Elon
+  College, Elon, North Carolina (1890); American University, Harriman,
+  Tenn. (1893); the Virginia Christian College, Lynchburg, Virginia
+  (1903), and for negroes, the Southern Christian Institute, Edwards,
+  Mississippi (1877), and the Christian Bible College, Newcastle, Henry
+  County, Ky. Theological seminaries are the Berkeley Bible Seminary,
+  Berkeley, California (1896); the Disciples' Divinity House, Chicago,
+  Ill. (1894); and the Eugene Divinity School, Eugene, Oregon (1895).
+  "Bible chairs" were established in state universities and elsewhere by
+  the Disciples,--at the University of Michigan (1893), at the
+  University of Virginia (1899), at the University of Calcutta (1900)
+  and at the University of Kansas (1901). The denomination has
+  publishing houses in Cincinnati, St Louis, Louisville and Nashville.
+
+  See Errett Gates's _History of the Disciples of Christ_ (New York,
+  1905), in "The Story of the Churches" series, and his _Early Relation
+  and Separation of Baptists and Disciples_ (Chicago, 1904), a
+  University of Chicago doctoral thesis; and B. B. Tyler's _History of
+  the Disciples of Christ_ in vol. xii. of "The American Church History
+  Series" (New York, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+DISCLAIMER, a renunciation, denial or refusal; a disavowal of claims. In
+law the term is used more particularly in the following senses:--(1) In
+the law of landlord and tenant, the direct repudiation of that relation
+by some act on the part of the tenant. A disclaimer may be verbal or
+written, but in such case it must be something more than a mere
+renunciation of the tenant's title, or it may be an act which is wholly
+inconsistent with the existence of such relation, as the setting up by
+the tenant of a distinct title either in himself or some third party.
+(2) In the law of bankruptcy, where any part of the property of a
+bankrupt consists of land of any tenure burdened with onerous covenants,
+of stocks or shares in companies, of unprofitable contracts, or of any
+property that is unsaleable, or not readily saleable, by reason of its
+binding the possessor to the performance of any onerous act, the
+trustee, notwithstanding that he has endeavoured to sell or has taken
+possession of the property, or exercised any act of ownership in
+relation to it, may, subject to certain provisions, by writing signed by
+him, at any time within twelve months after the first appointment of a
+trustee, "disclaim" the property (see BANKRUPTCY). (3) In the law of
+trusts, disclaimer is the refusal or renunciation of the office or
+duties of a trustee. It is an undisputed rule that no one is compellable
+to undertake a trust, so that as soon as a person knows he has been
+appointed a trustee under some instrument, he should determine whether
+he will accept the office or not. Disclaimer of trust should be by deed,
+as admitting of no ambiguity, but it may be by conveyance to other
+accepting trustees, or orally, or by written declaration, or even by
+conduct. (4) In the law of patents, disclaimer is the renunciation, by
+amendment of specifications, of the portion of an inventor's claim to
+protection.
+
+
+
+
+DISCOUNT. (1) A money-market term for the price paid in order to obtain
+immediate realization of a bill not yet due. If a bill for £100 due six
+months hence is discounted at the rate of 3% per annum, its holder will
+obtain £98, 10s. in cash for it. (2) A Stock-Exchange term applied to a
+security, not fully paid, which has fallen below its issue price, and so
+is said to stand at so much discount. See PREMIUM.
+
+
+
+
+DISCOVERY, in law, the revealing or disclosing of any matter. The
+English common law courts were originally unable to compel a litigant
+before a trial to disclose the facts and documents on which he relied.
+In equity, however, a different rule prevailed, there being an absolute
+right to discovery of all material facts on which a case was founded.
+Now the practice is regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883,
+Order 31. Discovery is of two kinds, namely, by interrogatories and by
+affidavit of documents, provision being also made for the production and
+inspection of documents. Where a party to a suit can make an affidavit
+stating that in his belief certain specified documents are or have been
+in the possession of some other party, the court may make an order that
+such party state on affidavit whether he has or ever had any of those
+documents in his possession, or if he has parted with them or what has
+become of them. A further application may then be made by notice to the
+party who has admitted possession of the documents for production and
+inspection. Copies also may be taken of the more important documents.
+There is also discovery of facts obtained by means of interrogatories,
+i.e. written questions addressed on behalf of one party, before trial,
+to the other party, who is bound to answer them in writing upon oath. In
+order to prevent needless expense the party seeking discovery must first
+secure the cost of it by paying into court a sum of money, generally not
+less than five pounds. See also EVIDENCE.
+
+
+
+
+DISCUS (Gr. [Greek: diskos], disk), a circular plate of stone, later of
+metal, which was used by the ancient Greeks for throwing to a distance
+as a gymnastic exercise. Judging from specimens found by excavators, the
+ancient discus was about 8 or 9 in. in diameter and weighed from 4 to 5
+lb., although one of bronze, preserved in the British Museum, weighs
+over 8 lb. Sometimes a kind of quoit, spherical in form, was used,
+through a hole in which a thong was passed to assist the athlete in
+throwing it. The sport of throwing the discus was common in the time of
+Homer, who mentions it repeatedly. It formed a part of the _pentathlon_,
+or quintuple games, in the ancient Olympic Games. Statius, in _Thebais_,
+646-721, fully describes the use of the discus. In the British Museum
+there is a restored copy of a statue by Myron (see GREEK ART, Plate IV.
+fig. 68) of a discus-thrower (_discobolus_) in the act of hurling the
+missile; but the investigations of N. E. Norman Gardiner show that a
+wrong attitude has been adopted by the restorer.
+
+Throwing the discus was introduced as an event in modern athletics at
+the revived Olympic Games, first held at Athens in 1896, and since that
+time it has become a recognized event in the athletic championship
+meetings of several European nations, as well as in the United States,
+where it has become very popular. According to the American rules the
+discus must be of a smooth, hard-wood body without finger-holes,
+weighted in the centre with lead disks and capped with polished brass
+disks, with a steel ring on the outside. Its weight must be 4½ lb., its
+outside diameter 8 in. and its thickness at the centre 2 in. It must be
+thrown from a 7-ft. circle, which may not be overstepped in throwing,
+and the throw is measured from the spot where the discus first strikes
+the ground to the point in the circumference of the circle on a line
+between the centre and the point of striking.
+
+
+
+
+DISINFECTANTS, substances employed to neutralize the action of
+pathogenic organisms, and prevent the spread of contagious or infectious
+disease. The efficiency of any disinfectant is due to its power of
+destroying, or of rendering inert, specific poisons or disease germs.
+Therefore antiseptic substances generally are to this extent
+disinfectants. So also the deodorizers, which act by oxidizing or
+otherwise changing the chemical constitution of volatile substances
+disseminated in the air, or which prevent noxious exhalations from
+organic substances, are in virtue of these properties effective
+disinfectants in certain diseases. A knowledge of the value of
+disinfectants, and the use of some of the most valuable agents, can be
+traced to very remote times; and much of the Levitical law of cleansing,
+as well as the origin of numerous heathen ceremonial practices, are
+clearly based on a perception of the value of disinfection. The means of
+disinfection, and the substances employed, are very numerous, as are the
+classes and conditions of disease and contagion they are designed to
+meet. Nature, in the oxidizing influence of freely circulating
+atmospheric air, in the purifying effect of water, and in the powerful
+deodorizing properties of common earth, has provided the most potent
+ever-present and acting disinfecting media. Of the artificial
+disinfectants employed or available three classes may be
+recognized:--1st, volatile or vaporizable substances, which attack
+impurities in the air; 2nd, chemical agents, for acting on the diseased
+body or on the infectious discharges therefrom; and 3rd, the physical
+agencies of heat and cold. In some of these cases the destruction of the
+contagium is effected by the formation of new chemical compounds, by
+oxidation, deoxidation or other reaction, and in others the conditions
+favourable to life are removed or life is destroyed by high temperature.
+Among the first class, aerial or gaseous disinfectants, formic aldehyde
+has of late years taken foremost place. The vapour is a powerful
+disinfectant and deodorant, and for the surface disinfection of rooms,
+fulfils all requirements when used in sufficient amount. It acts more
+rapidly than equal quantities of sulphurous acid, and it does not affect
+colours. It is non-poisonous, though irritating to the eyes and throat.
+With the exception of iron and steel it does not attack metals. It can
+be obtained in paraform tabloids, and with a specially constructed
+spirit lamp disinfection can be carried out by any one. Twenty tabloids
+must be employed for every 1000 cubic ft. of space. Disinfection by
+sulphurous acid fumes is of great antiquity, and is still in very
+general use; for the purpose of destroying vermin it is more powerful
+than formic aldehyde. Camphor and some volatile oils have also been
+employed as air disinfectants, but their virtues lie chiefly in masking,
+not destroying, noxious effluvia. In the 2nd class--non-gaseous
+disinfecting compounds--all the numerous antiseptic substances may be
+reckoned; but the substances principally employed in practice are
+oxidizing agents, as potassium manganates and permanganates, "Condy's
+fluid," and solutions of the so-called "chlorides of lime," soda and
+potash, with the chlorides of aluminium and zinc, soluble sulphates and
+sulphites, solutions of sulphurous acid, and the tar products--carbolic,
+cresylic and salicylic acids. Of the physical agents heat and cold, the
+latter, though a powerful natural disinfectant, is not practically
+available by artificial means; heat is a power chiefly relied on for
+purifying and disinfecting clothes, bedding and textile substances
+generally. Different degrees of temperature are required for the
+destruction of the virus of various diseases; but as clothing, &c., can
+be exposed to a heat of about 250° Fahr. without injury, provision is
+made for submitting articles to nearly that temperature. For the
+thorough disinfection of a sick-room the employment of all three classes
+of disinfectants, for purifying the air, for destroying the virus at its
+point of origin, and for cleansing clothing, &c., may be required.
+
+
+
+
+DISMAL, an adjective meaning dreary, gloomy, and so a name given to
+stretches of swampy land on the east coast of the United States, as the
+Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina. The derivation has been
+much discussed. In the early examples of the use the word is a
+substantive, especially in the expression "in the dismal," i.e. in the
+dismal time or days. Later it became adjectival, especially in
+combination with "days." It has been connected with "decimal," med.
+Latin _decimalis_, belonging to a tithe or tenth, and thus the "dismal
+days" are the unpleasant days connected with the extortion and
+oppression of exacting payment of tithes. According to the _New English
+Dictionary_, quoting Professor W. W. Skeat, "dismal" is derived, through
+an Anglo-Fr. _dis mal_, from the Lat. _dies mali_, evil or unpropitious
+days. This Anglo-French expression, explained as _les mal jours_, is
+found in a MS. of Rauf de Linham's _Art de Kalender_, 1256. These days
+of evil omen were known as _Dies Aegyptiaci_ (Du Cange, _Glossarium_,
+s.v.) or Egyptian days, either as having been instituted by Egyptian
+astrologers or with reference to the "ten plagues"; so Chaucer, "I trowe
+hit was in the dismal, That were the ten woundes of Egipte" (_Book of
+the Duchesse_, 1206). There were two such days in each month.
+
+  See Skeat, Trans. _Philol. Soc._ (1888), p. 2, and note on the line in
+  the "Book of the Duchesse," _The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer_,
+  vol. i. (1894).
+
+
+
+
+DISORDERLY HOUSE, in law, a house in which the conduct of its inmates is
+such as to become a public nuisance, or a house where persons congregate
+to the probable disturbance of the public peace or other commission of
+crime. In England, by the Disorderly Houses Act 1751, the term includes
+common bawdy houses or brothels,[1] common gaming houses, common betting
+houses and disorderly places of entertainment. The keeping of such is a
+misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment, and in the case of a
+brothel also punishable on summary conviction by the Criminal Law
+Amendment Act 1885; the letting out for gain for indiscriminate
+prostitution of a room or rooms in a house will make it as much a
+brothel in law as if the whole house were let out for the purpose.
+Where, however, a woman occupies a house or room which is frequented by
+men for the purpose of committing fornication with her, she cannot be
+convicted of keeping a disorderly house. See also PROSTITUTION.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The etymology of this word has been confused by the early
+    adoption into English usage of the O. Fr. _bordel_. The two words are
+    in origin quite distinct. Brothel is an O. Eng. word for a person,
+    not a place. It meant an abandoned vagabond, one who had gone to ruin
+    (_abréothan_). _Bordel_, on the contrary, is a place, literally a
+    small hut or shelter, especially for fornication, Med. Lat.
+    _bordellum_, diminutive of the Late Lat. _borda_, board. The words
+    were early confused, and brothel-house, bordel-house, bordel or
+    brothel, are all used for a disorderly house, while bordel was
+    similarly misused, and, like brothel in its proper meaning, was
+    applied to a disorderly person.
+
+
+
+
+DISPATCH, or DESPATCH, to send off immediately, or by express;
+particularly in the case of the sending of official messages, or of the
+immediate sending of troops to their destination, or the like. The word
+is thus used as a substantive of written official reports of events,
+battles and the like, sent by ambassadors, generals, &c., by means of a
+special messenger, or of express correspondence generally. From the
+primary meaning of the prompt sending of a message, &c., the word is
+used of the quick disposal of business, or of the disposal of a person
+by violence; hence the word means to execute or murder. The etymology of
+the word has been obscured by the connexion with the Fr. _dépêcher_, and
+_dépêche_, which are in meaning the equivalents of the Eng. verb and
+substantive. The Fr. word is made up of the prefix _de-_, Lat. _dis-_,
+and the root which appears in _empêcher_, to embarrass, and means
+literally to disentangle. The Lat. origin of _dépêcher_ and _empêcher_
+is a Low Lat. _pedicare_, _pedica_, a fetter. The Fr. word came into
+Eng. as _depeach_, which was in use from the 15th century until
+"despatch" was introduced. This word is certainly direct from the Ital.
+_dispacciare_, or Span, _despachar_, which must be derived from the Lat.
+root appearing in _pactus_, fixed, fastened, from _pangere_. The _New
+English Dictionary_ finds the earliest instance of "dispatch" in a
+letter to Henry VIII. from Bishop Tunstall, commissioner to Spain in
+1516-1517.
+
+
+
+
+DISPENSATION, a term with two main applications, (1) to the action of
+administering, arranging or dealing out, and (2) to the action of
+allowing certain things, rules, &c., to be done away with, relaxed. Of
+these two meanings the first is to be derived from the classical Latin
+use of _dispensare_, literally, to weigh out, hence to distribute,
+especially of the orderly arrangement of a household by a steward; thus
+_dispensatio_ was, in theology, the word chosen to translate the Greek
+[Greek: oikonomia], economy, i.e. divine or religious systems, as in the
+Jewish, Mosaic, Christian dispensations. Dispensation in law is,
+strictly speaking, the suspension by competent authority of general
+rules of law in particular cases. Its object is to modify the hardships
+often arising from the rigorous application of general laws to
+particular cases, and its essence is to preserve the law by suspending
+its operation, i.e. making it non-existent, in such cases. It follows,
+then, that dispensation, in its strict sense, is anticipative, i.e. it
+does not absolve from the consequences of a legal obligation already
+contracted, but avoids a breach of the law by suspending the obligation
+to conform to it, e.g. a dispensation or licence to marry within the
+prohibited degrees, or to hold benefices in plurality. The term is,
+however, frequently used of the power claimed and exercised by the
+supreme legislative authority of altering or abrogating in particular
+cases conditions established under the existing law and of releasing
+individuals from obligations incurred under it, e.g. dispensations
+granted by the pope _ex plenitudine potestatis_ from the obligation of
+celibacy, from religious and other vows, from _matrimonium ratum_, _non
+consummatum_, &c.
+
+1. _Ecclesiastical Law._--In the theory of the canon law the dispensing
+power is the corollary of the legislative, the authority that makes
+laws, and no other, having power to suspend them. It follows that the
+law of nature (_jus naturae_) and _a fortiori_ the law of God (_jus
+divinum_) are not subject to dispensation of any earthly authority, and
+that it is only the disciplinary laws made by the Church that the Church
+is empowered to suspend or to abrogate. Thus, not even the pope could
+grant a dispensation for a marriage between persons related in the
+direct line of ascent or descent, e.g. father and daughter, or between
+brother and sister, while dispensations are granted for marriages within
+other prohibited degrees, e.g. uncle and niece.
+
+The dispensing power, like the legislative authority, was formerly
+invested in general councils and even in provincial synods; but in the
+West, with the gradual centralization of authority at Rome, it became
+ultimately vested in the pope as the supreme lawgiver of the Church.
+Subject, however, to the supreme jurisdiction of the pope, the power of
+dispensation continued to reside in the other organs of the Church in
+exact proportion to their legislative capacities, i.e. in provincial
+synods in respect of regional rules laid down by them, and in bishops in
+respect of rules laid down by them for their dioceses. According to Du
+Cange, the earliest record of the use of the word _dispensatio_ in this
+connexion is in the letter of Pope Gelasius I. of the 11th of March 494,
+to the bishops of Lucania (in Jaffé, _Reg. Pont. Rom._, ed. 2, tom. i.
+no. 636): necessaria rerum Dispensatione constringimur, ... sic canonum
+paternorum decreta librare, ... ut quae praesentium necessitas temporum
+restaurandis Ecclesiis relaxanda deposcit, adhibita consideratione
+diligenti, quantum fieri potest temperemus.[1] Dispensations from the
+observance of traditional rules were, however, during the early
+centuries exceedingly rare, and there are more instances of the popes
+repudiating than of their exercising the power to grant them. Thus
+Celestine I. (d. 432) wrote: "The rules govern us, not we the rules: we
+are subject to the canons, since we are the servants of the precepts of
+the canons" (_Epist. 3 ad Episcopos Illyrici_); and Pope Zozimus wrote
+even more strongly: "This see possesses no authority to make any
+concession or change; for with us abides antiquity firmly rooted
+(_inconvulsis radicibus_), reverence for which the decrees of the
+Fathers enjoined." As time went on, however, and the Church expanded,
+this rigidly conservative attitude proved impossible to maintain, and
+the principle of "tempering" the law when forced to do so "by the
+exigencies of affairs or of the times" (_rerum vel temporum angustia_),
+as laid down by Gelasius, was adopted into the canon law itself. The
+principle was, of course, singularly open to abuse. In theory it was
+laid down from the first that dispensations were only to be granted in
+cases of urgent necessity and in the highest interests of the Church; in
+practice, from the 11th century onwards, the power of dispensation was
+used by the popes as one of the most potent instruments for extending
+their influence. Dispensations to hold benefices in plurality formed,
+with provisions and the papal claim to the right of direct appointment,
+a powerful means for extending the patronage of the Holy See and
+therefore its hold over the clergy, and from the 13th century onwards
+this abuse assumed vast proportions (Hinschius iii. p. 250). Even more
+scandalous was the almost unrestrained traffic in licences and
+dispensations at Rome, which grew up, at least as early as the 14th
+century, owing to the fees charged for such dispensations having come to
+be regarded by the Curia as a regular source of revenue (Woker, _Das
+kirchliche Finanzwesen der Päpste_, Nördlingen, 1878, pp. 75, 160). Loud
+complaints of these abuses were raised in the reforming councils of
+Constance and Basel in the 15th century, but nothing was done
+effectually to check them.
+
+The actual practice of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon the
+decisions of the council of Trent, which left the medieval theory intact
+while endeavouring to guard against its abuses. The proposal put forward
+by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to subordinate the papal power of
+dispensation to the consent of the Church in general council was
+rejected, and even the canons of the council of Trent itself, in so far
+as they affected reformation of morals or ecclesiastical discipline,
+were decreed "saving the authority of the Holy See" (_Sess._ xxv. cap.
+21, de ref.). At the same time it was laid down in respect of all
+dispensations, whether papal or other, that they were to be granted only
+for just and urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the
+Church (urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all
+cases _gratis_. The payment of money for a dispensation was _ipso facto_
+to make the dispensation void (_Sess._ xxv. cap. 18, de ref.).
+
+Though verbal dispensations are valid, papal dispensations are given in
+writing. Before the constitution _Sapienti_ of Pius X. (1908) all
+dispensations in _foro externo_, especially in matrimonial causes, were
+dealt with by the Dataria Apostolica, those _in foro interno_ by the
+Penitentiary, which latter also possessed _in foro externo_ the right to
+grant dispensations in matrimonial causes to poor people. Since 1908 the
+Dataria only deals with dispensations in matters concerning benefices,
+dispensations in matrimonial matters having been transferred to the new
+Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments (see CURIA ROMANA).
+
+The regular form of dispensation is the _forma commissaria_ (_Trid.
+Sess._ xxii. cap. 5, de ref.), i.e. a mandate to the bishop to grant the
+dispensation, after due inquiry, in the pope's name. In exceptional
+cases, e.g. sovereigns or bishops, the dispensation is sent direct to
+the petitioner (_forma gratiosa_). Dispensations are nominally
+gratuitous; but the officials are entitled to fees for drawing them up,
+and there are customary "compositions" (_compositiones_) which are
+destined for charitable objects in Rome. These fees were and are
+regulated according to the capacity of the petitioners to pay, the
+result being that the abuses which the council of Trent had sought to
+abolish continued to flourish. In the 17th century a specially
+privileged class of bankers (_banquiers expéditionnaires_) existed at
+Rome whose sole business was obtaining dispensations on commission, and
+one of these, named Pelletier, published at Paris in 1677, under the
+royal _imprimatur_, a regular tariff of the sums for which in any given
+case a dispensation might be obtained. That the "urgent and just cause"
+was, in the circumstances, a very minor consideration was to be
+expected, and the enlightened pope Benedict XIV., himself a canon lawyer
+of eminence, complained "Dispensationem non raro concedi in Dataria,
+sine causa, nempe ob eleemosynam quae praestatur" (Inst. 87, No. 26). It
+may be added that the worst abuses of this system have long since
+disappeared. The bishops have their own correspondents at Rome, and one
+of the duties of the diplomatic representatives of foreign states at the
+Curia is to see that their nationals receive their dispensations without
+overcharge.
+
+Bishops are by right (_jure ordinario_) competent to dispense in all
+cases expressly reserved to them by the canon law, e.g. in the matter of
+publication of banns of marriage. They possess besides special powers
+delegated to them by the pope and renewed every five years (_facultates
+quinquennales_), or by virtue of faculties granted to them personally
+(_facultates extraordinariae_), e.g. to dispense from rules of
+abstinence, from simple vows, and with some exceptions from the
+prohibition of marriage within prohibited degrees.
+
+_Church of England._--By 25 Henry VIII. cap. 21. sec 2 (1534), it was
+enacted that neither the king, his successors, nor any of his subjects
+should henceforth sue for licences, dispensations, &c., to the see of
+Rome, and that the power to issue such licences, dispensations, &c.,
+"for causes not being contrary or repugnant to the Holy Scriptures and
+laws of God," should be vested in the archbishop of Canterbury for the
+time being, who at his own discretion was to issue such dispensations,
+&c., under his seal, to the king and his subjects. The power of
+dispensation thus vested in the archbishops partly fell obsolete, partly
+has been curtailed by subsequent statutes, e.g. the Pluralities Act of
+1838. It is now confined to granting dispensations for holding two
+benefices at once, to issuing licences for non-residence, and in
+matrimonial cases to the issuing of special licences. The dispensing
+power of bishops in the Church of England survives only in the right to
+grant marriage licences, i.e. dispensations from the obligation to
+publish the banns. Though, however, these licences and dispensations are
+given under the archiepiscopal and episcopal seals, they are actually
+issued by the commissaries of faculties and vicars-general
+(chancellors), independently, in virtue of the powers conferred on them
+by their patents. This has led, since the passing of the Divorce Acts
+and the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Act, to a curiously
+anomalous position, licences for the remarriage of divorced persons
+having been issued under the bishop's seal, while the bishop himself
+publicly protested that such marriages were contrary to "the law of
+God," but that he himself had no power to prevent his chancellor
+licensing them.
+
+  See Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_ (Berlin, 1883), iii. 250, &c.; article
+  "Dispensation" by Hinschius in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_
+  (Leipzig, 1898); article "Dispensation" in Wetzer and Welte's
+  _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882-1901); F.
+  Lichtenberger, _Encyclopédie des sciences religieuses_ (Paris, 1878),
+  s.v. "Dispense"; Phillimore, _Eccl. Law_.
+
+2. _Constitutional Law._--The power of dispensation from the operation
+of the ordinary law in particular cases is, of course, everywhere
+inherent in the supreme legislative authority, however rarely it may be
+exercised. Divorce (in Ireland) by act of parliament may be taken as an
+example which still actually occurs. On the other hand, the dispensing
+power once vested in the crown in England is now merely of historical
+interest, though of great importance in the constitutional struggles of
+the past. This power possessed by the crown of dispensing with the
+statute law is said to have been copied from the dispensations or non
+obstante clauses granted by the popes in matters of canon law; the
+parallel between them is certainly very striking, and there can be no
+doubt that the principles of the canon law influenced the decisions of
+the courts in the matter. It was, for instance, very generally laid down
+that the king could by dispensation make it lawful to do what was _malum
+prohibitum_ but not to do what was _malum in se_, a principle of the
+canon law, but one difficult to reconcile with English legal principles,
+since no act is legally _malum_ unless forbidden by law. This was
+pointed out by Chief Justice Vaughan in the celebrated judgment in the
+case of _Thomas_ v. _Sorrell_, when he rejected the distinction between
+_mala in se_ and _mala prohibita_ as confusing, and attempted to define
+the dispensing power of the crown by limiting it to cases of individual
+breaches of penal statutes where no third party loses a right of action,
+and where the breach is not continuous, at the same time denying the
+power of the crown to dispense with any general penal law. This
+judgment, as Sir William Anson points out, only showed the extreme
+difficulty of limiting the power ascribed to the crown, a standing
+grievance from the time that parliament had risen to be a constituent
+part of the state. So long as the legal principle by which the law was
+"the king's law" survived there was in fact no theoretical basis for
+such limitation, and the matter resolved itself into one of the great
+constitutional questions between crown and parliament which issued in
+the Revolution of 1688. The supreme crisis came owing to the use made by
+James II. of the dispensing power. His action in dispensing with the
+Test Act, in order to enable Roman Catholics to hold office under the
+crown, was supported by the courts in the test case of _Godden_ v.
+_Hales_, but it made the Revolution inevitable. By the Bill of Rights
+the exercise of the dispensing power was forbidden, except as might be
+permitted by statute. At the same time the legality of its exercise in
+the past was admitted by the clause maintaining the validity of
+dispensations granted in a certain form before the 23rd of October 1689.
+
+  See Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_, part i. "Parliament,"
+  3rd ed. pp. 311-319; F. W. Maitland, _Const. Hist. of England_
+  (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 302, &c.; Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ ss. 290, 291.
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In this quotation the word _dispensatio_ still has its meaning of
+    "economy": "we are bound by the necessary economy of things."
+    Possibly its use by the pope in this connexion may have led to the
+    technical meaning of the word _dispensatio_ in the medieval canon
+    law.
+
+
+
+
+DISPERSION (from Lat. _dispergere_, to scatter), the act or process of
+separation and distribution. Apart from the technical use of the term,
+especially in optics (see below), the expression particularly applied to
+the settlements of Jews in foreign countries outside Palestine. These
+were either voluntary, for purposes of trade and commerce, or the
+results of conquest, such as the captivities of Assyria and Babylonia.
+The word _diaspora_ (Gr. [Greek: diaspora]) is also used of these
+scattered communities, but is usually confined to the dispersion among
+the Hellenic and Roman peoples, or to the body of Christian Jews outside
+Palestine (see JEWS).
+
+DISPERSION, in OPTICS. When a beam of light which is not homogeneous in
+character, i.e. which does not consist of simple vibrations of a
+definite wave-length, undergoes refraction at the surface of any
+transparent medium, the different colours corresponding to the different
+wave-lengths become separated or _dispersed_. Thus, if a ray of white
+light AO (fig. 1) enters obliquely into the surface of a block of glass
+at O, it gives rise to the divergent system of rays ORV, varying
+continuously in colour from red to violet, the red ray OR being least
+refracted and the violet ray OV most so. The order of the successive
+colours in all colourless transparent media is red, orange, yellow,
+green, blue, indigo and violet. Dispersion is therefore due to the fact
+that rays of different colours possess different refrangibilities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+The simplest way of showing dispersion is to refract a narrow beam of
+sunlight through a prism of glass or prismatic vessel containing water
+or other clear liquid. As the light is twice refracted, the dispersion
+is increased, and the rays, after transmission through the prism, form a
+divergent system, which may be allowed to fall on a sheet of white
+paper, forming the well-known solar spectrum. This method was employed
+by Sir Isaac Newton, whose experiments constitute the earliest
+systematic investigation of the phenomenon. Let O (fig. 2) represent a
+small hole in the shutter of a darkened room, and OS a narrow beam of
+sunlight which is allowed to fall on a white screen so as to form an
+image of the sun at S. If now the prism P be interposed as in the
+figure, the whole beam is not only refracted upward, but also spread out
+into the spectrum RV, the horizontal breadth of the band of colours
+being the same as that of the original image S. In an experiment similar
+to that here represented, Newton made a small hole in the screen and
+another small hole in a second screen placed behind the first. By
+slightly turning the prism P, the position of the spectrum on the first
+screen could be shifted sufficiently to cause light of any desired
+colour to pass through. Some of this light also passed through the
+second hole, and thus he obtained a narrow beam of practically
+homogeneous light in a fixed direction (the line joining the apertures
+in the two screens). Operating on this beam with a second prism, he
+found that the homogeneous light was not dispersed, and also that it was
+more refracted the nearer the point from which it was taken approached
+to the violet end of the spectrum RV. This confirmed his previous
+conclusion that the rays increase in refrangibility from red to violet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Newton also made use of the method of crossed prisms, which has been
+found of great use in studying dispersion. The prism P (fig. 3) refracts
+upwards, while the prism Q, which has its refracting edge perpendicular
+to that of P, refracts towards the right. The combined effect of the two
+is to produce a spectrum sloping up from left to right. The spectrum
+will be straight if the two prisms are similar in dispersive property,
+but if one of them is constructed of a material which possesses any
+peculiarity in this respect it will be revealed by the curvature of the
+spectrum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Method of Crossed Prisms.]
+
+The coloured borders seen in the images produced by simple lenses are
+due to dispersion. The explanation of the colours of the rainbow, which
+are also due to dispersion, was given by Newton, although it was known
+previously to be due to refraction in the drops of rain (see RAINBOW).
+
+According to the wave-theory of light, refraction (q.v.) is due to a
+change of velocity when light passes from one medium to another. The
+phenomenon of dispersion shows that in dispersive media the velocity is
+different for lights of different wave-lengths. In free space, light of
+all wave-lengths is propagated with the same velocity, as is shown by
+the fact that stars, when occulted by the moon or planets, preserve
+their white colour up to the last moment of disappearance, which would
+not be the case if one colour reached the eye later than another. The
+absence of colour changes in variable stars or in the appearance of new
+stars is further evidence of the same fact. All material media, however,
+are more or less dispersive. In air and other gases, at ordinary
+pressures, the dispersion is very small, because the refractivity is
+small. The dispersive powers of gases are, however, generally comparable
+with those of liquids and solids.
+
+  _Dispersive Power._--In order to find the amount of dispersion caused
+  by any given prism, the deviations produced by it on two rays of any
+  definite pure colours may be measured. The angle of difference between
+  these deviations is called the dispersion for those rays. For this
+  purpose the C and F lines in the spark-spectrum of hydrogen, situated
+  in the red and blue respectively, are usually employed. If [delta]F
+  and [delta]C are the angular deviations of these rays, then [delta]F -
+  [delta]C is called the mean dispersion of the prism. If the refracting
+  angle of the prism is small, then the ratio of the dispersion to the
+  mean deviation of the two rays is the dispersive power of the material
+  of the prism. Instead of the mean deviation, ½ ([delta]F + [delta]C),
+  it is more usual to take the deviation of some intermediate ray. The
+  exact position of the selected ray does not matter much, but the
+  yellow D line of sodium is the most convenient. If we denote its
+  deviation by [delta]D, then we may put
+
+    _Dispersive power_ = ([delta]F - [delta]C)/[delta]D    (1).
+
+  This quantity may readily be expressed in terms of the refractive
+  indices for the three colours, for if A is the angle of the prism
+  (supposedly small)
+
+    [delta]C = ([mu]C - 1)A,
+    [delta]D = ([mu]D - 1)A,
+    [delta]F = ([mu]F - 1)A,
+
+  where [mu]C,[mu]D,[mu]F are the respective indices of refraction. This
+  gives at once
+
+    _Dispersive power_ = ([mu]F - [mu]C)/([mu]D - 1)       (2).
+
+  The second of these two expressions is generally given as the
+  definition of dispersive power. It is more useful than (1), as the
+  refractive indices may be measured with a prism of any convenient
+  angle.
+
+  By studying the dispersion of colours in water, turpentine and crown
+  glass Newton was led to suppose that dispersion is proportional to
+  refraction. He concluded that there could be no refraction without
+  dispersion, and hence that achromatism was impossible of attainment
+  (see ABERRATION). This conclusion was proved to be erroneous when
+  Chester M. Hall in 1733 constructed achromatic lenses. Glasses can now
+  be made differing considerably both in refractivity and dispersive
+  power.
+
+  _Irrationality of Dispersion._--If we compare the spectrum produced by
+  refraction in a glass prism with that of a diffraction grating, we
+  find not only that the order of colours is reversed, but also that the
+  same colours do not occupy corresponding lengths on the two spectra,
+  the blue and violet being much more extended in the refraction
+  spectrum. The refraction spectra for different media also differ
+  amongst themselves. This shows that the connexion between the
+  refrangibility of light and its wave-length does not obey any simple
+  law, but depends on the nature of the refracting medium. This property
+  is referred to as the "irrationality of dispersion." In a diffraction
+  spectrum the diffraction is proportional to the wave-length, and the
+  spectrum is said to be "normal." If the increase of the angle of
+  refraction were proportional to the diminution of wave-length for a
+  prism of any material, the resulting spectrum would also be normal.
+  This, however, is not the case with ordinary refracting media, the
+  refrangibility generally increasing more and more rapidly as the
+  wave-length diminishes.
+
+  The irrationality of dispersion is well illustrated by C.
+  Christiansen's experiments on the dispersive properties of white
+  powders. If the powder of a transparent substance is immersed in a
+  liquid of the same refractive index, the mixture becomes transparent
+  and a measurement of the refractive index of the liquid gives the
+  refractivity of the powder. Christiansen found, in an investigation of
+  this kind, that the refractivity of the liquid could only be got to
+  match that of the powder for mono-chromatic light, and that, if white
+  light were used, brilliant colour effects were obtained, which varied
+  in a remarkable manner when small changes occurred in the refractive
+  index of the liquid. These effects are due to the difference in
+  dispersive power of the powder and the liquid. If the refractive index
+  is, for instance, the same for both in the case of green light, and a
+  source of white light is viewed through the mixture, the green
+  component will be completely transmitted, while the other colours are
+  more or less scattered by multiple reflections and refractions at the
+  surfaces of the powdered substance. Very striking colour changes are
+  observed, according to R. W. Wood, when white light is transmitted
+  through a paste made of powdered quartz and a mixture of carbon
+  bisulphide with benzol having the same refractive index as the quartz
+  for yellow light. In this case small temperature changes alter the
+  refractivity of the liquid without appreciably affecting the quartz.
+  R. W. Wood has studied the iridescent colours seen when a precipitate
+  of potassium silicofluoride is produced by adding silicofluoric acid
+  to a solution of potassium chloride, and found that they are due to
+  the same cause, the refractive index of the minute crystals
+  precipitated being about the same as that of the solution, which
+  latter can be varied by dilution.
+
+  _Anomalous Dispersion._--In some media the usual order of the colours
+  is changed. This curious phenomenon was noticed by W. H. Fox Talbot
+  about 1840, but does not seem to have become generally known. In 1860
+  F. P. Leroux discovered that iodine vapour refracted the red rays more
+  than the violet, the intermediate colours not being transmitted; and
+  in 1870 Christiansen found that an alcoholic solution of fuchsine
+  refracted the violet less than the red, the order of the successive
+  colours being violet, red, orange, yellow; the green being absorbed
+  and a dark interval occurring between the violet and red. A. Kundt
+  found that similar effects occur with a large number of substances, in
+  particular with all those which possess the property of "surface
+  colour," i.e., which strongly reflect light of a definite colour, as
+  do many of the aniline dyes. Such bodies show strong absorption bands
+  in those colours which they reflect, while of the transmitted light
+  that which is of a slightly greater wave-length than the absorbed
+  light has an abnormally great refrangibility, and that of a slightly
+  shorter wave-length an abnormally small refrangibility. The name given
+  to this phenomenon,--"anomalous dispersion"--is an unfortunate one, as
+  it has been found to obey a regular law.
+
+  In studying the dispersion of the aniline dyes, a prism with a very
+  small refracting angle is made of two glass plates slightly inclined
+  to each other and enclosing a very thin wedge of the dye, which is
+  either melted between the plates, or is in the form of a solution
+  retained in position by surface-tension. Only very thin layers are
+  sufficiently transparent to show the dispersion near or within an
+  absorption band, and a large refracting angle is not required, the
+  dispersion usually being very considerable. Another method, which has
+  been used by R. W. Wood and C. E. Magnusson, is to introduce a thin
+  film of the dye into one of the optical paths of a Michelson
+  interferometer, and to determine the consequent displacement of the
+  fringes. E. Mach and J. Arbes have used a method depending on total
+  reflection (Drude's _Theory of Optics_, p. 394).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Anomalous Dispersion of Sodium Vapour.]
+
+  A very remarkable example of anomalous dispersion, which was first
+  observed by A. Kundt, is that exhibited by the vapour of sodium. It
+  has not been found practicable to make a prism of this vapour in the
+  ordinary way by enclosing it in a glass vessel of the required shape,
+  as sodium vapour attacks glass, quickly rendering it opaque. A. E.
+  Becquerel, however, investigated the character of the dispersion by
+  using prism-shaped flames strongly coloured with sodium. But the best
+  way of exhibiting the effect is by making use of a remarkable property
+  of sodium vapour discovered by R. W. Wood and employed for this
+  purpose in a very ingenious manner. He found that when sodium is
+  heated in a hard glass tube, the vapour which is formed is
+  extraordinarily cohesive, only slowly spreading out in a cloud with
+  well-defined borders, which can be rendered visible by placing the
+  tube in front of a sodium flame, against which the cloud appears
+  black. If a long glass tube with plane ends, and containing some
+  pellets of sodium is heated in the middle by a row of burners, the
+  cool ends remain practically vacuous and do not become obscured. The
+  sodium vapour in the middle is very dense on the heated side, the
+  density diminishing rapidly towards the upper part of the tube, so
+  that, although not prismatic in form, it refracts like a prism owing
+  to the variation in density. Thus if a horizontal slit is illuminated
+  by an arc lamp, and the light-rendered parallel by a collimating
+  lens--is transmitted through the sodium tube and focused on the
+  vertical slit of a spectroscope, the effect of the sodium vapour is to
+  produce its refraction spectrum vertically on the slit. The image of
+  this seen through the glass prism of the spectroscope will appear as
+  in fig. 4. The whole of the light, with the exception of a small part
+  in the neighbourhood of the D lines, is practically undeviated, so
+  that it illuminates only a very short piece of the slit and is spread
+  out into the ordinary spectrum. But the light of slightly greater
+  wave-length than the D lines, being refracted strongly downward by the
+  sodium vapour, illuminates the bottom of the slit; while that of
+  slightly shorter wave-length is refracted upward and illuminates the
+  top of the slit. Fig. 4 represents the inverted image seen in the
+  telescope. The light corresponding to the D lines and the space
+  between them is absorbed, as evidenced by the dark interval. If the
+  sodium is only gently heated, so as to produce a comparatively
+  rarefied vapour, and a grating spectroscope employed, the spectrum
+  obtained is like that shown in fig. 5, which was the effect noticed by
+  Becquerel with the sodium flame. Here the light corresponding to the
+  space between the D lines is transmitted, being strongly refracted
+  upward near D1, and downward near D2.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  The theory of anomalous dispersion has been applied in a very
+  interesting way by W. H. Julius to explain the "flash spectrum" seen
+  during a solar eclipse at the moment at which totality occurs. The
+  conditions of this phenomenon have been imitated in the laboratory by
+  Wood, and the corresponding effect obtained.
+
+  _Theories of Dispersion._--The first attempt at a mathematical theory
+  of dispersion was made by A. Cauchy and published in 1835. This was
+  based on the assumption that the medium in which the light is
+  propagated is discontinuous and molecular in character, the molecules
+  being subject to a mutual attraction. Thus, if one molecule is
+  disturbed from its mean position, it communicates the disturbance to
+  its neighbours, and so a wave is propagated. The formula arrived at by
+  Cauchy was
+
+                B           C
+    n = A + --------- + --------- + ....
+            [lambda]2   [lambda]4
+
+  n being the refractive index, [lambda] the wave-length, and A, B, C,
+  &c., constants depending on the material, which diminish so rapidly
+  that only the first three as here written need be taken into account.
+  If suitable values are chosen for these constants, the formula can be
+  made to represent the dispersion of ordinary transparent media within
+  the visible spectrum very well, but when extended to the infra-red
+  region it often departs considerably from the truth, and it fails
+  altogether in cases of anomalous dispersion. There are also grave
+  theoretical objections to Cauchy's formula.
+
+  The modern theory of dispersion, the foundation of which was laid by
+  W. Sellmeier, is based upon the assumption that an interaction takes
+  place between ether and matter. Sellmeier adopted the elastic-solid
+  theory of the ether, and imagined the molecules to be attached to the
+  ether surrounding them, but free to vibrate about their mean positions
+  within a limited range. Thus the ether within the dispersive medium is
+  loaded with molecules which are forced to perform oscillations of the
+  same period as that of the transmitted wave. It can be shown
+  mathematically that the velocity of propagation will be greatly
+  increased if the frequency of the light-wave is slightly greater, and
+  greatly diminished if it is slightly less than the natural frequency
+  of the molecules; also that these effects become less and less marked
+  as the difference in the two frequencies increases. This is exactly in
+  accordance with the observed facts in the case of substances showing
+  anomalous dispersion. Sellmeier's theory did not take account of
+  absorption, and cannot be applied to calculate the dispersion within a
+  broad absorption band. H. von Helmholtz, working on a similar
+  hypothesis, but with a frictional term introduced into his equations,
+  obtained formulae which are applicable to cases of absorption. A
+  modified form of Helmholtz's equation, due to E. Ketteler and known as
+  the Ketteler-Helmholtz formula, has been much used in calculating
+  dispersion, and expresses the facts with remarkable accuracy. P. Drude
+  has obtained a similar formula based on the electromagnetic theory,
+  thus placing the theory of dispersion on a much more satisfactory
+  basis. The fundamental assumption is that the medium contains
+  positively and negatively charged ions or electrons which are acted on
+  by the periodic electric forces which occur in wave propagation on
+  Maxwell's theory. The equations finally arrived at are
+                            ____
+                            \      D[lambda]²([lambda]² - [lambda]_m²)
+    n²(1 - [kappa]²) = 1 +   >    --------------------------------------,
+                            /___ ([lambda² - [lambda]_m²) + g²[lmabda]²
+                      ____
+                      \                  Dg[lambda]³
+        2n²[kappa]² =  >   ---------------------------------------,
+                      /___ ([lambda]² - [lambda]_m²) + g²[lmabda]²
+
+  where [lambda] is the wave-length in free ether of light whose
+  refractive index is n, and [lambda]_m the wave-length of light of the
+  same period as the electron, [kappa] is a coefficient of absorption,
+  and D and g are constants. The sign of summation [Sigma] is used in
+  cases where there are several absorption bands, and consequently
+  several similar terms on the right-hand side, each with a different
+  value of [lambda]_m. This would occur if there were several kinds of
+  ions, each with its own natural period.
+
+  In a region where there is no absorption, we have [kappa] = 0 and
+  therefore g = 0, and we have only one equation, namely,
+
+             ____
+             \            D[lambda]²
+    n² = 1 +  >    ------------------------,
+             /___ ([lambda]² - [lambda]_m²)
+
+  which is identical with Sellmeier's result. As [lambda]{m}, is a
+  wave-length corresponding to an absorption band, this formula can be
+  used to find values of [lambda]{m} which satisfy the observed values
+  of n within the region of transparency, and so to determine where the
+  absorption bands are situated. In this way the existence of bands in
+  the infrared part of the spectrum has been predicted in the case of
+  quartz and detected by experiments on the selective reflection of the
+  material.
+
+  _References._--For the theory of dispersion see P. Drude, _Theory of
+  Optics_ (Eng. trans.); R. W. Wood, _Physical Optics_; and A. Schuster,
+  _Theory of Optics_. For descriptive accounts, see Wood's _Physical
+  Optics_, T. Preston's _Theory of Light_, E. Edser's _Light_. The last
+  work contains an elementary treatment of Sellmeier's theory.
+       (J. R. C.)
+
+
+
+
+D'ISRAELI (or DISRAELI), ISAAC (1766-1848), English man of letters,
+father of the earl of Beaconsfield (q.v.), was born at Enfield in May
+1766. He belonged to a Jewish family which, having been driven by the
+Inquisition from Spain, towards the end of the 15th century, settled as
+merchants at Venice, and assumed the name which has become famous; it
+was generally spelt D'Israeli until the middle of the 19th century. In
+1748 his father, Benjamin D'Israeli, then only about eighteen years of
+age, removed to England, where, before passing the prime of life, he
+amassed a competent fortune, and retired from business. He belonged to
+the London congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, of which his son
+also remained a nominal member until after Benjamin D'Israeli died at
+the end of 1816.
+
+The strongly marked characteristics which determined Isaac D'Israeli's
+career were displayed to a singular degree even in his boyhood. He spent
+his time over books and in long day-dreams, and evinced the strongest
+distaste for business and all the more bustling pursuits of life. These
+idiosyncrasies met with no sympathy from either of his parents, whose
+ambitious plans for his future career they threatened to disappoint.
+When he was about fourteen, in the hope of changing the bent of his
+mind, his father sent him to live with his agent at Amsterdam, where he
+worked under a tutor for four or five years. Here he studied Bayle and
+Voltaire, and became an ardent disciple of Rousseau. Here also he wrote
+a long poem against commerce, which he produced as an exposition of his
+opinions when, on his return to England, his father announced his
+intention of placing him in a commercial house at Bordeaux. Against such
+a destiny D'Israeli's mind strongly revolted; and he carried his poem,
+with a letter earnestly appealing for advice and assistance, to Samuel
+Johnson; but when he called again a week after to receive an answer, the
+packet was returned unopened--the great Doctor was on his death-bed. He
+also addressed a letter to Dr Vicesimus Knox, master of Tonbridge
+Grammar School, begging to be received into his family, that he might
+enjoy the benefit of his learning and experience. How this application
+was answered we do not know. The evident firmness of his resolve,
+however, was not without effect. His parents gave up their purpose for a
+time. He was sent to travel in France, and allowed to occupy himself as
+he wished; and he had the happiness of spending some months in Paris, in
+the society of literary men, and devoted to the literary pursuits in
+which he delighted.
+
+In the beginning of 1788 he returned home, and in the next year he
+attacked Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in _The Gentleman's Magazine_ in a
+poem in the manner of Pope, "On the Abuse of Satire." The authorship of
+the poem was much debated, and it was attributed by some to William
+Hayley, upon whom it was actually avenged, with characteristic
+savageness, by its victim. It is greatly to Wolcot's credit that, on
+learning his mistake, he sought the acquaintance of his young opponent,
+whose friend he remained to the end of his life. Through the success of
+this satire D'Israeli made the acquaintance of Henry James Pye, who
+helped to persuade his father that it would be a mistake to force him
+into a business career, and introduced him into literary circles.
+D'Israeli dedicated his first book, _A Defence of Poetry_, to Pye in
+1790. Henceforth his life was passed in the way he best liked--in quiet
+and almost uninterrupted study. In 1802 he married Maria Basevi, by whom
+he had five children, of whom Benjamin (afterwards Lord Beaconsfield and
+Prime Minister of England) was the second. He was able to maintain his
+strenuous habits of study till he reached the advanced age of
+seventy-two, when he was forced, by paralysis of the optic nerve, to
+give up work almost entirely. He lived ten years longer, and died at his
+seat at Bradenham House, Buckinghamshire, on the 19th of January 1848.
+
+Isaac D'Israeli is most celebrated as the author of the _Curiosities of
+Literature_ (1791, subsequent volumes in 1793, 1817, 1823 and 1834). It
+is a miscellany of literary and historical anecdotes, of original
+critical remarks, and of interesting and curious information of all
+kinds, animated by genuine literary feeling, taste and enthusiasm. With
+the _Curiosities of Literature_ may be classed D'Israeli's
+_Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations_ (1796), the _Calamities of
+Authors_ (1812-1813), and the _Quarrels of Authors_ (1814). Towards the
+close of his life D'Israeli projected a continuous history of English
+literature, three volumes of which appeared in 1841 under the title of
+the _Amenities of Literature_. But of all his works the most delightful
+is his _Essay on the Literary Character_ (1795), which, like most of his
+writings, abounds in illustrative anecdotes. In the famous "Pope
+controversy" he supported Byron and Campbell against Bowles and Hazlitt
+by a defence of Pope in the form of a criticism of Joseph Spence's
+_Anecdotes_ contributed to the _Quarterly Review_ (July 1820). In 1797
+D'Israeli published three novels; one of these, _Mejnoun and Leila, the
+Arabian Petrarch and Laura_, was said to be the first oriental romance
+in English. His last novel, _Despotism, or the Fall of the Jesuits_,
+appeared in 1811, but none of his romances was popular. He also
+published a slight sketch of Jewish history, and especially of the
+growth of the Talmud, entitled the _Genius of Judaism_ (1833).
+
+He was the author of two historical works--a brief defence of the
+literary merit and personal and political character of James I. (1816),
+and a learned _Commentary on the Life and Reign of King Charles I._
+(1828-1831). This was recognized by the University of Oxford, which
+conferred upon the author the honorary degree of D.C.L. As an historian
+D'Israeli is distinguished by two characteristics. In the first place,
+he had small interest in politics, and no sympathy with the passionate
+fervour, or adequate appreciation of the importance, of political
+struggles. And, secondly, with a laborious zeal then less common than
+now among historians, he sought to bring to light fresh historical
+material by patient search for letters, diaries and other manuscripts of
+value which had escaped the notice of previous students. Indeed, the
+honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of the
+modern school of historical research.
+
+  Of the amiable personal character and the placid life of Isaac
+  D'Israeli a charming picture is to be found in the brief memoir
+  prefixed to the 1849 edition of _Curiosities of Literature_, by his
+  son Lord Beaconsfield.
+
+
+
+
+DISS, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of Norfolk,
+England; near the river Waveney (the boundary with Suffolk), 95 m. N.E.
+by N. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 3745. The town lies pleasantly upon a hill rising above a mere,
+which drains to the Waveney, having its banks laid out as public
+gardens. The church of St Mary exhibits Decorated and Perpendicular
+stone and flint work. There is a corn exchange and the agricultural
+trade is considerable; brushes and matting are manufactured. The poet
+and satirist, John Skelton (d. 1529), was rector here in the later part
+of his life, and is doubtfully considered a native.
+
+
+
+
+DISSECTION (from Lat. _dissecare_, to cut apart), the separation into
+parts by cutting, particularly the cutting of an animal or plant into
+parts for the purpose of examination or display of its structure.
+
+
+
+
+DISSENTER (Lat. _dis-sentire_, to disagree), one who dissents or
+disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &c. The term "dissenter" is,
+however, practically restricted to the special sense of a member of a
+religious body in England which has, for one reason or another,
+separated from the Established Church. Strictly, the term includes the
+English Roman Catholics, who in the original draft of the Relief Act of
+1791 were styled "Protesting Catholic Dissenters." It is in practice,
+however, restricted to the "Protestant Dissenters" referred to in sec.
+ii. of the Toleration Act of 1688. The term is not applied to those
+bodies who dissent from the Established Church of Scotland; and in
+speaking of members of religious bodies which have seceded from
+established churches abroad it is usual to employ the term "dissidents"
+(Lat. _dissidere_, to dissent). In this connotation the terms
+"dissenter" and "dissenting," which had acquired a somewhat contemptuous
+flavour, have tended since the middle of the 19th century to be replaced
+by "nonconformist," a term which did not originally imply secession, but
+only refusal to conform in certain particulars (e.g. the wearing of the
+surplice) with the authorized usages of the Established Church. Still
+more recently the term "nonconformist" has in its turn, as the political
+attack on the principle of a state establishment of religion developed,
+tended to give place to the style of "Free Churches" and "Free
+Churchman." All three terms are now in use, "nonconformist" being the
+most usual, as it is the most colourless. (See CONGREGATIONALISM, &c.)
+
+
+
+
+DISSOCIATION, a separation or dispersal, the opposite of association. In
+chemistry the term is given to chemical reactions in which a substance
+decomposes into two or more substances, and particularly to cases in
+which associated molecules break down into simpler molecules. Thus the
+reactions NH4Cl <=> NH3 + HCl, and PCl5 <=> PCl3 + Cl2 are instances of the
+first type; N2O4 <=> 2NO2, of the second (see CHEMICAL ACTION).
+Electrolytic or ionic dissociation is the separation of a substance in
+solution into ions (see ELECTROLYSIS; SOLUTION).
+
+
+
+
+DISSOLUTION (from Lat. _dissolvere_, to break up into parts), the act of
+dissolving or reducing to constituent parts, especially of the bringing
+to an end an association such as a partnership or building society, and
+particularly of the termination of an assembly. A dissolution of
+parliament in England is thus the end of its existence, brought about by
+the efflux of time in accordance with the Septennial Act 1716, or by an
+exercise of the royal prerogative. This is done either in person, or by
+commission, if parliament is sitting; if prorogued, then by
+proclamation. The word is used as a synonym for end or death.
+
+
+
+
+DISTAFF, in the early forms of spinning, the "rock" or short stick round
+one end of which the flax, cotton or wool is loosely wound, and from
+which it is spun off by the spindle. The word is derived from the Old
+English _distaef_, the first part of which is connected with _dizen_,
+in modern English seen in "bedizen," to deck out or embellish,
+originally "to equip the distaff with flax, &c.," cf. the German
+dialectal word _Diesse_, flax. The last part of the word is "staff."
+"Distaff" from early times has been used to symbolize woman's work (cf.
+the use of "spinster" for an unmarried woman); thus the "distaff" or
+"spindle" side of a family refers to the female branch, as opposed to
+the "spear" or male branch. The 7th of January, the day after Epiphany,
+was formerly known as St Distaff's day, as women then began work again
+after the Christmas holiday.
+
+
+
+
+DISTILLATION (from the Lat. _distillare_, more correctly _destillare_,
+to drop or trickle down), an operation consisting in the conversion of a
+substance or mixture of substances into vapours which are afterwards
+condensed to the liquid form; it has for its object the separation or
+purification of substances by taking advantage of differences in
+volatility. The apparatus consists of three parts:--the "retort" or
+"still," in which the substance is heated; the "condenser," in which the
+vapours are condensed; and the "receiver," in which the condensed
+vapours are collected. Generally the components of a mixture will be
+vaporized in the order of their boiling-points; consequently if the
+condensates or "fractions" corresponding to definite ranges of
+temperature be separately collected, it is obvious that a more or less
+partial separation of the components will be effected. If the substance
+operated upon be practically pure to start with, or the product of
+distillation be nearly of constant composition, the operation is termed
+"purification by distillation" or "rectification"; the latter term is
+particularly used in the spirit industry. If a complex mixture be
+operated upon, and a separation effected by collecting the distillates
+in several portions, the operation is termed "fractional distillation."
+Since many substances decompose either at, or below, their
+boiling-points under ordinary atmospheric pressure, it is necessary to
+lower the boiling-point by reducing the pressure if it be desired to
+distil them. This variation is termed "distillation under reduced
+pressure or in a vacuum." The vaporization of a substance below its
+normal boiling-point can also be effected by blowing in steam or some
+other vapour; this operation is termed "distillation with steam." "Dry
+distillation" is the term used when solid substances which do not
+liquefy on heating are operated upon; "sublimation" is the term used
+when a solid distils without the intervention of a liquid phase.
+
+Distillation appears to have been practised at very remote times. The
+Alexandrians prepared oil of turpentine by distilling pine-resin;
+Zosimus of Panopolis, a voluminous writer of the 5th century A.D.,
+speaks of the distillation of a "divine water" or "panacea" (probably
+from the complex mixture of calcium polysulphides, thiosulphate, &c.,
+and free sulphur, which is obtained by boiling sulphur with lime and
+water) and advises "the efficient luting of the apparatus, for otherwise
+the valuable properties would be lost." The Arabians greatly improved
+the earlier apparatus, naming one form the alembic (q.v.); they
+discovered many ethereal oils by distilling plants and plant juices,
+alcohol by the distillation of wine, and also distilled water. The
+alchemists gave great attention to the method, as is shown by the many
+discoveries made. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, all more or
+less impure, were better studied; and many ethereal oils were
+discovered. Prior to about the 18th century three forms of distillation
+were practised: (1) _destillatio per ascensum_, in which the retort was
+heated from the bottom, and the vapours escaped from the top; (2)
+_destillatio per latus_, in which the vapours escaped from the side; (3)
+_destillatio per descensum_, in which the retort was heated at the top,
+and the vapours led off by a pipe passing through the bottom. According
+to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of destillatio per descensum
+occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician who flourished at
+about the end of the 5th century.
+
+In modern times the laboratory practice of distillation was greatly
+facilitated by the introduction of the condenser named after Justus von
+Liebig; A. Kolbe and E. Frankland introduced the "reflux condenser,"
+i.e. a condenser so placed that the condensed vapours return to the
+distilling flask, a device permitting the continued boiling of a
+substance with little loss; W. Dittmar and R. Anschütz, independently
+of one another, introduced "distillation under reduced pressure"; and
+"fractional distillation" was greatly aided by the columns of Wurtz
+(1855), E. Linnemann (1871), and of J. A. Le Bel and A. Henninger
+(1874). In chemical technology enormous strides have been made, as is
+apparent from the coal-gas, coal-tar, mineral oil, spirits and mineral
+acids industries.
+
+The subject is here treated under the following subdivisions: (1)
+ordinary distillation, (2) distillation under reduced pressure, (3)
+fractional distillation, (4) distillation with steam, (5) theory of
+distillation, (6) dry distillation, (7) distillation in chemical
+technology and (8) commercial distillation of water.
+
+  1. _Ordinary Distillation._--The apparatus generally used is shown in
+  fig. 1. The substance is heated in a retort a, which consists of a
+  large bulb drawn out at the top to form a long neck; it may also be
+  provided with a tubulure, or opening, which permits the charging of
+  the retort, and also the insertion of a thermometer b. The retort may
+  be replaced by a distilling flask, which is a round-bottomed flask
+  (generally with a lengthened neck) provided with an inclined side
+  tube. The neck of the retort, or side tube of the flask, is connected
+  to the condenser c by an ordinary or rubber cork, according to the
+  nature of the substance distilled; ordinary corks soaked in paraffin
+  wax are very effective when ordinary or rubber corks cannot be used.
+  Sometimes an "adapter" is used; this is simply a tapering tube, the
+  side tube being corked into the wider end, and the condenser on to the
+  narrower end. The thermometer is placed so that the bulb is near the
+  neck of the retort or the side tube of the distilling flask. It
+  generally happens that much of the mercury column is outside the flask
+  and consequently at a lower temperature than the bulb, hence a
+  correction of the observed temperature is necessary. If N be the
+  length of the unheated mercury column in degrees, t the temperature of
+  this column (generally determined by a small thermometer placed with
+  its bulb at the middle of the column), and T the temperature recorded
+  by the thermometer, then the corrected temperature of the vapour is T
+  + 0.000143 (T - t) N (T. E. Thorpe, _Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1880, p.
+  159).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  The mode of heating varies with the substance to be distilled. For
+  highly volatile liquids, e.g. ether, ligroin, &c., immersion of the
+  flask in warm water suffices; for less volatile liquids a directly
+  heated water or sand bath is used; for other liquids the flask is
+  heated through wire gauze or asbestos board, or directly by a Bunsen.
+  The condensing apparatus must also be conditioned by the volatility.
+  With difficulty volatile substances, e.g. nitrobenzene, air cooling of
+  the retort neck or of a straight tube connected with the distilling
+  flask will suffice; or wet blotting-paper placed on the tube and the
+  receiver immersed in water may be used. For less volatile liquids the
+  Liebig condenser is most frequently used. In its original form, this
+  consists of a long tube surrounded by an outer tube so arranged that
+  cold water circulates in the annular space between the two. The
+  vapours pass through the inner tube, and the cold water enters at the
+  end farthest from the distilling flask. For more efficient
+  condensation--and also for shortening the apparatus--the central tube
+  may be flattened, bent into a succession of V's, or twisted into a
+  spiral form, the object in each case being to increase the condensing
+  surface. Of other common types of condenser, we may notice the
+  "spiral" or "worm" type, which consists of a glass, copper or tin worm
+  enclosed in a vessel in which water circulates; and the ball
+  condenser, which consists of two concentric spheres, the vapour
+  passing through the inner sphere and water circulating in the space
+  between this and the outer (in another form the vapour circulates in a
+  shell, on the outside and inside of which water circulates). A very
+  effective type is shown in fig. 2. The condensing water enters at the
+  top and is conducted to the bottom of the inner tube, which it fills
+  and then flows over the outside of the outer tube; it collects in the
+  bottom funnel and is then led off. The vapours pass between the inner
+  and outer tubes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  Practically any vessel may serve as a receiver--test tube, flask,
+  beaker, &c. If noxious vapours come over, it is necessary to have an
+  air-tight connexion between the condenser and receiver, and to provide
+  the latter with an outlet tube leading to an absorption column or
+  other contrivance in which the vapours are taken up. If the substances
+  operated upon decompose when heated in air, as, for example, the zinc
+  alkyls which inflame, the air within the apparatus is replaced by some
+  inert gas, e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, &c., which is led in at the
+  distilling flask before the process is started, and a slow current
+  maintained during the operation.
+
+  2. _Distillation under Reduced Pressure._--This method is adopted for
+  substances which decompose at their boiling-points under ordinary
+  pressure, and, generally, when it is desirable to work at a lower
+  temperature. The apparatus differs very slightly from that employed in
+  ordinary distillation. The "receiver" must be connected on the one
+  side to the condenser, and on the other to the exhaust pump. A safety
+  vessel and a manometer are generally interposed between the pump and
+  receiver. For the purpose of collecting the distillates in fractions,
+  many forms of receivers have been devised. Brühl's is one of the
+  simplest. It consists of a number of tubes mounted vertically on a
+  horizontal circular disk which rotates about a vertical axis in a
+  cylindrical vessel. This vessel has two tubulures: through one the end
+  of the condenser projects so as to be over one of the receiving tubes;
+  the other leads to the pump. By rotating the disk the tubes may be
+  successively brought under the end of the condenser. Boiling under
+  reduced pressure has one very serious drawback, viz. the liquid boils
+  irregularly or "bumps." W. Dittmar showed that this may be avoided by
+  leading a fine, steady stream of dry gas-air, carbon dioxide,
+  hydrogen, &c., according to the substance operated upon--through the
+  liquid by means of a fine capillary tube, the lower end of which
+  reaches to nearly the bottom of the flask. "Bumping" is common in open
+  boiling when the liquid is free from air bubbles and the interior of
+  the vessel is very smooth. It may be diminished by introducing
+  clippings of platinum foil, pieces of porcelain, glass beads or
+  garnets into the liquid. "Frothing" is another objectionable feature
+  with many liquids. When cold, froth can be immediately dissipated by
+  adding a few drops of ether. In boiling liquids its formation may be
+  prevented by adding paraffin wax; the wax melts and forms a ring on
+  the surface of the liquid, which boils tranquilly in the centre.
+
+  [Illustration: Wurtz. Linnemann. Le Bel-Henninger. Glynsky. Young.
+  Kreusler.
+
+  FIG. 3.]
+
+  3. _Fractional Distillation._--By fractional distillation is meant the
+  separation of a mixture having components which boil at neighbouring
+  temperatures. The distilling flask has an elongated neck so that the
+  less volatile vapours are condensed and return to the flask, while the
+  more volatile component passes over. The success of the operation
+  depends upon two factors: (1) that the heating be careful, slow and
+  steady, and (2) that the column attached to the flask be efficient to
+  sort out, as it were, the most volatile vapour. Three types of columns
+  are employed: (1) the elongation is simply a straight or bulb tube;
+  (2) the column, properly termed a "dephlegmator," is so constructed
+  that the vapours have to traverse a column of previously condensed
+  vapour; (3) the column is encircled by a jacket through which a liquid
+  circulates at the same temperature as the boiling-point of the most
+  volatile component. To the first type belongs the simple straight
+  tube, and the Wurtz tube (see fig. 3), which is simply a series of
+  bulbs blown on a tube. These forms are not of much value. Several
+  forms of the second type are in use. In the Linnemann column the
+  condensed vapours temporarily collect on platinum gauzes (a) placed at
+  the constrictions of a bulbed tube. In the Le Bel-Henninger form a
+  series of bulbs are connected consecutively by means of syphon tubes
+  (b) and having platinum gauzes (a) at the constrictions, so that when
+  a certain amount of liquid collects in any one bulb it syphons over
+  into the next lower bulb. The Glynsky form is simpler, having only one
+  syphon tube; at the constrictions it is usual to have a glass bead.
+  The "rod-and-disk" form of Sidney Young is a series of disks mounted
+  on a central spindle and surrounded by a slightly wider tube. The
+  "pear-shaped" form of the same author consists of a series of
+  pear-shaped bulbs, the narrow end of one adjoining the wider end of
+  the next lower one. In this class may also be placed the Hempel tube,
+  which is simply a straight tube filled with glass beads. Of the third
+  type is the Warren column consisting of a spiral kept at a constant
+  temperature by a liquid bath. Improved forms were devised by F. D.
+  Brown. Kreusler's form is easily made and manipulated. A tube closed
+  at the bottom is traversed by an open narrower tube, and the
+  arrangement is fitted in the neck of the distilling flask. Water is
+  led in by the inner tube, and leaves by a side tube fused on the wider
+  tube. Many comparisons of the effectiveness of dephlegmating columns
+  have been made (see Sidney Young, _Fractional Distillation_, 1903).
+  The pear-shaped form is the most effective, second in order is the Le
+  Bel-Henninger, which, in turn, is better than the Glynsky. The main
+  objection to the Hempel is the retention of liquid in the beads, and
+  the consequent inapplicability to the distillation of small
+  quantities.
+
+  4. _Distillation with Steam._--In this process a current of steam,
+  which is generated in a separate boiler and superheated, if necessary,
+  by circulation through a heated copper worm, is led into the
+  distilling vessel, and the mixed vapours condensed as in the ordinary
+  processes. This method is particularly successful in the case of
+  substances which cannot be distilled at their ordinary boiling-points
+  (it will be seen in the following section that distilling with steam
+  implies a lowering of boiling-point), and which can be readily
+  separated from water. Instances of its application are found in the
+  separation of ortho- and para-nitrophenol, the o-compound distilling
+  and the p- remaining behind; in the separation of aniline from the
+  mixture obtained by reducing nitrobenzene; of the naphthols from the
+  melts produced by fusing the naphthalene monosulphonic acids with
+  potash; and of quinoline from the reaction between aniline,
+  nitrobenzene, glycerin, and sulphuric acid (the product being first
+  steam distilled to remove any aniline, nitrobenzene, or glycerin, then
+  treated with alkali, and again steam distilled when quinoline comes
+  over). With substances prone to discolorization, as, for example,
+  certain amino compounds, the operation may be conducted in an
+  atmosphere of carbon dioxide, or the water may be saturated with
+  sulphuretted hydrogen. Liquids other than water may be used: thus
+  alcohol separates [alpha]-pipecoline and ether nitropropylene.
+
+  5. _Theory of Distillation._--The general observation that under a
+  constant pressure a pure substance boils at a constant temperature
+  leads to the conclusion that the distillate which comes over while the
+  thermometer records only a small variation is of practically constant
+  composition. On this fact depends "rectification or purification by
+  distillation." A liquid boils when its vapour pressure equals the
+  superincumbent pressure (see VAPORIZATION); consequently any process
+  which diminishes the external pressure must also lower the
+  boiling-point. In this we have the theory of "distillation under
+  reduced pressure." The theory of fractional distillation, or the
+  behaviour of liquid mixtures when heated to their boiling-points, is
+  more complex. For simplicity we confine ourselves to mixtures of two
+  components, in which experience shows that three cases are to be
+  recognized according as the components are (1) completely immiscible,
+  (2) partially miscible, (3) miscible in all proportions.
+
+  When the components are completely immiscible, the vapour pressure of
+  the one is not influenced by the presence of the other. The mixture
+  consequently distils at the temperature at which the sum of the
+  partial pressures equals that of the atmosphere. Both components come
+  over in a constant proportion until one disappears; it is then
+  necessary to raise the temperature in order to distil the residue. The
+  composition of the distillate is determinate (by Avogadro's law) if
+  the molecular weights and vapour pressure of the components at the
+  temperature of distillation be known. If M1, M2, and P1, P2 be the
+  molecular weights and vapour pressures of the components A and B, then
+  the ratio of A to B in the distillate is M1P1/M2P2. Although, as is
+  generally the case, one liquid (say A) is more volatile than the other
+  (say B), i.e. P1 greater than P2, if the molecular weight of A be much
+  less than that of B, then it is obvious that the ratio M1P1/M2P2 need
+  not be very great, and hence the less volatile liquid B would come
+  over in fair amount. These conditions pertain in cases where
+  distillation with steam is successfully practised, the relatively high
+  volatility of water being counterbalanced by the relatively high
+  molecular weight of the other component; for example, in the case of
+  nitrobenzene and water the ratio is 1 to 5. In general, when the
+  substance to be distilled has a vapour pressure of only 10 mm. at 100°
+  C., distillation with steam can be adopted, if the product can be
+  subsequently separated from the water.
+
+  When distilling a mixture of partially miscible components a
+  distillate of constant composition is obtained so long as two layers
+  are present, i.e. A dissolved in B and B dissolved in A, since both of
+  these solutions emit vapours of the same composition (this follows
+  since the same vapour must be in equilibrium with both solutions, for
+  if it were not so a cyclic system contradicting the second law of
+  thermodynamics would be realizable). The composition of the vapour,
+  however, would not be the same as that of either layer. As the
+  distillation proceeded one layer would diminish more rapidly than the
+  other until only the latter would remain; this would then distil as a
+  completely miscible mixture.
+
+  The distillation of completely miscible mixtures is the most common
+  practically and the most complex theoretically. A coordination of the
+  results obtained on the distillation of mixtures of this nature with
+  the introduction of certain theoretical considerations led to the
+  formation of three groups distinguished by the relative solubilities
+  of the vapours in the liquid components.
+
+  (i.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in the liquid B, and the
+  vapour of B readily soluble in the liquid A, there will exist a
+  mixture of A and B which will have a lower vapour pressure than any
+  other mixture. The vapour pressure composition curve will be convex to
+  the axis of compositions, the maximum vapour pressures corresponding
+  to pure A and pure B, and the minimum to some mixture of A and B. On
+  distilling such a mixture under constant pressure, a mixture of the
+  two components (of variable composition) will come over until there
+  remains in the distilling flask the mixture of minimum vapour
+  pressure. This will then distil at a constant temperature. Thus nitric
+  acid, boiling-point 68°, forms a mixture with water, boiling point
+  100°, which boils at a constant temperature of 126°, and contains 68%
+  of acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a similar mixture which boils at 110°
+  and contains 20.2% of acid. Another mixture of this type is formic
+  acid and water.
+
+  (ii.) If the vapours be sparingly soluble in the liquids there will
+  exist a mixture having a greater vapour pressure than that of any
+  other mixture. The vapour pressure-composition curve will now be
+  concave to the axis of composition, the minima corresponding to the
+  pure components. On distilling such a mixture, a mixture of constant
+  composition will distil first, leaving in the distilling flask one or
+  other of the components according to the composition of the mixture.
+  An example is propyl alcohol and water. At one time it was thought
+  that these mixtures of constant boiling-point (an extended list is
+  given in Young's _Fractional Distillation_) were definite compounds.
+  The above theory, coupled with such facts as the variation of the
+  composition of the constant boiling-point fraction with the pressure
+  under which the mixture is distilled, the proportionality of the
+  density of all mixtures to their composition, &c., shows this to be
+  erroneous.
+
+  (iii.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in liquid B, and the
+  vapour of B sparingly soluble in liquid A, and if the vapour pressure
+  of A be greater than that of B, then the vapour pressures of mixtures
+  of A and B will continually diminish as one passes from 100% A to 100%
+  B. The vapour tension may approximate to a linear function of the
+  composition, and the curve will then be practically a straight line.
+  On distilling such a mixture pure A will come over first, followed by
+  mixtures in which the quantity of B continually increases;
+  consequently by a sufficient number of distillations A and B can be
+  completely separated. Examples are water and methyl or ethyl alcohol.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  Van't Hoff (_Theoretical and Physical Chemistry_, vol. i. p. 51)
+  illustrates the five cases on one diagram. In fig. 4 let AB be the
+  axis of composition, AP be the vapour pressure of pure A, BQ the
+  vapour pressure of pure B. For immiscible liquids the vapour pressure
+  curve is the horizontal line ab, described so that aP = QB and bQ =
+  AP. For partially miscible liquids the curve is Pa1b1Q. The horizontal
+  line a1b1 corresponds to the two layers of liquid, and the inclined
+  lines Pa1Qb1 to solutions of B in A and of A in B. The curves Pa4Q,
+  having a minimum at a4, Pa3Q, having a maximum at a3, and Pa5Q, with
+  neither a maximum nor minimum, correspond to the types i., ii., iii.
+  of completely miscible mixtures.
+
+  6. _Dry Distillation._--In this process the substance operated upon is
+  invariably a solid, the vapours being condensed and collected as in
+  the other methods. When the substance operated upon is of uncertain
+  composition, as, for example, coal, wood, coal-tar, &c., the term
+  destructive distillation is employed. A more general designation is
+  "pyrogenic processes," which also includes such operations as leading
+  vapours through red-hot tubes and condensing the products. We may also
+  consider here cases of sublimation wherein a solid vaporizes and the
+  vapour condenses without the occurrence of the liquid phase.
+
+  Dry distillation is extremely wasteful even when definite substances
+  or mixtures, such as calcium acetate which yields acetone, are dealt
+  with, valueless by-products being obtained and the condensate usually
+  requiring much purification. Prior to 1830, little was known of the
+  process other than that organic compounds generally yielded tarry and
+  solid matters, but the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas (of acetone
+  from acetates), of Mitscherlich (of benzene from benzoates) and of
+  Persoz (of methane from acetates and lime) brought the operation into
+  common laboratory practice. For efficiency the operation must be
+  conducted with small quantities; caking may be prevented by mixing the
+  substance with sand or powdered pumice, or, better, with iron filings,
+  which also renders the decomposition more regular by increasing the
+  conductivity of the mass. The most favourable retort is a shallow iron
+  pan heated in a sand bath, and provided with a screwed-down lid
+  bearing the delivery tube. Sidney Young has suggested conducting the
+  operation in a current of carbon dioxide which sweeps out the vapours
+  as they are evolved, and also heating in a vapour bath, e.g. of
+  sulphur.
+
+  One of the earliest red-hot tube syntheses of importance was the
+  formation of naphthalene from a mixture of alcohol and ether vapours.
+  Such condensations were especially studied by M. P. E. Berthelot, and
+  shown to be very fruitful in forming hydrocarbons. Sometimes reagents
+  are placed in the combustion tube, for example lead oxide (litharge),
+  which takes up bromine and sulphur. In its simplest form the apparatus
+  consists of a straight tube, made of glass, porcelain or iron
+  according to the temperature required and the nature of the reacting
+  substances, heated in an ordinary combustion furnace, the mixture
+  entering at one end and the vapours being condensed at the other.
+  Apparatus can also be constructed in which the unchanged vapours are
+  continually circulated through the tube. Operating in a current of
+  carbon dioxide facilitates the process by preventing overheating.
+
+  7. _Distillation in Chemical Technology._--In laboratory practice use
+  is made of a fairly constant type of apparatus, only trifling
+  modifications being generally necessary to adapt the apparatus for any
+  distillation or fractionation; in technology, on the other hand, many
+  questions have to be considered which generally demand the adoption of
+  special constructions for the economic distillation of different
+  substances. The modes of distillation enumerated above all occur in
+  manufacturing practice. Distillation in a vacuum is practised in two
+  forms:--if the pump draws off steam as well as air it is termed a
+  "wet" air-pump; if it only draws off air, it is a "dry" air-pump. In
+  the glycerin industry the lyes obtained by saponifying the fats are
+  first evaporated with "wet vacuum" and finally distilled with closed
+  and live steam and a "dry vacuum." Two forms of steam distillation may
+  be distinguished:--in one the still is simply heated by a steam coil
+  wound inside or outside the still--this is termed heating by dry
+  steam; in the other steam is injected into the mass within the
+  still--this is the distillation with live steam of laboratory
+  practice. The details of the plant--the material and fittings of the
+  still, the manner of heating, the form of the condensing plant,
+  receivers, &c.--have to be determined for each substance to be
+  distilled in order to work with the maximum economy.
+
+  For the distillation of liquids the retort is usually a cylindrical
+  pot placed vertically; cast iron is generally employed, in which case
+  the bottom is frequently incurved and thicker than the sides in order
+  to take up the additional wear and tear. Sometimes linings of
+  enamelled iron or other material are employed, which when worn can be
+  replaced at a far lower cost than that of a new still. Glass stills
+  heated by a sand bath are sometimes employed in the final distillation
+  of sulphuric acid; platinum, and an alloy of platinum and iridium with
+  a lining of gold rolled on (a discovery due to Heraeus), are used for
+  the same purpose. Cast iron stills are provided with a hemispherical
+  head or dome, generally attached to the body of the still by bolts,
+  and of sufficient size to allow for any frothing. It is invariably
+  provided with an opening to carry off the vapours produced. In its
+  more complete form a still has in addition the following
+  fittings:--The dome is provided with openings to admit (1) the axis of
+  the stirring gear (in some stills the stirring gear rotates on a
+  horizontal axis which traverses the side and not the head of the
+  still), (2) the inlet and outlet tubes of a closed steam coil, (3) a
+  tube reaching to nearly the bottom of the still to carry live steam,
+  (4) a tube to carry a thermometer, (5) one or more manholes for
+  charging purposes, (6) sight-holes through which the operation can be
+  watched, and (7) a safety valve. The body of the still is provided
+  with one or more openings at different heights to serve for the
+  discharge of the residue in the still, and sometimes with a glass
+  gauge to record the quantity of matter in the still. For dry
+  distillations the retorts are generally horizontal cylinders, the
+  bottom or lower surface being sometimes flattened. Iron and fireclay
+  are the materials commonly employed; wrought iron is used in the
+  manufacture of wood-spirit, fireclay for coal-gas (see GAS:
+  _Manufacture_), phosphorus, zinc, &c. The vertical type, however, is
+  employed in the manufacture of acetone and of iodine.
+
+  Several modes of heating are adopted. In some cases, especially in dry
+  distillations, the furnace flames play directly on the retorts, in
+  others, such as in the case of nitric acid, the whole still comes
+  under the action of the furnace gases to prevent condensation on the
+  upper part of the still, while in others the furnace gases do not play
+  directly on the base or upper portion of the still but are conducted
+  around it by a system of flues (see COAL-TAR). Steam heating, dry or
+  live, is employed alone and also as an auxiliary to direct firing.
+
+  The condensing plant varies with the volatility of the distillate. Air
+  cooling is adopted whenever possible. For example, in the less modern
+  methods for manufacturing nitric acid the vapours were conducted
+  directly into double-necked bottles (_bombonnes_) immersed in water. A
+  more efficient arrangement consists of a stack of vertical pipes
+  standing up from a main or collecting trough and connected at the top
+  in consecutive pairs by a cross tube. By an arrangement of diaphragms
+  in the lower trough the vapours are circulated through the system. As
+  an auxiliary to air cooling the stack may be cooled by a slow stream
+  of water trickling down the outside of the pipes, or, in certain
+  cases, cold water may be injected into the condenser in the form of a
+  spray, where it meets the ascending vapours. Horizontal air-cooling
+  arrangements are also employed. A common type of condenser consists of
+  a copper worm placed in a water bath; but more generally straight
+  tubes of copper or cast iron which cross and recross a rectangular
+  tank are employed, since this form is more readily repaired and
+  cleansed. Wood-spirit, petroleum and coal-tar distillates are
+  condensed in plant of the latter type. In cases where the condenser is
+  likely to become plugged there is a pipe by means of which live steam
+  can be injected into the condenser. The supply of water to the
+  condenser is regulated according to the volatility of the condensate.
+  When the vapours readily condense to a solid form the condensing plant
+  may take the form of large chambers; such conditions prevail in the
+  manufacture of arsenic, sulphur and lampblack: in the latter case
+  (which, however, is not properly one of distillation) the chamber is
+  hung with sheets on which the pigment collects. Large chambers are
+  also used in the condensation of mercury.
+
+  Dephlegmation of the vapours arising from such mixtures as coal-tar
+  fractions, petroleum and the "wash" of the spirit industry, is very
+  important, and many types of apparatus are employed in order to effect
+  a separation of the vapours. The earliest form, invented by C. B.
+  Mansfield to facilitate the fractionation of paraffin and coal-tar
+  distillates, consisted in having a pipe leading from the inclined
+  delivery tube of the still to the still again, so that any vapour
+  which condensed in the delivery tube was returned to the still. Of
+  really effective columns Coupier's was one of the earliest. The
+  vapours rising from the still traverse a tall vertical column, and are
+  then conveyed through a series of bulbs placed in a bath kept at the
+  boiling-point of the most volatile constituent. The more volatile
+  vapours pass over to the condensing plant, while the less volatile
+  ones condense in the bulbs and are returned to the column at varying
+  heights by means of connecting tubes. The French column is similar in
+  action. The Coffey still is one of the most effective and is employed
+  in the spirit, ammonia, coal-tar and other industries. It consists of
+  a vertical column divided into a number of sections by horizontal
+  plates, which are perforated so that the ascending vapours have to
+  traverse a layer of liquid. Above this "separator" is a reflux
+  condenser, termed the "cooler," maintained at the correct temperature
+  so that only the more volatile component passes to the receiver. The
+  success of the operation chiefly depends upon the proper management of
+  the cooler.
+
+  8. _Commercial Distillation of Water._--Distilled water, i.e. water
+  free from salts and to some extent of the dissolved gases which are
+  always present in natural waters, is of indispensable value in many
+  operations both of scientific and industrial chemistry. The apparatus
+  and process for distilling ordinary water are very simple. The body of
+  the still is made of copper, with a head and worm, or condensing
+  apparatus, either of copper or tin. The still is usually fed
+  continuously by the heated water from the condenser. The first portion
+  of the distillate brings over the gases dissolved in the water,
+  ammonia and other volatile impurities, and is consequently rejected;
+  scarcely two-fifths of the entire quantity of water can be safely used
+  as pure distilled water.
+
+  Apparatus for the economic production of a potable water from
+  sea-water is of vital importance in the equipment of ships. The simple
+  distillation of sea-water, and the production thereby of a certain
+  proportion of chemically fresh water, is a very simple problem; but it
+  is found that water which is merely evaporated and recondensed has a
+  very disagreeable flat taste, and it is only after long exposure to
+  pure atmospheric air, with continued agitation, or repeated pouring
+  from one vessel to another, that it becomes sufficiently aerated to
+  lose its unpleasant taste and smell and become drinkable. The water,
+  moreover, till it is saturated with gases, readily absorbs noxious
+  vapours to which it may be exposed. For the successful preparation of
+  potable water from sea-water, the following conditions are
+  essential:--1st, aeration of the distilled product so that it may be
+  immediately available for drinking purposes; 2nd, economy of coal to
+  obtain the maximum of water with the minimum expenditure of fuel; and
+  3rd, simplicity of working parts, to secure the apparatus from
+  breaking down, and enable unskilled attendants to work it with safety.
+  The problem is a comparatively old one, for we find that R. Fitzgerald
+  patented a process in 1683 having for its purpose the "sweetening of
+  sea-water." A history of early attempts is given in S. Hales's
+  _Philosophical Experiments_, published in 1739. Among the earlier of
+  the modern forms of apparatus which came into practical adoption are
+  the inventions of Dr Normandy and of Chaplin of Glasgow, the apparatus
+  of Rocher of Nantes, and that patented by Gallé and Mazeline of Havre.
+  Normandy's apparatus, although economical and producing water of good
+  quality, is very complex in its structure, consisting of very numerous
+  working parts, with elaborate arrangements of pipes, cocks and other
+  fittings. It is consequently expensive and requires careful attention
+  for its working. It was extensively adopted in the British navy, the
+  Cunard line and many other important emigrant and mercantile lines.
+  Chaplin's apparatus, which was invented and patented later, has also
+  since 1865 been sanctioned for use on emigrant, troop and passenger
+  vessels. The apparatus possesses the great merit of simplicity and
+  compactness, in consequence of which it is comparatively cheap and not
+  liable to derangement. It was adopted by many important British and
+  continental shipping companies, among others by the Peninsular &
+  Oriental, the Inman, the North German Lloyd and the Hamburg American
+  companies.
+
+  The modern distilling plant consists of two main parts termed the
+  evaporator and condenser; in addition there must be a boiler
+  (sometimes steam is run off the main boilers, but this practice has
+  several disadvantages), pumps for circulating cold water in the
+  condenser and for supplying salt water to the evaporator, and a filter
+  through which the aerated water passes. The evaporator consists of a
+  cylindrical vessel having in its lower half a horizontal copper coil
+  connected to the steam supply. The cylindrical vessel is filled to a
+  certain level with salt water and the steam turned on. The water
+  vaporizes and is led from the dome of the evaporator to the head of
+  the condenser. The water level is maintained in the evaporator until
+  it contains a certain amount of salt. It is then run off, and replaced
+  by fresh sea-water. The condenser consists of a vertical cylinder
+  having manifolds at the head and foot and through which a number of
+  tubes pass. In some types, e.g. the Weir, the condensing water
+  circulates upwards through the tubes; in others, e.g. the Quiggins,
+  the water circulates around the tubes. Various forms of the tubes have
+  been adopted. In the Pape-Henneberg condenser, which has been adopted
+  in the German navy, they are oval in section and tend to become
+  circular under the pressure of the steam; this alteration in shape
+  makes the tubes self-scaling. In the Quiggins condenser, which has
+  been widely adopted, e.g. in the "Lusitania," the steam traverses
+  vertical copper coils tinned inside and outside; the coils are
+  crescent-shaped, a form which gives a greater condensing surface and
+  makes the coils self-scaling. The aeration of the water is effected by
+  blowing air into the steam before it is condensed; as an auxiliary,
+  the storage tanks have a false bottom perforated by fine holes so that
+  if air be injected below it, the water is efficiently aerated by the
+  air which traverses it in fine streams. After condensation the water
+  is filtered through charcoal. The filter is either a separate piece of
+  plant, or, as in the Quiggins form, it may be placed below the coils
+  in the same outer vessel. In this plant the aeration is conducted by
+  blowing in air at the base of the condenser. After filtration the
+  water is pumped to the storage tanks. Many types of distilling plant
+  are in use in addition to those mentioned above, for example the
+  Rayner, Kirkaldy, Merlees, Normand; the United States navy has adopted
+  a form designed by the Bureau of Engineering.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The general practice of laboratory distillation is
+  discussed in all treatises on practical organic chemistry; reference
+  may be made to Lassar-Cohn, _Manual of Organic Chemistry_ (1896), and
+  _Arbeitsmethoden für organisch-chemische Laboratorien_ (1901); Hans
+  Meyer, _Analyse und Konstitutionermittlung organischer Verbindungen_
+  (1909). The theory of distillation finds a place in all treatises on
+  physical chemistry. Of especial importance is Sidney Young,
+  _Fractional Distillation_ (1903). The history of distillation is to be
+  studied in E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, _Die ätherischen Öle_
+  (Berlin, 1899; Eng. tr. by E. Kremers, Milwaukee Press, 1900). The
+  technology of distillation is best studied in relation to the several
+  industries in which it is employed; reference should be made to the
+  articles COAL-TAR, GAS, PETROLEUM, SPIRITS, NITRIC ACID, &c.
+       (C. E.*)
+
+
+
+
+DISTRACTION (from Lat. _distrahere_, to pull asunder), a drawing away or
+apart; a word now used generally of a state of mind, to mean a diversion
+of attention, or a violent emotion amounting almost to madness.
+
+
+
+
+DISTRESS (from the O. Fr. _destrece_, _destresse_, from the past
+participle of the Lat. _distringere_, to pull apart, used in Late Lat.
+in the sense of to punish, hence to distrain), pressure, especially of
+sorrow, pain or ill-fortune. As a legal term, the action of distraining
+or distraint, the right which a landlord has of seizing the personal
+chattels of his tenant for non-payment of rent. Cattle _damage feasant_
+(doing damage or trespassing upon a neighbour's land) may also be
+_distrained_, i.e. may be detained until satisfaction be rendered for
+injury they have done. The cattle or other animals thus distrained are a
+mere pledge in the hands of the injured person, who has only power to
+retain them until the owner appear to make satisfaction for the mischief
+they have done. "Distress damage feasant" is also applicable to
+inanimate things on the land if doing damage thereto or to its produce;
+things in actual use, however, are exempt. Such distress must be made
+during the actual trespass, and by whoever is aggrieved by the damage.
+Distress for rent was also at one time regarded as a mere pledge or
+security; but the remedy, having been found to be speedy and
+efficacious, was rendered more perfect by enactments allowing the thing
+taken to be sold. Blackstone notes that the law of distresses in this
+respect "has been greatly altered within a few years last past." The
+legislature, in fact, converted an ancient right of personal redress
+into a powerful remedy for the exclusive benefit of a single class of
+creditors, viz. landlords. Now that the relation of landlord and tenant
+in England has come to be regarded as purely a matter of contract, the
+language of the law-books seems to be singularly inappropriate. The
+defaulting tenant is a "wrong-doer," the landlord is the "injured
+party,"; any attempt to defeat the landlord's remedy by carrying off
+distrainable goods is denounced as "fraudulent and knavish." The
+operation of the law has, as we shall point out, been mitigated in some
+important respects, but it still remains an almost unique specimen of
+one-sided legislation.
+
+At common law distress was said to be incident to _rent service_, and by
+particular reservation to rent charges; but by 4 Geo. II. c. 28 it was
+extended to _rent seck_, _rents of assize_ and chief rents (see RENT).
+It is therefore a general remedy for rent certain in arrear. All
+personal chattels are distrainable with the following exceptions:--(1)
+things in which there can be no property, as animals _ferae naturae_;
+(2) ledgers, daybooks, title-deeds, &c.; (3) things delivered to a
+person following a public trade, as a horse sent to be shod, &c.; (4)
+things already in the custody of the law; (5) things which cannot be
+restored in as good a plight as when distrained, that is, perishable
+articles; (6) fixtures; (7) beasts of the plough and instruments of
+husbandry while there is other sufficient distress to be found; (8)
+instruments of a man's trade or profession in actual use at the time the
+distress is made. If not in actual use they are only privileged in case
+there is other sufficient distress upon the premises. These exceptions,
+it will be seen, imply that the thing distrained is to be held as a
+pledge merely--not to be sold. They also imply that in general any
+chattels found on the land in question are to be available for the
+benefit of the landlord, whether they belong to the tenant or not. This
+principle worked with peculiar harshness in the case of lodgers, whose
+goods might be seized and sold for the payment of the rent due by their
+landlord to his superior landlord. By the Lodgers' Goods Protection Act
+1871, however, where a lodger's goods have been seized by the superior
+landlord the lodger may serve him with a notice stating that the
+intermediate landlord has no interest in the property seized, but that
+it is the property or in the lawful possession of the lodger, and
+setting forth the amount of the rent due by the lodger to his immediate
+landlord. On payment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed
+with the distress against the goods in question. By the Law of Distress
+Amendment Act 1908 this protection was extended to under tenants liable
+to pay rent by equal quarterly instalments, as well as to any person
+whatsoever who is not a tenant of the premises or any part thereof nor
+has any beneficial interest therein. The act, however, excludes certain
+goods, particularly goods belonging to the husband or wife of the tenant
+whose rent is in arrear, goods comprised in any bill of sale, hire
+purchase agreement or settlement made by the tenant, goods in the
+possession or disposition of a tenant by the consent and permission of
+the true owner under such circumstances as to make the tenant reputed
+owner, goods of the partner of an immediate tenant, and goods (not being
+goods of a lodger) upon premises where any trade or business is carried
+on in which both the immediate tenant and the under tenant have an
+interest. The act does not apply where an under tenancy has been created
+in breach of a covenant or agreement between the landlord and his
+immediate tenant. The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 also absolutely
+exempted from distress the tools and implements of trade and wearing
+apparel and bedding of a tenant and his family to the value of five
+pounds, and the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895 gave power to a court
+of summary jurisdiction to direct that such goods, when distrained upon,
+should be restored if not sold, or, if sold, to order their value to be
+paid by the persons who levied the distress or directed it to be levied.
+Originally the landlord could only seize things actually on the
+premises, so that the remedy might be defeated by the things being taken
+away. But by an act of 1710, and by the Distress for Rent Act 1737, he
+may follow things fraudulently or clandestinely removed off the premises
+within thirty days after their removal, unless they have been in the
+meantime bona fide sold for a valuable consideration. The sixth
+exception mentioned above was held to extend to sheaves of corn; but by
+an act of 1690 corn, when reaped, as well as hay, was made subject to
+distress. That act was modified by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851,
+under which growing crops seized by the sheriff and sold under an
+execution are liable to distress for rent which becomes due after the
+seizure and sale, if there is no other sufficient distress on the
+premises.
+
+Excessive or disproportionate distress exposes the distrainer to an
+action, and any irregularity formerly made the proceedings void _ab
+initio_, so that the remedy was attended with considerable risk. The
+Distress for Rent Act 1737, before alluded to, in the interests of
+landlords, protected distresses for _rent_ from the consequences of
+irregularity. In all cases of distress for rent, if the owner do not
+within five days (by the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, fifteen
+days, if the tenant make a request in writing to the person levying the
+distress and also give security for any additional cost that may be
+occasioned by such extension of time) replevy the same with sufficient
+security, the thing distrained may be sold towards satisfaction of the
+rent and charges, and the surplus, if any, must be returned to the
+owner. To "replevy" is when the person distrained upon applies to the
+proper authority (the registrar of the county court) to have the thing
+returned to his own possession, on giving security to try the right of
+taking it in an action of replevin.
+
+Duties and penalties imposed by act of parliament (e.g. payment of rates
+and taxes) are sometimes enforced by distress.
+
+
+
+
+DISTRIBUTION (Lat, _distribuere_, to deal out), a term used in various
+connexions with the general meaning of spreading out. In law, the word
+is used for the division of the personal estate of an intestate among
+the next-of-kin (see INTESTACY). The important scientific question as to
+the distribution of plants and animals on the earth is treated under
+PLANTS: _Distribution_, and ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. In economics the
+word is used generally for the transference of commodities from person
+to person or from place to place, or the dividing up of large quantities
+of commodities into smaller quantities; and in a more technical sense,
+for the division of the product of industry amongst the various members
+or classes of the community. The theory of economic distribution, i.e.
+the causes which determine rent, wages, profits and interest, forms an
+important subject-matter in all text-books. Among recent works, see E.
+Cannan's _History of Theories of Production and Distribution, 1776-1848_
+(1893), J. R. Common's _Distribution of Wealth_ (1893), and H. J.
+Davenport's _Value and Distribution_ (Chicago, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+DISTRICT, a word denoting in its more general sense, a tract or extent
+of a country, town, &c., marked off for administrative or other
+purposes, or having some special and distinguishing characteristics. The
+medieval Latin _districtus_ (from _distringere_, to distrain) is defined
+by Du Cange as _Territorium feudi, seu tractus, in quo Dominus vassallos
+et tenentes suos distringere potest_; and as _justitiae exercendae in eo
+tractu facultas_. It was also used of the territory over which the
+feudal lord exercised his jurisdiction generally. It may be noted that
+_distringere_ had a wider significance than "to distrain" in the English
+legal sense (see DISTRESS). It is defined by Du Cange as _compellere ad
+aliquid faciendum per mulctam, poenam, vel capto pignore_. In English
+usage, apart from its general application in such forms as postal
+district, registration district and the like, "district" has specific
+usages for ecclesiastical and local government purposes. It is thus
+applied to a division of a parish under the Church Building Acts,
+originally called a "perpetual curacy," and the church serving such a
+division is properly a "district chapel." Under the Local Government Act
+of 1894 counties are divided for the purposes of the act into urban and
+rural districts. In British India the word is used to represent the
+_zillah_, an administrative subdivision of a province or presidency. In
+the United States of America the word has many administrative, judicial
+and other applications. In South Carolina it was used instead of
+"county" for the chief division of the state other than in the coast
+region. In the Virginias, Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky and Maryland it
+answers to "township" or precinct, elsewhere the principal subdivision
+of a county. It is used for an electoral "division," each state being
+divided into Congressional and senatorial districts; and also for a
+political subdivision ranking between an unorganized and an organized
+Territory--e.g., the District of Columbia and Alaska.
+
+
+
+
+DISTYLE (from Gr. [Greek: di-], two, and [Greek: stylos], column), the
+architectural term given to a portico which has two columns between
+antae, known as _distyle-in-antis_ (see TEMPLE).
+
+
+
+
+DITHMARSCHEN, or DITMARSH (in the oldest form of the name
+_Thiatmaresgaho_, Dietmar's Gau), a territory between the Eider, the Elbe
+and the North Sea, forming the western part of the old duchy of Holstein,
+and now included in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It
+contains about 550 sq. m. with 90,000 inhabitants. The territory consists
+to the extent of one half of good pasture land, which is preserved from
+inroads of the sea by banks and dams, the other half being mostly waste.
+It was originally colonized mainly from Friesland and Saxony. The district
+was subjugated and Christianized by Charlemagne in 804, and ranked as a
+separate _Gau_, included perhaps in the countship of Stade, or _Comitalus
+utriusque ripae_. From the same century, according to one opinion, or from
+the year 1182, when the countship was incorporated with their see,
+according to another, the archbishops of Bremen claimed supremacy over the
+land; but the inhabitants, who had developed and consolidated a systematic
+organism for self-government, made obstinate resistance, and rather
+attached themselves to the bishop of Schleswig. Ditmarsken, to use the
+Scandinavian form of the name, continued part of the Danish dominions till
+the disastrous battle of Bornhöved in 1227, when its former independence
+was regained. The claims of the archbishop of Bremen were now so far
+recognized that he exercised the royal rights of _Heerbann_ and
+_Blutbann_,[1] enjoyed the consequent emoluments, and was represented
+first by a single _advocatus_, or _Vogt_, and afterwards by one for each
+of the five Döffts, or marks, into which the land was divided after the
+establishment of Meldorf. The community was governed by a _Landrath_ of
+forty-eight elective consuls, or twelve from each of the four marks; and
+even in the 14th century the power of the episcopal _advocati_ was so
+slight that a chronicler quoted by Conrad von Maurer says, _De Ditmarschen
+leven sunder Heren und Hovedt unde dohn wadt se willen_, "the Ditmarschen
+live without lord and head, and do what they will." In 1319 and in 1404
+they succeeded in defeating the invasions of the Holstein nobles; and
+though in 1474 the land was nominally incorporated with the duchy by the
+emperor Frederick III., the attempt of the Danish king Hans and the duke
+of Gottorp to enforce the decree in 1500 resulted only in their complete
+rout in the marshes of the Dussend-Düwels-Warf. During the early part of
+the century which began with such prestige for Ditmarsh, it was the scene
+of violent internal conflict in regard to the religious questions of the
+time; and, thus weakened, it was obliged in 1559 to submit to partition
+among its three conquerors--King Frederick II. of Denmark and Dukes John
+and Adolphus. A new division took place on Duke John's death in 1581, by
+which Frederick obtained South Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Meldorf,
+and Adolphus obtained North Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Heide; and
+this arrangement continued till 1773, when all the Gottorp possessions
+were incorporated with the Danish crown.
+
+  See Dahlmann's edition of Neocorus, _Chronik von Dithmarschen_ (Kiel,
+  1827), and _Geschichte Dänemarks_ (1840-1844); Michelsen,
+  _Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Landes Dithmarschen_ (1834),
+  _Sammlung altdithmarscher Rechtsquellen_ (1842), and _Dithmarschen im
+  Verhältniss zum bremischen Erzstift_; Kolster, _Geschichte
+  Dithmarschens, nach F. R. Dahlmanns Vorlesungen_ (1873).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] That is, the right of claiming military service, and the right of
+    bringing capital offenders to justice.
+
+
+
+
+DITHYRAMBIC POETRY, the description of poetry in which the character of
+the dithyramb is preserved. It remains quite uncertain what the
+derivation or even the primitive meaning of the Greek word [Greek:
+dithyrambos] is, although many conjectures have been attempted. It was,
+however, connected from earliest times with the choral worship of
+Dionysus. A dithyramb is defined by Grote as a round choric dance and
+song in honour of the wine-god. The earliest dithyrambic poetry was
+probably improvised by priests of Bacchus at solemn feasts, and
+expressed, in disordered numbers, the excitement and frenzy felt by the
+worshippers. This element of unrestrained and intoxicated vehemence is
+prominent in all poetry of this class. The dithyramb was traditionally
+first practised in Naxos; it spread to other islands, to Boeotia and
+finally to Athens. Arion is said to have introduced it at Corinth, and
+to have allied it to the worship of Pan. It was thus "merged," as
+Professor G. G. Murray says, "into the Satyr-choir of wild
+mountain-goats" out of which sprang the earliest form of tragedy. But
+when tragic drama had so far developed as to be quite independent, the
+dithyramb did not, on that account, disappear. It flourished in Athens
+until after the age of Aristotle. So far as we can distinguish the form
+of the ancient Greek dithyramb, it must have been a kind of irregular
+wild poetry, not divided into strophes or constructed with any evolution
+of the theme, but imitative of the enthusiasm created by the use of
+wine, by what passed as the Dionysiac delirium. It was accompanied on
+some occasions by flutes, on others by the lyre, but we do not know
+enough to conjecture the reasons of the choice of instrument. Pindar, in
+whose hands the ode took such magnificent completeness, is said to have
+been trained in the elements of dithyrambic poetry by a certain Lasus of
+Hermione. Ion, having carried off the prize in a dithyrambic contest,
+distributed to every Athenian citizen a cup of Chian wine. In the
+opinion of antiquity, pure dithyrambic poetry reached its climax in a
+lost poem. _The Cyclops_, by Philoxenus of Cythera, a poet of the 4th
+century B.C. After this time, the composition of dithyrambs, although
+not abandoned, rapidly declined in merit. It was essentially a Greek
+form, and was little cultivated, and always without success, by the
+Latins. The dithyramb had a spectacular character, combining verse with
+music. In modern literature, although the adjective "dithyrambic" is
+often used to describe an enthusiastic movement in lyric language, and
+particularly in the ode, pure dithyrambs have been extremely rare. There
+are, however, some very notable examples. The _Baccho in Toscana_ of
+Francesco Redi (1626-1698), which was translated from the Italian, with
+admirable skill, by Leigh Hunt, is a piece of genuine dithyrambic
+poetry. _Alexander's Feast_ (1698), by Dryden, is the best example in
+English. But perhaps more remarkable, and more genuinely dithyrambic
+than either, are the astonishing improvisations of Karl Mikael Bellman
+(1740-1795), whose Bacchic songs were collected in 1791 and form one of
+the most remarkable bodies of lyrical poetry in the literature of
+Sweden.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+DITTERSBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 3
+m. by rail S.E. from Waldenburg and 50 m. S. W. from Breslau. It has
+coal-mines, bleach-fields and match factories. Population (1905) 9371.
+
+
+
+
+DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON (1739-1799), Austrian composer and
+violinist, was born in Vienna on the 2nd of November 1739, his father's
+name being Ditters. Having shown as a child marked talent for the
+violin, he was allowed to play in the orchestras of St Stephen's and the
+_Schottenkirche_, where he attracted the attention of a notable patron
+of music, Prince Joseph Frederick of Hildburghausen (1702-1787), who is
+also remembered as a soldier for his disastrous leading of the forces of
+the Empire at Rossbach. The prince gave the boy, now eleven years old, a
+place in his private orchestra--the first of the kind established in
+Vienna,--and also saw to it that he received an excellent general
+education. The Seven Years' War proved disastrous to both music and
+morals; and young Ditters, who had fallen into evil ways, fled from
+Hildburghausen, whither he had gone with the prince, to avoid the
+payment of his gambling debts. His patron generously forgave and
+recalled him, but soon afterwards gave up his orchestra at Vienna.
+Ditters now obtained a place in the Vienna opera; but he was not
+satisfied, and in 1761 eagerly accepted an invitation to accompany
+Gluck, whose acquaintance, as well as that of Haydn, he had made while
+in the service of the prince, on a professional journey to Italy. His
+success as a violinist on this occasion was equal to that of Gluck as
+composer; and on his return to Vienna he was recognized as the superior
+of Antonio Lolli, who as virtuoso had hitherto held the palm. In 1764 he
+was again associated with Gluck in the musical part of the ceremonies at
+Frankfort, attending the coronation of the archduke Joseph as King of
+the Romans. His next appointment was that of conductor of the orchestra
+of the bishop of Grosswardein, a Hungarian magnate, at Pressburg. He set
+up a private stage in the episcopal palace, and wrote for it his first
+"opera buffa," _Amore in musica_. His first oratorio, _Isacco figura del
+Redentore_, was also written during this time; but the scandal of
+performances of light opera by the bishop's company, even on fast days
+and during Advent, outweighed this pious effort; the empress Maria
+Theresa sharply called the worldly prelate to order; and he, in a huff,
+dismissed his orchestra (1769). After a short interlude, Ditters was
+again in the service of an ecclesiastical patron, count von Schafgotsch,
+prince bishop of Breslau, at his estate of Johannesberg in Silesia. Here
+he displayed so much skill as a sportsman, that the bishop procured for
+him the office of forester (_Forstmeister_) of the principality of
+Neisse. He had already, by the same influence, been made knight of the
+Golden Spur (1770). At Johannesberg Ditters also produced a comic opera,
+_Il Viaggiatore americano_, and an oratorio, _Davide_. The title rôle of
+the latter was taken by a pretty Italian singer, Signora Nicolini, whom
+Ditters married. In 1773 he was ennobled as Karl von Dittersdorf, and at
+the same time was appointed administrator (_Amtshauptmann_) of
+Freyenwaldau, an office which he performed by deputy. In the same year
+his oratorio _Ester_ was produced in Vienna. During the War of Bavarian
+Succession the prince bishop's orchestra was dissolved, and Dittersdorf
+employed himself in his office at Freyenwaldau; but after the peace of
+Tetschen (1779) he again became conductor of the reconstituted
+orchestra. From this time forward his output was enormous. In 1780 ten
+months sufficed for the production of his _Giobbe_ (Job) and four
+operas, three of which were successful; and besides these he wrote a
+large number of "characterized symphonies," founded on the
+_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. He was now at the height of his fame, and spent
+the fortune which it brought him in much luxury. But after a time his
+patron fell on evil days, the famous orchestra had to be reduced, and
+when the bishop died in 1795 his successor dismissed the composer with a
+small money gift. Poor and broken in health, he accepted the asylum
+offered to him by Ignaz Freiherr von Stillfried, on his estate near
+Neuhaus in Bohemia, where he spent what strength was left him in a
+feverish effort to make money by the composition of operas, symphonies
+and pianoforte pieces. He died on the 1st of October 1799, praying
+"God's reward" for whoever should save his family from starvation. On
+his death-bed he dictated to his son his _Lebensbeschreibung_
+(autobiography).
+
+Dittersdorf's chief talent was for comic opera and instrumental music in
+the sonata forms. In both of these branches his work still shows signs
+of life, and it is of great historical interest, since he was not only
+an excellent musician and a friend of Haydn but also a thoroughly
+popular writer, with a lively enough musical wit and sense of effect to
+embody in an amusing and fairly artistic form exactly what the best
+popular intelligence of the times saw in the new artistic developments
+of Haydn. Thus, while in the amiable monotony and diffuseness of
+Boccherini we may trace Haydn as a force tending to disintegrate the
+polyphonic suite-forms of instrumental music, in Dittersdorf on the
+other hand we see the popular conception of the modern sonata and
+dramatic style. Yet, with all his popularity, the reality of his
+progressive outlook may be gauged from the fact that, though he was at
+least as famous a violinist as Boccherini was a violoncellist, there is
+in his string quartets no trace of that tendency to sacrifice the
+ensemble to an exhibition of his own playing which in Boccherini's
+chamber music puts the violoncello into the same position as the first
+violin in the chamber music of Spohr. In Dittersdorf's quartets (at
+least six of which are worthy of their survival at the present day) the
+first violin leads indeed, but not more than is inevitable in such
+unsophisticated music where the normal place for melody is at the top.
+The appearance of greater vitality in the texture of Boccherini's
+quintets is produced merely by the fact that, his special instrument
+being the violoncello, his displays of brilliance inevitably occur in
+the inner parts. Six of Dittersdorf's symphonies on the _Metamorphoses_
+of Ovid were republished in 1899, the centenary of his death. In them we
+have an amusing and sometimes charming illustration of the way in which
+at transitional periods music, as at the present day, is ready to make
+crutches of literature. The end of the representation of the conversion
+of the Lycian peasants into frogs is prophetically and ridiculously
+Wagnerian in its ingenious expansion of rhythm and eminently expert
+orchestration. Every external feature of Dittersdorf's style seems
+admirably apt for success in German comic opera on a small scale; and an
+occasional experimental performance at the present day of his _Doktor
+und Apotheker_ is not less his due than the survival of his best
+quartets.
+
+  See his _Lebensbeschreibung_, published at Leipzig, 1801 (English
+  translation by A. D. Coleridge, 1896); an article in the _Rivista
+  musicale_, vi. 727; and the article "Dittersdorf" in Grove's
+  _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_.
+
+
+
+
+DITTO (from the Lat. _dictum_, something said, Ital. _detto_,
+aforesaid), that which has been said before, the same thing. The word is
+frequently abbreviated into "do." In accounts, "ditto" is indicated by
+two dots or a dash under the word or figure that would otherwise be
+repeated. A "suit of dittos," a trade or slang phrase, is a suit in
+which coat, trousers and waistcoat are all of the same material.
+
+
+
+
+DITTON, HUMPHRY (1675-1715), English mathematician, was born at
+Salisbury on the 29th of May 1675. He studied theology, and was for some
+years a dissenting minister at Tonbridge, but on the death of his father
+he devoted himself to the congenial study of mathematics. Through the
+influence of Sir Isaac Newton he was elected mathematical master in
+Christ's hospital. He was author of the following memoirs and
+treatises:--"Of the Tangents of Curves, &c.," _Phil. Trans._ vol.
+xxiii.; "A Treatise on Spherical Catoptrics," published in the _Phil.
+Trans._ vol. xxiv., from which it was copied and reprinted in the _Acta
+Eruditorum_ (1707), and also in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences
+at Paris; _General Laws of Nature and Motion_ (1705), a work which is
+commended by Wolfius as illustrating and rendering easy the writings of
+Galileo and Huygens, and the _Principia_ of Newton; _An Institution of
+Fluxions, containing the First Principles, Operations, and Applications
+of that admirable Method, as invented by Sir Isaac Newton_ (1706). In
+1709 he published the _Synopsis Algebraica_ of John Alexander, with many
+additions and corrections. In his _Treatise on Perspective_ (1712) he
+explained the mathematical principles of that art; and anticipated the
+method afterwards elaborated by Brook Taylor. In 1714 Ditton published
+his _Discourse on the Resurrection of Jesus Christ;_ and _The New Law of
+Fluids, or a Discourse concerning the Ascent of Liquids in exact
+Geometrical Figures, between two nearly contiguous Surfaces_. To this
+was annexed a tract ("Matter not a Cogitative Substance") to demonstrate
+the impossibility of thinking or perception being the result of any
+combination of the parts of matter and motion. There was also added an
+advertisement from him and William Whiston concerning a method for
+discovering the longitude, which it seems they had published about half
+a year before. Although the method had been approved by Sir Isaac Newton
+before being presented to the Board of Longitude, and successfully
+practised in finding the longitude between Paris and Vienna, the board
+determined against it. This disappointment, aggravated as it was by
+certain lines written by Dean Swift, affected Ditton's health to such a
+degree that he died in the following year, on the 15th of October 1715.
+
+
+
+
+DIU, an island and town of India, belonging to Portugal, and situated at
+the southern extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area of district,
+20 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 14,614. The anchorage is fairly protected from the
+sea, but the depth of water is only 3 to 4 fathoms. The channel between
+the island on Diu and the mainland is navigable only by fishing boats
+and small craft. The town is well fortified on the old system, being
+surrounded by a wall with towers at regular intervals. Many of the
+inhabitants are the well-known Banyan merchants of the east coast of
+Africa and Arabia. Native spirits are distilled from the palm, salt is
+made and fish caught. The trade of the town, however, is decayed. There
+are remains of several fine ancient buildings. The cathedral or Sé
+Matriz, dating from 1601, was formerly a Jesuit college. The mint, the
+arsenal and several convents (now ruined or converted to other uses) are
+also noteworthy. The Portuguese, under treaty with Bahadur Shah of
+Gujarat, built a fort here in 1535, but soon quarrelled with the natives
+and were besieged in 1538 and 1545. The second siege is one of the most
+famous in Indo-Portuguese history, and is the subject of an epic by
+Jeronymo Corte Real (q.v.).
+
+  See R. S. Whiteway, _Rise of the Portuguese Power in India_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+DIURETICS (from Gr. [Greek: diá], through, and [Greek: ourein], pass
+urine), the name given to remedies which, under certain conditions,
+stimulate an increased flow of urine. Their mode of action is various.
+Some are absorbed into the blood, carried to the secretory organs (the
+kidneys), and stimulate them directly, causing an increased flow of
+blood; others act as stimulants through the nervous system. A second
+class act in congested conditions of the kidneys by diminishing the
+congestion. Another class, such as the saline diuretics, are effectual
+by virtue of their osmotic action. A fourth class are diuretic by
+increasing the blood pressure within the vessels in general, and the
+Malpighian tufts in particular,--some, as digitalis, by increasing the
+strength of the heart's contractions, and others, as water, by
+increasing the amount of fluid circulating in the vessels. Some
+remedies, as mercury, although not diuretic themselves, when prescribed
+along with those which have this action, increase their effect. The same
+remedy may act in more than one way, e.g. alcohol, besides stimulating
+the secretory organs directly, is a stimulant to the circulation, and
+thus increases the pressure within the vessels. Diuretics are prescribed
+when the quantity of urine is much diminished, or when, although the
+quantity may be normal, it is wished to relieve some other organ or set
+of organs of part of their ordinary work, or to aid in carrying off some
+morbid product circulating in the blood, or to hasten the removal of
+inflammatory serous exudations, or of dropsical collections of fluid.
+Caffeine, which is far the best true diuretic, acts in nearly every way
+mentioned above. Together with digitalis it is the most efficient remedy
+for cardiac dropsy. A famous diuretic pill, known as Guy's pill,
+consists of a grain each of mercurial pill, digitalis leaves and squill,
+made up with extract of henbane. Digitalis, producing its diuretic
+effect by its combined action on heart, vessels and kidneys, is much
+used in the oedema of mitral disease, but must be avoided in chronic
+Bright's disease, as it increases the tension of the pulse, already
+often dangerously high. Turpentine and cantharides are not now
+recommended as diuretics, as they are too irritating to the kidneys.
+
+
+
+
+DIURNAL MOTION, the relative motion of the earth and the heavens, which
+results from the rotation of our globe on its axis in a direction from
+west toward east. The actual motion consists in this rotation. But the
+term is commonly applied to the resultant apparent revolution of the
+heavens from east to west, the axis of which passes through the
+celestial poles, and is coincident in direction with the axis of the
+earth.
+
+
+
+
+DIVAN (Arabic _d[=i]w[=a]n_), a Persian word, derived probably from
+Aramaic, meaning a "counting-house, office, bureau, tribunal"; thence,
+on one side, the "account-books and registers" of such an office, and,
+on another, the "room where the office or tribunal sits"; thence, again,
+from "account-book, register," a "book containing the poems of an
+author," arranged in a definite order (alphabetical according to the
+rhyme-words), perhaps because of the saying, "Poetry is the register
+(_d[=i]w[=a]n_) of the Arabs," and from "bureau, tribunal," "a long
+seat, formed of a mattress laid against the side of the room, upon the
+floor or upon a raised structure or frame, with cushions to lean
+against" (Lane, _Lexicon_, 930 f.). All these meanings existed and
+exist, especially "bureau, tribunal," "book of poems" and "seat"[1]; but
+the order of derivation may have been slightly different. The word first
+appears under the caliphate of Omar (A.D. 634-644). Great wealth, gained
+from the Moslem conquests, was pouring into Medina, and a system of
+business management and administration became necessary. This was copied
+from the Persians and given the Persian name, "divan." Later, as the
+state became more complicated, the term was extended over all the
+government bureaus. The divan of the Sublime Porte was for long the
+council of the empire, presided over by the grand vizier.
+
+  See Von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte des Orients_, i. 64, 198.
+       (D. B. MA.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The divan in this sense has been known in Europe certainly since
+    about the middle of the 18th century. It was fashionable, roughly
+    speaking, from 1820 to 1850, wherever the romantic movement in
+    literature penetrated. All the boudoirs of that generation were
+    garnished with divans; they even spread to coffee-houses, which were
+    sometimes known as "divans" or "Turkish divans"; and a "cigar divan"
+    remains a familiar expression.
+
+
+
+
+DIVER, a name that when applied to a bird is commonly used in a sense
+even more vague than that of loom, several of the sea ducks or
+_Fuligulinae_ and mergansers being frequently so called, to say nothing
+of certain of the auks or _Alcidae_ and grebes; but in English
+ornithological works the term diver is generally restricted to the
+Family known as _Colymbidae_, a very well-marked group of aquatic birds,
+possessing great, though not exceptional, powers of submergence, and
+consisting of a single genus _Colymbus_ which is composed of three, or
+at most four, species, all confined to the northern hemisphere. This
+Family belongs to the _Cecomorphae_ of T. H. Huxley, and is usually
+supposed to occupy a place between the _Alcidae_ and _Podicipedidae_;
+but to which of these groups it is most closely related is undecided.
+Professor Brandt in 1837 (_Beitr. Naturgesch. Vögel_, pp. 124-132)
+pointed out the osteological differences of the grebes and the divers,
+urging the affinity of the latter to the auks; while, thirty years
+later, Professor Alph. Milne-Edwards (_Ois. foss. France_, i. pp.
+279-283) inclined to the opposite view, chiefly relying on the
+similarity of a peculiar formation of the tibia in the grebes and
+divers,[1] which indeed is very remarkable, and, in the latter group,
+attracted the attention of Willughby more than 230 years ago. On the
+other hand Professor Brandt, and Rudolph Wagner shortly after (Naumann's
+_Vögel Deutschlands_, ix. p. 683, xii. p. 395), had already shown that
+the structure of the knee-joint in the grebes and divers differs in that
+the former have a distinct and singularly formed _patella_ (which is
+undeveloped in the latter) in addition to the prolonged, pyramidally
+formed, procnemial process--which last may, from its exaggeration, be
+regarded as a character almost peculiar to these two groups.[2] The
+evidence furnished by oology and the newly-hatched young seems to favour
+Brandt's views. The abortion of the _rectrices_ in the gerbes, while
+these feathers are fairly developed in the divers, is another point that
+helps to separate the two Families.
+
+The commonest species of _Colymbus_ is _C. septentrionalis_, known as
+the red-throated diver from an elongated patch of dark bay which
+distinguishes the throat of the adult in summer dress. Immature birds
+want the bay patch, and have the back so much more spotted that they are
+commonly known as "speckled divers." Next in size is the black-throated
+diver, _C. arcticus_, having a light grey head and a gular patch of
+purplish-black, above which is a semicollar of white striped vertically
+with black. Still bigger is the great northern diver, _C. glacialis_ or
+_torquatus_, with a glossy black head and neck, two semicollars of white
+and black vertical stripes, and nearly the whole of the black back and
+upper surface of the wings beautifully marked with white spots, varying
+in size and arranged in belts.[3] Closely resembling this bird, so as to
+be most easily distinguished from it by its yellow bill, is _C. adamsi_.
+The divers live chiefly on fish, and are of eminently marine habit,
+though invariably resorting for the purpose of breeding to freshwater
+lakes, where they lay two dark brown eggs on the very brink; but they
+are not unfrequently found far from the sea, being either driven inland
+by stress of weather, or exhausted in their migrations. Like most birds
+of their build, they chiefly trust to swimming, whether submerged or on
+the surface, as a means of progress, but once on the wing their flight
+is strong and they can mount to a great height. In winter their range is
+too extensive and varied to be here defined, though it is believed never
+to pass, and in few directions to approach, the northern tropic; but the
+geographical distribution of the several forms in summer requires
+mention. While _C. septentrionalis_ inhabits the north temperate zone of
+both hemispheres, _C. arcticus_ breeds in suitable places from the
+Hebrides to Scandinavia, and across the Russian empire, it would seem,
+to Japan, reappearing in the north-west of North America,[4] though its
+eastern limit on that continent cannot be definitely laid down; but it
+is not found in Greenland, Iceland, Shetland or Orkney. _C. glacialis_,
+on the contrary, breeds throughout the north-eastern part of Canada, in
+Greenland and in Iceland. It has been said to do so in Scotland as well
+as in Norway, but the assertion seems to lack positive proof, and it may
+be doubted whether, with the exception of Iceland, it is indigenous to
+the Old World,[5] since the form observed in North-eastern Asia is
+evidently that which has been called _C. adamsi_, and is also found in
+North-western America; but it may be remarked that one example of this
+form has been taken in England (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1859, p. 206) and
+at least one in Norway (_Nyt Mag. for Naturvidenskaberne_, 1877, p.
+134).     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The remains of _Colymboides minutus_, from the Miocene of Langy,
+    described by this naturalist in the work just cited, seem to show it
+    to have been a generalized form. Unfortunately its tibia is unknown.
+
+  [2] A. H. Garrod, in his tentative and chiefly myological arrangement
+    of Birds (_Proc Zool. Society_, 1874, p. 117), placed the
+    _Colymbidae_ and _Podicipedidae_ in one order (_Anseriformes_) and
+    the _Alcidae_ in another (_Charadriiformes_); but the artificial
+    nature of this assignment may be realized by the fact of his
+    considering the other families of the former order to be _Anatidae_
+    and _Spheniscidae_.
+
+  [3] The osteology and myology of this species are described by Dr
+    Coues (_Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. History_, i. pp. 131-172, pl. 5).
+
+  [4] Lawrence's _C. pacificus_ seems hardly to deserve specific
+    recognition.
+
+  [5] In this connexion should be mentioned the remarkable occurrence
+    in Europe of two birds of this species which had been previously
+    wounded by a weapon presumably of transatlantic origin. One had "an
+    arrow headed with copper sticking through its neck," and was shot on
+    the Irish coast, as recorded by J. Vaughan Thompson (_Nat. Hist.
+    Ireland_, iii. p. 201); the other, says Herr H. C. Müller (_Vid.
+    Medd. nat. Forening_, 1862, p. 35), was found dead in Kalbaksfjord in
+    the Faeroes with an iron-tipped bone dart fast under its wing.
+
+
+
+
+DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS. To "dive" (Old Eng. _dúfan_, _d['y]fan_;
+cf. "dip") is to plunge under water, and in the ordinary procedure of
+swimmers is distinguished from simple plunging in that it involves
+remaining under the water for an interval of more or less duration
+before coming to the surface. In the article SWIMMING the sport of
+diving in this sense is considered. Here we are only concerned with
+diving as the function of a "diver," whose business it is to go under
+water (in modern times, assisted by specially devised apparatus) in
+order to work.
+
+_Unassisted or Natural Diving._--The earliest reference to the practice
+of the art of diving for a purpose of utility occurs in the _Iliad_, 16,
+745-750, where Patroclus compares the fall of Hector's charioteer to the
+action of a diver diving for oysters. Thus it would seem that the art
+was known about 1000 years before the Christian era. Thucydides is the
+first to mention the employment of divers for mechanical work under
+water. He relates that divers were employed during the siege of Syracuse
+to saw down the barriers which had been constructed below the surface of
+the water with the object of obstructing and damaging any Grecian war
+vessels which might attempt to enter the harbour. At the siege of Tyre,
+divers were ordered by Alexander the Great to impede or destroy the
+submarine defences of the besieged as they were erected. The purpose of
+these obstructions was analogous to that of the submarine mine of
+to-day.
+
+The employment of divers for the salvage of sunken property is first
+mentioned by Livy, who records that in the reign of Perseus considerable
+treasure was recovered from the sea. By a law of the Rhodians, their
+divers were allowed a proportion of the value recovered, varying with
+the risk incurred, or the depth from which the treasure was salved. For
+instance, if the diver raised it from a depth of eight cubits (12 ft.)
+he received one-third for himself; if from sixteen cubits (24 ft.) one
+half; but upon goods lost near the shore, and recovered from a depth of
+two cubits (36 in.), his share was only one tenth.
+
+These are examples of unassisted diving as practised by the Ancients.
+Their primitive method, however, is still in vogue in some parts of the
+world--notably in the Ceylon pearl fisheries and in the Mediterranean
+sponge fisheries, and it may, therefore, be as well to mention the
+system adopted by the natural, or naked, diver of to-day.
+
+The volume and power of respiration of the lungs vary in different
+individuals, some persons being able to hold their breath longer than
+others, so that it naturally follows that one man may be able to stay
+longer under water than another. The longest time that a natural diver
+has been known to remain beneath the surface is about two minutes. Some
+pearl and sponge divers rub their bodies with oil, and put wool,
+saturated with oil, in their ears. Others hold in their mouth a piece of
+sponge soaked in oil, which they renew every time they descend. It is
+doubtful, however, whether these expedients are beneficial. The men who
+dive in this primitive fashion take with them a flat stone with a hole
+in the centre; to this is attached a rope, which is secured to the
+diving boat and serves to guide them to particular spots below. When the
+diver reaches the sea bottom he tears off as much sponge within reach as
+possible, or picks up pearl shells, as the case may be, and then pulls
+the rope to indicate to the man in the boat that he wishes to be hauled
+up. But so exhausting is the work, and so severe the strain on the
+system, that, after a number of dives in deep water, the men often
+become insensible, and blood sometimes bursts from nose, ears and mouth.
+
+_Early Diving Appliances._--The earliest mention of any appliance for
+assisting divers is by Aristotle, who says that divers are sometimes
+provided with instruments for respiration through which they can draw
+air from above the water and which thus enable them to remain a long
+time under the sea (_De Part. Anim._ 2, 16), and also that divers
+breathe by letting down a metallic vessel which does not get filled with
+water but retains the air within it (_Problem._ 32, 5). It is also
+recorded that Alexander the Great made a descent into the sea in a
+machine called a _colimpha_, which had the power of keeping a man dry,
+and at the same time of admitting light. Pliny also speaks of divers
+engaged in the strategy of ancient warfare, who drew air through a tube,
+one end of which they carried in their mouths, whilst the other end was
+made to float on the surface of the water. Roger Bacon in 1240, too, is
+supposed to have invented a contrivance for enabling men to work under
+water; and in Vegetius's _De Re Militari_ (editions of 1511 and 1532,
+the latter in the British Museum) is an engraving representing a diver
+wearing a tight-fitting helmet to which is attached a long leathern pipe
+leading to the surface, where its open end is kept afloat by means of a
+bladder. This method of obtaining air during subaqueous operations was
+probably suggested by the action of the elephant when swimming; the
+animal instinctively elevates its trunk so that the end is above the
+surface of the water, and thus is enabled to take in fresh air at every
+inspiration.
+
+A certain Repton invented "water armour" in the year 1617, but when
+tried it was found to be useless. G. A. Borelli in the year 1679
+invented an apparatus which enabled persons to go to a certain depth
+under water, and he is credited with being the first to introduce means
+of forcing air down to the diver. For this purpose he used a large pair
+of bellows. John Lethbridge, a Devonshire man, in the year 1715
+contrived "a watertight leather case for enclosing the person." This
+leather case held about half a hogshead of air, and was so adapted as to
+give free play to arms and legs, so that the wearer could walk on the
+sea bottom, examine a sunken vessel and salve her cargo, returning to
+the surface when his supply of air was getting exhausted. It is said
+that Lethbridge made a considerable fortune by his invention. The next
+contrivance worthy of mention, and most nearly resembling the modern
+diving-dress, was an apparatus invented by Kleingert, of Breslau, in
+1798. This consisted of an egg-ended metallic cylinder enveloping the
+head and the body to the hips. The diver was encased first of all in a
+leather jacket having tight-fitting arms, and in leather drawers with
+tight-fitting legs. To these the cylinder was fastened in such a way as
+to render the whole equipment airtight. The air supply was drawn through
+a pipe which was connected with the mouth of the diver by an ivory
+mouthpiece, the surface end being held above water after the manner
+mentioned in Vegetius, viz. by means of a floating bladder attached to
+it. The foul air escaped through another pipe held in a similar manner
+above the surface of the water, inhalation being performed by the mouth
+and exhalation by the nose, the act of inhalation causing the chest to
+expand and so to expel the vitiated air through the escape pipe. The
+diver was weighted when going under water, and when he wished to ascend
+he released one of his weights, and attached it to a rope which he held,
+and it was afterwards hauled up.
+
+_Modern Apparatus._--This, or equally cumbersome apparatus, was the
+only diving gear in use up till 1819, in which year Augustus Siebe (the
+founder of the firm of Siebe, Gorman & Co.), invented his "open" dress,
+worked in conjunction with an air force pump. This dress consisted of a
+metal helmet and shoulder-plate attached to a watertight jacket, under
+which, fitting more closely to the body, were worn trousers, or rather a
+combination suit reaching to the armpits. The helmet was fitted with an
+air inlet valve, to which one end of a flexible tube was attached, the
+other end being connected at the surface with a pump which supplied the
+diver with a constant stream of fresh air. The air, which kept the water
+well down, forced its way between the jacket and the under-garment, and
+escaped to the surface on exactly the same principle as that of the
+diving bell; hence the term "open" as applied to this dress.
+
+Although most excellent work was accomplished with this dress--work
+which could not be attempted before its introduction--it was still far
+from perfect. It was absolutely necessary for the diver to maintain an
+upright, or but very slightly stooping, position whilst under water; if
+he stumbled and fell, the water filled his dress, and, unless quickly
+brought to the surface, he was in danger of being drowned. To overcome
+this and other defects, Siebe carried out a large number of experiments
+extending over several years, which culminated, in the year 1830, in the
+introduction of his "close" dress in combination with a helmet fitted
+with air inlet and regulating outlet valves.
+
+Though, of course, vast improvements have been introduced since Siebe's
+death, in 1872, the fact remains that his principle is in universal use
+to this day. The submarine work which it has been instrumental in
+accomplishing is incalculable. But some idea of the importance of the
+invention may be gathered from the fact that diving apparatus on Siebe's
+principle is universally used to-day in harbour, dock, pier and
+breakwater construction, in the pearl and sponge fisheries, in
+recovering sunken ships, cargo and treasure, and that every ship in the
+British navy and in most foreign navies carries one set or more of
+diving apparatus.
+
+A modern set of diving apparatus consists essentially of six parts:--(1)
+an air pump, (2) a helmet with breastplate, (3) a diving dress, (4) a
+pair of heavily weighted boots, (5) a pair of back and chest weights,
+(6) a flexible non-collapsible air tube.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pump out of chest.
+
+  Two-cylinder, Double-action Air Pump for Two Divers.
+
+    A, Air-distributing arrangement, for one diver or two divers.
+    B, Water jacket.
+    C, Suction and discharge valves.
+    D, Cylinders.
+    E, Pressure gauges.
+    F, Nozzles to which divers' air pipes are attached.]
+
+  _Air Pumps._--The type of air pump varies with the depth of water to
+  which the diver has to descend; it will be readily understood that the
+  greater the depth the greater the quantity of air required by the
+  diver. The pattern most generally in favour amongst divers of all
+  classes is a three-cylinder single-acting pump, which is suitable for
+  almost every description of work which the diver may be called upon to
+  perform, either in deep or shallow water. Another most useful type is
+  a two-cylinder double-acting pump (figs. 1 and 2), which is designed
+  to supply two divers working simultaneously in moderate depths of
+  water, or one diver only in deep water. An air-distributing
+  arrangement is fitted, whereby, when it is desired to send two men
+  down together, each cylinder supplies air independently of the other;
+  and when it is required to send one diver into deep water, the two
+  cylinders are connected and the full volume of air from both is
+  delivered to the one man. The same duty is also performed by a
+  four-cylinder single-acting pump. Smaller pumps, having one
+  double-acting or two single-acting cylinders, are also used for
+  shallow water work.
+
+  In most cases these air pumps are worked by manual power; this method
+  of working is rendered necessary by the fact that the machines are
+  usually placed in small boats from which the divers work and on which
+  other motive power is not available. In cases, however, where steam or
+  electric power is available the pumps are sometimes worked by their
+  means--more particularly on harbour and dock works. In such instances
+  the air is not delivered direct from the pump to the diver, but is
+  delivered into an intermediate steel receiver to which the diver's air
+  pipe is connected, the object being to ensure a reserve supply of air
+  in case of a breakdown of the pump. Some of these combinations of
+  pumps and motors are so arranged that, in the event of an accident to
+  the motor, the pump can be thrown out of gear with it, and be
+  immediately worked by hand power. Each pump is fitted with a gauge (or
+  gauges), indicating not only the pressure of air which the pump is
+  supplying, but also the depth of water at which the diver is working.
+  The cylinders are water-jacketed to ensure the air delivered to the
+  diver being cool, the water being drawn in and circulated round the
+  cylinders by means of a small metal pump worked from an eccentric on
+  the main crank-shaft. Filters are sometimes attached to the suction
+  and delivery sides of the pumps to ensure the inlet of air being free
+  from dirt, and the discharge of air free from dirt and oil.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pump in chest, ready for work.]
+
+  _Helmet._--The helmet and breastplate (fig. 3) are made from highly
+  planished tinned copper, with gun-metal valves and other fittings. The
+  helmet is provided with a non-return air inlet valve to which the
+  diver's air pipe is connected; the air when it lifts the inlet valve
+  passes through three conduits--one having its outlet over the front
+  glass, the others their outlets over the side glasses. In this way the
+  diver gets the air fresh as it enters the helmet, and at the same time
+  it prevents condensation of his breath on the glasses and keeps them
+  clear. There is a regulating air outlet valve by which the diver
+  adjusts his supply of air according to his requirements in different
+  depths of water; the valve is usually made to be adjusted by hand, but
+  sometimes it is so constructed as to be operated by the diver knocking
+  his head against it, the spindle being extended through to the inside
+  of the helmet and fitted at its inner extremity with a button or disk.
+  By unscrewing the valve, the diver allows air to escape, and thus the
+  dress is deflated; by screwing it up the air is retained and the dress
+  inflated. Thus the diver can control his specific gravity and rise or
+  sink at will. In case by any chance the diver should inflate the dress
+  inadvertently, and wish to get rid of the superfluous air quickly, he
+  can do so by opening an emergency cock, which is fitted on the helmet.
+  Plate glasses in gun-metal frames are also fitted to the helmet, two,
+  one on each side, being permanently fixed, while one in front is made
+  either to screw in and out, or to work on a hinged joint like a ship's
+  scuttle; the side glasses are usually protected by metal cross-bars,
+  as is also sometimes the front glass. Some divers prefer unprotected
+  glasses at the side of the helmet, instead of protected oval ones.
+
+  The breastplate is fitted on its outer edge with metal screws and
+  bands. The disposition of the screws corresponds with that of the
+  holes in the india-rubber collar of the diving dress described below.
+  There are other methods of making a watertight joint between the
+  diver's breastplate and the diving dress, but, as these are only
+  mechanical differences, it will suffice to describe the Siebe-Gorman
+  apparatus, as exclusively adopted by the British government. Whatever
+  the shape or design of the helmet or dress, Siebe's principle is the
+  one in universal use to-day.
+
+  The metal tabs are for carrying the diver's lead weights, which are
+  fitted with suitable clips; the hooks--one on each side of the
+  helmet--are for keeping the ropes attached to the back weight in
+  position. The helmet and breastplate are fitted at their lower and
+  upper parts respectively with gun-metal segmental neck rings, which
+  make it possible to connect these two main parts together by
+  one-eighth of a turn, a catch at the back of the helmet preventing any
+  chance of unscrewing. The small eyes at the top of the helmet are for
+  securing the diver's air pipe and life line in position and preventing
+  them from swaying.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Front view of Helmet.
+
+    A, Helmet.
+    B, Breastplate.
+    F, Emergency cock.
+    G, Glasses in frames.
+    H, Metal screws and bands.
+    I, Metal tabs.
+    J, Hooks for keeping weight ropes in position.
+    L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured.
+
+  Side sectional view of Helmet.
+
+    K, Segmental neck rings.
+    D, Air conduits.
+    M, Telephone receiver.
+    N, Transmitter.
+    O, Contact piece to ring bell.
+
+  Back view of Helmet.
+
+    Plan of Helmet.
+    C, Air inlet valve.
+    E, Regulating outlet valve.
+    G, Glasses in frames.
+    L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured.
+    P, Connexion for telephone cable.
+
+  FIG. 3.]
+
+  The _Diving Dress_ is a combination suit which envelops the whole body
+  from feet to neck. It is made of two layers of tanned twill with pure
+  rubber between, and is fitted at the neck with a vulcanized
+  india-rubber collar, or band, with holes punched in it corresponding
+  to the screws in the breastplate. This collar, when clamped tightly
+  between the bands and the breastplate by means of the nuts, ensures a
+  watertight joint. The sleeves of the dress are fitted with vulcanized
+  india-rubber cuffs, which, fitting tightly round the diver's wrists,
+  prevent the ingress of water at these parts also.
+
+  _Boots._--These are generally made with leather uppers, beechwood
+  inner soles and leaden outer soles, the latter being secured to the
+  others by copper rivets. Heavy leather straps with brass buckles
+  secure the boot to the foot. Each boot weighs about 16 lb. Sometimes
+  the main part of the boot-golosh, toe and heel, are in one brass
+  casting, with leather upper part, heavy straps and brass buckles.
+
+  _Lead Weights._--These weigh 40 lb. each, and the diver wears one on
+  his back, another on his chest. These weights and the heavy boots
+  ensure the diver's equilibrium when under water.
+
+  _Belt and Knife and Small Tools._--Every diver wears a heavy
+  waist-belt in which he carries a strong knife in metal case, and
+  sometimes other small tools.
+
+  _Air Pipe._--The diver's air pipe is of a flexible, non-collapsible
+  description, being made of alternate layers of strong canvas and
+  vulcanized india-rubber, with steel or hard drawn metal wire embedded.
+  At the ends are fitted gun-metal couplings, for connecting the pipe
+  with the diver's pump and helmet.
+
+  _Signal Line._--The diver's signal line (sometimes called life line)
+  consists of a length of reverse laid Manila rope. In cases where the
+  telephone apparatus is not used, the diver gives his signals by means
+  of a series of pulls on the signal line in accordance with a
+  prearranged code.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diver's Telephone Communication with the
+  Surface.
+
+    Q, Battery, with switch and bell in case.
+    R, Attendant's receiver and transmitter.]
+
+  _Telephonic Apparatus._--Without doubt one of the most useful adjuncts
+  to the modern diving apparatus is the loud-sounding telephone (fig.
+  4), introduced by Siebe, Gorman & Co., which enables the diver to
+  communicate viva voce with his attendant, and vice versa. In the
+  British navy the type of submarine telephonic apparatus used is the
+  Graham-Davis system. This is made on two plans, (1) a single set of
+  instruments, for communication between one diver and his attendant
+  direct, (2) an intercommunication set which is used where two divers
+  are employed. With this type the attendant can speak to No. 1 or No. 2
+  diver separately, or with both at the same time, and vice versa; and
+  No. 1 can be put in communication with No. 2 whilst they are under
+  water, the attendant at the surface being able to hear what the men
+  are saying. The advantages of such a system are obvious. It is more
+  particularly useful where two divers are working one either side of a
+  ship, or where the divers may be engaged upon the same piece of work,
+  but out of sight of one another, or out of touch. It would prove its
+  utility in a marked degree in cases where a diver got into
+  difficulties; a second diver sent down to his assistance could receive
+  and give verbal directions and thus greatly expedite the work of
+  rescue.
+
+  The telephone instruments in the helmet consist of one or more
+  loud-sounding receivers placed either in the crown of the helmet, or
+  one on each side in close proximity to the diver's ears. A transmitter
+  of a special watertight pattern is placed between the front glass and
+  one of the side glasses, and a contact piece, which, when the diver
+  presses his chin against it, rings a bell at the surface, is fitted
+  immediately below the front glass. A buzzer is sometimes fixed in the
+  helmet to call the diver's attention when the attendant wishes to
+  speak, but as a rule the voice is transmitted so loudly that this
+  device is unnecessary. A connexion, through which the insulated wires
+  connecting the instruments pass, terminates in contact pieces, and the
+  telephone cable, embedded in the diver's signal line, is connected
+  with it. The other end of the signal line is connected to a battery
+  box at the surface. This box contains, besides the cells, a receiver
+  and transmitter for the attendant, an electric bell, a terminal box,
+  and a special switch, by means of which various communications between
+  diver, or divers, and attendant are made. If, as is sometimes the
+  case, the diver happens to be somewhat deaf, he can, whilst he is
+  taking a message, stop the vibration of the outlet valve and the noise
+  made by the escaping air, by merely pressing his finger on a spindle
+  which passes through the disk of the valve, and thus momentarily
+  ensure absolute silence.
+
+  _Speaking Tube._--The rubber speaking tube which was the forerunner of
+  the telephonic apparatus is now practically obsolete, though it is
+  still used in isolated cases.
+
+  _Submarine Electric Lamps._--Various forms of submarine lamps are
+  used, from a powerful arc light to a self-contained hand lamp, the
+  former giving about 2000 or 3000 candle-power, and requiring a
+  steam-driven dynamo to supply the necessary current, the latter (fig.
+  5) giving a light of about 10 candle-power and having its own
+  batteries, so that the diver carries both the light and its source in
+  his hand. These submarine lamps are all constructed on the same
+  principle, having the incandescent lamps, or carbons as the case may
+  be, enclosed in a strong glass globe, the mechanism and connexions
+  being fitted in a metal case above the globe, which is flanged and
+  secured watertightly to the case.
+
+  _Self-contained Diving Dress._--The object of the self-contained diving
+  dress is to make the diver independent of air supply from the surface.
+  The dress, helmet, boots and weights are of the ordinary pattern
+  already described, but instead of obtaining his air supply by means of
+  pumps and pipes, the diver is equipped with a knapsack consisting of a
+  steel cylinder containing oxygen compressed to a pressure of 120
+  atmospheres (= about 1800 lb.) to the square inch, and chambers
+  containing caustic soda or caustic potash. The helmet is connected to
+  the chambers by tubes, and the oxygen cylinder is similarly connected
+  to the chambers. The breath exhaled by the diver passes through a
+  valve into the caustic soda, which absorbs the carbonic acid, and it
+  is then again inhaled through another valve. This process of
+  regeneration goes on automatically, the requisite amount of oxygen
+  being restored to the breathed air in its passage through the
+  chambers. This type of apparatus has been used for shallow water work,
+  but the great majority of divers prefer the apparatus using pumps as
+  the source of the air supply.
+
+  An emergency dress, using this self-contained system for breathing,
+  has been designed by Messrs Fleuss and Davis, of the firm of Siebe,
+  Gorman & Co., primarily as a life-saving apparatus, for enabling men
+  to escape from disabled submarine boats.
+
+  The helmet diver is indispensable in connexion with harbour and dock
+  construction, bridge-building, pearl and sponge fishing, wreck raising
+  and the recovery of sunken cargo and treasure. Every ship in the
+  British navy carries one set or more of diving apparatus, for use in
+  ease of emergency, for clearing fouled propellers, cleaning valves or
+  ship's hull below the water line, repairing hulls if necessary, and
+  recovering lost anchors, chains, torpedoes, &c.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without
+  Reflector.
+
+    A, Metal case containing electrical fittings.
+    B, Glass globe and incandescent lamp.
+    C, Stand, which also protects the globe.
+    D, Ring for suspending lamp.
+    E, Reflector.]
+
+_Greatest Depths attained._--The greatest depth at which useful work has
+been performed by a diver is 182 ft. From this depth a Spanish diver,
+Angel Erostarbe, recovered £9000 in silver bars from the wreck of the
+steamer "Skyro," sunk off Cape Finisterre; Alexander Lambert succeeded
+in salving £70,000 from the Spanish mail steamer "Alphonso XII," sunk in
+162 ft. of water off Las Palmas, Grand Canary; W. Ridyard recovered
+£50,000 in silver dollars from the "Hamilton Mitchell," sunk off
+Leuconna Reef, China, in 150 ft. There are individual cases where much
+larger sums have been recovered, but those mentioned are particularly
+notable by reason of the great depth involved and stand out as the
+greatest depths at which good work has been done. The sponge fishers of
+the Mediterranean work at a maximum depth of about 150 ft., and the
+pearl divers of Australia at 120 ft. But submarine operations on the
+great majority of the harbour and dock works of the world are conducted
+at a depth of from 30 to 60 ft.
+
+The weighted tools employed by divers differ very little from those used
+by the workmen on _terra firma_. Pneumatic tools, worked by compressed
+air conveyed from the surface through flexible tubes, are great aids,
+particularly in rock removal work. With the rock drill the diver bores a
+number of holes to a given depth, inserts in these the charges of
+dynamite or other explosive used, attaches one end of a wire to a
+detonator which is inserted in the charge, and then comes to the
+surface. The boat from which he works is then moved away from the scene
+of operations, paying out the wire attached to the detonators, and when
+at a safe distance the free end of the wire is connected to a magneto
+exploding machine, which is then set in motion.
+
+A complete set of diving apparatus costs from £75 to £200, varying with
+the depth of water for which it is required.
+
+The pay of a diver depends upon the nature of the work upon which he is
+engaged, and also upon the depth of the water. On harbour and dock work
+the average wage is 2s. to 2s. 6d. per hour; on wreck work from 3s. to
+5s. an hour, according to depth; on treasure and cargo recovery so much
+per day, with a percentage on the value recovered, generally about 5%.
+The pearl fishers of Australia get so much per ton of shell, and the
+sponge fishers are also paid by results.
+
+A problem which has been exercising the minds of those engaged in
+submarine work is the greatest depth at which it is possible to work,
+for, as is well known, many a fine vessel with valuable cargo and
+treasure is lying out of reach of the diver owing to the pressure which
+he would have to sustain were he to attempt to reach her. Mr Leonard
+Hill, and Drs Greenwood and J. J. R. Macleod conducted experiments in
+conjunction with Messrs Siebe, Gorman & Co., with a view to solving this
+problem, and their efforts have been attended with some considerable
+success. Dr J. S. Haldane has also carried out practical experiments for
+the British Admiralty, and under his supervision two naval officers have
+succeeded in reaching the unprecedented depth of 210 ft., at which depth
+the pressure is about 90 lb. to the square inch.
+
+_Diving Bells._--Every one is familiar with the experiment of placing an
+inverted tumbler in a bowl of water, and seeing the water excluded from
+the tumbler by the air inside it. Perhaps it was to some such experiment
+as this that the conception of the diving bell was due. As is well
+known, the pressure of water increases with the depth, and for all
+practical purposes this pressure can be taken at 4¼ lb. to every 10 ft.
+The following table shows the pressure at different depths below the
+surface of the water:--
+
+  Depth.                    Pressure.
+
+   20 ft.              8½ lb to the sq. in.
+   40  "              17¼      "       "
+   80  "              34¾      "       "
+  120  "              52½      "       "
+  160  "              69¾      "       "
+  200  "              87       "       "
+
+If a diving bell be sunk to a depth of, say, 33 ft., the air inside it
+will be compressed to about half its original volume, and the bell
+itself will be about half filled with water. But if a supply of air be
+maintained at a pressure equal to the depth of water at which the bell
+is submerged, not only will the water be kept down to the cutting edge,
+but the bell will be ventilated and it will be possible for its
+occupants to work for hours at a stretch.
+
+Tradition gives Roger Bacon, in 1250, the credit for being the
+originator of the diving bell, but actual records are lost in antiquity.
+Of the records preserved to us, probably one of the most trustworthy is
+an account given in Kaspar Schott's work, _Technica curiosa_, published
+in the year 1664, which quoted from one John Taisnier, who was in the
+service of Charles V. This account describes an experiment which took
+place at Toledo, Spain, in the year 1538, before the emperor and some
+thousands of spectators, when two Greeks descended into the water in a
+large "kettle," suspended by ropes, with its mouth downwards. The
+"kettle" was equipoised by lead fixed round its mouth. The men came up
+dry, and a lighted candle, which they had taken down with them, was
+still burning.
+
+Francis Bacon, in the _Novum Organum_, lib. ii., makes the following
+reference to a machine, or reservoir, of air to which labourers upon
+wrecks might resort whenever they required to take breath:--
+
+  "A hollow vessel, made of metal, was let down equally to the surface
+  of the water, and thus carried with it to the bottom of the sea the
+  whole of the air which it contained. It stood upon three feet--like a
+  tripod--which were in length something less than the height of a man,
+  so that the diver, when he was no longer able to contain his breath,
+  could put his head into the vessel, and having filled his lungs again,
+  return to his work."
+
+But it was to Dr Edmund Halley, secretary of the Royal Society, that
+undoubtedly the honour is due of having invented the first really
+practical diving bell. This is described in the _Philosophical
+Transactions_, 1717, in a paper on "The Art of Living Under Water by
+means of furnishing air at the bottom of the sea in any ordinary depth."
+Halley's bell was constructed of wood, and was covered with lead, which
+gave it the necessary sinking weight, and was so distributed as to
+ensure that it kept a perpendicular position when in the water. It was
+in the form of a truncated cone, 3 ft. in diameter at the top, 5 ft. at
+the bottom and 8 ft. high. In the roof a lens was introduced for
+admitting light, and also a tap to let out the vitiated air. Fresh air
+was supplied to the bell by means of two lead-lined barrels, each
+having a bung-hole in the top and bottom. To the hole in the top was
+fixed a leathern tube, weighted in such a manner that it always fell
+below the level of the bottom of the barrel so that no air could escape.
+When, however, the tube was turned up by the attendant in the bell, the
+pressure of the water rising through the hole in the bottom of the
+barrel, forced the air through the tube at the top and into the diving
+bell. These barrels were raised and lowered alternately, with such
+success that Halley says that he, with four others, remained at the
+bottom of the sea, at a depth of 9 to 10 fathoms, for an hour and a half
+at a time without inconvenience of any sort.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Ordinary Diving Bell.]
+
+This type of bell was used by John Smeaton in repairing the foundations
+of Hexham Bridge in 1778, but instead of weighted barrels, he introduced
+a force pump for supplying the necessary air. To Smeaton too we are
+indebted for the first diving bell plant in the form with which we are
+familiar to-day, that celebrated engineer having designed a square bell
+of iron, for use on the Ramsgate harbour works, in 1788. This bell,
+which measured 4½ ft. in length, 3 ft. in width and 4½ ft. in height,
+and weighed 2½ tons, was made sufficiently heavy to sink by its own
+weight. It afforded room enough for two men to work, and was supplied
+with air by a force pump worked from a boat at the surface.
+
+Though the diving bell has been largely superseded by the modern diving
+apparatus, it is still used on certain classes of work the magnitude of
+which justifies the expense entailed, for it is not only a question of
+the cost of the bell, but of the powerful steam-driven crane which is
+needed to lower and raise it, and also of the gantry on which the crane
+travels. Sometimes a barge or other vessel is used for working the bell.
+
+At the present day, two types of diving bell are employed--the ordinary
+bell, and the air-lock bell, which, however, is not so largely used.
+
+  On the new national harbour works at Dover, four large diving bells of
+  the ordinary type (fig. 6) were employed. These bells, in each of
+  which from four to six men descended at a time, consisted of steel
+  chambers, open at the bottom, measuring 17 ft. long by 10½ ft. wide by
+  7 ft. high, and each weighed 35 tons. The ballast, which at once gives
+  the necessary sinking weight to the bell and maintains its
+  equilibrium, consisted of slabs of cast iron bolted to the walls of
+  the bell, inside. Each bell was fitted with loud-sounding telephonic
+  apparatus, by means of which the occupants could communicate either
+  with the men attending the crane or the men looking after the air
+  compressors at the surface. Electric lamps, supplied with current by a
+  dynamo in the compressor room, gave the necessary light inside the
+  bell. Seats and foot rails were provided for the men, and there were
+  racks and hooks for the various tools. Suspended from the roof was an
+  iron skip into which the men threw the excavated material, which was
+  emptied out when the bell was brought to the surface. Air was supplied
+  to the bells by means of steam-driven compressors worked in a house
+  erected on the gantry. The air was delivered into a steel air
+  receiver, and thence it passed through a flexible tube connected to a
+  gun-metal inlet valve in the roof of the diving bell; the pressure of
+  air was regulated according to the depth at which the bell happened to
+  be working. The maximum depth on the Dover works was between 60 and 70
+  ft., = about 25-30 lb. to the square inch. A bell was lowered by
+  means of powerful steam-driven cranes, travelling on a gantry, to
+  within a few feet of the water, and the men entered it from a boat.
+  The bell then continued its descent to the bottom, where the men, with
+  pick and shovel, levelled the sea bed ready to receive the large
+  concrete blocks, weighing from 30 to 42 tons apiece. Having completed
+  one section, the bell was moved along to another. The concrete blocks
+  were then lowered and placed in position by helmet divers. The bell
+  divers, clad in thick woollen suits and watertight thigh boots, worked
+  in shifts of about three hours each, and were paid at the rate of from
+  1s. to 15d. per hour.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Air-lock Diving Bell.
+
+    A, Working chamber.
+    B, Air-lock.
+    C, Pulleys and wire ropes for lowering and raising bell.
+    D, Iron ladder.
+    E, Tackles suspended from roof for raising and lowering objects.
+    F, Air supply pipe.]
+
+  The cost of an ordinary diving bell, including air compressor,
+  telephonic apparatus and electric light, is from £600 to £1500,
+  according to size.
+
+  The _Air-lock Diving Bell_ (fig. 7) comprises an iron or steel working
+  chamber similar to the ordinary diving bell, but with the addition of
+  a shaft attached to its roof. At the upper end of the shaft is an
+  airtight door, and about 8 ft. below this is another similar door.
+  When the bell divers wish to enter the bell, they pass through the
+  first door and close it after them, and then open a cock or valve and
+  gradually let into the space between the two doors compressed air from
+  the working chamber in order to equalize the pressure; they then open
+  the second door and pass down into the working chamber, closing the
+  door after them. When returning to the surface they reverse the
+  operation. It can readily be imagined that, owing to its unwieldy
+  character, the employment of the air-lock bell is resorted to only in
+  those cases where the nature of the sea bed necessitates its remaining
+  on a given spot for some considerable time, as for instance in the
+  excavation of hard rock to a given depth.
+
+  An air-lock bell supplied to the British Admiralty, for use in
+  connexion with the laying of moorings at Gibraltar, has a working
+  chamber measuring 15 ft. long by 10½ ft. wide, by 7½ ft. high, and a
+  shaft 37½ ft. high by 3 ft. in diameter. It is built of steel plates,
+  with cast-iron ballast, and its total weight is about 46 tons. The
+  bell is electrically lighted, and is fitted with telephonic apparatus
+  communicating with the air-compressor room and lifting-winch room. It
+  is worked through a well in the centre of a specially constructed
+  steel barge 85 ft. long by 40 ft. beam, having a draught of 7 ft. 6
+  in. The wire ropes, for lowering and raising the bell, work over
+  pulleys which are carried on a superstructure erected over the well.
+  Two sets of air compressors are fitted on the barge--one set for
+  supplying air to the bell, the other set for working a pneumatic rock
+  drill inside the bell. The greatest depth at which this particular
+  bell will work is 40 ft. The cost of the whole plant, including barge,
+  was about £14,000.
+
+  The diving dress has, however, to a great extent supplanted the diving
+  bell. This is due not only to the heavier cost of the latter, but more
+  particularly to the greater mobility of the helmet diver. Bell divers
+  are naturally limited to the area which their bell for the time being
+  covers, whereas helmet divers can be distributed over different parts
+  of a contract and work entirely independently of one another. The use
+  of the diving bell is, therefore, practically limited to the work of
+  levelling the sea bed, and the removal of rock.
+
+  See also the article CAISSON DISEASE as regards the physiological
+  effects of compressed air.     (R. H. D.*)
+
+
+
+
+DIVES-SUR-MER, a small port and seaside resort of north-western France on
+the coast of the department of Calvados, on the Dives, 15 m. N.E. of
+Caen by road. Pop. (1906) 3286. Dives is celebrated as the harbour
+whence William the Conqueror sailed to England in 1066. In the porch of
+its church (14th and 15th centuries) a tablet records the names of some
+of his companions. The town has a picturesque inn, adapted from a
+building dating partly from the 16th century, and market buildings
+dating from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The coast in the vicinity of
+Dives is fringed with small watering-places, those of Cabourg (to the
+west) and of Beuzeval and Houlgate (to the east) being practically
+united with it. There are large metallurgical works with electric motive
+power close to the town.
+
+
+
+
+DIVIDE, a word used technically as a noun in America and the British
+colonies for any high ridge between two valleys, forming a
+water-parting; a dividing range. For special senses of the verb "to
+divide" (Lat. _di-videre_, the latter part of the word coming from a
+root seen in Lat. _vidua_, Eng. "widow"), meaning generally to split up
+in two or more parts, see DIVISION. In a parliamentary sense, to divide
+(involving a separation into two sides, Aye and No) is to take the sense
+of the House by voting on the subject before it.
+
+
+
+
+DIVIDEND (Lat. _dividendum_, a thing to be divided), the net profit
+periodically divisible among the proprietors of a joint-stock company in
+proportion to their respective holdings of its capital. Dividend is not
+interest, although the word dividend is frequently applied to payments
+of interest; and a failure to pay dividends to shareholders does not,
+like a failure to pay interest on borrowed money, lay a company open to
+being declared bankrupt. In bankruptcy a dividend is the proportionate
+share of the proceeds of the debtor's estate received by a creditor. In
+England, the Companies Act 1862 provided that no dividend should be
+payable except out of the profits arising from the business of the
+company, but, in the case of companies incorporated by special act of
+parliament for the construction of railways and other public works which
+cannot be completed for a considerable time, it is sometimes provided
+that interest may during construction be paid to the subscribers for
+shares out of capital. Dividends (excluding occasional distributions in
+the form of shares) are ordinarily payable in cash. Most companies
+divide their capital into at least two classes, called "preference"
+shares and "ordinary" shares, of which the former are entitled out of
+the profits of the company to a preferential dividend at a fixed rate,
+and the latter to whatever remains after payment of the preferential
+dividend and any fixed charges. Before, however, a dividend is paid, a
+part of the profits is often carried to a "reserve fund." The dividend
+on preference shares is either "cumulative" or contingent on the profits
+of each separate year or half year. When cumulative, if the profits of
+any one year are insufficient to pay it in full, the deficiency has to
+be made good out of subsequent profits. A cumulative preferential
+dividend is sometimes said to be "guaranteed," and preferential
+dividends payable by all English companies registered under the
+Companies Acts 1862 to 1908 are cumulative unless stipulated to be
+otherwise. Certain public companies are forbidden by parliament to pay
+dividends in excess of a prescribed maximum rate, but this restriction
+has been happily modified in some instances, notably in the case of gas
+companies, by the institution of a sliding scale, under which a gas
+company may so regulate the price of gas to be charged to consumers that
+any reduction of an authorized standard price entitles the company to
+make a proportionate increase of the authorized dividend, and any
+increase above the standard price involves a proportionate decrease of
+dividend. Dividends are usually declared yearly or half-yearly; and
+before any dividend can be paid it is, as a rule, necessary for the
+directors to submit to the shareholders, at a general meeting called for
+the purpose, the accounts of the company, with a report by the directors
+on its position and their recommendation as to the rate of the proposed
+dividend. The articles of association of a company usually provide that
+the shareholders may accept the director's recommendation as to dividend
+or may declare a lower one, but may not declare a higher one than the
+directors recommend. Directors frequently have power to pay on account
+of the dividend for the year, without consulting the shareholders, an
+"interim dividend," which on ordinary shares is generally at a much
+lower rate than the final or regular dividend. An exceptionally high
+dividend is often distributed in the shape of a dividend at the usual
+rate supplemented by an additional dividend or "bonus." Payment of
+dividends is made by means of cheques sent by post, called "dividend
+warrants." All dividends are subject to income-tax, and by most
+companies dividends are paid "less income-tax," in which case the tax is
+deducted from the amount of dividend payable to each proprietor. When
+paid without such deduction a dividend is said to be "free of
+income-tax." In the latter case, however, the company has to make
+provision for payment of the tax before declaring the dividend, and the
+amount of its divisible profits and the rate of dividend which it is
+able to declare are consequently to that extent reduced. In respect of
+consols and certain other securities, holders of amounts of less than
+£1000 may instruct the Bank of England or Bank of Ireland to receive and
+invest their dividends. With few exceptions, the prices of securities
+dealt in on the London Stock Exchange include any accruing dividend not
+paid up to the date of purchase. At a certain day, after the dividend is
+declared, the stock or share is dealt in on the Stock Exchange, as _ex
+dividend_ (or "x. d."), which means that the current dividend is paid
+not to the buyer but to the previous holder, and the price of the stock
+is lower to that extent. The expression "cum dividend" is used to
+signify that the price of the security dealt in includes a dividend
+which, in the absence of any stipulation, might be supposed to belong to
+the seller of the security. On the New York Stock Exchange the
+invariable practice is to sell stock with the "dividend on" until the
+company's books are closed, after which it is usually sold "ex
+dividend."     (S. D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+DIVIDIVI, the native and commercial name for the astringent pods of
+_Caesalpinia coriaria_, a leguminous shrub of the suborder
+_Caesalpinieae_, which grows in low marshy tracts in the West Indies and
+the north of South America. The plant is between 20 and 30 ft. in
+height, and bears white flowers. The pods are flattened, and curl up in
+drying; they are about ¾ in. broad, from 2 to 3 in. long and of a rich
+brown colour. Dividivi was first brought to Europe from Caracas in 1768.
+It contains about 30% of ellagitannic acid, whence its value in leather
+manufacture.
+
+
+
+
+DIVINATION, the process of obtaining knowledge of secret or future
+things by means of oracles, omens or astrology. The root of the word,
+_deus_ (god) or _divus_, indicates the supposed source of the
+soothsayer's information, just as the equivalent Greek term, [Greek:
+mantikê], indicates the spiritual source of the utterances of the seer,
+[Greek: mantis]. In classical times the view was, in fact, general, as
+may be seen by Cicero's _De divinatione_, that not only oracles but also
+omens were signs sent by the gods; even the astrologer held that he
+gained his information, in the last resort, from the same source. On the
+side of the Stoics it was argued that if divination was a real art,
+there must be gods who gave it to mankind; against this it was argued
+that signs of future events may be given without any god.
+
+Divination is practised in all grades of culture; its votaries range
+from the Australian black to the American medium. There is no general
+agreement as to the source of the information; commonly it is held that
+it comes from the gods directly or indirectly. In the Bornean cult of
+the hawk it seems that the divine bird itself was regarded as having a
+foreknowledge of the future. Later it is regarded as no more than a
+messenger. Among the Australian blacks, divination is largely employed
+to discover the cause of death, where it is assumed to be due to magic;
+in some cases the spirit of the dead man is held to give the
+information, in others the living magician is the source of the
+knowledge. We find moreover a semi-scientific conception of the basis of
+divination; the whole of nature is linked together; just as the
+variations in the height of a column of mercury serve to foretell the
+weather, so the flight of birds or behaviour of cattle may help to
+prognosticate its changes; for the uncultured it is merely a step to the
+assumption that animals know things which are hidden from man.
+Haruspication, or the inspection of entrails, was justified on similar
+grounds, and in the case of omens from birds or animals, no less than in
+astrology, it was held that the facts from which inferences were drawn
+were themselves in part the causes of the events which they foretold,
+thus fortifying the belief in the possibility of divination.
+
+From a psychological point of view divinatory methods may be classified
+under two main heads: (A) autoscopic, which depend simply on some change
+in the consciousness of the soothsayer; (B) heteroscopic, in which he
+looks outside himself for guidance and perhaps infers rather than
+divines in the proper sense.
+
+(A) Autoscopic methods depend on (i.) sensory or (ii.) motor
+automatisms, or (iii.) mental impressions, for their results. (i.)
+Crystal-gazing (q.v.) is a world-wide method of divining, which is
+analogous to dreams, save that the vision is voluntarily initiated,
+though little, if at all, under the control of the scryer. Corresponding
+to crystal-gazing we have _shell-hearing_ and similar methods, which
+are, however, less common; in these the information is gained by hearing
+a voice. (ii.) The divining rod (q.v.) is the best-known example of this
+class; divination depending on automatic movements of this sort is found
+at all stages of culture; in Australia it is used to detect the magician
+who has caused the death of a native; in medieval and modern times
+water-divining or _dowsing_ has been largely and successfully used.
+Similar in principle is _coscinomancy_, or divining by a sieve held
+suspended, which gives indications by turning; and the equally common
+divination by a suspended ring, both of which are found from Europe in
+the west to China and Japan in the east. The ordeal by the Bible and key
+is equally popular; the book is suspended by a key tied in with its
+wards between the leaves and supported on two persons' fingers, and the
+whole turns round when the name of the guilty person is mentioned.
+Confined to higher cultures on the other hand, for obvious reasons, is
+divination by automatic writing, which is practised in China more
+especially. The sand divination so widely spread in Africa seems to be
+of a different nature. _Trance speaking_, on the other hand, may be
+found in any stage of culture and there is no doubt that in many cases
+the procedure of the magician or shaman induces a state of
+auto-hypnotism; at a higher stage these utterances are termed oracles
+and are believed to be the result of inspiration (q.v.). (iii.) Another
+method of divination is by the aid of mental impressions; observation
+seems to show that by some process of this sort, akin to clairvoyance
+(q.v.), fortunes are told successfully by means of palmistry or by
+laying the cards; for the same "lie" of the cards may be diversely
+interpreted to meet different cases. In other cases the impression is
+involuntary or less consciously sought, as in dreams (q.v.), which,
+however, are sometimes induced, for purposes of divination, by the
+process known as incubation or temple sleep. Dreams are sometimes
+regarded as visits to or from gods or the souls of the dead, sometimes
+as signs to be interpreted symbolically by means of dream-books, which
+are found not only in Europe but in less cultured countries like Siam.
+
+(B) In heteroscopic divination the process is rather one of inference
+from external facts. The methods are very various. (i.) The casting of
+lots, _sortilege_, was common in classical antiquity; the Homeric heroes
+prayed to the gods when they cast lots in Agamemnon's leather cap, and
+Mopsus divined with sacred lots when the Argonauts embarked. Similarly
+dice are thrown for purposes of sortilege; the _astragali_ or
+knucklebones, used in children's games at the present day, were
+implements of divination in the first instance. In Polynesia the
+coco-nut is spun like a teetotum to discover a thief. Somewhat different
+are the omens drawn from books; in ancient times the poets were often
+consulted, more especially Virgil, whence the name _sortes virgilianae_,
+just as the Bible is used for drawing texts in our own day, especially
+in Germany. (ii.) In _haruspication_, or the inspection of entrails, in
+_scapulomancy_ or divination by the speal-bone or shoulder-blade, in
+divination by footprints in ashes, found in Australia, Peru and
+Scotland, the voluntary element is prominent, for the diviner must take
+active steps to secure the conditions necessary to divination. (iii.) In
+the case of _augury_ and _omens_, on the other hand, that is not
+necessary. The behaviour and cries of birds, and _angang_ or meeting
+with ominous animals, &c., may be voluntarily observed, and
+opportunities for observation made; but this is not necessary for
+success. (iv.) In _astrology_ we have a method which still finds
+believers among people of good education. The stars are held, not only
+to prognosticate the future but also to influence it; the child born
+when Mars is in the ascendant will be war-like; Venus has to do with
+love; the sign of the Lion presides over places where wild beasts are
+found. (v.) In other cases the tie that binds the subject of divination
+with the omen-giving object is sympathy. The name of the life-index is
+given to a tree, animal or other object believed to be so closely united
+by sympathetic ties to a human being that the fate of the latter is
+reflected in the condition of the former. The Polynesians set up sticks
+to see if the warriors they stood for were to fall in battle; on
+Hallowe'en in our own country the behaviour of nuts and other objects
+thrown into the fire is held to prognosticate the lot of the person to
+whom they have been assigned. Where, as in the last two cases, the
+sympathetic bond is less strong, we find symbolical interpretation
+playing an important part.
+
+Sympathy and symbolism, association of ideas and analogy, together with
+a certain amount of observation, are the explanation of the great mass
+of heteroscopic divinatory formulae. But where autoscopic phenomena play
+the chief part the question of the origin of divination is less simple.
+The investigations of the Society for Psychical Research show that
+premonitions, though rare in our own day, are not absolutely unknown.
+Pseudo-premonitions, due to hallucinatory memory, are not unknown; there
+is also some ground for holding that crystal-gazers are able to perceive
+incidents which are happening at a distance from them. Divination of
+this sort, therefore, may be due to observation and experiment of a rude
+sort, rather than to the unchecked play of fancy which resulted in
+heteroscopic divination.
+
+  See also the articles AUGURS, ORACLE, ASTROLOGY, OMEN, &c.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Bouché Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
+  l'antiquité_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, passim; Maury, "La Magie et
+  l'astrologie," _Journ. Anth. Inst._ i. 163, v. 436; _Folklore_, iii.
+  193; Ellis, _Tshi-speaking Peoples_, p. 202; _Dictionnaire
+  encyclopédique des sciences médicales_, xxx. 24-96; _Journ. of
+  Philology_, xiii. 273, xiv. 113; Deubner, _De incubatione_; Lenormant,
+  _La Divination, et la science de présages chez les Chaldéens_; Skeat,
+  _Malay Magic_; J. Johnson, _Yoruba Heathenism_ (1899).     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+DIVINING-ROD. As indicated in the article MAGIC, _Rhabdomancy_, or the
+art of using a divining-rod for discovering something hidden, is
+apparently of immemorial antiquity, and the Roman _virgula divina_, as
+used in taking auguries by means of casting bits of stick, is described
+by Cicero and Tacitus (see also DIVINATION); but the special form of
+_virgula furcata_, or forked twig of hazel or willow (see also HAZEL),
+described by G. Agricola (_De re metallica_, 1546), and in Sebastian
+Munster's _Cosmography_ in the early part of the 16th century, used
+specially for discovering metallic lodes or water beneath the earth,
+must be distinguished from the general superstition. The "dowsing" or
+divining-rod, in this sense, has a modern interest, dating from its use
+by prospectors for minerals in the German (Harz Mountains) mining
+districts; the French chemist M.E. Chevreul[1] assigns its first mention
+to Basil Valentine, the alchemist of the late 15th century. On account
+of its supposed magical powers, it may be taken perhaps as an historical
+analogue to such fairy wands as the _caduceus_ of Mercury, the golden
+arrow of Herodotus's "Abaris the Hyperborean," or the medieval witch's
+broomstick. But the existence of the modern water-finder or dowser makes
+the divining-rod a matter of more than mythological or superstitious
+interest. The _Schlagruthe_ (striking-rod), or forked twig of the German
+miners, was brought to England by those engaged in the Cornish mines by
+the merchant venturers of Queen Elizabeth's day. Professor W. F.
+Barrett, F.R.S., the chief modern investigator of this subject, regards
+its employment, dating as it does from the revival of learning, as based
+on the medieval doctrine of "sympathy," the drooping of trees and
+character of the vegetation being considered to give indications of
+mineral lodes beneath the earth's surface, by means of a sort of
+attraction; and such critical works as Robert Boyle's (1663), or the
+_Mineralogia Cornubiensis_ of Pryce (1778), admitted its value in
+discovering metals. But as mining declined in Cornwall, the use of the
+dowser for searching for lodes almost disappeared, and was transferred
+to water-finding. The divining-rod has, however, also been used for
+searching for any buried objects. In the south of France, in the 17th
+century, it was employed in tracking criminals and heretics. Its abuse
+led to a decree of the Inquisition in 1701, forbidding its employment
+for purposes of justice.
+
+In modern times the professional dowser is a "water-finder," and there
+has been a good deal of investigation into the possibility of a
+scientific explanation of his claims to be able to locate underground
+water, where it is not known to exist, by the use of a forked hazel-twig
+which, twisting in his hands, leads him by its directing-power to the
+place where a boring should be made. Whether justified or not, a
+widespread faith exists, based no doubt on frequent success, in the
+dowser's power; and Professor Barrett (_The Times_, January 21, 1905)
+states that "making a liberal allowance for failures of which I have not
+heard, I have no hesitation in saying that where fissure water exists
+and the discovery of underground water sufficient for a domestic supply
+is a matter of the utmost difficulty, the chances of success with a good
+dowser far exceed mere lucky hits, or the success obtained by the most
+skilful observer, even with full knowledge of the local geology." Is
+this due to any special faculty in the dowser, or has the twig itself
+anything to do with it? Held in balanced equilibrium, the forked twig,
+in the dowser's hands, moves with a sudden and often violent motion, and
+the appearance of actual life in the twig itself, though regarded as
+mere stage-play by some, is popularly associated with the cause of the
+water-finder's success. The theory that there is any direct connexion
+("sympathy" or electrical influence) between the divining-rod and the
+water or metal, is however repudiated by modern science. Professor
+Barrett, who with Professor Janet and others is satisfied that the rod
+twists without any intention or voluntary deception on the part of the
+dowser, ascribes the phenomenon to "motor-automatism" on the part of the
+dowser (see AUTOMATISM), a reflex action excited by some stimulus upon
+his mind, which may be either a subconscious suggestion or an actual
+impression (obscure in its nature) from an external object or an
+external mind; both sorts of stimulus are possible, so that the dowser
+himself may make false inferences (and fail) by supposing that the
+stimulus is an external object (like water). The divining-rod being thus
+"an indicator of any sub-conscious suggestion or impression," its
+indications, no doubt, may be fallacious; but Professor Barrett, basing
+his conclusions upon observed successes and their greater proportion to
+failures than anything that chance could produce, advances the
+hypothesis that some persons (like the professional dowsers) possess "a
+genuine super-normal perceptive faculty," and that the mind of a good
+dowser, possessing the idiosyncrasy of motor-automatism, becomes a blank
+or _tabula rasa_, so that "the faintest impression made by the object
+searched for creates an involuntary or automatic motion of the
+indicator, whatever it may be." Like the "homing instinct" of certain
+birds and animals, the dowser's power lies beneath the level of any
+conscious perception; and the function of the forked twig is to act as
+an index of some material or other mental disturbance within him, which
+otherwise he could not interpret.
+
+It should be added that dowsers do not always use any rod. Some again
+use a willow rod, or withy, others a hazel-twig (the traditional
+material), others a beech or holly twig, or one from any other tree;
+others even a piece of wire or watch-spring. The best dowsers are said
+to have been generally more or less illiterate men, usually engaged in
+some humble vocation.
+
+Sir W. H. Preece (_The Times_, January 16, 1905), repudiating as an
+electrician the theory that any electric force is involved, has recorded
+his opinion that water-finding by a dowser is due to "mechanical
+vibration, set up by the friction of moving water, acting upon the
+sensitive ventral diaphragm of certain exceptionally delicately framed
+persons." Another theory is that water-finders are "exceptionally
+sensitive to hygrometric influences." In any case, modern science
+approaches the problem as one concerning which the facts have to be
+accepted, and explained by some natural, though obscure, cause.
+
+  See for further details Professor Barrett's longer discussion in parts
+  32 (1897) and 38 (1900) of the _Proceedings of the Society for
+  Psychical Research_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _La Baguette divinatoire_ (Paris, 1845).
+
+
+
+
+DIVISION (from Lat. _dividere_, to break up into parts, separate), a
+general term for the action of breaking up a whole into parts. Thus, in
+political economy, the phrase "division of labour" implies the
+assignment to particular workmen of the various portions of a whole
+piece of work; in mathematics division is the process of finding how
+many times one number or quantity, the "divisor," is contained in
+another, the "dividend" (see ARITHMETIC and ALGEBRA); in the musical
+terminology of the 17th and 18th centuries, the term was used for rapid
+passages consisting of a few slow notes amplified into a florid passage,
+i.e. into a larger number of quick ones. The word is used also in
+concrete senses for the parts into which a thing is divided, e.g. a
+division of an army, an administrative or electoral division; similarly,
+a "division" is taken in a legislative body when votes are recorded for
+and against a proposed measure.
+
+In logic, division is a technical term for the process by which a
+_genus_ is broken up into its _species_. Thus the genus "animal" may be
+divided, according to the habitat of the various kinds, into animals
+which live on land, those which live in water, those which live in the
+air. Each of these may be subdivided according to whether their
+constituent members do or do not possess certain other qualities. The
+basis of each of these divisions is called the _fundamentum divisionis_.
+It is clear that there can be no division in respect of those qualities
+which make the genus what it is. The various species are all alike in
+the possession of the generic attributes, but differ in other respects;
+they are "variations on the same theme" (Joseph, _Introduction to
+Logic_, 1906); each one has the generic, and also certain peculiar,
+qualities (_differentiae_), which latter distinguish them from other
+species of the same genus. The process of division is thus the obverse
+of classification (q.v.); it proceeds from genus to species, whereas
+classification begins with the particulars and rises through species to
+genus. In the exact sciences, and indeed in all argument both practical
+and theoretical, accurate division is of great importance. It is
+governed by the following rules. (1) _Division must be exhaustive_; all
+the members of the genus must find a place in one or other of the
+species; a captain who selects for his team skilful batsmen and bowlers
+only is guilty of an incomplete division of the whole function of a
+cricket team by omitting to provide himself with good fielders.
+Rectilinear figures cannot be divided into triangles and quadrilaterals
+because there are rectilinear figures which have more than four sides.
+On the other hand, triangles can be divided into equilateral, isosceles
+and scalene, since no other kind of triangle can exist. (2) Division
+_must be exclusive_, that is, each species must be complete in itself
+and not contain members of another species. No member of a genus must be
+included in more than one of the species. (3) In every division _there
+must be but one principle (fundamentum divisionis)_. The members of a
+genus may differ from one another in many respects, e.g. books may be
+divided according to external form into quarto, octavo, &c., or
+according to binding into calf, cloth, paper-backed and so on. They
+cannot, however, be divided logically into quarto, paper-backed, novels
+and remainders. When more than one principle is used in a division it is
+called "cross division." (4) _Division must proceed gradually_ ("Divisio
+non facit saltum"), i.e. the genus must be resolved into the next
+highest ("proximate") species. To go straight from a _summum genus_ to
+very small species is of no scientific value.
+
+It is to be observed that logical division is concerned exclusively with
+universals or concepts; division is of genus and species, not of
+particulars. Two other kinds of division are recognized:--_metaphysical
+division_, the separation in thought of the various qualities possessed
+by an individual thing (a piece of lead has weight, colour, &c), and
+_physical division_ or _partition_, the breaking up of an object into
+its parts (a watch is thought of as being composed of case, dial, works,
+&c.). Logical division is closely allied with logical definition (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+DIVORCE (Lat. _divortium_, derived from dis-, apart, and vertere, to
+turn), the dissolution, in whole or in part, of the tie of marriage. It
+includes both the complete abrogation of the marriage relation known as
+a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_, which carries with it a power on the
+part of both parties to the marriage to remarry other persons or each
+other, and also that incomplete severance not involving powers to
+remarry, which was formerly known as divorce a _mensa et thoro_, and has
+in England been termed "judicial separation." Less strictly, divorce is
+commonly understood to include judicial declarations of nullity of
+marriage, which, while practically terminating the marriage relation,
+proceed in law on the basis of the marriage never having been legally
+established.
+
+The conditions under which, in different communities, divorce has at
+different times been permitted, vary with the aspects in which the
+relation of marriage (q.v.) has been regarded. When marriage has been
+deemed to be the acquisition by the husband of property in the wife, or
+when it has been regarded as a mere agreement between persons capable
+both to form and to dissolve that contract, we find that marriage has
+been dissoluble at the will of the husband, or by agreement of the
+husband and wife. Yet even in these cases the interest of the whole
+community in the purity of marriage relations, in the pecuniary bearings
+of this particular contract, and the condition of children, has led to
+the imposition of restrictions on, and the attachment of conditions to,
+the termination of the obligations consequent on a marriage legally
+contracted. But the main restrictions on liberty of divorce have arisen
+from the conception of marriage entertained by religions, and especially
+by one religion. Christianity has had no greater practical effect on the
+life of mankind than in its belief that marriage is no mere civil
+contract, but a vow in the sight of God binding the parties by
+obligations of conscience above and beyond those of civil law.
+Translating this conception into practice, Christianity not only
+profoundly modified the legal conditions of divorce as formulated in the
+Roman civil law, but in its own canon law defined its own rule of
+divorce, going so far as in the Western (at least in its unreformed
+condition), though not the Eastern, branch of Christendom to forbid all
+complete divorces, that is to say, all dissolutions of marriage carrying
+with them the right to remarry.
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+_The Roman Law of Divorce before Justinian._--The history of divorce,
+therefore, practically begins with the law of Rome. It took its earliest
+colour from that conception of the _patria potestas_, or the power of
+the head of the family over its members, which enters so deeply into the
+jurisprudence of ancient Rome. The wife was transferred at marriage to
+the authority of her husband, _in manus_, and consequently became so far
+subject to him that he could, at his will, renounce his rule over her,
+and terminate his companionship, subject at least to an adjustment of
+the pecuniary rights which were disturbed by such action. So clearly was
+the power of the husband derived from that of the father, that for a
+long period a father, in the exercise of his _potestas_, could take his
+daughter from her husband against the wishes of both. It may be presumed
+that this power, anomalous as it appears, was not unexercised, as we
+find that a constitution of Antoninus Pius prohibited a father from
+disturbing a harmonious union, and Marcus Aurelius afterwards limited
+this prohibition by allowing the interference of a father for strong and
+just cause--_magna et justa causa interveniente_. Except in so far as it
+was restrained by special legislation, the authority of a husband in the
+matter of divorce was absolute. As early indeed, however, as the time of
+Romulus, it is said that the state asserted its interest in the
+permanence of marriage by forbidding the repudiation of wives unless
+they were guilty of adultery or of drinking wine, on pain of forfeiture
+of the whole of an offender's property, one-half of which went to the
+wife, the other to Ceres. But the law of the XII. Tables, in turn,
+allowed freedom of divorce. It would appear, however, that the sense of
+the community was so far shocked by the inhumanity of treating a wife as
+mere property, or the risk of regarding marriage as a mere terminable
+contract, that, without crystallizing into positive enactment, it
+operated to prevent the exercise of so harsh and dangerous a power. It
+is said that for 500 years no husband took advantage of his power, and
+it was then only by an order of a censor, however obtained, that Spurius
+Carvilius Ruga repudiated his wife for barrenness. We may, however, be
+permitted to doubt the genuineness of this censorial order, or at least
+to conjecture the influence under which the censor was induced to
+intervene, when we find that in another instance, that of L. Antonius, a
+censor punished an unjust divorce by expulsion from the senate, and that
+the exercise of their power by husbands increased to a great and
+alarming extent. Probably few of the admirers of the greatest of Roman
+orators have not regretted his summary and wholly informal repudiation
+of Terentia. At last the _lex Julia de adulteriis_, while recognizing a
+power of divorce both in the husband and in the wife, imposed on it, in
+the public interest, serious restrictions and consequences. It required
+a written bill of divorce (_libellus repudii_) to be given in the
+presence of seven witnesses, who must be Roman citizens of age, and the
+divorce must be publicly registered. The act was, however, purely an act
+of the party performing it, and no idea of judicial interference or
+contract seems to have been entertained. It was not necessary for either
+husband or wife giving the bill to acquaint the other with it before its
+execution, though it was considered proper to deliver the bill, when
+made, to the other party. In this way a wife could divorce a lunatic
+husband, or the _paterfamilias_ of a lunatic wife could divorce her from
+her husband. But the _lex Julia_ was also the first of a series of
+enactments by which pecuniary consequences were imposed on divorce both
+by husbands and wives, whether the intention was to restrain divorce by
+penalties of this nature, or to readjust pecuniary relations settled on
+the basis of marriage and disturbed by its rupture. It was provided that
+if the wife was guilty of adultery, her husband in divorcing her could
+retain one-sixth of her _dos_, but if she had committed a less serious
+offence, one-eighth. If the husband was guilty of adultery, he had to
+make immediate restitution of her dowry, or if it consisted of land, the
+annual proceeds for three years; if he was guilty of a less serious
+offence, he had six months within which to restore the _dos_. If both
+parties were in fault, no penalty fell on either. The _lex Julia_ was
+followed by a series of acts of legislation extending and modifying its
+provisions. The legislation of Constantine, A.D. 331, specified certain
+causes for which alone a divorce could take place without the imposition
+of pecuniary penalties. There were three causes for which a wife could
+divorce her husband with impunity: (1) murder, (2) preparation of
+poisons, (3) violation of tombs; but if she divorced him for any other
+cause, such as drunkenness, or gambling or immoral society, she
+forfeited her dowry and incurred the further penalty of deportation.
+There were also three causes for which a husband could divorce his wife
+without incurring any penalty: (1) adultery, (2) preparation of poisons,
+(3) acting as a procuress. If he divorced her for any other cause, he
+forfeited all interest in her dowry; and if he married again, the first
+wife could take the dowry of the second.
+
+In A.D. 421 the emperors Honorius and Theodosius enacted a law of
+divorce which introduced limitations on the power of remarriage as an
+additional penalty in certain cases. As regards a wife: (1) if she
+divorced her husband for grave reasons or crime, she retained her dowry
+and could remarry after five years; (2) if she divorced him for criminal
+conduct or moderate faults, she forfeited her dowry, became incapable of
+remarriage, and liable to deportation, nor could the emperor's
+prerogative of pardon be exerted in her favour. As regards a husband: if
+he divorced his wife (1) for serious crime, he retained the dowry and
+could remarry immediately; (2) for criminal conduct, he did not retain
+the dowry, but could remarry; (3) for mere dislike, he forfeited the
+property brought into the marriage and could not remarry.
+
+In A.D. 449 the law of divorce was rendered simpler and certainly more
+facile by Theodosius and Valentinian. It was provided that a wife could
+divorce her husband without incurring any penalty if he was convicted of
+any one of twelve offences: (1) treason, (2) adultery, (3) homicide, (4)
+poisoning, (5) forgery, (6) violating tombs, (7) stealing from a church,
+(8) robbery, (9) cattle-stealing, (10) attempting his wife's life, (11)
+beating his wife, (12) introducing immoral women to his house. If the
+wife divorced her husband for any other cause, she forfeited her dowry,
+and could not marry again for five years. A husband could divorce his
+wife without incurring a penalty for any of these reasons except the
+last, and also for the following reasons: (1) going to dine with men
+other than her relations without the knowledge or against the wish of
+her husband; (2) going from home at night against his wish without
+reasonable cause; (3) frequenting the circus, theatre or amphitheatre
+after being forbidden by her husband. If a husband divorced his wife for
+any other reason, he forfeited all interest in his wife's dowry, and
+also any property he brought into the marriage.
+
+The above sketch of the legislation prior to the time of Justinian,
+while it indicates a desire to place the husband and wife on something
+like terms of equality as regards divorce, indicates also, by its
+forbidding remarriage and by its pecuniary provisions in certain cases,
+a sense in the community of the importance in the public interest of
+restraining the violation of the contract of marriage. But to the Roman
+marriage was primarily a contract, and therefore side by side with this
+legislation there always existed a power of divorce by mutual consent.
+We must now turn to those principles of the Christian religion which, in
+combination with the legislation above described, produced the law
+formulated by Justinian.
+
+_The Christian View of Divorce._--The Christian law of divorce as
+enunciated by its Founder was expressed in a few words, but these,
+unfortunately, by no means of agreed interpretation. To appreciate them
+it is necessary to consider the enactment of the Mosaic law, which also
+was expressed in few words, but of a meaning involved in much doubt. The
+phrase in Deut. xxiv. 1-4, which is translated in the Authorized Version
+"some uncleanness," but in the Revised Version, "some unseemly thing,"
+and which is the only cause stated to justify the giving of a "bill of
+divorcement," was limited by the school of Shanmai to moral delinquency,
+but was extended by the rival school of Hillel to causes of trifling
+importance or even to motives of caprice. The wider interpretation would
+seem to be supported by the words of Christ (Matt. v. 31), who, in
+indicating His own doctrine in contradistinction to the law of Moses,
+said, "Whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for the cause of
+fornication ([Greek: porneias]), causeth her to commit adultery; and
+whosoever shall marry her that is divorced committeth adultery." The
+meaning of these words of Christ Himself has been involved in
+controversy, which perhaps was nowhere carried on with greater acuteness
+or under more critical conditions than within the walls of the British
+parliament during the passage of the Divorce Act of 1857. That they
+justify divorce of a complete kind for moral delinquency of some nature
+is supported by the opinion probably of every competent scholar. But
+scholars of eminence have sought to restrict the meaning of the [Greek:
+logos porneias] to antenuptial incontinence concealed from the husband,
+and to exclude adultery. The effect of this view commends itself to the
+adherents of the Church of Rome, because it places the right to
+separation between husband and wife, not on a cause supervening after a
+marriage, which that Church seeks to regard as absolutely indissoluble,
+but on invalidity in the contract of marriage itself, and which may
+therefore render the marriage liable to be declared void without
+impugning its indissoluble character when rightly contracted. The
+narrower view of the meaning of [Greek: porneias] has been maintained
+by, among others, Dr Döllinger (_First Ages of the Church_, ii. 226);
+but those who will consider the arguments of Professor Conington in
+reply to Dr Döllinger (_Contemp. Review_, May 1869) will probably assign
+the palm to the English scholar. A more general view points in the same
+direction. It is quite true that under the Mosaic law antenuptial
+incontinence was, as was also adultery, punishable with death. But when
+we consider the effect of adultery not only as a moral fault, but as
+violating the solemn contract of marriage and vitiating its objects, it
+is inconceivable that Christ, in employing a term of general import,
+intended to limit it to one kind, and that the less serious, of
+incontinence.
+
+_Effect of Christianity on the Law of Rome._--The modification in the
+civil law of Rome effected by Justinian under the joint influence of the
+previous law of Rome and that of Christianity was remarkable. Gibbon has
+summed up the change effected in the law of Rome with characteristic
+accuracy: "The Christian princes were the first who specified the just
+causes of a private divorce; their institutions from Constantine to
+Justinian appear to fluctuate between the customs of the empire and the
+wishes of the Church; and the author of the Novels too frequently
+reforms the jurisprudence of the Code and Pandects." Divorce by mutual
+consent, hitherto, as we have seen, absolutely free, was prohibited
+(Nov. 117) except in three cases: (1) when the husband was impotent; (2)
+when either husband or wife desired to enter a monastery; and (3) when
+either of them was in captivity for a certain length of time. It is
+obvious that the two first of these exceptions might well commend
+themselves to the mind of the Church, the former as being rather a
+matter of nullity of marriage than of divorce, the latter as admitting
+the paramount claims of the Church on its adherents, and not
+inconsistent with the spirit of the words of St Paul himself, who
+clearly contemplated a separation between husband and wife as allowable
+in case either of them did not hold the Christian faith (1 Cor. vii.
+12). At a later period Justinian placed a further restriction or even
+prohibition on divorce by consent by enacting that spouses dissolving a
+marriage by mutual consent should forfeit all their property, and be
+confined for life in a monastery, which was to receive one-third of the
+forfeited property, the remaining two-thirds going to the children of
+the marriage. The cause stated for this remarkable alteration of the
+law, and the abandonment of the conception of marriage as a civil
+contract _ut non Dei judicium contemnatur_ (Nov. 134), indicates the
+influence of the Christian idea of marriage. That influence, however,
+did not long continue in its full force. The prohibitions of Justinian
+on divorce by consent were repealed by Justin (Nov. 140), his successor.
+"He yielded," says Gibbon, "to the prayers of his unhappy subjects, and
+restored the liberty of divorce by mutual consent; the civilians were
+unanimous, the theologians were divided, and the ambiguous word which
+contains the precept of Christ is flexible to any interpretation that
+the wisdom of a legislature can demand." It was difficult, the enactment
+stated, "to reconcile those who once came to hate each other, and who,
+if compelled to live together, frequently attempted each other's lives."
+
+Justinian further re-enacted, with some modifications, the power of
+divorce by a husband or wife against the will of the other. Divorce by a
+wife was allowed in five cases (Nov. 117): (1) the husband being party
+or privy to conspiracy against the state; (2) attempting his wife's
+life, or failing to disclose to her plots against it; (3) attempting to
+induce his wife to commit adultery; (4) accusing his wife falsely of
+adultery; (5) taking a woman to live in the house with his wife, or,
+after warning, frequenting a house in the same town with any woman other
+than his wife. If a wife divorced her husband for one of these reasons,
+she recovered her dowry and any property brought into the marriage by
+her husband for life with reversion to her children, or if there were no
+children, absolutely. But if she divorced him for any other reason, the
+provisions of the enactment of Theodosius and Valentinian were to apply.
+A husband was allowed to divorce his wife for any one of seven reasons:
+(1) failure to disclose to her husband plots against the state; (2)
+adultery; (3) attempting or failing to disclose plots against her
+husband's life; (4) frequenting dinners or balls with other men against
+her husband's wishes; (5) remaining from home against the wishes of her
+husband except with her parents; (6) going to the circus, theatre or
+amphitheatre without the knowledge or contrary to the prohibition of her
+husband; (7) procuring abortion. If the husband divorced his wife for
+any one of these reasons he retained the dowry absolutely, or if there
+were children, with reversion to them. If he divorced her for any other
+reason, the enactments of Theodosius and Valentinian applied. In any
+case of a divorce, if the father or mother of either spouse had advanced
+the dowry and it would be forfeited by an unreasonable divorce, the
+consent of the father or mother was necessary to render the divorce
+valid.
+
+_Effect of Divorce on Children in the Law of Rome._--The custody of the
+children of divorced parents was dealt with by the Roman law in a
+liberal manner. A constitution of Diocletian and Maximian left it to the
+judge to determine in his discretion to which of the parents the
+children should go. Justinian enacted that divorce should not impair the
+rights of children either as to inheritance or maintenance. If a wife
+divorced her husband for good cause, and she remained unmarried, the
+children were to be in her custody, but to be maintained by the father;
+but if the mother was in fault, the father obtained the custody. If he
+was unable, from want of means, to support them, but she was able to do
+so, she was obliged to take them and support them. It is interesting to
+compare these provisions as to children with the practice at present
+under English law, which in this respect reflects so closely the spirit
+of the law of Rome.
+
+_The Canon Law of Divorce._--The canon law of Rome was based on two main
+principles: (1) That there could be no divorce a _vinculo matrimonii_,
+but only _a mensa et thoro_. The rule was stated in the most absolute
+terms: _"Quamdiu vivit vir licet adulter sit, licet sodomita, licet
+flagitiis omnibus coopertus, et ab uxore propter haec scelera
+derelictus, maritus ejus reputatur, cui alterum vivum accipere non
+licet"_ (Caus. 32, Quaest. 7, c. 7). (2) That no divorce could be had at
+the will of the parties, but only by the sentence of a competent, that
+is to say, an ecclesiastical, court. In this negation of a right to
+divorce a _vinculo matrimonii_ lies the broad difference between the
+doctrines of the Eastern and Western Churches of Christendom. The Greek
+Church, understanding the words of Christ in the broader sense above
+mentioned, has always allowed complete divorce with a right to remarry
+for the cause of adultery. And it is said that the form at least of an
+anathema of the council of Trent was modified out of respect to
+difference on the part of the Greek Church (see Pothier 5. 6. 21). The
+papal canon law allowed a divorce a _mensa et thoro_ for six causes: (1)
+adultery or unnatural offences; (2) impotency; (3) cruelty; (4)
+infidelity; (5) entering into religion; (6) consanguinity. The Church,
+however, always assumed to itself the right to grant licences for an
+absolute divorce; and further, by claiming the power to declare
+marriages null and void, though professedly this could be done only in
+cases where the original contract could be said to be void, it was, and
+is to this day, undoubtedly extended in practice to cases in which it is
+impossible to suppose the original contract really void, but in which a
+complete divorce is on other grounds desirable.
+
+
+DIVORCE IN ENGLAND
+
+In England the law of divorce, originally based on the canon law of
+Rome, underwent some, though little, permanent change at the
+Reformation, but was profoundly modified by the exercise of the power of
+the state through legislation. From the canon law was derived the
+principle that divorce could legally take place only by sentence of the
+court, and never at the will of the parties. Complete divorce has never
+been governed by any other principle than this; and in so far as an
+incomplete divorce has become practicable at the will of the parties, it
+has been by the intervention of civil tribunals and contrary to the law
+of the ecclesiastical courts. Those courts adopted as ground for divorce
+_a mensa et thoro_ the main grounds allowed by Roman canon law, adultery
+and cruelty (Ayliffe, 22; Co. Lit. 102; 1 Salk. 162; Godolphin Abridg.
+495). The causes of heresy and of entering into religion, if ever they
+were recognized in England, ceased to exist at the Reformation.
+
+The principles upon which the English ecclesiastical courts proceeded in
+divorce _a mensa et thoro_ are those which are still in force, and which
+(with some modification by statutory enactment) have been administered
+by judicial tribunals down to the present day. The courts by which the
+ecclesiastical law, and therefore the law of divorce, was administered
+were, until 1857, the courts of the various dioceses, including that of
+the archbishop of Canterbury, known as the Court of Arches, and that of
+the archbishop of York, known as the Consistory Court of York; but by
+statute a suitor was prevented from taking proceedings in any court
+except that determined by the residence of the person against whom
+proceedings were taken (23 Hen. VIII. c. 9). From these courts an appeal
+lay to delegates appointed in each case by the crown, until the
+establishment of the judicial committee of the privy council in 1836,
+when the appeal was given to the crown as advised by that body.
+
+The proof of adultery (to which Isidore in his _Book of Etymologies_
+gives the fanciful derivation of "_ad alterius thorum_") was not by the
+canon law as received in England restricted by the operation of
+arbitrary rules. It was never, for example, required, as by the law of
+Mahomet, that the act should have been actually seen by competent
+witnesses, nor even that the case should be based on any particular kind
+of proof. It was recognized that the nature of the offence almost
+inevitably precluded direct evidence. One rule, however, appears to have
+commended itself to the framers of the canon law as too general in its
+application not to be regarded as a principle. The mere confession of
+the parties was not regarded as a safe ground of conviction; and this
+rule was formulated by a decretal epistle of Pope Celestine III., and,
+following it, by the 105th of the Canons of 1604. This rule has now been
+abrogated; and no doubt it is wiser not to fetter the discretion of the
+tribunal charged with the responsibility of deciding particular cases,
+but experience of divorce proceedings tends to confirm the belief that
+this rule of the canon law was founded on an accurate appreciation of
+human nature.
+
+Although, therefore, with the above exception, no strict rules of the
+evidence necessary to establish adultery have ever been established in
+the English courts, experience has indicated, and in former days judges
+of the ecclesiastical courts often expressed, the lines upon which such
+proof may be expected to proceed. It is necessary and sufficient, in
+general, to prove two things--first the guilty affection towards each
+other of the persons accused, and, secondly, an opportunity or
+opportunities of which, if so minded, their passion may have been
+gratified. It is obvious that any strong proof on either of these points
+renders strict proof on the other less needful; but when proof on both
+is afforded, the common sense of a tribunal, acting with a knowledge of
+human nature, may be trusted to draw the inevitable conclusion.
+
+The definition of cruelty accepted by the ecclesiastical courts as that
+of the canon law is the same as that which prevails at the present time;
+and the view of the law taken by the House of Lords in _Russell_ v.
+_Russell_ (1897 App. Cas. 395) was expressly based on the view of
+cruelty taken by the authorities of the ecclesiastical law. The best
+definition by older English writers is probably to be found in Clarke's
+_Praxis_ (p. 144): "Si maritus fuerit erga uxorem crudelis et ferax ac
+mortem comminatus et machinatus fuerit, vel eam inhumaniter verbis et
+verberibus tractaverit, et aliquando venenum loco potus paraverit vel
+aliquod simile commiserit, propter quod sine periculo vitae cum marito
+cohabitare aut obsequia conjugalia impendere non audeat ... consimili
+etiam causa competit viro contra mulierem." Lord Stowell, probably the
+greatest master of the civil and canon law who ever sat in an English
+court of justice, has in one of his most famous judgments (_Evans_ v.
+_Evans_, 1790, 1 Hagg. _Consist._ 35) echoed the above language in words
+often quoted, which have constituted the standard exposition of the law
+to the present day. "In the older cases," he said, "of this sort which I
+have had the opportunity of looking into, I have observed that the
+danger of life, limb or health is usually insisted as the ground upon
+which the court has proceeded to a separation. This doctrine has been
+repeatedly applied by the court in the cases which have been cited. The
+court has never been driven off this ground. It has always been jealous
+of the inconvenience of departing from it, and I have heard no one case
+cited in which the court has granted a divorce without proof given of a
+reasonable apprehension of bodily hurt. I say an apprehension, because
+assuredly the court is not to wait till the hurt is actually done; but
+the apprehension must be reasonable: it must not be an apprehension
+arising from an exquisite and diseased sensibility of mind. Petty
+vexations applied to such a constitution of mind may certainly in time
+wear out the animal machine, but still they are not cases of legal
+relief; people must relieve themselves as well as they can by prudent
+resistance, by calling in the succours of religion and the consolation
+of friends; but the aid of courts is not to be resorted to in such cases
+with any effect." The risk of personal danger in cohabitation
+constituted, therefore, the foundation of legal cruelty. But this does
+not exclude such conduct as a course of persistent ill-treatment, though
+not amounting to personal violence, especially if such ill-treatment has
+in fact caused injury to health. But the person complaining must not be
+the author of his or her own wrong. If, accordingly, one of the spouses
+by his or her conduct is really the cause of the conduct complained of,
+recourse to the court would be had in vain, the true remedy lying in a
+reformation of the real cause of the disagreement.
+
+In addition to a denial of the charge or charges, the canon law allowed
+three grounds of answer: (1) _Compensatio criminis_, a setoff of equal
+guilt or recrimination. This principle is no doubt derived from the
+Roman law and it had the effect of refusing to one guilty spouse the
+remedy of divorce against the other although equally guilty. It was
+always accepted in England, although not in other countries, such as
+France and Scotland, which also followed the canon or civil law. In
+strictness, recrimination applied to a similar offence having been
+committed by the party charging that offence. But a decision (1888) of
+the English courts shows that a wife who had committed adultery could
+not bring a suit against her husband for cruelty (_Otway_ v. _Otway_ 13
+P. D. 141). (2) _Condonation._ If the complaining spouse has, in fact,
+forgiven the offence complained of, that constitutes a conditional bar
+to any proceedings. The main and usual evidence of such forgiveness is
+constituted by a renewal of marital intercourse, and it is
+difficult-perhaps impossible-to imagine any case in which such
+intercourse would not be held to establish condonation. But condonation
+may be proved by other acts, or by words, having regard to the
+circumstances of each case. Condonation is, however, always presumed to
+be conditional on future good behaviour, and misconduct even of a
+different kind revives the former offence. (3) _Connivance_ constitutes
+a complete answer to any charge. Nor need the husband be the active
+agent of the misconduct of the wife. Indifference or neglect imputable
+to a corrupt intention are sufficient. It will be seen presently that
+modern statute law has gone further in this direction. It is to be added
+that the connivance need not be of the very act complained of, but may
+be of an act of a similar kind. A learned judge, recalling the classical
+anecdote of Maecenas and Galba, said, "A husband is not permitted to say
+_non omnibus dormio_." The ecclesiastical courts also considered
+themselves bound to refuse relief if there was shown to be _collusion_
+between the parties. In its primary and most general sense collusion was
+understood to be an agreement between the parties for the purpose of
+deceiving the court by false or fictitious evidence; for example, an
+agreement to commit, or appear to commit, an act of adultery. Collusion,
+however, is not limited to the imposing of other than genuine evidence
+on the court. It extends to an agreement to withhold any material
+evidence; and indeed is carried further, and held to extend to any
+agreement which may have the effect of concealing the real and complete
+truth from the court (see _Churchward_ v. _Churchward_, 1894, p. 161).
+This doctrine was of considerable importance even in the days when only
+divorces _a mensa et thoro_ were granted, because at that time the
+parties were not permitted to separate by consent. At the present day it
+has become, with regard to divorce a _vinculo matrimonii_, a rule of
+greater and of more far-reaching importance.
+
+The canon law as accepted in England, while allowing divorces of the
+nature and for the causes above mentioned, actively interfered to
+prevent separation between husband and wife in any other manner. A suit
+known as a suit for restitution of conjugal rights could be brought to
+compel cohabitation; and on evidence of the desertion of either spouse,
+the court ordered a return to the matrimonial home, though it carried no
+further its authority as to the matrimonial relations within the home.
+To this suit an agreement between the parties constituted no answer. But
+an answer was afforded by any conduct which would have supported a
+decree of divorce _a mensa et thoro_. It is a question whether, indeed,
+the ecclesiastical courts would not have gone further, and refused a
+decree of restitution of conjugal rights on grounds which might appear
+adequate to justify such refusal, though not sufficient on which to
+ground a decree of divorce. The view of the court of appeal and the
+House of Lords has given some colour to this opinion, and certainly the
+court of appeal has held, although perhaps somewhat hastily, that the
+effect of a modern statute has been to allow the court to refuse
+restitution of conjugal rights for causes falling short of what would
+constitute ground for divorce (_Russell_ v. _Russell_, 1895, p. 315).
+
+The ecclesiastical courts provided for the pecuniary rights of the wife
+by granting to her alimony during the progress of the suit, and a proper
+allowance after its termination in cases in which she was successful.
+Such payments were dependent on the pecuniary means, or _faculties_, as
+they were termed, of the husband, and were subject to subsequent
+increase or diminution in proper cases. But the ecclesiastical courts
+did not deal with the custody of the children of the marriage, it being
+probably considered that that matter could be determined by the common
+law rights of the father, or by the intervention of the court of
+chancery.
+
+The canon law fixed no period of limitation, either in respect of a suit
+for divorce or for restitution of conjugal rights; but, as regards at
+least suits for divorce, any substantial delay might lead to the
+imputation of acquiescence or even condonation. To that extent, at
+least, the maxim _vigilantibus non dormientibus jura subveniunt_
+applied.
+
+It is remarkable that desertion by either party to a marriage, except as
+giving rise to a suit for restitution, was not treated as an offence by
+canon law in England. It formed no ground for a suit for divorce, and
+constituted no answer to such a suit by way of recrimination. It might
+indeed deprive a husband of his remedy if it amounted to connivance, or
+perhaps even if it amounted only to culpable neglect.
+
+The canon law, as administered in England, has kept clear the logical
+distinction which exists between dissolving a marriage and declaring it
+null and void. The result has been that, in England at least, the two
+proceedings have never been allowed to pass into one another, and a
+complete divorce has not been granted on pretence of a cause really one
+for declaring the marriage void _ab initio_. But for certain causes the
+courts were prepared to declare a marriage null and void on the suit of
+either party. There is, indeed, a distinction to be drawn between a
+marriage void or only voidable, though in both cases it became the
+subject of a similar declaration. It was void in the cases of incapacity
+of the parties to contract it, arising from want of proper age, or
+consanguinity, or from a previous marriage, or from absence of consent,
+a state of things which would arise if the marriage were compelled by
+force or induced by fraud as to the nature of the contract entered into
+or the personality of the parties. It is to be remarked that, in England
+at least, the idea of fraud as connected with the solemnization of
+marriage has been kept within these narrow limits. Fraud of a different
+kind, such as deception as to the property or position of the husband or
+wife, or antecedent impurity of the wife, even if resulting in a
+concealed pregnancy, has not in England (though the last-mentioned cause
+has in other countries) been held a ground for the vitiation of a
+marriage contract. A marriage was voidable, and could be declared void,
+on the ground of physical incapacity of either spouse, the absence of
+intercourse between the parties after a sufficient period of opportunity
+being almost, if not quite, conclusive on this subject.
+
+With regard to one cause of nullity the legislation interfered from
+consideration, it is said, of a case of special hardship. Before the
+Marriage Act of 1835 marriages within the prohibited degrees of
+consanguinity and affinity were only voidable by a decree of the court,
+and remained valid unless challenged during the lifetime of both the
+parties. But this act, while providing that no previous marriage between
+persons within the prohibited degrees should be annulled by a decree of
+the ecclesiastical court pronounced in a suit depending at the time of
+the passing of the act, went on to render all such marriages thereafter
+contracted in England "absolutely null and void to all intents and
+purposes whatever."
+
+Another suit was allowed by the ecclesiastical courts which should be
+mentioned, although its bearing on divorce is indirect. This was the
+suit for _jactitation of marriage_, which in the case of any person
+falsely asserting his or her marriage to another, allowed such person to
+be put to perpetual silence by an order of the court. This suit, which
+has been of rare occurrence (though there was an instance, _Thompson_ v.
+_Rourke_, in 1892), does not appear to have been used for the purpose of
+determining the validity of a marriage. The legislature, has, however,
+in the Legitimacy Declaration Act of 1858, provided a ready means by
+which the validity of marriages and the legitimacy of children can be
+determined, and the procedure provided has repeatedly been utilised.
+
+It should be added, as a matter closely akin to the proceedings in the
+ecclesiastical courts, that the common law took cognizance of one phase
+of matrimonial relations by allowing an action by the husband against a
+paramour, known as an action for criminal conversation. In such an
+action a husband could recover damages estimated according to the loss
+he was supposed to have sustained by the seduction and loss of his wife,
+the punishment of the seducer not being altogether excluded from
+consideration. Although this action was not unfrequently (and indeed,
+for the purposes of a divorce, necessarily) brought, it was one which
+naturally was regarded with disfavour.
+
+_Effect of the Reformation._--Great as was the indirect effect of the
+Reformation upon the law of divorce in England, the direct effect was
+small. It might, indeed, have been supposed that the disappearance of
+the sacramental idea of marriage entertained by the Roman Church would
+have ushered in the greater freedom of divorce which had been associated
+with marriage regarded as a civil contract. And to some extent this was
+the case. It was for some time supposed that the sentences of divorce
+pronounced by the ecclesiastical courts acquired the effect of allowing
+remarriage, and such divorces were in some cases granted. In _Lord
+Northampton's_ case in the reign of Edward VI. the delegates pronounced
+in favour of a second marriage after a divorce _a mensa et thoro_. It
+was, however, finally decided in _Foljambe's_ case, in the 44th year of
+Elizabeth, that a marriage validly contracted could not be dissolved for
+any cause. But the growing sense of the right to a complete divorce for
+adequate cause, when no longer any religious law to the contrary could
+be validly asserted, in time compelled the discovery of a remedy. The
+commission appointed by Henry VIII. and Edward VI. to reform the
+ecclesiastical law drew up the elaborate report known as the
+_Reformatio Legum_, and in this they recommended that divorces _a mensa
+et thoro_ should be abolished, and in their place complete divorce
+allowed for the causes of adultery, desertion and cruelty. These
+proposals, however, never became law. In 1669 a private act of
+parliament was granted in the case of Lord de Roos, and this was
+followed by another in the case of the duke of Norfolk in 1692. Such
+acts were, however, rare until the accession of the House of Hanover,
+only five acts passing before that period. Afterwards their number
+considerably increased. Between 1715 and 1775 there were sixty such
+acts, in the next twenty-five years there were seventy-four, and between
+1800 and 1850 there were ninety. In 1829 alone there were seven, and in
+1830 nine.
+
+The jurisdiction thus assumed by parliament to grant absolute divorces
+was exercised with great care. The case was fully investigated before a
+committee of the House of Lords, and not only was the substance of
+justice so secured, but the House of Lords further required that
+application to parliament should be preceded by a successful suit in the
+ecclesiastical courts resulting in a decree of divorce _a mensa et
+thoro_, and in the case of a husband being the applicant, a successful
+action at common law and the recovery of damages against the paramour.
+In this way, and also, if needful, on its own initiative, the House of
+Lords provided that there should be no connivance or collusion. Care was
+also taken that a proper allowance was secured to the wife in cases in
+which she was not the offending party. This procedure is still pursued
+in the case of Irish divorces.
+
+It is obvious, however, that the necessity for costly proceedings before
+the Houses of Parliament imposed great hardship on the mass of the
+population, and there can be little doubt that this hardship was deeply
+felt. Repeated proposals were made to parliament with a view to reform
+of the law, and more than one commission reported on the subject. It is
+said that the final impetus was given by an address to a prisoner by Mr
+Justice Maule. The prisoner's wife had deserted him with her paramour,
+and he married again during her lifetime. He was indicted for bigamy,
+and convicted, and Mr Justice Maule sentenced him in the following
+words:--"Prisoner at the bar: You have been convicted of the offence of
+bigamy, that is to say, of marrying a woman while you had a wife still
+alive, though it is true she has deserted you and is living in adultery
+with another man. You have, therefore, committed a crime against the
+laws of your country, and you have also acted under a very serious
+misapprehension of the course which you ought to have pursued. You
+should have gone to the ecclesiastical court and there obtained against
+your wife a decree _a mensa et thoro_. You should then have brought an
+action in the courts of common law and recovered, as no doubt you would
+have recovered, damages against your wife's paramour. Armed with these
+decrees, you should have approached the legislature and obtained an act
+of parliament which would have rendered you free and legally competent
+to marry the person whom you have taken on yourself to marry with no
+such sanction. It is quite true that these proceedings would have cost
+you many hundreds of pounds, whereas you probably have not as many
+pence. But the law knows no distinction between rich and poor. The
+sentence of the court upon you, therefore, is that you be imprisoned for
+one day, which period has already been exceeded, as you have been in
+custody since the commencement of the assizes." The grave irony of the
+learned judge was felt to represent truly a state of things well-nigh
+intolerable, and a reform in the law of divorce was felt to be
+inevitable. The hour and the man came in 1857, the man in the person of
+Sir Richard Bethell (afterwards Lord Westbury), then attorney-general.
+
+_The Act of 1857._--Probably few measures have been conceived with such
+consummate skill and knowledge, and few conducted through parliament
+with such dexterity and determination. The leading opponent of the
+measure was Mr Gladstone, backed by the zeal of the High Church party
+and inspired by his own matchless subtlety and resource. But the contest
+proved to be unequal, and after debates in which every line, almost
+every word, of the measure was hotly contested, especially in the House
+of Commons, the measure emerged substantially as it had been
+introduced. Not the least part of the merit and success of the act of
+1857 is due to the skill which, while effecting a great social change,
+did so with the smallest possible amount of innovation. The act (which
+came into operation on the 1st of January 1858) embodied two main
+principles: 1. The constitution of a lay court for the administration of
+all matters connected with divorce. 2. The transfer to that court, with
+as little change as possible, of the powers exercised in matrimonial
+matters by (a) the House of Lords, (b) the ecclesiastical courts, (c)
+the courts of common law.
+
+_The Constitution of the Court._--The new court, termed "The Court for
+Divorce and Matrimonial Causes," was constituted by the lord chancellor,
+the chiefs and the senior puisne judges of the three courts of common
+law, and the judge of the court of probate (which was also established
+in 1857), but the functions of the court were practically entrusted to
+the judge of the court of probate, termed the "Judge Ordinary," who thus
+in matters of probate and divorce became the representative of the
+former ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The judge ordinary was empowered
+either to sit alone or with one or more of the other judges to
+constitute a full court. The parties to a suit obtained the right of
+trial by jury of all disputed questions of fact; and the rules of
+evidence of the common law courts were made to apply. An appeal to the
+full court was given in all matters, which the judge ordinary was
+enabled to hear sitting alone.
+
+1. To this court were transferred all the powers of the ecclesiastical
+courts with regard to suits for divorce _a mensa et thoro_, to which the
+name was given of suits for "judicial separation," nullity, restitution
+of conjugal rights, and jactitation of marriage, and in all such
+proceedings it was expressly enacted (sec. 22) that the court should act
+on principles and rules as nearly as possible conformable to the
+principles and rules of the ecclesiastical courts. Judicial separation
+could be obtained by either husband or wife for adultery, or cruelty, or
+desertion continued for two or more years.
+
+2. There were also transferred to the court powers equivalent to those
+exercised by the legislature in granting absolute divorce. The husband
+could obtain a divorce for adultery, the wife could obtain a divorce for
+adultery coupled with cruelty or desertion for two or more years, and
+also for incestuous or bigamous adultery, or rape, or unnatural
+offences. The same conditions as had been required by the legislature
+were insisted on. A petition for dissolution (sec. 30) was to be
+dismissed in case of connivance, condonation or collusion; and further,
+the court had power, though it was not compelled, to dismiss such
+petition if the petitioner had been guilty of adultery, or if there had
+been unreasonable delay in presenting or prosecuting the petition, or if
+the petitioner had been guilty of cruelty or desertion without
+reasonable excuse, or of wilful neglect or misconduct conducing to the
+adultery. The exercise of these discretionary powers of the court, just
+and valuable as they undoubtedly are, has been attended with some
+difficulty. But the view of the legislature has on the whole been
+understood to be that the adultery of a petitioner should not constitute
+a bar to his or her proceeding, if it has been caused by the misconduct
+of the respondent, and that cruelty should not constitute such a bar
+unless it has caused or contributed to the misconduct of the respondent.
+But the court, while regarding its powers as those of a judicial and not
+an arbitrary discretion, has declined to fetter itself by any fixed rule
+of interpretation or practice.
+
+It is to be observed that this act assigned a new force to desertion.
+The ecclesiastical law regarded it only as suggestive of connivance or
+culpable neglect. But the act of 1857 made it (1) a ground of judicial
+separation if continued for two years, (2) a ground in part of
+dissolution of marriage if continued for the same period, (3) a bar, in
+the discretion of the court, to a petition for dissolution, though it
+was not made in a similar way any bar to a suit for judicial separation.
+It is also to be observed that the act was confined to causes of divorce
+recognized by the ecclesiastical law as administered in England. It did
+not either extend the causes of a suit for nullity by adding such
+grounds as antenuptial incontinence, even if accompanied with
+pregnancy, nor did it borrow from the civil law of Rome either lunacy or
+crime as grounds for divorce.
+
+Much comment has been made on the different grounds on which divorce is
+allowed to a husband and to a wife,--it being necessary to prove
+infidelity in both cases, but a wife being compelled to show either an
+aggravation of that offence or an addition to it. Opinions probably will
+always differ whether the two sexes should be placed on an equality in
+this respect, abstract justice being invoked, and the idea of marriage
+as a mere contract pointing in one direction, and social considerations
+in the other. But the reason of the legislature for making the
+distinction is clear. It is that the wife is entitled to an absolute
+divorce only if her reconciliation with her husband is neither to be
+expected nor desired. This was no doubt the view taken by the House of
+Lords. In 1801 a Mrs Addison claimed an absolute divorce on the ground
+of her husband's incest with her sister. The matter was long debated,
+but Lord Thurlow, who appeared in the House of Lords for the last time
+in order to support the bill, turned the scale by arguing that it was
+improper that the wife should under such circumstances return to her
+husband (see Campbell, _Lives of the Chancellors_, vii. 145). "Why do
+you," he said, "grant to the husband a divorce for the adultery of the
+wife? Because he ought not to forgive her, and separation is inevitable.
+Where the wife cannot forgive, and separation is inevitable by reason of
+the crime of the husband, the wife is entitled to the like remedy."
+
+The act (sec. 32) provided, in case of dissolution, for maintenance of
+the wife by the husband on principles similar to those recognized by the
+ecclesiastical courts, and (sec. 45) for the settlement of the property
+of a guilty wife on her husband or children; but this enactment was
+imperfect, as provision was made only for a settlement and not for
+payment of an allowance, and none was made for altering settlements made
+in view or in consequence of a marriage. The act (sec. 35) provides also
+in all divorce proceedings, and also in those of nullity, for provision
+for the custody, maintenance and education of children by the court:
+provisions of great value, which were unfortunately for some time
+limited by an erroneous view of the court that the age of the children
+to which such provisions applied should be considered limited to
+sixteen. The act of 1857 also transferred to the new court the powers
+exercised by the common law courts in the action for criminal
+conversation. It was made obligatory to join an alleged adulterer in the
+suit, and damages (sec. 33) might be claimed against him, and he might
+be ordered to pay the cost of the proceedings (sec. 34), the extent
+depending upon the circumstances of each case.[1]
+
+The act of 1857 in one respect went beyond a transfer of the powers
+exercised by the ecclesiastical courts or the legislature. It provided
+(sec. 21) that a wife deserted by her husband might apply to a
+magistrate in petty sessions and obtain an order which had the effect of
+protecting her earnings and property, and during the currency of such
+order of protection a wife was to be in the same position as if she had
+obtained an order for judicial separation. The effect of this section
+appears to have been small; but the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women)
+Act 1895 has afforded a cheap and speedy remedy to all classes.
+
+The framers of the act of 1857 were careful to avoid offending the
+scruples of clergymen who disapproved of the complete dissolution of
+marriage by a lay court. It was provided (secs. 57 and 58) that no
+clergyman should be compelled to solemnize the marriage of any person
+whose former marriage had been dissolved on the ground of his or her
+adultery, but should permit any other clergyman to solemnize the
+marriage in any church or chapel in which the parties were entitled to
+be married. It is to be feared that this concession, ample as it
+appears, has not allayed conscientious objections, which are perhaps
+from their nature insuperable. The act made no provision as to the name
+to be borne by a wife after a divorce; and this omission led to
+litigation in the case of a peer's wife, in _Cowley_ v. _Cowley_, in
+which Lady Cowley was allowed to retain her status.
+
+_Modifications of the Act of 1857._--Subsequent legislation has made
+good many of the defects of the act of 1857. In 1859 power was given to
+the court, after a decree of dissolution or of nullity of marriage, to
+inquire into the existence of ante- and post-nuptial settlements, and to
+make orders with respect to the property settled either for the benefit
+of children of the marriage or their parents; and a subsequent act (41 &
+42 Vict. c. 19, s. 3) removed a doubt which was entertained whether
+these powers could be exercised if there were no children of the
+marriage. In 1860 a very important change was made, having for its
+object a practical mode of preventing divorces in cases of connivance
+and collusion or of misconduct of the petitioner. It was provided that a
+claim of dissolution (a provision afterwards extended to decrees of
+nullity) should in the first instance be a decree nisi, which should not
+be made absolute until the expiration of a period then fixed at not less
+than three, but by subsequent legislation enlarged to not less than six,
+months. During the interval which elapsed between the decree nisi and
+such decree being made absolute, power was given to any person to
+intervene in the suit and show cause why the decree should not be made
+absolute, by reason of the same having been obtained by collusion, or by
+reason of material facts not brought before the court; and it was also
+provided that, at any time before the decree was made absolute, the
+queen's proctor, if led to suspect that the parties were acting in
+collusion for the purpose of obtaining a divorce contrary to the justice
+of the case, might under the direction of the attorney-general intervene
+and allege such case of collusion. This enactment (extended in the year
+1873 to suits for nullity) was ill drawn and unskilfully conceived. The
+power given to any person whomsoever to intervene is no doubt too wide,
+and practically has had little or no useful effect as employed by
+friends or enemies of parties to a suit. The limitation in terms of the
+express power of the queen's proctor to intervene in cases of collusion
+was undoubtedly too narrow. But the queen's proctor, or the official by
+whom that officer was afterwards represented, has in practice availed
+himself of the general authority given to any person to show cause why a
+decree _nisi_ should not be made absolute, and has thus been enabled to
+render such important service to the administration of justice that it
+is difficult to imagine the due execution of the law of divorce by a
+court without such assistance. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1866 power
+was given to the court to order an allowance to be paid by a guilty
+husband to a wife on a dissolution of marriage. This act also can hardly
+be considered to have been drawn with sufficient care, inasmuch as while
+it provides that if the husband's means diminish, the allowance may be
+diminished or suspended, it makes no corresponding provision for
+increase of the allowance if the husband's means increase; nor,
+apparently, does it permit of an allowance in addition to, but only in
+substitution for, a settlement. The act makes no provision for allowance
+to a guilty wife, and it certainly is a serious defect that the power to
+grant an allowance does not extend to cases of nullity. In 1868 an
+appeal to the House of Lords was given in cases of decree for
+dissolution or nullity of marriage.
+
+The great changes effected by the Judicature Acts included the court for
+divorce and matrimonial causes. Under their operation a division of the
+high court of justice was constituted, under the designation of the
+probate division and admiralty division, to which was assigned that
+class of legal administration governed mainly by the principles and
+practice of the canon and civil law. The division consists of a
+president, and a justice of the high court, with registrars
+representing each branch of the jurisdiction. Appeals lie to the court
+of appeal, and thence to the House of Lords.
+
+In 1884 the legislature interfered to prevent imprisonment being the
+result of disobedience to an order for restitution of conjugal rights.
+That mode of enforcing the order of the court was abolished, and the
+matter was left to a proper adjustment of the pecuniary relations of the
+husband and wife; and a respondent disobeying such an order was held to
+be guilty of desertion without reasonable cause, such desertion having
+further given to it a similar effect to that assigned to desertion for
+two years or upwards. The effect of this provision has been that the
+suit for restitution of conjugal rights is most frequently brought for
+the purpose of shortening the time within which a wife can obtain a
+decree for dissolution of marriage.
+
+Proceedings in the divorce court have shown the improvement in the law
+of evidence which has been effected with regard to other legal
+proceedings. The act of 1857 made an inroad on the former law, which
+prohibited evidence being given by parties interested in the
+proceedings, by allowing a petitioner (sec. 43) to be called and
+examined by order of the court, absolving such petitioner, however, from
+the necessity of answering any question tending to show that he or she
+had been guilty of adultery. In the next year power was given to the
+court to dismiss any person, with whom a party to the suit was alleged
+to have committed adultery, from the suit if there should not appear to
+be sufficient evidence against him or her, the object being to allow
+such person to give evidence; and in 1859 it was provided that, on a
+petition by a wife for a divorce on the grounds of cruelty or desertion
+with adultery, the husband and wife could be competent and compellable
+witnesses as to the cruelty or desertion. A few years later, however, in
+1869, the subject was finally dealt with by repealing all previous rules
+which limited the powers to give evidence on questions of adultery with
+the safeguard that no witness in any proceeding can be asked or bound to
+answer any question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of
+adultery, unless in the same proceeding such witness shall have given
+evidence in disproof of his or her alleged adultery. It has been held
+that the principles of these enactments apply to interrogatories as well
+as to evidence given in court.
+
+It is a most remarkable omission in the act of 1857, especially when we
+remember the high legal authority from whom it proceeded, that the act
+nowhere defines the class of persons with regard to whom the
+jurisdiction of the court should be exercised. This omission has given
+rise to a misapprehension of the law which, though now set at rest,
+prevailed for a considerable period, and has undoubtedly led to the
+granting of divorce in several cases in which it could not legally be
+given. It was supposed that the court could grant a dissolution of
+marriage to all persons who had anything more than a casual and fleeting
+residence within the jurisdiction of the court; and this view, although
+its correctness was doubted by Lord Penzance, the judge of the divorce
+court, was upheld by a majority of the judges of the court of appeal in
+the case of _Niboyet_ v. _Niboyet_ (4 P. D. 1). It was supposed that
+such residence gave what was termed a matrimonial domicile. But this
+view was undoubtedly erroneous as regards dissolution of marriage,
+although probably correct as regards judicial separation, and the true
+view is no doubt that indicated with great learning and ability by Lord
+Watson in a judgment given by him in the privy council in the case of
+_Le Mesurier_ v. _Le Mesurier_ (1895, App. Cas. 517), that the only true
+test of jurisdiction for a decree of divorce altering the status of the
+parties to a marriage is to be found in the domicile of the
+spouses--that is to say, of the husband, as the domicile of a wife
+follows that of her husband--at the time of the divorce. Domicile means
+a person's permanent home, the place at which he resides with no
+intention of making his home elsewhere, and, if he leaves it, with the
+intention of returning to it.
+
+It is now also clearly recognized as the law of England that the English
+courts will not recognize a divorce purporting to be made by a foreign
+tribunal with regard to persons domiciled in England. For a considerable
+time doubt appears to have clouded the law on this subject. In a famous
+case known as _Lolley's_ case, decided in 1812, the judges of England
+(the point arose in connexion with a criminal charge) unanimously held
+"that no sentence or act of any foreign country or any state could
+dissolve an English marriage _a vinculo matrimonii_ for grounds on which
+it was not liable to be dissolved _a vinculo matrimonii_ in England."
+This case has been frequently understood as deciding that a marriage
+celebrated in England cannot be dissolved elsewhere, and on this point
+the courts of Scotland differ from the view supposed to be taken by the
+English judges. But the matter has been fully explained in one of the
+most masterly of Lord Hannen's judgments (_Harvey_ v. _Fairnie_, 5. P.
+D. 154), afterwards upheld by the House of Lords in 1882 (8 App. Cas.
+43); and it is now clear that while the parties are domiciled in this
+country no decree of any foreign court dissolving their marriage will be
+recognized here, unless it proceed on the grounds on which a divorce may
+be obtained in this country, and even the exception just mentioned
+appears to rest rather on reasoning and principle than on the authority
+of any decided case. This principle received the highest sanction in the
+prosecution of Earl Russell for bigamy before the House of Lords (1901),
+in which it was held that, where a divorce had been refused him in
+England, an American divorce would not relieve a man from the guilt of
+marrying again.
+
+_Summary Proceedings for Separation._--The legislature has sought to
+extend the relief afforded by the courts in matrimonial causes by a
+procedure fairly to be considered within the reach of all classes. In
+1895 an act was passed which re-enacted in an improved form the
+provisions of an act of 1878 of similar effect. By the act of 1895 power
+was given to a married woman whose husband (1) has been guilty of an
+aggravated assault upon her within the Offences against the Person Act
+1861, or (2) convicted on indictment of an assault on her and sentenced
+to pay a fine of more than £5 or to imprisonment for more than two
+months, or (3) shall have deserted her, or (4) been guilty of persistent
+cruelty to her or wilful neglect to maintain her or her infant children,
+and by such cruelty or neglect shall have caused her to leave and live
+apart from him, to apply to a court of summary jurisdiction and to
+obtain an order containing all or any of the following provisions:--(1)
+that the applicant be not forced to cohabit with her husband, (2) that
+the applicant have the custody of any children under sixteen years of
+age, (3) that the husband pay to her an allowance not exceeding £2 a
+week. The act provides that no married woman guilty of adultery should
+be granted relief, but with the very important proviso, altering as it
+does the rule of the common law, that the husband has not conduced or
+connived at, or by wilful neglect or misconduct conduced to, such
+adultery. The provisions of this act[2] have been largely put in force,
+and no doubt to the great advantage of the poorer classes of the
+community. It will be observed that the act is unilateral, and affords
+no relief to a husband against a wife; and the complaint is often heard
+that no misconduct of the wife, except adultery, relieves the husband
+from the necessity of maintaining her and allowing her to share his
+home, unless he can obtain access to the high court.[3]
+
+_Separation Deeds._--Although nothing in the development of the law of
+divorce has tended to give to married persons the right absolutely to
+dissolve their marriage by consent, and, on the contrary, any such
+agreement would be held to be strong evidence of collusion, the view of
+the Church expressed in the ecclesiastical law has been entirely
+departed from as regards agreements for separation. Such agreements were
+embodied in deeds, and usually contained mutual covenants not to sue in
+the ecclesiastical courts for restitution of conjugal rights. The
+ecclesiastical courts, however, wholly disregarded such agreements, and
+considered them as affording no answer to a suit for restitution of
+conjugal rights. For a considerable period the court of chancery refused
+to enforce the covenant in such deeds by restraining the parties from
+proceeding to the ecclesiastical courts. But at last a memorable
+judgment of Lord Westbury (1861) asserted the right (_Hunt_ v. _Hunt_, 4
+De G. F. & J. 221; see also _Marshall_ v. _Marshall_, 5 P. D. 19) of the
+court of chancery to maintain the claim of good faith in this as in
+other cases, and restrained a petitioner from suing in the
+ecclesiastical court contrary to his covenant. Thereafter these deeds
+became common, and no doubt often afford a solution of matrimonial
+difficulties of very great value. When the courts of the country became
+united under the Judicature Acts, it became practicable to set up in the
+divorce division a separation deed in answer to a suit for restitution
+of conjugal rights without the necessity of recourse to any other
+tribunal.
+
+  _Statistics._--The statistics of divorce in England have for some
+  years been regularly published in the volumes of judicial statistics
+  published annually by the Home Office.
+
+  The number of petitions for divorce (including in the term both
+  divorce _a mensa et thoro_ and divorce _a vinculo_) for the years from
+  1858 to 1905 inclusive are as follows:--
+
+    1858       326 | 1874       469 | 1890       644
+    1859       291 | 1875       451 | 1891       632
+    1860       272 | 1876       536 | 1892       629
+    1861       236 | 1877       551 | 1893       645
+    1862       248 | 1878       632 | 1894       652
+    1863       298 | 1879       555 | 1895       683
+    1864       297 | 1880       615 | 1896       772
+    1865       284 | 1881       589 | 1897       781
+    1866       279 | 1882       481 | 1898       750
+    1867       294 | 1883       561 | 1899       727
+    1868       303 | 1884       647 | 1900       698
+    1869       351 | 1885       541 | 1901       848
+    1870       351 | 1886       708 | 1902       987
+    1871       384 | 1887       662 | 1903       914
+    1872       374 | 1888       680 | 1904       822
+    1873       416 | 1889       654 | 1905       844
+
+  It is probably impossible to account for the variations which the
+  above table discloses. It was no doubt natural that the year
+  immediately succeeding the passing of the act which originated
+  facilities for divorces _a vinculo_ should exhibit a larger number of
+  divorces than its successors for a considerable period. But there does
+  not appear to be any adequate cause for the comparative increase which
+  seems to have prevailed in the decade between 1878 and 1888, unless it
+  be found in the increase of marriages which culminated in 1873 and
+  1883, falling after each of those years. The number of marriages again
+  rose high in 1891 and 1892, and this may account for the increased
+  number of divorces in 1896 and the following years. But it may
+  certainly be said with confidence that as compared with the growth of
+  population the number of divorces in England has shown no alarming
+  increase.
+
+  The total number of petitions in matrimonial causes presented by
+  husbands exceed those presented by wives, but in no marked degree.
+  This excess would seem to be due to the fact that the larger number of
+  petitions for dissolution presented by husbands, owing no doubt to the
+  difference in the law affecting the two sexes, is not entirely
+  counterbalanced by the much larger number of petitions for judicial
+  separation presented by wives. The following figures for various years
+  may be taken as typical:--
+
+    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |                                    | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1905 |
+    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    | Petitions for Dissolution--        |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+    |   Presented by husbands            |  353 |  393 |  414 |  401 |  383 |  429 |
+    |   Presented by wives               |  220 |  280 |  269 |  243 |  262 |  323 |
+    | Petitions for Judicial Separation--|      |      |      |      |      |      |
+    |   Presented by husbands            |    4 |    3 |    2 |    4 |    4 |    5 |
+    |   Presented by wives               |  106 |   96 |   96 |  102 |   78 |   87 |
+    | Totals--                           |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+    |   Presented by husbands            |  357 |  396 |  416 |  405 |  387 |  434 |
+    |   Presented by wives               |  326 |  376 |  365 |  345 |  340 |  410 |
+    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  Speaking generally, it may be said that about 70% of the petitions
+  presented are successful and result in decrees. This percentage has a
+  tendency, however, to rise.
+
+  Attempts have been made to ascertain the classes which supply the
+  petitioners for divorce, but this cannot be done with such certainty
+  as to warrant any but the most general conclusions. It may, however,
+  safely be said that while all classes, professions and occupations are
+  represented, it is certainly not those highest in the scale that are
+  the largest contributors. The principles of the act of 1857 have
+  beyond question been justified by the relief required by and afforded
+  to the general community.
+
+
+OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
+
+We may now turn to the law of divorce as administered in the other
+countries of the modern world. On the main question whether marriage is
+to be considered indissoluble they will be found to range themselves on
+one side or the other according to the influence upon them of the Church
+of Rome and its canon law.
+
+In _Scotland_ it has long been the law that marriage can be dissolved at
+the instance of either party by judicial sentence on the grounds of
+adultery or of desertion, termed non-adherence, and the spouses could in
+such case remarry, except with the paramour,--at all events if the
+paramour was named in the decree (and the name is sometimes omitted for
+that reason). A divorce _a mensa et thoro_ could also be granted for
+cruelty. By the Court of Session Act 1830, the jurisdiction in divorce
+was transferred from a body of commissaries to the court of session.
+
+By the law of _Holland_ complete divorce could be granted by judicial
+sentence on the grounds of adultery or of wilful and malicious
+desertion, to which were added unnatural offences and imprisonment for
+life, and such divorce gave the power of remarriage, except with the
+person with whom adultery was proved to have been committed, but there
+would seem to be a doubt whether this power extended to the guilty party
+(Voet, _De divortiis_, lit. 24, tit. 2). Divorce _a mensa et thoro_
+could be granted on the grounds allowed by the canon law.
+
+The Code of _Prussia_ of 1794 contained elaborate provisions which gave
+great facility of divorce. A complete divorce could be obtained by
+judicial sentence for the following causes:--(1) Adultery or unnatural
+offences; and adultery by a husband formed no bar to his obtaining a
+divorce against his wife for adultery; and even an illicit intimacy,
+from which a presumption of adultery might arise, was held sufficient
+for a divorce. (2) Wilful desertion. (3) Obstinate refusal of the rights
+of marriage, which was considered as equivalent to desertion. (4)
+Incapacity to perform the duties of marriage, even if arising subsequent
+to the marriage; and the same effect was assigned to other incurable
+bodily defects that excited disgust and horror. (5) Lunacy, if after a
+year there was no reasonable hope of recovery. (6) An attempt on the
+life of one spouse by the other, or gross and unlawful attack on the
+honour or personal liberty. (7) Incompatibility of temper and
+quarrelsome disposition, if rising to the height of endangering life or
+health. (8) Opprobrious crime for which either spouse has suffered
+imprisonment, or a knowingly false accusation of such crime by one
+spouse of the other. (9) If either spouse by unlawful transactions
+endangers the life, honour, office or trade of the other, or commences
+an ignominious employment. (10) Change of religion. In addition to these
+causes, marriages, when there were no children, could be dissolved by
+mutual consent if there be no reason to suspect levity, precipitation or
+compulsion; and a judge had also power to dissolve a marriage in cases
+in which a strongly rooted dislike appeared to him to exist. In all
+cases of divorce, but sometimes subject to the necessity of obtaining a
+licence, remarriage was permissible (see Burge, _Commentaries on
+Colonial and Foreign Law_, vol. i. 649).
+
+Before 1876 only a divorce _a vinculo_ could be obtained in some of the
+German states, especially if the petitioner were a Roman Catholic. The
+only relief afforded was a "perpetual separation." By the Personal
+Status Act 1875 perpetual separation orders were abolished and divorce
+decrees allowed in cases where the petitioners would, under the former
+law, have been entitled to a perpetual separation order. However, two
+Drafting Commissions under the act declined to alter the new rule, but
+under pressure from the Roman Catholic party the Reichstag passed a law
+introducing a modified separation order, termed "dissolution of the
+conjugal community" (_Aufhebung der ehelichen Gemeinschaft_). This order
+can be converted into a dissolution of the marriage at the option of
+either party. Under the Civil Code of 1900 a petitioner can obtain a
+divorce or judicial separation on "absolute" or "relative" grounds. In
+the former case if the facts are established the petitioner is entitled
+to the relief prayed for; in the latter case, it is left to judicial
+discretion. The absolute grounds are adultery, bigamy, sodomy, an
+attempt against the petitioner's life or wilful desertion. The relative
+grounds are (a) such grave breach of marital duty or dishonourable or
+immoral conduct as would disturb the marital relation to such an extent
+that the marriage could not reasonably be expected to continue; (b)
+insanity, continued for more than three years during the marriage, and
+of so severe a nature that intellectual community between the parties
+has ceased and is not likely to be re-established. A divorced wife, if
+not exclusively the guilty party, may retain her husband's name; but if
+exclusively guilty, her former husband may compel her to resume her
+maiden name.
+
+By the law of _Denmark_, according to the Code of King Christian the
+Fifth, complete divorce could be obtained for incest; for leprosy,
+whether contracted before or after marriage; for transportation for
+crime or flight from justice, after three years, though not for crime
+itself; and for exile not arising from crime, after seven years.
+
+In _Sweden_ complete divorce is granted by judicial sentence for
+adultery, and in _Russia_ for that cause and also for incompatibility of
+temper (Ayliffe, Par. 49). On the other hand, in _Spain_ marriage is
+indissoluble, and the ecclesiastical courts have retained their
+exclusive cognizance of matrimonial causes. In _Italy_ certain articles
+of the Civil Code deal with separation, voluntary and judicial, but
+divorce is not allowed in any form.
+
+In _France_ the law of divorce has had a chequered history. Before the
+Revolution the Roman canon law prevailed, marriage was considered
+indissoluble, and only divorce _a mensa et thoro_, known as _la
+séparation d'habitation_, was permitted; though it would appear that in
+the earliest age of the monarchy divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ was
+allowed. _La séparation d'habitation_ was granted at the instance of a
+wife for cruelty by her husband or false accusation of a capital crime,
+or for habitual treatment with contempt before the inmates of the house;
+but a wife could not obtain a separation for adultery by her husband,
+although he had his remedy in case of adultery by his wife. In every
+case the sentence of a judicial tribunal, which took precautions against
+collusion, was necessary. But the Revolution may be said to have swept
+away marriage among the institutions which it overwhelmed, and by the
+law of the 20th of September 1792 so great facility was given for
+divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ as practically to terminate the
+obligations of marriage. A reaction came with the Code Napoléon, yet
+even under that system of law divorce remained comparatively easy.
+Mutual consent, expressed in the manner and continued for a period
+specified by the law, was cause for a divorce (the principle of the
+Roman law being adopted on this point), but such consent could not take
+place unless the husband was twenty-five years of age and the wife
+twenty-one, unless they had been married for two years, nor after twenty
+years of marriage, nor after the wife had completed her forty-fifth
+year; and further, the approval of the parents of both parties was
+required. In case of divorce by consent, the law required that a proper
+agreement should be made for the maintenance of the wife and the custody
+of the children. A husband could obtain a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_
+for adultery, but the wife had no such power unless the husband had
+brought his mistress to the home. Both husband and wife could claim
+divorce on the ground of outrage, or grievous bodily injury, or
+condemnation for an infamous crime. If the divorce was for adultery, the
+erring party could not marry the partner of his or her guilt. A divorce
+_a mensa et thoro_ could be obtained on the same grounds as a divorce _a
+vinculo_, but not by mutual consent; and if the divorce _a mensa et
+thoro_ continued in force for three years, the defendant party could
+claim a divorce _a vinculo_. On the restoration of royalty in 1816
+divorce _a vinculo_ was abolished, and pending suits for divorce _a
+vinculo_ were converted into suits for separation only.
+
+Divorce in France, after the repeal of the provisions respecting it in
+the Code Napoléon in 1816, was re-enacted by a law of the 27th of July
+1884, the provisions of which were simplified by laws of 1886 and 1907.
+But a wide departure was made by these laws from the terms of the Code
+Napoléon. Divorce by consent disappeared, and the following became the
+causes for which divorce was allowed: (1) Adultery by either party to
+the marriage at the suit of the other, without, in the case of adultery
+by the husband, the aggravation of introduction of the concubine into
+the home required by the Code; (2) violence (_excès_) or cruelty
+(_sévices_); (3) _injures graves_; and (4) _peine afflictive et
+infamante_. _Excès_ is defined by Locié as "a generic expression
+comprising all acts tending to compromise the safety of the person,
+without distinction as to their object or motive, premeditation as well
+as furious anger, attempts upon life as well as serious woundings."
+_Sévices_ are acts of ill-treatment less grave in character, which,
+while not endangering life, render existence in common intolerable
+(Kelly's _French Law of Marriage_, p. 122). _Injures graves_, as to
+which the courts have considered themselves entitled to exercise a wide
+discretion, have been defined as acts, writings or words which reflect
+upon the honour or the reputation of the party against whom they are
+directed. The courts have held that retraction at the trial does not
+relieve the party from the consequences of an _injure grave_, and that
+publicity is an aggravating but not a necessary element. A letter from
+one spouse to the other may constitute an _injure_ and the courts have
+further held themselves at liberty to consider letters written after
+divorce proceedings have been commenced. _Injures graves_ have also been
+considered to include material injuries, and among these have been
+classed habitual and groundless refusal of matrimonial rights,
+communication of disease and refusal to consent to a religious ceremony
+of marriage. Habitual but not occasional drunkenness has also been held
+to fall within the definition of an _injure grave_. _Peine afflictive et
+infamante_ signifies a legal punishment involving corporal confinement
+and moral degradation.[4]
+
+In addition to its recognition of full divorce, the French law
+recognizes separation of two kinds, one _séparation de biens_ and the
+other _séparation de corps_. The effect of _séparation de biens_ is
+merely to put an end to the community of goods between the spouses. It
+necessarily follows, but may be decreed independently of _séparation de
+corps_. The grounds of _séparation de corps_ are the same as those for a
+divorce; and if a _séparation de corps_ has existed for three years, it
+may be turned into a divorce upon the application of either party to the
+court.
+
+Until 1893 a wife _séparée de corps_ obtained only the capacity
+attaching to a concomitant _séparation de biens_; that is to say, she
+recovered the enjoyment and management of her separate property, but
+could not deal with real property, nor take legal proceedings, without
+the sanction of her husband or of the court. But by a law of the 6th of
+February 1893 a wife _séparée de corps_ obtains "the full exercise of
+her civil capacity, so that she shall not need to resort to the
+authority of her husband or of the court." In case of reconciliation,
+the wife returns to the limited capacity of a wife _séparée de biens_,
+and after the prescribed notification of such change of status it
+becomes binding on third persons.
+
+The provisions of French law with regard to the custody of the children
+of a dissolved marriage, and with regard to property, do not differ
+materially from those prescribed by the English acts. The custody of
+children is given to the party who has obtained the divorce, unless the
+court, on the application of the family, or the _ministère public_,
+consider it better, in the interests of the children, that custody
+should be given to the other party or a third person; but in every case
+the right of both father and mother to supervise the maintenance and
+education of the children, and their liability to contribute to their
+support, are continued.
+
+The law in France as to property on a divorce has been accurately stated
+as follows:--
+
+  "Divorce in France effects a dissolution of the matrimonial régime of
+  property as well as of the marriage itself. The decree appoints a
+  notary, who is charged with the settlement of the pecuniary interests
+  of the parties. By a stereotyped form of procedure the appointment is
+  made invariably for the purpose of liquidating _la communauté ayant
+  existé entre les époux_, irrespective of whether the régime really was
+  that of community or another. In the case of aliens, therefore,
+  married under the rule of separate property, it is necessary carefully
+  to set this out in the notarial deed of liquidation, in order to
+  defeat the presumption which might be raised by the wording of the
+  decree that a community really did exist. The party against whom the
+  divorce has been pronounced loses the benefit of all settlements made
+  upon him or her by the other party, either by the marriage contract or
+  since the marriage. On the other hand, the party in whose favour the
+  divorce has been pronounced preserves the benefit of all settlements
+  made in his or her favour by the unsuccessful party. If no such
+  settlements were made, or if those made appear inadequate to ensure
+  the subsistence of the successful party, the court may grant him or
+  her permanent alimony out of the property of the other party, not to
+  exceed one-third of the income, and revocable in case it ceases to be
+  necessary" (Kelly, p. 130).
+
+On a divorce both parties are at liberty to remarry. The husband could
+remarry at once; but the wife (art. 296 of the Code) was only allowed to
+remarry after an interval of ten months. By the act of 1907, this
+article was abolished, and the wife allowed to remarry as soon as the
+judgment or decree granting the divorce has been entered, providing 300
+days have elapsed since the first judgment was pronounced. A divorced
+husband may remarry his divorced wife, but if he does so, he cannot be
+again divorced, except on the ground of a sentence to a _peine
+afflictive et infamante_ passed on one of them since their remarriage.
+There is, however, this limitation on the power of remarriage of
+divorced persons, that the party to the marriage against whom the decree
+has been pronounced is not allowed to marry the person with whom his or
+her guilt has been established. Such person, however, has no such rights
+as are recognized in him or her according to English law, and cannot
+take any part in the proceedings. But his or her name is referred to in
+the proceedings only by an initial; and French law goes even further in
+the avoidance of publicity, inasmuch as the publication of divorce
+proceedings in the press is forbidden, under heavy penalties.
+
+By a law of the 6th of February 1893 French jurisprudence, more complete
+at least, and perhaps wiser, than English, dealt with a matter
+previously in controversy, and decided that after a divorce the wife
+shall resume her maiden name, and may not continue to use the name of
+her divorced husband; nor may the husband, for business or other
+purposes, continue to use the name of his wife.
+
+By the law of 1886 the special procedure in divorce previously in force
+under the Code and under the law of 1884 was abolished, and it was
+provided that matrimonial causes should be tried according to the
+ordinary rules of procedure. The action therefore, when brought, follows
+the methods of procedure common to other civil proceedings. But there
+still remain certain necessary preliminaries to an action of divorce. A
+petition must be presented by a petitioner in person to the president of
+the court sitting in chambers, with the object of a reconciliation being
+effected. This is known as the _première comparation_. If the petitioner
+still determines to proceed, there follows the _seconde comparation_, on
+which occasion both parties appear before the president. If the
+president fails to effect a reconciliation, he makes an order permitting
+the petitioner to proceed, and deals with the matters necessary to be
+dealt with _pendente lite_, such matters being (1) separate residence,
+(2) alimony, (3) possession of personal effects, (4) custody of
+children. As regards residence, the wife is compelled to adhere during
+the proceedings to the residence assigned to her, but no similar
+restriction is placed on the husband. Alimony _pendente lite_ is in the
+discretion of the court, having regard to the means of the parties, and
+includes a proper provision for costs. As regards the custody of
+children, the Code and the law of 1884 gave it to the husband, unless
+the court otherwise orders, but the law of 1886 leaves the matter wholly
+in the discretion of the court.
+
+There are certain technical rules of evidence on the trial of a divorce
+action. It is a general principle of the French law of evidence that
+documentary evidence is the best evidence, and oral testimony only
+secondary. In divorce cases adultery _flagrante delicto_ can be proved
+by the official certificate of the commissary of police. Letters between
+the husband and wife are admissible in evidence. As to letters between
+the parties and third persons, the law, which has been doubtful, now
+appears to be that the wife may produce only such letters from third
+parties to her husband as have come into her possession accidentally,
+and without any ruse or artifice on her part; but the husband may put in
+evidence any letters written to or by his wife which he has obtained by
+any, short of criminal, means. If the documents put in evidence are not
+sufficient to satisfy the court, there follows an investigation by means
+of witnesses, termed an _enquête_. A schedule of allegations is drawn
+up, and a judge, termed a _juge-commissaire_, is specially appointed to
+conduct the inquiry. Relatives and servants, though not competent
+witnesses in ordinary civil actions, are so in divorce proceedings.
+Cross petitions may be entered; the substantiation of a cross petition,
+however, does not have the effect, in some cases given to it by English
+law, of barring a divorce, but a divorce may be, and often is, granted
+in favour of and against both parties _pour torts réciproques_. When a
+case comes on for trial, it is in the power of the court to order an
+adjournment for a period not exceeding six months, which is termed a
+_temps d'épreuve_, in order to afford an opportunity for reconciliation.
+It is said, however, that this power is seldom exercised. An appeal may
+be brought against a decree of divorce within two months; and a decree
+made on appeal is subject to revision by the court of cassation within
+two months. Both references to the court of appeal and the court of
+cassation operate as a stay of execution. A decree must, by the law of
+1886, be transcribed on the register of marriages within two months from
+its date, and failing this transcription, the decree is void. The
+transcription must be made at the place of celebration of the marriage,
+or, if the parties are married abroad, at the place where the parties
+were last domiciled in France. If the parties, after having married
+abroad, return to France, it has been provided, by a circular of the
+_Procureur de la République_ in 1887, that the transcription may be made
+at the place of their actual domicile at the time of action brought, a
+rule which has been held to apply to the divorce of aliens in France.
+The effect of transcription does not relate back to the date of the
+decree.
+
+  Opinions may differ as to the relative merits of the English and
+  French law relating to divorce. But it cannot be denied that the
+  French law presents a singularly complete and well-considered system,
+  and one which, obviously with the English system in view, has
+  endeavoured to graft on it provisions supplementing its omissions, and
+  modifying certain of its terms in accordance with the light afforded
+  by experience and the changed feelings of the modern world. The effect
+  of the laws of 1884 and 1886 in France has been great. The act of 1907
+  dealing with divorce, coupled with that of the 21st of July of the
+  same year dealing with marriage, may also be said to mark an epoch in
+  the laws relating to women. During the five years from 1884 to 1888
+  the courts granted divorces in 21,064 cases, rejecting applications
+  for divorce in 1524. In addition, there were 12,242 applications for
+  judicial separation, of which 10,739 were granted. A distinguished
+  French writer, the author of a work of singular completeness and
+  accuracy on the judicial system of Great Britain has compared these
+  figures with the corresponding result of the English act of 1857. His
+  conclusion is expressed in these words: "On voit qu'en cinq années nos
+  tribunaux out prononcé trois fois plus de divorces que la haute cour
+  d'Angleterre n'en a prononcé en trente ans. Je n'insiste pas sur les
+  conclusions morales à tirer de ce rapprochement" (Comte de
+  Franqueville, _Le Système judiciaire de la Grande-Bretagne_, ii. p.
+  171). It is, however, practically impossible to compare the number of
+  divorces in France and in England with exact justice, because, as will
+  have been seen above, the causes of divorce in France materially
+  exceed those recognized by English law; and the absence in France of
+  any official performing the functions assigned to the king's proctor
+  in England cannot but have great influence on the number of
+  applications for divorce, as well as on their results.     (ST H.)
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+According to American practice, divorce is the termination by proper
+legal authority, sometimes legislatively but usually judicially, of a
+marriage which up to the time of the decree was legal and binding. It is
+to be distinguished from a decree of nullity of marriage, which is
+simply a legal determination that no legal marriage has ever existed
+between the two parties. It is also to be distinguished from a decree of
+separation, which permits or commands the parties to live apart, but
+does not completely and for all purposes sever the marriage tie. The
+matrimonial law of England, as at the time of the declaration of
+independence, forms part of the common law of the United States. But as
+no ecclesiastical courts have ever existed there, the law must be
+considered to have been inoperative. There is no Federal jurisdiction in
+divorce, and it is a question for the law of each separate state; and
+though it is competent to Congress to authorize divorces in the
+Territories, still it appears that this subject like others is usually
+left to the territorial legislature. In the different states, and in
+England, divorces were at first granted by the legislatures, whether
+directly or by granting special authority to the tribunals to deal with
+particular cases. This practice fell into general disrepute, and by the
+constitution of some states such divorces are expressly prohibited.
+
+Upon the subject of divorce in the United States, and, to some extent,
+in foreign countries, a careful investigation was made by the American
+Bureau of Labour, and its report covered the years 1867 to 1886; a
+further report for the period 1887 to 1906 has also been published by
+the Federal Census Bureau. The number of divorces was in 1886 over
+25,000, and in 1906 was over 72,000, about double the number reported
+for that year from all the rest of the Christian world. As divorce
+presupposes a legal marriage, the amount of divorce, or the
+divorce-rate, is best stated as the ratio between the number of divorces
+decreed during a year and the number of subsisting marriages or married
+couples. The usual basis is 100,000 married couples. In 1898-1902 the
+divorce-rate was 200 divorces (400 people) to 100,000 married couples.
+This is equivalent to more than one divorce annually to each 1400
+people. The several states differ in divorce-rate, from South Carolina,
+with no provision for legal divorce, to Montana and Washington, where
+the rate is two and a half times the average for the country. In general
+the rate is about the same in the North as in the South, but greater in
+the Central states than in the East, and in the Western than in the
+Central states; but to this rule the New England states, Louisiana, New
+Mexico and Arizona are exceptions. The New England states have a higher
+rate than their geographical position would lead one to expect, and the
+other three, owing doubtless, in part at least, to the influence of the
+Roman Catholic Church, have a lower rate than the states about them. The
+several state groups had in 1900 the following divorce-rates per
+100,000: South Atlantic, 196; North Atlantic, 200; South Central, 558;
+North Central, 510; Western, 712. The divorce-rate in the United States
+increased rapidly and steadily in forty years from 27 in 1867 to 86 in
+1906. But distinct tendencies are traceable in different regions. In the
+North Atlantic group the rate rose by 58%, in the North Central by 158%,
+in the Western by 223%, in the South Atlantic by 437%, and in the South
+Central by 685%. The great increase in the South was mainly due to the
+spread of divorce among the emancipated negroes. Each state determines
+for itself the causes for which divorce may be granted, and no general
+statement is therefore possible.
+
+The ground pleaded for a divorce is seldom an index to the motives which
+caused the suit to be brought. This is determined by the character of
+the law rather than by the state of mind of the parties; and so far as
+the individuals are concerned, the ground alleged is thus a cloak rather
+than a clue or revelation. Still those causes which have been enacted
+into law by the various state legislatures do indicate the pleas which
+have been endorsed by the social judgment of the respective communities.
+In the United States exclusive of Alaska and the recent insular
+accessions there are forty-nine different jurisdictions in the matter of
+divorce. Six out of every seven allow divorce for desertion, adultery or
+cruelty; and of the 945,625 divorces reported with their causes during
+the twenty years 1887-1906 nearly 78% were granted for some one of these
+three causes, viz. 39% for desertion, 22% for adultery, and 16% for
+cruelty. Probably nearly 9% more were for some combination of these
+causes. Three other grounds for divorce are admitted as legal in many or
+most American states, viz. imprisonment in 39, habitual drunkenness in
+38, and neglect to provide in 22. About 98% of American divorces are
+granted on some one or more of these six grounds. In general the
+legislation on the subject of the causes allowed for divorce is most
+restrictive in the states on the Atlantic coast, from New York to South
+Carolina inclusive, and is least so in the Western states. The slight
+expense of obtaining a divorce in many of the states, and the lack of
+publicity which is given to the suit, are also important reasons for the
+great number of decrees issued. The importance of the former
+consideration is reflected in the fact that the divorce-rate for the
+United States as a whole shows clearly, in its fluctuations, the
+influences of good and bad times. When times are good and the income of
+the working and industrial classes likely to be assured, the
+divorce-rate rises. In periods of industrial depression it falls,
+fluctuating thus in the same way and probably for the same reason that
+the marriage-rate in industrial communities fluctuates. In two-thirds of
+the divorce suits the wife is the plaintiff, and the proportion slightly
+increased in the forty years. In the Northern states the percentage
+issued to wives (1887-1906) was 71, while in the Southern states it was
+only 56. But where both parties desire a decree, and each has a legal
+ground to urge, a jury will usually listen more favourably to a woman's
+suit.
+
+Divorce is probably especially frequent among the native population of
+the United States, and among these probably more common in the city than
+in the country. This statement cannot be established absolutely, since
+statistics afford no means of distinguishing the native from the
+foreign-born applicants. It is, however, the most obvious reason for
+explaining the fact that, while in Europe the city divorce-rate is from
+three to five times as great as that of the surrounding country, the
+difference in the United States between the two regions is very much
+less. In other words, the great number of foreigners in American cities
+probably tends to obscure by a low divorce-rate the high rate of the
+native population. Divorce is certainly more common in the New England
+states than in any others on the Atlantic coast north of Florida, and it
+is not unlikely that wherever the New England families have gone divorce
+is more frequent than elsewhere. For example, it is much more common in
+the northern counties of Ohio settled largely from New England than in
+the southern counties settled largely from the Middle Atlantic states.
+
+There are two statements frequently made regarding divorce in the United
+States which do not find warrant in the statistics on the subject. The
+first is, that the real motive for divorce with one or both parties is
+the desire for marriage to a third person. The second is, that a very
+large proportion of divorces are granted to persons who move from one
+jurisdiction to another in order to avail themselves of lax divorce
+laws. On the first point the American statistics are practically silent,
+since, in issuing a marriage licence to parties one or both of whom have
+been previously divorced, no record is generally made of the fact. In
+Connecticut, however, for a number of years this information was
+required; and, if the statements were trustworthy, the number of persons
+remarrying each year was about one-third the total number of persons
+divorcing, which is probably a rate not widely different from that of
+widows and widowers of the same age. Foreign figures for Switzerland,
+Holland and Berlin indicate that in those regions the proportion of the
+divorced who remarry speedily is about the same as that of widows and
+widowers. What statistical evidence there is on the subject therefore
+tends to discredit this popular opinion. The evidence on the second
+point is more conclusive, and has gone far towards decreasing the demand
+for a constitutional amendment allowing a federal marriage and divorce
+law. About four-fifths of all the divorces granted in the United States
+were issued to parties who were married in the state in which the decree
+of divorce was later made; and when from the remaining one-fifth are
+deducted those in which the parties migrated for other reasons than a
+desire to obtain an easy divorce, the remainder would constitute a very
+small, almost a negligible, fraction of the total number.
+
+It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say how far the frequency of
+divorce in the United States has been or is a social injury; how far it
+has weakened or undermined the ideal of marriage as a lifelong union
+between man and woman. In this respect the question is very like that of
+illegitimacy; and as the most careful students of the latter subject
+agree that almost no trustworthy inference regarding the moral condition
+of a community can be derived from the proportion of illegitimate
+children born, so one may say regarding the prevalence of divorce that
+from this fact almost no inferences are warranted regarding the moral or
+social condition of the population. It is by no means impossible, for
+example, that the spread of divorce among the negro population in the
+South marks a step in advance from the condition of largely unregulated
+and illegal unions characteristic of the race immediately after the war.
+The prevalence of divorce in the United States among the native
+population, in urban communities, among the New England element, in the
+middle classes of society, and among those of the Protestant faith,
+indicates how closely this social phenomenon is interlaced with much
+that is characteristic and valuable in American civilization. In this
+respect, too, the United States perhaps represent the outcome of a
+tendency which has been at work in Europe at least since the
+Reformation. Certainly the divorce-rate is increasing in nearly every
+civilized country. Decrees of nullity of marriage and decrees of
+separation not absolutely terminating the marriage relation are
+relatively far less prevalent than they were in the medieval and early
+modern period, and many persons who under former conditions would have
+obtained relief from unsatisfactory unions through one or the other of
+these avenues now resort to divorce. The increasing proportion of the
+community who have an income sufficient to pay the requisite legal fees
+is also a factor of great importance. The belief in the family as an
+institution ordained of God, decreed to continue "till death us do
+part," and in its relations typifying and perpetuating many holy
+religious ideas, probably became weakened in the United States during
+the 19th century, along with a weakening of other religious conceptions;
+and it is yet to be determined whether a substitute for these ideas can
+be developed under the guidance of the motive of social utility or
+individual desire. In this respect the United States is, as Mr Gladstone
+once wrote, a _tribus praerogativa_, but one who knows anything of the
+family and home life of America will not readily despond of the outcome.
+
+  The great source of American statistical information is the
+  governmental report of over 1000 pages, _A Report on Marriage and
+  Divorce in the United States 1867 to 1886, including an Appendix
+  relating to Marriage and Divorce in Certain Countries of Europe_, by
+  Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labour; together with the further
+  report for 1887 to 1906. The statistics contained in the former volume
+  have been analysed and interpreted in W. F. Willcox's _The Divorce
+  Problem: A Study in Statistics_ (Columbia University, New York, 1891,
+  1897). Further interpretations are contained in an article in the
+  _Political Science Quarterly_ for March 1893, entitled "A Study in
+  Vital Statistics." The best legal treatise is probably Bishop on
+  _Marriage, Divorce, and Judicial Separation_. See also J. P.
+  Lichtenberger, _Divorce: A Study in Social Causation_ (New York,
+  1909).     (W. F. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In _Constantinidi_ v. _Constantinidi and Lance_ (1903), in which
+    both parties were guilty of misconduct, it was held by Sir Francis
+    Jeune (Lord St Helier) that where a wife has by her misconduct broken
+    up the home (the husband's misconduct not having conduced to the
+    wife's adultery) the court would exercise its discretion in favour of
+    the husband petitioner, and, further, the wife being a rich woman, it
+    was justifiable to give her husband a portion of her income, in order
+    to preserve to him the position he would have occupied as her
+    husband, the broad principle being that a guilty respondent should
+    not be allowed to profit by divorce. But further litigation
+    concerning this case occurred as to the variation of the marriage
+    settlements in favour of the husband, and the decision of the court
+    of appeal in July 1905 considerably modified the decision of Sir
+    Francis Jeune.--Ed. _E. B._
+
+  [2] It is to be noted that by a decision of the court of appeal in
+    _Harriman_ v. _Harriman_ in 1909, where a wife has been deserted by
+    her husband and has obtained a separation order within two years from
+    the time when the desertion commenced, she loses her right to plead
+    desertion under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, and is therefore not
+    entitled to a divorce after two years' desertion, upon proof of
+    adultery. See also _Dodd_ v. _Dodd_, 1906, 22 T. L. R. 484.
+
+  [3] In 1909 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the law
+    of divorce, with special reference to the position of the poorer
+    classes.
+
+  [4] It is interesting to observe how, according to the latest
+    decisions of the House of Lords, cruelty, according to English law,
+    includes some but not others of the forms of injury for which, under
+    the term of _injures graves_, the French law affords a remedy. It may
+    well be doubted whether the view taken by the minority of the peers
+    in _Russell_ v. _Russell_, which would have included in the
+    definition of cruelty all, or nearly all, of that which the French
+    law deems either _sévices_ or _injures graves_, would not have better
+    satisfied both the principles of English jurisprudence and the
+    feelings of modern life.
+
+
+
+
+DIWANIEH, a small town in Turkish Asia, about 40 m. below Hillah, on
+both banks of the Euphrates (31° 58' 47" N., 44° 58' 18" E.), which is
+here spanned by a floating bridge. Formerly a military post for the
+control of the Affech territory, and a telegraph station, it was in 1893
+made the capital of the sanjak, instead of Hillah, on account of its
+more strategical position. This transfer of the seat of government
+represented a step in the development of Turkish control over the
+central regions of Irak.
+
+
+
+
+DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE (1802-1887), American philanthropist, was born at
+Hampden, Maine, on the 4th of April 1802. Her parents were poor and
+shiftless, and at an early age she was taken into the home in Boston of
+her grandmother, Dorothea Lynde, wife of Dr Elijah Dix. Here she was
+reared in a distinctly Puritanical atmosphere. About 1821 she opened a
+school in Boston, which was patronized by the well-to-do families; and
+soon afterwards she also began teaching poor and neglected children at
+home. But her health broke down, and from 1824 to 1830 she was chiefly
+occupied with the writing of books of devotion and stories for children.
+Her _Conversations on Common Things_ (1824) had reached its sixtieth
+edition by 1869. In 1831 she established in Boston a model school for
+girls, and conducted this successfully until 1836, when her health
+again failed. In 1841 she became interested in the condition of gaols
+and almshouses, and spent two years in visiting every such institution
+in Massachusetts, investigating especially the treatment of the pauper
+insane. Her memorial to the state legislature dealing with the abuses
+she discovered resulted in more adequate provision being made for the
+care and treatment of the insane, and she then extended her work into
+many other states. By 1847 she had travelled from Nova Scotia to the
+Gulf of Mexico, and had visited 18 state penitentiaries, 300 county
+gaols and houses of correction, and over 500 almshouses. Her labours
+resulted in the establishment of insane asylums in twenty states and in
+Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and in the founding of many additional
+gaols and almshouses conducted on a reformed plan. In 1853 she secured
+more adequate equipment for the life-saving service on Sable Island,
+then rightly called "the graveyard of ships." In 1854 she secured the
+passage by Congress of a bill granting to the states 12,250,000 acres of
+public lands, to be utilized for the benefit of the insane, deaf, dumb
+and blind; but the measure was vetoed by President Pierce. After this
+disappointment she went to England for rest, but at once became
+interested in the condition of the insane in Scotland, and her report to
+the home secretary opened the way for sweeping reforms. She extended her
+work into the Channel Islands, and then to France, Italy, Austria,
+Greece, Turkey, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and a
+part of Germany. Her influence over Arinori Mori, the Japanese _chargé
+d'affaires_ at Washington, led eventually to the establishment of two
+asylums for the insane in Japan. At the outbreak of the Civil War she
+offered her services to the Federal government and was appointed
+superintendent of women nurses. In this capacity she served throughout
+the war, without a day's furlough; and her labours on behalf of
+defectives were continued after the war. After a lingering illness of
+six years she died at Trenton, New Jersey, on the 17th of July 1887.
+
+  See Francis Tiffany, _Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix_ (Boston, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+DIX, JOHN ADAMS (1798-1879), American soldier and political leader, was
+born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the 24th of July 1798. He studied at
+Phillips Exeter Academy in 1810-1811 and at the College of Montreal in
+1811-1812, and as a boy took part in the War of 1812, becoming a second
+lieutenant in March 1814. In July 1828, having attained the rank of
+captain, he resigned from the army, and for two years practised law at
+Cooperstown, New York. In 1830-1833 he was adjutant-general of New York.
+He soon became prominent as one of the leaders of the Democratic party
+in the state, and for many years was a member of the so-called "Albany
+Regency," a group of Democrats who between about 1820 and 1850 exercised
+a virtual control over their party in New York, dictating nominations
+and appointments and distributing patronage. From 1833 to 1839 he was
+secretary of state and superintendent of schools in New York, and in
+this capacity made valuable reports concerning the public schools of the
+state, and a report (1836) which led to the publication of the _Natural
+History of the State of New York_ (1842-1866). In 1842 he was a member
+of the New York assembly. In 1841-1843 he was editor of _The Northern
+Light_, a literary and scientific journal published in Albany. From 1845
+to 1849 he was a United States senator from New York; and as chairman of
+the committee on commerce was author of the warehouse bill passed by
+Congress in 1846 to relieve merchants from immediate payment of duties
+on imported goods. In 1848 he was nominated for governor of New York by
+the Free Soil party, but was defeated by Hamilton Fish. His acceptance
+of the nomination, however, earned him the enmity of the southern
+Democrats, who prevented his appointment by Pierce as secretary of state
+and as minister to France in 1853. In this year Dix was for a few weeks
+assistant U.S. treasurer in New York city. In May 1860 he became
+postmaster of New York city, and from January until March 1861 he was
+secretary of the treasury of the United States, in which capacity he
+issued (January 29, 1861) to a revenue officer at New Orleans a famous
+order containing the words, "if any one attempts to haul down the
+American flag, shoot him on the spot." He rendered important services
+in hurrying forward troops in 1861, was appointed major-general of
+volunteers in June 1861, and during the Civil War commanded successively
+the department of Maryland (July 1861-May 1862), Fortress Monroe (May
+1862-July 1863), and the department of the East (July 1863-July 1865).
+He was minister to France from 1866 to 1869, and in 1872 was elected by
+the Republicans governor of New York, but was defeated two years later.
+He had great energy and administrative ability, was for a time president
+of the Chicago & Rock Island and of the Mississippi & Missouri railways,
+first president of the Union Pacific in 1863-1868, and for a short time
+in 1872 president of the Erie. He died in New York city on the 21st of
+April 1879. Among his publications are _A Winter in Madeira and a Summer
+in Spain and Florence_ (1850), and _Speeches and Occasional Addresses_
+(1864). He wrote excellent English versions of the _Dies irae_ and the
+_Stabat mater_.
+
+His son, MORGAN DIX (1827-1908), graduated at Columbia in 1848 and at
+the General Theological Seminary in 1852, and was ordained deacon (1852)
+and priest (1853) in the Protestant Episcopalian church. In 1855-1859 he
+was assistant minister, and in 1859-1862 assistant rector, of Trinity
+Church, New York city, of which he was rector from 1862 until his death.
+He published sermons and lectures; _A History of the Parish of Trinity
+Church, New York City_ (4 vols., 1898-1905); and a biography of his
+father. _Memoirs of John Adams Dix_ (2 vols., New York, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, GEORGE (1755?-1800), English navigator. He served under Captain
+Cook in his third expedition, during which he had an opportunity of
+learning the commercial capabilities of the north-west coast of North
+America. After his return from Cook's expedition he became a captain in
+the royal navy. In the autumn of 1785 he sailed in the "Queen
+Charlotte," in the service of the King George's Sound Company of London,
+to explore the shores of the present British Columbia, with the special
+object of developing the fur trade. His chief discoveries were those of
+Queen Charlotte's Islands and Sound (the latter only partial), Port
+Mulgrave, Norfolk Bay, and Dixon's Entrance and Archipelago. After
+visiting China, where he disposed of his cargo, he returned to England
+(1788), and published (1799) _A Voyage round the World, but more
+particularly to the North-West Coast of America_, the bulk of which
+consists of descriptive letters by William Beresford, his supercargo.
+His own contribution to the work included valuable charts and
+appendices. He is usually, though not with absolute certainty,
+identified with the George Dixon who was author of _The Navigator's
+Assistant_ (1791) and teacher of navigation at Gosport.
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, HENRY HALL (1822-1870), English sporting writer over the _nom de
+plume_ "The Druid," was born at Warwick Bridge, Cumberland, on the 16th
+of May 1822, and was educated at Rugby and at Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he graduated in 1846. He took up the profession of the
+law, but, though called to the bar in 1853, soon returned to sporting
+journalism, in which he had already made a name for himself, and began
+to write regularly for the _Sporting Magazine_, in the pages of which
+appeared three of his novels, _Post and Paddock_ (1856), _Silk and
+Scarlet_ (1859), and _Scott and Sebright_ (1862). He also published a
+legal compendium entitled _The Law of the Farm_ (1858), which ran
+through several editions. His other more important works were _Field and
+Fern_ (1865), giving an account of the herds and flocks of Scotland, and
+_Saddle and Sirloin_ (1870), treating in the same manner those of
+England. He died at Kensington on the 16th of March 1870.
+
+  See Hon. Francis Lawley, _Life and Times of "The Druid"_ (London,
+  1895).
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, RICHARD WATSON (1833-1900), English poet and divine, son of Dr
+James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister, was born on the 5th of May 1833. He
+was educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, and on proceeding to
+Pembroke College, Oxford, became one of the famous "Birmingham group"
+there who shared with William Morris and Burne-Jones in the
+Pre-Raphaelite movement. He took only a second class in moderations in
+1854, and a third in _Literae Humaniores_ in 1856; but in 1858 he won
+the Arnold prize for an historical essay, and in 1863 the English Sacred
+Poem prize. He was ordained in 1858, was second master of Carlisle high
+school, 1863-1868, and successively vicar of Hayton, Cumberland, and
+Warkworth, Northumberland. He became minor canon and honorary librarian
+of Carlisle in 1868, and honorary canon in 1874, he was proctor in
+convocation (1890-1894), and received the honorary degree of D.D. from
+Oxford in 1899. He died at Warkworth on the 23rd of January 1900. Canon
+Dixon's first two volumes of verse, _Christ's Company_ and _Historical
+Odes_, were published in 1861 and 1863 respectively; but it was not
+until 1883 that he attracted conspicuous notice with _Mano_, an
+historical poem in _terza rima_, which was enthusiastically praised by
+Mr Swinburne. This success he followed up by three privately printed
+volumes. _Odes and Eclogues_ (1884), _Lyrical Poems_ (1886), and _The
+Story of Eudocia_ (1888). Dixon's poems were during the last fifteen
+years of his life recognized as scholarly and refined exercises, touched
+with both dignity and a certain severe beauty, but he never attained any
+general popularity as a poet, the appeal of his poetry being directly to
+the scholar. A great student of history, his studies in that direction
+colour much of his poetry. The romantic atmosphere is remarkably
+preserved in _Mano_, a successful metrical exercise in the difficult
+_terza rima_. His typical poems have charm and melody, without
+introducing any new note or variety of rhythm. He is contemplative,
+sober and finished in literary workmanship, a typical example of the
+Oxford school. Pleasant as his poetry is, however, he will probably be
+longest remembered by the work to which he gave the best years of his
+life, his _History of the Church of England from the Abolition of the
+Roman Jurisdiction_ (1878-1902). At the time of his death he had
+completed six volumes, two of which were published posthumously. This
+fine work, covering the period from 1529 to 1570, is built upon
+elaborate research, and presents a trustworthy and unprejudiced survey
+of its subject.
+
+  Dixon's _Selected Poems_ were published in 1909 with a memoir of the
+  author by Robert Bridges.
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (1821-1879), English author and traveller, was
+born at Great Ancoats, Manchester, on the 30th of June 1821, a member of
+an old Lancashire family. Beginning life as a clerk at Manchester, he
+decided, in 1846, to take up literature as a career. After gaining some
+journalistic experience at Cheltenham he settled in London, on the
+recommendation of Douglas Jerrold, and contributed to the _Athenaeum_
+and _Daily News_. His series of papers--"The Literature of the Lower
+Orders"--in the last-named journal, and a further series, "London
+Prisons," were widely noticed. In 1849 appeared his _John Howard and the
+Prison World of Europe_, which proved a great popular success. These
+were followed by a _Life of William Penn_ (1851), in which he replied to
+Macaulay's attack on Penn; _Life of Blake_ (1852); and _Personal History
+of Lord Bacon_ (1861), supplemented by _The Story of Lord Bacon's Life_
+(1862). From 1853 to 1869 he was editor of the _Athenaeum_. In 1863 he
+visited the East, and on his return helped to found the Palestine
+Exploration Fund, and published (1865) _The Holy Land_. In 1866 he
+travelled through the United States, publishing, in 1867, _New America_,
+and, the following year, _Spiritual Wives_, two supplementary volumes.
+In the autumn of 1867 he journeyed through the Baltic Provinces,
+publishing an account of his trip in _Free Russia_ (1870). In 1871 he
+was in Switzerland, and in 1872 in Spain, where he wrote the greater
+part of his _History of Two Queens_. In 1874 he revisited the United
+States, giving the impressions of his tour in _The White Conquest_
+(1875). His other works, besides some fiction, were _British Cyprus_
+(1879) and _Royal Windsor_. He died on the 26th of December 1879. His
+daughter, Ella N. Hepworth Dixon, became known as a journalist and
+novelist.
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, a city and the county seat of Lee county, Illinois, U.S.A., on
+the Rock river, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 5161; (1900)
+7917 (879 foreign-born); (1910) 7216. It is served by the Chicago &
+North-Western and the Illinois Central railways, and is connected with
+Sterling by an electric line; freight is shipped over the Hennepin
+Canal. The city has two parks of 159 and 6 acres respectively, and
+there is a Chautauqua Park, where an annual Chautauqua Assembly is held.
+Dixon is the seat of the Northern Illinois normal school (incorporated
+in 1884), and of the Rock River military academy. The river furnishes
+water power for the street railways, electric lighting and a number of
+manufacturing establishments. Among the manufactures are condensed milk,
+boxes, wire screens and wire cloth, lawn mowers, gas engines, cement,
+agricultural implements, shoes and wagons. The place was laid out in
+1835 by John Dixon (1784-1876), the first white settler of Lee county. A
+bronze tablet in the Howells Building, at the intersection of First and
+Peoria Streets, marks the site of his cabin, and in the city cemetery a
+granite shaft has been erected to his memory. Dixon was chartered as a
+city in 1859.
+
+
+
+
+DIZFUL, or DIZ-PUL ("fort-bridge"), a town of Persia, in the province of
+Arabistan, 36 m. N.W. of Shushter, in 32° 25' N., 48° 28' E. Pop. about
+25,000. It has post and telegraph offices. It is situated on the left
+bank of the Dizful river, a tributary of the Karun, crossed by a fine
+bridge of twenty-two arches, 430 yds. in length, constructed on ancient
+foundations. Dizful is the chief place of a small district of the same
+name and the residence of the governor of Arabistan during the winter
+months. The district has twelve villages and a population of about
+35,000 (5000 Arabs of the Ali i Keth[=i]r tribe), and pays a yearly
+tribute of about £6000. The city was formerly known as Andamish, and in
+its vicinity are many remains of ancient canals and buildings which
+afford conclusive proof of former importance. 16 m. S.W. are the ruins
+of Susa, and east of them and half-way between Dizful and Shushter stood
+the old city of Junday Shapur.
+
+
+
+
+DJAKOVO (sometimes written _Djakovar_, Hungarian _Diakovár_), a city of
+Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; in the county of Virovitica, 100 m. E. by S.
+of Agram. Pop. (1900) 6824. Djakovo is a Roman Catholic episcopal see,
+whose occupant bears the title "Bishop of Bosnia, Slavonia and Sirmium."
+During the life of Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) it was one of the
+chief centres of religious and political activity among the Croats. The
+cathedral, a vast basilica built of brick and white stone, with a
+central dome and two lofty spires above the north entrance, was founded
+in 1866 and consecrated in 1882. Its style is Romanesque, chosen by
+Strossmayer as symbolical of the position of his country midway between
+east and west. The interior is magnificently decorated with mosaics,
+mural paintings and statuary, chiefly the work of local artists. Other
+noteworthy buildings are the nunnery, ecclesiastical seminary and
+episcopal palace. Djakovo has a thriving trade in agricultural produce.
+Many Roman remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood, but the
+earliest mention of the city is in 1244, when Béla IV. of Hungary
+confirmed the title-deeds of its owners, the bishops of Bosnia.
+
+  For a full description of the cathedral, in Serbo-Croatian and French,
+  see the finely illustrated folio _Stolna Crkva u Djakovu_, published
+  by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+DLUGOSZ, JAN [JOHANNES LONGINUS] (1415-1480), Polish statesman and
+historian, was the son of Jan Dlugosz, burgrave of Bozeznica. Born in
+1415, he graduated at the university of Cracow and in 1431 entered the
+service of Bishop Zbygniew Olesnicki (1389-1455), the statesman and
+diplomatist. He speedily won the favour of his master, who induced him
+to take orders and made him his secretary. His preferment was rapid. In
+1436 we find him one of the canons of Cracow and the administrator of
+Olesnicki's vast estates. In 1440, on returning from Hungary, whither
+his master had escorted King Wladislaus II., Dlugosz saved the life of
+Olesnicki from robbers. The prelate now employed Dlugosz on the most
+delicate and important political missions. Dlugosz brought Olesnicki the
+red hat from Rome in 1449, and shortly afterwards was despatched to
+Hungary to mediate between Hunyadi and the Bohemian condottiere Giszkra,
+a difficult mission which he most successfully accomplished. Both these
+embassies were undertaken contrary to the wishes of King Casimir IV.,
+who was altogether opposed to Olesnicki's ecclesiastical policy. But
+though he thus sacrificed his own prospects to the cardinal's good
+pleasure, Dlugosz was far too sagacious to approve of the provocative
+attitude of Olesnicki, and frequently and fearlessly remonstrated with
+him on his conduct. In his account, however, of the quarrel between
+Casimir and Olesnicki concerning the question of priority between the
+cardinal and the primate of Poland he warmly embraced the cause of the
+former, and even pronounced Casimir worthy of dethronement. Such
+outbursts against Casimir IV. are not infrequent in Dlugosz's _Historia
+Polonica_, and his strong personal bias must certainly be taken into
+consideration in any critical estimate of that famous work. Yet as a
+high-minded patriot Dlugosz had no sympathy whatever with Olesnicki's
+opposition to Casimir's Prussian policy, and steadily supported the king
+during the whole course of the war with the Teutonic knights. When
+Olesnicki died in 1455 he left Dlugosz his principal executor. The
+office of administering the cardinal's estate was a very ungrateful one,
+for the family resented the liberal benefactions of their kinsman to the
+Church and the university, and accused Dlugosz of exercising undue
+influence, from which charge he triumphantly vindicated himself. It was
+in the year of his patron's death that he began to write his _Historia
+Polonica_. This great book, the first and still one of the best
+historical works on Poland in the modern sense of the word, was only
+undertaken after mature consideration and an exhaustive study of all the
+original sources then available, some of which are now lost. The
+principal archives of Poland and Hungary were ransacked for the purpose,
+and in his account of his own times Dlugosz's intimate acquaintance with
+the leading scholars and statesmen of his day stood him in good stead.
+The style is modelled on that of Livy, of whom Dlugosz was a warm
+admirer. As a proof of the thoroughness and conscientiousness of Dlugosz
+it may be mentioned that he learned the Cyrillic alphabet and took up
+the study of Ruthenian, "in order that this our history may be as plain
+and perfect as possible." The first of the numerous imprints of the
+_Historia Polonica_ appeared in 1614, the first complete edition in
+1711.
+
+Dlugosz's literary labours did not interfere with his political
+activity. In 1467 the generous and discerning Casimir IV. entrusted
+Dlugosz with the education of his sons, the eldest of whom, Wladislaus,
+at the urgent request of the king, he accompanied to Prague when in 1471
+the young prince was elected king of Bohemia. Dlugosz refused the
+archbishopric of Prague because of his strong dislike of the land of the
+Hussites; but seven years later he accepted the archbishopric of
+Lemberg. His last years were devoted to his history, which he completed
+in 1479. He died on the 19th of May 1480, at Piatek.
+
+  See Aleksander Semkowicz, _Critical Considerations of the Polish Works
+  of Dlugosz_ (Pol.; Cracow, 1874); Michael Bobrzynski and Stanislaw
+  Smolka, _Life of Dlugosz and his Position in Literature_ (Pol.;
+  Cracow, 1893).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH (1760-1837), Russian statesman and poet, was
+born at his father's estate in the government of Simbirsk. In
+consequence of the revolt of Pugachev the family had to flee to St
+Petersburg, and there Ivan was entered at the school of the Semenov
+Guards, and afterwards obtained a post in the military service. On the
+accession of Paul to the imperial throne he quitted the army with the
+title of colonel; and his appointment as procurator for the senate was
+soon after renounced for the position of privy councillor. During the
+four years from 1810 to 1814 he served as minister of justice under the
+emperor Alexander; but at the close of this period he retired into
+private life, and though he lived more than twenty years, he never again
+took office, but occupied himself with his literary labours and the
+collection of books and works of art. In the matter of language he sided
+with Karamsin, and did good service by his own pen against the Old
+Slavonic party. His poems include songs, odes, satires, tales, epistles,
+&c., as well as the fables--partly original and partly translated from
+Fontaine, Florian and Arnault--on which his fame chiefly rests. Several
+of his lyrics have become thoroughly popular from the readiness with
+which they can be sung; and a short dramatico-epic poem on Yermak, the
+Cossack conqueror of Siberia, is well known.
+
+  His writings occupy three volumes in the first five editions; in the
+  6th (St Petersburg, 1823) there are only two. His memoirs, to which he
+  devoted the last years of his life, were published at Moscow in 1866.
+
+
+
+
+DNIEPER, one of the most important rivers of Europe (the _Borysthenes_
+of the Greeks, _Danapris_ of the Romans, _Uzi_ or _Uzu_ of the Turks,
+Eksi of the Tatars, _Elice_ of Visconti's map (1381), _Lerene_ of
+Contarini (1437), _Luosen_ of Baptista of Genoa (1514), and _Lussem_ in
+the same century). It belongs entirely to Russia, and rises in the
+government of Smolensk, in a swampy district (alt. 930 ft.) at the foot
+of the Valdai Hills, not far from the sources of the Volga and the
+Dvina, in 55° 52' N. and 33° 41' E. Its length is about 1410 m. and it
+drains an area of 202,140 sq. m. In the first part of its course, which
+may be said to end at Dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating country
+of Carboniferous formation; in the second it passes west to Orsha, south
+through the fertile plain of Chernigov and Kiev, and then south-east
+across the rocky steppe of the Ukraine to Ekaterinoslav. About 45 m. S.
+of this town it has to force its way across the same granitic offshoot
+of the Carpathian mountains which interrupts the course of the Dniester
+and the Bug, and for a distance of about 25 m. rapid succeeds rapid. The
+fall of the river in that distance is 155 ft. The Dnieper, having got
+clear of the rocks, continues south-west through the grassy plains of
+Kherson and Taurida, and enters the Black Sea, or rather a _liman_ or
+bay of the Black Sea, by a considerable estuary in 46° 30' N. and 32°
+20' E. On this ramifying _liman_, into which the Bug also pours its
+waters, stand Nikolaiev and the fortified town of Ochakov. Navigation
+extends as far up as Dorogobuzh, where the depth is about 12 ft., and
+rafts are floated down from the higher reaches. The banks are generally
+high, more particularly the left bank. About the town of Smolensk the
+breadth is 455 ft., at the confluence of the Pripet 1400, and in some
+parts of the Ekaterinoslav district more than 1¼ m. In the course above
+the rapids the channel varies very greatly in nature and depth, and it
+is not infrequently interrupted by shallows. The rapids, or _porogs_,
+form a serious obstacle to navigation; it is only for a few weeks when
+the river is in flood that they are passable, and even then the venture
+is not without risk and can only be undertaken with the assistance of
+special pilots. It is from these falls that the Cossacks of the Ukraine
+came to be known as Zaporogian Cossacks. As early as 1732 an attempt was
+made to improve the channel. A canal, which ultimately proved too small
+for use, was constructed at Nenasitets in 1780 at private expense;
+blastings were carried out in 1798 and 1799 at various parts; in 1805 a
+canal was formed at Kaindatski, and the channel straightened at Sursk;
+by 1807 a new canal was completed at Nenasitets; in 1833 a passage was
+cleared through the Staro-kaindatski porog; and in the period 1843 to
+1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. The result has been not only
+to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural channel, but also to
+furnish a series of artificial canals by which vessels can make their
+way when the river is low. Of the tributaries of the Dnieper the
+following are navigable,--the Berezina and the Pripet from the right,
+and the Sozh and the Desna from the left. By means of the Dnieper-Bug
+(King's) canal, and the Berezina and Oginski canals, this river has a
+sort of water connexion with the Baltic Sea. In the estuary the
+fisheries give employment to large numbers of people. At Kiev the river
+is free from ice on an average of 234 days in the year, at Ekaterinoslav
+270 and at Kherson 277.     (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
+
+
+
+
+DNIESTER (_Tyras_ and _Danaster_ or _Danastris_ of classical authors,
+_Nistrul_ of the Rumanians, and _Turla_ of the Turks), a river of
+south-eastern Europe belonging to the basin of the Black Sea. It rises
+on the northern slope of the Carpathian mountains in Austrian Galicia,
+and belongs for the first 350 m. of its course to Austrian, for the
+remaining 515 m. to Russian, territory. It drains an area of 29,670 sq.
+m., of which 16,500 sq. m. belong to Russia. It is excessively
+meandering, and the current in most parts even during low water is
+decidedly rapid as compared with Russian rivers generally, the mean rate
+being calculated at 1-7/11 m. per hour. The average width of the channel
+is from 500 to 750 ft., but in some places it attains as much as 1400
+ft.; the depth is various and changeable. The principal interruption in
+the navigable portion of the river, besides a sprinkling of rocks in the
+bed and the somewhat extensive shallows, is occasioned by a granitic
+spur from the Carpathians, which gives rise to the Yampol Rapids. For
+ordinary river craft the passage of these rapids is rendered possible,
+but not free from danger, by a natural channel on the left side, and by
+a larger and deeper artificial channel on the right; for steamboats they
+form an insuperable barrier. The river falls into the sea by several
+arms, passing through a shallow _liman_ or lagoon, a few miles S.W. of
+Odessa. There are two periodical floods,--the earlier and larger caused
+by the breaking up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of
+February or in March; and the later due to the melting of the snows in
+the Carpathians, and taking place about June. The spring flood raises
+the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of the river
+submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent country. In some
+years the general state of the water is so low that navigation is
+possible only for three or four weeks, while in other years it is so
+high that navigation continues without interruption; but in recent years
+considerable improvements have been effected at government expense. In
+consequence the traffic has increased, the Dniester tapping regions of
+great productiveness, especially in cereals and timber, namely, Galicia,
+Podolia and Bessarabia. Steamboat traffic was introduced in the lower
+reaches in 1840. The fisheries of the lower course and of the estuary
+are of considerable importance; and these, together with those of the
+lakes which are formed by the inundations, furnish a valuable addition
+to the diet of the people in the shape of carp, pike, tench, salmon,
+sturgeon and eels. Its tributaries are numerous, but not of individual
+importance, except perhaps the Sereth in Galicia.
+     (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
+
+
+
+
+DOAB, DUAB or DOOAB, a name, like the Greek Mesopotamia, applied in
+India, according to its derivation (_do_, two, and _ab_, river), to the
+stretch of country lying between any two rivers, as the Bari Doab
+between the Sutlej and the Ravi, the Rechna Doab between the Ravi and
+the Chenab, the Jech Doab between the Chenab and Jhelum, and the Sind
+Sagar Doab between the Jhelum and the Indus, but frequently employed,
+without any distinctive adjunct, as the proper name for the region
+between the Ganges and its great tributary the Jumna. In like manner the
+designation of Doab canal is given to the artificial channel which
+breaks off from the Jumna near Fyzabad, and flows almost parallel with
+the river till it reunites with it at Delhi.
+
+
+
+
+DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1799-1859), American churchman, Protestant
+Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, was born in Trenton, New Jersey, on the
+27th of May 1799. He graduated at Union College, Schenectady, New York,
+in 1818, studied theology and, in 1821, was ordained deacon and in 1823
+priest by Bishop Hobart, whom he assisted in Trinity church, New York.
+With George Upfold (1796-1872), bishop of Indiana from 1849 to 1872,
+Doane founded St Luke's in New York City. In 1824-1828 he was professor
+of belles-lettres in Washington (now Trinity) College, Hartford,
+Connecticut, and at this time he was one of the editors of the
+_Episcopal Watchman_. He was assistant in 1828-1830 and rector in
+1830-1832 of Christ church, Boston, and was bishop of New Jersey from
+October 1832 to his death at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 27th of
+April 1859. The diocese of New Jersey was an unpromising field, but he
+took up his work there with characteristic vigour, especially in the
+foundation of St Mary's Hall (1837, for girls) and Burlington College
+(1846) as demonstrations of his theory of education under church
+control. His business management of these schools got him heavily into
+debt, and in the autumn of 1852 a charge of lax administration came
+before a court of bishops, who dismissed it. The schools showed him an
+able and wise disciplinarian, and his patriotic orations and sermons
+prove him a speaker of great power. He belonged to the High Church party
+and was a brilliant controversialist. He published _Songs by the Way_
+(1824), a volume of poems; and his hymns beginning "Softly now the light
+of day" and "Thou art the Way" are well known.
+
+  See _Life and Writings of George Washington Doane_ (4 vols., New York,
+  1860-1861), edited by his son, William Croswell Doane (b. 1832), first
+  bishop of Albany.
+
+
+
+
+DOBBS FERRY, a village of Westchester county, New York, on the E. bank
+of the Hudson river 2 m. N. of Yonkers. Pop. (1890) 2083; (1900) 2888;
+(1910 U. S. census) 3455. Dobbs Ferry is served by the Hudson River
+division of the New York Central railway. There are many fine country
+places, two private schools--the Mackenzie school for boys and the
+Misses Masters' school for girls--and the children's village (with about
+thirty cottages) of the New York juvenile asylum. The name of the
+village was derived from a Swede, Jeremiah Dobbs, whose family probably
+moved hither from Delaware, and who at the beginning of the last quarter
+of the 18th century had a skiff ferry, which was kept up by his family
+for a century afterwards. Because Dobbs Ferry had been a part of
+Philipse Manor all lands in it were declared forfeit at the time of the
+War of American Independence (see YONKERS), and new titles were derived
+from the commissioners of forfeitures. The position of the village
+opposite the northernmost end of the Palisades gave it importance during
+the war. The region was repeatedly raided by camp followers of each
+army; earthworks and a fort, commanding the Hudson ferry and the ferry
+to Paramus, New Jersey, were built; the British army made Dobbs Ferry a
+rendezvous, after the battle of White Plains, in November 1776, and the
+continental division under General Benjamin Lincoln was here at the end
+of January 1777. The American army under Washington encamped near Dobbs
+Ferry on the 4th of July 1781, and started thence for Yorktown in the
+following month. In the Van Brugh Livingston house on the 6th of May
+1783, Washington and Governor George Clinton met General Sir Guy
+Carleton, afterwards Lord Dorchester, to negotiate for the evacuation by
+the British troops of the posts they still held in the United States. In
+1873 the village was incorporated as Greenburgh, from the township of
+the same name which in 1788 had been set apart from the manor of
+Phillipsburgh; but the name Dobbs Ferry was soon resumed.
+
+
+
+
+DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON (1824-1874), English poet and critic, was born
+on the 5th of April 1824 at Cranbrook, Kent. His father was a wine
+merchant, his mother a daughter of Samuel Thompson (1766-1837), a London
+political reformer. The family moved to Cheltenham when Dobell was
+twelve years old. He was educated privately, and never attended either
+school or university. He refers to this in some lines on Cheltenham
+College in imitation of Chaucer, written in his eighteenth year. After a
+five years' engagement he married, in 1844, Emily Fordham, a lady of
+good family. An acquaintance with Mr (subsequently Sir James) Stansfeld
+and with the Birmingham preacher-politician, George Dawson (1821-1876),
+which afterwards led to the foundation of the Society of the Friends of
+Italy, fed the young enthusiast's ardour for the liberalism of the day.
+Meanwhile, Dobell wrote a number of minor poems, instinct with a
+passionate desire for political reform. _The Roman_ appeared in 1850,
+under the _nom de plume_ of "Sydney Yendys." Next year he travelled
+through Switzerland with his wife; and after his return he formed
+friendships with Robert Browning, Philip Bailey, George MacDonald,
+Emanuel Deutsch, Lord Houghton, Ruskin, Holman Hunt, Mazzini, Tennyson
+and Carlyle. His second long poem, _Balder_, appeared in 1854. The three
+following years were spent in Scotland. Perhaps his closest friend at
+this time was Alexander Smith, in company with whom he published, in
+1855, a number of sonnets on the Crimean War, which were followed by a
+volume on _England in Time of War_. Although by no means a rich man he
+was always ready to help needy men of letters, and it was through his
+exertions that David Gray's poems were published. In 1869 a horse, which
+he was riding, fell and rolled over with him. His health, which had for
+several years necessitated his wintering abroad, was seriously affected
+by this accident, and he was from this time more or less of an invalid,
+until his death on the 22nd of August 1874.
+
+As a poet Dobell belongs to the "spasmodic school," as it was named by
+Professor Aytoun, who parodied its style in _Firmilian_. The epithet,
+however, was first applied by Carlyle to Byron. The school includes
+George Gilfillan, Philip James Bailey, John Stanyan Bigg (1826-1865),
+Dobell, Alexander Smith, and, according to some critics, Gerald Massey.
+It was characterized by an under-current of discontent with the mystery
+of existence, by vain effort, unrewarded struggle, sceptical unrest, and
+an uneasy straining after the unattainable. It thus faithfully
+reflected a certain phase of 19th century thought. The productions of
+the school are marked by an excess of metaphor and a general
+extravagance of language. On the other hand, they exhibit freshness and
+originality often lacking in more conventional writings. Dobell's poem,
+_The Roman_, dedicated to the interests of political liberty in Italy,
+is marked by pathos, energy and passionate love of freedom, but it is
+overlaid with monologue, which is carried to a dreary excess in
+_Balder_, relieved though the latter is by fine descriptive passages,
+and by some touching songs. Dobell's suggestive, but too ornate prose
+writings were collected and edited with an introductory note by
+Professor J. Nichol (_Thoughts on Art, Philosophy and Religion_) in
+1876. In his religious views Dobell was a Christian of the Broad Church
+type; and socially he was one of the most amiable and true-hearted of
+men. His early interest in the cause of oppressed nationalities, shown
+in his friendship with Kossuth, Emanuel Deutsch and others, never
+lessened, although his views of home politics underwent some change from
+the radical opinions of his youth. In Gloucestershire Dobell was well
+known as an advocate of social reform, and he was a pioneer in the
+application of the co-operative system to private enterprise.
+
+  The standard edition of his poems (1875) by Professor Nichol includes
+  a memoir.
+
+
+
+
+DÖBELN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the (Freiberg)
+Mulde, two arms of which embrace the town as an island, 35 m. S.E. from
+Leipzig by rail, and at the junction of lines to Dresden, Chemnitz,
+Riesa and Oschatz. Pop. (1905) including the garrison, 18,907. It has
+two Evangelical churches, of which the Nikolai-kirche, dating in its
+present form from 1485, is a handsome edifice; a medieval town hall, a
+former Benedictine nunnery and a monument to Luther. There are an
+agricultural and a commercial school. The industries include
+wool-spinning, iron-founding, carriage, agricultural implement, and
+metal-printing and stamping works.
+
+
+
+
+DOBERAN, or DOBBERAN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
+Mecklenburg-Schwerin, about 2 m. from the shores of the Baltic and 7 W.
+of Rostock by rail. Pop. 5000. Besides the ruins of a Cistercian abbey
+founded by Pribislaus, prince of Mecklenburg, in 1173, and secularized
+in 1552, it possesses an Evangelical Gothic church of the 14th century,
+one of the finest in north Germany, a grand-ducal palace, a theatre, an
+exchange and a concert hall. Owing to its delightful situation amid
+beech forests and to its chalybeate waters, Doberan has become a
+favourite summer resort. Numerous villa residences have been erected and
+promenades and groves laid out. In 1793 Duke Frederick Francis caused
+the first seaside watering-place in Germany to be established on the
+neighbouring coast, 4 m. distant, at the spot where the Heiligen-Damm, a
+great bank of rocks about 1000 ft. broad and 15 ft. high, stretches out
+into the sea and forms an excellent bathing ground. Though no longer so
+popular as in the early part of the 19th century, it is still
+frequented, and is connected with Doberan by a tramway.
+
+
+
+
+DÖBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG (1780-1849), German chemist, was born near
+Hof in Bavaria on the 15th of December 1780. After studying pharmacy at
+Münchberg, he started a chemical manufactory in 1803, and in 1810 was
+appointed professor of chemistry, pharmacy and technology at Jena, where
+he died on the 24th of March 1849. The Royal Society's _Catalogue_
+enumerates 171 papers by him on various chemical topics, but his name is
+best known for his experiments on platinum in a minute state of division
+and on the oxidation products of alcohol. In 1822 he showed that when a
+mass of platinum black, supplied with alcohol by a wick is enclosed in a
+jar to which the air has limited access, acetic acid and water are
+produced; this experiment formed the basis of the Schützenbach Quick
+Vinegar Process. A year later he noticed that spongy platinum in
+presence of oxygen can bring about the ignition of hydrogen, and
+utilized this fact to construct his "hydrogen lamp," the prototype of
+numerous devices for the self-ignition of coal-gas burners. He studied
+the formation of aldehyde from alcohol by various methods, also
+obtaining its crystalline compound with ammonia, and he was the
+discoverer of furfurol. An early observation of the diffusion of gases
+was recorded by him in 1823 when he noticed the escape of hydrogen from
+a cracked jar, attributing it to the capillary action of fissures. His
+works included treatises on pneumatic chemistry (1821-1825) and the
+chemistry of fermentation (1822).
+
+  A correspondence which he carried on with Goethe and Charles August,
+  grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, was collected and published at Weimar by
+  Schade in 1856.
+
+
+
+
+DOBREE, PETER PAUL (1782-1825), English classical scholar and critic,
+was born in Guernsey. He was educated at Reading school under Richard
+Valpy and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected fellow. He
+was appointed regius professor of Greek in 1823, and died in Cambridge
+on the 24th of September 1825. He was an intimate friend of Porson, whom
+he took as his model in textual criticism, although he showed less
+caution in conjectural emendation. After Porson's death (1808) Dobree
+was commissioned with Monk and Blomfield to edit his literary remains,
+which had been bequeathed to Trinity College. Illness and a subsequent
+journey to Spain delayed the work until 1820, when Dobree brought out
+the _Plutus_ of Aristophanes (with his own and Porson's notes) and all
+Porson's _Aristophanica_. Two years later he published the _Lexicon_ of
+Photius from Porson's transcript of the Gale MS. in Trinity College
+library, to which he appended a _Lexicon rhetoricum_ from the margin of
+a Cambridge MS. of Harpocration. James Scholefield, his successor in the
+Greek professorship, brought out selections from his notes
+(_Adversaria_, 1831-1833) on Greek and Latin authors (especially the
+orators), and a reprint of the _Lexicon rhetoricum_, together with notes
+on inscriptions (1834-1835). The latest edition of the _Adversaria_ is
+by William Wagner (in Bohn's _Collegiate Series_, 1883).
+
+  An appreciative estimate of Dobree as a scholar will be found in J.
+  Bake's _Scholica hypomnemata_, ii. (1839) and in the _Philological
+  Museum_, i. (1832) by J. C. Hare.
+
+
+
+
+DÖBRENTEI, GABOR [GABRIEL] (1786-1851), Hungarian philologist and
+antiquary, was born at Nagyszöllös in 1786. He completed his studies at
+the universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig, and was afterwards engaged
+as a tutor in Transylvania. At this period he originated and edited the
+_Erdélyi Muzeum_, which, notwithstanding its important influence on the
+development of the Magyar language and literature, soon failed for want
+of support. In 1820 Döbrentei settled at Pest, and there he spent the
+rest of his life. He held various official posts, but continued
+zealously to pursue the studies for which he had early shown a strong
+preference. His great work is the _Ancient Monuments of the Magyar
+Language_ (_Régi Magyar Nyelvemlékek_), the editing of which was
+entrusted to him by the Hungarian Academy. The first volume was
+published in 1838 and the fifth was in course of preparation at the time
+of his death. Döbrentei was one of the twenty-two scholars appointed in
+1825 to plan and organize, under the presidency of Count Teleki, the
+Hungarian Academy. In addition to his great work he wrote many valuable
+papers on historical and philological subjects, and many biographical
+notices of eminent Hungarians. These appeared in the Hungarian
+translation of Brockhaus's _Conversations-Lexikon_. He translated into
+Hungarian _Macbeth_ and other plays of Shakespeare, Sterne's letters
+from Yorick to Eliza (1828), several of Schiller's tragedies, and
+Molière's _Avare_, and wrote several original poems. Döbrentei does not
+appear to have taken any part in the revolutionary movement of 1848. He
+died at his country house, near Pest, on the 28th of March 1851.
+
+
+
+
+DOBRITCH, or HAJIOLUPAZARJIK, the principal town in the Bulgarian
+Dobrudja. Pop. (1901) 13,436. The town is noted for its _panaïr_ or
+great fair, chiefly for horses and cattle, held annually in the summer,
+which formerly attracted a large concourse from all parts of eastern
+Europe, but has declined in importance.
+
+
+
+
+DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN (1717-1791), Austrian Roman Catholic missionary,
+was born at Gratz, in Styria. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1736,
+and in 1749 proceeded to Paraguay, where for eighteen years he worked
+devotedly first among the Guaranis, and then among the Abipones.
+Returning to Europe on the expulsion of the Jesuits from South America,
+he settled at Vienna, obtained the friendship of Maria Theresa, survived
+the extinction of his order, composed the history of his mission, and
+died on the 17th of July 1791. The lively if rather garrulous book on
+which his title to remembrance rests, appeared at Vienna in 1784, in the
+author's own Latin, and in a German translation by Professor Krail of
+the university of Pest. Of its contents some idea may be obtained from
+its extended title:--_Historia de Abiponibus, Equestri Bellicosaque
+Paraguariae Natione, locupletata Copiosis Barbararum Gentium, Urbium,
+Fluminum, Ferarum, Amphibiorum, Insectorum, Serpentium praecipuorum,
+Piscium, Avium, Arborum, Plantarum aliarumque ejusdem Provinciae
+Proprietatum Observationibus_. In 1822 there appeared in London an
+anonymous translation sometimes ascribed to Southey, but really the work
+of Sara Coleridge, who had undertaken the task to defray the college
+expenses of one of her brothers. A delicate compliment was paid to the
+translator by Southey in the third canto of his _Tale of Paraguay_, the
+story of which was derived from the pages of Dobrizhoffer's narrative:--
+
+  "And if he could in Merlin's glass have seen
+   By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught,
+   The old man would have felt as pleased, I ween,
+   As when he won the ear of that great Empress Queen."
+
+
+
+
+DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH (1753-1829), Hungarian philologist, was born of
+Bohemian parentage at Gjermet, near Raab, in Hungary. He received his
+first education in the German school at Bischofteinitz, made his first
+acquaintance with Bohemian at the Deutschbrod gymnasium, studied for
+some time under the Jesuits at Klattau, and then proceeded to the
+university of Prague. In 1772 he was admitted among the Jesuits at
+Brünn; but on the dissolution of the order in 1773 he returned to Prague
+to study theology. After holding for some time the office of tutor in
+the family of Count Nostitz, he obtained an appointment first as
+vice-rector, and then as rector, in the general seminary at Hradisch;
+but in 1790 he lost his post through the abolition of the seminaries
+throughout Austria, and returned as a guest to the house of the count.
+In 1792 he was commissioned by the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit
+Stockholm, Abo, Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which
+had been scattered by the Thirty Years' War; and on his return he
+accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy. His reason began to
+give way in 1795, and in 1801 he had to be confined in a lunatic asylum;
+but by 1803 he had completely recovered. The rest of his life was mainly
+spent either in Prague or at the country seats of his friends Counts
+Nostitz and Czernin; but his death took place at Brünn, whither he had
+gone in 1828 to make investigations in the library. While his fame rests
+chiefly on his labours in Slavonic philology his botanical studies are
+not without value in the history of the science.
+
+  The following is a list of his more important works, _Fragmentum
+  Pragense evangelii S. Marci, vulgo autographi_ (1778); a periodical
+  for Bohemian and Moravian Literature (1780-1787); _Scriptores rerum
+  Bohemicarum_ (2 vols., 1783); _Geschichte der böhm. Sprache und ältern
+  Literatur_ (1792); _Die Bildsamkeit der slaw. Sprache_ (1799); a
+  _Deutsch-böhm. Wörterbuch_ compiled in collaboration with
+  Leschka-Puchmayer and Hanka (1802-1821); _Entwurf eines
+  Pflanzensystems nach Zahlen und Verhältnissen_ (1802); _Glagolitica_
+  (1807); _Lehrgebäude der böhm. Sprache_ (1809); _Institutiones linguae
+  slavicae dialecti veteris_ (1822); _Entwurf zu einem allgemeinen
+  Etymologikon der slaw. Sprachen_ (1813); _Slowanka zur Kenntniss der
+  slaw. Literatur_ (1814); and a critical edition of Jordanes, _De rebus
+  Geticis_, for Pertz's _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. See Palacky,
+  _J. Dobrowskys Leben und gelehrtes Wirken_ (1833).
+
+
+
+
+DOBRUDJA (Bulgarian _Dobritch_, Rumanian _Dobrogea_), also written
+DOBRUDSCHA, and DOBRUJA, a region of south-eastern Europe, bounded on
+the north and west by the Danube, on the east by the Black Sea, and on
+the south by Bulgaria. Pop. (1900) 267,808; area, 6000 sq. m. The
+strategic importance of this territory was recognized by the Romans, who
+defended it on the south by "Trajan's Wall," a double rampart, drawn
+from Constantza, on the Black Sea, to the Danube. In later times it was
+utilized by Russians and Turks, as in the wars of 1828, 1854 and 1878,
+when it was finally wrested from Turkey. By the treaty of Berlin, in
+1878, the Russians rewarded their Rumanian allies with this land of
+mountains, fens and barren steppes, peopled by Turks, Bulgarians,
+Tatars, Jews and other aliens; while, to add to the indignation of
+Rumania, they annexed instead the fertile country of Bessarabia, largely
+inhabited by Rumans. After 1880, however, the steady decrease of aliens,
+and the development of the Black Sea ports, rendered the Dobrudja a
+source of prosperity to Rumania.
+
+
+
+
+DOBSINA (Ger. _Dobschau_), a town of Hungary, 165 m. N.E. of Budapest by
+rail. Pop. (1900) 5109. It is situated in the county of Gömör, at the
+foot of the Radzim (3200 ft. high) in the central Carpathians, and lies
+to the south of the beautiful Straczena valley, watered by the river
+Göllnitz, and enclosed on all sides by mountains. In the vicinity are
+mines of iron, cobalt, copper and mercury, some of them being very
+ancient. But the most remarkable feature is a large cavern some 3¾ m.
+N.W., in which is an icefield nearly 2 acres in extent, containing
+formations which are at once most curious and strikingly beautiful. This
+cavern, which lies in the above-mentioned Straczena valley, was
+discovered in 1870. The place was founded in the first half of the 14th
+century by German miners.
+
+
+
+
+DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN (1840-   ), English poet and man of letters, was
+born at Plymouth on the 18th of January 1840, being the eldest son of
+George Clarisse Dobson, a civil engineer, and on his grandmother's side
+of French descent. When he was about eight years old the family moved to
+Holyhead, and his first school was at Beaumaris, in the Isle of
+Anglesea. He was afterwards educated at Coventry, and the Gymnase,
+Strassburg, whence he returned at the age of sixteen with the intention
+of becoming a civil engineer. He had a taste for art, and in his earlier
+years at the office continued to study it at South Kensington, at his
+leisure, but without definite ambition. In December 1856 he entered the
+Board of Trade, gradually rising to a principalship in the harbour
+department, from which he withdrew in the autumn of 1901. He married in
+1868 Frances Mary, daughter of Nathaniel Beardmore of Broxbourne, Herts,
+and settled at Ealing. His official career was industrious though
+uneventful, but as poet and biographer he stands among the most
+distinguished of his time. The student of Mr Austin Dobson's work will
+be struck at once by the fact that it contains nothing immature: there
+are no _juvenilia_ to criticize or excuse. It was about 1864 that Mr
+Dobson first turned his attention to composition in prose and verse, and
+some of his earliest known pieces remain among his best. It was not
+until 1868 that the appearance of _St Paul's_, a magazine edited by
+Anthony Trollope, afforded Mr Dobson an opportunity and an audience; and
+during the next six years he contributed to its pages some of his
+favourite poems, including "Tu Quoque," "A Gentleman of the Old School,"
+"A Dialogue from Plato," and "Une Marquise." Many of his poems in their
+original form were illustrated--some, indeed, actually written to
+support illustrations. By the autumn of 1873 Mr Dobson had produced
+sufficient verse for a volume, and put forth his _Vignettes in Rhyme_,
+which quickly passed through three editions. During the period of their
+appearance in the magazine the poems had received unusual attention,
+George Eliot, among others, extending generous encouragement to the
+anonymous author. The little book at once introduced him to a larger
+public. The period was an interesting one for a first appearance, since
+the air was full of metrical experiment. Swinburne's bold and
+dithyrambic excursions into classical metre had given the clue for an
+enlargement of the borders of English prosody; and, since it was
+hopeless to follow him in his own line without necessary loss of vigour,
+the poets of the day were looking about for fresh forms and variations.
+It was early in 1876 that a small body of English poets lit upon the
+French forms of Theodore de Banville, Marot and Villon, and determined
+to introduce them into English verse. Mr Austin Dobson, who had already
+made successful use of the triolet, was at the head of this movement,
+and in May 1876 he published in _The Prodigals_ the first original
+ballade written in English. This he followed by English versions of the
+rondel, rondeau and villanelle. An article in the _Cornhill Magazine_ by
+Mr Edmund Gosse, "A Plea for Certain Exotic Forms of Verse," appearing
+in July 1877, simultaneously with Mr Dobson's second volume, _Proverbs
+in Porcelain_, drew the general eye to the possibilities and
+achievements of the movement. The experiment was extremely fortunate in
+its introduction. Mr Dobson is above all things natural, spontaneous and
+unaffected in poetic method; and in his hands a sheaf of metrical forms,
+essentially artificial and laborious, was made to assume the colour and
+bright profusion of a natural product. An air of pensive charm, of
+delicate sensibility, pervades the whole of these fresh revivals; and it
+is perhaps this personal touch of humanity which has given something
+like stability to one side of a movement otherwise transitory in
+influence. The fashion has faded, but the flowers of Mr Dobson's French
+garden remain bright and scented.
+
+In 1883 Mr Dobson published _Old-World Idylls_, a volume which contains
+some of his most characteristic work. By this time his taste was
+gradually settling upon the period with which it has since become almost
+exclusively associated; and the spirit of the 18th century is revived in
+"The Ballad of Beau Brocade" and in "The Story of Rosina," as nowhere
+else in modern English poetry. In "Beau Brocade," indeed, the pictorial
+quality of his work, the dainty economy of eloquent touches, is at its
+very best: every couplet has its picture, and every picture is true and
+vivacious. The touch has often been likened to that of Randolph
+Caldecott, with which it has much in common; but Mr Dobson's humour is
+not so "rollicking," his portraiture not so broad, as that of the
+illustrator of "John Gilpin." The appeal is rather to the intellect, and
+the touches of subdued pathos in the "Gentleman" and "Gentlewoman of the
+Old School" are addressed directly to the heart. We are in the 18th
+century, but see it through the glasses of to-day; and the soft
+intercepting sense of change which hangs like a haze between ourselves
+and the subject is altogether due to the poet's sympathy and
+sensibility. _At the Sign of the Lyre_ (1885) was the next of Mr
+Dobson's separate volumes of verse, although he has added to the body of
+his work in a volume of _Collected Poems_ (1897). _At the Sign of the
+Lyre_ contains examples of all his various moods. The admirably fresh
+and breezy "Ladies of St James's" has precisely the qualities we have
+traced in his other 18th-century poems; there are ballades and rondeaus,
+with all the earlier charm; and in "A Revolutionary Relic," as in "The
+Child Musician" of the _Old-World Idylls_, the poet reaches a depth of
+true pathos which he does not often attempt, but in which, when he seeks
+it, he never fails. At the pole opposite to these are the light
+occasional verses, not untouched by the influence of Praed, but also
+quite individual, buoyant and happy. But the chief novelty in _At the
+Sign of the Lyre_ was the series of "Fables of Literature and Art,"
+founded in manner upon Gay, and exquisitely finished in scholarship,
+taste and criticism. It is in these perhaps, more than in any other of
+his poems, that we see how with much felicity Mr Dobson interpenetrates
+the literature of fancy with the literature of judgment. After 1885 Mr
+Dobson was engaged principally upon critical and biographical prose, by
+which he has added very greatly to the general knowledge of his
+favourite 18th century. His biographies of _Fielding_ (1883), _Bewick_
+(1884), _Steele_ (1886), _Goldsmith_ (1888), _Walpole_ (1890) and
+_Hogarth_ (1879-1898) are studies marked alike by assiduous research,
+sympathetic presentation and sound criticism. It is particularly
+noticeable that Mr Dobson in his prose has always added something, and
+often a great deal, to our positive knowledge of the subject in
+question, his work as a critic never being solely aesthetic. In _Four
+Frenchwomen_ (1890), in the three series of _Eighteenth-Century
+Vignettes_ (1892-1894-1896), and in _The Paladin of Philanthropy_
+(1899), which contain unquestionably his most delicate prose work, the
+accurate detail of each study is relieved by a charm of expression which
+could only be attained by a poet. In 1901 he collected his hitherto
+unpublished poems in a volume entitled _Carmina Votiva_. Possessing an
+exquisite talent of defined range, Mr Austin Dobson may be said in his
+own words to have "held his pen in trust for Art" with a service sincere
+and distinguished.
+
+
+
+
+DOBSON, WILLIAM (1610-1646), English portrait and historical painter,
+was born in London. His father was master of the alienation office, but
+by improvidence had fallen into reduced circumstances. The son was
+accordingly bound an apprentice to a stationer and picture dealer in
+Holborn Bridge; and while in his employment he began to copy the
+pictures of Titian and Van Dyck. He also took portraits from life under
+the advice and instruction of Francis Cleyn, a German artist of
+considerable repute. Van Dyck, happening to pass a shop in Snow Hill
+where one of Dobson's pictures was exposed, sought out the artist, and
+presented him to Charles I., who took Dobson under his protection, and
+not only sat to him several times for his own portrait, but caused the
+prince of Wales, Prince Rupert and many others to do the same. The king
+had a high opinion of his artistic ability, styled him the English
+Tintoretto, and appointed him serjeant-painter on the death of Van Dyck.
+After the fall of Charles, Dobson was reduced to great poverty, and fell
+into dissolute habits. He died at the early age of thirty-six. Excellent
+examples of Dobson's portraits are to be seen at Blenheim, Chatsworth
+and several other country seats throughout England. The head in the
+"Decollation of St John the Baptist" at Wilton is said to be a portrait
+of Prince Rupert.
+
+
+
+
+DOCETAE, a name applied to those thinkers in the early Christian Church
+who held that Christ, during his life, had not a real or natural, but
+only an apparent ([Greek: dokein], to appear) or phantom body. Other
+explanations of the [Greek: dokêsis] or appearance have, however, been
+suggested, and, in the absence of any statement by those who first used
+the word of the grounds on which they did so, it is impossible to
+determine between them with certainty. The name Docetae is first used by
+Theodoret (_Ep._ 82) as a general description, and by Clement of
+Alexandria as the designation of a distinct sect,[1] of which he says
+that Julius Cassianus was the founder. Docetism, however, undoubtedly
+existed before the time of Cassianus. The origin of the heresy is to be
+sought in the Greek, Alexandrine and Oriental philosophizing about the
+imperfection or rather the essential impurity of matter. Traces of a
+Jewish Docetism are to be found in Philo; and in the Christian form it
+is generally supposed to be combated in the writings of John,[2] and
+more formally in the epistles of Ignatius.[3] It differed much in its
+complexion according to the points of view adopted by the different
+authors. Among the Gnostics and Manichaeans it existed in its most
+developed type, and in a milder form it is to be found even in the
+writings of the orthodox teachers. The more thoroughgoing Docetae
+assumed the position that Christ was born without any participation of
+matter; and that all the acts and sufferings of his human life,
+including the crucifixion, were only apparent. They denied accordingly,
+the resurrection and the ascent into heaven. To this class belonged
+Dositheus, Saturninus, Cerdo, Marcion and their followers, the Ophites,
+Manichaeans and others. Marcion, for example, regarded the body of
+Christ merely as an "umbra," a "phantasma." His denial (due to his
+abhorrence of the world) that Jesus was born or subjected to human
+development, is in striking contrast to the value which he sets on
+Christ's death on the cross. The other, or milder school of Docetae,
+attributed to Christ an ethereal and heavenly instead of a truly human
+body. Amongst these were Valentinus, Bardesanes, Basilides, Tatian and
+their followers. They varied considerably in their estimation of the
+share which this body had in the real actions and sufferings of Christ.
+Clement and Origen, at the head of the Alexandrian school, took a
+somewhat subtle view of the Incarnation, and Docetism pervades their
+controversies with the Monarchians. Hilary especially illustrates the
+prevalence of naive Docetic views as regards the details of the
+Incarnation. Docetic tendencies have also been developed in later
+periods of ecclesiastical history, as for example by the Priscillianists
+and the Bogomils, and also since the Reformation by Jacob Boehme, Menno
+Simons and a small fraction of the Anabaptists. Docetism springs from
+the same roots as Gnosticism, and the Gnostics generally held Docetic
+views (see GNOSTICISM).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Not a distinct sect, but a continuous type of Christology.
+    Hippolytus, however (_Philosophumena_, viii. 8-11), speaks of a
+    definite party who called themselves Docetae.
+
+  [2] 1 _Ep._ iv. 2, ii. 22, v. 6, 20; 2 _Ep._ 7, cf. Jerome (_Dial.
+    adv. Lucifer_. § 23 "Apostolis adhuc in saeculo superstitibus, adhuc
+    apud Judaeam Christi sanguine recenti, phantasma Domini corpus
+    asserebatur").
+
+  [3] _Ad Trall._ 9 f., _Ad Smyrn._ 2, 4, _Ad Ephes._ 7. Cf. Polycarp,
+    _Ad Phil._ 7.
+
+
+
+
+DOCHMIAC (from Gr. [Greek: dochmê], a hand's breadth), a form of verse,
+consisting of _dochmii_ or pentasyllabic feet (usually o _ _ o -).
+
+
+
+
+DOCK, a word applied to (1) a plant (see below), (2) an artificial basin
+for ships (see below), (3) the fleshy solid part of an animal's tail,
+and (4) the railed-in enclosure in which a prisoner is placed in court
+at his trial. Dock (1) in O.E. is _docce_, represented by Ger.
+_Dockea-blatter_, O.Fr. _docque_, Gael. _dogha_; Skeat compares Gr.
+[Greek: daukos], a kind of parsnip. Dock (2) appears in Dutch (_dok_)
+and English in the 16th century; thence it was adopted into other
+languages. It has been connected with Med. Lat. _doga_, cap, Gr. [Greek:
+dochê], receptacle, from [Greek: dechesthai], to receive. Dock (3),
+especially used of a horse or dog, appears in English in the 14th
+century; a parallel is found in Icel. _docke_, stumpy tail, and Ger.
+_Docke_, bundle, skein, is also connected with it. This word has given
+the verb "to dock," to cut short, curtail, especially used of the
+shortening of an animal's tail by severing one or more of the vertebrae.
+The English Kennel Club (Rules, 1905, revised 1907) disqualifies from
+prize-winning dogs whose tails have been docked; several breeds are,
+however, excepted, e.g. varieties of terriers and spaniels, poodles,
+&c., and such foreign dogs as may from time to time be determined by the
+club. The prisoners' dock (4) is apparently to be referred to Flem.
+_dok_, pen or hutch. It was probably first used in thieves' slang;
+according to the _New English Dictionary_ it was known after 1610 in
+"bail-dock," a room at the corner of the Old Bailey left open at the
+top, "in which during the trials are put some of the malefactors"
+(_Scots. Mag._, 1753).
+
+
+
+
+DOCK, in botany, the name applied to the plants constituting the section
+_Lapathum_ of the genus _Rumex_, natural order Polygonaceae. They are
+biennial or perennial herbs with a stout root-stock, and glabrous
+linear-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaves with a rounded, obtuse or
+hollowed base and a more or less wavy or crisped margin. The flowers are
+arranged in more or less crowded whorls, the whole forming a denser or
+looser panicle; they are generally perfect, with six sepals, six stamens
+and a three-sided ovary bearing three styles with much-divided stigmas.
+The fruit is a triangular nut enveloped in the three enlarged leathery
+inner sepals, one or all of which bear a tubercle. In the common or
+broad-leaved dock, _Rumex obtusifolius_, the flower-stem is erect,
+branching, and 18 in. to 3 ft. high, with large radical leaves,
+heart-shaped at the base, and more or less blunt; the other leaves are
+more pointed, and have shorter stalks. The whorls are many-flowered,
+close to the stem and mostly leafless. The root is many-headed, black
+externally and yellow within. The flowers appear from June to August. In
+autumn the whole plant may become of a bright red colour. It is a
+troublesome weed, common by roadsides and in fields, pastures and waste
+places throughout Europe. The great water dock, _R. hydrolapathum_,
+believed to be the _herba britannica_ of Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxv. 6), is
+a tall-growing species; its root is used as an antiscorbutic. Other
+British species are _R. crispus_; _R. conglomeratus_, the root of which
+has been employed in dyeing; _R. sanguineus_ (bloody dock, or
+bloodwort); _R. palustris_; _R. pulcher_ (fiddle dock), with
+fiddle-shaped leaves; _R. maritimus_; _R. aquaticus_; _R. pratensis_.
+The naturalized species, _R. alpinus_, or "monk's rhubarb," was early
+cultivated in Great Britain, and was accounted an excellent remedy for
+ague, but, like many other such drugs, is now discarded.
+
+
+
+
+DOCK, in marine and river engineering. Vessels require to lie afloat
+alongside quays provided with suitable appliances in sheltered sites in
+order to discharge and take in cargoes conveniently and expeditiously;
+and a basin constructed for this purpose, surrounded by quay walls, is
+known as a dock. The term is specially applied to basins adjoining tidal
+rivers, or close to the sea-coast, in which the water is maintained at a
+fairly uniform level by gates, which are closed when the tide begins to
+fall, as exemplified by the Liverpool and Havre docks (figs. 1 and 2).
+Sometimes, however, at ports situated on tidal rivers near their tidal
+limit, as at Glasgow (fig. 3), Hamburg and Rouen, and at some ports near
+the sea-coast, such as Southampton (fig. 4) and New York, the tidal
+range is sufficiently moderate for dock gates to be dispensed with, and
+for open basins and river quays to serve for the accommodation of
+vessels. For ports established on the sea-coast of tideless seas, such
+as the Mediterranean, on account of the rivers being barred by deltas at
+their outlets, like the Rhone and the Tiber, and thus rendered
+inaccessible, open basins, provided with quays and protected by
+breakwaters, furnish the necessary commercial requirements for sea-going
+vessels, as for example at Marseilles (fig. 5), Genoa, Naples and
+Trieste. These open basins, however, are precisely the same as closed
+docks, except for the absence of dock gates, and the accommodation for
+shipping at the quays round basins in river ports is so frequently
+supplemented by river quays, that closed docks, open basins and river
+quays are all naturally included in the general consideration of dock
+works.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Liverpool Docks, North End]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Havre Docks and Outer Harbour.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Glasgow Docks.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Southampton Docks and River Quays.]
+
+
+  Sites for Docks.
+
+Low-lying land adjoining a tidal river or estuary frequently provides
+suitable sites for docks; for the position, being more or less inland,
+is sheltered; the low level reduces the excavation required for forming
+the docks, and enables the excavated materials to be utilized in raising
+the ground at the sides for quays, and the river furnishes a sheltered
+approach channel. Notable instances of these are the docks of the ports
+of London, Liverpool, South Wales, Southampton, Hull, Belfast, St
+Nazaire, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Hamburg. Sometimes docks are partially
+formed on foreshores reclaimed from estuaries, as at Hull, Grimsby,
+Cardiff, Liverpool, Leith and Havre; whilst at Bristol, a curved portion
+of the river Avon was appropriated for a dock, and a straight cut made
+for the river. By carrying docks across sharp bends of tidal rivers,
+upper and lower entrances can be provided, thereby conveniently
+separating the inland and sea-going traffic; and of this the London,
+Surrey Commercial, West India, and Victoria and Albert docks are
+examples on the Thames and Chatham dockyard on the Medway. Occasionally,
+when a small tidal river has a shallow entrance, or an estuary exhibits
+signs of silting up, docks alongside, formed on foreshores adjoining the
+sea-coast, are provided with a sheltered entrance direct from the sea,
+as exemplified by the Sunderland docks adjacent to the mouth of the
+river Wear, and the Havre docks at the outlet of the Seine estuary (fig.
+2). Some old ports, originally established on sandy coasts where a
+creek, maintained by the influx and efflux of the tide from low-lying
+spaces near the shore, afforded some shelter and an outlet to the sea
+across the beach, have had their access improved by parallel jetties and
+dredging; and docks have been readily formed in the low-lying land only
+separated by sand dunes from the sea, as at Calais, Dunkirk (fig. 6) and
+Ostend (see HARBOUR). In sheltered places on the sea-coast, docks have
+sometimes been constructed on low-lying land bordering the shore, with
+direct access to the sea, as at Barrow and Hartlepool; whilst at
+Mediterranean ports open basins have been formed in the sea, by
+establishing quays along the foreshore, from which wide, solid jetties,
+lined with quay walls, are carried into the sea at intervals at right
+angles to the shore, being sheltered by an outlying breakwater parallel
+to the coast, and reached at each end through the openings left between
+the projecting jetties and the breakwater, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and
+Trieste, and at the extensions at Genoa (see HARBOUR) and Naples. Where,
+however, the basins are formed within the partial protection of a bay,
+as in the old ports of Genoa and Naples, the requisite additional
+shelter has been provided by converging breakwaters across the opening
+of the bay; and an entrance to the port is left between the breakwaters.
+The two deep arms of the sea at New York, known as the Hudson and East
+rivers, are so protected by Staten Island and Long Island that it has
+been only necessary to form open basins by projecting wide jetties or
+quays into them from the west and east shores of Manhattan Island, and
+from the New Jersey and Brooklyn shores, at intervals, to provide
+adequate accommodation for Atlantic liners and the sea-going trade of
+New York.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Port of Marseilles. Basins and Extensions.]
+
+
+  Approach channels.
+
+The accessibility of a port depends upon the depth of its approach
+channel, which also determines the depth of the docks or basins to which
+it leads; for it is useless to give a depth to a dock much in excess of
+the depth down to which there is a prospect of carrying the channel by
+which it is reached. The great augmentation, however, in the power and
+capacity for work of modern dredgers, and especially of suction dredgers
+in sand (see DREDGE), together with the increasing draught of vessels,
+has resulted in a considerable increase being made in the available
+depth of rivers and channels leading to docks, and has necessitated the
+making of due allowance for the possibility of a reasonable improvement
+in determining the depth to be given to a new dock. On the other hand,
+there is a limit to the deepening of an approach channel, depending upon
+its length, the local conditions as regards silting, and the resources
+and prospects of trade of the port, for every addition to the depth
+generally involves a corresponding increase in the cost of maintenance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Dunkirk Docks and Jetty Channel.]
+
+At tidal ports the available depth for vessels should be reckoned from
+high water of the lowest neap tides, as the standard which is certain to
+be reached at high tide; and the period during which docks can be
+entered at each tide depends upon the nature of the approach channel,
+the extent of the tidal range and the manner in which the entrance to
+the docks is effected. Thus where the tidal range is very large, as in
+the Severn estuary, the approach channels to some of the South Wales
+ports are nearly dry at low water of spring tides, and it would be
+impossible to make these ports accessible near low tide; whereas at high
+water, even of neap tides, vessels of large draught can enter their
+docks. At Liverpool, with a rise of 31 ft. at equinoctial spring tides,
+owing to the deep channel between Liverpool and Birkenhead and into the
+outer estuary of the Mersey in Liverpool Bay, maintained by the
+powerful tidal scour resulting from the filling and emptying of the
+large inner estuary, access to the river by the largest vessels has been
+rendered possible, at any state of the tide, by dredging a channel
+through the Mersey bar; but the docks cannot be entered till the water
+has risen above half-tide level, and the gates are closed directly after
+high water. A large floating landing-stage, however, about half a mile
+in length, in front of the centre of the docks, connected with the shore
+by several hinged bridges and rising and falling with the tide, enables
+Atlantic liners to come alongside and take on board or disembark their
+passengers at any time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Tilbury Docks.]
+
+Comparatively small tidal rivers offer the best opportunity of a
+considerable improvement in the approach channel to a port; for they can
+be converted into artificially deep channels by dredging, and their
+necessary maintenance is somewhat aided by the increased influx and
+efflux of tidal water due to the lowering of the low-water line by the
+outflow of the ebb tide being facilitated by the deepening. Thus
+systematic, continuous dredging in the Tyne and the Clyde has raised the
+Tyne ports and Glasgow into first-class ports. In large tidal rivers and
+estuaries, docks should be placed alongside a concave bank which the
+deep navigable channel hugs, as effected at Hull and Antwerp, or close
+to a permanently deep channel in an estuary, such as chosen for Garston
+and the entrance to the Manchester ship canal at Eastham in the inner
+Mersey estuary, and for Grimsby and the authorized Illingham dock in the
+Humber estuary; for a channel carried across an estuary to deep water
+requires constant dredging to maintain its depth. Occasionally,
+extensive draining works and dredging have to be executed to form an
+adequately deep channel through a shifting estuary and shallow river to
+a port, as for instance on the Weser to Bremerhaven and Bremen, on the
+Seine to Honfleur and Rouen, on the Tees to Middlesborough and Stockton,
+on the Ribble to Preston, on the Maas to Rotterdam and on the Nervion to
+Bilbao (see RIVER ENGINEERING). Southampton possesses the very rare
+combination of advantages of a well-sheltered and fairly deep estuary, a
+rise of only 12 ft. at spring tides, and a position at the head of
+Southampton Water at the confluence of two rivers (fig. 4), so that,
+with a moderate amount of dredging and the construction of quays along
+the lower ends of the river with a depth of 35 ft. in front of them at
+low water, it is possible for vessels of the largest draught to come
+alongside or leave the quays at any state of the tide. This circumstance
+has enabled Southampton to attract some of the Atlantic steamers
+formerly running to Liverpool.
+
+Ports on tideless seas have to be placed where deep water approaches the
+shore, and where there is an absence of littoral drift. The basins of
+such ports are always accessible for vessels of the draught they provide
+for; but they require most efficient protection, and, unlike tidal
+ports, they are not able on exceptional occasions to admit a vessel of
+larger draught than the basins have been formed to accommodate.
+Occasionally, an old port whose approach channel has become inadequate
+for modern vessels, or from which the sea has receded, has been provided
+with deep access from the sea by a ship canal, as exemplified by
+Amsterdam and Bruges; whilst Manchester has become a seaport by similar
+works (see MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL). In such cases, however, perfectly
+sheltered open basins are formed inland at the head of the ship canal,
+in the most convenient available site; and the size of vessels that can
+use the port depends wholly on the dimensions and facility of access of
+the ship canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Barry Docks.]
+
+
+    Design of Docks.
+
+  Docks require to be so designed that they may provide the maximum
+  length of quays in proportion to the water area consistent with easy
+  access for vessels to the quays; but often the space available does
+  not admit of the adoption of the best forms, and the design has to be
+  made as suitable as practicable under the existing conditions. On this
+  account, and owing to the small size of vessels in former times, the
+  docks of old ports present a great variety in size and arrangement,
+  being for the most part narrow and small, forming a sort of string of
+  docks communicating with one another, and provided with locks or
+  entrances at suitable points for their common use, as noticeable in
+  the older London and Liverpool docks. Though narrow timber jetties
+  were introduced in some of the wider London docks for increasing the
+  length of quays by placing vessels alongside them, no definite
+  arrangement of docks was adopted in carrying out the large Victoria
+  and Albert docks between 1850 and 1880; whilst the Victoria dock was
+  made wide with solid quays, provided with warehouses, projecting from
+  the northern quay wall, thereby affording a large accommodation for
+  vessels lying end on to the north quay, the Albert dock subsequently
+  constructed was given about half the width of the earlier dock, but
+  made much longer, so that vessels lie alongside the north and south
+  quays in a long line. This change of form, however, was probably
+  dictated by the advantage of stretching across the remainder of the
+  wide bend, in order to obtain a second entrance in a lower reach of
+  the river. The Tilbury docks, the latest and lowest docks on the
+  Thames, were constructed on the most approved modern system,
+  consisting of a series of branch docks separated by wide,
+  well-equipped solid quays, and opening straight into a main dock or
+  basin communicating with the entrance lock, in which vessels can turn
+  on entering or leaving the docks (fig. 7). The most recently
+  constructed Liverpool docks, also, at the northern end have been given
+  this form; and the older docks adjoining them to the south have been
+  transformed by reconstruction into a similar series of branch docks
+  opening into a dock alongside the river wall, leading to a half-tide
+  basin or river entrances (fig. 1). The Manchester and Salford docks
+  were laid out on a precisely similar system, which was also adopted
+  for the most recent docks at Dunkirk (fig. 6) and Prince's dock at
+  Glasgow (fig. 3), and at some of the principal Rhine ports; whilst the
+  Alexandra dock at Hull resembles it in principle. The basins in
+  tideless seas have naturally been long formed in accordance with this
+  system (fig. 5). The Barry docks furnish an example of the special
+  arrangements for a coal-shipping port, with numerous coal-tips served
+  by sidings (fig. 8).
+
+
+    Tidal and half-tide basins.
+
+  Tidal basins, as they are termed, are generally interposed in the
+  docks of London between the entrance locks and the docks, with the
+  object of facilitating the passage of vessels out of and into the
+  docks before and after high water, by lowering the water in the basin
+  as soon as the tide has risen sufficiently, and opening the lock gates
+  directly a level has been formed with the tide in the river. Then the
+  vessels which have collected in the basin, when level with the dock,
+  are readily passed successively into the river. The incoming vessels
+  are next brought into the basin, and the gates are closed; and the
+  water in the basin having been raised to the level in the dock, the
+  gates shutting off the basin from the dock when the water was lowered
+  are opened, and the vessels are admitted to the dock. In this manner,
+  by means of an inner pair of gates, the basin can be used as a large
+  lock without unduly altering the water-level in the dock, and saves
+  the delay of locking most of the vessels out and in, the lock being
+  only used for the smaller vessels leaving early or coming in late on
+  the tide. Similar tidal basins have also been provided at Cardiff,
+  Penarth, Barry (fig. 8), Sunderland, Antwerp and other docks.
+
+  The large half-tide docks introduced at the most modern Liverpool
+  docks (fig. 1) serve a similar purpose as tidal basins; but being much
+  larger, and approached by entrances instead of locks, the exit and
+  entrance of vessels are effected by lowering their water-level on a
+  rising tide, and opening the gates, which are then closed at high
+  water to prevent the lowering of the water-level in the dock, and to
+  avoid closing the gates against a strong issuing current.
+
+  The tidal basins outside the locks at Tilbury and Barry are quite open
+  to the tide, and have been carried down to 24 ft. and 16 ft.
+  respectively below low water of spring tides, in order to afford
+  vessels a deep sheltered approach to the lock in each case, available
+  at or near low water (figs. 7 and 8). Such basins, however, open to a
+  considerable tidal range where the water is densely charged with silt,
+  are exposed to a large deposit in the fairly still water, and their
+  depth has to be constantly maintained by sluicing or dredging.
+
+
+    River quays.
+
+  Where the range of tide is moderate, or on large inland rivers, docks
+  or basins are usefully supplemented by river quays, which though
+  subject to changes in the water-level, and exposed to currents in the
+  river, are very convenient for access, and are sometimes very
+  advantageously employed in regulating a river and keeping up its banks
+  when deepened by dredging. Generally 10 to 12 ft. is the limit of the
+  tidal range convenient for the adoption of open basins and river
+  quays; but the banks of the Tyne have been utilized for quays, jetties
+  and coal-staiths, with a somewhat larger maximum tidal range; and a
+  long line of quays stretching along the right bank of the Scheldt in
+  front of Antwerp, constructed so as to regulate this reach of the
+  river, accommodates a large sea-going traffic, with a rise at spring
+  tides of 15 ft.
+
+
+    Excavations for docks.
+
+  When a dock has to be formed on land, the excavation is effected by
+  men with barrows and powerful steam navvies, loading into wagons drawn
+  in trains by locomotives to the place of deposit, usually to raise the
+  land at the sides for forming quays. Directly the underground
+  water-level is reached, the water has to be removed from the
+  excavations by pumps raising the inflowing water from sumps, lined
+  with timber, sunk down below the lowest foundations at suitable
+  positions, so that the lower portions of the dock walls and sills of
+  the lock or entrance may be built out of water. A cofferdam has to be
+  constructed extending out from the bank of the river or approach
+  channel in front of the site of the proposed entrance or lock, so that
+  the excavations for the entrance to the dock may be pushed forwards,
+  and the lock or entrance built under its protection. Sometimes the
+  lowest portion of the excavation for the dock can be accomplished
+  economically by dredging, after the dock walls and lock have been
+  completed and the water admitted.
+
+  Where a dock is partially or wholly constructed on reclaimed land, the
+  reclamation bank for enclosing the site and excluding the tide has to
+  be undertaken first by tipping an embankment from each end with
+  wagons, protected and consolidated along its outer toe by rubble stone
+  or chalk. When the ends of the embankments are approaching one
+  another, it is essential to connect them by a long low bank of
+  selected materials brought up gradually in successive layers, and
+  retaining the water in the enclosure to the level of this bank, so
+  that the influx and efflux of the tide, filling and emptying the
+  reclaimed area, may take place over a long length, and in smaller
+  volume as the low bank is raised. In this way a reduction is effected
+  of the tidal current in and out, which in the case of a large
+  enclosure and a considerable tidal range, would create such a scour in
+  the narrowing gap between two high embankments as to wash away their
+  ends and prevent the closing of the gap. Occasionally the final
+  closure is effected by lowering timber panels in grooves between a
+  series of piles driven down at intervals across the gap. On the
+  closing of the reclamation bank the water is pumped out; and the
+  excavation is carried on in the ordinary manner. It is very important
+  that such an embankment should be carried well above the level of the
+  highest tide which might be raised by a high wind; and in exposed
+  sites, the outer slope of the bank should be protected by pitching
+  from the action of waves, for any overtopping or erosion of the bank
+  might result in a large breach through it, and the flooding of the
+  works inside.
+
+
+    Foundations for dock walls.
+
+  Docks are generally surrounded by walls retaining the quays, alongside
+  which vessels lie for discharging and taking in cargoes. In order to
+  ascertain the nature of the strata upon which these walls have to be
+  founded, borings are taken at the outset to the requisite depth at
+  intervals near the line of the walls, but inside the dock area if the
+  piercing of quicksand is anticipated, as in excavating for the
+  foundations, these holes might give rise to the outflow, under
+  pressure, of underlying quicksand into the foundations. As docks are
+  generally formed near rivers or estuaries, these strata are commonly
+  alluvial; but being situated at some depth below the surface, they are
+  usually fairly hard. When they consist of gravel, clay or firm sand,
+  the walls can be founded on the natural bottom excavated a few feet
+  below the bottom of the dock, their weight being somewhat distributed
+  by making them rest on a broad bed of concrete filling up the
+  excavation at the bottom. When, however, fine sand or silt charged
+  with water, or quicksand is met with at the required depth, the
+  necessary pumping and excavation for the foundations might occasion
+  the influx of sand or silt with the water into the excavations,
+  leading to settlement and slips; or the soft stratum might be too
+  thick to remove. The wall may then be founded on bearing piles driven
+  down to a solid stratum, and having their tops joined together by
+  walings and planking, or by a layer of concrete, upon which the wall
+  is built. Or the soft stratum can be enclosed with a double row of
+  sheet piling along the front and back of the line of wall, by which it
+  sometimes becomes sufficiently confined and consolidated to sustain
+  the weight of the wall on a broad foundation of concrete; or it can be
+  excavated without any danger of sand or silt running in from outside;
+  whilst the sheet piling at the back relieves the wall to some extent
+  from the pressure of the earth behind it, and in front retains the
+  wall from sliding forwards. Firmer foundations have been obtained by
+  sinking brick, concrete or masonry wells through soft ground to a
+  solid stratum, upon which the dock wall is built. Clusters of small
+  concrete cylinders, in sets of three in front, and a line of double
+  cylinders at the back, were used for the foundations of the walls of
+  Prince's dock at Glasgow. Wells of rubble masonry were sunk in the
+  silty foreshore of the Seine estuary for the walls of the Bellot docks
+  at Havre; and they served as piers, connected by arches, for the
+  foundations of a continuous dock wall above, being carried down to a
+  considerable depth through alluvium at the St Nazaire, Bordeaux and
+  Rochefort docks. These well foundations, derived from the old Indian
+  system, are built up upon a curb, sometimes furnished with a cutting
+  edge underneath, and gradually sunk by excavating inside; and
+  eventually the central hollow is filled up solid with concrete or
+  masonry.
+
+
+    Dock walls.
+
+  The walls round a dock serve as retaining walls to keep up the quays;
+  and though they have the support of the water in front of them when
+  the docks are in use, they have to sustain the full pressure of the
+  filling at the back on the completion of the dock before the water is
+  admitted. They have, accordingly, to be increased in thickness
+  downwards to support the pressure increasing with the depth. This
+  pressure, with perfectly dry material, would be represented by the
+  weight of half the prism of filling between the natural slope of the
+  material behind and the back of the wall; but the pressure is often
+  increased by the accumulation of water at the back, which, with fine
+  silty backing, is liable to exert a sort of fluid pressure against the
+  wall proportionate to the density of the mixture of silt and water.
+  The increase of thickness towards the base used formerly to be
+  effected by a batter on the face, as well as by steps out at the back;
+  but the vertical form now given to the sides of large vessels
+  necessitates a corresponding fairly vertical face for the wall, to
+  prevent the upper part of the vessel being kept unduly away from the
+  quay. Examples of the most modern types of dock walls are given in
+  figs. 9 to 12.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Havre Bellot Dock Wall.]
+
+  The height of a dock wall depends upon the depth of water always
+  available for vessels, at tideless sea-ports and at ports removed from
+  tidal influences, such as Manchester, Bruges and the ports on the
+  Rhine; this depth should not be less than 28 to 30 ft. for large
+  sea-going vessels, together with a margin of 5 to 8 ft. above the
+  normal water-level for the quays, and the foundations below. At tidal
+  ports, however, an addition has to be made equal to the difference in
+  height between the high-water levels of spring and neap tides; so that
+  at ports with a large tidal range, such as the South Wales ports on
+  the Severn estuary and Liverpool, specially high dock walls are
+  necessary. Under normal conditions, a dock wall should be given a
+  width at a height half-way between dock-bottom and quay-level, equal
+  to one-third of its height above dock-bottom, and a width of half this
+  height at dock-bottom.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Liverpool Dock Wall.]
+
+  Dock walls are constructed of masonry, brickwork or concrete, or of
+  concrete with a facing of masonry or brickwork. Masonry is adopted
+  where large stone quarries are readily accessible, in the form of
+  rubble masonry with dressed stone on the face, as for instance at the
+  Hull and Barry docks, and forms a very durable wall; but strong
+  overhead staging carrying powerful gantries is necessary for laying
+  large blocks. Brickwork has been often used where bricks are the
+  ordinary building material of the district or can be made on the
+  works, and requires only ordinary scaffolding; and harder or pressed
+  bricks are employed for the facework. Concrete is very commonly
+  resorted to now where sand and stones are readily procured; and where
+  clean, sharp sand and gravel are found in thick layers in the
+  excavations for a dock, as in the alluvial strata bordering the
+  Thames, dock walls can be constructed cheaply and economically with
+  concrete deposited within timber framing, dispensing with regular
+  scaffolding and skilled labour. Such walls require to be given a
+  facing of stronger concrete, or of blue bricks, as at Tilbury, to
+  guard against abrasion by vessels, chains and ropes; and dock walls
+  are commonly provided at the top with granite or other hard stone
+  coping where the wear is greatest. The foundations for dock walls are
+  excavated in a trench below dock-bottom, only lined with timbering
+  where the faces of the trench cannot stand for a short time without
+  support, and with sheet piling through very unstable silt or sand; and
+  the trench is conveniently filled up solid with concrete, carried out
+  in short lengths in untrustworthy ground. To reduce the amount of
+  filling behind the wall, the excavation at the back above dock-bottom,
+  preparatory for the trench, is given as steep a slope as practicable,
+  supported sometimes towards the base by timbering and struts; but
+  occasionally the wall is built within a timbered trench carried down
+  to the required depth, before the excavation for the dock in front of
+  it has been executed, as effected at Tilbury. The filling at the back
+  is thus reduced to a minimum, and the lower portion of the excavation
+  can be accomplished by dredging, if expedient, after the admission of
+  the water, the dock wall in this way being exposed to the least
+  possible pressure behind.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Tilbury Basin Wall.]
+
+  The walls of open basins are often constructed out of water precisely
+  like dock walls, as in the case of the basins forming the Manchester,
+  Bruges and Glasgow docks; and basin walls open to the tide, as at
+  Glasgow and in the tidal basin outside Tilbury docks (fig. 7), differ
+  only from dock walls in being exposed to variations in the pressure at
+  the back resulting from the lowering of the water-level in front,
+  which is, indeed, shared to some extent by the walls round closed
+  docks where the difference in the high-water levels of springs and
+  neaps is considerable. The walls, however, round basins in tideless
+  seas, such as Marseilles, occasionally those inside harbours, and
+  especially quay walls along rivers and round open basins alongside
+  rivers, have to be constructed under water.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Barry Dock Wall.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Marseilles Quay Wall.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Antwerp Quay Wall, founded by compressed
+  air.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Caracciolo Jetty Quay Wall, Genoa.]
+
+
+    Open basin and river quay walls founded under water.
+
+  At Marseilles, the simple expedient was long ago adopted of
+  constructing the quay walls lining the basins formed in the sea, by
+  depositing tiers of large concrete blocks on a rubble foundation, one
+  on top of the other, till they reached sea-level, and then building a
+  solid masonry quay wall out of water on the top up to quay-level,
+  faced with ashlar (fig. 13), the wall being backed by rubble for some
+  distance behind up to the water-level. The same system was employed
+  for the quay walls at Trieste, and at Genoa and other Italian ports. A
+  quay wall inside Marmagao harbour, on the west coast of India, was
+  erected on a foundation layer of rubble by the sloping-block system,
+  to provide against unequal settlement on the soft bottom (see
+  BREAKWATER). The quay walls alongside the river Liffey, and round the
+  adjacent basins below Dublin, were erected under water by building
+  rubble-concrete blocks of 360 tons on staging carried out into the
+  water, from which they were lifted one by one by a powerful floating
+  derrick, which conveyed the block to the site, and deposited it on a
+  levelled bottom at low tide in a depth of 28 ft., raising the wall a
+  little above low water. After a row of these blocks had been laid, and
+  connected together by filling the grooves formed at the sides and the
+  interstices between the blocks with concrete, a continuous masonry
+  wall faced with ashlar was built on the top out of water. A quay wall
+  was built up to a little above low water on a similar principle at
+  Cork, with three smaller blocks as a foundation, in lengths of 8 ft.
+  Cylindrical well foundations have been extensively used for the
+  foundations of the quay walls along the Clyde, formerly made of brick,
+  but subsequently of concrete, sunk through a considerable variety of
+  alluvial strata, but mostly sand and gravel fully charged with water.
+  Compressed air in bottomless caissons has been increasingly employed
+  in recent years for carrying down the subaqueous foundations of river
+  quay walls, through alluvial deposits, to a solid stratum. About 1880,
+  a long line of river quays was commenced in front of Antwerp,
+  extending in the central portion a considerable distance out into the
+  Scheldt, with the object of regulating the width of the river
+  simultaneously with the provision of deep quays for sea-going vessels;
+  and the quay wall was erected, out of water, on the flat tops of a
+  series of wrought-iron caissons, 82 ft. long and 29½ ft. wide,
+  constructed on shore, floated out one by one to their site in the
+  river between two barges, and gradually lowered as the wall was built
+  up inside a plate-iron enclosure round the roof of the caisson, which
+  was eventually sunk by aid of compressed air through the bed of the
+  river to a compact stratum (fig. 14). The weight of the wall
+  counteracted the tendency of the caisson and the enclosure above it to
+  float; and the caisson, furnished with seven circular wrought-iron
+  shafts, provided with air-locks at the top for the admission of men
+  and materials and for the removal of the excavations, was gradually
+  carried down by excavating inside the working chamber at the bottom,
+  6¼ ft. high, till a good foundation was reached. The working chamber
+  was then filled with concrete through some of the shafts, the
+  plate-iron sides of the upper enclosure were removed to be used for
+  another length of wall, the shafts were drawn out and the hollows left
+  by them filled with concrete, the apertures between adjacent lengths
+  were closed at each face with wooden panels and filled with concrete,
+  and a continuous quay wall was completed above. The most recent quay
+  walls constructed in the old harbour at Genoa were founded under
+  water on a rubble mound in a similar manner by the aid of compressed
+  air (fig. 15). Quay walls also on the Clyde have been founded on
+  caissons, consisting of a bottomless steel structure, surmounted by a
+  brick superstructure having hollows filled with concrete, in lengths
+  of 80 ft. and 27 ft., and widths of 18 ft. and 21 ft. respectively,
+  carried down by means of compressed air from 54 to 70 ft. below
+  quay-level, on the top of which a continuous wall of concrete, faced
+  with brickwork, and having a granite coping, was built up from near
+  low-water level (fig. 16). In many cases where soft strata extend to
+  considerable depths, river quays and basin walls have been constructed
+  by building a light quay wall upon a series of bearing and raking
+  piles driven into, and if possible through, the soft alluvium. Thus
+  the walls along the Seine, and round the basins at Rouen, were built
+  upon bearing piles carried down through the alluvial bed of the river
+  to the chalk. The lower portion of the quay wall was constructed of
+  concrete faced with brickwork within water-tight timber caissons,
+  resting upon the piles at a depth of 9¾ ft. below low water; and upon
+  this a rubble wall faced with bricks was erected from low water to
+  quay-level, backed by rubble stone laid on a timber flooring supported
+  by piles, together with chalk, to form a quay right back to the top of
+  the slope of the bank of the deepened river (fig. 17). The quay walls
+  of the open basins bordering the Hudson river at New York have had, in
+  certain parts, to be founded on bearing piles combined with raking
+  piles, driven into a thick bed of soft silt where no firm stratum
+  could be reached, and where, therefore, the weight could only be borne
+  by the adherence of the long piles in the silt. Before driving the
+  piles, however, the silt round the upper part of the piles and under
+  the quay wall was consolidated by depositing small stones in a trench
+  dredged to a depth of 30 ft. below low water; the piles were driven
+  through these stones, and were further kept in place by a long toe of
+  rubble stone in front and a backing of rubble stone behind carried
+  nearly up to quay-level, behind which a light filling of ashes and
+  earth was raised to quay-level. The slight quay wall resting upon the
+  front rows of bearing piles was carried up under water by 70-ton
+  concrete blocks deposited by means of a floating derrick; and the
+  upper part of the wall was built of concrete faced with ashlar masonry
+  (fig. 18). The basin and quay walls at Bremen, Bremerhaven and Hamburg
+  were built on a series of bearing and raking piles driven down to a
+  firm stratum, the wall being begun a few feet below low water. At
+  Southampton, ferro-concrete piles were employed in constructing the
+  deep quays; and a wharfing of timber pilework has been frequently used
+  for river quays.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Glasgow River Quay Wall.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Rouen Quay Wall.]
+
+  Where the increase of trade is moderate and the conditions of the
+  traffic permit, and also at coal-shipping ports, economy in
+  construction is obtained by giving sloping sides to a portion of a
+  dock in place of dock walls, the slope being pitched where necessary
+  with stone; and the length of the slope projecting into a dock is
+  sometimes reduced by substituting sheet piling for the slope at the
+  toe up to a certain height. By this arrangement jetties can be carried
+  out across the slope as required, enabling vessels to lie against
+  their ends; and coal-tips are very conveniently extended out across
+  the slope at suitable intervals (fig. 8).
+
+
+    Failures of dock walls.
+
+  As dock walls, especially before the admission of water into the dock,
+  constitute high retaining walls, not infrequently founded upon soft or
+  slippery strata, and backed up with the excavated materials from
+  alluvial beds, into which water is liable to percolate, they are
+  naturally exposed under unfavourable conditions to the danger of
+  failure. A dock wall erected on unsatisfactory foundations is liable,
+  where the bottom is soft, to settle down at its toe, owing to the
+  pressure at the back, and to fall forwards into the dock, as occurred
+  at Belfast; or where the silty bottom slips forward under the weight
+  of the backing, the wall may follow the slip at the bottom and settle
+  down at the back, falling to some extent backwards, as exemplified by
+  the failure of the Empress basin wall at Southampton. The most common
+  form, however, of failure is the sliding forwards of a dock wall, with
+  little or no subsidence, on a silty or slippery stratum under the
+  pressure imposed by the backing. Thus the Kidderpur dock walls furnish
+  an instance of sliding forwards on muddy silt, and part of the South
+  West India dock walls on two underlying, detached, slippery seams of
+  London clay.
+
+  To avoid these failures with untrustworthy foundations, great care has
+  to be exercised in selecting the best hard material available,
+  unaffected by water, for the backing, which should be brought up in
+  thin, horizontal layers carefully consolidated; and where there is a
+  possibility of water accumulating at the back, pipes should be
+  introduced at intervals near the bottom right through the wall in
+  building it, and rubble stone deposited close to the back of the wall,
+  so as to carry off any water from behind, these pipes being stopped up
+  just before the water is let into the dock. These precautions,
+  moreover, are assisted by reducing the amount of backing to a minimum
+  in the construction of the wall, best effected by building the wall
+  inside a timbered trench. The liability to slide forwards can be
+  obviated by carrying down the foundations of the wall sufficiently
+  below dock-bottom to provide an efficient buttress of earth in front
+  of the wall, and also by making the base of the wall slope down
+  towards the back, thereby forcing the wall in sliding forwards to
+  mount the slope, or to push forward a larger mass of earth; whilst a
+  row of sheet piling in front of the foundations offers a very
+  effectual impediment to a forward movement, and, in combination with
+  bearing piles, prevents settlement at the toe in soft ground. In very
+  treacherous foundations it may be advisable to defer the completion of
+  the backing till after the admission of the water; but the additional
+  stability given to a retaining wall or reservoir dam by an ample
+  batter in front, is precluded in dock walls by the modern requirements
+  of vessels.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--New York Quay Wall, Hudson river.]
+
+
+    Maintenance of depth.
+
+  Silt accumulates in docks where the lowering of the water-level by
+  locking, the drawing down of half-tide basins, and the raising of the
+  water at spring tides, involve the admission of considerable volumes
+  of tidal water heavily charged with silt, which is deposited in still
+  water and has to be periodically removed by dredging. To avoid this,
+  the water is sometimes replenished from some clear inland source, an
+  arrangement adopted at some of the South Wales ports opening into the
+  muddy Severn estuary, and at the Alexandra dock, Hull, to exclude the
+  silty waters of the Humber. At the Kidderpur docks on the Húgli, the
+  water from the river for replenishing the docks is conducted by a
+  circuitous canal, in which it deposits its burden of silt before it is
+  pumped into the docks.
+
+
+  Equipment on quays.
+
+In order to deal expeditiously with the cargoes and goods brought into
+and despatched from docks, numerous sidings communicating with the
+railways of the district are arranged along the quays, which are also
+provided with steam, hydraulic or electric travelling cranes at
+intervals alongside the docks, basins or river, for discharging or
+loading vessels, and with sheds and warehouses for the storage of
+merchandise, &c., the arrangements depending largely upon the special
+trade of the port. Though different sources of power are sometimes made
+use of at different parts of the same port, as for example at Hamburg,
+where the numerous cranes are worked by steam, hydraulic power or most
+recently by electricity, and a few by gas engines, it is generally most
+convenient to work the various installations by one form of power from a
+central station. Water-pressure has been very commonly used as the
+motive power at docks, being generated by a steam-engine and stored up
+by one or more accumulators, from which the water is transmitted under
+pressure through strong cast-iron pipes to the hydraulic engines which
+actuate the cranes, lifts, coal-tips, capstans, swing-bridges and gate
+machinery throughout the docks (see POWER TRANSMISSION: _Hydraulic_).
+The intermittent working of the machinery in docks results in a
+considerable variation in the power needed at different times; but
+economical working is secured by arranging that when the accumulators
+are full, steam is automatically shut off from the pumping engines, but
+is supplied again as soon as water is drawn off. Electricity affords
+another means for the economical transmission of power to a distance
+suited for intermittent working; as far back as 1902 it was being
+adopted at Hamburg as the source of power for the machinery of the
+extensive additional basins then recently opened for traffic.
+
+
+  Coal-tips.
+
+At ports where the principal trade is the export of coal from
+neighbouring collieries, special provision has to be made for its rapid
+shipment. Coal-tips, accordingly, are erected at the sides of the dock
+in these ports, with sidings on the quays at the back for receiving the
+trains of coal trucks, from which two lines of way diverge to each
+coal-tip, one serving for the conveyance of the full wagons one by one
+to the tip, after passing over a weigh-bridge, and the other for the
+return of the empty wagons to the siding where the empty train is made
+up for returning to the colliery (fig. 8). Each full wagon is either run
+at a low level upon a cradle at the tip, then raised on the cradle
+within a wrought-iron lattice tower to a suitable height, and lastly,
+tipped up at the back for discharging the coal; or it is brought along a
+high-level road on to a cradle raised to this level on the tower, and
+tipped up at this or some slightly modified level. The coal is
+discharged down an adjustable iron shoot, gradually narrowed so as to
+check the fall; and on first discharging into the hold of a vessel, an
+anti-breakage box is suspended below the mouth of the shoot. When full,
+this is lowered to the bottom of the hold and emptied, thereby gradually
+forming a cone of coal upon which the coal can be discharged directly
+from the shoot without danger of breakage. Other contrivances are also
+adopted with the same object.
+
+
+    Dock extensions.
+
+  In designing dock works, it is expedient to make provision, as far as
+  possible, for future extensions as the trade of the port increases.
+  Generally this can be effected alongside tidal rivers and estuaries by
+  utilizing sites lower down the river, as carried out on the Thames for
+  the port of London, or reclaiming unoccupied foreshores of an estuary,
+  as adopted for extensions of the ports of Liverpool, Hull and Havre.
+  At ports on the sea-coast of tideless seas, it is only necessary to
+  extend the outlying breakwater parallel to the shore line, and form
+  additional basins under its shelter, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and
+  Genoa (see HARBOUR). Quays also along rivers furnish very valuable
+  opportunities of readily extending the accommodation of ports. Ports,
+  however, established inland like Manchester, though extremely
+  serviceable in converting an inland city into a seaport, are at the
+  disadvantage of having to acquire very valuable land for any
+  extensions that may be required; but, nevertheless, some compensation
+  is afforded by the complete shelter in which the extensions can be
+  carried out, when compared with Liverpool, where the additions to the
+  docks can only be effected by troublesome reclamation works along the
+  foreshore to the north, in increasingly exposed situations.
+
+_Dock Entrances and Locks._--The size of vessels which a port can admit
+depends upon the depth and width of the entrance to the docks; for,
+though the access of vessels is also governed by the depth of the
+approach channel, this channel is often capable of being further
+deepened to some extent by dredging; whereas the entrance, formed of
+solid masonry or concrete, cannot be adapted, except by troublesome and
+costly works sometimes amounting to reconstruction, to the increasing
+dimensions of vessels. Accordingly, in designing new dock works with
+entrances and locks, it is essential to look forward to the possible
+future requirements of vessels. The necessity for such forethought is
+illustrated by the rapid increase which has taken place in the size of
+the largest ocean liners. Thus the "City of Rome," launched in 1881, is
+560 ft. long, and 52¼ ft. beam, and has a maximum recorded draught of
+27½ ft.; the "Campania" and "Lucania," in 1893, measure 600 ft. by 65
+ft.; the "Oceanic," in 1899, 685½ ft. by 68¼ ft., with a maximum
+draught of 31-1/3 ft.; the "Baltic," in 1903, 709 ft. by 75 ft., with a
+maximum draught of 31¾ ft.; and the "Lusitania" and "Mauretania,"
+launched in 1906, 787½ ft. by 88 ft.
+
+
+  Dimensions of entrances and locks.
+
+The width and depth of access to docks are of more importance than the
+length of locks; for docks which are reached through entrances with a
+single pair of gates have to admit vessels towards high water when the
+water-level in the dock is the same as in the approach channel, or
+through a half-tide basin drawn down to the level of the water outside,
+and are therefore accessible to vessels of any length, provided the
+width of the entrance and depth over the sill are adequate; whilst at
+docks which are entered through locks, vessels which are longer than the
+available length of the lock can get in at high water when both pairs of
+gates of the lock are open. Open basins are generally given an ample
+width of entrance, and river quays also are always accessible to the
+longest and broadest vessels; but in a tidal river the available depth
+has to be reckoned from the lowest low water of spring tides, instead of
+from the lowest high water of neap tides, if the vessels in the open
+basins and alongside the river quays have to be always afloat.
+
+Many years ago the Canada lock at Liverpool, the outer North lock at
+Birkenhead, the Ramsden lock and entrance at Barrow-in-Furness, and the
+Eure entrance at Havre, were given a width of 100 ft. Probably this was
+done with the view of admitting paddle steamers, since subsequent
+entrances at Liverpool were given widths of 80 and 65 ft.; whereas none
+of the locks in the port of London has been made wider than 80 ft.,
+which has been the standard maximum width since the completion of the
+Victoria dock in 1866. The widest locks at Cardiff are 80 ft., and the
+entrance to the Barry docks is the same; but the lock of the Alexandra
+dock, Hull, opened in 1885, was made 85 ft. wide. At Liverpool, where
+the access to the docks is mainly through entrances, on account of the
+small width between the river and the high ground rising at the back,
+and where ample provision has to be made for the largest Atlantic
+liners, though the entrances to the Langton dock, completed in 1881,
+leading to the latest docks at the northern end were made 65 ft. wide,
+with their sills 3 ft. below low water of spring tides and 20½ ft. below
+high water of the lowest neap tides, the two new entrances to the
+deepened Brunswick dock near the southern end, giving access to the
+adjacent reconstructed docks, completed in 1906, were made 80 and 100
+ft. wide, with sills 28 ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides.
+Moreover, the three new entrances to the new Sandon half-tide dock,
+completed in 1906, communicating with the reconstructed line of docks to
+the south of the Canada basin, and with the latest northern extensions
+of the Liverpool docks, were made 40 ft. wide with a depth over the sill
+of 24½ ft., and 80 and 100 ft. wide on each end of the central entrance,
+with sills 29 ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides, each
+entrance being provided with two pairs of gates, in case of any accident
+occurring to one pair, according to the regular custom at Liverpool.
+Powers were also obtained in 1906 for the construction of a half-tide
+dock and two branch docks to the north of the Hornby dock, which are to
+be reached from the river by two entrances designed to be 130 ft. wide,
+with sills 38½ ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides, so as to
+meet fully the assumed future increase in the beam and draught of the
+largest vessels; whilst the authorized extension of the river wall
+northwards will enable additional docks to be constructed in
+communication with these entrances when required.
+
+Though, with the exception of Southampton and Dover, other British ports
+do not aim, like Liverpool, at accommodating the largest Atlantic liners
+at all times, the depths of the sills at the principal ports have been
+increased in the most recent extensions. Thus at the port of London the
+sills of the first lock of the Albert dock were 26½ ft. below high water
+of neap tides, and of the second lock adjoining, 32½ ft. deep; whilst
+the sills of the lock of the Tilbury docks are 40½ ft. below high water
+of neap tides. Moreover, in spite of the great range of tide at the
+South Wales ports on the Severn estuary, the available depth at high
+water of neap tides of 25 ft. at the Roath lock, Cardiff, was increased
+in the lock of the new dock to 31½ ft.; the depth at the entrance to
+the Barry docks, opened in 1889, was 29½ ft., but at the lock opened in
+1896 was made 41-1/3 ft.; whilst a depth of 34 ft. has been proposed for
+the new lock of the Alexandra dock extension at Newport, nearly 10 ft.
+deeper than the existing lock sills there. Similar improvements in depth
+have also been made or designed at other ports to provide for the
+increasing draught of vessels.
+
+The length of locks has also been increased, from 550 ft. at the Albert
+dock, to 700 ft. at Tilbury in the port of London, from 300 ft. to 550
+ft. at Hull, and from 350 ft. to 660 ft. at Cardiff. The lock at the
+Barry docks is 647 ft. long, though only 65 ft. wide. A lock constructed
+in connexion with the improvement works at Havre, carried out in
+1896-1907, was given an available length of 805 ft. and a width of 98½
+ft., with a depth over the sills of 34¾ ft. at high water of neap tides.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Barry Docks, Entrance.]
+
+
+    Entrances to docks.
+
+  Entrances with a single pair of gates, closing against a raised sill
+  at the bottom and meeting in the centre, have to be made long enough
+  to provide a recess in each side wall at the back to receive the gates
+  when they are opened, and to form a buttress in front on each side to
+  bear the thrust of the gates when closed against a head of water
+  inside. A masonry floor is laid on the bottom in continuation of the
+  sill, serving as an apron against erosion by water leaking between or
+  under the gates, and by the current through the sluiceways in the
+  gates, when opened for scouring the entrance channel or to assist in
+  lowering the water in a half-tide dock for opening the gates (fig.
+  19). A sluiceway in each side wall, closed by a vertical sluice-gate,
+  generally provided in duplicate in case of accidents and worked by a
+  machine actuated by hydraulic pressure, enables the half-tide basin to
+  be brought down to the level of the approach channel outside with a
+  rising tide, so that vessels may be brought into or passed out of the
+  basin towards high water. The advantages of these entrances are, that
+  they occupy comparatively little room where the space is limited, and
+  are much less costly than locks; whilst in conjunction with a
+  half-tide basin they serve the same purpose as a lock with a rising
+  tide. Vessels also pass more readily through the short entrances than
+  through locks; and as entrances are only used towards high water,
+  their sills need not be placed so low as the outer sills of locks to
+  accommodate vessels of large draught. On the other hand, they are
+  accessible for a more limited period at each tide than locks; and they
+  do not allow of the exclusion of silt-bearing tidal water, and
+  therefore necessitate a greater amount of dredging in the docks, and
+  especially in half-tide basins, for maintenance. Entrances, however,
+  at large ports are frequently supplemented by the addition of a lock
+  at some convenient site, rendering the ports accessible for the
+  smaller class of vessels for some time before and after high water, as
+  for instance at Liverpool, Barry, Havre and St Nazaire. A small basin
+  with an entrance at each end--an arrangement often adopted--is in
+  reality, for all practical purposes, a lock with a very large
+  lock-chamber. An entrance or passage with gates has also to be
+  provided at the inner end of a large half-tide basin like the basins
+  adopted at Liverpool, to shut off the half-tide basin from the docks
+  to which it gives access, and maintain their water-level when the
+  water is drawn down in the basin to admit vessels before high tide.
+
+  Reverse gates pointing outwards are sometimes added in passages to
+  docks and at entrances, to render the water-level in one set of docks
+  independent of adjacent docks, to exclude silty tidal water and very
+  high tides, and also to protect the gates of outer entrances in
+  exposed situations from swell, which might force them open slightly
+  and lead to a damaging shock on their closing again.
+
+
+    Locks at docks.
+
+  Locks differ from entrances in having a pair of gates with
+  arrangements similar to an entrance at each end, separated from one
+  another by a lock-chamber, which should be large enough to receive the
+  longest and broadest vessel coming regularly to the port. These dock
+  locks are similar in principle to locks on canals and canalized
+  rivers, but are on a much larger scale. The lock-chamber has its water
+  raised or lowered in proportion to the difference in level between the
+  water-level in the dock and the water in the entrance channel, by
+  passing water, when the gates are closed at both ends, from the dock
+  into the lock-chamber or from the lock-chamber into the entrance
+  channel, through large sluiceways in the side walls, controlled, as at
+  entrances, by vertical sluice-gates. In this way the vessel is raised
+  or lowered in the chamber, till, when a level has been reached, the
+  intervening pair of gates is opened and the vessel is passed into the
+  dock or out to the channel. Generally the upper and lower sills of a
+  lock are at the same level, a foot or two higher than dock-bottom; and
+  the depth at which they are laid is governed by the same
+  considerations as the sill of an entrance. Vessels longer than the
+  available length between the two pairs of gates can be admitted close
+  to high water, when the water in the dock and outside is at the same
+  level, and both pairs of gates can be opened. When the range of tide
+  at a port is large, and the depth in the approach channel is
+  sufficient to allow vessels to come up or go out some time before and
+  after high water, and also where the water in the dock is kept up to a
+  high level from an inland source to exclude very silty tidal water, it
+  is expedient to reduce the cost of construction by limiting the depth
+  of the excavations for the dock, and consequently also the height of
+  the dock walls, to what is necessary to provide a sufficient depth of
+  water below high water of the lowest neap tides, or below the
+  water-level to which the water in the dock is always maintained, for
+  the vessels of largest draught frequenting the port, or those which
+  may be reasonably expected in the near future. The upper sill of the
+  lock is then determined by the level of dock-bottom; but the lower
+  sill is taken down approximately to the depth of the bottom of the
+  approach channel, or to the depth to which it can be carried by
+  dredging, so as to enable the lock to admit or let out at any time all
+  vessels which can navigate the approach channel. Thus, for instance,
+  the outer and intermediate sills of the lock at the Barry docks are 9
+  ft. lower then the upper sill.
+
+  The foundations for the sill and side walls at each end of a lock, and
+  also for the side walls and invert commonly enclosing the lock-chamber
+  at the sides and bottom, are generally constructed simultaneously with
+  the dock works, under shelter of a cofferdam across the entrance
+  channel, and in the excavations kept dry by means of pumps. The
+  foundations under the sills and adjacent side walls are carried down
+  to a lower level than the rest, and if possible to a water-tight
+  stratum, to prevent infiltration of water under them owing to the
+  water-pressure on the upper side of the gates; or sometimes one or two
+  rows of sheet piling have been driven across the lock under the sills
+  to an impermeable stratum, to stop any flow. The foundations for the
+  sills consist usually of concrete deposited in a trench extended out
+  under the adjoining side walls. The sill, projecting generally about 2
+  ft. above the adjacent gate floor over which the gates turn, is built
+  of granite; and the same material is also used for the hollow quoins
+  in which the heelpost, or pivot, of the dock gates turns, and which,
+  together with the sills, are exposed to considerable wear. The side
+  walls of the lock-chamber are very similar in construction to the dock
+  walls; but they are strengthened against the loss of water-pressure in
+  front of them when the water is lowered in the chamber by an inverted
+  arch of masonry, brickwork or concrete, termed an "invert," laid
+  across the bottom of the chamber along its whole length, against which
+  the toe of each side wall abuts and effectually prevents any forward
+  movement. The side walls also, alongside the gates at each end, abut
+  against a thick level gate floor and apron, and, moreover, are
+  considerably widened to provide space for the sluiceways and gate
+  machinery.
+
+  The new Florida lock (fig. 20), forming the main entrance through the
+  new approach harbour and tidal harbour to the Eure dock and other
+  docks of the port of Havre, is the largest lock hitherto constructed.
+  It has an available length of chamber between the gates of 805 ft., a
+  width of 98½ ft., and depths over the sills of 15¾ ft. at the lowest
+  low water of spring tides, 23½ ft. at low water of neap tides, 35 ft.
+  at high water of neap tides, and 40½ ft. at high water of spring
+  tides. Owing to the alluvial stratum at the site of the lock close to
+  the Seine estuary, of which it doubtless at one time formed part, the
+  foundations for the sill and side walls or heads at each end of the
+  lock were executed by aid of compressed air. The foundations for these
+  heads were carried down to an impermeable stratum by means of two
+  bottomless caissons, filled eventually with concrete, 213½ ft. long
+  across the lock and 105 ft. wide in the line of the lock at the upper
+  end, and 206¾ ft. long and 116½ ft. wide at the lower end, to a depth
+  of 18 ft. below the sill at the upper end, and 41 ft. at the lower
+  end, owing to the dip down seawards and southward of the water-tight
+  stratum. These caissons were provided for their sinkage with temporary
+  dams of masonry closing the opening of the lock at the extremities of
+  each caisson, enabling the gates to be subsequently erected under
+  their shelter. The junctions between the foundations of the heads and
+  the adjacent foundations were effected by small movable caissons
+  carried down in recesses provided in the buried caissons. The
+  connexions with the adjacent quay walls were accomplished by two
+  supplementary side caissons at the end of each head; and the north
+  side wall of the lock was founded by means of seven bottomless
+  caissons sunk by aid of compressed air, on account of the proximity of
+  the tidal harbour on that side. The south side wall was founded for a
+  length of about 200 ft. at its western end in an excavated trench kept
+  dry by pumping; but the greater portion was founded in a dredged
+  trench in which bearing piles were driven under water, on which the
+  masonry was built in successive layers, about 3¼ ft. thick, in a
+  movable caisson 93½ ft. long and 37¾ ft. wide; whilst a bottomless
+  caisson, left in the work, was employed for founding about 100 ft. of
+  wall at the eastern end. The bed of concrete also, 10 ft. thick,
+  forming the floor of the chamber, was carried out for 82 ft. at the
+  western end in the open air, and the remainder in the same movable
+  caisson as used for the south wall. Two sluiceways on each side
+  running the whole length of the lock, differing 6½ ft. in level,
+  communicate with the lock-chamber through openings in the side walls,
+  67¼ ft. apart, and provide for the filling and emptying of the
+  chamber.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Florida Lock, Havre Docks, Sections and
+  Plan.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Wooden Dock Gate.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Iron Segmental Dock Gate.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Straight Iron Dock Gate.]
+
+
+    Dock gates.
+
+  The gates closing the entrances and locks at docks are made of wood or
+  of iron. In iron gates, the heelpost, or a vertical closing strip
+  attached to the outer side of the gate close to the heelpost, the
+  meeting-post at the end of each gate closing against each other when
+  the gates are shut, and the sill piece fitting against the sill are
+  generally made of wood. Wooden gates consist of a series of horizontal
+  framed beams, made thicker and put closer together towards the bottom
+  to resist the water-pressure increasing with the depth, fastened to
+  the heelpost and meeting-post at the two ends and to intermediate
+  uprights, and supporting water-tight planking on the inner face (fig.
+  21). Iron gates have generally an outer as well as an inner skin of
+  iron plates braced vertically and horizontally by plate-iron ribs, the
+  horizontal ribs being placed nearer together and the plates made
+  thicker towards the bottom (figs. 22 and 23). Greenheart is the wood
+  used for gates exposed to salt water, as it resists the attack of the
+  teredo in temperate climates. As cellular iron gates are made
+  water-tight, and have to be ballasted with enough water to prevent
+  their flotation, or are provided with air chambers below and are left
+  open to the rising tide on the outer side above, the gates are light
+  in the water and are easily moved; whereas greenheart gates with their
+  fastenings are considerably heavier than water, so that a considerable
+  weight has to be moved when the water is somewhat low in the dock and
+  the gates therefore only partially immersed. On the other hand, wooden
+  gates are less liable than iron gates to be seriously damaged if run
+  into by a vessel.
+
+  Dock gates are sometimes made straight, closing against a straight
+  sill (figs. 20 and 23); and occasionally they are made segmental with
+  the inner faces forming a continuous circular arc and closing against
+  a sill corresponding to the outer curves of the gates (fig. 22), or by
+  means of a projecting sill piece against a straight sill (fig. 21).
+  More frequently the gates, curved on both faces, meet at an angle
+  forming a Gothic arch in plan, and close by aid of a projecting piece
+  against a straight sill, which in the Barry entrance gates is modified
+  by making the outer faces nearly straight (fig. 19), giving an unusual
+  width to the centre of the gates. The pressures produced by a head of
+  water against these gates when closed depends not only on the form of
+  the gates, but also upon the projection given to the angle of the sill
+  in proportion to the width of the lock, which is known as the rise,
+  and is generally placed at a distance along the centre line of the
+  lock, from a line joining the centres of the heel-posts, of about
+  one-fourth the width. With straight gates, the stresses consist, first
+  of a transverse stress due to the water-pressure against the gate,
+  which increases with the head of water and length of the gate; and
+  secondly, of a compressive stress along the gate, resulting from the
+  pressure of the other gate against its meeting-post, which is equal to
+  half the water-pressure on the gate multiplied by the tangent of half
+  the angle between the closed gates, varying inversely with the rise.
+  Though an increase in the rise reduces this stress, it increases the
+  length of the gate and the transverse stress, and also the length of
+  the lock. By curving the gates suitably, the transverse stress is
+  reduced and the longitudinal compressive stress is augmented, till at
+  last, when the gates form a horizontal segmental arch, the stresses
+  become wholly compressive and uniform in each horizontal section,
+  increasing with the depth; and the total stress is equal to the
+  pressure on a unit of surface multiplied by the radius of curvature.
+  Though the water-pressure is most uniformly and economically borne by
+  cylindrical gates, they are longer, and encroach more upon the lines
+  of quay with their curved recesses than straighter gates; and,
+  consequently, Gothic-arched gates are often preferred. Straight gates
+  afford the greatest simplicity in construction.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Sliding Caisson.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25. - Ship Caisson.]
+
+  Gates in wide entrances or locks are generally supported towards their
+  outer end by a roller running along a castiron roller-path on the gate
+  floor (figs. 19, 21 and 22), as well as by the heelpost, fitted over a
+  steel pivot at the bottom, and tied back against the hollow quoins at
+  the top by anchor straps and bolts, on which the gate turns. In some
+  cases, by placing the water ballast in iron gates close to the
+  heelpost, a roller has been dispensed with, even, for instance, at the
+  wide entrance at Havre (fig. 23). The gates are opened and closed,
+  either by an opening and a closing chain for each gate, fastened on
+  either side and worked from opposite side walls by hydraulic power, or
+  by a single hydraulic piston or bar hinged to the inner side of each
+  gate (figs. 19 and 20). The latter system has the advantages of being
+  simpler and occupying less space in the side walls, of avoiding the
+  slight loss of available depth over the sill due to the two closing
+  chains crossing on the sill when the gates are open, and especially of
+  keeping the gates closed against a swell in exposed sites.
+
+
+    Caissons for docks.
+
+  A sliding or rolling caisson is occasionally placed across each end of
+  a lock in place of a pair of dock gates, being Caissons drawn back
+  into a recess at the side for opening docks. the lock. As a caisson
+  chamber has to be covered for over to provide a continuous quay or
+  roadway on the top, a lowering platform is supplied to enable the
+  caisson to pass under the small girders spanning the top of the
+  chamber, or the caisson is sunk down sufficiently (fig. 24). The
+  caisson is furnished with an air chamber to give it flotation, which
+  is adjusted by ballast according to the depth of water. The advantages
+  of a caisson, as compared with a pair of gates, are that the gate
+  recesses, gate floor, hollow quoins and arrangements for working in
+  the side walls are dispensed with, so that the lock can be made
+  shorter, and the work at each head is rendered less complicated. The
+  caisson itself also serves as a very strong movable bridge, and
+  therefore is often preferred at dockyards to dock gates. By
+  improvements in the hauling machinery, a caisson can open or close a
+  lock as quickly as dock gates; the caissons at Zeebrugge lock, at the
+  entrance to the Bruges ship canal, are drawn across the lock or into
+  their chamber by electricity in two minutes. A caisson is specially
+  useful in cases where there may be a head of water on either side, as
+  then it takes the place of two pairs of gates pointing in opposite
+  directions, or for closing an entrance against a current. A caisson,
+  however, requires a much larger amount of material than a pair of dock
+  gates, and a considerable width on one side for its chamber, so that
+  under ordinary conditions gates are generally used at docks.
+
+  A ship caisson, so called from its presenting some resemblance in
+  section to the hull of a vessel, occupies too much time in being
+  towed, floated into position, and sunk into grooves at the bottom and
+  sides of an entrance for closing it, and then refloated and towed away
+  for opening the entrance again, to be used at entrances and locks to
+  docks (fig. 25). Being, however, simple in construction, taking up
+  little space, and requiring no chamber or machinery for moving it,
+  this form of caisson is generally used for closing the entrance to a
+  graving dock, where it remains for several days in place during the
+  execution of repairs to a vessel in the dock. A ship caisson only
+  requires the admission of sufficient water to sink it when in position
+  across the entrance to a graving dock; and this water has to be pumped
+  out before it can be floated, and removed to some vacant position in
+  the neighbouring dock till it is again required. Like a sliding or
+  rolling caisson, it provides a bridge for crossing over the entrance
+  of the graving dock when in position.
+
+_Graving Docks._ - Provision has to be made at ports for the repairs of
+vessels frequenting them. The simplest arrangement is a timber gridiron,
+on which a vessel settles with a falling tide, and can then be inspected
+and slightly cleaned and repaired till the tide floats it again.
+Inclined slipways are sometimes provided, up which a vessel resting in a
+cradle on wheels can be drawn out of the water; and they are also used
+for shipbuilding, the vessel when ready for launching being allowed to
+slide down them into the water. Graving or dry docks, however, opening
+out of a dock, are the usual means provided for enabling the cleaning
+and repairs of vessels to be carried out.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26. Plan of Southampton Graving Dock.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27. Cross Section of Southampton Graving Dock.]
+
+  A graving dock consists of an enclosure, surrounded by side walls
+  stepped on the face, and paved at the bottom with a thick floor
+  sloping slightly down from the centre to drains along the sides, long
+  enough to receive the longest vessel likely to come to the port. Its
+  entrance, at the end adjoining the dock, is just wide enough to admit
+  the vessel of greatest beam, and deep enough over the sill to receive
+  the vessel of greatest draught, when light, at the lowest water-level
+  of the dock (figs. 26 and 27). Graving docks are constructed of
+  masonry, brickwork or concrete, or formerly in America of timber; they
+  should be founded on a solid impervious stratum, or, where that is
+  impracticable, they should be built upon bearing piles and enclosed
+  within sheet piling, to prevent settlement and the infiltration of
+  water under pressure below the dock. Keel blocks are laid along the
+  centre line of the dock, for the keel of the vessel to rest on when
+  the water is pumped out; and the vessel is further supported on each
+  side by timber shores supported on the steps or "altars" of the side
+  walls, which are lined with granite or other hard stone, or blue
+  bricks, or, when constructed of concrete, with a facing of stronger
+  concrete, to enable these altars to withstand the wear and shocks to
+  which they are subjected. Steps and slides are provided at convenient
+  places at the sides to give access for men and materials to the bottom
+  of the dock; and culverts and drains lead the water to pumps for
+  removing the water from the dock when the entrance has been closed,
+  and to keep it dry whilst a vessel is under repair. Culverts in the
+  side walls of the entrance enable water to be admitted for filling the
+  dock to let the vessel out. Graving docks are generally closed by ship
+  caissons; but where they open direct on to a tidal river, and there is
+  some exposure, gates are adopted, or sometimes sliding caissons.
+
+  The dimensions of graving docks vary considerably with the nature of
+  the trade and the date of construction; and sometimes an intermediate
+  entrance is provided to accommodate two smaller vessels. The sizes of
+  some of the largest graving docks are as follows: Liverpool, Canada
+  dock, 925½ ft. long, 94 ft. width of entrance, and 29 ft. depth at the
+  ordinary water-level in the dock; Southampton, 851¾ ft. by 90 ft., and
+  29½ ft. depth at high-water neaps (figs. 26 and 27); Tilbury, 875 ft.
+  by 70 ft. by 31½ ft.; and Glasgow, 880 ft. by 80 ft. by 26½ ft.
+
+  _Floating Dry Docks._--Where there is no site available for a graving
+  dock, or the ground is very treacherous, floating dry docks, built
+  originally of wood, but more recently of iron or steel, have
+  occasionally been resorted to. The first Bermuda dock towed across the
+  Atlantic in 1869, and the new dock launched in 1902, 545 ft. by 100
+  ft., are notable examples. Water is admitted into the pontoon at the
+  bottom to sink the dock sufficiently to admit a vessel at its open
+  end; and then the water is pumped out of compartments in the pontoon
+  till the vessel is raised out of water. It is only necessary to find a
+  sheltered site, with a sufficient depth of water, for conducting the
+  operations.     (L. F. V.-H.)
+
+
+
+
+DOCKET (perhaps from "dock," to curtail or cut short, with the
+diminutive suffix _et_, but the origin of the word is obscure; it has
+come into use since the 15th century), in law, a brief summary or digest
+of a case, or a memorandum of legal decisions; also the alphabetical
+list of cases down for trial, or of suits pending. Such cases are said
+to be "on the docket." In commercial use, a docket is a warrant from the
+custom-house, stating that the duty on goods entered has been paid, or
+the label fastened to goods, showing their destination, value, contents,
+&c., and, generally, any indorsement on the back of a document, briefly
+setting out its contents.
+
+
+
+
+DOCK WARRANT, in law, a document by which the owner of a marine or river
+dock certifies that the holder is entitled to goods imported and
+warehoused in the docks. In the Factors Act 1889 it is included in the
+phrase "document of title" and is defined as any document or writing,
+being evidence of the title of any person therein named ... to the
+property in any goods or merchandise lying in any warehouse or wharf and
+signed or certified by the person having the custody of the goods. It
+passes by indorsement and delivery and transfers the absolute right to
+the goods described in it. A dock warrant is liable to a stamp duty of
+threepence, which may be denoted by an adhesive stamp, to be cancelled
+by the person by whom the instrument is executed or issued.
+
+
+
+
+DOCKYARDS. In the fullest meaning of the word, a "dock-yard" (or "navy
+yard" in America) is a government establishment where warships of every
+kind are built and repaired, and supplied with the men and stores
+required to maintain them in a state of efficiency for war. Thus a
+dockyard in this extended sense would include slips for building ships,
+workshops for manufacturing their machinery, dry docks for repairing
+them, stores of arms, ammunition, coal, provisions, &c., with basins in
+which they may lie while being supplied with such things, and an
+establishment for providing the _personnel_ necessary for manning them.
+But in practice few, if any, existing dockyards are of so complete a
+nature; many of them, for instance, do not undertake the building of
+ships at all, while others are little more than harbours where a ship
+may replenish her stores of coal, water and provisions and carry out
+minor repairs. Private firms are relied upon for the construction of
+many ships down to an advanced stage, the government dockyards
+completing and equipping them for commission.
+
+_Great Britain._--Previous to the reign of Henry VIII., the kings of
+England had neither naval arsenals nor dockyards, nor any regular
+establishment of civil or naval officers to provide ships of war, or to
+man them. There are, however, strong evidences of the existence of
+dockyards, or of something answering thereto, at very early dates, at
+Rye, Shoreham and Winchelsea. In November 1243 the sheriff of Sussex was
+ordered to enlarge the house at Rye in which the king's galleys were
+kept, so that it might contain seven galleys. In 1238 the keepers of
+some of the king's galleys were directed to cause those vessels to be
+breamed, and a house to be built at Winchelsea for their safe custody.
+In 1254 the bailiffs of Winchelsea and Rye were ordered to repair the
+buildings in which the king's galleys were kept at Rye. At Portsmouth
+and at Southampton there seem to have been at all times depôts for both
+ships and stores, though there was no regular dockyard at Portsmouth
+till the middle of the 16th century. It would appear, from a curious
+poem in Hakluyt's _Collection_ called "The Policie of Keeping the Sea,"
+that Littlehampton, unfit as it now is, was the port at which Henry
+VIII. built
+
+                      "his great _Dromions_
+  Which passed other great shippes of the commons."
+
+The "dromion," "dromon," or "dromedary" was a large warship, the
+prototype of which was furnished by the Saracens. Roger de Hoveden,
+Richard of Devizes and Peter de Longtoft celebrate the struggle which
+Richard I., in the "Trench the Mer," on his way to Palestine, had with a
+huge dromon,--"a marvellous ship! a ship than which, except Noah's ship,
+none greater was ever read of." This vessel had three masts, was very
+high out of the water, and is said to have had 1500 men on board. It
+required the united force of the king's galleys, and an obstinate fight,
+to capture the dromon.
+
+The foundation of a regular British navy, by the establishment of
+dockyards, and the formation of a board, consisting of certain
+commissioners for the management of its affairs, was first laid by Henry
+VIII., and the first dockyard erected during his reign was that of
+Woolwich. Those of Portsmouth, Deptford, Chatham and Sheerness followed
+in succession. Plymouth was founded by William III. Pembroke was
+established in 1814, a small yard having previously existed at Milford.
+
+The most important additions yet made at any one period to the dockyard
+and harbour works required to meet the necessities of the British fleet
+were those sanctioned by the Naval Works Acts of 1895 and subsequent
+years, the total estimated cost, as stated in the act of 1899, being
+over 23½ millions sterling. The works proposed under these acts were
+classified under three heads, viz. (a) the enclosure and defence of
+harbours against torpedo attacks; (b) adapting naval ports to the
+present needs of the fleet; (c) naval barracks and hospitals. Under the
+first heading were included the defensive harbours at Portland, Dover
+and Gibraltar. Under heading (b) were included the deepening of harbours
+and approaches, the dockyard extensions at Gibraltar, Keyham
+(Devonport), Simons Bay, and Hong-Kong, with sundry other items. Under
+heading (c) were included the naval barracks at Chatham, Portsmouth and
+Keyham; the naval hospitals at Chatham, Haslar and Haulbowline; the
+colleges at Keyham and Dartmouth; and other items.
+
+Great Britain possesses dockyards at Portsmouth, Devonport, Chatham,
+Malta and Gibraltar, each in charge of an admiral-superintendent, and at
+Sheerness and Pembroke in charge of a captain-superintendent, together
+with establishments at Ascension, Bermuda, Simons Town (Cape of Good
+Hope), Queenstown (Haulbowline); Hong-Kong, Portland, Sydney and
+Weihaiwei. The Indian Government has dockyards at Bombay and Calcutta.
+The medical establishments include Ascension, Bermuda, Cape of Good
+Hope, Chatham, Dartmouth, Deal, Gibraltar, Haslar, Haulbowline,
+Hong-Kong, Malta, Osborne, Plymouth, Portland, Portsmouth, Sheerness,
+Sydney, Yarmouth, Yokohama and Weihaiwei.
+
+The arrangements for the administrative control of the dockyards have
+varied with those adopted for the regulation of the navy as a whole.
+(See ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION; and NAVY: _History_.) At the present
+time, whether at home or abroad, they lie within the province of the
+controller of the navy (the third lord of the board of admiralty); and
+the director of dockyards, whose office, replacing that of surveyor of
+dockyards was created in December 1885, is responsible to the
+controller for the building of ships, boats, &c., in dockyards, and for
+the maintenance and repair of ships and boats, and of all steam
+machinery in ships, boats, dockyards and factories. The director of
+naval construction, who is also deputy-controller, is responsible, not
+only for the design of ships, but for their construction, in the sense
+that he approves great numbers of working drawings of structural parts
+prepared at the dockyards. But the director of dockyards is the
+admiralty official under whose instructions the work goes on, involving
+the employment and supervision of an army of artisans and labourers.
+Instructions, therefore, emanate from the admiralty, but the details lie
+with the dockyard officials, and in practice there is a considerable
+decentralization of duties.
+
+The chief function of a dockyard is the building and maintaining of
+ships in efficiency. The constructive work is carried out under the care
+of the chief constructor of the yard, in accordance with plans sent down
+from the admiralty. The calculations for displacement, involving the
+draught of water forward and aft, have already been made, and, in order
+to ensure accuracy in the carrying out of the design, an admirable
+system has been devised for weighing everything that is built into the
+new ships or that goes on board; and it is astonishing how very closely
+the actual displacement approximates to that which was intended,
+particularly when the tendency of weights to increase, in perfecting a
+ship for commission, is considered.
+
+The ship having been built to her launching weight, the duty of putting
+her into the water devolves upon the chief constructor of the yard, and
+failures in this matter are so extremely rare that it may almost be said
+they do not occur. As soon as the ship is water-borne the responsibility
+falls upon the king's harbour master, who has charge of her afloat and
+of moving her into the fitting basins. When the ship has been brought
+alongside the wharf, the responsibility of the chief constructor of the
+yard is resumed, and the ship is carried forward to completion by the
+affixing of armour plating (if that has not been done before launching),
+the mounting of guns, the instalment of engines, boilers, and electrical
+and hydraulic gear, and the fitting of cabins for officers, mess places
+for men, and storerooms, and a vast volume of other work unnecessary to
+be specified. In regard to the complicated details of guns and
+torpedoes, the captains of the gunnery and torpedo schools have a
+function of supervision. The captain of the fleet reserve also closely
+watches the work, because, when the heads of all departments have
+reported the ship to be ready, she has to be inspected by the
+commander-in-chief at the port, and then passed into the fleet reserve
+as ready for sea, and there the captain of the fleet reserve is
+responsible for her efficiency. Other important officers of a dockyard
+are the chief engineer; the superintendent civil engineer, who has
+charge of the work involved in keeping all buildings, docks, basins,
+caissons, roads, &c., in repair; the naval store officer, who has charge
+of most of the stores in the dockyard; and the cashier of the yard,
+whose name sufficiently expresses his duties.
+
+The system of conducting business at the dockyards is analogous to that
+which prevails at the admiralty. There is personal communication between
+the officers responsible for the work, and facilities are afforded for
+coming to rapid decisions upon matters that are in hand, and the
+operations are conducted with an ease which contributes much to
+efficiency. In 1844 the custom was introduced of all the principal
+officers of the dockyard meeting at the superintendent's office at 9.30
+A.M. every day, to hear the orders from the admiralty and discuss the
+work of the day. But this system of "readings" was abolished at the
+beginning of 1906, the naval establishments inquiry committee
+considering that the assembling of the officials was unnecessary since
+the communications after reception are copied and sent to the
+departments concerned.
+
+The police force necessary in a dockyard is in some cases supplied from
+the London metropolitan police, and is under the orders of the
+superintendent of the yard for duties connected with it, and under the
+commissioner of police for the discipline and disposition of the force.
+The charges are, of course, paid by the admiralty, and the system
+answers well.
+
+_United States._--The shore stations under control of the Navy
+Department (see also ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION), and collectively known
+as naval stations, are under different names according to their nature.
+Of those called _Navy Yards_, and intended for the general purpose of
+sources of supply and for repairs of ships, there are within the United
+States eight in number. Two of them are on the Pacific coast, situated
+on Puget Sound, at Bremerton, Washington; and at Mare Island, near San
+Francisco. The other six are on the Atlantic coast, and are situated at
+Portsmouth, N.H.; Boston, Mass.; Brooklyn, N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.;
+Washington, D.C.; and Norfolk, Va. There are also naval stations at Port
+Royal and Charleston, S.C.; Key West and Pensacola, Fla.; New Orleans,
+La.; Guantanamo, Cuba; Culebra and San Juan, Porto Rico; Honolulu, H.I.;
+Cavite, P.I.; Tutuila, Samoa; and Island of Guam, in the Ladrones
+Islands. The floating dock Dewey, having a lifting capacity of 18,500
+gross tons with a free-board of 2 ft., was stationed in the Philippine
+Islands in 1906.
+
+Besides these, there are important naval stations established for
+special purposes, which in some cases are also available for ports of
+supply and for repairs. These are: the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis,
+Md., for the instruction of naval cadets; the training stations at
+Newport, R.I., and Yerba Buena Island, Cal., for the instruction of
+apprentices; the proving ground at Indian Head, Md., on the Potomac
+river, where all government-built ordnance is tested; the War College at
+Newport, R.I., for the instruction of officers; the torpedo station at
+Newport, for the instruction of officers and men in torpedoes,
+electricity and submarine diving; the naval observatory at Washington;
+and the marine post at Sitka, Alaska. Coaling depôts have been
+established at Honolulu, Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, and at Manila, P.I.
+Naval hospitals are located at the Portsmouth, Boston, New York,
+Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk and Mare Island yards; at Las Animas,
+Colo.; at Newport, R.I.; Cañacao, P.I.; Sitka, Alaska; and Yokohama,
+Japan.
+
+The commandant of a navy yard and station, who is usually a
+rear-admiral, is its commander-in-chief. His official assistants are
+called heads of departments. The captain of the yard, who is next in
+succession to command, has general charge of the water front and the
+ships moored there, and of the police of the navy yard; it is his duty
+to keep the commandant informed as to the nature and efficiency of all
+work in progress. The equipment officer has charge of anchors, chains,
+rigging, sails and the electric generating plant. The other heads of
+departments are the ordnance officer, the naval constructor, the
+engineering officer, the general storekeeper, the paymaster of the yard,
+the surgeon and the civil engineer. The clerks and draughtsmen employed
+by these officers are appointed under civil service rules, and their
+employment is continuous so long as funds are available. The foremen are
+selected by competitive examination, and their number is fixed. In the
+employment of mechanics and labourers, veterans are given preference,
+after which follow persons previously employed who have displayed
+especial efficiency and good conduct. The rates of wages are determined
+semi-annually by a board of officers, who ascertain the wages paid by
+private establishments in the vicinity of the navy yard. Eight hours
+constitute the legal work day. When emergencies necessitate longer hours
+the workmen are paid at the ordinary rate plus 50%.
+
+The nature and extent of work to be performed upon naval vessels is
+determined by the secretary of the navy; the commandant then issues the
+necessary orders. The material required is obtained by a system of
+requisitions, which provide for the purchase from the lowest bidder
+after open competition. Heads of departments initiate the purchase of
+materials which are peculiar to their own work; ordinary commercial
+articles, however, are usually carried in a special stock called the
+"Naval Supply Fund," which may be drawn upon by any head of department.
+All materials are inspected, both as to quantity and quality, by a board
+of inspectors consisting of three officers.
+
+  _France._--The French coast is divided into five naval
+  arrondissements, which have their headquarters at the five naval ports
+  of which Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon are the most important, Lorient
+  and Rochefort being of lesser degree. All are building and fitting-out
+  yards. Corsica, which has naval stations at Ajaccio, Porto Vecchio,
+  Bonifacio and other places, is a dependency of the arsenal at Toulon.
+  On the African coast there are docking facilities in Algeria. Bizerta,
+  the Tunisian port, has been made a naval base by the deepening and
+  fortifying of the canal which is the approach to the inner lake. There
+  are arsenals also at Saïgon and Hai-phong, and an establishment at
+  Diego Suarez.
+
+  The subsidiary establishments in France are the gun foundry at Ruelle;
+  the steel and iron works at Guérigny, where anchors, chains and
+  armour-plate are made; and the works at Indret, on an island in the
+  lower Loire, where machinery is constructed. There are many private
+  shipbuilding establishments in the country, the most important being
+  the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée at La Seyne, on the lesser
+  roadstead at Toulon where many French and foreign warships of the
+  largest classes have been built. The same company has a building yard
+  at Havre. Other establishments are the Ateliers et Chantiers de la
+  Loire, at Saint Nazaire; the Normand Yard, at Havre; and the Chantiers
+  de la Gironde, near Bordeaux.
+
+  Each of the arrondissements above mentioned is divided into
+  sous-arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial
+  ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the men of
+  the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with the dockyards as
+  naval arsenals. In each arrondissement the vice-admiral, who is naval
+  prefect, is the immediate representative of the minister of marine,
+  and has full direction and command of the arsenal, which is his
+  headquarters. He is thus commander-in-chief, as also
+  governor-designate for time of war, but his authority does not extend
+  to ships belonging to organized squadrons or divisions. The naval
+  prefect is assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff (except at
+  Lorient and Rochefort, where the office is filled by a captain), and a
+  certain number of officers, the special functions of the chief of the
+  staff having relation principally to the efficiency and _personnel_ of
+  the fleet, while the "major-general," who is usually a rear-admiral,
+  is concerned chiefly with the _matériel_. There are also directors of
+  stores, of naval construction, of the medical service and of the
+  submarine defences (which are concerned with torpedoes, mines and
+  torpedo-boats), as well as of naval ordnance and works. The prefect
+  directs the operations of the arsenal, and is responsible for its
+  efficiency and for that of the ships which are there in reserve. In
+  regard to the constitution and maintenance of the naval forces, the
+  administration of the arsenals is divided into three principal
+  departments, the first concerned with naval construction, the second
+  with ordnance, including gun-mountings and small-arms, and the third
+  with the so-called submarine defences, dealing with all torpedo
+  _matériel_.
+
+  _Germany._--With the expansion of the German navy considerable
+  additions have been made to the two principal dockyards. These are
+  Wilhelmshaven, the naval headquarters on the North Sea, and Kiel, the
+  headquarters on the Baltic, Danzig being an establishment of lesser
+  importance, and Kiao-chau an undeveloped base in the Shantung
+  peninsula, China. The chief official at each home dockyard is the
+  superintendent (_Oberwerftdirektor_), who is a rear-admiral or senior
+  captain directly responsible to the naval secretary of state. Under
+  the superintendent's orders are the chief of the Ausrüstung
+  department, or captain of the fleet reserve, the directors of
+  ordnance, torpedoes, navigation, naval construction, engineering and
+  harbour works, with some other officers. The chiefs of the
+  constructive and engineering departments are responsible for the
+  building of ships and machinery, and for the maintenance of the hulls
+  and machinery of existing vessels; while the works department has
+  charge of all work on the quays, docks, &c., in the dockyard and port.
+  A great advance has been made in increasing the efficiency and
+  capabilities of the imperial dockyards by introducing a system of
+  continuous work in the building of new ships and effecting alterations
+  in others, and German material is exclusively used. The Schichau Works
+  at Elbing and Danzig, the Vulkan Yard at Bredow, near Stettin, the
+  Weser Company at Bremen, and the establishment of Blohm and Voss at
+  Hamburg, are important establishments which have built many vessels
+  for the German navy, as well as for foreign states.
+
+  _Italy._--The principal Italian state dockyards are Spezia, Naples and
+  Venice, the first named being by far the most important. It covers an
+  area, including the water spaces, of 629 acres, and there are five dry
+  docks, three being 433 ft. long and 105 ft. wide, and two 361 ft. long
+  and 98 ft. 6 in. wide. The dockyard is very completely equipped with
+  machinery of the best British, German and Italian makes, and it has
+  built several of the finest Italian ships. The number of hands
+  employed in the yard averages 4000. There are two building slips, and
+  for smaller vessels there are two in the neighbouring establishment of
+  San Bartolommeo (which is the headquarters for submarine mining), and
+  one at San Vito, where is a Government gun factory. Castellammare di
+  Stabia is subsidiary to Naples. A large dry dock has been built at
+  Taranto. There is a small naval establishment at Maddalena Island on
+  the Strait of Bonifacio. The Italian Government has no gun or torpedo
+  factories, nearly all the ordnance coming from the Armstrong factory
+  at Pozzuoli near Naples, and the torpedoes from the Schwarzkopf
+  factory at Venice, while armour-plates are produced at the important
+  works at Terni. Machinery is supplied by the firms of Ansaldo, Odero,
+  Orlando, Guppy & Hawthorn and Pattison. The three establishments
+  first named have important shipbuilding yards, and have constructed
+  vessels for the Italian and foreign navies. The Orlando Yard at
+  Leghorn is Government property, but is leased by the firm, and
+  possesses five building slips.
+
+  _Austria-Hungary._--The naval arsenal is on the well-protected harbour
+  of Pola, in Istria, which is the headquarters of the national navy,
+  and includes establishments of all kinds for the maintenance of the
+  fleet. There are large building and docking facilities, and a number
+  of warships have been built there. There is a construction yard also
+  at Trieste. A new coaling and torpedo station is at Teodo, large
+  magazines and stores are at Vallelunga, and the mining establishment
+  is at Ficella. The shipbuilding branch of the navy is under the
+  direction of a chief constructor (_Oberster-Ingenieur_), assisted by
+  seven constructors, of whom two are of the first class. The
+  engineering and ordnance branches are similarly organized.
+
+  _Spain._--The Spanish dockyards are of considerable antiquity, but of
+  diminishing importance. There is an establishment at Ferrol, another
+  at Cartagena, and a third at Cadiz. They are well equipped in all
+  necessary respects, but are not provided with continuous work. A
+  recent arrangement is the specialization of the yards, Ferrol being
+  designed for larger, and Carthagena for smaller, building work. The
+  ordnance establishment is at Carraca.
+
+  _Russia._--In Russia the naval ports are of two classes. The most
+  important are Kronstadt, St Petersburg and Nikolayev. Of lesser
+  importance are Reval, Sveaborg, Sevastopol, Batum, Baku and
+  Vladivostok. The administration of the larger ports, except St
+  Petersburg, which is under special regulations, is in the hands of
+  vice-admirals, who are commanders-in-chief, while the smaller ports
+  are under the direction of rear-admirals. All are directly under the
+  minister of marine, except that the Black Sea ports and Astrabad, on
+  the Caspian, are subordinate to the commander-in-chief at Nikolayev.
+  Sevastopol has grown in importance, and become mainly a naval harbour,
+  the commercial harbour being removed to Theodosia. The Russian
+  government has also proposed to remodel the harbour works at St
+  Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Emperor Alexander III. Port at Libau, on
+  the Baltic, is in a region less liable to be icebound in the winter.
+  There are no strictly private yards for the building of large vessels
+  in Russia, except that of the Black Sea Company at Nikolayev. Messrs
+  Creighton build torpedo-boats at Åbo in Finland, and the admiralty has
+  steel works at Ijora, where some torpedo-boats have been built. Other
+  ordnance and steel works are at Obukhov and Putilov.
+
+  _Japan._--The principal Japanese dockyard, which was established by
+  the Shogunate in 1866, is Yokosuka. French naval constructors and
+  engineers were employed, and several wooden ships were built. The
+  Japanese took the administration into their own hands in 1875, and
+  built a number of vessels of small displacement in the yard. The limit
+  of size was about 5000 tons, but the establishment has been enlarged
+  so that vessels of the first class may be built there. There is a
+  first-class modern dry dock which will take the largest battleship.
+  Shipbuilding would be undertaken to a larger extent but for the fact
+  that nearly all material has to come from abroad. Down to 1905 all the
+  important vessels of the Japanese navy were built in Great Britain,
+  France, Germany and the United States, but at the end of that year a
+  first-class cruiser of 13,500 tons (the "Tsukuba") was launched from
+  the important yard at Kure. There are other yards at Sassebo and
+  Maisuru.
+
+
+
+
+DOCTOR (Lat. for "teacher"), the title conferred by the highest
+university degree. Originally there were only two degrees, those of
+bachelor and master, and the title doctor was given to certain masters
+as a merely honorary appellation. The process by which it became
+established as a degree superior to that of master cannot be clearly
+traced. At Bologna it seems to have been conferred in the faculty of law
+as early as the 12th century. Paris conferred the degree in the faculty
+of divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150. In England
+it was introduced in the 13th century; and both in England and on the
+continent it was long confined to the faculties of law and divinity.
+Though the word is so commonly used as synonymous with "physician," it
+was not until the 14th century that the doctor's degree began to be
+conferred in medicine. The tendency since has been to extend it to all
+faculties; thus in Germany, in the faculty of arts, it has replaced the
+old title of _magister_. The doctorate of music was first conferred at
+Oxford and Cambridge.
+
+_Doctors of the Church_ are certain saints whose doctrinal writings have
+obtained, by the universal consent of the Church or by papal decree, a
+special authority. In the case of the great schoolmen a characteristic
+qualification was added to the title doctor, e.g. "angelicus" (Aquinas),
+"mellifluus" (Bernard). The doctors of the Church are: for the East, SS.
+Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom; for
+the West, SS. Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the Great,
+Anselm, Bernard, Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas. To these St Alphonso
+dei Liguori was added by Pope Pius IX.
+
+
+
+
+DOCTORS' COMMONS, the name formerly applied to a society of
+ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct profession for the
+practice of the civil and canon laws. Some members of the profession
+purchased in 1567 a site near St Paul's, on which at their own expense
+they erected houses (destroyed in the great fire, but rebuilt in 1672)
+for the residence of the judges and advocates, and proper buildings for
+holding the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts. In 1768 a royal charter
+was obtained by virtue of which the then members of the society and
+their successors were incorporated under the name and title of "The
+College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty
+Courts." The college consisted of a president (the dean of Arches for
+the time being) and of those doctors of law who, having regularly taken
+that degree in either of the universities of Oxford or Cambridge, and
+having been admitted advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the
+archbishop of Canterbury, were elected fellows in the manner prescribed
+by the charter. There were also attached to the college thirty-four
+proctors, whose duties were analogous to those of solicitors. The judges
+of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected from this college. By
+the Court of Probate Act 1857 the college was empowered to sell its real
+and personal estate and to surrender its charter, and it was enacted
+that on such surrender the college should be dissolved and the property
+thereof belong to the then existing members as tenants in common for
+their own use and benefit. The college was accordingly dissolved, and
+the various ecclesiastical courts which sat at Doctors' Commons (the
+Court of Arches, the Prerogative Court, the Faculty Court and the Court
+of Delegates) are now open to the whole bar.
+
+
+
+
+DOCTRINAIRES, the name given to the leaders of the moderate and
+constitutional Royalists in France after the second restoration of Louis
+XVIII. in 1815. The name, as has often been the case with party
+designations, was at first given in derision, and by an enemy. In 1816
+the _Nain jaune réfugié_, a French paper published at Brussels by
+Bonapartist and Liberal exiles, began to speak of M. Royer-Collard as
+the "doctrinaire" and also as _le père Royer-Collard de la doctrine
+chrétienne_. The _pères de la doctrine chrétienne_, popularly known as
+the "doctrinaires," were a French religious order founded in 1592 by
+César de Bus. The choice of a nickname for M. Royer-Collard does credit
+to the journalistic insight of the contributors to the _Nain jaune
+réfugié_, for he was emphatically a man who made it his business to
+preach a doctrine and an orthodoxy. The popularity of the name and its
+rapid extension to M. Royer-Collard's colleagues is the sufficient proof
+that it was well chosen and had more than a personal application. These
+colleagues came, it is true, from various quarters. The duc de Richelieu
+and M. de Serre had been Royalist _émigrés_ during the revolutionary and
+imperial epoch. MM. Royer-Collard himself, Lainé, and Maine de Biran had
+sat in the revolutionary Assemblies. MM. Pasquier, Beugnot, de Barante,
+Cuvier, Mounier, Guizot and Decazes had been imperial officials. But
+they were closely united by political principle, and also by a certain
+similarity of method. Some of them, notably Guizot and Maine de Biran,
+were theorists and commentators on the principles of government. M. de
+Barante was an eminent man of letters. All were noted for the doctrinal
+coherence of their principles and the dialectical rigidity of their
+arguments. The object of the party as defined by M. (afterwards the duc)
+Decazes was to "nationalize the monarchy and to royalize France." The
+means by which they hoped to attain this end were a loyal application of
+the charter granted by Louis XVIII., and the steady co-operation of the
+king with the moderate Royalists to defeat the extreme party known as
+the Ultras, who aimed at the complete undoing of the political and
+social work of the Revolution. The Doctrinaires were ready to allow the
+king a large discretion in the choice of his ministers and the direction
+of national policy. They refused to allow that ministers should be
+removed in obedience to a hostile vote in the chamber. Their ideal in
+fact was a combination of a king who frankly accepted the results of
+the Revolution, and who governed in a liberal spirit, with the advice of
+a chamber elected by a very limited constituency, in which men of
+property and education formed, if not the whole, at least the very great
+majority of the voters. Their views were set forth by Guizot in 1816 in
+his treatise _Du gouvernement représentatif et de l'état actuel de la
+France._ The chief organs of the party in the press were the
+_Indépendent_, renamed the _Constitutionnel_ in 1817, and the _Journal
+des débats_. The supporters of the Doctrinaires in the country were
+chiefly ex-officials of the empire,--who believed in the necessity for
+monarchical government but had a lively memory of Napoleon's tyranny and
+a no less lively hatred of the _ancien régime_--merchants, manufacturers
+and members of the liberal professions, particularly the lawyers. The
+history of the Doctrinaires as a separate political party began in 1816
+and ended in 1830. In 1816 they obtained the co-operation of Louis
+XVIII., who had been frightened by the violence of the Ultras in the
+_Chambre introuvable_ of 1815. In 1830 they were destroyed by Charles X.
+when he took the Ultra prince de Polignac as his minister and entered on
+the conflict with Liberalism in France which ended in his overthrow.
+During the revolution of 1830 the Doctrinaires became absorbed in the
+Orleanists, from whom they had never been separated on any ground of
+principle (see FRANCE: _History_).
+
+The word "doctrinaire" has become naturalized in English terminology, as
+applied, in a slightly contemptuous sense, to a theorist, as
+distinguished from a practical man of affairs.
+
+  See Duvergier de Hauranne, _Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire en
+  France_ (Paris, 1857-1871), vol. iii.
+
+
+
+
+DOCUMENT, strictly, in law, that which can serve as evidence or proof,
+and is written or printed, or has an inscription or any significance
+that can be "read"; thus a picture, authenticated photograph, seal or
+the like would furnish "documentary evidence." More generally the word
+is used for written or printed papers that provide information or
+evidence on a subject. The Latin _documentum_, from which the word is
+derived, meant, in classical times, a lesson, example or proof
+(_docere_, to teach), and only in medieval Latin came to be applied to
+an _instrumentum_, or record in writing. The classical Latin use is
+found in English; thus Jeremy Taylor (Works, ed. 1835, i. 815) speaks of
+punishment being a "single and sudden document if instantly inflicted"
+(see DIPLOMATIC; and EVIDENCE).
+
+
+
+
+DODD, WILLIAM (1729-1777), English divine, was born at Bourne in
+Lincolnshire in May 1729. He was admitted a sizar of Clare Hall,
+Cambridge, in 1745, and took the degree of B.A. in 1750, being fifteenth
+wrangler. On leaving the university he married a young woman of a more
+than questionable reputation, whose extravagant habits helped to ruin
+him. In 1751 he was ordained deacon, and in 1753 priest, and he soon
+became a popular and celebrated preacher. His first preferment was the
+lectureship of West-Ham and Bow. In 1754 he was also chosen lecturer of
+St Olave's, Hart Street; and in 1757 he took the degree of M.A. at
+Cambridge, subsequently becoming LL.D. He was a strenuous supporter of
+the Magdalen hospital, founded in 1758, and soon afterwards became
+preacher at the chapel of that charity. In 1763 he obtained a prebend at
+Brecon, and in the same year he was appointed one of the king's
+chaplains,--soon after which the education of Philip Stanhope,
+afterwards earl of Chesterfield, was committed to his care. In 1768 he
+had a fashionable congregation and was held in high esteem, but
+indiscreet ambition led to his ruin. On the living of St George's,
+Hanover Square, becoming vacant in 1774, Mrs Dodd wrote an anonymous
+letter to the wife of the lord chancellor, offering three thousand
+guineas if, by her assistance, Dodd were promoted to the benefice. This
+letter having been traced, a complaint was immediately made to the king,
+and Dodd was dismissed from his office as chaplain. After residing for
+some time at Geneva and Paris, he returned to England in 1776. He still
+continued to exercise his clerical functions, but his extravagant habits
+soon involved him in difficulties. To meet his creditors he forged a
+bond on his former pupil Lord Chesterfield for £4200, and actually
+received the money. He was detected, committed to prison, tried at the
+Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to death; and, in spite of
+numerous applications for mercy, he was executed at Tyburn on the 27th
+of June 1777. Samuel Johnson was very zealous in pleading for a pardon,
+and a petition from the city of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr
+Dodd was a voluminous writer and possessed considerable abilities, with
+but little judgment and much vanity. He wrote one or two comedies, and
+his _Beauties of Shakespeare_, published in 1752, was long a well-known
+work; while his _Thoughts in Prison_, a poem in blank verse, written
+between his conviction and execution, naturally attracted much
+attention. He published a large number of sermons and other theological
+works, including a _Commentary on the Bible_ (1765-1770). A list of his
+fifty-five writings and an account of the writer is included in the
+_Thoughts in Prison_.
+
+  See also P. Fitzgerald, _A Famous Forgery_ (1865).
+
+
+
+
+DODDER (Frisian _dodd_, a bunch; Dutch _dot_, ravelled thread), the
+popular name of the annual, leafless, twining, parasitic plants forming
+the genus _Cuscuta_, formerly regarded as representing a distinct
+natural order Cuscutaceae, but now generally ranked as a tribe of the
+natural order Convolvulaceae. The genus contains nearly 100 species and
+is widely distributed in the temperate and warmer parts of the earth.
+The slender thread-like stem is white, yellow, or red in colour, bears
+no leaves, and attaches itself by suckers to the stem or leaves of some
+other plant round which it twines and from which it derives its
+nourishment. It bears clusters of small flowers with a four- or
+five-toothed calyx, a cup-shaped corolla with four or five stamens
+inserted on its tube, and sometimes a ring of scales below the stamens;
+the two-celled ovary becomes when ripe a capsule splitting by a ring
+just above the base. The seeds are angular and contain a thread-like
+spirally coiled embryo which bears no cotyledons. On coming in contact
+with the living stem of some other plant the seedling dodder throws out
+a sucker, by which it attaches itself and begins to absorb the sap of
+its foster-parent; it then soon ceases to have any connexion with the
+ground. As it grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself
+firmly on the host-plant (fig. 2). After making a few turns round one
+stem the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining
+and branching till it resembles "fine, closely-tangled, wet catgut." The
+injury done to flax, clover, hop and bean crops by species of dodder is
+often very great. _C. europaea_, the greater dodder (fig. 1) is found
+parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches and the hop; _C. Epilinum_, on
+flax; _C. Epithymum_, on furze, ling and thyme. _C. Trifolii_, the
+Clover Dodder, is perhaps a subspecies of the last mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Cuscuta europaea_, Dodder.
+
+  1. Flower removed from 2, Calyx.
+  3. Ovary cut across.
+  4. Fruit enveloped by a persistent corolla.
+  5. Seed.
+  6. Embryo.
+
+  1-6 enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cuscuta glomerata_. Section through union
+between parasite and host.
+
+  c, stem of host.
+  d, stem of _Cuscuta_.
+  h, haustoria.
+
+  (After Dodel-Port.)]
+
+
+
+
+DODDRIDGE, PHILIP (1702-1751), English Nonconformist divine, was born in
+London on the 26th of June 1702. His father, Daniel Doddridge, was a
+London merchant, and his mother the orphan daughter of the Rev. John
+Bauman, a Lutheran clergyman who had fled from Prague to escape
+religious persecution, and had held for some time the mastership of the
+grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. Before he could read, his mother
+taught him the history of the Old and New Testament by the assistance of
+some blue Dutch chimney-tiles. He afterwards went to a private school in
+London, and in 1712 to the grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. About
+1715 he was removed to a private school at St Albans, where he was much
+influenced by the Presbyterian minister, Samuel Clarke. He declined
+offers which would have led him into the Anglican ministry or the bar,
+and in 1719 entered the very liberal academy for dissenters at Kibworth
+in Leicestershire, taught at that time by the Rev. John Jennings, whom
+Doddridge succeeded in the ministry at that place in 1723, declining
+overtures from Coventry, Pershore and London (Haberdashers' Hall). In
+1729, at a general meeting of Nonconformist ministers, he was chosen to
+conduct the academy established in that year at Market Harborough. In
+the same year he received an invitation from the independent
+congregation at Northampton, which he accepted. Here he continued his
+multifarious labours; but the church seems to have decreased, and his
+many engagements and bulky correspondence interfered seriously with his
+pulpit work, and with the discipline of his academy, where he had some
+200 students to whom he lectured on philosophy and theology in the
+mathematical or Spinozistic style. In 1751 his health, which had never
+been good, broke down, and he sailed for Lisbon on the 30th of September
+of that year; but the change was unavailing, and he died there on the
+26th of October. His popularity as a preacher is said to have been
+chiefly due to his "high susceptibility, joined with physical advantages
+and perfect sincerity." His sermons were mostly practical in character,
+and his great aim was to cultivate in his hearers a spiritual and
+devotional frame of mind. He laboured for the attainment of a united
+Nonconformist body, which should retain the cultured element without
+alienating the uneducated. His principal works are, _The Rise and
+Progress of Religion in the Soul_ (1745), which best illustrates his
+religious genius, and has been widely translated; _The Family Expositor_
+(6 vols., 1739-1756), _Life of Colonel Gardiner_ (1747); and a _Course
+of Lectures on Pneumatology, Ethics and Divinity_ (1763). He also
+published several courses of sermons on particular topics, and is the
+author of many well-known and justly admired hymns, e.g. "O God of
+Bethel, by whose hand." In 1736 both the universities at Aberdeen gave
+him the degree of D.D.
+
+  See _Memoirs_, by Rev. Job Orton (1766); _Letters to and from Dr
+  Doddridge_, by Rev. Thomas Stedman (1790); and _Correspondence and
+  Diary_, in 5 vols., by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys (1829).
+  The best life is Stanford's _Philip Doddridge_ (1880). Doddridge's
+  academy is now represented by New College, Hampstead, in the library
+  of which there is a large collection of his manuscripts.
+
+
+
+
+DODDS, ALFRED AMÉDÉE (1842-   ), French general, was born at St Louis,
+Senegal, on the 6th of February 1842; his father's family was of
+Anglo-French origin. He was educated at Carcassonne and at St Cyr, and
+in 1864 joined the marine infantry as a sub-lieutenant. He was promoted
+captain for his services during the disturbances in Réunion in 1868-69,
+in the course of which he was wounded. He served as a company commander
+in the Franco-German War, was taken prisoner at Sedan but escaped, and
+took part in the campaigns of the Loire and of the East. In 1872 he was
+sent to West Africa, and, except when on active service in Cochin China
+(1878) and Tong-King (1883), he remained on duty in Senegal for the next
+twenty years, taking a prominent part in the operations which brought
+the countries of the Upper Senegal and Upper Niger under French rule. He
+led the expeditions against the Boal and Kayor (1889), the Serreres
+(1890) and the Futa (1891), and from 1888 to 1891 was colonel commanding
+the troops in Senegal. At the close of 1891 he returned to France to
+command the eighth marine infantry at Toulon. In April 1892 Dodds was
+selected to command the expeditionary force in Dahomey; he occupied
+Abomey, the hostile capital, in November, and in a second campaign
+(1894) he completed the subjugation of the country. He was then
+appointed inspector-general of the marine infantry, and after a tour of
+the French colonies was given the command of the XX. (Colonial) Army
+Corps, subsequently becoming inspector-general of colonial troops and a
+member of the _Conseil supérieur de guerre_.
+
+
+
+
+DODECAHEDRON (Gr. [Greek: dôdeka], twelve, and [Greek: hedra], a face or
+base), in geometry, a solid enclosed by twelve plane faces. The
+"ordinary dodecahedron" is one of the Platonic solids (see POLYHEDRON).
+The Greeks discovered that if a line be divided in extreme and mean
+proportion, then the whole line and the greater segment are the lengths
+of the edge of a cube and dodecahedron inscriptible in the same sphere.
+The "small stellated dodecahedron," the "great dodecahedron" and the
+"great stellated dodecahedron" are Kepler-Poinsot solids; and the
+"truncated" and "snub dodecahedra" are Archimedean solids (see
+POLYHEDRON). In crystallography, the regular or ordinary dodecahedron is
+an impossible form since the faces cut the axes in irrational ratios;
+the "pentagonal dodecahedron" of crystallographers has irregular
+pentagons for faces, while the geometrical solid, on the other hand, has
+regular ones. The "rhombic dodecahedron," one of the geometrical
+semiregular solids, is an important crystal form. Many other dodecahedra
+exist as crystal forms, for which see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+DODECASTYLE (Gr. [Greek: dôdeka], twelve, and [Greek: stylos], column),
+the architectural term given to a temple where the portico has twelve
+columns in front, as in the portico added to the temple of Demeter at
+Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the arsenal at the
+Peiraeus.
+
+
+
+
+DÖDERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG (1791-1863), German
+philologist, was born at Jena on the 19th of December 1791. His father,
+Johann Christoph Döderlein, professor of theology at Jena, was
+celebrated for his varied learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and
+for the important influence he exerted in guiding the transition
+movement from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Döderlein,
+after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and Schulpforta
+(Pforta), studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen and Berlin. He devoted
+his chief attention to philology under the instruction of such men as F.
+Thiersch, G. F. Creuzer, J. H. Voss, F. A. Wolf, August Böckh and P. K.
+Buttmann. In 1815, soon after completing his studies at Berlin, he
+accepted the appointment of ordinary professor of philology in the
+academy of Bern. In 1819 he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became
+second professor of philology in the university and rector of the
+gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and rhetoric
+and director of the philological seminary. He died on the 9th of
+November 1863. Döderlein's most elaborate work as a philologist was
+marred by over-subtlety, and lacked method and clearness. He is best
+known by his _Lateinische Synonymen und Etymologien_ (1826-1838), and
+his _Homerisches Glossarium_ (1850-1858). To the same class belong his
+_Lateinische Wortbildung_ (1838), _Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik_
+(1839), and the _Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologie_ (1841), besides
+various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use of schools
+and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been translated into English.
+To critical philology Döderlein contributed valuable editions of Tacitus
+(_Opera_, 1847; _Germania_, with a German translation) and Horace
+(_Epistolae_, with a German translation, 1856-1858; _Satirae_, 1860).
+His _Reden und Aufsätze_ (Erlangen, 1843-1847) and _Offentliche Reden_
+(1860) consist chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various
+subjects in paedagogy and philology.
+
+
+
+
+DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT (1842-1909), American soldier and military
+writer, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of May 1842.
+He received a military education in Germany and subsequently studied at
+Heidelberg and London University, returning to the United States in
+1861. At the outbreak of the Civil War he at once enlisted in the
+federal army, and he soon rose to commissioned rank. He served in the
+Army of the Potomac until Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. Incapacitated
+for further active service, he continued to be employed in
+administrative posts to the end of the war, and for several years
+thereafter he served at army headquarters, becoming captain in 1866 and
+brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He retired in 1870. His works include
+_The Campaign of Chancellorsville_ (1881), _A Bird's Eye View of our
+Civil War_ (1882, later edition 1897), a complete, accurate and
+remarkably concise account of the whole war, _Patroclus and Penelope, a
+Chat in the Saddle_ (1883), _Great Captains_ (1886), a series of
+lectures, _Riders of Many Lands_ (1893), and a series of large
+illustrated volumes entitled _A History of the Art of War_, being lives
+of "Great Captains," including _Alexander_ (2 vols., 1888), _Hannibal_
+(2 vols., 1889), _Caesar_ (2 vols., 1892), _Gustavus Adolphus_ (2 vols.,
+1896) and _Napoleon_ (4 vols., 1904-1907). He died in France, at
+Versailles, on the 26th of October 1909.
+
+
+
+
+DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE ["LEWIS CARROLL"] (1832-1898), English
+mathematician and author, son of the Rev. Charles Dodgson, vicar of
+Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that village on the 27th of January
+1832. The literary life of "Lewis Carroll" became familiar to a wide
+circle of readers, but the private life of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was
+retired and practically uneventful. After four years' schooling at
+Rugby, Dodgson matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850; and
+from 1852 till 1870 held a studentship there. He took a first class in
+the final mathematical school in 1854, and the following year was
+appointed mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he continued to
+fill till 1881. In 1861 he was ordained deacon, but he never took
+priest's orders, possibly because of a stammer which prevented reading
+aloud. His earliest publications, beginning with _A Syllabus of Plane
+Algebraical Geometry_ (1860) and _The Formulae of Plane Trigonometry_
+(1861), were exclusively mathematical; but late in the year 1865 he
+published, under the pseudonym of "Lewis Carroll," _Alice's Adventures
+in Wonderland_, a work that was the outcome of his keen sympathy with
+the imagination of children and their sense of fun. Its success was
+immediate, and the name of "Lewis Carroll" has ever since been a
+household word. A dramatic version of the "Alice" books by Mr Savile
+Clarke was produced at Christmas, 1886, and has since enjoyed many
+revivals. Mr Dodgson was always very fond of children, and it was an
+open secret that the original of "Alice" was a daughter of Dean Liddell.
+_Alice_ was followed (in the "Lewis Carroll" series) by
+_Phantasmagoria_, in 1869; _Through the Looking-Glass_, in 1871; _The
+Hunting of the Snark_ (1876); _Rhyme and Reason_ (1883); _A Tangled
+Tale_ (1885); and _Sylvie and Bruno_ (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He
+wrote skits on Oxford subjects from time to time. _The Dynamics of a
+Particle_ was written on the occasion of the contest between Gladstone
+and Mr Gathorne Hardy (afterwards earl of Cranbrook); and _The New
+Belfry_ in ridicule of the erection put up at Christ Church for the
+bells that were removed from the Cathedral tower. While "Lewis Carroll"
+was delighting children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson periodically
+published mathematical works--_An Elementary Treatise on Determinants_
+(1867); _Euclid, Book V., proved Algebraically_ (1874); _Euclid and his
+Modern Rivals_ (1879), the work on which his reputation as a
+mathematician largely rests; and _Curiosa Mathematica_ (1888).
+Throughout this dual existence Mr Dodgson pertinaciously refused to
+acquiesce in being publicly identified with "Lewis Carroll." Though the
+fact of his authorship of the "Alice" books was well known, he
+invariably stated, when occasion called for such a pronouncement, that
+"Mr Dodgson neither claimed nor acknowledged any connexion with the
+books not published under his name." He died at Guildford, on the 14th
+of January 1898. His memory is appropriately kept green by a cot in the
+Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London, which was endowed
+perpetually by a public subscription.
+
+  See S. D. Collingwood, _Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+DODO (from the Portuguese _Dóudo_, a simpleton), a large bird formerly
+inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct--the _Didus ineptus_
+of Linnaeus. When, in 1507, the Portuguese discovered the island which
+we now know as Mauritius they named it _Ilha do Cerné_, from a notion
+that it must be the island of that name mentioned by Pliny; but most
+authors have insisted that it was known to the seamen of that nation as
+_Ilha do Cisne_--perhaps but a corruption of Cerne, and brought about by
+their finding it stocked with large fowls, which, though not aquatic,
+they likened to swans, the most familiar to them of bulky birds. In 1598
+the Dutch, under Van Neck, took possession of the island and renamed it
+Mauritius. A narrative of this voyage was published, in 1601, if not
+earlier, and has been often reprinted. Here we have birds spoken of as
+big as swans or bigger, with large heads, no wings, and a tail
+consisting of a few curly feathers. The Dutch called them _Walgvögels_
+(the word is variously spelled), i.e. nauseous birds, either because no
+cooking made them palatable, or because this island-paradise afforded an
+abundance of fare so much superior. De Bry gives two admirably quaint
+prints of the doings of the Hollanders, and in one of them the
+_Walgvögel_ appears, being the earliest published representation of its
+unwieldy form, with a footnote stating that the voyagers brought an
+example alive to Holland. Among the company there was a draughtsman, and
+from a sketch of his, Clusius, a few years after, gave a figure of the
+bird, which he vaguely called "_Gallinaceus Gallus peregrinus_," but
+described rather fully. Meanwhile two other Dutch fleets had visited
+Mauritius. One of them had rather an accomplished artist on board, and
+his drawings fortunately still exist (see article BIRD). Of the other a
+journal kept by one of the skippers was subsequently published. This in
+the main corroborates what has been before said of the birds, but adds
+the curious fact that they were now called by some _Dodaarsen_ and by
+others _Dronten_.[1]
+
+Henceforth Dutch narrators, though several times mentioning the bird,
+fail to supply any important fact in its history. Their navigators,
+however, were not idle, and found work for their naturalists and
+painters. Clusius says that in 1605 he saw at Pauw's House in Leyden a
+dodo's foot,[2] which he minutely describes. In a copy of Clusius's work
+in the high school of Utrecht is pasted an original drawing by Van de
+Venne superscribed "Vera effigies huius avis _Walghvögel_ (quae & a
+nautis _Dodaers_ propter foedam posterioris partis crassitiem
+nuncupatur), qualis viua Amsterodamum perlata est ex insula Mauritii.
+Anno M.DC.XXVI." Now a good many paintings of the dodo drawn from life
+by Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) exist; and the paintings by him at Berlin
+and Vienna--dated 1626 and 1628--as well as the picture by Goiemare,
+belonging to the duke of Northumberland, dated 1627, may be with greater
+plausibility than ever considered portraits of a captive bird. It is
+even probable that this was not the first example painted in Europe. In
+the private library of the emperor Francis I. of Austria was a series of
+pictures of various animals, supposed to be by the Dutch artist
+Hoefnagel, who was born about 1545. One of these represents a dodo, and,
+if there be no mistake in Von Frauenfeld's ascription, it must almost
+certainly have been painted before 1626, while there is reason to think
+that the original may have been kept in the _vivarium_ of the emperor
+Rudolf II., and that the portion of a dodo's head, which was found in
+the museum at Prague about 1850, belonged to this example. The other
+pictures by Roelandt Savery, like those in the possession of the
+Zoological Society of London and others, are undated, but were probably
+all painted about the same time--1626-1628. The large picture in the
+British Museum, once belonging to Sir Hans Sloane, by an unknown artist,
+but supposed to be by Roelandt Savery, is also undated; while the still
+larger one at Oxford (considered to be by the younger Savery) bears a
+much later date, 1651. Undated also is a picture in Holland said to be
+by Pieter Holsteyn.
+
+In 1628 we have the evidence of the first English observer of the
+bird--one Emanuel Altham, who mentions it in two letters written on the
+same day from Mauritius to his brother at home (_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1874,
+pp. 447-449). In one he says: "You shall receue ... a strange fowle:
+which I had at the Iland Mauritius called by ye portingalls a Do Do:
+which for the rareness thereof I hope wilbe welcome to you." The passage
+in the other letter is to the same effect, with the addition of the
+words "if it liue." In the same fleet with Altham sailed Sir Thomas
+Herbert, whose _Travels_ ran through several editions. It is plain that
+he could not have reached Mauritius till 1629, though 1627 has been
+usually assigned as the date of his visit. The fullest account he gives
+of the bird is in his edition of 1638: "The Dodo comes first to a
+description: here, and in _Dygarrois_[3] (and no where else, that ever I
+could see or heare of) is generated the Dodo (a Portuguize name it is,
+and has reference to her simpleness,) a Bird which for shape and
+rareness might be call'd a Phoenix (wer't in Arabia:)" &c. Herbert was
+weak as an etymologist, but his positive statement, corroborated as it
+is by Altham, cannot be set aside, and hence we do not hesitate to
+assign a Portuguese derivation for the word.[4] Herbert also gave a
+figure of the bird.
+
+Proceeding chronologically we next come upon a curious bit of evidence.
+This is contained in a MS. diary kept between 1626 and 1640, by Thomas
+Crossfield of Queen's College, Oxford, where, under the year 1634,
+mention is casually made of one Mr Gosling "who bestowed the Dodar (a
+blacke Indian bird) vpon ye Anatomy school." Nothing more is known of
+it. About 1638, Sir Hamon Lestrange tells us, as he walked London
+streets he saw the picture of a strange fowl hung out on a cloth canvas,
+and going in to see it found a great bird kept in a chamber "somewhat
+bigger than the largest Turky cock, and so legged and footed, but
+shorter and thicker." The keeper called it a dodo and showed the
+visitors how his captive would swallow "large peble stones ... as bigge
+as nutmegs."
+
+In 1651 Morisot published an account of a voyage made by François
+Cauche, who professed to have passed fifteen days in Mauritius, or
+"l'isle de Saincte Apollonie," as he called it, in 1638. According to De
+Flacourt the narrative is not very trustworthy, and indeed certain
+statements are obviously inaccurate. Cauche says he saw there birds
+bigger than swans, which he describes so as to leave no doubt of his
+meaning dodos; but perhaps the most important facts (if they be facts)
+that he relates are that they had a cry like a gosling ("il a un cry
+comme l'oison"), and that they laid a single white egg ("gros comme un
+pain d'un sol") on a mass of grass in the forests. He calls them
+"oiseaux de Nazaret," perhaps, as a marginal note informs us, from an
+island of that name which was then supposed to lie more to the
+northward, but is now known to have no existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Skeleton of a Dodo, _Didus ineptus_, Museum of
+Zoology, Cambridge, and cast of a Head in Oxford.]
+
+In the catalogue of Tradescant's _Collection of Rarities, preserved at
+South Lambeth_, published in 1656, we have entered among the "Whole
+Birds," a "Dodar from the island _Mauritius_; it is not able to flie
+being so big." This specimen may well have been the skin of the bird
+seen by Lestrange some eighteen years before, but anyhow we are able to
+trace the specimen through Willughby, Edward Llwyd and Thomas Hyde, till
+it passed in or before 1684 to the Ashmolean collection at Oxford. In
+1755 it was ordered to be destroyed, but, in accordance with the
+original orders of Ashmole, its head and right foot were preserved, and
+still ornament the museum of that university. In the second edition of a
+_Catalogue of many Natural Rarities_, &c., "to be seen at the place
+formerly called the Music House, near the West End of St Paul's Church,"
+collected by one Hubert _alias_ Forbes, and published in 1665, mention
+is made of a "legge of a Dodo, a great heavy bird that cannot fly; it is
+a Bird of the Mauricius Island." This is supposed to have subsequently
+passed into the possession of the Royal Society. At all events such a
+specimen is included in Grew's list of their treasures which was
+published in 1681. This was afterwards transferred to the British
+Museum. It is a left foot, without the integuments, but it differs
+sufficiently in size from the Oxford specimen to forbid its having been
+part of the same individual. In 1666 Olearius brought out the
+_Gottorffische Kunst Kammer_, wherein he describes the head of a
+_Walghvögel_ which some sixty years later was removed to the museum at
+Copenhagen, and is now preserved there, having been the means of first
+leading zoologists, under the guidance of Prof. J. Th. Reinhardt, to
+recognize the true affinities of the bird.
+
+We have passed over all but the principal narratives of voyagers or
+other notices of the bird. A compendious bibliography, up to the year
+1848, will be found in Strickland's classical work,[5] and the list was
+continued by Von Frauenfeld[6] for twenty years later. The last
+evidence we have of the dodo's existence is furnished by a journal kept
+by Benj. Harry, and now in the British Museum (_MSS. Addit. 3668._ II.
+D). This shows its survival till 1681, but the writer's sole remark upon
+it is that its "fflesh is very hard." The successive occupation of the
+island by different masters seems to have destroyed every tradition
+relating to the bird, and doubts began to arise whether such a creature
+had ever existed. Dr Henry Duncan, Scottish minister and journalist, in
+1828, showed how ill-founded these doubts were, and some ten years later
+William John Broderip with much diligence collected all the available
+evidence into an admirable essay, which in its turn was succeeded by
+Strickland's monograph just mentioned. But in the meanwhile little was
+done towards obtaining any material advance in our knowledge, Prof.
+Reinhardt's determination of its affinity to the pigeons (_Columbae_)
+excepted; and it was hardly until George Clark's discovery in 1865 of a
+large number of dodos' remains in the mud of a pool (the Mare aux
+Songes) that zoologists generally were prepared to accept that affinity
+without question. The examination of bone after bone by Sir R. Owen
+(_Trans. Zool. Soc._ vi. p. 49) confirmed the judgment of the Danish
+naturalist.
+
+In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the government of Mauritius, sent a
+great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward Newton.[7] From
+these the first correctly restored and properly mounted skeleton was
+prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded to the museum of Mauritius.
+Good specimens are in the British Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge,
+England.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Solitaire of Rodriguez (_Pezophaps
+solitarius_). From Leguat's figure.]
+
+The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny hook;
+the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow. The plumage
+was dark ash-coloured, with whitish breast and tail, yellowish white
+wings (incapable of flight). The short tail formed a curly tuft.
+
+The dodo is said to have inhabited forests and to have laid one large
+white egg on a mass of grass. Besides man, hogs and other imported
+animals seem to have exterminated it. But the dodo is not the only
+member of its family that has vanished. The little island which has
+successively borne the name of Mascaregnas, England's Forest, Bourbon
+and Réunion, and lies to the southward of Mauritius, had also an allied
+bird, now dead and gone. Of this not a relic has been handled by any
+naturalist. The latest description of it, by Du Bois in 1674, is very
+meagre, while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure, apparently intended to
+represent it. It was originally called the "solitaire," but this name
+was also applied to _Pezophaps solitarius_ of Rodriguez by the Huguenot
+exile Leguat, who described and figured it about 1691.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Skeleton of a male Solitaire, _Pezophaps
+solitarius_, Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.]
+
+The solitaire, Didus solitarius of Gmelin, referred by Strickland to a
+district genus Pezophaps, is supposed to have lingered in the island of
+Rodriguez until about 1761. Leguat[8] has given a delightful description
+of its quaint habits. The male stood about 2 ft. 9 in. high; its colour
+was brownish grey, that of its mate more inclined to brown, with a
+whitish breast. The wings were rudimentary, the tail very small, almost
+hidden, and the thigh feathers were thick and curled "like shells." A
+round mass of bone, "as big as a musket ball," was developed on the
+wings of the males, and they used it as a weapon of offence while they
+whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five minutes,
+making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The mien was fierce and
+the walk stately, the birds living singly or in pairs. The nest was a
+heap of palm leaves a foot high, and contained a single large egg which
+was incubated by both parents. The food consisted of seeds and leaves,
+and the birds aided digestion by swallowing large stones; these were
+used by the Dutch sailors to sharpen their knives with. One of these
+stones, nearly an inch and a half in length, of extremely hard volcanic
+rock, is in the Cambridge museum. The fighting knobs mentioned above,
+are very interesting, large exostoses on one of the wrist-bones of
+either wing; they were undoubtedly covered with a thick, callous skin.
+Thousands of bones of this curious flightless pigeon were collected
+through Sir E. Newton's[9] exertions, and by H. H. Sclater on behalf of
+the Royal Society of London. The results are several almost complete
+skeletons of both sexes, composed however out of the enormous mass of
+the dissociated bones.     (A. N.; H. F. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The etymology of these names has been much discussed. That of the
+    latter, which has generally been adopted by German and French
+    authorities, seems to defy investigation, but the former has been
+    shown by Prof. Schlegel (_Versl. en Mededeel. K. Akad. Wetensch._ ii.
+    pp. 255 et seq.) to be the homely name of the dabchick or little
+    grebe (_Podiceps minor_), of which the Dutchmen were reminded by the
+    round stern and tail diminished to a tuft that characterized the
+    dodo. The same learned authority suggests that dodo is a corruption
+    of _Dodaars_, but, as will presently be seen, we herein think him
+    mistaken.
+
+  [2] What has become of the specimen (which may have been a relic of
+    the bird brought home by Van Neck's squadron) is not known. Broderip
+    and Dr Gray have suggested its identity with that now in the British
+    Museum, but on what grounds is not apparent.
+
+  [3] i.e. Rodriguez; an error.
+
+  [4] Hence we venture to dispute Prof. Schlegel's supposed origin of
+    "Dodo." The Portuguese must have been the prior nomenclators, and if,
+    as is most likely, some of their nation, or men acquainted with their
+    language, were employed to pilot the Hollanders, we see at once how
+    the first Dutch name _Walghvögel_ would give way. The meaning of
+    _Doudo_ not being plain to the Dutch, they would, as is the habit of
+    sailors, convert it into something they did understand. Then
+    _Dodaers_ would easily suggest itself.
+
+  [5] _The Dodo and its Kindred_, by H. E. Strickland and A. G.
+    Melville (London, 1848, 4to).
+
+  [6] _Neu aufgefundene Abbildung des Dronte_, by Georg Ritter von
+    Frauenfeld (Wien, 1868, fol.).
+
+  [7] E. Newton and H. Gadow, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xiii. (1893) pp.
+    281-302, pls.
+
+  [8] _Voyage et aventures de François Leguat_, &c. (2 vols., London,
+    1708). An English translation, edited with many additional
+    illustrations by Captain Oliver, has been published by the Hakluyt
+    Society (2 vols., 1891).
+
+  [9] E. Newton and J. W. Clark, _Phil. Trans._ clix. (1869), pp.
+    327-362; clxviii. (1879), pp. 448-451.
+
+
+
+
+DODONA, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and venerable of all
+Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near Tsacharovista. In
+later times the Greeks of the south looked on the inhabitants of Epirus
+as barbarians; nevertheless for Dodona they always preserved a certain
+reverence, and the temple there was the object of frequent missions from
+them. This temple was dedicated to Zeus, and connected with the temple
+was an oracle which enjoyed more reputation in Greece than any other
+save that at Delphi, and which would seem to date from earlier times
+than the worship of Zeus; for the normal method of gathering the
+responses of the oracle was by listening to the rustling of an old oak
+tree, which was supposed to be the seat of the deity. We seem here to
+have a remnant of the very ancient and widely diffused tree-worship.
+Sometimes, however, auguries were taken in other manners, being drawn
+from the moaning of doves in the branches, the murmur of a fountain
+which rose close by, or the resounding of the wind in the brazen
+caldrons which formed a circle all round the temple. Croesus proposed to
+the oracle his well-known question; Lysander sought to obtain from it a
+sanction for his ambitious views; the Athenians frequently appealed to
+its authority during the Peloponnesian War. But the most frequent
+votaries were the neighbouring tribes of the Acarnanians and Aetolians,
+together with the Boeotians, who claimed a special connexion with the
+district.
+
+Dodona is not unfrequently mentioned by ancient writers. It is spoken of
+in the _Iliad_ as the stormy abode of Selli who sleep on the ground and
+wash not their feet, and in the _Odyssey_ an imaginary visit of Odysseus
+to the oracle is referred to. A Hesiodic fragment gives a complete
+description of the Dodonaea or Hellopia, which is called a district full
+of corn-fields, of herds and flocks and of shepherds, where is built on
+an extremity ([Greek: ep eschatiê]) Dodona, where Zeus dwells in the
+stem of an oak ([Greek: phêgos]). The priestesses were called doves
+([Greek: peleiai]) and Herodotus tells a story which he learned at
+Egyptian Thebes, that the oracle of Dodona was founded by an Egyptian
+priestess who was carried away by the Phoenicians, but says that the
+local legend substitutes for this priestess a black dove, a substitution
+in which he tries to find a rational meaning. From inscriptions and
+later writers we learn that in historical times there was worshipped,
+together with Zeus, a consort named Dione (see further ZEUS; ORACLE;
+DIONE).
+
+The ruins, consisting of a theatre, the walls of a town, and some other
+buildings, had been conjectured to be those of Dodona by Wordsworth in
+1832, but the conjecture was changed into ascertained fact by the
+excavations of Constantin Carapanos. In 1875 he made some preliminary
+investigations; soon after, an extensive discovery of antiquities was
+made by peasants, digging without authority; and after this M. Carapanos
+made a systematic excavation of the whole site to a considerable depth.
+The topographical and architectural results are disappointing, and show
+either that the site always retained its primitive simplicity, or else
+that whatever buildings once existed have been very completely
+destroyed.
+
+To the south of the hill, on which are the walls of the town, and to the
+east of the theatre, is a plateau about 200 yds. long and 50 yds. wide.
+Towards the eastern end of this terrace are the scanty remains of a
+building which can hardly be anything but the temple of Zeus; it appears
+to have consisted of pronaos, naos or cella, and opisthodomus, and some
+of the lower drums of the internal columns of the cella were still
+resting on their foundations. No trace of any external colonnade was
+found. The temple was about 130 ft. by 80 ft. It had been converted into
+a Christian church, and hardly anything of its architecture seems to
+have survived. In it and around it were found the most interesting
+products of excavation--statuettes and decorative bronzes, many of them
+bearing dedications to Zeus Naïus and Dione, and inscriptions, including
+many small tablets of lead which contained the questions put to the
+oracle. Farther to the west, on the same terrace, were two rectangular
+buildings, which M. Carapanos conjectures to have been connected with
+the oracle, but which show no distinguishing features.
+
+Below the terrace was a precinct, surrounded by walls and flanked with
+porticoes and other buildings; it is over 100 yds. in length and
+breadth, and of irregular shape. One of the buildings on the
+south-western side contained a pedestal or altar, and is identified by
+M. Carapanos as a temple of Aphrodite, on the insufficient evidence of a
+single dedicated object; it does not seem to have any of the
+characteristics of a temple. In front of the porticoes are rows of
+pedestals, which once bore statues and other dedications. At the
+southern corner of the precinct is a kind of gate or propylaeum, flanked
+with two towers, between which are placed two coarse limestone drums. If
+these are _in situ_ and belong to the original gateway, it must have
+been of a very rough character; it does not seem probable that they
+carried, as M. Carapanos suggests, the statuette and bronze bowl by
+which divinations were carried on.
+
+The chief interest of the excavation centres in the smaller antiquities
+discovered, which have now been transferred from M. Carapanos's
+collection to the National Museum in Athens. Among the dedications, the
+most interesting historically are a set of weapons dedicated by King
+Pyrrhus from the spoils of the Romans, including characteristic
+specimens of the pilum. The leaden tablets of the oracle contain no
+certain example of a response, though there are many questions, varying
+from matters of public policy or private enterprise to inquiries after
+stolen goods.
+
+The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the Aetolians in 219 B.C., but the
+oracle survived to the times of Pausanias and even of the emperor
+Julian.
+
+  See C. Wordsworth, _Greece_ (1839), p. 247; Constantin Carapanos,
+  _Dodone et ses ruines_ (Paris, 1878). For the oracle inscriptions, see
+  E. S. Roberts in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, vol. i. p. 228. (E.
+  GR.)
+
+
+
+
+DODS, MARCUS (1834-1909), Scottish divine and biblical scholar, was born
+at Belford, Northumberland, the youngest son of Rev. Marcus Dods,
+minister of the Scottish church of that town. He was trained at
+Edinburgh Academy and Edinburgh University, graduating in 1854. Having
+studied theology for five years he was licensed in 1858, and in 1864
+became minister of Renfield Free Church, Glasgow, where he worked for
+twenty-five years. In 1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament
+Exegesis in the New College, Edinburgh, of which he became principal on
+the death of Dr Rainy in 1907. He died in Edinburgh on the 26th of April
+1909. Throughout his life, both ministerial and professorial, he devoted
+much time to the publication of theological books. Several of his
+writings, especially a sermon on Inspiration delivered in 1878, incurred
+the charge of unorthodoxy, and shortly before his election to the
+Edinburgh professorship he was summoned before the General Assembly, but
+the charge was dropped by a large majority, and in 1891 he received the
+honorary degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University. He edited Lange's
+_Life of Christ_ in English (Edinburgh, 1864, 6 vols.), Augustine's
+works (1872-1876), and, with Dr Alexander Whyte, Clark's "Handbooks for
+Bible Classes" series. In the Expositor's Bible series he edited Genesis
+and 1 Corinthians, and he was also a contributor to the 9th edition of
+the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_.
+Among other important works are: _The Epistle to the Seven Churches_
+(1865); _Israel's Iron Age_ (1874); _Mohammed, Buddha and Christ_
+(1877); _Handbook on Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi_ (1879); _The Gospel
+according to St John_ (1897), in the Expositor's Greek Testament; _The
+Bible, its Origin and Nature_ (1904), the Bross Lectures, in which he
+gave an able sketch of the use of Old Testament criticism, and finally
+set forth his Theory of Inspiration. Apart from his great services to
+Biblical scholarship he takes high rank among those who have sought to
+bring the results of technical criticism within the reach of the
+ordinary reader.
+
+
+
+
+DODSLEY, ROBERT (1703-1764), English bookseller and miscellaneous
+writer, was born in 1703 near Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, where his
+father was master of the free school. He is said to have been
+apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in Mansfield, from whom he ran away,
+taking service as a footman. In 1729 Dodsley published his first work,
+_Servitude; a Poem ... written by a Footman_, with a preface and
+postscript ascribed to Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, _A
+Muse in Livery, or the Footman's Miscellany_, was published by
+subscription in 1732, Dodsley's patrons comprising many persons of high
+rank. This was followed by a satirical farce called _The Toyshop_
+(Covent Garden, 1735), in which the toyman indulges in moral
+observations on his wares, a hint which was probably taken from Thomas
+Randolph's _Conceited Pedlar_. The profits accruing from the sale of his
+works enabled Dodsley to establish himself with the help of his
+friends--Pope lent him £100--as a bookseller at the "Tully's Head" in
+Pall Mall in 1735. His enterprise soon made him one of the foremost
+publishers of the day. One of his first publications was Dr Johnson's
+_London_, for which he gave ten guineas in 1738. He published many of
+Johnson's works, and he suggested and helped to finance the _English
+Dictionary_. Pope also made over to Dodsley his interest in his letters.
+In 1738 the publication of Paul Whitehead's _Manners_, voted scandalous
+by the Lords, led to a short imprisonment. Dodsley published for Edward
+Young and Mark Akenside, and in 1751 brought out Thomas Gray's _Elegy_.
+He also founded several literary periodicals: _The Museum_ (1746-1767, 3
+vols.); _The Preceptor containing a general course of education_ (1748,
+2 vols.), with an introduction by Dr Johnson; _The World_ (1753-1756, 4
+vols.); and _The Annual Register_, founded in 1758 with Edmund Burke as
+editor. To these various works, Horace Walpole, Akenside, Soame Jenyns,
+Lord Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield, Burke and others were contributors.
+Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor of two collections:
+_Select Collection of Old Plays_ (12 vols., 1744; 2nd edition with notes
+by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition, by W. C. Hazlitt, 1874-1876,
+15 vols.); and _A collection of Poems by Several Hands_ (1748, 3 vols.),
+which passed through many editions. In 1737 his _King and the Miller of
+Mansfield_, a "dramatic tale" of King Henry II., was produced at Drury
+Lane, and received with much applause; the sequel, _Sir John Cockle at
+Court_, a farce, appeared in 1738. In 1745 he published a collection of
+his dramatic works, and some poems which had been issued separately, in
+one volume under the modest title of _Trifles_. This was followed by
+_The Triumph of Peace, a Masque occasioned by the Treaty of
+Aix-la-Chapelle_ (1749); a fragment, entitled _Agriculture_, of a long
+tedious poem in blank verse on _Public Virtue_ (1753); _The Blind Beggar
+of Bethnal Green_ (acted at Drury Lane 1739, printed 1741); and an ode,
+_Melpomene_ (1757). His tragedy of _Cleone_ (1758) had a long run at
+Covent Garden, 2000 copies being sold on the day of publication, and it
+passed through four editions within the year. Lord Chesterfield is,
+however, almost certainly the author of the series of mock chronicles of
+which _The Chronicle of the Kings of England_ by "Nathan ben Saddi"
+(1740) is the first, although they were included in the _Trifles_ and
+"ben Saddi" was received as Dodsley's pseudonym. _The Economy of Human
+Life_ (1750), a collection of moral precepts frequently reprinted, is
+also by Lord Chesterfield. In 1759 Dodsley retired, leaving the conduct
+of the business to his brother James (1724-1797), with whom he had been
+many years in partnership. He published two more works, _The Select
+Fables of Aesop translated by R. D._ (1764) and the _Works of William
+Shenstone_ (3 vols., 1764-1769). He died at Durham while on a visit to
+his friend the Rev. Joseph Spence, on the 23rd of September 1764.
+
+  See also _Shadows of the Old Booksellers_, by Charles Knight (1865),
+  pp. 189-216; "At Tully's Head" in _Eighteenth Century Vignettes_, 2nd
+  series, by Austin Dobson (1894); E. Solly in _The Bibliographer_, v.
+  (1884) pp. 57-61. Dodsley's poems are reprinted with a memoir in A.
+  Chalmers's _Works of English Poets_, vol. xv. (1810).
+
+
+
+
+DODSWORTH, ROGER (1585-1654), English antiquary, was born near
+Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire. He devoted himself early to antiquarian research,
+in which he was greatly assisted by the fact that his father, Matthew
+Dodsworth, was registrar of York cathedral, and could give him access to
+the records preserved there. He married the widow of Laurence Rawsthorne
+of Hutton Grange, where he subsequently resided till his death in August
+1654. At various times in his life he was enabled to study the records
+in the library of Sir Robert Cotton, in Skipton Castle, and in the Tower
+of London. He collected a vast store of materials for a history of
+Yorkshire, a _Monasticon Anglicanum_, and an English baronage. The
+second of these was published with considerable additions by Sir William
+Dugdale (2 vols., 1655 and 1661). The MSS. were left to Thomas, third
+Lord Fairfax, who by his will bequeathed them (160 volumes in all) to
+the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Portions have been printed by the
+Yorkshire Archaeological Society (_Dodsworth's Yorkshire Notes_, 1884)
+and the Chetham Society (copies of Lancashire postmortem inquisitions,
+1875-1876).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 5 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 32689-8.txt or 32689-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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+     div.condensed1 p  {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%}
+
+     div.list   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list p {padding-left: 6em; text-indent: -3em;}
+
+    .pt05       {padding-top: 0.5em;}
+    .pt1        {padding-top: 1em;}
+    .pt2        {padding-top: 2em;}
+    .ptb1       {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5
+       "Dinard" to "Dodsworth"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: June 4, 2010 [EBook #32689]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME VIII SLICE V<br /><br />
+Dinard to Dodsworth</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">DINARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">DISSECTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">DINDIGUL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">DISSENTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">KARL WILHELM DINDORF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">DISSOCIATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">D&rsquo;INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THÉODORE-VINCENT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">DISSOLUTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">DINEIR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">DISTAFF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">DISTILLATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">DINGHY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">DISTRACTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">DINGLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">DISTRESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">DINGO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">DISTRIBUTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">DINGWALL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">DISTRICT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">DINKA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">DISTYLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">DINKELSBÜHL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">DITHMARSCHEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">DINNER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">DITHYRAMBIC POETRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">DINOCRATES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">DITTERSBACH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">DINOFLAGELLATA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">DINOTHERIUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">DITTO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">DINWIDDIE, ROBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">DITTON, HUMPHRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">DIO CASSIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">DIU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">DIOCESE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">DIURETICS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">DIO CHRYSOSTOM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">DIURNAL MOTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">DIOCLETIAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">DIVAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">DIVER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">DIODATI, GIOVANNI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">DIODORUS CRONUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">DIVES-SUR-MER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">DIODORUS SICULUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">DIVIDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">DIODOTUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">DIVIDEND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">DIOGENES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">DIVIDIVI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">DIOGENES APOLLONIATES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">DIVINATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">DIOGENES LAËRTIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">DIVINING-ROD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">DIOGENIANUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">DIVISION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">DIVORCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">DIOMEDES</a> (Greek legend)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">DIWANIEH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">DIOMEDES</a> (Latin grammarian)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">DION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">DIX, JOHN ADAMS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">DIONE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">DIXON, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">DIONYSIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">DIXON, HENRY HALL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">DIONYSIUS</a> (pope)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">DIXON, RICHARD WATSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">DIONYSIUS</a> (tyrant of Syracuse)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">DIXON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">DIZFUL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">DJAKOVO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">DLUGOSZ, JAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">DIONYSIUS THRAX</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">DNIEPER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">DIONYSUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">DNIESTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">DIOPHANTUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">DOAB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">DIOPSIDE </a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">DIOPTASE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">DOBBS FERRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">DIORITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">DIP</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">DÖBELN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">DIPHENYL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">DOBERAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">DIPHILUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">DÖBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">DIPHTHERIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">DOBREE, PETER PAUL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">DIPLODOCUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">DÖBRENTEI, GABOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">DIPLOMACY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">DOBRITCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">DIPLOMATIC</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">DOBRUDJA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">DIPSOMANIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">DOBSINA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">DIPTERA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">DIPTERAL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">DOBSON, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">DIPTYCH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">DOCETAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">DIR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">DOCHMIAC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">DIRCE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">DOCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">DIRECT MOTION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">DOCK</a> (botany)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">DIRECTORS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">DOCK</a> (marine and river engineering)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">DIRECTORY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">DOCKET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">DIRGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">DOCK WARRANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">DIRK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">DOCKYARDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">DIRSCHAU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">DOCTOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">DISABILITY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">DOCTORS&rsquo; COMMONS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">DISCHARGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">DOCTRINAIRES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">DISCHARGING ARCH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">DOCUMENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">DISCIPLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">DODD, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">DISCIPLES OF CHRIST</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">DODDER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">DISCLAIMER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">DODDRIDGE, PHILIP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">DISCOUNT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">DODDS, ALFRED AMÉDÉE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">DISCOVERY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">DODECAHEDRON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">DISCUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">DODECASTYLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">DISINFECTANTS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">DÖDERLEIN, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">DISMAL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">DISORDERLY HOUSE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">DISPATCH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">DODO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">DISPENSATION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">DODONA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">DISPERSION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">DODS, MARCUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">D&rsquo;ISRAELI, ISAAC</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">DODSLEY, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">DISS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">DODSWORTH, ROGER</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">DINARD<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span>, a seaside town of north-western France, in the department of
+Ille-et-Vilaine. The town, which is the chief watering-place of
+Brittany, is situated on a rocky promontory at the mouth of the Rance
+opposite St Malo, which is about 1 m. distant. It is a favourite resort
+of English and Americans as well as of the French, its attractions being
+the beauty of its situation, the mildness of the climate and the good
+bathing. It has two casinos and numerous luxurious hotels and elegant
+villas. Together with the adjoining watering-place of St Enogat, Dinard
+has a population of 4882 (1906).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINDIGUL<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span>, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, 880
+ft. above the sea, 40 m. from Madura by rail. Pop. (1901) 25,182.
+Dindigul has risen into importance as the centre of a trade in tobacco
+and manufacture of cigars, which are exported to England. There are two
+large European cigar factories here. The town has manufactures oe silk,
+muslim#and blankets, and an export trade in hides and cardamoms; and
+there is a large native Christian population, with two churches. The
+ancient fort, well preserved, stands on a rock rising 350 ft. above the
+town; this was formerly a position of great strategic importance,
+commanding passes into Madura from Coimbatore, and figured prominently
+in the military operations of the Mahrattas in the 17th and 18th
+centuries, and of Hyder Ali in 1755 seq., being thrice captured by the
+British (1767, 1783, 1790). After the two first captures it was restored
+to Hyder Ali under treaty; after the third it was ceded to the East
+India Company.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">KARL WILHELM DINDORF<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1802-1883), German classical scholar, was born at
+Leipzig on the 2nd of January 1802. From his earliest years he showed a
+strong taste for classical studies, and after completing F. Invernizi&rsquo;s
+edition of Aristophanes at an early age, and editing several grammarians
+and rhetoricians, was in 1828 appointed extraordinary professor of
+literary history in his native city. Disappointed at not obtaining the
+ordinary professorship when it became vacant in 1833, he resigned his
+post in the same year, and devoted himself entirely to study and
+literary work. His attention had at first been chiefly given to
+Athenaeus, whom he edited in 1827, and to the Greek dramatists, all of
+whom he edited separately and combined in his <i>Poetae scenici Graeci</i>
+(1830 and later editions). He also wrote a work on the metres of the
+Greek dramatic poets, and compiled special lexicons to Aeschylus and
+Sophocles. He edited Procopius for Niebuhr&rsquo;s <i>Corpus</i> of the Byzantine
+writers, and between 1846 and 1851 brought out at Oxford an important
+edition of Demosthenes; he also edited Lucian and Josephus for the Didot
+classics. His last important editorial labour was his <i>Eusebius of
+Caesarea</i> (1867-1871). Much of his attention was occupied by the
+republication of Stephanus&rsquo;s <i>Thesaurus</i> (Paris, 1831-1865), chiefly
+executed by him and his brother Ludwig, a work of prodigious labour and
+utility. His reputation suffered somewhat through the imposture
+practised upon him by the Greek Constantine Simonides, who succeeded in
+deceiving him by a fabricated fragment of the Greek historian Uranius.
+The book was printed, and a few copies had been circulated, when the
+forgery was discovered, just in time to prevent its being given to the
+world under the auspices of the university of Oxford. Shortly after the
+death of his brother, he lost all his property and his library by rash
+speculations. He died on the 1st of August 1883.</p>
+
+<p>His brother <span class="sc">Ludwig</span> (1805-1871) was born at Leipzig on the
+3rd of January 1805, and died there on the 6th of September 1871.
+He never held any academical position, and led so secluded a
+life that many doubted his existence, and declared that he was
+a mere pseudonym. The important share which he took in the
+edition of the <i>Thesaurus</i> is nevertheless authenticated by his
+own signature to his contributions. He also published valuable
+editions of Polybius, Dio Cassius and other Greek historians.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">D&rsquo;INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THÉODORE-VINCENT<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1851-&emsp;&emsp;),
+French musical composer, was born in Paris, on the 27th of March
+1851. He studied composition and the organ at the Paris Conservatoire
+under César Franck, and obtained the grand prize offered
+by the city of Paris in 1885 with <i>Le Chant de la Cloche</i>, a dramatic
+legend after Schiller. His principal works, beside the above, are
+the symphonic trilogy <i>Wallenstein</i>, the symphonic works entitled
+<i>Saugefleurie</i>, <i>La Forêt enchantée</i>, <i>Istar</i>, <i>Symphonie sur un air
+montagnard français</i>; overture to <i>Anthony and Cleopatra</i>; <i>Ste
+Marie Magdeleine</i>, a cantata; <i>Attendez-moi sous l&rsquo;orme</i>, a one-act
+opera; <i>Fervaal</i>, a musical drama in three acts. Vincent d&rsquo;Indy
+is perhaps the most prominent among the disciples of César
+Franck. Imbued with very high aims, he was always guided by
+a lofty ideal, and few musicians have attained so complete a
+mastery over the art of instrumentation. His music, however,
+lacks simplicity, and can never become popular in the widest
+sense. His opera <i>Fervaal</i>, which is styled &ldquo;action musicale&rdquo;, is
+constructed upon the system of <i>Leit-motifs</i>. Its legendary
+subject recalls both <i>Parsifal</i> and <i>Tristan</i>, and the music is also
+suggestive of Wagnerian influence. D&rsquo;Indy can scarcely be
+considered so typical a representative of modern French music as
+his juniors Alfred Bruneau, the composer of <i>Le Rêve</i>, <i>L&rsquo;Attaque du
+moulin</i>, <i>Messidor</i>, or Gustave Charpentier, the author of <i>Louise</i>,
+who chose subjects of modern life for their operatic works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINEIR<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span>, a small town in Asia Minor, built amidst the ruins of
+Celaenae-Apamea, near the sources of the Maeander (Menderes).
+It is the terminus of the Smyrna-Aidin-Dineir railway. Pop.
+1400. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apamea</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1814-1881), German poet and
+dramatist, was born at Halsdorf, in Hesse Cassel, on the 30th of
+June 1814. Having studied at the university of Marburg, he
+became in 1836 a master at the Lyceum in Cassel, from which he
+was transferred to Fulda in 1838. In 1839 he produced a novel,
+<i>Unter der Erde</i>, which obtained considerable success, and in 1841
+published the book by which he is best remembered, the <i>Lieder
+eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwächters</i>. These poems, animated
+as they are by a spirit of bitter opposition to everything that
+savours of despotism, were an effective contribution to the
+political poetry of the day. The popularity of this book
+determined Dingelstedt to take up a literary career, and in 1841
+he obtained an appointment on the staff of the <i>Augsburger
+allgemeine Zeitung</i>. In 1843, however, the satirist of German
+princes accepted, to the general surprise, the appointment of
+private librarian to the king of Württemberg, and in the same year
+he married the celebrated Bohemian opera singer, Jenny Lutzer.
+In 1845 he published a volume of poems, some of which, treating
+of modern life, possessed great literary rather than strictly
+poetical merit. A subsequent collection, published in 1852,
+attracted little attention. The success of his tragedy <i>Das Haus
+der Barneveldt</i> (1850) obtained for him the position of intendant
+at the court theatre at Munich, where he soon became the centre
+of literary society. He incurred, however, the animosity of the
+Jesuit clique at the court, and in 1856 was suddenly dismissed on
+the most frivolous charges. A similar position was offered to him
+at Weimar through the influence of Liszt, and he remained there
+until 1867. His administration was most successful, and he
+especially distinguished himself by presenting all Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+historical plays upon the stage in an unbroken cycle. In 1867 he
+became director of the court opera house in Vienna, and in 1872
+of the Hofburgtheater, a position he held until his death on the
+15th of May 1881. Among his other works may be noticed an
+autobiographical sketch of his Munich career, entitled <i>Münchener
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span>
+Bilderbogen</i> (1879), <i>Die Amazone</i>, an art novel of considerable
+merit (1869), translations of several of Shakespeare&rsquo;s comedies,
+and several writings dealing with questions of practical dramaturgy.
+He was ennobled in 1867 by the king of Bavaria and in
+1876 was created <i>Freiherr</i> by the emperor of Austria.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dingelstedt&rsquo;s <i>Sämtliche Werke</i> appeared in 12 vols. (1877-1878),
+but this edition is far from complete. On his life see, besides the
+autobiography mentioned above, J. Rodenberg, <i>Heimaterinnerungen
+an F. Dingelstedt</i> (Berlin, 1882), and by the same author, <i>F. Dingelstedt,
+Blätter aus seinem Nachlass</i> (2 vols., 1891). Also an essay by
+A. Stern in <i>Zur Literatur der Gegenwart</i> (Leipzig, 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINGHY,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dingey</span> (from the Hindu <i>d&#275;ng&#299;</i> a small boat, the
+diminutive of <i>denga</i>, a sloop or coasting vessel), a boat of greatly
+varying size and shape, used on the rivers of India; the term is
+applied also, in certain districts, to a larger boat used for coasting
+purposes. The name was adopted by the merchantmen trading
+with India, and is now generally used to designate the small extra
+boat kept for general purposes on a man-of-war or merchant
+vessel, and also, on the Thames, for small pleasure boats built for
+one or two pairs of sculls.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINGLE,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a seaport and market town of county Kerry, Ireland,
+in the west parliamentary division, the terminus of the Tralee
+and Dingle railway. Pop. (1901) 1786. This may be considered
+the most westerly town in the United Kingdom unless
+Knightstown at Valencia Island be excepted; it lies on the south
+side of the northernmost of the great promontories which protrude
+into the Atlantic on the south-western coast of Ireland, on
+the fine natural harbour of Dingle Bay, in a wild hilly district
+abundant in relics of antiquity. The town, which is the centre
+of a considerable fishing industry, especially in mackerel, was in
+the 16th century of no little importance as a seaport; it had also
+a noted manufacture of linen. It was incorporated by Queen
+Elizabeth, and returned two members to the Irish parliament
+until the Union.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINGO,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a name applied apparently by Europeans to the
+warrigal, or native Australian dog, the Canis dingo of J. F.
+Blumenbach. The dingo is a stoutly-built, rather short-legged,
+sandy-coloured dog, intermediate in size between a jackal and a
+wolf, and measuring about 51 in. in total length, of which the
+tail takes up about eleven. In general appearance it is very like
+some of the pariah dogs of India and Egypt; and, except on
+distributional grounds, there is no reason for regarding it as
+specifically distinct from such breeds. Dingos, which are found
+both wild and tame, interbreed freely with European dogs introduced
+into the country, and it may be that the large amount
+of black on the back of many specimens may be the result of
+crossing of this nature.</p>
+
+<p>The main point of interest connected with the dingo relates to
+its origin; that is to say, whether it is a member of the indigenous
+Australian fauna (among which it is the only large placental
+mammal), or whether it has been introduced into the country
+by man. There seems to be no doubt that fossilized remains of
+the dingo occur intermingled with those of the extinct Australian
+mammals, such as giant kangaroos, giant wombats and the still
+more gigantic <i>Diprotodon</i>. And since remains of man have
+apparently not yet been detected in these deposits, it has been
+thought by some naturalists that the dingo must be an indigenous
+species. This was the opinion of Sir Frederick McCoy, by whom
+the deposits in question were regarded as probably of Pliocene age.
+A similar view is adopted by D. Ogilvy in a <i>Catalogue of Australian
+Mammals</i>, published at Sydney in 1892; the writer going however
+one step further and expressing the belief that the dingo
+is the ancestor of all domesticated dogs. The latter contention
+cannot for a moment be sustained; and there are also strong
+arguments against the indigenous origin of the dingo. That the
+animal now occurs in a wild state is no argument whatever as to
+its being indigenous, seeing that a domesticated breed introduced
+by man into a new country abounding in game would almost
+certainly revert to the wild state. The apparent absence of
+human remains in the beds yielding dingo teeth and bones (which
+are almost certainly not older than the Pleistocene) is of only
+negative value, and liable to be upset by new discoveries. Then,
+again (as has been pointed out by R. I. Pocock in the first part of
+the <i>Kennel Encyclopaedia</i>, 1907), the absence of any really wild
+species of the typical group of the genus <i>Canis</i> between Burma
+and Siam on the one hand and Australia on the other is a very
+strong argument against the dingo being indigenous, seeing that,
+whether brought by man or having travelled thither of its own
+accord, the dingo must have reached its present habitat by way
+of the Austro-Malay archipelago. If it had followed that route
+in the course of nature, it is inconceivable that it would not still
+be found on some portions of the route. On the supposition that
+the dingo was introduced by man, we have now fairly decisive
+evidence that the native Australian, in place of being (as formerly
+supposed) a member of the negro stock, is a low type of Caucasian
+allied to the Veddahs of Ceylon and the Toalas of Celebes.
+Consequently the Australian natives must be presumed to have
+reached the island-continent by way of Malaya; and if this be
+admitted, nothing is more likely than that they should have been
+accompanied by pariah dogs of the Indian type. Confirmation of
+this is afforded by the occurrence in the mountains of Java of a
+pariah-like dog which has reverted to an almost completely wild
+condition; and likewise by the fact that the old voyagers met
+with dogs more or less similar to the dingo in New Guinea, New
+Zealand and the Solomon and certain other of the smaller Pacific
+islands. On the whole, then, the most probable explanation of
+the case is that the dingo is an introduced species closely allied to
+the Indian pariah dog. Whether the latter represents a truly wild
+type now extinct, cannot be determined. If so, all pariahs should
+be classed with the Australian warrigal under the name of <i>Canis
+dingo</i>. If, on the other hand, pariahs, and consequently the dingo,
+cannot be separated specifically from the domesticated dogs of
+western Europe, then the dingo should be designated <i>Canis
+familiaris dingo</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINGWALL,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a royal and police burgh and county town of the
+shire of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2519. It is
+situated near the head of Cromarty Firth where the valley of the
+Peffery unites with the alluvial lands at the mouth of the Conon,
+18½ m. N.W. of Inverness by the Highland railway. Its name,
+derived from the Scandinavian <i>Thingvöllr</i>, &ldquo;field or meeting-place
+of the <i>thing</i>,&rdquo; or local assembly, preserves the Norse origin of
+the town; its Gaelic designation is Inverpefferon, &ldquo;the mouth of
+the Peffery.&rdquo; The 18th-century town house, and some remains
+of the ancient mansion of the once powerful earls of Ross still
+exist. There is also a public park. An obelisk, 57 ft. high, was
+erected over the grave of the 1st earl of Cromarty. The town
+belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs. It is
+a flourishing distributing centre and has an important corn market
+and auction marts. Some shipping is carried on at the harbour
+at the mouth of the Peffery, about a mile below the burgh.
+Branch lines of the Highland railway run to Strathpeffer and to
+Strome Ferry and Kyle of Lochalsh (for Skye). Alexander II.
+created Dingwall a royal borough in 1226, and its charter was
+renewed by James IV. On the top of Knockfarrel (Gaelic, <i>cnoc</i>,
+hill; <i>faire</i>, watch, or guard), a hill about 3 m. to the west, is a
+large and very complete vitrified fort with ramparts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINKA<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (called by the Arabs <i>Jange</i>), a widely spread negro
+people dwelling on the right bank of the White Nile to about
+12° N., around the mouth of the Babr-el-Ghazal, along the right
+bank of that river and on the banks of the lower Sobat. Like the
+Shilluk, they were greatly harried from the north by Nuba-Arabic
+tribes, but remained comparatively free owing to the vast
+extent of their country, estimated to cover 40,000 sq. m., and their
+energy in defending themselves. They are a tall race with skins
+of almost blue black. The men wear practically no clothes,
+married women having a short apron, and unmarried girls a
+fringe of iron cones round the waist. They tattoo themselves
+with tribal marks, and extract the lower incisors; they also
+pierce the ears and lip for the attachment of ornaments, and wear
+a variety of feather, iron, ivory and brass ornaments. Nearly
+all shave the head, but some give the hair a reddish colour by
+moistening it with animal matter. Polygamy is general; some
+headmen have as many as thirty or more wives; but six is the
+average number. They are great cattle and sheep breeders; the
+men tend their beasts with great devotion, despising agriculture,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span>
+which is left to the women; the cattle are called by means of
+drums. Save under stress of famine cattle are never killed
+for food, the people subsisting largely on durra. The Dinkas
+reverence the cow, and snakes, which they call &ldquo;brothers.&rdquo;
+Their folklore recognizes a good and evil deity; one of the two
+wives of the good deity created man, and the dead go to live with
+him in a great park filled with animals of enormous size. The
+evil deity created cripples. The Dinka came, in 1899, under the
+control of the Sudan government, justice being administered
+as far as possible in accord with tribal custom. A compendium
+of Dinka laws was compiled by Captain H. D. E. O&rsquo;Sullivan.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. A. Schweinfurth, <i>The Heart of Africa</i> (1874); W. Junker,
+<i>Travels in Africa</i>, Eng. edit. (London, 1890-1892); <i>The Anglo-Egyptian
+Sudan</i>, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINKELSBÜHL,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Bavaria, on the Wörnitz, 16 m. N. from Nördlingen, on the railway
+to Dombühl. Pop. 5000. It is an interesting medieval town,
+still surrounded by old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical
+and two Roman Catholic churches. Notable is the so-called
+<i>Deutsches Haus</i>, the ancestral home of the counts of
+Drechsel-Deufstetten, a fine specimen of the German renaissance style of
+wooden architecture. There are a Latin and industrial school,
+several benevolent institutions, and a monument to Christoph
+von Schmid (1768-1854), a writer of stories for the young. The
+inhabitants carry on the manufacture of brushes, gloves, stockings
+and gingerbread, and deal largely in cattle.</p>
+
+<p>Fortified by the emperor Henry I., Dinkelsbühl received in
+1305 the same municipal rights as Ulm, and obtained in 1351 the
+position of a free imperial city, which it retained till 1802, when
+it passed to Bavaria. Its municipal code, the <i>Dinkelsbuhler
+Recht</i>, published in 1536, and revised in 1738, contained a very
+extensive collection of public and private laws.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINNER,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> the chief meal of the day, eaten either in the middle
+of the day, as was formerly the universal custom, or in the
+evening. The word &ldquo;dine&rdquo; comes through Fr. from Med. Lat.
+<i>disnare</i>, for <i>disjejunare</i>, to break one&rsquo;s fast (<i>jejunium</i>); it is,
+therefore, the same word as Fr. <i>déjeuner</i>, to breakfast, in
+modern France, to take the midday meal, <i>dîner</i> being used
+for the later repast. The term &ldquo;dinner-wagon,&rdquo; originally
+a movable table to hold dishes,
+is now used of a two-tier sideboard.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINOCRATES,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a great and
+original Greek architect, of the
+age of Alexander the Great. He
+tried to captivate the ambitious
+fancy of that king with a design
+for carving Mount Athos into a
+gigantic seated statue. This plan
+was not carried out, but Dinocrates
+designed for Alexander the
+plan of the new city of Alexandria,
+and constructed the vast
+funeral pyre of Hephaestion.
+Alexandria was, like Peiraeus
+and Rhodes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hippodamus</a></span>),
+built on a regular plan; the streets
+of most earlier towns being narrow
+and confused.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:240px; height:373px" src="images/img277a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">After F. Schutt in Engler and Prantl&rsquo;s
+<i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>, by permission of Wm
+Engelmann.</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;<i>Peridinium divergens</i>
+showing longitudinal and transverse
+grooves in which lie the
+respective flagella l.f., t.f.; s.p.,
+large &ldquo;sack pusule&rdquo; discharging
+through a tube by pore o&rsquo;; c.p.,
+&ldquo;collective pusule discharging
+at o, and surrounded by a ring
+of formative&rdquo; or &ldquo;daughter
+pusules&rdquo;; n, nucleus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">DINOFLAGELLATA,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> so called
+by O. Bütschli (= the <span class="sc">Cilioflagellata</span>
+of E. Claparide and
+H. Lachmann), a group of Protozoa,
+characterized as Mastigophora,
+provided with two flagella,
+the one anterior extended in locomotion,
+the other coiled round
+its base, or lying in a transverse
+groove. The body is bounded by a firm pellicle, often supplemented
+by an armour (&ldquo;lorica&rdquo;) of cuticular cellulose plates,
+with usually a marked longitudinal groove from which the
+anterior flagellum springs, and an oblique or spiral transverse
+groove for the second flagellum. In <i>Polykrikos</i> (fig. 2, 9) there
+are eight transverse grooves each with its flagellum. The
+armour-plates are often exquisitely sculptured, and may be
+produced into spines or perpendicular plates to give greater
+surface extension, as we find in other plankton organisms.
+The cortical plasma may protrude pseudopodia in the longitudinal
+groove; it contains trichocysts in several species, true
+nematocysts in <i>Polykrikos</i>. It contains chromatophores in
+many species, coloured by a mixed lipochrome pigment which
+appears to be distinct from diatomin. The endoplasm is
+ramified between alveoli; it contains a large nucleus (in
+<i>Polykrikos</i> there are eight nuclei, accompanied by smaller,
+more numerous bodies regarded by O. Butschli as micro-nuclei).
+Besides the other spaces are definite rounded or oval
+vacuoles with a permanent pellicular wall termed by Schutt
+&ldquo;pusules&rdquo;; these open by a duct or ducts into the longitudinal
+groove. They enlarge and diminish, and are possibly excretory
+like the &ldquo;contractile vacuoles&rdquo; of other Protista; though it has
+been suggested that by their communication with the medium
+they subserve nutrition. Nutrition is of course holozoic or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span>
+saprophytic in the colourless forms, holophytic in the coloured;
+but these divergent methods are exhibited by different species
+of the same genus, or even by individuals of one and the same
+species under different conditions. Binary fission has been
+widely observed, both in the active condition or after loss of
+the flagella: it differs from that of true Flagellates in not
+being longitudinal, but transverse or oblique (fig, 2, 2). Repeated
+fission (brood-formation) within a cyst has also been
+observed, as in <i>Pyrocystis</i> and <i>Ceratium</i>; and possibly the chains
+of <i>Ceratium</i> and other (fig. 2, 5 and 6) genera are due to the non-separation
+of the brood-cells. Conjugation of adults has been
+observed in several species, the most complete account being that
+of Zederbauer on <i>Ceratium hirundinella</i> (marine): either mate
+puts forth a tube which meets and opens into that of the
+other (as in some species of <i>Chlamydomonas</i> and Desmids); the
+two cell-bodies fuse in this tube, and encyst to form a resting
+zygospore. The Dinoflagellates are relatively large for
+Mastigophora, many attaining 50 µ (1/500&rdquo;) in length. The
+majority are marine; but some genera (<i>Ceratium</i>, <i>Peridinium</i>)
+include fresh-water species. Many are highly phosphorescent
+and some by their abundance colour the water of the sea or pool
+which they dwell in. Like so many coloured Protista, they
+frequently possess a pigmented &ldquo;eye-spot&rdquo; in which may be
+sunk a spheroidal refractive body (&ldquo;lens&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:461px; height:878px" src="images/img277b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center f90 sc" colspan="2">Fig. 2.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">From Delage and Hérouard&rsquo;s <i>Traité de zoologie concrete</i>,
+by permission of Schleicher Frères.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">1. Modified from Schütt, <i>Ornithoceras</i>.<br />
+2. Diagram of transverse fission of a Dinoflagellate.<br />
+3. After Schutt, <i>Exuviaeella</i>.<br />
+4. After Stein, <i>Prorocentrum</i>.</td>
+ <td class="tcl f90">5, 6. <i>Ceratium</i>, single and series.<br />
+7. <i>Pouchetia fusus</i> (Schutt).<br />
+8. <i>Citharistes</i>.<br />
+9. After Butschli, <i>Polykrikos</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The affinities of the Dinoflagellata are certainly with those
+Cryptomonadine Flagellates which possess two unequal flagella;
+the zoospores or young of the Cystoflagellates are practically
+colourless Dinoflagellates.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>Gymnodiniaceae</i>: body naked, or with a simple cellulose or
+gelatinous envelope; both grooves present. <i>Pyrocystis</i> (Murray),
+often encysted, spherical or crescentic, becoming free within cyst wall,
+and escaping whole or after brood-divisions as a form like <i>Gymnodinium</i>;
+<i>Gymnodinium</i> (Stein); <i>Hemidinium</i> (Stein); <i>Pouchetia</i>
+(Schütt) (fig. 2, 7) with complex eye-spot; to this group we may
+refer <i>Polykrikos</i> (Bütschli) (fig. 2, 9), with its metameric transverse
+grooves and flagella.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Prorocentraceae</i> (Schütt) ( = the Adinida of Bergh); body surrounded
+by a firm shell of two valves without a girdle band; transverse
+groove absent; transverse flagellum coiled round base of
+longitudinal. <i>Exuviaeella</i> (Cienk.) (fig. 2, 3); <i>Prorocentrum</i> (Ehrb.)
+(fig. 2, 4).</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Peridiniaceae</i> (Schütt); body with a shell of plates, a girdle
+band along the transverse groove, in which the transverse flagellum
+lies. Genera, <i>Peridinium</i> (Ehrb.) (fig. 1), fresh-water and marine;
+<i>Ceratium</i> (Schrank) (fig. 2, 5, 6), fresh-water and marine; <i>Citharistes</i>
+(Stein); <i>Ornithoceras</i> (Claparède and Lachmann) (fig. 2, 1).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;R. S. Bergh, &ldquo;Der Organismusder Cilioflagellaten,&rdquo;
+<i>Morphol. Jahrbuch</i>, vii. (1881); F. von Stein, <i>Organismus der Infusionsthiere</i>,
+Abth. 3, 2. Hälfte; <i>Die Naturgeschichte der arthrodelen
+Flagellaten</i> (1883); Bütschli, &ldquo;Mastigophora&rdquo; (in Bronn&rsquo;s <i>Thierreich</i>,
+i. Abth. 2), 1881-1887; G. Pouchet, various observations on
+Dinoflagellates, <i>Journal de l&rsquo;anatomie et de la physiologie</i> (1885,
+1887, 1891); F. Schütt, &ldquo;Die Peridineen der Plankton Expedition&rdquo;
+(<i>Ergebnisse d. Pl. Exed.</i> i. Th. vol. iv. 1895); and &ldquo;Peridiniales&rdquo;
+in Engler and Prantl&rsquo;s <i>Pflanzenfamilien</i>, vol. i. Abt. 2 b. (1896);
+Zederbauer, <i>Berichte d. deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft</i>, vol. xx.
+(1900); Delage and Hérouard, <i>Traité de zoologie concrète</i>, vol. i. <i>La
+Cellule et les protozoaires</i> (1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINOTHERIUM,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> an extinct mammal, fossil remains of which
+occur in the Miocene beds of France, Germany, Greece and
+Northern India. These consist chiefly of teeth and the bones of
+the head. An entire skull, obtained from the Lower Pliocene
+beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1836, measured 4½ ft.
+in length and 3 ft. in breadth, and indicates an animal exceeding
+the elephant in size. The upper jaw is apparently destitute of
+incisor and canine teeth, but possesses five molars on each side,
+with a corresponding number in the jaw beneath. The most
+remarkable feature, however, consists in the front part of the
+lower jaw being bent downwards and bearing two tusk-like
+incisors also directed downwards and backwards. <i>Dinotherium</i>
+is a member of the group Proboscidea, of the line of descent of
+the elephants.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DINWIDDIE, ROBERT<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1693-1770), English colonial governor
+of Virginia, was born near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1693. From the
+position of customs clerk in Bermuda, which he held in 1727-1738,
+he was promoted to be surveyor-general of the customs &ldquo;of
+the southern ports of the continent of America,&rdquo; as a reward
+for having exposed the corruption in the West Indian customs
+service. In 1743 he was commissioned to examine into the
+customs service in the Barbadoes and exposed similar corruption
+there. In 1751-1758 he was lieutenant-governor of Virginia,
+first as the deputy of Lord Albemarle and then, from July 1756 to
+January 1758, as deputy for Lord Loudon. He was energetic in
+the discharge of his duties, but aroused much animosity among
+the colonists by his zeal in looking after the royal quit-rents, and
+by exacting heavy fees for the issue of land-patents. It was his
+chief concern to prevent the French from building in the Ohio
+Valley a chain of forts connecting their settlements in the north
+with those on the Gulf of Mexico; and in the autumn of 1753 he
+sent George Washington to Fort Le B&oelig;uf, a newly established
+French post at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, with a
+message demanding the withdrawal of the French from English
+territory. As the French refused to comply, Dinwiddie secured
+from the reluctant Virginia assembly a grant of £10,000 and in the
+spring of 1754 he sent Washington with an armed force toward
+the forks of the Ohio river &ldquo;to prevent the intentions of the
+French in settling those lands.&rdquo; In the latter part of May
+Washington encountered a French force at a spot called Great
+Meadows, near the Youghiogheny river, in what is now south-western
+Pennsylvania, and a skirmish followed which precipitated
+the French and Indian War. Dinwiddie was especially active at
+this time in urging the co-operation of the colonies against the
+French in the Ohio Valley; but none of the other governors,
+except William Shirley of Massachusetts, was then much concerned
+about the western frontier, and he could accomplish very
+little. His appeals to the home government, however, resulted in
+the sending of General Edward Braddock to Virginia with two
+regiments of regular troops; and at Braddock&rsquo;s call Dinwiddie
+and the governors of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania
+and Maryland met at Alexandria, Virginia, in April 1755, and
+planned the initial operations of the war. Dinwiddie&rsquo;s administration
+was marked by a constant wrangle with the assembly over
+money matters; and its obstinate resistance to military appropriations
+caused him in 1754 and 1755 to urge the home government
+to secure an act of parliament compelling the colonies
+to raise money for their protection. In January 1758 he left
+Virginia and lived in England until his death on the 27th of July
+1770 at Clifton, Bristol.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor of
+Virginia</i> (1751-1758), published in two volumes, at Richmond,
+Va., in 1883-1884, by the Virginia Historical Society, and edited
+by R. A. Brock, are of great value for the political history of the
+colonies in this period.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIO CASSIUS<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (more correctly <span class="sc">Cassius Dio</span>), <span class="sc">Cocceianus</span>
+(c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 150-235), Roman historian, was born at Nicaea in
+Bithynia. His father was Cassius Apronianus, governor of
+Dalmatia and Cilicia under Marcus Aurelius, and on his mother&rsquo;s
+side he was the grandson of Dio Chrysostom, who had assumed
+the surname of Cocceianus in honour of his patron the emperor
+Cocceius Nerva. After his father&rsquo;s death, Dio Cassius left
+Cilicia for Rome (180) and became a member of the senate.
+During the reign of Commodus, Dio practised as an advocate at
+the Roman bar, and held the offices of aedile and quaestor. He
+was raised to the praetorship by Pertinax (193), but did not
+assume office till the reign of Septimius Severus, with whom he
+was for a long time on the most intimate footing. By Macrinus
+he was entrusted with the administration of Pergamum and
+Smyrna; and on his return to Rome he was raised to the
+consulship about 220. After this he obtained the proconsulship
+of Africa, and again on his return was sent as legate successively
+to Dalmatia and Pannonia. He was raised a second time to
+the consulship by Alexander Severus, in 229; but on the plea
+of ill health soon afterwards retired to Nicaea, where he died.
+Before writing his history of Rome (<span class="grk" title="Rhômaika">&#8190;&#929;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span> or <span class="grk" title="Rhômaikê
+Historia">&#8190;&#929;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#906;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>), Dio Cassius had dedicated to the emperor Severus
+an account of various dreams and prodigies which had
+presaged his elevation to the throne (perhaps the <span class="grk" title="Enodia">&#904;&#957;&#972;&#948;&#953;&#945;</span>
+attributed to Dio by Suidas), and had also written a biography
+of his fellow-countryman Arrian. The history of Rome, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span>
+consisted of eighty books,&mdash;and, after the example of Livy, was
+divided into decades,&mdash;began with the landing of Aeneas in Italy,
+and was continued as far as the reign of Alexander Severus
+(222-235). Of this great work we possess books 36-60, containing
+the history of events from 68 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>-<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 47; books 36 and
+55-60 are imperfect. We also have part of 35 and 36-80 in the
+epitome of John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century Byzantine monk.
+For the earlier period the loss of Dio&rsquo;s work is partly supplied
+by the history of Zonaras, who followed him closely. Numerous
+fragments are also contained in the excerpts of Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus. Dio&rsquo;s work is a most important authority for
+the history of the last years of the republic and the early empire.
+His industry was great and the various important offices he held
+afforded him ample opportunities for historical investigation.
+His style, though marred by Latinisms, is clearer than that of
+his model Thucydides, and his narrative shows the hand of the
+practised soldier and politician; the language is correct and
+free from affectation. But he displays a superstitious regard
+for miracles and prophecies; he has nothing to say against the
+arbitrary acts of the emperors, which he seems to take as a matter
+of course; and his work, although far more than a mere compilation,
+is not remarkable for impartiality, vigour of judgment or
+critical historical faculty.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition with notes is that of H. S. Reimar (1750-1752),
+new ed. by F. G. Sturz (1824-1836); text by I. Melber (1890 foll.),
+with account of previous editions, and U. P. Boissevain (1895-1901);
+translation by H. B. Foster (Troy, New York, 1905 foll.), with full
+bibliography; see also W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur</i>
+(1898), p. 675; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>,
+iii. pt. 2 (1899); C. Wachsmuth, <i>Einleitung in das Studium der alten
+Geschichte</i> (1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOCESE<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (formed on Fr. <i>diocèse</i>, in place of the Eng. form
+<i>diocess</i>&mdash;current until the 19th century&mdash;from Lat. <i>dioecesis</i>,
+med. Lat. variant <i>diocesis</i>, from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dioikêsis">&#948;&#953;&#959;&#943;&#954;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;housekeeping,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;administration,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="dioikein">&#948;&#953;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, &ldquo;to keep house,&rdquo; &ldquo;to
+govern&rdquo;), the sphere of a bishop&rsquo;s jurisdiction. In this, its
+sole modern sense, the word diocese (<i>dioecesis</i>) has only been
+regularly used since the 9th century, though isolated instances of
+such use occur so early as the 3rd, what is now known as a diocese
+having been till then usually called a <i>parochia</i> (parish). The
+Greek word <span class="grk" title="dioikêsis">&#948;&#953;&#959;&#943;&#954;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, from meaning &ldquo;administration,&rdquo; came
+to be applied to the territorial circumscription in which administration
+was exercised. It was thus first applied <i>e.g.</i> to the
+three districts of Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada, which were added
+to Cilicia in Cicero&rsquo;s time (between 56 and 50 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). The word
+is here equivalent to &ldquo;assize-districts&rdquo; (Tyrrell and Purser&rsquo;s
+edition of Cicero <i>Epist. ad fam.</i> iii. 8. 4; xiii. 67; cf. Strabo
+xiii. 628-629). But in the reorganization of the empire, begun
+by Diocletian and completed by Constantine, the word &ldquo;diocese&rdquo;
+acquired a more important meaning, the empire being divided
+into twelve dioceses, of which the largest&mdash;Oriens&mdash;embraced
+sixteen provinces, and the smallest&mdash;Britain&mdash;four (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>:
+<i>Ancient History</i>; and W. T. Arnold, <i>Roman Provincial Administration</i>,
+pp. 187, 194-196, which gives a list of the dioceses and
+their subdivisions). The organization of the Christian church in
+the Roman empire following very closely the lines of the civil
+administration (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Church History</a></span>), the word diocese, in its
+ecclesiastical sense, was at first applied to the sphere of jurisdiction,
+not of a bishop, but of a metropolitan.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Thus Anastasius
+Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886), in his life of Pope Dionysius, says that
+he assigned churches to the presbyters, and established dioceses
+(<i>parochiae</i>) and provinces (<i>dioeceses</i>). The word, however, survived
+in its general sense of &ldquo;office&rdquo; or &ldquo;administration,&rdquo; and
+it was even used during the middle ages for &ldquo;parish&rdquo; (see Du
+Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s. &ldquo;Dioecesis&rdquo; 2).</p>
+
+<p>The practice, under the Roman empire, of making the areas of
+ecclesiastical administration very exactly coincide with those of
+the civil administration, was continued in the organization of the
+church beyond the borders of the empire, and many dioceses to
+this day preserve the limits of long vanished political divisions.
+The process is well illustrated in the case of English bishoprics.
+But this practice was based on convenience, not principle; and
+the limits of the dioceses, once fixed, did not usually change with
+the changing political boundaries. Thus Hincmar, archbishop
+of Reims, complains that not only his metropolitanate (<i>dioecesis</i>)
+but his bishopric (<i>parochia</i>) is divided between two realms under
+two kings; and this inconvenient overlapping of jurisdictions
+remained, in fact, very common in Europe until the readjustments
+of national boundaries by the territorial settlements of the
+19th century. In principle, however, the subdivision of a diocese,
+in the event of the work becoming too heavy for one bishop,
+was very early admitted, <i>e.g.</i> by the first council at Lugo in Spain
+(569), which erected Lugo into a metropolitanate, the consequent
+division of diocese being confirmed by the king of the second
+council, held in 572. Another reason for dividing a diocese, and
+establishing a new see, has been recognized by the church as
+duly existing &ldquo;if the sovereign should think fit to endow some
+principal village or town with the rank and privileges of a
+city&rdquo; (Bingham, lib. xvii. c. 5). But there are canons for the
+punishment of such as might induce the sovereign so to erect
+any town into a city, solely with the view of becoming bishop
+thereof. Nor could any diocese be divided without the consent
+of the primate.</p>
+
+<p>In England an act of parliament is necessary for the creation of
+new dioceses. In the reign of Henry VIII. six new dioceses were
+thus created (under an act of 1539); but from that time onward
+until the 19th century they remained practically unchanged.
+The Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1836, which created two
+new dioceses (Ripon and Manchester), remodelled the state of the
+old dioceses by an entirely new adjustment of the revenues and
+patronage of each see, and also extended or curtailed the parishes
+and counties in the various jurisdictions.</p>
+
+<p>By the ancient custom of the church the bishop takes his title,
+not from his diocese, but from his see, <i>i.e.</i> the place where his
+cathedral is established. Thus the old episcopal titles are all
+derived from cities. This tradition has been broken, however, by
+the modern practice of bishops in the United States and the
+British colonies, <i>e.g.</i> archbishop of the West Indies, bishop of
+Pennsylvania, Wyoming, &amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bishop</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, ii. 38, &amp;c.; Joseph Bingham, <i>Origines
+ecclesiasticae</i>, 9 vols. (1840); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s. &ldquo;Dioecesis&rdquo;;
+<i>New English Dictionary</i> (Oxford, 1897), s. &ldquo;Diocese.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For exceptions see Hinschius ii. p. 39, note 1.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIO CHRYSOSTOM<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 40-115), Greek sophist and
+rhetorician, was born at Piusa (mod. <i>Brusa</i>), a town at the foot
+of Mount Olympus in Bithynia. He was called Chrysostom
+(&ldquo;golden-mouthed&rdquo;) from his eloquence, and also to distinguish
+him from his grandson, the historian Dio Cassius; his surname
+Cocceianus was derived from his patron, the emperor Cocceius
+Nerva. Although he did much to promote the welfare of his
+native place, he became so unpopular there that he migrated to
+Rome, but, having incurred the suspicion of Domitian, he was
+banished from Italy. With nothing in his pocket but Plato&rsquo;s
+<i>Phaedo</i> and Demosthenes&rsquo; <i>De falsa legatione</i>, he wandered about
+in Thrace, Mysia, Scythia and the land of the Getae. He
+returned to Rome on the accession of Nerva, with whom and
+his successor Trajan he was on intimate terms. During this
+period he paid a visit to Prusa, but, disgusted at his reception,
+he went back to Rome. The place and date of his death are
+unknown; it is certain, however, that he was alive in 112, when
+the younger Pliny was governor of Bithynia.</p>
+
+<p>Eighty orations, or rather essays on political, moral and
+philosophical subjects, have come down to us under his name;
+the <i>Corinthiaca</i>, however, is generally regarded as spurious, and
+is probably the work of Favorinus of Arelate. Of the extant
+orations the following are the most important:&mdash;<i>Borysthenitica</i>
+(xxxvi.), on the advantages of monarchy, addressed to the
+inhabitants of Olbia, and containing interesting information on the
+history of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Black Sea;
+<i>Olympica</i> (xii.), in which Pheidias is represented as setting forth
+the principles which he had followed in his statue of Zeus, one
+passage being supposed by some to have suggested Lessing&rsquo;s
+<i>Laocoon</i>; <i>Rhodiaca</i> (xxxi.), an attack on the Rhodians for altering
+the names on their statues, and thus converting them into
+memorials of famous men of the day (an imitation of Demosthenes&rsquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span>
+<i>Leptines</i>); <i>De regno</i> (i.-iv.), addressed to Trajan, a eulogy of the
+monarchical form of government, under which the emperor is the
+representative of Zeus upon earth; <i>De Aeschylo et Sophocle et
+Euripide</i> (lii.), a comparison of the treatment of the story of
+Philoctetes by the three great Greek tragedians; and <i>Philoctetes</i>
+(lix.), a summary of the prologue to the lost play by Euripides.
+In his later life, Dio, who had originally attacked the philosophers,
+himself became a convert to Stoicism. To this period belong the
+essays on moral subjects, such as the denunciation of various
+cities (Tarsus, Alexandria) for their immorality. Most pleasing
+of all is the <i>Euboica</i> (vii.), a description of the simple life of the
+herdsmen and huntsmen of Euboea as contrasted with that of the
+inhabitants of the towns. <i>Troica</i> (xi.), an attempt to prove to
+the inhabitants of Ilium that Homer was a liar and that Troy was
+never taken, is a good example of a sophistical rhetorical exercise.
+Amongst his lost works were attacks on philosophers and
+Domitian, and <i>Getica</i> (wrongly attributed to Dio Cassius by
+Suïdas), an account of the manners and customs of the Getae, for
+which he had collected material on the spot during his banishment.
+The style of Dio, who took Plato and Xenophon especially
+as his models, is pure and refined, and on the whole free from
+rhetorical exaggeration. With Plutarch he played an important
+part in the revival of Greek literature at the end of the 1st
+century of the Christian era.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions: J. J. Reiske (Leipzig, 1784); A. Emperius (Brunswick,
+1844); L. Dindorf (Leipzig, 1857), H. von Arnim (Berlin, 1893-1896).
+The ancient authorities for his life are Philostratus, <i>Vit. Soph.</i>
+i. 7; Photius, <i>Bibliotheca</i>, cod. 209; Suidas, <i>s.v.</i>; Synesius, <span class="grk" title="Diôn">&#916;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>.
+On Dio generally see H. von Arnim, <i>Leben und Werke des Dion von
+Prusa</i> (Berlin, 1898); C. Martha, <i>Les Moralistes sous l&rsquo;empire romain</i>
+(1865); W. Christ, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur</i> (1898),
+§ 520; J. E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> (2nd ed., 1906);
+W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, v. pt. 1 (1905).
+The <i>Euboica</i> has been abridged by J. P. Mahaffy in <i>The Greek World
+under Roman Sway</i> (1890), and there is a translation of <i>Select Essays</i>
+by Gilbert Wakefield (1800).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOCLETIAN<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus</span>)
+(<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 245-313), Roman emperor 284-305, is said to have been
+born at Dioclea, near Salona, in Dalmatia. His original name
+was Diocles. Of humble origin, he served with high distinction
+and held important military commands under the emperors
+Probus and Aurelian, and accompanied Carus to the Persian War.
+After the death of Numerianus he was chosen emperor by the
+troops at Chalcedon, on the 17th of September 284, and slew with
+his own hands Arrius Aper, the praefect of the praetorians. He
+thus fulfilled the prediction of a druidess of Gaul, that he would
+mount a throne as soon as he had slain a wild boar (<i>aper</i>). Having
+been installed at Nicomedia, he received general acknowledgment
+after the murder of Carinus. In consequence of the rising of
+the Bagaudae in Gaul, and the threatening attitude of the German
+peoples on the Rhine, he appointed Maximian Augustus in 286;
+and, in view of further dangers and disturbances in the empire,
+proclaimed Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Caesars in 293. Each
+of the four rulers was placed at a separate capital&mdash;Nicomedia,
+Mediolanum (Milan), Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), Sirmium.
+This amounted to an entirely new organization of the empire, on
+a plan commensurate with the work of government which it now
+had to carry on. At the age of fifty-nine, exhausted with labour,
+Diocletian abdicated his sovereignty on the 1st of May 305, and
+retired to Salona, where he died eight years afterwards (others
+give 316 as the year of his death). The end of his reign was
+memorable for the persecution of the Christians. In defence of
+this it may be urged that he hoped to strengthen the empire by
+reviving the old religion, and that the church as an independent
+state over whose inner life at least he possessed no influence,
+appeared to be a standing menace to his authority. Under
+Diocletian the senate became a political nonentity, the last traces
+of republican institutions disappeared, and were replaced by
+an absolute monarchy approaching to despotism. He wore the
+royal diadem, assumed the title of lord, and introduced a complicated
+system of ceremonial and etiquette, borrowed from the
+East, in order to surround the monarchy and its representative
+with mysterious sanctity. But at the same time he devoted
+his energies to the improvement of the administration of the
+empire; he reformed the standard of coinage, fixed the price
+of provisions and other necessaries of daily life, remitted the
+tax upon inheritances and manumissions, abolished various
+monopolies, repressed corruption and encouraged trade. In
+addition, he adorned the city with numerous buildings, such
+as the thermae, of which extensive remains are still standing
+(Aurelius Victor, <i>De Caesaribus</i>, 39; Eutropius ix. 13; Zonaras
+xii. 31).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Vogel, <i>Der Kaiser Diocletian</i> (Gotha, 1857), a short sketch,
+with notes on the authorities; T. Preuss, <i>Kaiser Diocletian und seine
+Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1869); V. Casagrandi, <i>Diocleziano</i> (Faenza, 1876);
+H. Schiller, <i>Gesch. der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, ii. (1887); T. Bernhardt,
+<i>Geschichte Roms von Valerian bis zu Diocletians Tod</i> (1867); A. J.
+Mason, <i>The Persecution of Diocletian</i> (1876); P. Allard, <i>La Persécution
+de Dioclétien</i> (1890); V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie
+für protestantische Theologie</i>, iv. (1898); Gibbon. <i>Decline
+and Fall</i>, chaps. 13 and 16; A. W. Hunzinger, <i>Die Diocletianische
+Staatsreform</i> (1899); O. Seeck, &ldquo;Die Schatzungsordnung Diocletians&rdquo;
+in <i>Zeitschrift für Social- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte</i> (1896),
+a valuable paper with notes containing references to sources; and
+O. Seeck, <i>Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt</i>, vol. i. cap. 1.
+On his military reforms see T. Mommsen in <i>Hermes</i>, xxiv., and on his
+tariff system, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diocletian, Edict of</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (<i>De pretiis rerum venalium</i>), an imperial
+edict promulgated in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 301, fixing a maximum price for
+provisions and other articles of commerce, and a maximum rate of
+wages. Incomplete copies of it have been discovered at various
+times in various places, the first (in Greek and Latin) in 1709, at
+Stratonicea in Caria, by W. Sherard, British consul at Smyrna,
+containing the preamble and the beginning of the tables down to
+No. 403. This partial copy was completed by W. Bankes in 1817.
+A second fragment (now in the museum at Aix in Provence) was
+brought from Egypt in 1809; it supplements the preamble by
+specifying the titles of the emperors and Caesars and the number
+of times they had held them, whereby the date of publication can
+be accurately determined. For other fragments and their localities
+see <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</i> (iii., 1873, pp. 801 and 1055;
+and supplement i, 1893, p. 1909); special mention may be made
+of those of Elatea, Plataea and Megalopolis. Latin being the
+official language all over the empire, there was no official Greek
+translation (except for Greece proper), as is shown by the variations
+in those portions of the text of which more than one Greek
+version is extant. Further, all the fragments come from the
+provinces which were under the jurisdiction of Diocletian, from
+which it is argued that the edict was only published in the
+eastern portion of the empire; certainly the phrase <i>universo orbi</i>
+in the preamble is against this, but the words may merely be an
+exaggerated description of Diocletian&rsquo;s special provinces, and if it
+had been published in the western portion as well, it is curious
+that no traces have been found of it. The articles mentioned
+in the edict, which is chiefly interesting as giving their relative
+values at the time, include cereals, wine, oil, meat, vegetables,
+fruits, skins, leather, furs, foot-gear, timber, carpets, articles of
+dress, and the wages range from the ordinary labourer to the
+professional advocate. The unit of money was the denarius, not
+the silver, but a copper coin introduced by Diocletian, of which
+the value has been fixed approximately at <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>th of a penny. The
+punishment for exceeding the prices fixed was death or deportation.
+The edict was a well-intended but abortive attempt, in
+great measure in the interests of the soldiers, to meet the distress
+caused by several bad harvests and commercial speculation. The
+actual effect was disastrous: the restrictions thus placed upon
+commercial freedom brought about a disturbance of the food
+supply in non-productive countries, many traders were ruined,
+and the edict soon fell into abeyance.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lactantius, <i>De mortibus persecutorum</i>, vii., a contemporary
+who, as a Christian, writes with natural bias against Diocletian;
+T. Mommsen, <i>Das Edict Diocletians</i> (1851); W. M. Leake, <i>An Edict
+of Diocletian</i> (1826); W. H. Waddington, <i>L&rsquo;Édit de Dioclétien</i> (1864),
+and E. Lépaulle, <i>L&rsquo;Édit de maximum</i> (1886), both containing introductions
+and ample notes; J. C. Rolfe and F. B. Tarbell in <i>Papers
+of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens</i>, v. (1892)
+(Plataea); W. Loring in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xi. (1890)
+(Megalopolis); P. Paris in <i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i>, ix.
+(1885) (Elatea). There is an edition of the whole by Mommsen, with
+notes by H. Blümner (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">DIODATI, GIOVANNI<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1576-1649), Swiss Protestant divine,
+was born at Geneva on the 6th of June 1576, of a noble family
+originally belonging to Lucca, which had been expatriated on
+account of its Protestantism. At the age of twenty-one he was
+nominated professor of Hebrew at Geneva on the recommendation
+of Theodor Beza. In 1606 he became professor of theology, in
+1608 pastor, or parish minister, at Geneva, and in the following
+year he succeeded Beza as professor of theology. As a preacher
+he was eloquent, bold and fearless. He held a high place among
+the reformers of Geneva, by whom he was sent on a mission to
+France in 1614. He had previously visited Italy, and made the
+acquaintance of Paolo Sarpi, whom he endeavoured unsuccessfully
+to engage in a reformation movement. In 1618-1619 he
+attended the synod of Dort, and took a prominent part in its
+deliberations, being one of the six divines appointed to draw up
+the account of its proceedings. He was a thorough Calvinist, and
+entirely sympathized with the condemnation of the Arminians.
+In 1645 he resigned his professorship, and died at Geneva on the
+3rd of October 1649. Diodati is chiefly famous as the author of
+the translation of the Bible into Italian (1603, edited with notes,
+1607). He also undertook a translation of the Bible into French,
+which appeared with notes in 1644. Among his other works are
+his <i>Annotationes in Biblia</i> (1607), of which an English translation
+(<i>Pious and Learned Annotations upon the Holy Bible</i>) was
+published in London in 1648, and various polemical treatises,
+such as <i>De fictitio Pontificiorum Purgatorio</i> (1619); <i>De justa
+secessione Reformatorum ab Ecclesia Romana</i> (1628); <i>De
+Antichristo</i>, &amp;c. He also published French translations of
+Sarpi&rsquo;s <i>History of the Council of Trent</i>, and of Edwin Sandys&rsquo;s
+<i>Account of the State of Religion in the West</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIODORUS CRONUS<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), Greek philosopher of
+the Megarian school. Practically nothing is known of his life.
+Diogenes Laërtius (ii. 111) tells a story that, while staying at the
+court of Ptolemy Soter, Diodorus was asked to solve a dialectical
+subtlety by Stilpo. Not being able to answer on the spur of the
+moment, he was nicknamed <span class="grk" title="ho Kronos">&#922;&#961;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> (the God, equivalent to
+&ldquo;slowcoach&rdquo;) by Ptolemy. The story goes that he died of
+shame at his failure. Strabo, however, says (xiv. 658; xvii. 838)
+that he took the name from Apollonius, his master. Like the rest
+of the Megarian school he revelled in verbal quibbles, proving that
+motion and existence are impossible. His was the famous
+sophism known as the <span class="grk" title="Kyrieyôn">&#922;&#965;&#961;&#953;&#949;&#973;&#969;&#957;</span>. The impossible cannot
+result from the possible; a past event cannot become other than
+it is; but if an event, at a given moment, had been possible, from
+this possible would result something impossible; therefore the
+original event was impossible. This problem was taken up by
+Chrysippus, who admitted that he could not solve it. Apart
+from these verbal gymnastics, Diodorus did not differ from
+the Megarian school. From his great dialectical skill he earned
+the title <span class="grk" title="ho dialektikos">&#8001; &#948;&#953;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, or <span class="grk" title="dialektikôtatos">&#948;&#953;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#974;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, a title which was
+borne by his five daughters, who inherited his ability.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Cicero, <i>De Fato</i>, 6, 7, 9; Aristotle, <i>Metaphysica</i>, &theta; 3; Sext.
+Empiric., <i>adv. Math.</i> x. 85; Ritter and Preller, <i>Hist. philos. Gr. et
+Rom.</i> chap. v. §§ 234-236 (ed. 1869); and bibliography appended
+to article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Megarian School</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIODORUS SICULUS,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> Greek historian, born at Agyrium in
+Sicily, lived in the times of Julius Caesar and Augustus. From
+his own statements we learn that he travelled in Egypt between
+60-57 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> and that he spent several years in Rome. The latest
+event mentioned by him belongs to the year 21 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He asserts
+that he devoted thirty years to the composition of his history, and
+that he undertook frequent and dangerous journeys in prosecution
+of his historical researches. These assertions, however, find
+little credit with recent critics. The history, to which Diodorus
+gave the name <span class="grk" title="bibliothêkê historikê">&#946;&#953;&#946;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#952;&#942;&#954;&#951; &#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span> (<i>Bibliotheca historica</i>,
+&ldquo;Historical Library&rdquo;), consisted of forty books, and was divided
+into three parts. The first treats of the mythic history of the non-Hellenic,
+and afterwards of the Hellenic tribes, to the destruction
+of Troy; the second section ends with Alexander&rsquo;s death; and
+the third continues the history as far as the beginning of Caesar&rsquo;s
+Gallic War. Of this extensive work there are still extant only the
+first five books, treating of the mythic history of the Egyptians,
+Assyrians, Ethiopians and Greeks; and also the 11th to the 20th
+books inclusive, beginning with the second Persian War, and ending
+with the history of the successors of Alexander, previous to
+the partition of the Macedonian empire (302). The rest exists
+only in fragments preserved in Photius and the excerpts of
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The faults of Diodorus arise
+partly from the nature of the undertaking, and the awkward form
+of annals into which he has thrown the historical portion of his
+narrative. He shows none of the critical faculties of the historian,
+merely setting down a number of unconnected details. His
+narrative contains frequent repetitions and contradictions, is
+without colouring, and monotonous; and his simple diction,
+which stands intermediate between pure Attic and the colloquial
+Greek of his time, enables us to detect in the narrative the
+undigested fragments of the materials which he employed. In
+spite of its defects, however, the <i>Bibliotheca</i> is of considerable
+value as to some extent supplying the loss of the works of older
+authors, from which it is compiled. Unfortunately, Diodorus
+does not always quote his authorities, but his general sources of
+information were&mdash;in history and chronology, Castor, Ephorus
+and Apollodorus; in geography, Agatharchides and Artemidorus.
+In special sections he followed special authorities&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> in the
+history of his native Sicily, Philistus and Timaeus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Editio princeps</i>, by H. Stephanus (1559); of other editions the
+best are: P. Wesseling (1746), not yet superseded; L. Dindorf
+(1828-1831); (text) L. Dindorf (1866-1868, revised by F. Vogel,
+1888-1893 and C. T. Fischer, 1905-1906). The standard works on
+the sources of Diodorus are C. G. Heyne, <i>De fontibus et auctoribus
+historiarum Diodori</i>, printed in Dindorf&rsquo;s edition, and C. A.
+Volquardsen, <i>Die Quellen der griechischen und sicilischen Geschichten
+bei Diodor</i> (1868); A. von Mess, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i> (1906); see
+also L. O. Bröcker, <i>Untersuchungen über Diodor</i> (1879), short, but
+containing much information; O. Maass, <i>Kleitarch und Diodor</i>
+(1894-&emsp;&emsp;); G. J. Schneider, <i>De Diodori fontibus</i>, i.-iv. (1880);
+C. Wachsmuth, <i>Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte</i> (1895);
+Greece; <i>Ancient History</i>, &ldquo;Authorities.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIODOTUS,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> Seleucid satrap of Bactria, who rebelled against
+Antiochus II. (about 255) and became the founder of the Graeco-Bactrian
+kingdom (Trogus, <i>Prol.</i> 41; Justin xli. 4, 5, where he is
+wrongly called Theodotus; Strabo xi. 515). His power seems to
+have extended over the neighbouring provinces. Arsaces, the
+chieftain of the nomadic (Dahan) tribe of the Parni, fled before
+him into Parthia and here became the founder of the Parthian
+kingdom (Strabo l.c.). When Seleucus II. in 239 attempted to
+subjugate the rebels in the east he seems to have united with him
+against the Parthians (Justin xli. 4, 9). Soon afterwards he died
+and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II., who concluded a peace
+with the Parthians (Justin l.c.). Diodotus II. was killed by
+another usurper, Euthydemus (Polyb. xi. 34, 2). Of Diodotus I.
+we possess gold and silver coins, which imitate the coins of
+Antiochus II.; on these he sometimes calls himself Soter, &ldquo;the
+saviour.&rdquo; As the power of the Seleucids was weak and continually
+attacked by Ptolemy II., the eastern provinces and
+their Greek cities were exposed to the invasion of the nomadic
+barbarians and threatened with destruction (Polyb. xi. 34, 5);
+thus the erection of an independent kingdom may have been a
+necessity and indeed an advantage to the Greeks, and this epithet
+well deserved. Diodotus Soter appears also on coins struck in his
+memory by the later Graeco-Bactrian kings Agathocles and
+Antimachus. Cf. A. v. Sallet, <i>Die Nachfolger Alexanders d. Gr.
+in Baktrien und Indien</i>; Percy Gardner, <i>Catal. of the Coins of the
+Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and India</i> (Brit. Mus.); see
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bactria</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(Ed. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOGENES,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> &ldquo;the Cynic,&rdquo; Greek philosopher, was born at
+Sinope about 412 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and died in 323 at Corinth, according to
+Diogenes Laërtius, on the day on which Alexander the Great died
+at Babylon. His father, Icesias, a money-changer, was imprisoned
+or exiled on the charge of adulterating the coinage. Diogenes was
+included in the charge, and went to Athens with one attendant,
+whom he dismissed, saying, &ldquo;If Manes can live without Diogenes,
+why not Diogenes without Manes?&rdquo; Attracted by the ascetic
+teaching of Antisthenes, he became his pupil, despite the brutality
+with which he was received, and rapidly excelled his master both
+in reputation and in the austerity of his life. The stories which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span>
+are told of him are probably true; in any case, they serve
+to illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured
+himself to the vicissitudes of weather by living in a tub belonging
+to the temple of Cybele. The single wooden bowl he possessed he
+destroyed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his
+hands. On a voyage to Aegina he was captured by pirates and
+sold as a slave in Crete to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being
+asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of
+governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who
+needed a master. As tutor to the two sons of Xeniades, he lived
+in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted entirely to
+preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. At the Isthmian
+games he lectured to large audiences who turned to him from
+Antisthenes. It was, probably, at one of these festivals that he
+craved from Alexander the single boon that he would not stand
+between him and the sun, to which Alexander replied &ldquo;If I were
+not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.&rdquo; On his death, about which
+there exist several accounts, the Corinthians erected to his
+memory a pillar on which there rested a dog of Parian marble.
+His ethical teaching will be found in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cynics</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>).
+It may suffice to say here that virtue, for him, consisted in
+the avoidance of all physical pleasure; that pain and hunger
+were positively helpful in the pursuit of goodness; that all the
+artificial growths of society appeared to him incompatible with
+truth and goodness; that moralization implies a return to nature
+and simplicity. He has been credited with going to extremes of
+impropriety in pursuance of these ideas; probably, however, his
+reputation has suffered from the undoubted immorality of some of
+his successors. Both in ancient and in modern times, his personality
+has appealed strongly to sculptors and to painters. Ancient
+busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre and the
+Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is represented
+in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani.
+Rubens, Jordaens, Steen, Van der Werff, Jeaurat, Salvator Rosa
+and Karel Dujardin have painted various episodes in his life.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief ancient authority for his life is Diogenes Laërtius vi. 20;
+see also Mayor&rsquo;s notes on Juvenal, <i>Satires</i>, xiv. 305-314; and article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cynics</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOGENES APOLLONIATES<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (c. 460 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), Greek natural
+philosopher, was a native of Apollonia in Crete. Although of
+Dorian stock, he wrote in the Ionic dialect, like all the <i>physiologi</i>
+(physical philosophers). There seems no doubt that he lived some
+time at Athens, where it is said that he became so unpopular
+(probably owing to his supposed atheistical opinions) that his
+life was in danger. The views of Diogenes are transferred in the
+<i>Clouds</i> (264 ff.) of Aristophanes to Socrates. Like Anaximenes,
+he believed air to be the one source of all being, and all other
+substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction.
+His chief advance upon the doctrines of Anaximenes is that
+he asserted air, the primal force, to be possessed of intelligence&mdash;&ldquo;the
+air which stirred within him not only prompted, but instructed.
+The air as the origin of all things is necessarily an
+eternal, imperishable substance, but as soul it is also necessarily
+endowed with consciousness.&rdquo; In fact, he belonged to the old
+Ionian school, whose doctrines he modified by the theories of
+his contemporary Anaxagoras, although he avoided his dualism.
+His most important work was <span class="grk" title="Peri physeôs">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#966;&#973;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span> (<i>De natura</i>), of
+which considerable fragments are extant (chiefly in Simplicius);
+it is possible that he wrote also Against the Sophists and <i>On the
+Nature of Man</i>, to which the well-known fragment about the
+veins would belong; possibly these discussions were subdivisions
+of his great work.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in F. Mullach, <i>Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum</i>,
+i. (1860); F. Panzerbieter, <i>Diogenes Apolloniates</i> (1830), with
+philosophical dissertation; J. Burnet, <i>Early Greek Philosophy</i> (1892);
+H. Ritter and L. Preller, <i>Historia philosophiae</i> (4th ed., 1869),
+§§ 59-68; E. Krause, <i>Diogenes von Apollonia</i> (1909). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ionian
+School</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOGENES LAËRTIUS<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Laërtius Diogenes</span>), the
+biographer of the Greek philosophers, is supposed by some to have
+received his surname from the town of Laërte in Cilicia, and by
+others from the Roman family of the Laërtii. Of the circumstances
+of his life we know nothing. He must have lived after
+Sextus Empiricus (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 200), whom he mentions, and before
+Stephanus of Byzantium (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 500), who quotes him. It is
+probable that he flourished during the reign of Alexander Severus
+(<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 222-235) and his successors. His own opinions are equally
+uncertain. By some he was regarded as a Christian; but it seems
+more probable that he was an Epicurean. The work by which
+he is known professes to give an account of the lives and sayings
+of the Greek philosophers. Although it is at best an uncritical
+and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as giving us an insight
+into the private life of the Greek sages, justly led Montaigne
+to exclaim that he wished that instead of one Laërtius there had
+been a dozen. He treats his subject in two divisions which he
+describes as the Ionian and the Italian schools; the division is
+quite unscientific. The biographies of the former begin with
+Anaximander, and end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and
+Chrysippus; the latter begins with Pythagoras, and ends with
+Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its various branches, is
+classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and sceptics are
+treated under the Italic. The whole of the last book is devoted to
+Epicurus, and contains three most interesting letters addressed
+to Herodotus, Pythocles and Menoeceus. His chief authorities
+were Diocles of Magnesia&rsquo;s <i>Cursory Notice</i> (<span class="grk" title="Epidromê">&#904;&#960;&#953;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#956;&#942;</span>) <i>of Philosophers</i>
+and Favorinus&rsquo;s <i>Miscellaneous History</i> and <i>Memoirs</i>.
+From the statements of Burlaeus (Walter Burley, a 14th-century
+monk) in his <i>De vita et moribus philosophorum</i> the text of
+Diogenes seems to have been much fuller than that which we
+now possess. In addition to the <i>Lives</i>, Diogenes was the author
+of a work in verse on famous men, in various metres.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>Editio princeps</i> (1533); H. Hübner and C.
+Jacobitz with commentary (1828-1833); C. G. Cobet (1850), text
+only. See F. Nietzsche, &ldquo;De Diogenis Laërtii fontibus&rdquo; in
+<i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, xxiii., xxiv. (1868-1869); J. Freudenthal,
+&ldquo;Zu Quellenkunde Diog. Laërt.,&rdquo; in <i>Hellenistische Studien</i>, iii.
+(1879); O. Maass, <i>De biographis Graecis</i> (1880); V. Egger, <i>De
+fontibus Diog. Laërt.</i> (1881). There is an English translation by
+C. D. Yonge in Bohn&rsquo;s Classical Library.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOGENIANUS,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> of Heraclea on the Pontus (or in Caria), Greek
+grammarian, flourished during the reign of Hadrian. He was
+the author of an alphabetical lexicon, chiefly of poetical words,
+abridged from the great lexicon (<span class="grk" title="Peri glossôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#947;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#8182;&#957;</span>) of Pamphilus
+of Alexandria (fl. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 50) and other similar works. It was also
+known by the title <span class="grk" title="Periergopenêtes">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#949;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#960;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span> (for the use of &ldquo;industrious
+poor students&rdquo;). It formed the basis of the lexicon, or rather
+glossary, of Hesychius of Alexandria, which is described in the
+preface as a new edition of the work of Diogenianus. We still
+possess a collection of proverbs under his name, probably an
+abridgment of the collection made by himself from his lexicon
+(ed. by E. Leutsch and F. W. Schneidewin in <i>Paroemiographi
+Graeci</i>, i. 1839). Diogenianus was also the author of an Anthology
+of epigrams, of treatises on rivers, lakes, fountains and promontories;
+and of a list (with map) of all the towns in the world.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> one of the early Christian apologies.
+Diognetus, of whom nothing is really known, has expressed
+a desire to know what Christianity really means&mdash;&ldquo;What is this
+new race&rdquo; of men who are neither pagans nor Jews? &ldquo;What is
+this new interest which has entered into men&rsquo;s lives now and not
+before?&rdquo; The anonymous answer begins with a refutation of
+the folly of worshipping idols, fashioned by human hands and
+needing to be guarded if of precious material. The repulsive
+smell of animal sacrifices is enough to show their monstrous
+absurdity. Next Judaism is attacked. Jews abstain from
+idolatry and worship one God, but they fall into the same error of
+repulsive sacrifice, and have absurd superstitions about meats
+and sabbaths, circumcision and new moons. So far the task is
+easy; but the mystery of the Christian religion &ldquo;think not to
+learn from man.&rdquo; A passage of great eloquence follows, showing
+that Christians have no obvious peculiarities that mark them off
+as a separate race. In spite of blameless lives they are hated.
+Their home is in heaven, while they live on earth. &ldquo;In a word,
+what the soul is in a body, this the Christians are in the
+world.... The soul is enclosed in the body, and yet itself
+holdeth the body together: so Christians are kept in the world
+as in a prison-house, and yet they themselves hold the world
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span>
+together.&rdquo; This strange life is inspired in them by the almighty
+and invisible God, who sent no angel or subordinate messenger to
+teach them, but His own Son by whom He created the universe.
+No man could have known God, had He not thus declared
+Himself. &ldquo;If thou too wouldst have this faith, learn first the
+knowledge of the Father. For God loved men, for whose sake He
+made the world.... Knowing Him, thou wilt love Him and imitate
+His goodness; and marvel not if a man can imitate God; he
+can, if God will.&rdquo; By kindness to the needy, by giving them what
+God has given to him, a man can become &ldquo;a god of them that
+receive, an imitator of God.&rdquo; &ldquo;Then shalt thou on earth behold
+God&rsquo;s life in heaven; then shalt thou begin to speak the mysteries
+of God.&rdquo; A few lines after this the letter suddenly breaks off.</p>
+
+<p>Even this rapid summary may show that the writer was a man
+of no ordinary power, and there is no other early Christian
+writing outside the New Testament which appeals so strongly
+to modern readers. The letter has been often classed with the
+writings of the Apostolic Fathers, and in some ways it seems
+to mark the transition from the sub-apostolic age to that of the
+Apologists. Bishop Lightfoot, who speaks of the letter as &ldquo;one
+of the noblest and most impressive of early Christian apologies,&rdquo;
+places it c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 150, and inclines to identify Diognetus with the
+tutor of Marcus Aurelius. Harnack and others would place it
+later, perhaps in the 3rd century. There are some striking
+parallels in method and language to the Apology of Aristides
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and also to the early &ldquo;Preaching of Peter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The one manuscript which contained this letter perished by fire
+at Strassburg in 1870, but happily it had been accurately collated
+by Reuss nine years before. It formed part of a collection of
+works supposed to be by Justin Martyr, and to this mistaken
+attribution its preservation is no doubt due. Both thought and
+language mark the author off entirely from Justin. The end
+of the letter is lost, but there followed in the codex the end of
+a homily,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which was attached without a break to the epistle:
+this points to the loss in some earlier codex of pages containing
+the end of the letter and the beginning of the homily.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Epistle may be read in J. B. Lightfoot&rsquo;s <i>Apostolic Fathers</i>
+(ed. min.), where there is also a translation into English.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. R.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Chapters xi. and xii., which Lightfoot suggested might be the
+work of Pantaenus.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOMEDES,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> in Greek legend, son of Tydeus, one of the bravest
+of the heroes of the Trojan War. In the <i>Iliad</i> he is the favourite
+of Athena, by whose aid he not only overcomes all mortals who
+venture to oppose him, but is even enabled to attack the gods. In
+the post-Homeric story, he made his way with Odysseus by an
+underground passage into the citadel of Troy and carried off the
+Palladium, the presence of which within the walls secured Troy
+against capture (Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, ii. 164). On his return to Argos,
+finding that his wife had been unfaithful, he removed to Aetolia,
+and thence to Daunia (Apulia), where he married the daughter of
+King Daunus. He was buried or mysteriously disappeared on
+one of the islands in the Adriatic called after him Diomedeae, his
+sorrowing companions being changed into birds by the gods out
+of compassion (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xiv. 457 ff.). He was the reputed
+founder of Argyrippa (Arpi) and other Italian cities (<i>Aeneid</i>, xi.
+243 ff.). He was worshipped as a hero not only in Greece, but on
+the coast of the Adriatic, as at Thurii and Metapontum. At Argos,
+his native place, during the festival of Athena, his shield was
+carried through the streets as a relic, together with the Palladium,
+and his statue was washed in the river Inachus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOMEDES,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> Latin grammarian, flourished at the end of the
+4th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> He was the author of an extant <i>Ars grammatica</i>
+in three books, dedicated to a certain Athanasius. The third book
+is the most important, as containing extracts from Suetonius&rsquo;s
+<i>De poëtis</i>. Diomedes wrote about the same time as Charisius (<i>q.v.</i>)
+and used the same sources independently. The works of both
+grammarians are valuable, but whereas much of Charisius has
+been lost, the Ars of Diomedes has come down to us complete. In
+book i. he treats of the eight parts of speech; in ii. of the elementary
+ideas of grammar and of style; in iii. of quantity and metres.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition is in H. Keil&rsquo;s <i>Grammatici Latini</i>, i.; see also C. von
+Paucker, <i>Kleinere Studien</i>, i. (1883), on the Latinity of Diomedes.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DION,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> tyrant of Syracuse (408-353 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), the son of Hipparinus,
+and brother-in-law of Dionysius the Elder. In his youth he was
+an admirer and pupil of Plato, whom Dionysius had invited to
+Syracuse; and he used every effort to inculcate the maxims of
+his master in the mind of the tyrant. The stern morality of
+Dion was distasteful to the younger Dionysius, and the historian
+Philistus, a faithful supporter of despotic power, succeeded in
+procuring his banishment on account of alleged intrigues with the
+Carthaginians. The exiled philosopher retired to Athens, where
+he was at first permitted to enjoy his revenues in peace; but the
+intercession of Plato (who had again visited Syracuse to procure
+Dion&rsquo;s recall) only served to exasperate the tyrant, and at length
+provoked him to confiscate the property of Dion, and give his wife
+to another. This last outrage roused Dion. Assembling a small
+force at Zacynthus, he sailed to Sicily (357) and was received with
+demonstrations of joy. Dionysius, who was in Italy, returned
+to Sicily, but was defeated and obliged to flee. Dion himself was
+soon after supplanted by the intrigues of Heracleides, and again
+banished. The incompetency of the new leader and the cruelties
+of Apollocrates, the son of Dionysius, soon led to his recall. He
+had, however, scarcely made himself master of Sicily when the
+people began to express their discontent with his tyrannical
+conduct, and he was assassinated by Callippus, an Athenian
+who had accompanied him in his expedition.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Lives</i> by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi.
+6-20) and in modern times by T. Lau (1860); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sicily</a></span> : <i>History</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONE,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> in the earliest Greek mythology, the wife of Zeus. As
+such she is associated with Zeus Naïus (the god of fertilizing
+moisture) at Dodona (Strabo vii. p. 329), by whose side she sits,
+adorned with a bridal veil and garland and holding a sceptre. As
+the oracle declined in importance, her place as the wife of Zeus
+was taken by Hera. It is probable that in very early times the
+cult of Dione existed in Athens, where she had an altar before the
+Erechtheum. After her admission to the general religious system
+of the Greeks, Dione was variously described. In the <i>Iliad</i>
+(v. 370) she is the mother by Zeus of Aphrodite, who is herself in
+later times called Dione (the epithet Dionaeus was given to Julius
+Caesar as claiming descent from Venus). In Hesiod (<i>Theog.</i> 353)
+she is one of the daughters of Oceanus; in Pherecydes (ap. schol.
+<i>Iliad</i>, xviii. 486), one of the nymphs of Dodona, the nurses of
+Dionysus; in Euripides (frag. 177), the mother of Dionysus; in
+Hyginus (fab. 9. 82), the daughter of Atlas, wife of Tantalus and
+mother of Pelops and Niobe. Others make her a Titanid, the
+daughter of Uranus and Gaea (Apollodorus i. 1). Speaking
+generally, Dione may be regarded as the female embodiment
+of the attributes of Zeus, to whose name her own is related as
+Juno (= Jovino) to Jupiter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIA,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> festivals in honour of the god Dionysus generally,
+but in particular the festivals celebrated in Attica and by the
+branches of the Attic-Ionic race in the islands and in Asia Minor.
+In Attica there were two festivals annually. (1) The lesser
+Dionysia, or <span class="grk" title="ta kat agrous">&#964;&#8048; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#8125; &#7936;&#947;&#961;&#959;&#973;&#962;</span>, was held in the country places for
+four days (about the 19th to the 22nd of December) at the first
+tasting of the new wine. It was accompanied by songs, dance,
+phallic processions and the impromptu performances of itinerant
+players, who with others from the city thronged to take part in the
+excitement of the rustic sports. A favourite amusement was the
+Ascoliasmus, or dancing on one leg upon a leathern bag (<span class="grk" title="askos">&#7936;&#963;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>),
+which had been smeared with oil. (2) The <i>greater</i> Dionysia, or
+<span class="grk" title="ta en astei">&#964;&#8048; &#7952;&#957; &#7940;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#953;</span>, was held in the city of Athens for six days (about the
+28th of March to the 2nd of April). This was a festival of joy at
+the departure of winter and the promise of summer, Dionysus
+being regarded as having delivered the people from the wants and
+troubles of winter. The religious act of the festival was the
+conveying of the ancient image of the god, which had been brought
+from Eleutherae to Athens, from the ancient sanctuary of the
+Lenaeum to a small temple near the Acropolis and back again,
+with a chorus of boys and a procession carrying masks and singing
+the dithyrambus. The festival culminated in the production of
+tragedies, comedies and satyric dramas in the great theatre
+of Dionysus. Other festivals in honour of Dionysus were the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span>
+Anthesteria (<i>q.v.</i>); the Lenaea (about the 28th to the 31st of January),
+or festival of vats, at which, after a great public banquet, the
+citizens went through the city in procession to attend the dramatic
+representations; the Oschophoria (October-November), a vintage
+festival, so called from the branches of vine with grapes carried
+by twenty youths from the ephebi, two from each tribe, in a race
+from the temple of Dionysus in Athens to the temple of Athena
+Sciras in Phalerum.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Mommsen, <i>Feste der Stadt Athen</i> (1898); L. Preller,
+<i>Griechische Mythologie</i>; L. C. Purser in Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of
+Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1890); article <span class="sc">Dionysos</span> in W. H. Roscher&rsquo;s
+<i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; and the exhaustive account with bibliography
+by J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des
+antiquités</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> pope from 259 to 268. To Dionysius, who was
+elected pope in 259 after the persecution of Valerian, fell the task
+of reorganizing the Roman church, which had fallen into great
+disorder. At the protest of some of the faithful at Alexandria,
+he demanded from the bishop of Alexandria, also called Dionysius,
+explanations touching his doctrine. He died on the 26th of
+December 268.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (c. 432-367 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), tyrant of Syracuse, began life as
+a clerk in a public office, but by courage and diplomacy succeeded
+in making himself supreme (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span>). He carried on war
+with Carthage with varying success; his attempts to drive the
+Carthaginians entirely out of the island failed, and at his death
+they were masters of at least a third of it. He also carried on an
+expedition against Rhegium and its allied cities in Magna Graecia.
+In one campaign, in which he was joined by the Lucanians, he
+devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton and Locri. After a
+protracted siege he took Rhegium (386), and sold the inhabitants
+as slaves. He joined the Illyrians in an attempt to plunder the
+temple of Delphi, pillaged the temple of Caere on the Etruscan
+coast, and founded several military colonies on the Adriatic. In
+the Peloponnesian War he espoused the side of the Spartans, and
+assisted them with mercenaries. He also posed as an author and
+patron of literature; his poems, severely criticized by Philoxenus,
+were hissed at the Olympic games; but having gained a prize
+for a tragedy on the <i>Ransom of Hector</i> at the Lenaea at Athens, he
+was so elated that he engaged in a debauch which proved fatal.
+According to others, he was poisoned by his physicians at the
+instigation of his son. His life was written by Philistus, but the
+work is not extant. Dionysius was regarded by the ancients as
+a type of the worst kind of despot&mdash;cruel, suspicious and vindictive.
+Like Peisistratus, he was fond of having distinguished
+literary men about him, such as the historian Philistus, the poet
+Philoxenus, and the philosopher Plato, but treated them in a most
+arbitrary manner.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Diod. Sic. xiii., xiv., xv.; J. Bass, <i>Dionysius I. von Syrakus</i>
+(Vienna, 1881), with full references to authorities in footnotes;
+articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sicily</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His son <span class="sc">Dionysius</span>, known as &ldquo;the Younger,&rdquo; succeeded
+in 367 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He was driven from the kingdom by Dion (356) and
+fled to Locri; but during the commotions which followed
+Dion&rsquo;s assassination, he managed to make himself master of
+Syracuse. On the arrival of Timoleon he was compelled to
+surrender and retire to Corinth (343), where he spent the rest
+of his days in poverty (Diodorus Siculus xvi.; Plutarch,
+<i>Timoleon</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Syracuse</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timoleon</a></span>; and, on both the Dionysii, articles
+by B. Niese in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, v. pt. 1 (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (or &ldquo;the Areopagite&rdquo;), named
+in Acts xvii. 34 as one of those Athenians who believed when they
+had heard Paul preach on Mars Hill. Beyond this mention our
+only knowledge of him is the statement of Dionysius, bishop of
+Corinth (fl. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 171), recorded by Eusebius (<i>Church Hist.</i> iii. 4;
+iv. 23), that this same Dionysius the Areopagite was the first
+&ldquo;bishop&rdquo; of Athens. Some hundreds of years after the
+Areopagite&rsquo;s death, his name was attached by the Pseudo-Areopagite
+to certain theological writings composed by the latter.
+These were destined to exert enormous influence upon medieval
+thought, and their fame led to the extension of the personal legend
+of the real Dionysius. Hilduin, abbot of St Denys (814-840),
+identified him with St Denys, martyr and patron-saint of France.
+In Hilduin&rsquo;s <i>Areopagitica</i>, the Life and Passion of the most holy
+Dionysius (Migne, <i> Patrol. Lat.</i>  tome 106), the Areopagite is sent
+to France by Clement of Rome, and suffers martyrdom upon the
+hill where the monastery called St Denys was to rise in his honour.
+There is no earlier trace of this identification, and Gregory of
+Tours (d. 594) says (<i>Hist. Francorum</i>, i. 18) that St Denys came
+to France in the reign of Decius (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 250), which falls about
+midway between the presumptive death of the real Areopagite
+and the probable date of the writings to which he owed his
+adventitious fame.</p>
+
+<p>Traces of the influence of these writings appear in the works
+of Eastern theologians in the early part of the 6th century. They
+also were cited at the council held in Constantinople in 533, which
+is the first certain dated reference to them. In the West, Gregory
+the Great (d. 604) refers to them in his thirty-fourth sermon on
+the gospels (Migne, <i>Pat. Lat.</i>  tome 76, col. 1254). They did not,
+however, become generally known in the Western church till after
+the year 827, when the Byzantine emperor Michael the Stammerer
+sent a copy to Louis the Pious. It was given over to the care of
+the above-mentioned abbot Hilduin. In the next generation the
+scholar and philosopher Joannes Scotus Erigena (<i>q.v.</i>) translated
+the Dionysian writings into Latin. This appears to have been
+the only Latin translation until the 12th century when another
+was made, followed by several others.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, the author, date and place of composition of these
+writings are unknown. External evidence precludes a date later
+than the year 500, and the internal evidence from the writings
+themselves precludes any date prior to 4th-century phases of
+Neo-platonism. The extant writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite
+are: (a) <span class="grk" title="Peri tês ouranias hierarchias">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#959;&#8016;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#7985;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>, <i>Concerning the Celestial
+Hierarchy</i>, in fifteen chapters. (b) <span class="grk" title="Peri tês ekklêsiastikês
+hierarchias">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7952;&#954;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#7985;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span> , <i>Concerning the Ecclesiastical Hierarchy</i>, in seven
+chapters. (c) <span class="grk" title="Peri theiôn onomatôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#952;&#949;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#8000;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>, <i>Concerning Divine Names</i>,
+in thirteen chapters. (d) <span class="grk" title="Peri mystikês theologias">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#956;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#952;&#949;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>, <i>Concerning
+Mystic Theology</i>, in five chapters. (e) Ten letters addressed to
+various worthies of the apostolic period.</p>
+
+<p>Although these writings seem complete, they contain references
+to others of the same author. But of the latter nothing
+is known, and they may never have existed.</p>
+
+<p>The writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite are of great interest,
+first as a striking presentation of the heterogeneous elements that
+might unite in the mind of a gifted man in the 5th century, and
+secondly, because of their enormous influence upon subsequent
+Christian theology and art. Their ingredients&mdash;Christian, Greek,
+Oriental and Jewish&mdash;are not crudely mingled, but are united
+into an organic system. Perhaps theological philosophic fantasy
+has never constructed anything more remarkable. The system of
+Dionysius was a proper product of its time,&mdash;lofty, apparently
+complete, comparable to the <i>Enneads</i> of Plotinus which formed
+part of its materials. But its materials abounded everywhere,
+and offered themselves temptingly to the hand strong enough
+to build with them. There was what had entered into Neo-platonism,
+both in its dialectic form as established by Plotinus,
+and in its magic-mystic modes devised by Iamblichus (d. c. 333).
+There was Jewish angel lore and Eastern mood and fancy; and
+there was Christianity so variously understood and heterogeneously
+constituted among Syro-Judaic Hellenic communities.
+Such Christianity held materials for formula and creed; also
+principles of liturgic and sacramental doctrine and priestly
+function; also a mass of popular beliefs as to intermediate
+superhuman beings who seemed nearer to men than any member
+of the Trinity.</p>
+
+<p>Out of this vast spiritual conglomerate, Pseudo-Dionysius
+formed his system. It was not juristic,&mdash;not Roman, Pauline
+or Augustinian. Rather he borrowed his constructive principles
+from Hellenism in its last great creation, Neo-platonism. That
+had been able to gather and arrange within itself the various
+elements of latter-day paganism. The Neo-platonic categories
+might be altered in name and import, and yet the scheme remain
+a scheme; since the general principle of the transmission of life
+from the ultimate Source downward through orders of mediating
+beings unto men, might readily be adapted to the Christian God
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span>
+and his ministering angels. Pseudo-Dionysius had lofty thoughts
+of the sublime transcendence of the ultimate divine Source. That
+source was not remote or inert; but a veritable Source from which
+life streamed to all lower orders of existence,&mdash;in part directly,
+and in part indirectly as power and guidance through the higher
+orders to the lower. Life, creation, every good gift, is from God
+directly; but his flaming ministers also intervene to guide and
+aid the life of man; and the life which through love floods forth
+from God has its counterflow whereby it draws its own creations
+to itself. God is at once absolutely transcendent and universally
+immanent. To live is to be united with God; evil is the nonexistent,
+that is, severance from God. Whatever is, is part of
+the forth-flowing divine life which ever purifies, enlightens and
+perfects, and so draws all back to the Source.</p>
+
+<p>The transcendent Source, as well as the universal immanence,
+is the Triune God. Between that and men are ranged the
+three triads of the Celestial Hierarchy: Seraphim, Cherubim
+and Thrones; Dominations, Virtues, Powers; Principalities,
+Archangels, Angels. Collectively their general office is to raise
+mankind to God through purification, illumination and perfection;
+and to all may be applied the term angel. The highest
+triad, which is nearest God, contemplates the divine effulgence,
+and reflects it onward to the second; the third, and more
+specifically angelic triad, immediately ministers to men. The
+sources of these names are evident: seraphim and cherubim are
+from the Old Testament; later Jewish writings gave names to
+archangels and angels, who also fill important functions in the New
+Testament. The other names are from Paul (Eph. i. 21; Col. i. 16).</p>
+
+<p>Such is the system of Pseudo-Dionysius, as presented mainly in
+<i>The Celestial Hierarchy</i>. That work is followed by <i>The Ecclesiastical
+Hierarchy</i>, its counterpart on earth. What the primal
+triune Godhead is to the former, Jesus is to the latter. The
+Ecclesiastical Hierarchy likewise is composed of Triads. The first
+includes the symbolic sacraments: Baptism, Communion,
+Consecration of the Holy Chrism. Baptism signifies purification;
+Communion signifies enlightening; the Holy Chrism signifies
+perfecting. The second triad is made up of the three orders of
+Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons, or rather, as the Areopagite
+names them: Hierarchs, Light-bearers, Servitors. The third
+triad consists of monks, who are in a state of perfection, the
+initiated laity, who are in a state of illumination, and the
+catechumens, in a state of purification. All worship, in this
+treatise, is a celebration of mysteries, and the pagan mysteries are
+continually suggested by the terms employed.</p>
+
+<p>The work <i>Concerning the Divine Names</i> is a noble discussion of
+the qualities which may be predicated of God, according to the
+warrant of the terms applied to him in Scripture. The work
+<i>Concerning Mystic Theology</i> explains the function of symbols, and
+shows that he who would know God truly must rise above them
+and above the conceptions of God drawn from sensible things.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Pseudo-Dionysius began to influence theological
+thought in the West from the time of their translation into Latin
+by Erigena. Their use may be followed through the writings of
+scholastic philosophers, <i>e.g.</i> Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus,
+Thomas Aquinas and many others. In poetry we find their
+influence in Dante, Spenser, Milton. The fifteenth chapter of <i>The
+Celestial Hierarchy</i> constituted the canon of symbolical angelic
+lore for the literature and art of the middle ages. Therein the
+author explains in what respect theology ascribes to angels the
+qualities of fire, why the thrones are said to be <i>fiery</i> (<span class="grk" title="pyrinous">&#960;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>);
+why the seraphim are <i>burning</i> (<span class="grk" title="emprêstas">&#7952;&#956;&#960;&#961;&#951;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#962;</span>) as their name
+indicates. The fiery form signifies, with Celestial Intelligences,
+likeness to God. Dionysius explains the significance of the parts
+of the human body when given to celestial beings: feet are
+ascribed to angels to denote their unceasing movement on the
+divine business, and their feet are winged to denote their celerity.
+He likewise explains the symbolism of wands and axes, of brass
+and precious stones, when joined to celestial beings; and what
+wheels and a chariot denote when furnished to them,&mdash;and much
+more besides.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;There is an enormous literature on Pseudo-Dionysius.
+The reader may be first referred to the articles in
+Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Christian Biography</i> and Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopadie
+fur protestantische Theologie</i> (Leipzig, 1898). The bibliography
+in the latter is very full. Some other references, especially upon the
+later influence of these works, are given in H. O. Taylor&rsquo;s <i>Classical
+Heritage of the Middle Ages</i> (Macmillan, 1903). The works themselves
+are in Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, tomes 3 and 4, with a Latin version.
+Erigena&rsquo;s version is in Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> t. 122. <i>Vita Dionysii</i> by
+Hilduin is in Migne, <i>Pat. Lat.</i> 106. There is an English version by
+Parker (London, 1894 and 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. O. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> one of the most learned men of the
+6th century, and especially distinguished as a chronologist, was,
+according to the statement of his friend Cassiodorus, a Scythian
+by birth, &ldquo;<i>Scytha natione</i>.&rdquo; This may mean only that he was a
+native of the region bordering on the Black Sea, and does not
+necessarily imply that he was not of Greek origin. Such origin is
+indicated by his name and by his thorough familiarity with the
+Greek language. His surname &ldquo;Exiguus&rdquo; is usually translated
+&ldquo;the Little,&rdquo; but he probably assumed it out of humility. He
+was living at Rome in the first half of the 6th century, and is
+usually spoken of as abbot of a Roman monastery. Cassiodorus,
+however, calls him simply &ldquo;monk,&rdquo; while Bede calls him &ldquo;abbot.&rdquo;
+But as it was not unusual to apply the latter term to distinguished
+monks who were not heads of their houses, it is uncertain whether
+Dionysius was abbot in fact or only by courtesy. He was in high
+repute as a learned theologian, was profoundly versed in the Holy
+Scriptures and in canon law, and was also an accomplished
+mathematician and astronomer. We owe to him a collection of
+401 ecclesiastical canons, including the apostolical canons and the
+decrees of the councils of Nicaea, Constantinople, Chalcedon and
+Sardis, and also a collection of the decretals of the popes from
+Siricius (385) to Anastasius II. (498). These collections, which
+had great authority in the West (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon Law</a></span>), were published
+by Justel in 1628. Dionysius did good service to his contemporaries
+by his translations of many Greek works into Latin; and
+by these translations some works, the originals of which have
+perished, have been handed down to us. His name, however, is
+now perhaps chiefly remembered for his chronological labours.
+It was Dionysius who introduced the method of reckoning
+the Christian era which we now use (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronology</a></span>). His
+friend Cassiodorus depicts in glowing terms the character of
+Dionysius as a saintly ascetic, and praises his wisdom and
+simplicity, his accomplishments and his lowly-mindedness, his
+power of eloquent speech and his capacity of silence. He died at
+Rome, some time before <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 550.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works have been published in Migne, <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, tome
+67; see especially A. Tardif, <i>Histoire des sources du droit canonique</i>
+(Paris, 1887), and D. Pitra, <i>Analecta novissima, Spicilegii Solesmensis
+continuatio</i>, vol. i. p. 36 (Paris, 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (&ldquo;of Halicarnassus&rdquo;),
+Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, flourished during the reign
+of Augustus. He went to Rome after the termination of the civil
+wars, and spent twenty-two years in studying the Latin language
+and literature and preparing materials for his history. During
+this period he gave lessons in rhetoric, and enjoyed the society of
+many distinguished men. The date of his death is unknown.
+His great work, entitled <span class="grk" title="Rômaikê archaiologia">&#8190;&#929;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#8151;&#954;&#8052; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span> (Roman
+Antiquities), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical
+period to the beginning of the first Punic War. It was divided
+into twenty books,&mdash;of which the first nine remain entire, the
+tenth and eleventh are nearly complete, and the remaining books
+exist in fragments in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus
+and an epitome discovered by Angelo Mai in a Milan MS. The
+first three books of Appian, and Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Life of Camillus</i> also
+embody much of Dionysius. His chief object was to reconcile
+the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon the good
+qualities of their conquerors. According to him, history is
+philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried
+out from the point of view of the Greek rhetorician. But he has
+carefully consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of
+Livy are the only connected and detailed extant accounts of early
+Roman history.</p>
+
+<p>Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in
+which he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic
+models:&mdash;<i>The Art of Rhetoric</i> (which is rather a collection of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span>
+essays on the theory of rhetoric), incomplete, and certainly not
+all his work; <i>The Arrangement of Words</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri syntheseôs
+onomatôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#963;&#965;&#957;&#952;&#941;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962; &#8000;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>), treating of the combination of words according
+to the different styles of oratory; <i>On Imitation</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri
+mimêseôs">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#956;&#953;&#956;&#942;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>), on the best models in the different kinds of literature
+and the way in which they are to be imitated&mdash;a fragmentary
+work; <i>Commentaries on the Attic Orators</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tôn archaiôn
+rhêtorôn hypomnêmatismoi">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#8165;&#951;&#964;&#972;&#961;&#969;&#957; &#8017;&#960;&#959;&#956;&#957;&#951;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#943;</span>), which, however, only deal with
+Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates and (by way of supplement) Dinarchus;
+<i>On the admirable Style of Demosthenes</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tês lektikês Dêmosthenous
+deinotêtos">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#955;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#916;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#948;&#949;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#964;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>); and <i>On the Character of Thucydides</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri
+tou Thoukydidou charakteros">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#920;&#959;&#965;&#954;&#965;&#948;&#943;&#948;&#959;&#965; &#967;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#8134;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>), a detailed but on the whole an
+unfair estimate. These two treatises are supplemented by letters
+to Cn. Pompeius and Ammaeus (two).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Complete edition by J. J. Reiske (1774-1777); of the <i>Archaeologia</i>
+by A. Kiessling and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885-1891);
+Opuscula by Usener and Radermacher (1899); Eng. translation by
+E. Spelman (1758). A full bibliography of the rhetorical works is
+given in W. Rhys Roberts&rsquo;s edition of the Three Literary Letters
+(1901); the same author published an edition of the <i>De compositione
+verborum</i> (1910, with trans.); see also M. Egger, <i>Denys d&rsquo;Halicarnasse</i>
+(1902), a very useful treatise. On the sources of Dionysius see O.
+Bocksch, &ldquo;De fontibus Dion. Halicarnassensis&rdquo; in <i>Leipziger Studien</i>,
+xvii. (1895). Cf. also J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> i. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> author of a <span class="grk" title="Periêgêsis tês
+oikoumenês">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#942;&#947;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#959;&#7984;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#962;</span>, a description of the habitable world in Greek
+hexameter verse, written in a terse and elegant style. Nothing
+certain is known of the date or nationality of the writer, but there
+is some reason for believing that he was an Alexandrian, who
+wrote in the time of Hadrian (some put him as late as the end of
+the 3rd century). The work enjoyed a high degree of popularity
+in ancient times as a school-book; it was translated into Latin
+by Rufus Festus Avienus, and by the grammarian Priscian. The
+commentary of Eustathius is valuable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best editions are by G. Bernhardy (1828) and C. Müller (1861)
+in their <i>Geographici Graeci minores</i>; see also E. H. Bunbury,
+<i>Ancient Geography</i> (ii. p. 480), who regards the author as flourishing
+from the reign of Nero to that of Trajan, and U. Bernays, <i>Studien
+zu Dion. Perieg.</i> (1905). There are two old English translations:
+T. Twine (1572, black letter), J. Free (1789, blank verse).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (&ldquo;of Tell-Ma&#7717;r&#275;&rdquo;), patriarch
+or supreme head of the Syrian Jacobite Church during the years
+818-848, was born at Tell-Ma&#7717;r&#275; near Ra&#7731;&#7731;a (ar-Ra&#7731;&#7731;ah) on the
+Bal&#299;kh. He was the author of an important historical work,
+which has seemingly perished except for some passages quoted by
+Barhebraeus and an extract found by Assemani in Cod. <i>Vat.</i> 144
+and published by him in the <i>Bibliotheca orientalis</i> (ii. 72-77). He
+spent his earlier years as a monk at the convent of &#7730;en-neshr&#275; on
+the upper Euphrates; and when this monastery was destroyed by
+fire in 815, he migrated northwards to that of Kais&#363;m in the
+district of Samos&#257;ta. At the death of the Jacobite patriarch
+Cyriacus in 817, the church was agitated by a dispute about the
+use of the phrase &ldquo;heavenly bread&rdquo; in connexion with the
+Eucharist. An anti-patriarch had been appointed in the person
+of Abraham of &#7730;artam&#299;n, who insisted on the use of the phrase
+in opposition to the recognized authorities of the church. The
+council of bishops who met at Ra&#7731;&#7731;a in the summer of 818 to
+choose a successor to Cyriacus had great difficulty in finding a
+worthy occupant of the patriarchal chair, but finally agreed on
+the election of Dionysius, hitherto known only as an honest monk
+who devoted himself to historical studies. Sorely against his will
+he was brought to Ra&#7731;&#7731;a, ordained deacon and priest on two
+successive days, and raised to the supreme ecclesiastical dignity
+on the 1st of August. From this time he showed the utmost zeal
+in fulfilling the duties of his office, and undertook many journeys
+both within and without his province. The ecclesiastical schism
+continued unhealed during the thirty years of his patriarchate.
+The details of this contest, of his relations with the caliph
+Ma&rsquo;m&#363;n, and of his many travels&mdash;including a journey to Egypt,
+on which he viewed with admiration the great Egyptian
+monuments,&mdash;are to be found in the <i>Ecclesiastical Chronicle</i> of
+Barhebraeus.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He died in 848, his last days having been especially
+embittered by Mahommedan oppression. We learn from Michael
+the Syrian that his <i>Annals</i> consisted of two parts each divided
+into eight chapters, and covered a period of 260 years, viz. from
+the accession of the emperor Maurice (582-583) to the death of
+Theophilus (842-843).</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the lost <i>Annals</i>, Dionysius was from the time of
+Assemani until 1896 credited with the authorship of another important
+historical work&mdash;a <i>Chronicle</i>, which in four parts narrates
+the history of the world from the creation to the year <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 774-775
+and is preserved entire in <i>Cod. Vat.</i> 162. The first part (edited by
+Tullberg, Upsala, 1850) reaches to the epoch of Constantine the
+Great, and is in the main an epitome of the Eusebian Chronicle.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+The second part reaches to Theodosius II. and follows closely the
+<i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of Socrates; while the third, extending to
+Justin II., reproduces the second part of the <i>History</i> of John
+of Asia or Ephesus, and also contains the well-known chronicle
+attributed to Joshua the Stylite. The fourth part<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> is not like the
+others a compilation, but the original work of the author, and
+reaches to the year 774-775&mdash;apparently the date when he was
+writing. On the publication of this fourth part by M. Chabot, it
+was discovered and clearly proved by Nöldeke (<i>Vienna Oriental
+Journal</i>, x. 160-170), and Nau (<i>Bulletin critique</i>, xvii. 321-327),
+who independently reached the same conclusion, that Assemani&rsquo;s
+opinion was a mistake, and that the chronicle in question was the
+work not of Dionysius of Tell-Ma&#7717;r&#275; but of an earlier writer, a
+monk of the convent of Zu&#7731;n&#299;n near &#256;mid (Diarbekr) on the upper
+Tigris. Though the author was a man of limited intelligence and
+destitute of historical skill, yet the last part of his work at least
+has considerable value as a contemporary account of events
+during the middle period of the 8th century.</p>
+<div class="author">(N. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Ed. Abbeloos and Lamy, i. 343-386; cf. Wright, <i>Syriac
+Literature</i>, 196-200, and Chabot&rsquo;s introduction to his translation of
+the fourth part of the <i>Chronicle</i> of (pseudo) Dionysius.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See the studies by Siegfried and Gelzer, <i>Eusebii canonum
+epitome ex Dionysii Telmaharensis chronico petita</i> (Leipzig, 1884),
+and von Gutschmid, <i>Untersuchungen über die syrische Epitome der
+Eusebischen Canones</i> (Stuttgart, 1886).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Text and translation by J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSIUS THRAX<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (so called because his father was a
+Thracian), the author of the first Greek grammar, flourished about
+100 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He was a native of Alexandria, where he attended
+the lectures of Aristarchus, and afterwards taught rhetoric in
+Rhodes and Rome. His <span class="grk" title="Technê grammatikê">&#932;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#951; &#947;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>, which we possess
+(though probably not in its original form), begins with the definition
+of grammar and its functions. Dealing next with accent,
+punctuation marks, sounds and syllables, it goes on to the different
+parts of speech (eight in number) and their inflections. No rules
+of syntax are given, and nothing is said about style. The
+authorship of Dionysius was doubted by many of the early middle-age
+commentators and grammarians, and in modern times its
+origin has been attributed to the oecumenical college founded
+by Constantine the Great, which continued in existence till 730.
+But there seems no reason for doubt; the great grammarians
+of imperial times (Apollonius Dyscolus and Herodian) were
+acquainted with the work in its present form, although, as was
+natural considering its popularity, additions and alterations may
+have been made later. The <span class="grk" title="Technê">&#964;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#951;</span> was first edited by J. A.
+Fabricius from a Hamburg MS. and published in his <i>Bibliotheca
+Graeca</i>, vi. (ed. Harles). An Armenian translation, belonging to
+the 4th or 5th century, containing five additional chapters, was
+published with the Greek text and a French version, by M.
+Cirbied (1830). Dionysius also contributed much to the criticism
+and elucidation of Homer, and was the author of various other
+works&mdash;amongst them an account of Rhodes, and a collection of
+<span class="grk" title="Meletai">&#924;&#949;&#955;&#941;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span> (literary studies), to which the considerable fragment in
+the <i>Stromata</i> (v. 8) of Clement of Alexandria probably belongs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions, with scholia, by I. Bekker in <i>Anecdota Graeca</i>, ii. and
+G. Uhlig (1884), reviewed exhaustively by P. Egenolff in Bursian&rsquo;s
+<i>Jahresbericht</i>, vol. xlvi. (1888); Scholia, ed. A. Hilgard (1901); see
+also W. Hörschelmann, <i>De Dionysii Thracis interpretibus veteribus</i>
+(1874); J. E. Sandys, <i>Hist. of Classical Scholarship</i>, i. (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIONYSUS<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (probably = &ldquo;son of Zeus,&rdquo; from <span class="grk" title="Dios">&#916;&#953;&#972;&#962;</span> and
+<span class="grk" title="nysos">&#957;&#8166;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span>, a Thracian word for &ldquo;son&rdquo;), in Greek mythology,
+originally a nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially
+of the vine; hence, distinctively, the god of wine. The names
+Bacchus (<span class="grk" title="Bakchos">&#914;&#940;&#954;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, in use among the Greeks from the 5th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span>
+century), Sabazius, and Bassareus, are also Thracian names of
+the god. The two first (like Iacchus, Bromius and Euios) have
+been connected with the loud &ldquo;shout&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="sabazein = bazein =
+eúazein">&#963;&#945;&#946;&#940;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957; = &#946;&#940;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957; = &#949;&#8016;&#940;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>) of his worshippers, Bassareus with <span class="grk" title="bassárai">&#946;&#945;&#963;&#963;&#940;&#961;&#945;&#953;</span>, the
+fox-skin garments of the Thracian Bacchanals. It has been
+suggested (J. E. Harrison <i>Prolegomena to Greek Religion</i>)
+that Sabazius and Bromius = &ldquo;beer-god,&rdquo; &ldquo;god of a cereal
+intoxicant&rdquo; (cf. Illyrian <i>sabaia</i> and modern Greek <span class="grk" title="brômi">&#946;&#961;&#8182;&#956;&#953;</span>,
+&ldquo;oats&rdquo;), while W. Ridgeway (<i>Classical Review</i>, January 1896),
+comparing Apollo Smintheus, interprets Bassareus as &ldquo;he who
+keeps away the foxes from the vineyards&rdquo; (for various interpretations
+of these and other cult-titles, see O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische
+Mythologie</i>, ii. pp. 1408, 1532, especially the notes).</p>
+
+<p>In Homer, notwithstanding the frequent mention of the use of
+wine, Dionysus is never mentioned as its inventor or introducer,
+nor does he appear in Olympus; Hesiod is the first who calls
+wine the gift of Dionysus. On the other hand, he is spoken of
+in the <i>Iliad</i> (vi. 130 foll., a passage belonging to the latest period
+of epic), as &ldquo;raging,&rdquo; an epithet that indicates that in those
+comparatively early times the orgiastic character of his worship
+was recognized. In fact, Dionysus may be regarded under two
+distinct aspects: that of a popular national Greek god of wine
+and cheerfulness, and that of a foreign deity, worshipped with
+ecstatic and mysterious rites introduced from Thrace. According
+to the usual tradition, he was born at Thebes&mdash;originally the
+local centre of his worship in Greece&mdash;and was the son of Zeus,
+the fertilizing rain god, and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus,
+a personification of earth. Before the child was mature, Zeus
+appeared to Semele at her request in his majesty as god of
+lightning, by which she was killed, but the infant was saved
+from the flames by Zeus (or Hermes). The epithet <span class="grk" title="perikionios">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#972;&#957;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+originally referring to an ivy-crowned, pillar-shaped fetish of the
+god, afterwards gave rise to the legend of a miraculous growth of
+ivy &ldquo;round the pillars&rdquo; of the royal palace, whereby the infant
+Dionysus was preserved from the flames. Zeus took him up,
+enclosed him within his own thigh till he came to maturity, and
+then brought him to the light, so that he was twice born; it was
+to celebrate this double birth that the <i>dithyrambus</i> (also used as
+an epithet of the god) was sung (see <i>Etym. Mag. s.v.</i>). It has
+been suggested that this is an allusion to the <i>couvade</i> of certain
+barbarous tribes, amongst whom it is customary, when a child is
+born, for the husband to take to his bed and receive medical treatment,
+as if he shared the pains of maternity (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Couvade</a></span>,
+and references there). Dionysus was then conveyed by Hermes
+to be brought up by the nymphs of Nysa, a purely imaginary
+spot, afterwards localized in different parts of the world, which
+claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the god. As
+soon as Dionysus was grown up, he started on a journey through
+the world, to teach the cultivation of the vine and spread his
+worship among men. While so engaged he met with opposition,
+even in his own country, as in the case of Pentheus, king of
+Thebes, who opposed the orgiastic rites introduced by Dionysus
+among the women of Thebes, and, having been discovered watching
+one of these ceremonies, was mistaken for some animal of the
+chase, and slain by his own mother (see A. G. Bather, <i>Journ. Hell.
+Studies</i>, xiv. 1894). A similar instance is that of Lycurgus, a
+Thracian king, from whose attack Dionysus saved himself by
+leaping into the sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis.
+Lycurgus was blinded by Zeus and soon died, or became frantic
+and hewed down his own son, mistaking him for a vine. At
+Orchomenus, the three daughters of Minyas refused to join the
+other women in their nocturnal orgies, and for this were transformed
+into birds (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Agrionia</a></span>). These and similar stories point
+to the vigorous resistance offered to the introduction of the
+mystic rites of Dionysus, in places where an established religion
+already existed. On the other hand, when the god was received
+hospitably he repaid the kindness by the gift of the vine, as in the
+case of Icarius of Attica (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Erigone</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The worship of Dionysus was actively conducted in Asia Minor,
+particularly in Phrygia and Lydia. Here, as Sabazius, he was
+associated with the Phrygian goddess Cybele, and was followed in
+his expeditions by a <i>thiasos</i> (retinue) of centaurs, and satyrs, with
+Pan and Silenus. In Lydia his triumphant return from India was
+celebrated by an annual festival on Mount Tmolus; in Lydia
+he assumed the long beard and long robe which were afterwards
+given him in his character of the &ldquo;Indian Bacchus,&rdquo; the
+conqueror of the East, who, after the campaigns of Alexander,
+was reported to have advanced as far as the Ganges. The other
+incidents in which he appears in a purely triumphal character are
+his transforming into dolphins the Tyrrhene pirates who attacked
+him, as told in the Homeric hymn to Dionysus and represented on
+the monument of Lysicrates at Athens, and his part in the war of
+the gods against the giants. The former story has been connected
+with the sailors&rsquo; custom of hanging vine leaves, ivy and bunches
+of grapes round the masts of vessels in honour of vintage festivals.
+The adventure with the pirates occurred on his voyage to Naxos,
+where he found Ariadne abandoned by Theseus. At Naxos
+Ariadne (probably a Cretan goddess akin to Aphrodite) was
+associated with Dionysus as his wife, by whom he was the father
+of Oenopion (wine-drinker), Staphylus (grape), and Euanthes
+(blooming), and their marriage was annually celebrated by a
+festival. Having compelled all the world to recognize his
+divinity, he descended to the underworld to bring up his mother,
+who was afterwards worshipped with him under the name of
+Thyone (&ldquo;the raging&rdquo;), he himself being called after her
+Thyoneus.</p>
+
+<p>Another phase in the myth of Dionysus originated in observing
+the decay of vegetation in winter, to suit which he was supposed
+to be slain and to join the deities of the lower world. This phase
+of his character was developed by the Orphic poets, he having
+here the name of Zagreus (&ldquo;torn in pieces&rdquo;), and being no longer
+the Theban god, but a son of Zeus and Persephone. The child
+was brought up secretly, watched over by Curetes; but the
+jealous Hera discovered where he was, and sent Titans to the spot,
+who, finding him at play, tore him to pieces, and cooked and ate
+his limbs, while Hera gave his heart to Zeus. The tearing in
+pieces is referred by some to the torture experienced by the grape
+(<i>Naturschmerz</i>) when crushed for making into wine (cf. Burns&rsquo;s
+<i>John Barleycorn</i>); but it is better to refer it to the tearing of the
+flesh of the victim at sacrifices at which the deity or the sacred
+animal was slain, and sacramentally eaten raw (cf. the title
+<span class="grk" title="ômêstês">&#8032;&#956;&#951;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span> given to Dionysus in certain places, probably pointing
+to human sacrifice.) To connect this with the myth of the
+Theban birth of Dionysus, it is said that Zeus gave the child&rsquo;s
+heart to Semele, or himself swallowed it and gave birth to the new
+Dionysus (called Iacchus from his worshippers&rsquo; cry of rejoicing),
+who was cradled and swung in a winnowing fan (<span class="grk" title="liknos">&#955;&#943;&#954;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>; see
+J. E. Harrison, <i>Journ. Hellenic Studies</i>, xxiii.), the swinging being
+supposed to act as a charm in awakening vegetation from its
+winter sleep. The conception of Zagreus, or the winter Dionysus,
+appears to have originated in Crete, but it was accepted also in
+Delphi, where his grave was shown, and sacrifice was secretly
+offered at it annually on the shortest day. The story is in many
+respects similar to that of Osiris. According to others, Zagreus
+was originally a god of the chase, who became a hunter of men
+and a god of the underworld, more akin to Hades than to
+Dionysus (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Titans</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Dionysus further possessed the prophetic gift, and his oracle
+at Delphi was as important as that of Apollo. Like Hermes,
+Dionysus was a god of the productiveness of nature, and hence
+Priapus was one of his regular companions, while not only in the
+mysteries but in the rural festivals his symbol, the phallus, was
+carried about ostentatiously. His symbols from the animal
+kingdom were the bull (perhaps a totemistic attribute and
+identified with him), the panther, the lion, the tiger, the ass, the
+goat, and sometimes also the dolphin and the snake. His personal
+attributes are an ivy wreath, the thyrsus (a staff with pine cone at
+the end), the laurel, the pine, a drinking cup, and sometimes the
+horn of a bull on his forehead. Artistically he was represented
+mostly either as a youth of soft, nearly feminine form, or as a
+bearded and draped man, but frequently also as an infant, with
+reference to his birth or to his bringing up in &ldquo;Nysa.&rdquo; His
+earliest images were of wood with the branches still attached in
+parts, whence he was called Dionysus Dendrites, an allusion to his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span>
+protection of trees generally (according to Pherecydes in C. W.
+Müller, <i>Frag. Hist. Graec.</i> iv. p. 637, the word <span class="grk" title="nysa">&#957;&#8166;&#963;&#945;</span> signified
+&ldquo;tree&rdquo;). It is suggested that the cult of Dionysus absorbed that
+of an old tree-spirit. He was figured also, like Hermes, in the
+form of a pillar or term surmounted by his head. For the
+connexion of Dionysus with Greek tragedy see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drama</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, v. (1910); also O. Rapp,
+<i>Beziehungen des Dionysuskultus zu Thrakien</i> (1882); O. Ribbeck,
+<i>Anfange und Entwickelung des Dionysuskultes in Attica</i> (1869);
+A. Lang, <i>Myth, Ritual and Religion</i>, ii. p. 241; L. Dyer, <i>The Gods
+in Greece</i> (1891); J. E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
+Religion</i> (1903); J. G. Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i>, ii (1900), pp. 160,
+291, who regards the bull and goat form of Dionysus as expressions
+of his proper character as a deity of vegetation; F. A. Voigt in
+Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>; L. Preller, <i>Griechische Mythologie</i>
+(4th ed. by C. Robert); F. Lenormant (<i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Bacchus&rdquo;) in Daremberg
+and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>; O. Kern in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyclopadie</i> (with list of cult titles); W. Pater,
+<i>Greek Studies</i> (1895); E. Rohde, <i>Psyche</i>, ii., who finds the origin of
+the Hellenic belief in the immortality of the soul in the &ldquo;enthusiastic&rdquo;
+rites of the Thracian Dionysus, which lifted persons out of
+themselves, and exalted them to a fancied equality with the gods;
+O. Gruppe, <i>Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte</i>, ii. (1907),
+who considers Boeotia, not Thrace, to have been the original home
+of Dionysus; P. Foucart, &ldquo;Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique&rdquo; in
+<i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;Institut national de France</i>, xxxvii. (1906), who finds
+the prototype of Dionysus in Egypt. <i>The Great Dionysiak Myth</i>
+(1877-1878) by R. Brown contains a wealth of material, but is weak
+in scholarship. For a striking survival of Dionysiac rites in Thrace
+(Bizye), see Dawkins, in <i>J.H.S.</i> (1906), p. 191.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOPHANTUS,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> of Alexandria, Greek algebraist, probably
+flourished about the middle of the 3rd century. Not that this
+date rests on positive evidence. But it seems a fair inference from
+a passage of Michael Psellus (<i>Diophantus</i>, ed. P. Tannery, ii.
+p. 38) that he was not later than Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea
+from <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 270, while he is not quoted by Nicomachus (fl. c.
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 100), nor by Theon of Smyrna (c. <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 130), nor does Greek
+arithmetic as represented by these authors and by Iamblichus
+(end of 3rd century) show any trace of his influence, facts which
+can only be accounted for by his being later than those arithmeticians
+at least who would have been capable of understanding
+him fully. On the other hand he is quoted by Theon of Alexandria
+(who observed an eclipse at Alexandria in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 365); and his
+work was the subject of a commentary by Theon&rsquo;s daughter
+Hypatia (d. 415). The <i>Arithmetica</i>, the greatest treatise on which
+the fame of Diophantus rests, purports to be in thirteen Books,
+but none of the Greek MSS. which have survived contain more
+than six (though one has the same text in seven Books). They
+contain, however, a fragment of a separate tract on <i>Polygonal
+Numbers</i>. The missing books were apparently lost early, for
+there is no reason to suppose that the Arabs who translated or
+commented on Diophantus ever had access to more of the work
+than we now have. The difference in form and content suggests
+that the <i>Polygonal Numbers</i> was not part of the larger work. On
+the other hand the <i>Porisms</i>, to which Diophantus makes three
+references (&ldquo;we have it in the Porisms that ...&rdquo;), were
+probably not a separate book but were embodied in the
+<i>Arithmetica</i> itself, whether placed all together or, as Tannery
+thinks, spread over the work in appropriate places. The
+&ldquo;Porisms&rdquo; quoted are interesting propositions in the theory of
+numbers, one of which was clearly that <i>the difference between two
+cubes can be resolved into the sum of two cubes</i>. Tannery thinks
+that the solution of a complete quadratic promised by Diophantus
+himself (I. def. 11), and really assumed later, was one of the
+Porisms.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the great variety of problems solved are problems leading
+to determinate equations of the first degree in one, two, three or
+four variables, to determinate quadratic equations, and to indeterminate
+equations of the first degree in one or more variables, which
+are, however, transformed into determinate equations by arbitrarily
+assuming a value for one of the required numbers, Diophantus being
+always satisfied with a rational, even if fractional, result and not requiring
+a solution in integers. But the bulk of the work consists of
+problems leading to indeterminate equations of the second degree,
+and these universally take the form that one or two (and never
+more) linear or quadratic functions of one variable x are to be made
+rational square numbers by finding a suitable value for x. A few
+problems lead to indeterminate equations of the third and fourth
+degrees, an easy indeterminate equation of the sixth degree being
+also found. The general type of problem is to find two, three or four
+numbers such that different expressions involving them in the first
+and second, and sometimes the third, degree are squares, cubes,
+partly squares and partly cubes, &amp;c. E.g. <i>To find three numbers such
+that the product of any two added to the sum of those two gives a square</i>
+(III. 15, ed. Tannery); <i>To find four numbers such that, if we take the
+square of their sum ± any one of them singly, all the resulting numbers are
+squares</i> (III. 22); <i>To find two numbers such that their product ± their
+sum gives a cube</i> (IV. 29); <i>To find three squares such that their continued
+product added to any one of them gives a square</i> (V. 21). Book VI.
+contains problems of finding rational <i>right-angled triangles</i> such that
+different functions of their parts (the sides and the area) are squares.
+A word is necessary on Diophantus&rsquo; notation. He has only one
+symbol (written somewhat like a final sigma) for an unknown
+quantity, which he calls <span class="grk" title="arithmos">&#7936;&#961;&#953;&#952;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span> (defined as &ldquo;an undefined number of
+units&rdquo;); the symbol may be a contraction of the initial letters &alpha;&rho;, as
+&Delta;<span class="sp">&Upsilon;</span>, &Kappa;<span class="sp">&Upsilon;</span>, &Delta;<span class="sp">&Upsilon;</span>&Delta;, &amp;c.,
+are for the powers of the unknown (<span class="grk" title="dynamis">&#948;&#973;&#957;&#945;&#956;&#953;&#962;</span>, square;
+<span class="grk" title="kubos">&#954;&#973;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>, cube; <span class="grk" title="dynamodynamis">&#948;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#956;&#959;&#948;&#973;&#957;&#945;&#956;&#953;&#962;</span>, fourth power, &amp;c.). The only other
+algebraical symbol is <img style="width:16px; height:12px" src="images/img288.jpg" alt="" /> for minus; plus being expressed by merely
+writing terms one after another. With one symbol for an unknown,
+it will easily be understood what scope there is for adroit assumptions,
+for the required numbers, of expressions in the one unknown which
+are at once seen to satisfy some of the conditions, leaving only one or
+two to be satisfied by the particular value of x to be determined.
+Often assumptions are made which lead to equations in x which
+cannot be solved &ldquo;rationally,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> would give negative, surd or
+imaginary values; Diophantus then traces how each element of the
+equation has arisen, and formulates the auxiliary problem of determining
+how the assumptions must be corrected so as to lead to an
+equation (in place of the &ldquo;impossible&rdquo; one) which can be solved
+rationally. Sometimes his x has to do duty twice, for different
+unknowns, in one problem. In general his object is to reduce the
+final equation to a simple one by making such an assumption for the
+side of the square or cube to which the expression in x is to be equal
+as will make the necessary number of coefficients vanish. The book
+is valuable also for the propositions in the theory of numbers, other
+than the &ldquo;porisms,&rdquo; stated or assumed in it. Thus Diophantus knew
+that <i>no number of the form 8n + 7 can be the sum of three squares</i>. He
+also says that, if 2n + 1 is to be the sum of two squares, &ldquo;n must not
+be odd&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> <i>no number of the form 4n + 3, or 4n &minus; 1, can be the sum of
+two squares</i>), and goes on to add, practically, the condition stated by
+Fermat, &ldquo;and the double of it [n] increased by one, when divided
+by the greatest square which measures it, must not be divisible by a
+prime number of the form 4n &minus; 1,&rdquo; except for the omission of the
+words &ldquo;when divided ... measures it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The first to publish anything on Diophantus in
+Europe was Rafael Bombelli, who embodied in his Algebra (1572)
+all the problems of Books I.-IV. and some of Book V. interspersing
+them with his own problems. Next Xylander (Wilhelm Holzmann)
+published a Latin translation (Basel, 1575), an altogether meritorious
+work, especially having regard to the difficulties he had with
+the text of his MS. The Greek text was first edited by C. G. Bachet
+(<i>Diophanti Alexandrini arithmeticorum libri sex, et de numeris
+multangulis liber unus, nunc primum graece et latine editi atque
+absolutissimis commentariis illustrati</i> ... Lutetiae Parisiorum ...
+MDCXXI.). A reprint of 1670 is only valuable because it contains
+P. de Fermat&rsquo;s notes; as far as the Greek text is concerned it is much
+inferior to the other. There are two German translations, one by
+Otto Schulz (1822) and the other by G. Wertheim (Leipzig, 1890),
+and an English edition in modern notation (T. L. Heath, <i>Diophantos
+of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra</i> (Cambridge,
+1885)). The Greek text has now been definitively edited (with Latin
+translation, Scholia, &amp;c.) by P. Tannery (Teubner, vol. i., 1893;
+vol. ii., 1895). General accounts of Diophantus&rsquo; work are to be
+found in H. Hankel and M. Cantor&rsquo;s histories of mathematics, and
+more elaborate analyses are those of Nesselmann (<i>Die Algebra der
+Griechen</i>, Berlin, 1842) and G. Loria (<i>Le Scienze esatte nell&rsquo; antica
+Grecia</i>, libro v., Modena, 1902, pp. 95-158).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. L. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIOPSIDE,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> an important member of the pyroxene group of
+rock-forming minerals. It is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate,
+CaMg(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, and crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Usually
+some iron is present replacing magnesium, and when this predominates
+there is a passage to hedenbergite, CaFe(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, a
+closely allied variety of monoclinic pyroxene. These are distinguished
+from augite by containing little or no aluminium.
+Diopside is colourless, white, pale green to dark green or nearly
+black in colour, the depth of the colour depending on the amount
+of iron present. The specific gravity and optical constants also
+vary with the chemical composition; the sp. gr. of diopside is
+3.2, increasing to 3.6 in hedenbergite, and the angle of optical
+extinction in the plane of symmetry varies between 38° and 47°
+in the two extremes of the series. Crystals are usually prismatic
+in habit with a rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure:
+the angle between the prism faces m, parallel to which there are
+perfect cleavages, is 92° 50&prime;.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:169px; height:302px" src="images/img289a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Several varieties, depending on differences in structure and
+chemical composition, have been distinguished, viz. coccolite
+(from <span class="grk" title="kokkos">&#954;&#972;&#954;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, a grain), a granular variety;
+salite or sahlite, from Sala in Sweden;
+malacolite; diallage; violane, a lamellar
+variety of a dark violet-blue colour;
+chrome-diopside, a bright green variety
+containing a small amount of chromium;
+and many others. Belonging to the same
+series with diopside and hedenbergite
+is a manganese pyroxene, known as
+schefierite, which has the composition
+(Ca, Mg) (Fe, Mn) (Si0<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Diopside is the characteristic pyroxene
+of metamorphic rocks, occurring especially
+in crystalline limestones, and often in
+association with garnet and epidote. It
+is also an essential constituent of some
+pyroxene-granites, diorites and a few other igneous rocks, but
+the characteristic pyroxene of this class of rocks is augite.
+Fine transparent crystals of a pale green colour occur, with
+crystals of yellowish-red garnet (hessonite) and chlorite, in veins
+traversing serpentine in the Ala valley near Turin in Piedmont:
+a crystal of this variety (&ldquo;alalite&rdquo;) is represented in the
+accompanying figure. These, as well as the long, transparent,
+bottle-green crystals from the Zillerthal in the Tyrol, have
+occasionally been cut as gem-stones. Good crystals have been
+found also at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals, Traversella
+near Ivrea in Piedmont (&ldquo;traversellite&rdquo;), Nordmark in Sweden,
+Monroe in New York, Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and
+several other places: at Nordmark the large, rectangular black
+crystals occur with magnetite in the iron mines.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:139px; height:264px" src="images/img289b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">DIOPTASE,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper
+orthosilicate, H<span class="su">2</span>CuSiO<span class="su">4</span>, crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemihedral
+class of the rhombohedral system. The degree of symmetry
+is the same as in the mineral phenacite,
+there being only an axis of triad symmetry
+and a centre of symmetry. The crystals
+have the form of a hexagonal prism m
+terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alternate
+edges between these being sometimes replaced
+by the faces of a rhombohedron s. The
+faces are striated parallel to the edges between
+r, s and m. There are perfect cleavages
+parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which
+truncate the polar edges of r: from the cleavage
+cracks internal reflections are often to
+be seen in the crystal, and it was on account
+of this that the mineral was named dioptase, by
+R. J. Haüy in 1797, from <span class="grk" title="diopteuein">&#948;&#953;&#959;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#973;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, &ldquo;to see into.&rdquo; The crystals
+vary from transparent to translucent with a vitreous lustre, and
+are bright emerald-green in colour; they thus have a certain
+resemblance to emerald, hence the early name emerald-copper
+(German, <i>Kupfer-Smaragd</i>). Hardness 5; sp. gr. 3.3. The
+mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of
+gelatinous silica. At a red heat it blackens and gives off water.
+The fine crystals from Mount Altyn-Tübe on the western slopes of
+the Altai Mountains in the Kirghiz Steppes, Asiatic Russia, line
+cavities in a compact limestone; they were first sent to Europe
+in 1785 by Achir Mahmed, a Bucharian merchant, after whom
+the mineral has been named archirite. More recently, in 1890,
+good crystals of similar habit, but rather darker in colour,
+have been found with quartz and malachite near Komba in the
+French Congo. As drusy crystalline crusts it has been found at
+Copiapo in Chile and in Arizona.</p>
+
+<p>Dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially
+in Russia and Persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of
+hardness and the transparency is imperfect.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIORITE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="diorizein">&#948;&#953;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> to distinguish, from
+<span class="grk" title="dia">&#948;&#953;&#940;</span> through, <span class="grk" title="oros">&#8005;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, a boundary), in petrology, the name given
+by Haüy to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of
+plagioclase felspar and hornblende. As they are richer in the dark
+coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark
+grey, and have a higher specific gravity than granite. They also
+rarely show visible quartz. But there are diorites of many kinds,
+as the name applies rather to a family of rocks than to a single
+species. Some contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene;
+many have a small amount of quartz. Orthoclase is rarely
+entirely absent, and when it is fairly common the rock becomes a
+tonalite; in this way a transition is furnished between diorites
+and granites. It is rare to find the pure types of &ldquo;hornblende-diorite,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;augite-diorite,&rdquo; &amp;c., but in most cases the rocks
+contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such combinations
+as &ldquo;hornblende-biotite-diorite&rdquo; are commonest in nature.</p>
+
+<p>The felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase
+to labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers
+being more alkaline than the internal. Small fluid enclosures
+and black grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great
+numbers. Weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and
+kaolin. The biotite is always brown or yellow; the hornblende
+usually green, but sometimes brown or yellowish brown in those
+diorites which have affinities to lamprophyres. The augite is
+nearly always green but sometimes has a reddish tinge; bronzite
+and hypersthene have their usual green and brown shades.
+Apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present;
+sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite,
+chlorite, muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary.
+The structure is not essentially different from that of granite.
+The ferromagnesian minerals crystallize comparatively early
+and have some idiomorphism; the felspar usually follows and
+only in part shows good crystalline outlines. Orthoclase and
+quartz, if present, are last to separate out, and fill the spaces
+between the other minerals; often they interpenetrate to form
+micropegmatite. In many diorites the plagioclase felspar has
+crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has less
+perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply
+formed individuals of felspar. This produces the ophitic structure
+(very common also in the dolerites). More rarely biotite and
+augite exhibit the same relations to the plagioclase. Orbicular
+structure also occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact
+the orbicular diorite of Corsica (also called &ldquo;Napoleonite&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;Corsite&rdquo;) was for a long time the best-known example of this
+structure. The rock seems composed of spheroids, about an inch
+in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of dark-coloured
+dioritic matrix. The spheroids have a radiate structure and often
+show concentric dark and pale shells. These consist of hornblende
+(dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and
+bytownite (grey or nearly white). Occasionally diorites have
+a parallel banded or foliated structure, but these must not be
+confounded with the epidiorites, which are metamorphic rocks
+and also have a conspicuous foliation.</p>
+
+<p>Diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros,
+which contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally
+olivine; but the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are
+admittedly somewhat vague, <i>e.g.</i> some authors would call rocks
+gabbro which others would regard as augite-diorite. The hornblendites
+differ from the diorites in containing little felspar, and
+consist principally of hornblende. Among varietal designations
+given to rocks of the diorite family are &ldquo;banatite&rdquo; for an augite-diorite
+with or without quartz (from the Schemnitz district),
+&ldquo;granodiorite&rdquo; for a quartz-hornblende-diorite (essentially
+the same as tonalite) from California, &amp;c., &ldquo;adamellite&rdquo; for
+the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of Monte Adamello (Alps),
+&ldquo;ornite&rdquo; for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from Sweden.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIP<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Old Eng. <i>dyppan</i>, connected with the common Teutonic
+root seen in &ldquo;deep&rdquo;), the angle which the magnetic needle makes
+with the horizon. A freely suspended magnetic needle will not
+maintain a horizontal position except at the magnetic equator.
+Over the N. magnetic pole the north-seeking end of the needle
+points directly downwards and dips at an intermediate angle at
+intermediate distances between the magnetic poles and equator.
+There are secular progressive variations of dip as well as of
+declination and the maxima are independent of each other. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span>
+1576 the dip at London was 71° 50&prime;, in 1720 (max.) 74° 42&prime;, in
+1900 67° 9&prime;. (For Dip Circle see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inclinometer</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPHENYL<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (phenyl benzene), C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>, a hydrocarbon
+found in that fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between
+240-300° C., from which it may be obtained by warming with
+sulphuric acid, separating the acid layer and strongly cooling
+the undissolved oil. It may be artificially prepared by passing
+benzene vapour through a red-hot tube; by the action of sodium
+on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action of stannous
+chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of solid
+phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (R. Möhlau, <i>Berichte,
+1893, 26</i>, 1997) C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>N<span class="su">2</span>·HSO<span class="su">4</span> + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span> = H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + N<span class="su">2</span> + C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>.
+L. Gattermann (<i>Berichte, 1890, 23</i>, 1226) has also prepared it
+by the decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate
+with alcohol and copper powder. It crystallizes in plates (from
+alcohol) melting at 70-71° C. and boiling at 254° C. It is oxidized
+by chromic acid in glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid,
+dilute nitric acid and chromic acid mixture being without effect.
+It is not reduced by hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium
+in the presence of amyl alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl
+C<span class="su">12</span>H<span class="su">14</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitution
+derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. Of the
+disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from
+diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Orthoaminodiphenyl</i>, <img style="width:154px; height:56px" src="images/img290a.jpg" alt="" /> is prepared by the action of
+bromine and caustic soda on orthophenylbenzamide (R. Hirsch,
+<i>Berichte, 1892, 25</i>, 1974); when its vapour is passed over heated
+lime, carbazol (<i>q.v.</i>) is formed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diorthodiaminodiphenyl</i>, <img style="width:144px; height:57px" src="images/img290b.jpg" alt="" /> is obtained by the reduction
+of the corresponding nitro compound (obtained by the action of
+ethyl nitrite at 0° C. on metadinitrobenzidine hydrochloride). Its
+tetrazo compound on reduction gives a hydrazine which, on warming
+with hydrochloric acid at 150° C.,
+decomposes into ammonium chloride and <i>phenazone</i>,
+<img style="width:235px; height:56px" src="images/img290c.jpg" alt="" /> One of the
+most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the theoretical point
+of view, is <i>diphenic acid</i> or diorthodiphenyl carboxylic acid, which can
+be obtained from diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid,
+<img style="width:223px; height:54px" src="images/img290d.jpg" alt="" />
+or from phenanthrene (<i>q.v.</i>), the constitution
+of which it determines. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Benzidine</a></span> for diparadiaminodiphenyl.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPHILUS<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span>, of Sinope, poet of the new Attic comedy and
+contemporary of Menander (342-291 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). Most of his plays were
+written and acted at Athens, but he led a wandering life, and died
+at Smyrna. He was on intimate terms with the famous courtesan
+Gnathaena (Athenaeus xiii. pp. 579, 583). He is said to have
+written 100 comedies, the titles of fifty of which are preserved.
+He sometimes acted himself. To judge from the imitations
+of Plautus. (<i>Casina</i> from the <span class="grk" title="Klêroumenoi">&#922;&#955;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#973;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span>, <i>Asinaria</i> from the
+<span class="grk" title="Onagos">&#908;&#957;&#945;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span>, <i>Rudens</i> from some other play), he was very skilful in
+the construction of his plots. Terence also tells us that he
+introduced into the <i>Adelphi</i> (ii. 1) a scene from the <span class="grk" title="Synapothnêskontes">&#931;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#960;&#959;&#952;&#957;&#942;&#963;&#954;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>,
+which had been omitted by Plautus in his adaptation
+(<i>Commorientes</i>) of the same play. The style of Diphilus was
+simple and natural, and his language on the whole good Attic;
+he paid great attention to versification, and was supposed to have
+invented a peculiar kind of metre. The ancients were undecided
+whether to class him among the writers of the New or Middle
+comedy. In his fondness for mythological subjects (<i>Hercules</i>,
+<i>Theseus</i>) and his introduction on the stage (by a bold anachronism)
+of the poets Archilochus and Hipponax as rivals of
+Sappho, he approximates to the spirit of the latter.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in H. Koch, <i>Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta</i>, ii.; see
+J. Denis, <i>La Comédie grecque</i> (1886), ii. p. 414; R. W. Bond in
+<i>Classical Review</i> (Feb. 1910, with trans. of <i>Emporos</i> fragm.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPHTHERIA<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (from <span class="grk" title="diphthera">&#948;&#953;&#966;&#952;&#941;&#961;&#945;</span>, a skin or membrane), the term
+applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by
+a membranous exudation on a mucous surface, generally on the
+tonsils and back of the throat or pharynx.</p>
+
+<p>In general the symptoms at the commencement of an attack
+of diphtheria are comparatively slight, being those commonly
+accompanying a cold, viz. chilliness and depression. Sometimes
+more severe phenomena usher in the attack, such as vomiting
+and diarrhoea. A slight feeling of uneasiness in the throat is experienced
+along with some stiffness of the back of the neck. When
+looked at the throat appears reddened and somewhat swollen,
+particularly in the neighbourhood of the tonsils, the soft palate
+and upper part of pharynx, while along with this there is tenderness
+and swelling of the glands at the angles of the jaws. The
+affection of the throat spreads rapidly, and soon the characteristic
+exudation appears on the inflamed surface in the form of
+greyish-white specks or patches, increasing in extent and thickness
+until a yellowish-looking false membrane is formed. This deposit
+is firmly adherent to the mucous membrane beneath or incorporated
+with it, and if removed leaves a raw, bleeding,
+ulcerated surface, upon which it is reproduced in a short period.
+The appearance of the exudation has been compared to wet
+parchment or washed leather, and it is more or less dense in
+texture. It may cover the whole of the back of the throat, the
+cavity of the mouth, and the posterior nares, and spread downwards
+into the air-passages on the one hand and into the alimentary
+canal on the other, while any wound on the surface of
+the body is liable to become covered with it. This membrane is
+apt to be detached spontaneously, and as it loosens it becomes
+decomposed, giving a most offensive and characteristic odour to
+the breath. There is pain and difficulty in swallowing, but unless
+the disease has affected the larynx no affection of the breathing.
+The voice acquires a snuffling character. When the disease
+invades the posterior nares an acrid, fetid discharge, and sometimes
+also copious bleeding, takes place from the nostrils. Along
+with these local phenomena there is evidence of constitutional
+disturbance of the most severe character. There may be no
+great amount of fever, but there is marked depression and loss of
+strength. The pulse becomes small and frequent, the countenance
+pale, the swelling of the glands of the neck increases, which, along
+with the presence of albumen in the urine, testifies to a condition
+of blood poisoning. Unless favourable symptoms emerge death
+takes place within three or four days or sooner, either from the
+rapid extension of the false membrane into the air-passage, giving
+rise to asphyxia, or from a condition of general collapse, which is
+sometimes remarkably sudden. In cases of recovery the change
+for the better is marked by an arrest in the extension of the false
+membrane, the detachment and expectoration of that already
+formed, and the healing of the ulcerated mucous membrane
+beneath. Along with this there is a general improvement in the
+symptoms, the power of swallowing returns, and the strength
+gradually increases, while the glandular enlargement of the
+neck diminishes, and the albumen disappears from the urine.
+Recovery, however, is generally slow, and it is many weeks
+before full convalescence is established. Even, however, where
+diphtheria ends thus favourably, the peculiar sequelae already
+mentioned are apt to follow, generally within a period of two or
+three weeks after all the local evidence of the disease has disappeared.
+These secondary affections may occur after mild as
+well as after severe attacks, and they are principally in the form of
+paralysis affecting the soft palate and pharynx, causing difficulty
+in swallowing with regurgitation of food through the nose, and
+giving a peculiar nasal character to the voice. There are, however,
+other forms of paralysis occurring after diphtheria, especially
+that affecting the muscles of the eye, which produces a loss of the
+power of accommodation and consequent impairment of vision.
+There may be, besides, paralysis of both legs, and occasionally
+also of one side of the body (hemiplegia). These symptoms,
+however, after continuing for a variable length of time, almost
+always ultimately disappear.</p>
+
+<p>Under the name of the <i>Malum Egyptiacum</i>, Aretaeus in the 2nd
+century gives a minute description of a disease which in all its
+essential characteristics corresponds to diphtheria. In the 16th,
+17th and 18th centuries epidemics of diphtheria appear to have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span>
+frequently prevailed in many parts of Europe, particularly in
+Holland, Spain, Italy, France, as well as in England, and were
+described by physicians belonging to those countries under various
+titles; but it is probable that other diseases of a similar nature
+were included in their descriptions, and no accurate account of
+this affection had been published till M. Bretonneau of Tours in
+1821 laid his celebrated treatise on the subject before the French
+Academy of Medicine. By him the term <i>La Diphthérite</i> was first
+given to the disease.</p>
+
+<p>Great attention has been paid to diphtheria in recent years,
+with some striking results. Its cause and nature have been
+definitely ascertained, the conditions which influence its prevalence
+have been elucidated, and a specific &ldquo;cure&rdquo; has been
+found. In the last respect it occupies a unique position at the
+present time. In the case of several other zymotic diseases much
+has been done by way of prevention, little or nothing for treatment;
+in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed, but treatment
+has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin,
+which constitutes the most important contribution to practical
+medicine as yet made by bacteriology.</p>
+
+<p>The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified
+by Klebs and Loffler in 1883 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Parasitic Diseases</a></span>). It
+has been shown by experiment that the symptoms of
+diphtheria, including the after-effects, are produced by
+<span class="sidenote">Causation.</span>
+a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which lodge in the air-passages
+and multiply in a susceptible subject. The natural
+history of the organism outside the body is not well understood,
+but there is some reason to believe that it lives in a dormant
+condition in suitable soils. Recent research does not favour the
+theory that it is derived from defective drains or &ldquo;sewer gas,&rdquo;
+but these things, like damp and want of sunlight, probably
+promote its spread, by lowering the health of persons exposed to
+them, and particularly by causing an unhealthy condition of the
+throat, rendering it susceptible to the contagion. Defective
+drainage, or want of drainage, may also act, by polluting the
+ground, and so providing a favourable soil for the germ, though
+it is to be noted that &ldquo;the steady increase in the diphtheria
+mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improvement
+in regard of such sanitary circumstances as water supply,
+sewerage, and drainage&rdquo; (Thorne Thorne). Cats and cows are
+susceptible to the diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys
+and other birds have been known to suffer from a disease like
+diphtheria, but other domestic animals appear to be more or less
+resistant or immune. In human beings the mere presence of the
+germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there must also be
+susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists. Individuals
+exhibit all degrees of resistance up to complete immunity.
+Children are far more susceptible than adults, but even children
+may have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without
+showing any symptoms of illness. Altogether there are many
+obscure points about this micro-organism, which is apt to assume
+a puzzling variety of forms. Nevertheless its identification has
+greatly facilitated the diagnosis of the disease, which was previously
+a very difficult matter, often determined in an arbitrary
+fashion on no particular principles.</p>
+
+<p>Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore
+throat in which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found, the
+illness is regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms
+are quite unmistakable. One result of this is a large transference
+of registered mortality from other throat affections, and particularly
+from croup, to diphtheria. Croup, which never had a well-defined
+application, and is not recognized by the College of
+Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria, appears to be dying out
+from the medical vocabulary in Great Britain. In France the
+distinction has never been recognized.</p>
+
+<p>Diphtheria is endemic in all European and American countries,
+and is apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly.
+It is far more prevalent on the continent than in
+England, and still more so in the United States and
+<span class="sidenote">Prevalence.</span>
+Canada. The following table, compiled from figures
+collected by Dr Newsholme, shows how London compares with
+some foreign cities. The figures give the mean death-rate from
+diphtheria and croup for the term of years during which records
+have been kept. The period varies in different cases, and therefore
+the comparison is only a rough one.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Mean Death-Rates from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">New York</td> <td class="tcc rb">1610</td> <td class="tcl">Munich</td> <td class="tcc">990</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chicago</td> <td class="tcc rb">1400</td> <td class="tcl">Milan</td> <td class="tcc">990</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Buenos Aires</td> <td class="tcc rb">1360</td> <td class="tcl">Florence</td> <td class="tcc">830</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trieste</td> <td class="tcc rb">1300</td> <td class="tcl">Vienna</td> <td class="tcc">770</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dresden</td> <td class="tcc rb">1290</td> <td class="tcl">Stockholm</td> <td class="tcc">720</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Berlin</td> <td class="tcc rb">1190</td> <td class="tcl">St Petersburg</td> <td class="tcc">650</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Boston</td> <td class="tcc rb">1160</td> <td class="tcl">Moscow</td> <td class="tcc">640</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Marseilles</td> <td class="tcc rb">1130</td> <td class="tcl">Paris</td> <td class="tcc">630</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Christiania</td> <td class="tcc rb">1090</td> <td class="tcl">Hamburg</td> <td class="tcc">490</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Budapest</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcl">London</td> <td class="tcc">386</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>There is comparatively little diphtheria in India and Japan,
+but in Egypt, the Cape and Australasia it prevails very extensively
+among the urban populations. The mortality varies greatly from
+year to year in all countries and cities. In Berlin, for instance, it
+has oscillated between a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum
+of 340 in 1896; in New York between 2760 in 1877 and 680 in
+1868; in Christiania between 3290 in 1887 and 170 in 1871. In
+some American cities still higher maxima have been recorded. In
+other words, diphtheria, though always endemic, exhibits at times
+a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or even
+pandemic. The following table for 1859-99 shows fairly well the
+periodical rise and fall in England and Wales. Diphtheria and
+croup are given both separately and together, showing the
+increasing transference from one to the other of late years.
+Diphtheria was first entered separately in the year 1859.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in
+England and Wales.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Years.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Diphtheria.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Croup.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Diphtheria<br />and Croup.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1859</td> <td class="tcc rb">517</td> <td class="tcc rb">286</td> <td class="tcc rb">803</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">261</td> <td class="tcc rb">220</td> <td class="tcc rb">481</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1861-70</td> <td class="tcc rb">185</td> <td class="tcc rb">246</td> <td class="tcc rb">431</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1871-80</td> <td class="tcc rb">121</td> <td class="tcc rb">168</td> <td class="tcc rb">289</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1881-90</td> <td class="tcc rb">163</td> <td class="tcc rb">144</td> <td class="tcc rb">307</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1891-95</td> <td class="tcc rb">254</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;70</td> <td class="tcc rb">324</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896-97</td> <td class="tcc rb">269</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;43</td> <td class="tcc rb">312</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcc rb">244</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;27</td> <td class="tcc rb">271</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1899</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">293</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;32</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">325</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years are:&mdash;
+(1900) 316; (1901) 296; (1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184;
+(1905) 174; (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Several facts are roughly indicated by the table. It begins
+with an extremely severe epidemic, which has not been approached
+since. Then follows a fall extending over twenty years.
+On the whole this diminution was progressive, though not in
+reality so steady as the decennial grouping makes it appear, being
+interrupted by smaller oscillations in single years and groups of
+years. Still the main fact holds good. After 1880 an opposite
+movement began, likewise interrupted by minor oscillations, but
+on the whole progressive, and culminating in the year 1893 with a
+death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865. After 1896
+a marked fall again took place. This is partly accounted for by
+the use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable scale in
+1895, and did not become general until a year or two later at
+least. Its effects were only then fully felt. The registrar-general&rsquo;s
+returns record mortality, not prevalence&mdash;that is to
+say, the number of deaths, not of cases.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, we get clear evidence of an epidemic rise and fall,
+which may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions. The
+belief, held until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in
+Great Britain was obviously premature; it did rise over a series
+of years, but has now ebbed again. Moreover, the general
+prevalence during the last thirty years has been notably less
+than in the previous twelve years. Yet it is during years since
+1870 that compulsory education has been in existence and
+main drainage chiefly carried out. It follows that neither school
+attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence
+over the epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span>
+What are those conditions? Dr Newsholme has advanced the
+theory, based on an elaborate examination of statistics in various
+countries, that the activity of diphtheria is connected with the
+rainfall, and he lays down the following general induction from
+the facts: &ldquo;Diphtheria only becomes epidemic in years in which
+the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics are on the largest scale
+when three or more years of deficient rainfall follow each other.&rdquo;
+He points out that the comparative rarity of diphtheria in tropical
+climates, which are characterized by excessive rainfall, and its
+greater prevalence in continental than in insular countries,
+confirm his theory. His observations seem quite contrary to the
+view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted,
+that wet weather favours diphtheria. The two, however, are not
+irreconcilable. The key to the problem&mdash;and possibly to many
+other epidemiological problems&mdash;may perhaps be found in the
+movements of the subsoil water. It has been suggested by
+different observers, and particularly by Mr M. A. Adams, who has
+for some years made a study of the subsoil water at Maidstone,
+that there is a definite connexion between it and diphtheria. In
+England the underground water normally reaches its lowest level
+at the end of the summer; then it gradually rises, fed by percolation
+from the winter rains, reaching a maximum level about the
+end of March, after which it gradually sinks. This maximum
+level Mr Adams calls the annual spring cleaning of the soil, and
+his observations go to show that when the normal movement is
+arrested or disturbed, diphtheria becomes active. Now that is
+what happens in periods of drought. The underground water
+does not rise to its usual level, and there is no spring cleaning.
+The hypothesis, then, is this: The diphtheria bacillus lives in the
+soil, but is &ldquo;drowned out&rdquo; in wet periods by the subsoil water.
+In droughty ones it lives and flourishes in the warm, dry soil;
+then when rain comes, it is driven out with the ground air into the
+houses. This process will continue for some time, so that epidemic
+outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet. But they
+begin in drought, and are stopped by long-continued periods of
+copious rainfall. This is quite in keeping with the observed fact
+that diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the
+last quarter of the year. The summer develops the poison in the
+soil, the autumnal rains bring it out. The fact that the same
+cause does not produce the same effect in tropical countries may
+perhaps be explained by the extreme violence of the alternations,
+which are too great to suit this particular micro-organism, or
+possibly the regularity of the rainfall prevents its development.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good deal of
+evidence, and notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic
+or pandemic prevalence in Great Britain, culminating in 1859,
+with a prolonged period of exceptionally deficient rainfall. Again,
+the highest death-rate registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year
+of similarly exceptional drought. But it is no more than an
+hypothesis, and the fate of former theories is a warning against
+drawing conclusions from statistics and records extending over
+too short a period of time. The warning is particularly necessary
+in connexion with meteorological conditions, which are apt to
+upset all calculations. As it happens, a period of deficient rainfall
+even greater than that of 1854-1858 has recently been
+experienced. It began in 1893 and culminated in the extraordinary
+season of 1899. The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896,
+1898 and 1899, and the deficiency of rainfall was not made good
+by any considerable excess in 1894 and 1897. It surpassed all
+records at Greenwich; streams and wells ran dry all over the
+country, and the flow of the Thames and Lea was reduced to
+the lowest point ever recorded. There should be, according to
+the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of
+diphtheria. To a certain extent it has held good. There was a
+marked rise in 1893-1896 over the preceding period, though not
+so large as might have been expected, but it was followed by a
+decided fall in 1897-1898. The experience of 1898 contradicts,
+that of 1899 supports, the theory. Further light is therefore
+required; but perhaps the failure of the recent drought to produce
+results at all comparable with the epidemic of the &rsquo;fifties may be
+due to variations in the resistance of the disease, which differs
+widely in different years. It may also be due in part to improved
+sanitation, to the notification of infectious diseases, the use of
+isolation hospitals, which have greatly developed in quite recent
+years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of antitoxin. If these
+be the real explanations, then scientific and administrative work
+has not been thrown away after all in combating this very painful
+and fatal enemy of the young.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria,
+and its epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do
+not touch the question of actual dissemination. The
+contagion is spread by means which are in constant
+<span class="sidenote">Dissemination.</span>
+operation, whether the general amount of disease is
+great or small. Water, so important in some epidemic diseases,
+is believed not to be one of them, though a negative proof based
+on absence of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. On
+the other hand, milk is undoubtedly a means of dissemination.
+Several outbreaks of an almost explosive character, besides minor
+extensions of disease from one place to another, have been traced
+to this cause. Milk may be contaminated in various ways&mdash;at
+the dairy, for instance, or on the way to customers,&mdash;but several
+cases, investigated by the officers of the Local Government Board
+and others, have been thought to point to infection from cows
+suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder. The part
+played by aërial convection is undetermined, but there is no
+reason to suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any
+distance by wind or air currents. Instances which seem to point
+to the contrary may be explained in other ways, and particularly
+by the fact, now fully demonstrated, that persons suffering from
+minor sore throats, not recognized as diphtheria, may carry the
+disease about and introduce it into other localities. Human
+intercourse is the most important means of dissemination, the
+contagion passing from person to person either by actual contact,
+as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and articles, or by
+mere proximity. In the last case the germs must be supposed to
+be air-borne for short distances, and to enter with the breath.
+Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of
+diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons
+using them. At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth
+Asylum in 1898 the infection clung obstinately to a particular
+ward, in spite of the prompt removal of all cases, and fresh ones
+continued to occur until it had been thoroughly disinfected, after
+which there were no more. The part played by human intercourse
+in fostering the spread of the disease suggests that it would
+naturally be more prevalent in urban communities, where people
+congregate together more, than in rural ones. This is at variance
+with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this
+country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated
+districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still
+rather a rural disease. That view is based upon an analysis of the
+distribution by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 1880,
+and it has been generally accepted and repeated until it has
+become a sort of axiom. Of course the facts of distribution are
+facts, but the general inference drawn from them, that diphtheria
+peculiarly affects the country and is changing its <i>habitat</i>, may be
+erroneous. Dr Newsholme, by taking a wider basis of experience,
+has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and finds that diphtheria
+does not, in fact, flourish more in sparsely-peopled districts.
+&ldquo;When a sufficiently long series of years is taken,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;it
+appears clear that there is more diphtheria in urban than in rural
+communities.&rdquo; The rate for London has always been in excess of
+that for the whole of England and Wales. Its distribution at any
+given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by
+their incidental co-operation, not by any property or predilection
+for town or country inherent in the disease. There are the
+epidemic conditions of soil and rainfall, previously discussed,
+which vary widely in different localities at different times; there
+is the steady influence of regular intercourse, and the accidental
+element of special distribution by various means. These things
+may combine to alter the incidence. In short, accident plays
+too great a part to permit any general conclusion to be drawn
+from distribution, except from a very wide basis of experience.
+The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden. For
+instance, the county of London for some years headed the list,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span>
+having a far higher death-rate than any other. In 1898 it dropped
+to the fifth place, and was surpassed by Rutland, a purely rural
+county, which had the lowest mortality of all in the previous year
+and very nearly the lowest for the previous ten years. Again,
+South Wales, which had had a low mortality for some years,
+suddenly came into prominence as a diphtheria district, and in
+1898 had the highest death-rate in the country. Staffordshire
+and Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an urban, the other
+a rural, county. All the northern counties, both rural and urban,&mdash;namely,
+Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland,
+Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lincolnshire,&mdash;had a very
+high rate in 1861-1870, and a low one in 1896-1898. It is
+obviously unsafe to draw general conclusions from distribution
+data on a small scale. Diphtheria appears to creep about very
+slowly, as a rule, from place to place, and from one part of a large
+town to another; it forsakes one district and appears in another;
+occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great energy, presumably
+because the local conditions are exceptionally favourable,
+which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the susceptibility of
+the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground. But through
+it all personal infection is the chief means of spread.</p>
+
+<p>The acceptance of this doctrine has directed great attention to
+the practical question of school influence. There is no doubt
+whatever that it plays a very considerable part in spreading
+diphtheria. The incidence of the disease is chiefly on children,
+and nothing so often and regularly brings large numbers together
+in close contact under the same roof as school attendance.
+Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and extensive opportunities
+for personal infection. Many outbreaks have definitely
+been traced to schools. In London the subject has been very
+fully investigated by Sir Shirley Murphy, the medical officer of
+health to the London County Council, and by Dr W. R. Smith,
+formerly medical officer of health to the London School Board.
+Sir Shirley Murphy has shown that a special incidence on children
+of school age began to manifest itself after the adoption of
+compulsory education, and that the summer holidays are marked
+by a distinct diminution of cases, which is succeeded by an
+increase on the return to school. Dr W. R. Smith&rsquo;s observations
+are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school influence,
+and to showing that it is less important than other factors;
+which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked. It
+appears that the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school
+age, and that liability diminishes progressively after school age
+is reached. But this by no means disposes of the importance of
+school influence, as the younger children at home may be infected
+by older ones, who have picked up the contagion at school, but,
+being less susceptible, are less severely affected and exhibit no
+worse symptoms than a sore throat. From a practical point of
+view the problem is a difficult one to deal with, as it is virtually
+impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection, on account
+of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering
+how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of
+schools, it would probably be to the advantage of the authorities
+to discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children
+with sore throats. A fact of some interest revealed by statistics
+is that in the earliest years of life the incidence of diphtheria is
+greater upon male than upon female children, but from three
+years onwards the position is reversed, and with every succeeding
+year the relative female liability becomes greater. This is probably
+due to the habit of kissing maintained among females, but
+more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood onwards.</p>
+
+<p>All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating
+the sick in isolation hospitals. Of late years this preventive
+measure has been carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to
+the better provision of such hospitals and the greater willingness
+of the public to make use of them; and probably the improvement
+so effected has had some share in keeping down the
+prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate proportions.
+Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons is
+hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence
+of symptoms, exhibited by some individuals. A further difficulty
+arises with reference to the discharge of patients. It has been
+proved that the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the
+air-passages in certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it
+does persist for several weeks after convalescence. On returning
+home such cases may, and often do, infect others.</p>
+
+<p>Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has
+overshadowed all other methods. We owe this drug originally
+to the Berlin school of bacteriologists, and particularly
+to Dr Behring. The idea of making use of serum arose
+<span class="sidenote">Treatment.</span>
+about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with Mechnikov&rsquo;s
+theory of phagocytosis, by which is meant the action of the
+phagocytes or white corpuscles of the blood in destroying the
+bacteria of disease. It was shown by the German bacteriologists
+that the serum or liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more
+important part in resisting disease, and the idea of combating
+the toxins produced by pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum
+injected into the blood presented itself to several workers. The
+idea was followed up and worked out independently in France and
+Germany, so successfully that by the year 1894 the serum treatment
+had been tried on a considerable scale with most encouraging
+results. Some of these were published in Germany in the
+earlier part of that year, and at the International Hygienic
+Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut
+Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than
+that of his German colleagues, read a paper giving the result of
+several hundred cases treated in Paris. When all allowance for
+errors had been made, they showed a remarkable and even
+astonishing reduction of mortality, fully confirming the conclusions
+drawn from the German experiments. This consensus of
+independent opinion proved a great stimulus to further trial, and
+before long one <i>clinique</i> after another told the same tale. The
+evidence was so favourable that Professor Virchow&mdash;the last man
+to be carried away by a novelty&mdash;declared it &ldquo;the imperative
+duty of medical men to use the new remedy&rdquo; (<i>The Times</i>, 19th
+October 1894). Since then an enormous mass of facts has
+accumulated from all quarters of the globe, all testifying to
+the value of antitoxin in the treatment of diphtheria. The
+experience of the hospitals of the London Metropolitan Asylums
+Board for five years before and after antitoxin may be given
+as a particularly instructive illustration; but the subsequent
+reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11.3 in 1901,
+10.8 in 1902, 9.3 in 1903, and an average of 9 in 1904-1908) added
+further confirmation.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board&rsquo;s
+Hospitals.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc rb" colspan="2">Before Antitoxin.</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="2">After Antitoxin.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm">Year.</td> <td class="tccm rb">Mortality<br />per cent.</td> <td class="tccm">Year.</td> <td class="tccm">Mortality<br />per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.55</td> <td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcc">22.85</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.61</td> <td class="tcc">1896</td> <td class="tcc">21.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1892</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.51</td> <td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcc">17.79</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1893</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.42</td> <td class="tcc">1898</td> <td class="tcc">15.37</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1894</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.29</td> <td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcc">13.95</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years
+was 32,835, or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result
+is a reduction of mortality by more than one-half. It is a
+fair inference that the treatment saves the lives of about 1000
+children every year in London alone. This refers to all cases.
+Those which occur in the hospitals as a sequel to scarlet fever, and
+consequently come under treatment from the commencement,
+show very much more striking results. The case mortality, which
+was 46.8% in 1892 and 58.8% in 1893, has been reduced to
+3.6% since the introduction of antitoxin. But the evidence is
+not from statistics alone. The beneficial effect of the treatment
+is equally attested by clinical observation. Dr Roux&rsquo;s original
+account has been confirmed by a cloud of witnesses year after
+year. &ldquo;One may say,&rdquo; he wrote, &ldquo;that the appearance of most
+of the patients is totally different from what it used to be.
+The pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in the wards; the
+expression of the children is brighter and more lively.&rdquo; Adult
+patients have described the relief afforded by inoculation; it acts
+like a charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like
+a cloud in the course of a few hours. Finally, the counteracting
+effect of antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span>
+diphtheritic toxin on
+the nervous tissues has
+been demonstrated
+pathologically. There
+are some who still affect
+scepticism as to the
+value of this drug.
+They cannot be acquainted
+with the evidence,
+for if the efficacy
+of antitoxin in the treatment
+of diphtheria has
+not been proved, then
+neither can the efficacy
+of any treatment for
+anything be said to be
+proved. Prophylactic
+properties are also
+claimed for the serum;
+but protection is necessarily
+more difficult to
+demonstrate than cure,
+and though there is
+some evidence to support
+the claim, it has
+not been fully made
+out.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Adams,
+<i>Public Health</i>,
+vol. vii.; Thorne Thorne,
+<i>Milroy Lectures</i> (1891);
+Newsholme, <i>Epidemic
+Diphtheria</i>; W. R. Smith,
+<i>Harben Lectures</i> (1899);
+Murphy, <i>Report to London
+County Council</i> (1894);
+Sims Woodhead, <i>Report
+to Metropolitan Asylums
+Board</i> (1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPLODOCUS,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a
+gigantic extinct land
+reptile discovered in
+rocks of Upper Jurassic
+age in western North
+America, the best-known
+example of a
+Sauropodous Dinosaur.
+The first scattered remains
+of a skeleton were
+found in 1877 by Prof.
+S.W. Williston near
+Cañon City, Colorado;
+and the tail and hind-limb
+of this specimen
+were described in the
+following year by Prof.
+O.C. Marsh. He
+noticed that in the part
+of the tail which dragged
+on the ground, each
+chevron bone below the
+vertebral column consisted
+of a pair of bars;
+and as so peculiar an
+arrangement for the
+protection of the artery
+and vein beneath the
+tail had not previously
+been observed in any
+animal, he proposed
+the name <i>Diplodocus</i>
+(&ldquo;double beam&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;double bar&rdquo;) for the
+new reptile, adding the
+specific name <i>longus</i> in allusion to the elongated shape of the
+tail vertebrae. In 1884 Prof. Marsh described the head,
+vertebrae and pelvis of the same skeleton, which is now
+in the National Museum, Washington. In 1897 the next
+important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments,
+apparently of <i>Diplodocus longus</i>, was obtained by the American
+Museum of Natural History, New York, from Como Bluffs,
+Wyoming. In 1899-1900 large parts of two skeletons of another
+species, in a remarkable state of preservation, were disinterred
+by Messrs J. L. Wortman, O. A. Peterson and J. B. Hatcher in
+Sheep Creek, Albany county, Wyo., and these are now exhibited
+with minor discoveries in the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburg. There
+are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the University
+of Wyoming. In 1901 Mr J. B. Hatcher studied the new
+species at Pittsburg, named it <i>Diplodocus carnegii</i>, and published
+the first restored sketch of a complete skeleton. Shortly afterwards
+plaster casts of the finest specimens were prepared under
+the direction of Mr J. B. Hatcher and Dr W. J. Holland, and
+these were skilfully combined to form the cast of a completely
+reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to the British
+Museum by Andrew Carnegie in 1905. This reconstruction is
+based primarily on a well-preserved chain of vertebrae, extending
+from the second cervical to the twelfth caudal, associated with
+the ribs, pelvis and several limb-bones. The tail is completed
+from two other specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals
+13 to 36 and 37 to 73 respectively in apparently unbroken series.
+Prof. Marsh&rsquo;s specimen in Washington supplied the greater part
+of the skull; and the fore-foot is copied from a specimen in New
+York.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:152px" src="images/img294.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Reconstructed Skeleton of <i>Diplodocus carnegii</i>,
+Hatcher, about one-hundredth natural size. A and B, Caudal Vertebrae
+Nos. 36 and 70 of the same are about one-quarter natural size.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of <i>Diplodocus carnegii</i>
+measures 84 ft. in length and 12 ft. 9 in. in maximum height at
+the hind-limbs. It displays the elongated neck and tail and the
+relatively small head so characteristic of the Sauropodous
+Dinosaurs. The skull is inclined to the axis of the neck, denoting
+a browsing animal; while the feeble blunt teeth and flat
+expanded snout suggest feeding among succulent water-weeds.
+The large narial opening at the highest point of the head probably
+indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have
+been a soft valve to close the nostrils when under water. The
+diminutive brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a
+walnut, is noteworthy. There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in
+the neck, 11 in the back, 5 in the sacrum and 73 in the tail. The
+presacral vertebrae are of remarkably light construction, the
+plates and struts of bone being arranged to give the greatest
+strength with the least weight. The end of the tail is a flexible
+lash, which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail of
+some existing lizards. The feet, notwithstanding the weight they
+had to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a crocodile, with
+claws only on the three inner toes. There is no external armour.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See O. C. Marsh, <i>Amer. Journ. Sci.</i> ser. 3, vol. xvi. (1878), p. 414,
+pl. viii., and loc. cit. vol. xxvii. (1884), p. 161, pls. iii., iv.;
+H. F. Osborn, Mem. <i>Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. i. pt. v. (1899);
+J. B. Hatcher, <i>Mem. Carnegie Mus.</i> vol. i. No. 1 (1901), and vol. ii.
+No. 1 (1903); W. J. Holland, <i>Mem. Carnegie Mus.</i> vol. ii. No. 6
+(1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. S. Wo.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPLOMACY<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Fr. <i>diplomatie</i>), the art of conducting international
+negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, has
+the same derivation as Diplomatic (<i>q.v.</i>), and, according to the
+<i>New English Dictionary</i>, was first used in England so late as 1796
+by Burke. Yet there is no other word in the English language
+that could supply its exact sense. The need for such a term
+was indeed not felt; for what we know as diplomacy was long
+regarded, partly as falling under the <i>Jus gentium</i> or international
+law, partly as a kind of activity morally somewhat suspect and
+incapable of being brought under any system. Moreover, though
+in a certain sense it is as old as history, diplomacy as a uniform
+system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed by
+a diplomatic hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of
+quite modern growth even in Europe. It was finally established
+only at the congresses of Vienna (1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818),
+while its effective extension to the great monarchies of the East,
+beyond the bounds of European civilization, was comparatively
+an affair of yesterday. So late as 1876 it was possible for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span>
+writer on this subject in the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i> to say that &ldquo;it would be an historical absurdity to
+suppose diplomatic relations connecting together China, Burma
+and Japan, as they connect the great European powers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Principles.</i>&mdash;Though diplomacy has been usually treated under
+the head of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant
+with the facts to place international law under diplomacy. The
+principles and rules governing the intercourse of states, defined
+by a long succession of international lawyers, have no sanction
+save the consensus of the powers, established and maintained
+by diplomacy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balance of Power</a></span>); in so far as they have
+become, by international agreement, more than mere pious
+opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for
+mutual convenience, which it is the function of diplomacy to
+safeguard or to use for its own ends. In any case they by no
+means cover the whole field of diplomatic activity; and, were
+they swept away, the art of diplomacy, developed through long
+ages of experience, would survive.</p>
+
+<p>This experience may perhaps be called the science, as distinct
+from the art, of diplomacy. It covers not only the province of
+international law, but the vast field of recorded experience which
+we know as history, of which indeed international law is but a
+part; for, as Bielfeld in his <i>Institutions politiques</i> (La Haye, 1760,
+t. I. ch. ii. § 13) points out, &ldquo;public law is founded on facts. To
+know it we must know history, which is the soul of this science
+as of politics in general.&rdquo; The broad outlook on human affairs
+implied in &ldquo;historical sense&rdquo; is more necessary to the diplomatist
+under modern conditions than in the 18th century, when international
+policy was still wholly under the control of princes
+and their immediate advisers. Diplomacy was then a game of
+wits played in a narrow circle. Its objects too were narrower;
+for states were practically regarded as the property of their
+sovereigns, which it was the main function of their &ldquo;agents&rdquo; to
+enlarge or to protect, while scarcely less important than the
+preservation or rearrangement of territorial boundaries was that
+of precedence and etiquette generally, over which an incredible
+amount of time was wasted. The <i>haute diplomatie</i> thus resolved
+itself into a process of exalted haggling, conducted with an
+utter disregard of the ordinary standards of morality, but with
+the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever
+more and more elaborate rules. Much of the outcome of these
+dead debates has become stereotyped in the conventions of the
+diplomatic service; but the character of diplomacy itself has
+undergone a great change. This change is threefold: firstly, as
+the result of the greater sense of the community of interests
+among nations, which was one of the outcomes of the French
+Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of democracy, with its
+expression in parliamentary assemblies and in the press; thirdly,
+through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic agent, due
+to modern means of communication.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of Count
+Kaunitz of the 17th of July 1791, in which, in face of the Revolution,
+he impressed upon the powers the duty of making common
+cause for the purpose of preserving &ldquo;public peace, the tranquillity
+of states, the inviolability of possessions, and the faith of
+treaties.&rdquo; The duty of watching over the common interests of
+Europe, or of the world, was thus for the first time officially
+recognized as a function of diplomacy, since common action could
+only be taken as the result of diplomatic negotiations. It would
+be easy to exaggerate the effective results of this idea, even when
+it had crystallized in the Grand Alliance of 1814 and been proclaimed
+to the world in the Holy Alliance of the 26th of September
+1815 and the declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle. The cynical picture
+given by La Bruyère of the diplomatist of the 18th century still
+remained largely true: &ldquo;His talk is only of peace, of alliances,
+of the public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality
+he is thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his master
+or of his republic.&rdquo;<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The proceedings of the congress of Vienna
+proved how little the common good weighed unless reinforced
+by particular interests; but the conception of &ldquo;Europe&rdquo; as a
+political entity none the less survived. The congresses, notably
+the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1818, were in a certain
+sense European parliaments, and their ostensible object was the
+furtherance of common interests. Had the imperial dreamer
+Alexander I. of Russia had his way, they would have been
+permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance,
+and would have included, not the great powers only, but representatives
+of every state (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander I.</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Europe</a></span> :
+<i>History</i>). Whatever the effective value of that &ldquo;Concert of
+Europe&rdquo; which was the outcome of the period of the congresses,
+it certainly produced a great effect on the spirit and the practice
+of diplomacy. In the congresses and conferences diplomacy
+assumes international functions both legislative and administrative.
+The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own
+government, but to &ldquo;Europe.&rdquo; Thus Castlereagh was accused of
+subordinating the interests of Great Britain to those of Europe;
+and the same charge was brought, perhaps with greater justice,
+against Metternich in respect of Austria. Canning&rsquo;s principle of
+&ldquo;Every nation for itself and God for us all!&rdquo; prevailed, it is
+true, over that of Alexander&rsquo;s &ldquo;Confederation of Europe&rdquo;; yet,
+as one outcome of the congresses, every diplomatic agent, though
+he represents the interests of his own state, has behind him the
+whole body of the treaties which constitute the public law of
+the world, of which he is in some sort the interpreter and the
+guardian.</p>
+
+<p>Parallel with this development runs the second process making
+for change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public
+opinion. To discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is
+impossible; but the subject is too important to be altogether
+passed over, since it is one of the main problems of modern
+international intercourse, and concerns every one who by his vote
+may influence the policy of the state to which he belongs. The
+question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public discussion
+of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of
+diplomacy for better or for worse? To the diplomatist of the
+old school the answer seems clear. For him diplomacy was too
+delicate and too personal an art to survive the glare and confusion
+of publicity. Metternich, the last representative of the old <i>haute
+diplomatie</i>, lived to moralize over the ruin caused by the first
+manifestations of the &ldquo;new diplomacy,&rdquo; the outcome of the rise
+of the power of public opinion. He had early, from his own point
+of view, unfavourably contrasted the &ldquo;limited&rdquo; constitutional
+monarchies of the west with the &ldquo;free&rdquo; autocracies of the east
+of Europe, free because they were under no obligation to give a
+public account of their actions. He himself was a master of the
+old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose under a cloud
+of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal fascination.
+But public opinion was for him only a dangerous force to be kept
+under control; and, even had he realized the necessity for appealing
+to it, he had none of the qualities that would have made the
+appeal successful. In direct antagonism to him was George
+Canning, who may be called the great prototype of the  &ldquo;new
+diplomacy,&rdquo; and to Metternich was a &ldquo;malevolent meteor hurled
+by divine providence upon Europe.&rdquo; Canning saw clearly the
+immense force that would be added to his diplomatic action if
+he had behind him the force of public opinion. In answer to
+Metternich&rsquo;s complaint of the tone of speeches in parliament and
+of the popular support given in England to revolutionary movements,
+he wrote, &ldquo;Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad,
+must be secure in its sources of strength at home: and the sources
+of that strength are in the sympathy between the people and the
+government; in the union of the public sentiment with the public
+counsels; in the reciprocal confidence of the House of Commons
+and the crown.&rdquo;<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning
+was wholly right and Metternich wholly wrong. The conditions
+of the Habsburg monarchy were not those of Great Britain,<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+and even if it had been possible to speak of a public opinion in the
+Austrian empire at all, it certainly possessed no such organ as
+the British parliament. But the argument may be carried yet
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span>
+further. In the abstract the success of the policy of a minister
+in a democratic state must ultimately rest upon the support of
+public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the
+conduct of foreign affairs its peculiar dangers. In the difficult
+game of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary. Secret
+sources of information would be dried up were they to be lightly
+revealed; a plain exposition of policy would often give an undue
+advantage to the other party to a negotiation. Thus, even in
+Great Britain, the diplomatic correspondence laid before parliament
+is carefully edited, and all governments are jealous of
+granting access to their modern archives. Yet a representative
+assembly is apt to be resentful of such reservations. Its members
+know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign
+affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated
+by explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness.
+Canning himself had experience of this in the affair of the capture
+of the Danish fleet at Copenhagen; and Castlereagh&rsquo;s diplomacy
+was hampered by the bitter attacks of an opposition which
+accused him, with little justice, of pursuing a policy which he
+dared not reveal in its full scope to parliament. Moreover, the
+appeal to public opinion may be used as a diplomatic weapon for
+ends no less &ldquo;selfish&rdquo; than any aimed at by the old diplomacy.
+Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as that of
+Metternich, was a master of the art of taking the world into his
+confidence&mdash;when it suited him to do so; and the &ldquo;reptile press,&rdquo;
+hired to give a seemingly independent support to his policy,
+was one of his most potent weapons. So far the only necessary
+consequence of the growth of the power of public opinion on the
+art of diplomacy has been to extend the sphere of its application;
+it is but one more factor to be dealt with; and experience has
+proved that it is subject to the wiles of a skilful diplomatist no
+less than were the princes and statesmen with whom the old
+diplomacy was solely concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The third factor making for change&mdash;the revolution in the
+means of communication which has brought all the world into
+closer touch&mdash;remains to be discussed. It is obvious that before
+the invention of the telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far
+more responsible position than he is now, when he can, in most
+cases, receive immediate instructions from his government on
+difficult questions as they arise. When communication was still
+slow there was often no time to await instructions, or the instructions
+when they arrived were not seldom already out of date and
+had to be set aside on the minister&rsquo;s own responsibility. It would,
+however, be easy to exaggerate the importance of this change as
+affecting the character and status of diplomatic agents. It is true
+that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign affairs to hold
+the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far greater
+extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend
+for information and advice on the &ldquo;man on the spot,&rdquo; and the
+success of their policy largely depends upon his qualities of
+discretion and judgment. The growth of democracy, moreover,
+has given to the ambassador a new and peculiar importance; for
+he represents not only the sovereign to the sovereign, but the
+nation to the nation; and, as a succession of notable American
+ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his personal
+qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and
+ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations. It
+marks an immense advance in the comity of international
+intercourse when the representatives of friendly powers are
+no longer regarded as &ldquo;spies rather than ambassadors,&rdquo; to be
+&ldquo;quickly heard and dismissed,&rdquo; as Philippe de Commines would
+have them, but as agreeable guests to be parted from with regret.</p>
+
+<p>As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly impossible
+to lay down a general rule, for the same qualities are
+obviously not required in Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris
+as in Pekin. Yet the effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks
+largely in the works of the earlier theorists, and the demands they
+make are sufficiently alarming. Ottaviano Maggi, himself a
+diplomatist of the brilliant age of the Renaissance, has left us in
+his <i>De legato</i> (Hanoviae, 1596) his idea of what an ambassador
+should be. He must not only be a good Christian but a learned
+theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotle
+and Plato, and able at a moment&rsquo;s notice to solve in correct
+dialectical form the most abstruse problems; he must be well
+read in the classics, and an expert in mathematics, architecture,
+music, physics and civil and canon law. He must not only know
+how to write and speak Latin with classical refinement, but he
+must be a master of Greek, Spanish, French, German and Turkish.
+He must have a sound knowledge of history, geography and the
+science of war; but at the same time is not to neglect the poets,
+and never to be without his Homer. Add to this that he must
+be well born, rich and of a handsome presence, and we have
+a portrait of a diplomatist whose original can hardly have
+existed even in that age of brilliant versatility. The Dutchman
+Frederikus de Marselaer, in his <span class="grk" title="kêrukeion">&#954;&#951;&#961;&#965;&#954;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span> <i>sive legationum
+insigne</i> (Antwerp, 1618), is scarcely less exacting than the
+Venetian. His ideal ambassador is a nobleman of fine presence
+and in the prime of life, famous, rich, munificent, abstemious,
+not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no flatterer, learned,
+eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good linguist, widely
+read, prudent and cautious, but brave and&mdash;as he adds somewhat
+superfluously&mdash;many-sided.</p>
+
+<p>With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the
+qualifications demanded by the exigencies of practical politics
+may be cited by way of illuminating contrast. At the court of the
+empress Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of
+diplomatic success than all the talents and virtues, and the
+princess of Zerbst (mother of the empress Catherine II.) wrote to
+Frederick of Prussia advising him to replace his elderly ambassador
+by a handsome young man with a good complexion;
+and the essential qualification for an ambassador to Switzerland,
+Germany, Poland, Denmark and Russia used to be that he should
+be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood
+to strong liquors, under the table.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of
+the intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a
+mere brute struggle for the mastery;<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> in a narrower sense, with
+which the present article is alone concerned, it is that of the
+methods and spirit of diplomatic intercourse and of the character
+and status of diplomatic agents. Earlier writers on the office
+and functions of ambassadors, such as Gentilis or Archbishop
+Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin to God himself,
+who created the angels to be his legates; and they fortify their
+arguments by copious examples drawn from ancient history,
+sacred and profane. But, whatever the influence upon it of
+earlier practice, modern diplomacy really dates from the rise of
+permanent missions, and the consequent development of the
+diplomatic hierarchy as an international institution. Of this the
+first beginnings are traceable to the 15th century and to Italy.
+There had, of course, during the middle ages been embassies and
+negotiations; but the embassies had been no more than temporary
+missions directed to a particular end and conducted by
+ecclesiastics or nobles of a dignity appropriate to each occasion;
+there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a professional
+diplomatic class. To the evolution of such a class the Italy of the
+Renaissance, the nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave the
+first impetus. This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous
+independent states, between which there existed a lively intercourse
+and a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in miniature the
+modern states&rsquo; system of Europe. In feudal Europe there had
+been little room for diplomacy; but in northern and central Italy
+feudalism had never taken root, and in the struggles of the
+peninsula diplomacy had early played a part as great as, or greater
+than, war. Where all were struggling for the mastery, the
+existence of each depended upon alliances and counter-alliances,
+of which the object was the maintenance of the balance of power.
+In this school there was trained a notable succession of men of
+affairs. Thus, in the 13th and 14th centuries Florence counted
+among her envoys Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and later on
+could boast of agents such as Capponi, Vettori, Guicciardini and
+Machiavelli. Papal Rome, too, as was to be expected, had
+always been a fruitful nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span>
+authorities have traced the beginnings of modern diplomacy to a
+conscious imitation of her legatine system.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy
+are to be sought.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> So early as the 13th century the republic, with
+a view to safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a
+series of rules for the conduct of its ambassadors. Thus, in 1236,
+envoys to the court of Rome are forbidden to procure a benefice
+for anyone without leave of the doge and little council; in 1268
+ambassadors are commanded to surrender on their return any
+gifts they may have received, and by another decree they are
+compelled to take an oath to conduct affairs to the honour and
+advantage of the republic. About the same time it was decided
+that diplomatic agents were to hand in, on their return, a written
+account of their mission; in 1288 this was somewhat expanded by
+a law decreeing that ambassadors were to deposit, within fifteen
+days of their return, a written account of the replies made to them
+during their mission, together with anything they might have seen
+or heard to the honour or in the interests of the republic. These
+provisions, which were several times renewed, notably in 1296,
+1425 and 1533, are the origin of the famous reports of the
+Venetian ambassadors to the senate, which are at once a monument
+to the political genius of Venetian statesmen and a mine
+of invaluable historical material.<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations,
+many others also dating to the 13th century, by which the
+Venetian government sought to systematize its diplomatic
+service. That permanent diplomatic agencies were not established
+by it earlier than was the case is probably due to the
+distrust of its agents by which most of this legislation of the
+republic is inspired. In the 13th century two or three months
+was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to reside at
+a foreign court; in the 15th century the period of residence was
+extended to two years, and in the 16th century to three. This
+latter rule continued till the end of the republic; the embassy
+had become permanent, but the ambassador was changed every
+three years.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions
+has been the subject of much debate and controversy. The theory
+that it was due, in the first instance, to the evolution of the
+Venetian consulates (<i>bajulats</i>) in the Levant into permanent
+diplomatic posts, and that the idea was thence transferred to the
+West, is disproved by the fact that Venice had established other
+permanent embassies before the baylo (<i>q.v.</i>) at Constantinople was
+transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first rank. Nor is
+the first known instance of the appointment of a permanent
+ambassador Venetian. The earliest record<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> is contained in the
+announcement by Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1455, of his
+intention to maintain a permanent embassy at Genoa<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a>; and in
+1460 the duke of Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, archdeacon of
+Vercelli, as his permanent representative to the Curia.<a name="fa10d" id="fa10d" href="#ft10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Though,
+however, the early records of such appointments are rare, the
+practice was probably common among the Italian states. Its
+extension to countries outside Italy was a somewhat later development.
+In 1494 Milan is already represented in France by a
+permanent ambassador. In 1495 Zacharia Contarini, Venetian
+ambassador to the emperor Maximilian, is described by Sanuto
+(<i>Diarii</i>, i. 294) as <i>stato ambasciatore</i>; and from the time of
+Charles V. onwards the succession of ambassadors of the republic
+at the imperial court is fairly traceable. In 1496 &ldquo;as the way to
+the British Isles is very long and very dangerous,&rdquo; two merchants
+resident in London, Pietro Contarini and Luca Valaressa, were
+appointed by the republic <i>subambasciatores</i>; and in June of the
+same year Andrea Trevisano arrived in London as permanent
+ambassador at the court of Henry VII.<a name="fa11d" id="fa11d" href="#ft11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Florence, too, from
+1498 onwards, was represented at the courts of Charles V. and of
+France by permanent ambassadors.</p>
+
+<p>During the same period the practice had been growing up
+among the other European powers. Spain led the way in 1487
+by the appointment of Dr Roderigo Gondesalvi de Puebla as
+ambassador in England. As he was still there in 1500, the
+Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the oldest still
+surviving post of the new permanent diplomacy. Other states
+followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the 16th
+century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm.
+The precarious relations between the European powers during
+the 16th century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of
+the system. Thus it was not till after good relations had been
+established with France by the treaty of London that, in 1519,
+Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr West were sent to Paris as resident
+English ambassadors, and, after the renewed breach between the
+two countries, no others were appointed till the reign of Elizabeth.
+Nine years before, Sir Robert Wingfield, whose simplicity earned
+him the nickname of &ldquo;Summer-shall-be-green,&rdquo; had been sent as
+ambassador to the court of Charles V., where he remained from
+1510 to 1517; and in 1520 the mutual appointment of resident
+ambassadors was made a condition of the treaty between Henry
+VIII. and Charles V. In 1517 Thomas Spinelly, who had for
+some years represented England at the court of the Netherlands,
+was appointed &ldquo;resident ambassador to the court of Spain,&rdquo;
+where he remained till his death on the 22nd of August 1522.
+These are the most important early instances of the new system.
+Alone of the great powers, the emperor remained permanently
+unrepresented at foreign courts. In theory this was the result
+of his unique dignity, which made him superior to all other
+potentates; actually it was because, as emperor, he could not
+speak for the practically independent princes nominally his
+vassals. It served all practical purposes if he were represented
+abroad by his agents as king of Spain or archduke of Austria.</p>
+
+<p>All the evidence now available goes to prove that the establishment
+of permanent diplomatic agencies was not an unconscious
+and accidental development of previous conditions, but deliberately
+adopted as an obvious convenience. But, while all the
+powers were agreed as to the convenience of maintaining such
+agencies abroad, all were equally agreed in viewing the representatives
+accredited to them by foreign states with extreme
+suspicion. This attitude was abundantly justified by the
+peculiar ethics of the new diplomacy. The old &ldquo;orators&rdquo; of the
+Summer-shall-be-green type could not long hold their own
+against the new men who had studied in the school of Italian
+statecraft, for whom the end justified the means. Machiavelli
+had gathered in <i>The Prince</i> and <i>The Discourses on Livy</i> the
+principles which underlay the practice of his day in Italy;
+Francis I., the first monarch to establish a completely organized
+diplomatic machinery, did most to give these principles a
+European extension. By the close of the 16th century diplomacy
+had become frankly &ldquo;Machiavellian,&rdquo; and the ordinary rules of
+morality were held not to apply to the intercourse between
+nations. This was admitted in theory as well as in practice.
+Germonius, after a vigorous denunciation of lying in general,
+argues that it is permissible for the safety or convenience
+(<i>commodo</i>) of princes, since <i>salus populi suprema lex</i>, and <i>quod
+non permittit naturalis ratio, admittit civilis</i>; and he adduces
+in support of this principle the answer given by Ulysses to
+Neoptolemus, in the <i>Ajax</i> of Sophocles, and the examples of
+Abraham, Jacob and David. Paschalius, while affirming that an
+ambassador must study to speak the truth, adds that he is not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span>
+such a &ldquo;rustic boor&rdquo; as to say that an &ldquo;official lie&rdquo; (<i>officiosum
+mendacium</i>) is never to be employed, or to deny that an
+ambassador should be, on occasion, <i>splendide mendax</i>.<a name="fa12d" id="fa12d" href="#ft12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> The
+situation is summed up in the famous definition of Sir Henry
+Wotton, which, though excused by himself as a jest, was held to
+be an indiscreet revelation of the truth: &ldquo;An ambassador is an
+honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country.&rdquo;<a name="fa13d" id="fa13d" href="#ft13d"><span class="sp">13</span></a>
+The most successful liar, in fact, was esteemed the most successful
+diplomatist. &ldquo;A prime article of the catechism of ambassadors,&rdquo;
+says Bayle in his <i>Dictionnaire critique</i> (1699), &ldquo;whatever their
+religion, is to invent falsehoods and to go about making society
+believe them.&rdquo; So universally was this principle adopted that,
+in the end, no diplomatist even expected to be believed; and
+the best way to deceive was&mdash;as Bismarck cynically avowed&mdash;to
+tell the truth.</p>
+
+<p>But, in addition to being a liar <i>ex officio</i>, the ambassador was
+also &ldquo;an honourable spy.&rdquo; &ldquo;The principal functions of an
+envoy,&rdquo; says Francois de Callières, himself an ex-ambassador of
+Louis XIV., &ldquo;are two; the first is to look after the affairs of his
+own prince; the second is to discover the affairs of the other.&rdquo;
+A clever minister, he maintains, will know how to keep himself
+informed of all that goes on in the mind of the sovereign, in the
+councils of ministers or in the country; and for this end &ldquo;good
+cheer and the warming effect of wine&rdquo; are excellent allies.<a name="fa14d" id="fa14d" href="#ft14d"><span class="sp">14</span></a>
+This being so, it is hardly to be wondered at that foreign
+ambassadors were commonly regarded as perhaps necessary, but
+certainly very unwelcome, guests. The views of Philippe de
+Commines have already been quoted above, and they were shared
+by a long series of theoretical writers as well as by men of affairs.
+Gentilis is all but alone in his protest against the view that all
+ambassadors were <i>exploratores magis quam oratores</i>, and to be
+treated as such. So early as 1481 the government of Venice had
+decreed the penalty of banishment and a heavy fine for any one
+who should talk of affairs of state with a foreign envoy, and
+though the more civilized princes did not follow the example of
+the sultan, who by way of precaution locked the ambassador of
+Ferdinand II., Jerome Laski, into &ldquo;a dark and stinking place
+without windows,&rdquo; they took the most minute precautions to
+prevent the ambassadors of friendly powers from penetrating
+into their secrets. Charles V. thought it safest to keep them as
+far away as possible from his court. So did Francis I.; and, when
+affairs were critical, he made his frequent changes of residence
+and his hunting expeditions the excuse for escaping from
+their presence. Henry VII. forbade his subjects to hold
+any intercourse with them, and, later on, set spies upon them
+and examined their correspondence&mdash;a practice by no means
+confined to England. If the system of permanent embassies
+survived, it is clear that this was mainly due to the belief of the
+sovereigns that they gained more by maintaining &ldquo;honourable
+spies&rdquo; at foreign courts than they lost by the presence of those
+of foreign courts at their own. It was purely a question of the
+balance of advantage. Neither among statesmen nor among
+theorists was there any premonition of the great part to be
+played by the permanent diplomatic body in the development
+and maintenance of the concert of Europe. To Paschalius the
+permanent embassies were &ldquo;a miserable outgrowth of a miserable
+age.&rdquo;<a name="fa15d" id="fa15d" href="#ft15d"><span class="sp">15</span></a> Grotius himself condemned them as not only harmful,
+but useless, the proof of the latter being that they were unknown
+to antiquity.<a name="fa16d" id="fa16d" href="#ft16d"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Development of the Diplomatic Hierarchy.</i>&mdash;The history of
+the diplomatic body<a name="fa17d" id="fa17d" href="#ft17d"><span class="sp">17</span></a> is, like that of other bodies, that of the
+progressive differentiation of functions. The middle ages knew
+no classification of diplomatic agents; the person sent on mission
+is described indifferently as <i>legatus</i>, <i>orator</i>, <i>nuntius</i>, <i>ablegatus</i>,
+<i>commissarius</i>, <i>procurator</i>, <i>mandatarius</i>, <i>agens</i> or <i>ambaxator</i>
+(<i>ambassator,</i> &amp;c.). In Gundissalvus, <i>De legato</i> (1485), the oldest
+printed work on the subject, the word <i>ambasiator</i>, first found in
+a Venetian decree of 1268, is applied to any diplomat. Florence
+was the first to make distinction; the <i>orator</i> was appointed by
+the council of the republic; the <i>mandatorio</i>, with inferior powers,
+by the Council of Ten. In 1500 Machiavelli, who held only the
+latter rank, wrote from France urging the Signoria to send
+<i>ambasiadori</i>. This was, however, rather a question of powers
+than of dignity. But the causes which ultimately led to the
+elaborate differentiation of diplomatic ranks were rather questions
+of dignity than of functions.<a name="fa18d" id="fa18d" href="#ft18d"><span class="sp">18</span></a> The breakdown of feudalism,
+with the consequent rise of a series of sovereign states or of states
+claiming to be sovereign, of very various size and importance, led
+to a certain confusion in the ceremonial relation between them,
+which had been unknown to the comparatively clearly defined
+system of the middle ages. The smaller states were eager to
+assert the dignity of their actual or practical independence;
+the greater powers were equally bent on &ldquo;keeping them in their
+place.&rdquo; If the emperor, as has been stated above, was too
+exalted to send ambassadors, certain of the lesser states were soon
+esteemed too humble to be represented at the courts of the great
+powers save by agents of an inferior rank. By the second half
+of the 16th century, then, there are two classes of diplomatists,
+ambassadors and residents or agents, the latter being accounted
+ambassadors of the second class.<a name="fa19d" id="fa19d" href="#ft19d"><span class="sp">19</span></a> At first the difference of rank
+was determined by the status of the sovereign by whom or to
+whom the diplomatic agent was accredited; but early in the 16th
+century it became fairly common for powers of the first rank to
+send agents of the second class to represent them at courts of
+an equal status. The reasons were various, and not unamusing.
+First and foremost came the question of expense. The ambassador,
+as representing the person of his sovereign, was bound
+by the sentiment of the age to display an exaggerated magnificence.
+His journeys were like royal progresses, his state entries
+surrounded with every circumstance of pomp, and it was held to
+be his duty to advertise the munificence of his prince by boundless
+largesses. Had this munificence been as unlimited in fact as
+in theory, all might have been well, but, in that age of vaulting
+ambitions, depleted exchequers were the rule rather than the
+exception in Europe; the records are full of pitiful appeals from
+ambassadors for arrears of pay, and appointment to an embassy
+often meant ruin, even to a man of substance. To give but one
+example, Sir Richard Morison, Edward VI.&rsquo;s ambassador in
+Germany, had to borrow money to pay his debts before he could
+leave Augsburg (<i>Cal. State Pap. Edw. VI.</i>, No. 467), and later
+on he writes from Hamburg (April 9, 1552) that he could buy
+nothing, because everyone believed that he had packed up in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span>
+readiness to flit secretly, for &ldquo;How must they buy things, where
+men know their stuff is ready trussed up, and they fleeting every
+day?&rdquo; (ib. No. 544). But the dignity of ambassador carried
+another drawback besides expense; his function of &ldquo;honourable
+spy&rdquo; was seriously hampered by the trammels of his position.
+He was unable to move freely in society, but lived a ceremonial
+existence in the midst of a crowd of retainers, through whom alone
+it was proper for him to communicate with the world outside. It
+followed that, though the office of ambassador was more dignified,
+that of agent was more generally useful.</p>
+
+<p>Yet a third cause, possibly the most immediately potent,
+encouraged the growth of the lesser diplomatic ranks: the
+question of precedence among powers theoretically equal.
+Modern diplomacy has settled a difficulty which caused at one
+time much heart-burning and even bloodshed by a simple appeal
+to the alphabet. Great Britain feels no humiliation in signing
+after France, if the reason be that her name begins with G; had
+she not been Great, she would sign before. The vexed question of
+the precedence of ambassadors, too, has been settled by the rule,
+already referred to above, as to seniority of appointment. But
+while the question remained unsettled it was obviously best to
+evade it; and this was most easily done by sending an agent
+of inferior rank to a court where the precedence claimed for an
+ambassador would have been refused.</p>
+
+<p>Thus set in motion, the process of differentiation continues
+until the system is stereotyped in the 19th century. It is unnecessary
+to trace this evolution here in any detail. It is mainly
+a question of names, and diplomatic titles are no exception to the
+general rule by which all titles tend to become cheapened and
+therefore, from time to time, need to be reinforced by fresh verbal
+devices. The method was the familiar one of applying terms
+that had once implied a particular quality in a fashion that
+implied actually nothing. The ambassador extraordinary had
+originally been one sent on an extraordinary mission; for the
+time and purpose of this mission his authority superseded that
+of the resident ambassador. But by the middle of the 17th
+century the custom had grown up of calling all ambassadors
+&ldquo;extraordinary,&rdquo; in order to place them on an equality with the
+others. The same process was extended to diplomatists of the
+second rank; and envoys (<i>envoyé</i> for <i>ablegatus</i>) were always
+&ldquo;extraordinary,&rdquo; and as such claimed and received precedence
+over mere &ldquo;residents,&rdquo; who in their day had asserted the same
+claim against the agents&mdash;all three terms having at one time
+been synonymous. Similarly a &ldquo;minister plenipotentiary&rdquo; had
+originally meant an agent armed with full powers (<i>plein-pouvoir</i>);
+but, by a like process, the combination came to mean as little as
+&ldquo;envoy extraordinary&rdquo;&mdash;though a plenipotentiary <i>tout simple</i> is
+still an agent, of no ceremonially defined dignity, despatched with
+full powers to treat and conclude. Finally, the evolution of the
+title of a diplomatist of the second rank is crowned by the high-sounding
+combination, now almost exclusively used, of &ldquo;envoy
+extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary.&rdquo; The ultimate fate
+of the simple title &ldquo;resident&rdquo; was the same as that of &ldquo;agent.&rdquo;
+Both had been freely sold by needy sovereigns to all and sundry
+who were prepared to pay for what gave them a certain social
+status. The &ldquo;agent&rdquo; fell thus into utter discredit, and those
+&ldquo;residents&rdquo; who were still actual diplomatic agents became
+&ldquo;ministers resident&rdquo; to distinguish them from the common herd.</p>
+
+<p>The classification of diplomatic agents was for the first time
+definitively included in the general body of international law by
+the <i>Règlement</i> of the 19th of March 1815 at Vienna<a name="fa20d" id="fa20d" href="#ft20d"><span class="sp">20</span></a>; and the
+whole question was finally settled at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(November 21, 1818) when, the proposal to establish
+precedence by the status of the accrediting powers having wisely
+been rejected, diplomatic agents were divided into four classes:
+(1) Ambassadors, legates, nuncios; (2) Envoys extraordinary
+and ministers plenipotentiary, and other ministers accredited
+direct to the sovereign; (3) Ministers resident; (4) Chargés
+d&rsquo;affaires. With a few exceptions (<i>e.g.</i> Turkey), this settlement
+was accepted by all states, including the United States of
+America.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rights and Privileges of Diplomatic Agents.</i>&mdash;These are partly
+founded upon immemorial custom, partly the result of negotiations
+embodied in international law. The most important, as it
+is the most ancient, is the right of personal <i>inviolability</i> extended
+to the diplomatic agent and the members of his suite. This
+inviolability is maintained after a rupture between the two
+governments concerned, and even after the outbreak of war.
+The habit of the Ottoman government of imprisoning in the
+Seven Towers the ambassador of a power with which it quarrelled
+was but an exception which proved the rule. The second important
+right is that of exterritoriality (<i>q.v.</i>), a convenient
+fiction by which the house and equipages of the diplomatic agent
+are regarded as the territory of the power by whom he is accredited.
+This involves the further principle that the agent is in
+no way subject to the receiving government. He is exempt from
+taxation and from the payment at least of certain local rates. He
+also enjoys immunity (1) from civil jurisdiction, <i>e.g.</i> he cannot be
+sued, nor can his goods be seized, for debt; (2) from criminal
+jurisdiction, <i>e.g.</i> he cannot be arrested and tried for a criminal
+offence. For a crime of violence, however, or for plotting against
+the state, he can be placed under the necessary restraint and
+expelled the country.<a name="fa21d" id="fa21d" href="#ft21d"><span class="sp">21</span></a> These immunities extend to all the
+members of an envoy&rsquo;s suite. The difficulties that might be
+supposed to arise from such exemptions have not in practice been
+found very serious; for though, in the case of crimes committed
+by servants of agents of the first or second class the procedure is
+not clearly defined, each case would easily be made the subject
+of arrangement. In certain cases, <i>e.g.</i> embassies in Turkey, the
+exterritoriality of ambassadors implies a fairly extensive criminal
+jurisdiction; in other cases the dismissal of the servant would
+deprive him of his diplomatic immunity and bring him under
+the law of the land. The right of granting asylum claimed by
+diplomatic agents in virtue of that of exterritoriality, at one time
+much abused, is now strictly limited. A political or criminal
+offender may seek asylum in a foreign embassy; but if, after a
+request has been formally made for his surrender, the ambassador
+refuses to deliver him up, the authorities may take the measures
+necessary to effect his arrest, and even force an entrance into the
+embassy for the purpose. The &ldquo;right of chapel&rdquo; (<i>droit de
+chapelle</i>, or <i>droit de culte</i>), enjoyed by envoys in reference to their
+exterritoriality, <i>i.e.</i> the right of free exercise of religious worship
+within their house, formerly of great importance, has been
+rendered superfluous by the spread of religious toleration. (See
+L. Oppenheim, <i>Internat. Law</i> (London, 1905) ,i. p. 441, &amp;c.;
+A.W. Haffter, <i>Das europäische Völkerrecht</i> (Berlin, 1888), p.
+435, &amp;c.)</p>
+
+<p><i>The Personnel of the &ldquo;Corps diplomatique.&rdquo;</i>&mdash;The establishment
+of diplomacy as a regular branch of the civil service is of modern
+growth, and even now by no means universal. From old time
+states naturally chose as their agents those who would best
+serve their interests in the matter in hand. In the middle ages
+diplomacy was practically a monopoly of the clergy, who as a
+class alone possessed the necessary qualifications: and in later
+times, when learning had spread to the laity as well, there were
+still potent reasons why the clergy should continue to be employed
+as diplomatic agents. Of these reasons the most practical was
+that of expense; for the wealth of the church formed an inexhaustible
+reserve which was used without scruple for secular
+purposes. Francis I. of France, who by the Concordat with Rome
+had in his hands the patronage of all the sees and abbeys in
+France, used this partly to reward his clerical ministers, partly as
+a great secret service fund for bribing the ambassadors of other
+powers, partly for the payment of those high-placed spies at
+foreign courts maintained by the elaborately organized system
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span>
+known as the <i>Secret du Roi</i>.<a name="fa22d" id="fa22d" href="#ft22d"><span class="sp">22</span></a> None the less, in the 16th century,
+laymen as diplomats are already well in evidence. They are
+usually lawyers, rarely soldiers, occasionally even simple
+merchants. Not uncommonly they were foreigners, like the
+Italian Thomas Spinelly mentioned above, drawn from that
+cosmopolitan class of diplomats who were ready to serve any
+master. Though nobles were often employed as ambassadors
+by all the powers, Venice alone made nobility a condition of
+diplomatic service. They were professional in the sense that, for
+the most part, diplomacy was the main occupation of their lives;
+there was, however, no graded diplomatic service in which, as at
+present, it was possible to rise on a fixed system from the position
+of simple <i>attaché</i> to that of minister and ambassador. The
+&ldquo;attaché to the embassy&rdquo; existed<a name="fa23d" id="fa23d" href="#ft23d"><span class="sp">23</span></a>; but he was not, as is
+now the case, a young diplomat learning his profession, but an
+experienced man of affairs, often a foreigner employed by the
+ambassador as adviser, secret service agent and general go-between,
+and he was without diplomatic status.<a name="fa24d" id="fa24d" href="#ft24d"><span class="sp">24</span></a> The 18th
+century saw the rise of the diplomatic service in the modern sense.
+The elaboration of court ceremonial, for which Versailles had set
+the fashion, made it desirable that diplomatic agents should
+be courtiers, and young men of rank about the court began to be
+attached to missions for the express purpose of teaching them the
+art of diplomacy. Thus arose that aristocratic diplomatic class,
+distinguished by the exquisite refinement of its manners, which
+survived from the 18th century into the 19th. Modern democracy
+has tended to break with this tradition, but it still widely prevails.
+Even in Great Britain, where the rest of the public services have
+been thrown open to all classes, a certain social position is still
+demanded for candidates for the diplomatic service and the
+foreign office, and in addition to passing a competitive examination,
+they must be nominated by someone of recognized station
+prepared to vouch for their social qualifications. In America,
+where no regular diplomatic service exists, all diplomatic agents
+are nominated by the president.</p>
+
+<p>The existence of an official diplomatic service, however, by no
+means excludes the appointment of outsiders to diplomatic posts.
+It is, in fact, one of the main grievances of the regular diplomatic
+body that the great rewards of their profession, the embassies,
+are so often assigned to politicians or others who have not passed
+through the drudgery of the service. But though this practice
+has, doubtless, sometimes been abused, it is impossible to
+criticize the wisdom of its occasional application.</p>
+
+<p>A word may be added as to the part played by women in
+diplomacy. So far as their unofficial influence upon it is concerned,
+it would be impossible to exaggerate its importance; it
+would suffice to mention three names taken at random from
+the annals of the 19th century, Madame de Staël, Baroness
+von Krüdener, and Princess Lieven. Gentz comments on the
+&ldquo;feminine intrigues&rdquo; that darkened the counsels of the congresses
+of Vienna and Aix-la-Chapelle, and from which the powers
+so happily escaped in the bachelor seclusion of Troppau. Nor is
+it to be supposed that statesmen will ever renounce a diplomatic
+weapon so easy of disguise and so potent for use. A brilliant <i>salon</i>
+presided over by a woman of charm may be a most valuable
+centre of a political propaganda; and ladies are still widely
+employed in the secret diplomacy of the powers. Their employment
+as regularly accredited diplomatic agents, however, though
+not unknown, has been extremely rare. An interesting instance
+is the appointment of Catherine of Aragon, when princess of Wales,
+as representative of her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, at the
+court of Henry VII. (G. A. Bergenroth, <i>Calendar of State Papers
+ ... England and Spain&mdash;in the Archives at Simancas, &amp;c.</i>, i. pp.
+xxxiii, cxix).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;Besides general works on international law (<i>q.v.</i>)
+which necessarily deal with the subject of diplomacy, a vast mass
+of treatises on diplomatic agents exists. The earliest printed work
+is the <i>Tractatus de legato</i> (Rome, 1485) of Gundissalvus (Gonsalvo de
+Villadiego), professor of law at Salamanca, auditor for Spain at the
+Roman court of the Rota, and bishop of Oviedo; but the first really
+systematic writer on the subject was Albericus Gentilis, <i>De legationibus
+libri iii</i>. (London, 1583, 1585, Hanover, 1596, 1607, 1612). For a full
+bibliography of works on ambassadors see Baron Diedrich H. L. von
+Ompteda, <i>Litteratur des gesammten sowohl natürlichen als positiven
+Völkerrechts</i> (Regensburg, 1785), p. 534, &amp;c., which was completed and
+continued by the Prussian minister Karl Albert von Kamptz, in
+<i>Neue Literatur des Völkerrechts seit dem Jahre 1784</i> (Berlin, 1817),
+p. 231. A list of writers, with critical and biographical remarks, is
+also given in Ernest Nys&rsquo;s &ldquo;Les Commencements de la diplomatie et
+le droit d&rsquo;ambassade jusqu&rsquo;à Grotius,&rdquo; in the <i>Revue de droit international</i>,
+vol. xvi. p. 167. Other useful modern works on the history
+of diplomacy are: E. C. Grenville-Murray, <i>Embassies and Foreign
+Courts, a History of Diplomacy</i> (2nd ed., 1856); J. Zeller, <i>La Diplomatie
+française vers le milieu du XVI^e siècle</i> (Paris, 1881); A. O.
+Meyer, <i>Die englische Diplomatie in Deutschland zur Zeit Eduards VI.
+und Mariens</i> (Breslau, 1900); and, above all, Otto Krauske, <i>Die
+Entwickelung der ständgien Diplomatie vom fünfzehnten Jahrhundert
+bis zu den Beschlüssen von 1815 und 1818</i>, in Gustav Schmoller&rsquo;s
+<i>Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche Forschungen</i>, vol. v. (Leipzig, 1885).
+To these may be added, as admirably illustrating in detail the early
+developments of modern diplomacy, Logan Pearsall Smith&rsquo;s <i>Life and
+Letters of Sir Henry Wotton</i> (Oxford, 1907). Of works on modern
+diplomacy the most important are the <i>Guide diplomatique</i> of Baron
+Charles de Martens, new edition revised by F. H. Geffcken, 2 vols.
+(Leipzig, 1866), and P. Pradier-Fodéré, <i>Cours de droit diplomatique</i>,
+2 vols. (Paris, 1881).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> La Bruyère, <i>Caractères</i>, ii. 77 (ed. P. Jouast, Paris, 1881).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> To Wellesley, in Stapleton&rsquo;s <i>Canning</i>, i. 374.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the motives of Metternich&rsquo;s foreign policy see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austria-Hungary</a></span> :
+<i>History</i> (iii. 332-333).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> <i>A History of Diplomacy in the International Development of
+Europe</i>, by D. J. Hill (London and New York, 1905).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For this see Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, i. p. 498.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their
+diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their trade
+expansion in the Levant early brought them into close contact. For
+Byzantine diplomacy see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Empire, Later</a></span> : <i>Diplomacy</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See Eugenio Albèri, <i>Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti al
+senato</i>, 15 vols. (Florence, 1839-1863).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The <i>apocrisiarii</i> (<span class="grk" title="apokrisiarioi">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#953;&#940;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#953;</span>) or <i>responsales</i> should perhaps be
+mentioned, though they certainly did not set the precedent for the
+modern permanent missions. They were resident agents, practically
+legates, of the popes at the court of Constantinople. They were
+established by Pope Leo I., and continued until the Iconoclastic
+controversy broke the intimate ties between East and West. See
+Luxardo, <i>Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht der Päpste</i> (Innsbruck,
+1878); also Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, i. 501.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> N. Bianchi, <i>Le Materie politiche relative all&rsquo; estero degli archivi di
+stato piemontese</i> (Bologna, Modena, 1875), p. 29.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10d" id="ft10d" href="#fa10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Ib. Note 2, <i>teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11d" id="ft11d" href="#fa11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The first ambassador of Venice to visit England was Zuanne da
+Lezze, who came in 1319 to demand compensation for the plundering
+of Venetian ships by English pirates.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12d" id="ft12d" href="#fa12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Germonius, <i>De legatis principum et populorum libri tres</i> (Rome,
+1627), chap. vi. p. 164; Paschalius, <i>Legatus</i> (Rouen, 1598), p. 302.
+Étienne Dolet, who had been secretary to Cardinal Jean du Bellay,
+and was burned for atheism in 1546, in his <i>De officio legati</i> (1541)
+advises ambassadors to surround themselves with taciturn servants,
+to employ vigilant spies, and to set afoot all manner of fictions,
+especially when negotiating with the court of Rome or with the
+Italian princes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13d" id="ft13d" href="#fa13d"><span class="fn">13</span></a> See Pearsall Smith, <i>Sir Henry Wotton</i>, pp. 49, 126 et seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14d" id="ft14d" href="#fa14d"><span class="fn">14</span></a> François de Callières, <i>De la manière de négocier avec les souverains</i>
+(Brussels, 1716). See also A. Sorel, <i>Recueil des instructions données
+aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France</i> (Paris, 1884), <i>e.g.</i> vol.
+<i>Autriche</i>, pp. 77, 88, 102, 112.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15d" id="ft15d" href="#fa15d"><span class="fn">15</span></a> &ldquo;Nova res est, quod sciam, et infelicis hujus aetatis infelix
+partus.... Hinc oriri securitatem universorum, hinc stabiliri pacem
+gentium. Quae utinam tam vere dicerentur, quam speciose. Ego
+quidem, ne quid dissimulem, ab istis seorsum sentio. Nimirum,
+effoeta virtutis, foecunda fraudis haec saecula video peperisse
+spissata haec imperia, sive summas potestates, unde, ut e vomitariis,
+hae legationes undatim se fundunt.&rdquo; Paschalius, <i>Legatus</i> (1598),
+p. 447. So too Félix de la Mothe Le Vayer (1547-1625), in his
+<i>Legatus</i> (Paris, 1579), says &ldquo;Legatos tunc primum aut non multum
+post institutos fuisse cum Pandora malorum omnium semina in hunc
+mundum ... demisit.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16d" id="ft16d" href="#fa16d"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>De jure belli et pacis</i> (Amsterdam, 1621), ii. c. 18, § 3, n. 2.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17d" id="ft17d" href="#fa17d"><span class="fn">17</span></a> The term <i>corps diplomatique</i> originated about the middle of the
+18th century. &ldquo;The Chancellor Furst,&rdquo; says Ranke (xxx. 47, note),
+&ldquo;does not use it as yet in his report (1754) but he knows it,&rdquo; and it
+would appear that it had just been invented at Vienna. &ldquo;Corps
+diplomatique, nom qu&rsquo;une dame donna un jour à ce corps nombreux
+de ministres étrangers à Vienne.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18d" id="ft18d" href="#fa18d"><span class="fn">18</span></a> So too Pradier-Fodéré, vol. i. p. 262.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19d" id="ft19d" href="#fa19d"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Thus Charles V. would not allow the representatives of the duke
+of Mantua, Ferrara, &amp;c., to style themselves &ldquo;ambassadors,&rdquo; on the
+ground that this title could be borne only by the agents of kings and
+of the republic of Venice, and not by those of states whose sovereignty
+was impaired by any feudal relation to a superior power. (See
+Krauske p. 155.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20d" id="ft20d" href="#fa20d"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See Pradier-Fodéré, i. 265.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21d" id="ft21d" href="#fa21d"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Gentilis, who had been consulted by the government in the case
+of the Spanish ambassador, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, expelled
+for intriguing against Queen Elizabeth, lays this down definitely.
+An ambassador, he says, need not be received, and he may be expelled.
+In actual practice a diplomatic agent who has made himself
+objectionable is withdrawn by his government on the representations
+of that to which he is accredited, and it is customary, before an
+ambassador is despatched, to find out whether he is a <i>persona grata</i>
+to the power to which he is accredited.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22d" id="ft22d" href="#fa22d"><span class="fn">22</span></a> See Zeller.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23d" id="ft23d" href="#fa23d"><span class="fn">23</span></a> A. O. Meyer, p. 22.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24d" id="ft24d" href="#fa24d"><span class="fn">24</span></a> See the amusing account of the methods of these agents in
+Morysine to Cecil (January 23, 1551-1552), <i>Cal. State Pap. Edw. VI.</i>,
+No. 530.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPLOMATIC,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> the science of diplomas, founded on the critical
+study of the &ldquo;diplomatic&rdquo; sources of history: diplomas,
+charters, acts, treaties, contracts, judicial records, rolls, chartularies,
+registers, &amp;c. The employment of the word &ldquo;diploma,&rdquo;
+as a general term to designate an historical document, is of comparatively
+recent date. The Roman diploma, so called because
+it was formed of two sheets of metal which were shut together
+(Gr. <span class="grk" title="diploun">&#948;&#953;&#960;&#955;&#959;&#8166;&#957;</span>, to double) like the leaves of a book, was the passport
+or licence to travel by the public post; also, the certificate
+of discharge, conferring privileges of citizenship and marriage
+on soldiers who had served their time; and, later, any imperial
+grant of privileges. The word was adopted, rather pedantically,
+by the humanists of the Renaissance and applied by them to
+important deeds and to acts of sovereign authority, to privileges
+granted by kings and by great personages; and by degrees the
+term became extended and embraced generally the documents of
+the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p><i>History of the Study.</i>&mdash;The term &ldquo;diplomatic,&rdquo; the French
+<i>diplomatique</i>, is a modern adaptation of the Latin phrase <i>res
+diplomatica</i> employed in early works upon the subject, and more
+especially in the first great text-book, the <i>De re diplomatica</i>,
+issued in 1681 by the learned Benedictine, Dom Jean Mabillon,
+of the abbey of St Germain-des-Prés. Mabillon&rsquo;s treatise was
+called forth by an earlier work of Daniel van Papenbroeck, the
+editor of the <i>Acta Sanctorum</i> of the Bollandists, who, with no
+great knowledge or experience of archives, undertook to criticize
+the historical value of ancient records and monastic documents,
+and raised wholesale suspicions as to their authenticity in his
+<i>Propylaeum antiquarium circa veri ac falsi discrimen in vetustis
+membranis</i>, which he printed in 1675. This was a rash challenge
+to the Benedictines, and especially to the congregation of St Maur,
+or confraternity of the Benedictine abbeys of France, whose
+combined efforts produced great literary works which still remain
+as monuments of profound learning. Mabillon was at that time
+engaged in collecting material for a great history of his order. He
+worked silently for six years before producing the work above
+referred to. His refutation of Papenbroeck&rsquo;s criticisms was
+complete, and his rival himself accepted Mabillon&rsquo;s system of
+the study of diplomatic as the true one. The <i>De re diplomatica</i>
+established the science on a secure basis; and it has been the
+foundation of all subsequent works on the subject, although the
+immediate result of its publication was a flood of controversial
+writings between the Jesuits and the Benedictines, which, however,
+did not affect its stability.</p>
+
+<p>In Spain, the Benedictine Perez published, in 1688, a series
+of dissertations following the line of Mabillon&rsquo;s work. In England,
+Madox&rsquo;s <i>Formulare Anglicanum</i>, with a dissertation concerning
+ancient charters and instruments, appeared in 1702, and
+in 1705 Hickes followed with his <i>Linguarum septentrionalium
+thesaurus</i>, both accepting the principles laid down by the learned
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span>
+Benedictine. In Italy, Maffei appeared with his <i>Istoria diplomatica</i>
+in 1727, and Muratori, in 1740, introduced dissertations
+on diplomatic into his great work, the <i>Antiquitates Italicae</i>. In
+Germany, the first diplomatic work of importance was that by
+Bessel, entitled <i>Chronicon Gotwicense</i> and issued in 1732; and
+this was followed closely by similar works of Baring, Eckhard
+and Heumann.</p>
+
+<p>France, however, had been the cradle of the science, and that
+country continued to be the home of its development. Mabillon
+had not taken cognizance of documents later than the 13th
+century. Arising out of a discussion relative to the origin of the
+abbey of St Victor en Caux and the authenticity of its archives,
+a more comprehensive work than Mabillon&rsquo;s was compiled by
+the two Benedictines, Dom Toustain and Dom Tassin, viz. the
+<i>Nouveau Traité de diplomatique</i>, in six volumes, 1750-1765,
+which embraced more than diplomatic proper and extended to
+all branches of Latin palaeography. With great industry the
+compilers gathered together a mass of details; but their arrangement
+is faulty, and the text is broken up into such a multitude of
+divisions and subdivisions that it is tediously minute. However,
+its more extended scope has given the <i>Nouveau Traité</i> an advantage
+over Mabillon&rsquo;s work, and modern compilations have
+drawn largely upon it.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of the Revolution, the archives of the middle ages
+lost in France their juridical and legal value; but this rather
+tended to enhance their historical importance. The taste for
+historical literature revived. The Académie des Inscriptions
+fostered it. In 1821 the École des Chartes was founded; and,
+after a few years of incipient inactivity, it received a further
+impetus, in 1829, by the issue of a royal ordinance re-establishing
+it. Thenceforth it has been an active centre for the teaching
+and for the encouragement of the study of diplomatic throughout
+the country, and has produced results which other nations may
+envy. Next to France, Germany and Austria are distinguished
+as countries where activity has been displayed in the systematic
+study of diplomatic archives, more or less with the support of the
+state. In Italy, too, diplomatic science has not been neglected.
+In England, after a long period of regrettable indifference to the
+study of the national and municipal archives of the country, some
+effort has been made in recent years to remove the reproach. The
+publications of the Public Record Office and of the department of
+MSS. in the British Museum are more numerous and are issued
+more regularly than in former times; and an awakened interest
+is manifested by the foundation in the universities of a few
+lectureships in diplomatic and palaeography, and by the attention
+which those subjects receive in such an institution as the London
+School of Economics, and in the publications of private literary
+societies. But such efforts can never show the systematic results
+which are to be attained by a special institution of the character
+of the French École des Chartes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extent of the Science.</i>&mdash;The field covered by the study of
+diplomatic is so extensive and the different kinds of documents
+which it takes into its purview are so numerous and various, that
+it is impossible to do more than give a few general indications
+of their nature. No nation can have advanced far on the path
+of civilization before discovering the necessity for documentary
+evidence both in public and in private life. The laws, the
+constitutions, the decrees of government, on the one hand, and
+private contracts between man and man, on the other, must be
+embodied in formal documents, in order to ensure permanent
+record. In the case of a nation advancing independently from a
+primitive to a later stage of civilization we should have to trace
+the origin of its documentary records and examine their development
+from a rudimentary condition. But in an inquiry into the
+history of the documents of the middle ages in Europe we do
+not begin with primitive forms. Those ages inherited the documentary
+system which had been created and developed by the
+Romans; and, imperfect and limited in number as are the
+earliest surviving charters and diplomas of European medieval
+history, they present themselves to us fully developed and cast in
+the mould and employing the methods and formulae of the earlier
+tradition. Based on this foundation the chanceries of the several
+countries of Europe, as they came into existence and were
+organized, reduced to method and rule on one general system the
+various documents which the exigencies of public and of private
+life from time to time called into existence, each individual
+chancery at the same time following its own line of practice in
+detail, and evolving and confirming particular formulas which
+have become characteristic of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification of Documents.</i>&mdash;If we classify these documents
+under the two main heads of public and private deeds, we shall
+have to place in the former category the legislative, administrative,
+judicial, diplomatic documents emanating from public
+authority in public form: laws, constitutions, ordinances,
+privileges, grants and concessions, proclamations, decrees,
+judicial records, pleas, treaties; in a word, every kind of deed
+necessary for the orderly government of a civilized state. In
+early times many of these were comprised under the general
+term of &ldquo;letters,&rdquo; <i>litterae</i>, and to the large number of them
+which were issued in open form and addressed to the community
+the specific title of &ldquo;letters patent,&rdquo; <i>litterae patentes</i>, was given.
+In contradistinction those public documents which were issued
+in closed form under seal were known as &ldquo;close letters,&rdquo; <i>litterae
+clausae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Such public documents belong to the state archives of their
+several countries, and are the monuments of administrative and
+political and domestic history of a nation from one generation to
+another. In no country has so perfect a series been preserved as
+in our own. Into the Public Record Office in London have been
+brought together all the collections of state archives which were
+formerly stored in different official repositories of the kingdom.
+Beginning with the great survey of Domesday, long series of
+enrolments of state documents, in many instances extending
+from the times of the Angevin kings to our own day in almost
+unbroken sequence, besides thousands of separate deeds of all
+descriptions, are therein preserved (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Record</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Under the category of private documents must be included, not
+only the deeds of individuals, but also those of corporate bodies
+representing private interests and standing in the position of
+individual units in relation to the state, such as municipal bodies
+and monastic foundations. The largest class of documents of
+this character is composed of those numerous conveyances of real
+property and other title deeds of many descriptions and dating
+from early periods which are commonly described by the generic
+name of &ldquo;charters,&rdquo; and which are to be found in thousands, not
+only in such public repositories as the Public Record Office and
+the British Museum, but also in the archives of municipal and
+other corporate bodies throughout the country and in the
+muniment-rooms of old families. There are also the records
+of the manorial courts preserved in countless court-rolls and
+registers; also the scattered muniments of the dissolved
+monasteries represented by the many collections of charters
+and the valuable chartularies, or registers of charters, which
+have fortunately survived and exist both in public and in
+private keeping.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that in this enumeration of public and private
+documents in England reference is made to rolls. The practice of
+entering records on rolls has been in favour in England from a very
+early date subsequent to the Norman Conquest; and while in
+other countries the comprehensive term of &ldquo;charters&rdquo; (literally
+&ldquo;papers&rdquo;: Gr. <span class="grk" title="chartês">&#967;&#940;&#961;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>) is employed as a general description of
+documents of the middle ages, in England the fuller phrase
+&ldquo;charters and rolls&rdquo; is required. The master of the rolls,
+the <i>Magister Rotulorum</i>, is the official keeper of the public
+records.</p>
+
+<p>From the great body of records, both public and private, many
+fall easily and naturally into the class in which the text takes
+a simpler narrative form; such as judicial records, laws, decrees,
+proclamations, registers, &amp;c., which tell their own story in
+formulae and phraseology early developed and requiring little
+change. These we may leave on one side. For fuller description
+we select those deeds which, conferring grants and favours and
+privileges, conform more nearly to the idea of the Roman diploma
+and have received the special attention of the chanceries in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span>
+development and arrangement of their formulae and in their
+methods of execution.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<p>All such medieval deeds are composed of certain recognized
+members or sections, some essential, others special and peculiar to
+the most elaborate and solemn documents. A deed of
+the more elaborate character is made up of two principal
+<span class="sidenote">Structure of medieval diplomas.</span>
+divisions: 1. the <span class="sc">Text</span>, in which is set out the object of
+the deed, the statement of the considerations and circumstances
+which have led to it, and the declaration of the will
+and intention of the person executing the deed, together with such
+protecting clauses as the particular circumstances of the case may
+require; 2. the <span class="sc">Protocol</span> (originally, the first sheet of a papyrus
+roll; Gr. <span class="grk" title="prôtos">&#960;&#961;&#8182;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, first, and <span class="grk" title="kollan">&#954;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#8118;&#957;</span>, to glue), consisting of the
+introductory and of the concluding formulae: superscription,
+address, salutation, &amp;c., at the beginning, and date, formulae of
+execution, &amp;c., at the end, of the deed. The latter portion of the
+protocol is sometimes styled the eschatocol (Gr. <span class="grk" title="eschatos">&#7956;&#963;&#967;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, last,
+and <span class="grk" title="kollan">&#954;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#8118;&#957;</span>, to glue). While the text followed certain formulae which
+had become fixed by common usage, the protocol was always special
+and varied with the practices of the several chanceries, changing in
+a sovereign chancery with each successive reign.</p>
+
+<p>The different sections of a full deed, taking them in order under
+the heads of Initial Protocol, Text and Final Protocol or Eschatocol,
+are as follows:&mdash;The initial protocol consists of the Invocation, the
+Superscription, the Address and the Salutation. 1. The
+<span class="sidenote">The Invocation.</span>
+<span class="sc">Invocation</span>, lending a character of sanctity to the proceedings,
+might be either verbal or symbolic. The verbal
+invocation consisted usually of some pious ejaculation, such as <i>In
+nomine Dei, In nomine domini nostri Jesu Christi</i>; from the 8th century,
+<i>In nomine Sanctae et individuae Trinitatis</i>; and later, <i>In nomine
+Patris et Filii et Spiritus Sancti</i>. The symbolic form was usually
+the <i>chrismon</i>, or monogram composed of the Greek initials &Chi;&Rho; of the
+name of Christ. In the course of the 10th and 11th centuries this
+symbol came to be so scrawled that it had probably lost all meaning
+with the scribes. From the 9th century the letter C (initial of
+<i>Christus</i>) came gradually into use, and in German imperial diplomas
+it superseded the <i>chrismon</i>. Stenographic signs of the system known
+as Tironian notes were also sometimes added to this symbol down
+to the end of the 10th century, expressing such a phrase as <i>Ante
+omnia Christus</i>, or <i>Christus</i>, or <i>Amen</i>. From the Merovingian period,
+too, a cross was often used. The symbol gradually died out after the
+12th century for general use, surviving only in notarial instruments
+<span class="sidenote">The Superscription.</span>
+and wills. 2. The <span class="sc">Superscription</span> (<i>superscriptio, intitulatio</i>)
+expressed the name and titles of the grantor or person
+issuing the deed. 3. The <span class="sc">Address</span>. As diplomas were
+originally in epistolary form the address was then a
+necessity. While in Merovingian deeds the old pattern was adhered
+<span class="sidenote">The Address.</span>
+to, in the Carolingian period the address was sometimes
+omitted. From the 8th century it was not considered necessary,
+and a distinction arose in the case of royal acts, those
+having the address being styled letters, and those omitting it,
+charters. The general form of address ran in phrase as <i>Omnibus</i>
+<span class="sidenote">The Salutation.</span>
+(or <i>Universis</i>) <i>Christi fidelibus presentes litteras inspecturis</i>.
+4. The <span class="sc">Salutation</span> was expressed in such words as
+<i>Salutem</i>; <i>Salutem et dilectionem</i>; <i>Salutem et apostolicam
+benedictionem</i>, but it was not essential.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>Then follows the text in five sections: the Preamble, the Notification,
+the Exposition, the Disposition and the Final Clauses. 5. The
+<span class="sidenote">The Preamble.</span>
+<span class="sc">Preamble</span> (<i>prologus</i>, <i>arenga</i>): an ornamental introduction
+generally composed of pious or moral sentiments, a
+<i>prefatio ad captandam benevolentiam</i> which <i>facit ad
+ornamentum</i>, degenerating into tiresome platitudes. It became
+stereotyped at an early age: in the 10th and 11th
+<span class="sidenote">The Notification.</span>
+centuries it was a most ornate performance; in the
+12th century it was cut short; in the 13th century it
+died out. 6. The <span class="sc">Notification</span> (<i>notificatio</i>, <i>promulgatio</i>)
+was the publication of the purport of the deed introduced by
+<span class="sidenote">The Exposition.<br />The Disposition.<br />The Final Clauses.</span>
+such a phrase as <i>notum sit</i>, &amp;c. 7. The <span class="sc">Exposition</span>
+set out the motives influencing the issue of the deed. 8. The
+<span class="sc">Disposition</span> described the object of the deed and the will
+and intention of the grantor. 9. The <span class="sc">Final Clauses</span> ensured
+the fulfilment of the terms of the deed; guarded
+against infringement, by comminatory anathemas and imprecations,
+not infrequently of a vehement description, or
+by penalties; guaranteed the validity of the deed; enumerated the
+formalities of subscription and execution; reserved rights, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Next comes the final protocol or eschatocol comprising: the Date,
+the Appreciation, the Authentication. It was particularly in this
+portion of the deed that the varying practices of the several
+chanceries led to minute and intricate distinctions at
+<span class="sidenote">The Date.</span>
+different periods. 10. The <span class="sc">Date</span>. By the Roman law
+every act must be dated by the day and the year of execution.
+Yet in the middle ages, from the 9th to the 12th century,
+a large proportion of deeds bears no date. In the most
+ancient charters the date clause was frequently separated from
+the body of the deed and placed in an isolated position
+at the foot of the sheet. From the 12th century it commonly
+followed the text immediately. Certain classes of documents,
+such as decrees of councils, notarial deeds, &amp;c., began with
+the date. The usual formula was <i>data, datum, actum, factum, scriptum</i>.
+In the Carolingian period a distinction grew up between
+<i>datum</i> and <i>actum</i>, the former applying to the time, the latter
+to the place, of date. In the papal chancery from an early period
+down to the 12th century the use of a double date prevailed, the first
+following the text and being inserted by the scribe when the deed
+was written (<i>scriptum</i>), the second being added at the foot of the
+deed on its execution (<i>actum</i>), by the chancellor or other high
+functionary. From the Roman custom of dating by the consular
+year arose the medieval practice of dating by the regnal year of
+emperor, king or pope. Special dates were sometimes employed,
+such as the year of some great historical event, battle, siege, pestilence,
+&amp;c.  11. The <span class="sc">Appreciation</span>. The <i>feliciter</i> of the
+<span class="sidenote">The Appreciation.</span>
+Romans became the medieval <i>feliciter in Domino</i>, or
+<i>In Dei nomine feliciter</i>, or the more simple <i>Deo gratias</i>
+or the still more simple <i>Amen</i>, for the auspicious closing of a deed.
+In Merovingian and Carolingian diplomas it follows the date; in
+other cases it closes the text. In the greater papal bulls it appears
+in the form of a triple <i>Amen</i>. <i>Benevalete</i> was also employed as the
+appreciation in early deeds; but in Merovingian diplomas and in
+papal bulls this valedictory salutation becomes a mark of authentication,
+as will be noticed below.  12. The <span class="sc">Authentication</span> was a
+<span class="sidenote">The Authentication.</span>
+solemn proceeding which was discharged by more than
+one act. The most important was the subscription or
+subscriptions of the person or persons from whom the deed
+emanated. The laws of the late Roman empire required the
+subscriptions and the impressions of the signet seals of the parties
+and of the witnesses to the deed. The subscription (<i>subscriptio</i>) comprised
+the name, signature and description of the person signing.
+The impression of the signet (not the signature) was the <i>signum</i>,
+sometimes <i>signaculum</i>, rarely <i>sigillum</i>. The practice of subscribing
+with the autograph signature obtained in the early middle ages, as
+appears from early documents such as those of Ravenna. But from
+the 7th century it began to decline, and by the 12th century it had
+practically ceased. In Roman deeds an illiterate person affixed his
+mark, or <i>signum manuale</i>, which was attested. The cross being an
+easy form for a mark, it was very commonly used and naturally
+became connected with the Christian symbol. Hence, in course of
+time, it came to be attached very generally to subscriptions, autograph
+or otherwise. Great personages who were illiterate required
+something more elaborate than a common mark. Hence arose the
+use of the monogram, the <i>caracter nominis</i>, composed of the letters of
+the name. The emperor Justin, who could not write, made use of
+a monogram, as did also Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths. Those
+Merovingian kings, likewise, who were illiterate, had their individual
+monograms; and at length Charlemagne adopted the monogram as
+his regular form of signature. From his reign down to that of Philip
+the Fair the monogram was the recognized sign manual of the
+sovereigns of France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Autographs</a></span>). It was employed by the
+German emperors down to the reign of Maximilian I. The royal use
+of the monogram was naturally imitated by great officers and
+ecclesiastics. But another form of sign manual also arose out of
+the subscription. The closing word (usually <i>subscripsi</i>), written or
+abbreviated as <i>sub.</i>, or <i>ss.</i> or <i>s.</i>, was often finished off with flourishes
+and interlacings, sometimes accompanied with Tironian notes, the
+whole taking the shape of a domed structure to which the French
+have given the name of <i>ruche</i> or bee-hive. Thus in the early middle
+ages we have deeds authenticated by the subscription, usually
+autograph, giving the name and titles of the person executing, and
+stating the part taken by him in the deed, and closing with the
+<i>subscripsi</i>, often in shape of the ruche and constituting the <i>signum
+manuale</i>. If not autograph, the subscription might be impersonal
+in such form as <i>signum</i> (or <i>signum manus</i>) + N. In the Carolingian
+period, while phrases were constantly used in the body of the deed
+implying that it was executed by autograph subscription, it did
+not necessarily follow that such subscription was actually written in
+person. The ruche was also adopted by chancellors, notaries and
+scribes as their official mark. While autograph subscriptions
+continued to be employed, chiefly by ecclesiastics, down to the beginning
+of the 12th century, the monogram was perpetuated from the
+10th century by the notaries. Their marks, simple at first, became
+so elaborate from the end of the 13th century that they found it
+necessary to add their names in ordinary writing, or also to employ
+a less complicated design. This was the commencement of the
+modern practice of writing the signature which first came into vogue
+in the 14th century.</p>
+
+<p>To lend further weight and authority to the subscription, certain
+symbols and forms were added at different periods. Imitating,
+the corroborative <i>Legi</i> of the Byzantine quaestor and the <i>Legimus</i>
+of the Eastern emperors, the Frankish chancery in the West made use
+of the same form, notably in the reign of Charles the Bald, in some of
+whose diplomas the <i>Legimus</i> appears written in larger letters in red.
+The valedictory <i>Benevalete</i>, employed in early deeds as a form of
+<span class="sidenote">The Benevalete.</span>
+appreciation (see above), appears in Merovingian and in
+early Carolingian royal diplomas, and also in papal bulls,
+as an authenticating addition to the subscription. In the
+diplomas it was written in cursive letters in two lines, <i>Bene valete</i>,
+just to the right of the incision cut in the sheet to hold fast the seal,
+which sometimes even covered part of the word. In the most ancient
+papal bulls it was written by the pope himself at the foot of the deed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span>
+in two lines, generally in larger capital or uncial characters, placed
+between two crosses. From the beginning of the 11th century it
+became the fashion to link the letters; and, dating from the time of
+Leo IX., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1048-1054, the <i>Benevalete</i> was inscribed in form of a
+monogram. During Leo&rsquo;s pontificate it was also accompanied with
+a flourish called the <i>Komma</i>, which was only an exaggeration of the
+mark of punctuation (<i>periodus</i>) which from the 9th to the 11th
+century closed the subscription and generally resembled the modern
+semicolon. Leo&rsquo;s successors abandoned the <i>Komma</i>, but the monogrammatic
+<i>Benevalete</i> continued, invariable in form, but from time
+to time varying in size.  In Leo IX.&rsquo;s pontificate also was introduced
+the <i>Rota</i>. This sign, when it had received its final shape in the
+<span class="sidenote">The Rota.</span>
+11th century, was in form of a wheel, composed of two
+concentric circles, in the space between which was written
+the motto or device of the pope (<i>signum papae</i>), usually a
+short sentence from one of the Psalms or some other portion of
+Scripture; preceded by a small cross, which the pontiff himself
+sometimes inscribed. The central space within the wheel was
+divided (by cross lines) into four quarters, the two upper ones being
+occupied by the names of the apostles St Peter and St Paul, and the
+two lower ones by the name of the pope. The <i>Rota</i> was placed on the
+left of the subscription, the monogrammatic <i>Benevalete</i> on the right.
+The two signs were likewise adopted by certain ecclesiastical
+chanceries and by feudal lords, particularly in the 12th century.
+From the same period also the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs
+adopted the <i>Rota</i>, the <i>signo rodado</i>, which is so conspicuous in the
+royal charters of the Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the subscription, an early auxiliary method of authentication
+was by the impression of the seal which, as noticed above, was
+required by the Roman law. But the general use of
+the signet gradually failed, and by the 7th century it
+<span class="sidenote">Sealing.</span>
+had ceased. Still it survived in the royal chanceries, and the
+sovereigns both of the Merovingian and of the Carolingian lines had
+their seals; and, in the 8th century, the mayors of the palace likewise.
+It is interesting to find instances of the use of antique intaglios
+for the purpose by some of them. In England too there is proof that
+the Mercian kings Offa and Coenwulf used seals, in imitation of the
+Frankish monarchs. In the 7th century, and still more so in the
+8th and 9th centuries, the royal seals were of exaggerated size: the
+precursors of the great seals of the later sovereigns of western Europe.
+The waxen seals of the early diplomas were in all cases <i>en placard</i>:
+that is, they were attached to the face of the document and not suspended
+from it, being held in position by a cross-cut incision in the
+material, through which the wax was pressed and then flattened at
+the back. On the cessation of autograph signatures in subscriptions,
+the general use of seals revived, beginning in the 10th century and
+becoming the ordinary method of authentication from the 12th to
+the 15th century inclusive. Even when signatures had once again
+become universal, the seal continued to hold its place; and thus
+sealing is, to the present day, required for the legal execution of a
+deed. The attachment <i>en placard</i> was discontinued, as a general
+practice, in the middle of the 11th century; and seals thenceforward
+were, for the most part, suspended, leathern thongs being used at
+first, and afterwards silken and hempen cords or parchment labels.
+In documents of minor importance it was sometimes the custom to
+impress the seal or seals on one or more strips of the parchment of the
+deed itself, cut, but not entirely detached, from the lower margin,
+and left to hang loose. Besides waxen impressions of seals, impressions
+in metal, bearing a device on both faces, after the fashion
+of a coin, and suspended, were employed from an early period. The
+most widely known instances are the <i>bullae</i> attached to papal documents,
+generally of lead. The earliest surviving papal <i>bulla</i> is one
+of Pope Zacharias, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 746, but earlier examples are known from
+drawings. The papal <i>bulla</i> was a disk of metal stamped on both sides.
+From the time of Boniface V. to Leo IV., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 617-855, the name of
+the pontiff, in the genitive case, was impressed on the obverse, and
+his title as pope on the reverse, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Bonifati/ papae</i>. After that
+period, for some time, the name was inscribed in a circle round a
+central ornament. Other variations followed; but at length in the
+pontificate of Paschal II., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1099, the <i>bulla</i> took the form which it
+afterwards retained: on the obverse, the heads of the apostles
+St Peter and St Paul; on the reverse, the pope&rsquo;s name, title and
+number in succession. In the period of time between his election
+and consecration, the pope made use of the half-bull, that is, the
+obverse only was impressed. It should be mentioned that, in order
+to conform to modern conditions and for convenience of despatch
+through the post, Leo XII., in 1878, substituted for the leaden <i>bulla</i>
+a red ink stamp bearing the heads of the two apostles with the
+name of the pope inscribed as a legend.</p>
+
+<p>The Carolingian monarchs also used metal <i>bullae</i>. None of
+Charlemagne&rsquo;s have survived, but there are still extant leaden examples
+of Charles the Bald. The use of lead was not persisted in
+either in the chancery of France or in that of Germany. Golden
+<i>bullae</i> were employed on special occasions by both popes and temporal
+monarchs; for example, they were attached to the confirmations of
+the elections of the emperors in the 12th and 13th centuries; the
+bull of Leo X. conferring the title of Defender of the Faith on
+Henry VIII. in 1524, and the deed of alliance between Henry and
+Francis I. in 1527, had golden <i>bullae</i>; and other examples could be
+cited. But lead has always been the common metal to be thus
+employed. In the southern countries of Europe, where the warmth
+of the climate renders wax an undesirable material, leaden <i>bullae</i>
+have been in ordinary use, not only in Italy but also in the Peninsula,
+in southern France, and in the Latin East (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seals</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The necessity of conforming to exact phraseology in diplomas and
+of observing regularity in expressing formulas naturally led to the
+compilation of formularies. From the early middle ages
+the art of composition, not only of charters but also of
+<span class="sidenote">Formularies.</span>
+general correspondence, was commonly taught in the
+monasteries. The teacher was the <i>dictator</i>, his method of teaching
+was described by the verb <i>dictare</i>, and his teaching was <i>dictamen</i> or
+the <i>ars dictaminis</i>. For the use of these monastic schools, formularies
+and manuals comprising formulas and models for the composition
+of the various acts and documents soon became indispensable. At
+a later stage such formularies developed into the models and treatises
+for epistolary style which have had their imitations even in modern
+times. The widespread use of the formularies had the advantage of
+imposing a certain degree of uniformity on the phrasing of documents
+of the western nations of Europe. Those compilations which are
+of an earlier period than the 11th century have been systematically
+examined and are published; those of more recent date still remain
+to be thoroughly edited. The early formularies are of the simpler
+kind, being collections of formulas without dissertation. The
+<i>Formulae Marculfi</i>, compiled by the monk Marculf about the year
+650, was the most important work of this nature of the Merovingian
+period and became the official formulary of the time; and it continued
+in use in a revised edition in the early Carolingian chancery.
+Of the same period there are extant formularies compiled at various
+centres, such as Angers, Tours, Bourges, Sens, Reichenau, St Gall,
+Salzburg, Passau, Regensburg, Cordova, &amp;c. (see Giry, <i>Manuel
+de diplomatique</i>, pp. 482-488). The <i>Liber diurnus Romanorum
+Pontificum</i> was compiled in the 7th and 8th centuries, and was employed
+in the papal chancery to the end of the 11th century. Of the
+more developed treatises and manuals of epistolary rhetoric which
+succeeded, and which originated in Italy, the earliest example was
+the <i>Breviarium de dictamine</i> of the monk Alberic of Monte Cassino,
+compiled about the year 1075. Another well-known work, the
+<i>Rationes dictandi</i>, is also attributed to the same author. Of later date
+was the <i>Ars dictaminis</i> of Bernard of Chartres of the 12th <span class="correction" title="omitted a superfluous (">century</span>.
+Among special works on formularies are: E. de Rozière, <i>Recueil
+général des formules usitées dans l&rsquo;empire des Francs</i> (3 vols., Paris,
+1861-1871); K. Zeumer, <i>Formulae Merovingici et Karolini aevi</i>
+(Hanover, 1886); and L. Rockinger, <i>Briefsteller und Formelbücher
+des 11 bis. 14 Jahrhunderts</i> (Munich, 1863-1864).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Organization.</i>&mdash;The formalities observed by the different
+chanceries of medieval Europe, which are to be learned from a
+study of the documents issued by them, are so varied and often so
+minute, that it is impossible to give a full account of them within
+the limits of the present article. We can only state some of the
+results of the investigations of students of diplomatic.</p>
+
+<p>The chancery which stands first and foremost is the papal
+chancery. On account of its antiquity and of its steady development,
+it has served as a model for the other chanceries
+of Europe. Organized in remote times, it adopted for
+<span class="sidenote">Papal Chancery.</span>
+the structure of its letters a number of formulas and
+rules which developed and became more and more fixed and
+precise from century to century. The Apostolic court being
+organized from the first on the model of the Roman imperial
+court, the early pontiffs would naturally have collected their
+archives, as the emperors had done, into <i>scrinia</i>. Pope Julius I.,
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 337-353, reorganized the papal archives under an official
+<i>schola notariorum</i>, at the head of which was a <i>primicerius
+notariorum</i>. Pope Damasus, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 366-384, built a record office
+at the Lateran, <i>archivium sanctae Romanae ecclesiae</i>, where the
+archives were kept and registers of them compiled. The collection
+and orderly arrangement of the archives provided material
+for the establishment of regular diplomatic usages, and the
+science of formulae naturally followed.</p>
+
+<p>For the study of papal documents four periods have been
+defined, each successive period being distinguished from its
+predecessor by some particular development of forms and
+procedure. The first period is reckoned from the earliest times to
+the accession of Leo IX., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1048. For almost the whole of the
+first eight centuries no original papal documents have survived.
+But copies are found in canonical works and registers, many
+of them false, and others probably not transcribed in full or in
+the original words; but still of use, as showing the growth of
+formulas. The earliest original document is a fragment of a letter
+of Adrian I., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 788. From that date there is a series, but the
+documents are rare to the beginning of the 11th century, all down
+to that period being written on papyrus. The latest existing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span>
+papyrus document in France is one of Sergius IV., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1011; in
+Germany, one of Benedict VIII., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1022. The earliest document
+on vellum is one of John XVIII., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1005. The nomenclature
+of papal documents even at an early period is rather wide.
+In their earliest form they are Letters, called in the documents
+themselves, <i>litterae</i>, <i>epistola</i>, <i>pagina</i>, <i>scriptum</i>, sometimes <i>decretum</i>.
+A classification, generally accepted, divides them into: 1. Letters
+or Epistles: the ordinary acts of correspondence with persons
+of all ranks and orders; including constitutions (a later term) or
+decisions in matters of faith and discipline, and encyclicals giving
+directions to bishops of the whole church or of individual
+countries. 2. Decrees, being letters promulgated by the popes
+of their own motion. 3. Decretals, decisions on points of
+ecclesiastical administration or discipline. 4. Rescripts (called in
+the originals <i>preceptum</i>, <i>auctoritas</i>, <i>privilegium</i>), granting requests
+to petitioners. But writers differ in their terms, and such subdivisions
+must be more or less arbitrary. The comprehensive term
+&ldquo;bull&rdquo; (the name of the leaden papal seal, <i>bulla</i>, being transferred
+to the document) did not come into use until the 13th century.</p>
+
+<p>Copies of papal deeds were collected into registers or <i>bullaria</i>.
+Lists showing the chronological sequence of documents are
+catalogues of acts. When into such lists indications from
+narrative sources are introduced they become <i>regesta</i> (<i>res gestae</i>):
+a term not to be confused with &ldquo;register.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Clearness and conciseness have been recognized as attributes
+of early papal letters; but even in those of the 4th century certain
+rhythmical periods have been detected in their composition which
+became more marked under Leo the Great, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 440-461, and
+which developed into the <i>cursus</i> or prose rhythm of the pontifical
+chancery of the 11th and 12th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>In the most ancient deeds the pope styles himself <i>Episcopus</i>,
+sometimes <i>Episcopus Catholicae Ecclesiae</i>, or <i>Episcopus Romanae
+Ecclesiae</i>, rarely <i>Papa</i>. Gregory I, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 590, was the first to
+adopt the form <i>Episcopus, servus servorum Dei</i>, which became
+general in the 9th century, and thenceforth was invariable.</p>
+
+<p>The second period of papal documents extends from Leo IX. to
+the accession of Innocent III., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1048-1198. At the beginning
+of the period formulae tended to take more definite shape and to
+become fixed. In the superscription of bulls a distinction arose:
+those which conferred lasting privileges employing the words <i>in
+perpetuum</i> to close this clause; those whose benefaction was of
+a transitory character using the form of salutation, <i>salutem et
+apostolicam benedictionem</i>. But it was under Urban II., <span class="sc">a.d.</span>
+1088-1099, that the principal formulae became stereotyped.
+Then the distinction between documents of lasting, and those of
+transitory, value became more exactly defined; the former class
+being known as greater bulls, <i>bullae majores</i> (also called <i>privilegia</i>),
+the latter lesser bulls, <i>bullae minores</i>. The leading characteristics
+of the greater bulls were these: The first line containing the
+superscription and closing with the words <i>in perpetuum</i> (or, sometimes,
+<i>ad perpetuam</i>, or <i>aeternam</i>, <i>rei memoriam</i>) was written in
+tall and slender ornamental letters, close packed; the final
+clauses of the text develop with tendency to fixity; the pope&rsquo;s
+subscription is accompanied with the <i>rota</i> on the left and the
+<i>benevalete</i> monogram on the right; and certain elaborate forms
+of dating are punctiliously observed. The introduction of
+subscriptions of cardinals as witnesses had gradually become a
+practice. Under Victor II., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1055-1057, the practice became
+more confirmed, and after the time of Innocent II., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1130-1145,
+the subscriptions of the three orders were arranged according
+to rank, those of the cardinal bishops being placed in the
+centre under the papal subscription, those of the priests under the
+<i>rota</i> on the left, and those of the deacons under the <i>benevalete</i> on
+the right. In the lesser bulls simpler forms were employed;
+there was no introductory line of stilted letters; the salutation,
+<i>salutem et apostolicam benedictionem</i>, closed the superscription;
+the final clauses were shortened; there was neither papal subscription,
+nor <i>rota</i>, nor <i>benevalete</i>; the date was simple.</p>
+
+<p>From the time of Adrian I., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 772-795, the system of double
+dating was followed in the larger bulls. The first date was written
+by the scribe of the document, <i>scriptum per manum N.</i> with the
+month (rarely the day of the month) and year of the indiction.
+The second, the actual date of the execution of the deed, was
+entered (ostensibly) by some high official,<i> data</i>, or <i>datum, per
+manum N.</i>, and contained the day of the month (according to the
+Roman calendar), the year of indiction, the year of pontificate
+(in some early deeds, also the year of the empire and the post-consulate
+year), and the year of the Incarnation, which, however,
+was gradually introduced and only became more common in the
+course of the 11th century. For example, a common form of a full
+date would run thus: <i>Datum Laterani, per manum N., sanctae
+Romanae ecclesiae diaconi cardinalis, xiiii. kl. Maii, indictione V.,
+anno dominicae Incarnationis mxcvii., pontificatus autem domini
+papae Urbani secundi Xº</i>. The simpler form of the date of a
+lesser bull might be: <i>Datum Laterani, iii. non. Jan., pontificatus
+nostri anno iiii</i>.</p>
+
+<p>By degrees the use of the lesser bulls almost entirely superseded
+that of the greater bulls, which became exceptional in the 13th
+century and almost ceased after the migration to Avignon in 1309.
+In modern times the greater bulls occasionally reappear for very
+solemn acts, as <i>bullae consistoriales</i>, executed in the consistory.</p>
+
+<p>The third period of papal documents extends from Innocent III.
+to Eugenius IV., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1198-1431. The pontificate of Innocent
+III. was a most important epoch in the history of the development
+of the papal chancery. Formulas became more exactly fixed,
+definitions more precise, the observation of rules and precedents
+more constant. The staff of the chancery was reorganized. The
+existing series of registers of papal documents was then commenced.
+The growing use of lesser bulls for the business of the
+papal court led to a further development in the 13th century.
+They were now divided into two classes: <i>Tituli</i> and <i>Mandamenta</i>.
+The former conferred favours, promulgated precepts, judgments,
+decisions, &amp;c. The latter comprised ordinances, commissions, &amp;c.,
+and were executive documents. There are certain features which
+distinguish the two classes. In the <i>tituli</i>, the initial letter of the
+pope&rsquo;s name is ornamented with openwork and the other letters
+are stilted. In the <i>mandamenta</i>, the initial is filled in solid and
+the other letters are of the same size as the rest of the text. In
+the <i>tituli</i>, enlarged letters mark the beginnings of the text and of
+certain clauses; but not in the <i>mandamenta</i>. In the former the
+mark of abbreviation is a looped sign; in the latter it is a
+horizontal stroke. In the former the old practice of leaving a gap
+between the letters s and t, and c and t, whenever they occur
+together in a word (<i>e.g.</i> <i>is te</i>, <i>sanc tus</i>), and linking them by
+a coupling stroke above the line is continued; in the latter it
+disappears. The leaden bulla attached to a <i>titulus</i> (as a permanent
+deed) is suspended by cords of red and yellow silks; while that of
+a <i>mandamentum</i> (a temporary deed) hangs from a hempen cord.</p>
+
+<p>In the fourth period, extending from 1431 to the present time,
+the <i>tituli</i> and <i>mandamenta</i> have continued to be the ordinary
+documents in use; but certain other kinds have also arisen.
+Briefs (<i>brevia</i>), or apostolic letters, concerning the personal affairs
+of the pope or the administration of the temporal dominion, or
+conceding indulgences, came into general use in the 13th century
+in the pontificate of Eugenius IV. They are written in the italic
+hand on thin white vellum; and the name of the pope with his
+style as <i>papa</i> is written at the head of the sheet, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Eugenius
+papa iiii</i>. They are closed and sealed with Seal of the Fisherman,
+<i>sub anulo Piscatoris</i>. Briefs have almost superseded the
+<i>mandamenta</i>. The documents known as Signatures of the court of
+Rome or Latin letters, and used principally for the expedition of
+indulgences, were first introduced in the 15th century. They were
+drawn in the form of a petition to the pope, which he granted by
+the words <i>fiat ut petatur</i> written across the top. They were not
+sealed; and only the pontifical year appears in the date. Lastly,
+the documents to which the name of <i>Motu proprio</i> is given are also
+without seal and are used in the administration of the papal court,
+the formula <i>placet et ita motu proprio mandamus</i> being signed by
+the pope.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the handwriting employed by the papal
+chancery is discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeography</a></span>. Here it will
+be enough to state that the early style was derived from the
+Lombardic hand, and that it continued in use down to the
+beginning of the 12th century; but that, from the 10th century,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span>
+owing to the general adoption of the Caroline minuscule writing,
+it began to fall and gradually became so unfamiliar to the uninitiated,
+that, while it still continued in use for papal bulls, it was
+found necessary to accompany them with copies written in the
+more intelligible Caroline script. The intricate, fanciful character,
+known as the <i>Litera sancti Petri</i>, was invented in the time
+of Clement VIII., <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1592-1605, was fully developed under
+Alexander VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of
+the year 1878 by Leo XIII.</p>
+
+<p>Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as
+ninety authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven
+are originals, the earliest being of the year 625. The
+most ancient examples were written on papyrus, vellum
+<span class="sidenote">Merovingian chancery.</span>
+superseding that material towards the end of the 7th
+century. All these diplomas are technically letters,
+having the superscription and address and, at the foot, close
+to the seal, the valedictory <i>benevalete</i>. They commence with a
+monogrammatic invocation, which, together with the superscription
+and address written in fanciful elongated letters, occupies the
+first line. The superscription always runs in the form, <i>N.
+rex Francorum</i>. The most complete kinds of diplomas were
+authenticated by the king&rsquo;s subscription, that of the <i>referendarius</i>
+(the official charged with the custody of the royal seal), the
+impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of
+prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was
+usually autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too
+illiterate to write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The
+referendary, if he countersigned the royal subscription, added the
+word <i>optulit</i> to his own signature; if he subscribed independently,
+he wrote <i>recognovit et subscripsit</i>, the end of the last word being
+usually lost in flourishes forming a <i>ruche</i>. The date gave the
+place, day, month and year of the reign. The Merovingian royal
+diplomas are of two classes: (1) Precepts, conferring gifts,
+favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the documents
+themselves as <i>praeceptum</i>, <i>praeceptio</i>, <i>auctoritas</i>; some drawn up
+in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others less
+precise and formal. (2) Judgments (<i>judicia</i>), which required no
+preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign&rsquo;s
+judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and
+were sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were
+the <i>cartae de mundeburde</i>, taking persons under the royal protection,
+and <i>indiculi</i> or letters transmitting orders or notifying
+decisions; but no examples have survived.</p>
+
+<p>The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural,
+but little from those of their predecessors. As mayors of the
+palace, Charles Martel and Pippin took the style of
+<i>vir inluster</i>. On becoming king, Pippin retained it;
+<span class="sidenote">Carolingian chancery.</span>
+<i>Pippinus, vir inluster, rex Francorum</i>, and it continued
+to be part of the royal title till Charlemagne became
+emperor. The royal subscription was in form of a sign-manual
+or mark, but Charlemagne elaborated this into a monogram of
+the letters of his name built up on a cross. In 775 the royal title
+of Charlemagne became <i>Carolus, gratia Dei rex Francorum et
+Langobardorum, ac patricius Romanorum</i>, the last words being
+assumed on his visit to Rome in 774. On becoming emperor in
+800, he was styled <i>Imperator, Romanum gubernans imperium, rex
+Francorum et Langobardorum</i>. It is to be noticed that thenceforth
+his name was spelt with initial K (as it was on the monogram),
+having previously been written with C in the deeds. Most of his
+diplomas were authenticated by the subscription of the chancellor
+and impression of the seal. A novelty in the form of dating was
+also introduced, two words, <i>datum</i> (for time) and <i>actum</i> (for
+place), being now employed. The character of the writing of the
+diplomas, founded on the Roman cursive hand, which had
+become very intricate under the Merovingians, improved under
+their successors, yet the reform which was introduced into the
+literary script hardly affected the cursive writing of diplomatic
+until the latter part of Charlemagne&rsquo;s reign. The archaic style
+was particularly maintained in judgments, which were issued
+by the private chancery of the palace, a department more conservative
+in its methods than the imperial chancery. It was in
+the reign of Louis Debonair, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 814-840, that the Carolingian
+diploma took its final shape. A variation now appears in the
+monogram, that monarch&rsquo;s sign-manual being built up, not on a
+cross as previously, but on the letter H., the initial of his name
+Hludovicus, and serving as the pattern for successive monarchs of
+the name of Louis.</p>
+
+<p>In the Carolingian chancery the staff was exclusively ecclesiastical;
+at its head was the chancellor, whose title is traced back
+to the <i>cancellarius</i>, or petty officer under the Roman empire,
+stationed at the bar or lattice (<i>cancelli</i>) of the basilica or other law
+court and serving as usher. As keeper of the royal archives
+his subscription was indispensable for royal acts. The diplomas
+were drawn up by the notaries, an important body, upon whom
+devolved the duty of maintaining the formulae and traditions of
+the office. It has been observed that in the 9th century the
+documents were drawn carefully, but that in the 10th century
+there was a great degeneration in this respect. Under the early
+Capetian kings there was great confusion and want of uniformity
+in their diplomas; and it was not until the reign of Louis VI.,
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1108, that the formulae were again reduced to rules.</p>
+
+<p>The acts of the imperial chancery of Germany followed the
+patterns of the Carolingian diplomas, with little variation down
+to the reign of Frederick Barbarossa, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1152-1190.
+The sovereign&rsquo;s style was <i>N. divina favente clementia
+rex</i>;
+<span class="sidenote">Imperial German chancery.</span>
+after coronation at Rome he became <i>imperator
+augustus</i>. At the end of the 10th century, Otto III.
+developed the latter title into <i>Romanorum imperator augustus</i>.
+Under Henry III., and regularly from the time of Henry V., <span class="sc">a.d.</span>
+1106-1125, the title before coronation has been <i>Romanorum rex</i>.
+The royal monogram did not necessarily contain all the letters of
+the name; but, on the other hand, from the year 976, it became
+more complicated and combined the imperial title with the name.
+For example, the monogram of Henry II. combines the words
+<i>Henricus Romanorum imperator augustus</i>. The flourished <i>ruches</i>
+also, as in the Frankish chanceries, were in vogue. Eventually
+they were used by certain of the chancellors as a sign-manual and
+took fanciful shapes, such as a building with a cupola, or even a
+diptych. They disappear early in the 12th century, the period
+when in other respects the chancery of the Holy Roman Empire
+largely adopted a more simple style in its diplomas. Lists of
+witnesses, in support of the royal and official subscriptions, were
+sometimes added in the course of the 11th century, and they
+appear regularly in documents a hundred years later.</p>
+
+<p>For the study of diplomatic in England, material exists in two
+distinct series of documents, those of the Anglo-Saxon period, and
+those subsequent to the Norman Conquest. The Anglo-Saxon
+kings appear to have borrowed, partially, the
+<span class="sidenote">Diplomatic in England.</span>
+style of their diplomas from the chanceries of their
+Frankish neighbours, introducing at the same time
+modifications which give those documents a particular character
+marking their nationality. In some of the earlier examples we
+find that the lines of the foreign style are followed more or less
+closely; but very soon a simpler model was adopted which, while
+it varied in formulas from reign to reign, lasted in general construction
+down to the time of the Norman Conquest. The royal
+charters were usually drawn up in Latin, sometimes in Anglo-Saxon,
+and began with a preamble or exordium (in some instances
+preceded by an invocation headed with the chrismon or with a
+cross), in the early times of a simple character, but, later, drawn
+out not infrequently to great length in involved and bombastic
+periods. Then immediately followed the disposing or granting
+clause, often accompanied with a few words explaining the motive,
+such as, for the good of the soul of the grantor; and the text was
+closed with final clauses of varying extent, protecting the deed
+against infringement, &amp;c. In early examples the dating clause
+gave the day and month (often according to the Roman calendar)
+and the year of the indiction; but the year of the Incarnation was
+also immediately adopted; and, later, the regnal year also. The
+position of this clause in the charter was subject to variation.
+The subscriptions of the king and of the personages witnessing
+the deed, each preceded by a cross, but all written by the hand
+of the scribe, usually closed the charter. A peculiarity was the
+introduction, in many instances, either in the body of the charter,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span>
+or in a separate paragraph at the end, of the boundaries of the
+land granted, written in the native tongue. The sovereigns of
+the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, as well as those of the
+United Kingdom, usually styled themselves <i>rex</i>. But from the
+time of Æthelstan, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 825-840, they also assumed fantastic
+titles in the text of their charters, such as: <i>rex et primicerius</i>, <i>rex
+et rector</i>, <i>gubernator et rector</i>, <i>monarchus</i>, and particularly the Greek
+<i>basileus</i>, and <i>basileus industrius</i>. At the same time the name of
+Albion was also frequently used for Britain.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of documents of the Anglo-Saxon period, dating
+from the 7th century, has survived, both original and copies
+entered in chartularies. Of distinct documents there are nearly
+two hundred; but a large proportion of these must be set aside
+as copies (both contemporary and later) or as spurious deeds.</p>
+
+<p>Although there is evidence, as above stated, of the use of seals
+by certain of the Mercian kings, the method of authentication of
+diplomas by seal impression was practically unknown to the
+Anglo-Saxon sovereigns, save only to Edward the Confessor, who,
+copying the custom which obtained upon the continent, adopted
+the use of a great seal.</p>
+
+<p>With the Norman Conquest the old tradition of the Anglo-Saxons
+disappeared. The Conqueror brought with him the
+practice of the Roman chancery, which naturally followed the
+Capetian model; and his diplomas of English origin differed only
+from those of Normandy by the addition of his new style, <i>rex
+Anglorum</i>, in the superscription. But even from the first there
+was a tendency to simplicity in the new English chancery, not
+improbably suggested by the brief formalities of Anglo-Saxon
+charters, and, side by side with the more formal royal diplomas,
+others of shorter form and less ceremony were issued, which by
+the reign of Henry II. quite superseded the more solemn documents.
+These simpler charters began with the royal superscription,
+the address, and the salutation, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Willelmus, Dei gratia rex
+Anglorum, N. episcopo et omnibus baronibus et fidelibus suis
+Francis et Anglis salutem</i>. Then followed the notification and the
+grant, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Sciatis me concessisse</i>, &amp;c., generally without final
+clauses, or, if any, brief clauses of protection and warranty; and,
+at the end, the list of witnesses and the date. The regnal year
+was usually cited; but the year of the Incarnation was also
+sometimes given. The great seal was appended. To some of the
+Conqueror&rsquo;s charters his subscription and those of his queen and
+sons are attached, written by the scribe, but accompanied with
+crosses which may or may not be autograph. By the reign of
+John the simpler form of royal charters had taken final shape,
+and from this time the acts of the kings of England have been
+classified under three heads: viz. (1) Charters, generally of the
+pattern described above; (2) Letters patent, in which the address
+is general, <i>Universis presentes litteras inspecturis</i>, &amp;c.; the corroborative
+clause describes the character of the document, <i>In
+cujus rei testimonium has literas nostras fieri fecimus patentes</i>; the
+king himself is his own witness, <i>Teste me ipso</i>; and the great seal
+is appended; (3) Close letters, administrative documents conveying
+orders, the king witnessing, <i>Teste me ipso</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The style of the English kings down to John was, with few
+exceptions, <i>Rex Anglorum</i>; thenceforward, <i>Rex Angliae</i>. Henry
+II. added the feudal titles, <i>dux Normannorum et Aquitanorum et
+comes Andegavorum</i>, which Henry III. curtailed to <i>dux Aquitaniae</i>.
+John added the title <i>dominus Hiberniae</i>; Edward III., on claiming
+the crown of France, styled himself rex <i>Angliae et Franciae</i>,
+the same title being borne by successive kings down to the year
+1801; and Henry VIII., in 1521, assumed the title of <i>fidei
+defensor</i>. The formula <i>Dei gratia</i> does not consistently accompany
+the royal title until the reign of Henry II., who adopted it in 1173
+(see L. Delisle, <i>Mémoire sur la chronologie des chartes de Henri II.</i>,
+in the <i>Bibl. de l&rsquo;École des Chartes</i>, lxvii. 361-401).</p>
+
+<p>The forms adopted in the royal chanceries were naturally
+imitated in the composition of private deeds which in all countries
+form the mass of material for historical and diplomatic
+research. The student of English diplomatic will soon
+<span class="sidenote">Private deeds.</span>
+remark how readily the private charters, especially
+conveyances of real property, fall into classes, and how
+stereotyped the phraseology and formulae of each class become,
+only modified from time to time by particular acts of legislation.
+The brevity of the early conveyances is maintained through
+successive generations, with only moderate growth as time
+progresses through the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries. The
+different kinds of deeds which the requirements of society have
+from time to time called into existence must be learned by the
+student from the text-books. But a particular form of document
+which was especially in favour in England should be mentioned.
+This was the chirograph (Gr. <span class="grk" title="cheir">&#967;&#949;&#943;&#961;</span>, a hand, <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to write),
+which is found even in the Anglo-Saxon period, and which got its
+name from the word <i>chirographum</i>, <i>cirographum</i> or <i>cyrographum</i>
+being written in large letters at the head of the deed. At first the
+word was written, presumably, at the head of each of the two
+authentic copies which the two parties to a transaction would
+require. Then it became the habit to use the word thus written
+as a tally, the two copies of the deed being written on one sheet,
+head to head, with the word between them, which was then cut
+through longitudinally in a straight, or more commonly waved or
+indented (<i>in modum dentium</i>) line, each of the two copies thus
+having half of the word at the head. Any other word, or a series
+of letters, might thus be employed; and more than two copies
+of a deed could thus be made to tally. The chirograph was the
+precursor of the modern indenture, the commonest form of
+English deeds, though no longer a tally. In other countries, the
+notarial instrument has performed the functions which the
+chirograph and indenture have discharged for us.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;General treatises, handbooks,, &amp;c., are J. Mabillon,
+<i>De re diplomatica</i> (1709); Tassin and Toustain, <i>Nouveau Traité de
+diplomatique</i> (1750-1765); T. Madox, <i>Formulare Anglicanum</i> (1702);
+G. Hickes, <i>Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus</i> (1703-1705);
+F. S. Maffei, <i>Istoria diplomatica</i> (1727); G. Marini, <i>I Papiri diplomatici</i>
+(1805); G. Bessel, <i>Chronicon Gotwicense (De diplomatibus
+imperatorum ac regum Germaniae)</i> (1732); A. Fumagalli, <i>Delle
+istituzioni diplomatiche</i> (1802); M. F. Kopp, <i>Palaeographia critica</i>
+(1817-1829); K. T. G. Schönemann, <i>Versuch eines vollstandigen
+Systems der Diplomatik</i> (1818); T. Sickel, <i>Lehre von den Urkunden
+der ersten Karolinger</i> (1867); J. Ficker, <i>Beiträge zur Urkundenlehre</i>
+(1877-1878); A. Gloria, <i>Compendio delle lezioni di paleografia e
+diplomatica</i> (1870); C. Paoli, <i>Programma scolastico di paleografia
+Latina e di diplomatica</i> (1888-1890); H. Bresslau, <i>Handbuch der
+Urkundenlehre für Deutschland und Italien</i> (1889); A. Giry, <i>Manuel
+de diplomatique</i> (1894); F. Leist, <i>Urkundenlehre</i> (1893); E. M.
+Thompson, <i>Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography</i>, cap. xix.
+(1906); J. M. Kemble, <i>Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici</i> (1839-1848);
+W. G. Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i> (1885-1893); J. Muñoz
+y Rivero, <i>Manuel de paleografia diplomatica Española</i> (1890);
+M. Russi, <i>Paleografia e diplomatica de&rsquo; documenti delle provincie
+Napolitane</i> (1883). Facsimiles are given in J. B. Silvestrestre <i>Paléographie
+universelle</i> (English edition, 1850); and in the <i>Facsimiles</i>,
+&amp;c., published by the Palaeographical Society (1873-1894) and the
+New Palaeographical Society (1903, &amp;c.); and also in the following
+works:&mdash;A. Champollion-Figeac, <i>Chartes et manuscrits sur papyrus</i>
+(1840); J. A. Letronne, <i>Diplómes et chartes de l&rsquo;époque mérovingienne</i>
+(1845-1866); J. Tardif, <i>Archives de l&rsquo;Empire: Facsimilé
+de chartes et diplômes mérovingiens et carlovingiens</i> (1866);
+G. H. Pettz, <i>Schrifttafeln zum Gebrauch bei diplomatischen
+Vorlesungen</i> (1844-1869); H. von Sybel and T. Sickel, <i>Kaiserurkunden
+in Abbildungen</i> (1880-1891); J. von Pflugk-Harttung,
+<i>Specimina selecta chartarum Pontificum Romanorum</i> (1885-1887);
+<i>Specimina palaeographica regestorum Romanorum pontificum</i> (1888);
+<i>Recueil de fac-similés à l&rsquo;usage de l&rsquo;École des Chartes</i> (not published)
+(1880, &amp;c.); J. Muñoz y Rivero, <i>Chrestomathia palaeographica:
+scripturae Hispanae veteris specimina</i> (1890); E. A. Bond, <i>Facsimiles
+of Ancient Charters in the British Museum</i> (1873-1878):
+W. B. Sanders, <i>Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts</i> (charters)
+(1878-1884); G. F. Warner and H. J. Ellis, <i>Facsimiles of Royal and
+other Charters in the British Museum</i> (1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. M. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPOENUS<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> and <span class="bold">SCYLLIS,</span> early Greek sculptors, who worked
+together, and are said to have been pupils of Daedalus. Pliny
+assigns to them the date 580 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and says that they worked at
+Sicyon, which city from their time onwards became one of the
+great schools of sculpture. They also made statues for Cleonae
+and Argos. They worked in wood, ebony and ivory, and
+apparently also in marble. It is curious that no inscription
+bearing their names has come to light.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1673-1734), German theologian
+and alchemist, son of a Lutheran pastor, was born at the castle of
+Frankenstein, near Darmstadt, on the 10th of August 1673. He
+studied theology at Giessen. After a short visit to Wittenberg
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span>
+he went to Strassburg, where he lectured on alchemy and chiromancy,
+and occasionally preached. He gained considerable
+popularity, but was obliged after a time to quit the city, owing to
+his irregular manner of living. He had up to this time espoused
+the cause of the orthodox as against the pietists; but in his two
+first works, published under the name &ldquo;Christianus Democritus,&rdquo;
+<i>Orthodoxia Orthodoxorum</i> (1697) and <i>Papismus vapulans Protestantium</i>
+(1698), he assailed the fundamental positions of the
+Lutheran theology. He held that religion consisted not in dogma
+but exclusively in love and self-sacrifice. To avoid persecution
+he was compelled to wander from place to place in Germany,
+Holland, Denmark and Sweden. He took the degree of doctor
+of medicine at Leiden in 1711. He discovered Prussian blue,
+and by the destructive distillation of bones prepared the evil-smelling
+product known as Dippel&rsquo;s animal oil. He died near
+Berleburg on the 25th of April 1734.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An enlarged edition of Dippel&rsquo;s collected works was published at
+Berleburg in 1743. See the biographies by J. C. G. Ackermann
+(Leipzig, 1781), H. V. Hoffmann (Darmstadt, 1783), K. Henning
+(1881) and W. Bender (Bonn, 1882); also a memoir by K. Bucher in
+the <i>Historisches Taschenbuch</i> for 1858.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPSOMANIA<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dis">&#948;&#943;&#968;&#945;</span>, thirst, and <span class="grk" title="mania">&#956;&#945;&#957;&#943;&#945;</span>, madness),
+a term formerly applied to the attacks of delirium (<i>q.v.</i>) caused
+by alcoholic poisoning. It is now sometimes loosely used as
+equivalent to the condition of incurable inebriates, but strictly
+should be confined to the pathological and insatiable desire for
+alcohol, sometimes occurring in paroxysms.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPTERA<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="dis">&#948;&#943;&#962;</span>, double, <span class="grk" title="ptera">&#960;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#940;</span>, wings), a term (first employed
+in its modern sense by Linnaeus, <i>Fauna Suecica</i>, 1st
+ed., 1746, p. 306) used in zoological classification for one of the
+Orders into which the <i>Hexapoda</i>, or Insecta, are divided. The
+relation of the Diptera (two-winged flies, or flies proper) to the
+other Orders is dealt with under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The chief characteristic of the Diptera is expressed in the name
+of the Order, since, with the exception of certain aberrant and
+apterous forms, flies possess but a single pair of membranous
+wings, which are attached to the meso-thorax. Wing-covers and
+hind-wings are alike absent, and the latter are represented by a
+pair of little knobbed organs, the halteres or balancers, which
+have a controlling and directing function in flight. The other
+structural characters of the Order may be briefly summarized
+as:&mdash;mouth-parts adapted for piercing and sucking, or for
+suction alone, and consisting of a proboscis formed of the labium,
+and enclosing modifications of the other usual parts of the mouth,
+some of which, however, may be wanting; a thorax fused into
+a single mass; and legs with five-jointed tarsi. The wings, which
+are not capable of being folded, are usually transparent, but
+occasionally pigmented and adorned with coloured spots,
+blotches or bands; the wing-membrane, though sometimes
+clothed with minute hairs, seldom bears scales; the wing-veins,
+which are of great importance in the classification of Diptera,
+are usually few in number and chiefly longitudinal, there being
+a marked paucity of cross-veins. In a large number of Diptera
+an incision in the posterior margin of the wing, near the base,
+marks off a small lobe, the posterior lobe or alula, while connected
+with this but situated on the thorax itself there is a pair of
+membranous scales, or squamae, which when present serve to
+conceal the halteres. The antennae of Diptera, which are also
+extremely important in classification, are thread-like in the more
+primitive families, such as the <i>Tipulidae</i> (daddy-long-legs), where
+they consist of a considerable number of joints, all of which
+except the first two, and sometimes also the last two, are similar
+in shape; in the more specialized families, such as the <i>Tabanidae</i>
+(horse-flies), <i>Syrphidae</i> (hover-flies) or <i>Muscidae</i> (house-flies,
+blue-bottles and their allies), the number of antennal joints is
+greatly reduced by coalescence, so that the antennae appear to
+consist of only three joints. In these forms, however, the third
+joint is really a complex, which in many families bears in addition
+a jointed bristle (arista) or style, representing the terminal joints
+of the primitive antenna. Although in the case of the majority
+of Diptera the body is more or less clothed with hair, the hairy
+covering is usually so short that to the unaided eye the insects
+appear almost bare; some forms, however, such as the bee-flies
+(<i>Bombylius</i>) and certain robber-flies (<i>Asilidae</i>) are conspicuously
+hairy. Bristles are usually present on the legs, and in the case of
+many families on the body also; those on the head and thorax
+are of great importance in classification.</p>
+
+<p>Between 40,000 and 50,000 species of Diptera are at present
+known, but these are only a fraction of those actually in existence.
+The species recognized as British number some 2700, but to this
+total additions are constantly being made. As a rule flies are of
+small or moderate size, and many, such as certain blood-sucking
+midges of the genus <i>Ceratopogon</i>, are even minute; as extremes
+of size may be mentioned a common British midge, <i>Ceratopogon
+varius</i>, the female of which measures only 1¼ millimetre, and the
+gigantic <i>Mydaidae</i> of Central and South America as well as certain
+Australian robber-flies, which have a body 1¾ in. long, with a
+wing-expanse of 3¼ in. In bodily form Diptera present two main
+types, either, as in the case of the more primitive and generalized
+families, they are gnat- or midge-like in shape, with slender
+bodies and long, delicate legs, or else they exhibit a more or less
+distinct resemblance to the common house-fly, having compact
+and stoutly built bodies and legs of moderate length. Diptera
+in general are not remarkable for brilliancy of coloration; as a
+rule they are dull and inconspicuous in hue, the prevailing body-tints
+being browns and greys; occasionally, however, more
+especially in species (<i>Syrphidae</i>) that mimic Hymenoptera, the
+body is conspicuously banded with yellow; a few are metallic,
+such as the species of <i>Formosia</i>, found in the islands of the East
+Indian Archipelago, which are among the most brilliant of all
+insects. The sexes in Diptera are usually alike, though in a
+number of families with short antennae the males are distinguished
+by the fact that their eyes meet together (or nearly so) on the
+forehead. Metamorphosis in Diptera is complete; the larvae are
+utterly different from the perfect insects in appearance, and,
+although varying greatly in outward form, are usually footless
+grubs; those of the <i>Muscidae</i> are generally known as maggots.
+The pupa either shows the appendages of the perfect insect,
+though these are encased in a sheath and adherent to the body,
+or else it is entirely concealed within the hardened and contracted
+larval integument, which forms a barrel-shaped protecting
+capsule or puparium.</p>
+
+<p>Diptera are divided into some sixty families, the exact classification
+of which has not yet been finally settled. The majority
+of authors, however, follow Brauer in dividing the order into
+two sections, Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha, according to the
+manner in which the pupa-case splits to admit of the escape of the
+perfect insect. The general characteristics of the pupae in these
+two sections have already been described.</p>
+
+<p>In the Orthorrhapha, in the pupae of which the appendages
+of the perfect insect are usually visible, the pupa-case generally
+splits in a straight line down the back near the cephalic end; in
+front of this longitudinal cleft there may be a small transverse
+one, the two together forming a T-shaped fissure. In the
+Cyclorrhapha on the other hand, in which the actual pupa is
+concealed within the hardened larval skin, the imago escapes
+through a circular orifice formed by pushing off or through the
+head end of the puparium. The Diptera Orthorrhapha include
+the more primitive and less specialized families such as the
+<i>Tipulidae</i> (daddy-long-legs), <i>Culicidae</i> (gnats or mosquitoes),
+<i>Chironomidae</i> (midges), <i>Mycetophilidae</i> (fungus-midges), <i>Tabanidae</i>
+(horse-flies), <i>Asilidae</i> (robber-flies), &amp;c. The Diptera
+Cyclorrhapha on the other hand consist of the most highly
+specialized families, such as the <i>Syrphidae</i> (hover-flies), <i>Oestridae</i>
+(bot and warble flies), and <i>Muscidae</i> (<i>sensu latiore</i>&mdash;the house-fly
+and its allies, including tsetse-flies, flesh-flies, <i>Tachininae</i>, or flies
+the larvae of which are internal parasites of caterpillars, &amp;c).
+It is customary to divide the Orthorrhapha into the two divisions
+Nematocera and Brachycera, in the former of which the antennae
+are elongate and in a more or less primitive condition, as described
+above, while in the latter these organs are short, and, as already
+explained, apparently composed of only three joints.</p>
+
+<p>Within the divisions named&mdash;Orthorrhapha Nematocera,
+Orthorrhapha Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha&mdash;the constituent
+families are usually grouped into a series of &ldquo;superfamilies,&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span>
+distinguished by features of structure or habit. Certain extremely
+aberrant Diptera, which, in consequence of the adoption of a
+parasitic mode of life, have undergone great structural modification,
+are further remarkable for their peculiar mode of reproduction,
+on account of which the families composing the group are
+often termed Pupipara. In these forms the pregnant female,
+instead of laying eggs, as Diptera usually do, or even producing
+a number of minute living larvae, gives birth at one time but to
+a single larva, which is retained within the oviduct of the mother
+until adult, and assumes the pupal state immediately on extrusion.
+The Pupipara are also termed Eproboscidea (although they
+actually possess a well-developed and functional proboscis), and
+by some dipterists the Eproboscidea are regarded as a suborder
+and contrasted as such with the rest of the Diptera, which are
+styled the suborder Proboscidea. By other writers Proboscidea
+and Eproboscidea are treated as primary divisions of the
+Cyclorrhapha. In reality, however, the families designated
+Eproboscidea (<i>Hippoboscidae</i>, <i>Braulidae</i>, <i>Nycteribiidae</i> and
+<i>Streblidae</i>), are not entitled to be considered as constituting either
+a suborder, or even a main division of the Cyclorrhapha; they
+are simply Cyclorrhapha much modified owing to parasitism, and
+in view of the closely <span class="correction" title="amended from similiar">similar</span> mode of reproduction in the tsetse-flies
+the special designation Pupipara should be abandoned.
+Before leaving the subject of classification it may be noted in
+passing that in 1906 Professor Lameere, of Brussels, proposed a
+scheme for the classification of Diptera which as regards both the
+limits of the families and their grouping into higher categories
+differs considerably from that in current use.</p>
+
+<p>Little light on the relationship and evolution of the various
+families of Diptera is afforded by fossil forms, since as a rule the
+latter are readily referable to existing families. With the exception
+of a few species from the Solenhofen lithographic Oolite,
+fossil Diptera belong to the Tertiary Period, during which
+the members of this order attained a high degree of development.
+In amber, as proved by the deposits on the shores of the Baltic,
+the proverbial &ldquo;fly&rdquo; is more numerous than any other creatures,
+and with very few exceptions representatives of all the
+existing families have been found. The famous Tertiary beds
+at Florissant, Colorado, have yielded a considerable number
+<span class="correction" title="amended from or">of</span> remarkably well-preserved <i>Tipulidae</i> (in which family are
+included the most primitive of existing Diptera), as also species
+belonging to other families, such as <i>Mycetophilidae</i> and even
+<i>Oestridae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Diptera as an order are probably more widely distributed over
+the earth&rsquo;s surface than are the representatives of any similar
+division of the animal kingdom. Flies seem capable of adapting
+themselves to extremes of cold equally as well as to those of heat,
+and species belonging to the order are almost invariably included
+in the collections brought back by members of Arctic expeditions.
+Others are met with in the most isolated localities; thus the
+Rev. A. E. Eaton discovered on the desolate shores of Kerguelen&rsquo;s
+Island apterous and semi-apterous Diptera (<i>Tipulidae</i> and
+<i>Ephydridae</i>) of a degraded type adapted to the climatic peculiarities
+of the locality. Many bird parasites belonging to the
+<i>Hippoboscidae</i> have naturally been carried about the world by
+their hosts, while other species, such as the house-fly, blow-fly and
+drone-fly, have in like manner been disseminated by human
+agency. Most families and a large proportion of genera are
+represented throughout the world, but in some cases (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Glossina</i>&mdash;see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tsetse-Fly</a></span>) the distribution of a genus is limited to a
+continent. As a rule the general <i>facies</i> as well as dimensions are
+remarkably uniform throughout a family, so that tropical species
+often differ little in appearance from those inhabiting temperate
+regions. Many instances of exaggerated and apparently unnatural
+structure nevertheless occur, as in the case of the genera
+<i>Pangonia</i>, <i>Nemestrina</i>, <i>Achias</i>, <i>Diopsis</i> and the family <i>Celyphidae</i>,
+and, as might be expected, it is chiefly in tropical species that
+these peculiarities are found. To a geographical distribution of
+the widest extent, Diptera add a range of habits of the most
+diversified nature; they are both animal and vegetable feeders,
+an enormous number of species acting, especially in the larval
+state, as scavengers in consuming putrescent or decomposing
+matter of both kinds. The phytophagous species are attached to
+various parts of plants, dead or alive; and the carnivorous in like
+manner feed on dead or living flesh, or its products, many larvae
+being parasitic on living animals of various classes (in Australia
+the larva of a species of <i>Muscidae</i> is even a parasite of frogs),
+especially the caterpillars of Lepidoptera, which are destroyed in
+great numbers by <i>Tachininae</i>. The recent discovery of a bloodsucking
+maggot, which is found in native huts throughout the
+greater part of tropical and subtropical Africa, and attacks the
+inmates when asleep, is of great interest.</p>
+
+<p>It may confidently be asserted that, of insects which directly
+or indirectly affect the welfare of man, Diptera form the vast
+majority, and it is a moot point whether the good effected by
+many species in the rapid clearing away of animal and vegetable
+impurities, and in keeping other insect enemies in check, counterbalances
+the evil and annoyance wrought by a large section of the
+Order. The part played by certain blood-sucking Diptera in the
+dissemination of disease is now well known (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mosquito</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tsetse-Fly</a></span>), and under the term <i>myiasis</i> medical literature
+includes a lengthy recital of instances of the presence of Dipterous
+larvae in various parts of the living human body, and the
+injuries caused thereby. That Diptera of the type of the common
+house-fly are often in large measure responsible for the spread
+of such diseases as cholera and enteric fever is undeniable, and
+as regards blood-sucking forms, in addition to those to which
+reference has already been made, it is sufficient to mention the
+vast army of pests constituted by the midges, sand-flies, horse-flies,
+&amp;c., from the attacks of which domestic animals suffer
+equally with man, in addition to being frequently infested with
+the larvae of the bot and warble flies (<i>Gastrophilus</i>, <i>Oestrus</i> and
+<i>Hypoderma</i>). Lastly, as regards the phytophagous forms, there
+can be no doubt that the destruction of grass-lands by &ldquo;leather-jackets&rdquo;
+(the larvae of crane-flies, or daddy-long-legs,&mdash;<i>Tipula
+oleracea</i> and <i>T. paludosa</i>), of divers fruits by <i>Ceratitis capitata</i> and
+species of <i>Dacus</i>, and of wheat and other crops by the Hessian-fly
+(<i>Mayetiola destructor</i>) and species of <i>Oscinis</i>, <i>Chlorops</i>, &amp;c., is of
+very serious consequence.</p>
+
+<p>With many writers it is customary to treat the fleas as a sub-order
+of Diptera, under the title Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera.
+Since, however, although undoubtedly allied to the Diptera, they
+must have diverged from the ancestral stem at an early period,
+before the existing forms of Diptera became so extremely
+specialized, it seems better to regard the fleas as constituting
+an independent order (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flea</a></span>).</p>
+<div class="author">(E. E. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPTERAL<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Gr. for &ldquo;double-winged&rdquo;), the architectural term
+applied to those temples which have a double range of columns in
+the peristyle, as in the temple of Diana at Ephesus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIPTYCH<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="diptychos">&#948;&#953;&#960;&#964;&#965;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, two-folding), (1) A tablet made
+with a hinge to open and shut, used in the Roman empire for
+letters (especially love-letters), and official tokens of the commencement
+of a consul&rsquo;s, praetor&rsquo;s or aedile&rsquo;s term of office. The
+latter variety of diptych was inscribed with the magistrate&rsquo;s name
+and bore his portrait, and was issued to his friends and the public
+generally. They were made of boxwood or maple. More costly
+examples were in cedar, ivory (<i>q.v.</i>), silver or sometimes gold.
+They were often sent as New Year gifts.</p>
+
+<p>(2)In the primitive church when the worshippers brought their
+own offerings of bread and wine, from which were taken the
+Communion elements, the names of the contributors were
+recorded on diptychs and read aloud. To these names were early
+added those of deceased members of the community whom it was
+desired to commemorate. This custom rapidly developed into
+a kind of commemoration of saints and benefactors, living and
+dead; especially, in each church, were the names of those who
+had been its bishops recorded. The custom was maintained until
+the lists became so long that it was impossible to read them
+through, and the observance in this form had to be abandoned.
+The insertion of a name on the diptych, thereby securing the
+prayers of the church, was a privilege from which a person could
+be excluded on account of suspicion of heresy or by the intrigues
+of enemies. His name could, if written, be expunged under
+similar circumstances. The names thus written were read from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span>
+the ambo, in which the diptych was kept. The reading of these
+names during the canon of the mass gave rise to the term <i>canonization</i>.
+By various councils it was ordained that the name of the
+pope should always be inserted in the diptych list.</p>
+
+<p>The addition of <i>dates</i> resulted from the custom of recording
+baptisms and deaths; and thus the diptych developed into a
+calendar and formed the germ of the elaborate system of
+festologies, martyrologies and calendars which developed in
+the church.</p>
+
+<p>The diptych went by various names in the early church&mdash;mystical
+tablets, anniversary books, ecclesiastical matriculation
+registers or books of the living. According to the names inscribed,
+bishops, the dead or the living, a diptych might be a
+<i>diptycha episcoporum</i>, <i>diptycha mortuorum</i> or <i>diptycha vivorum</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In course of time the list of the names swelled to such proportions
+that the space afforded by the diptych was insufficient. A
+third fold was consequently provided, and the tablet became a
+<i>triptych</i> (though the name <i>diptych</i> was retained as a general term
+for the object). Further room was afforded by the insertion of
+leaves of parchment or wood between the folds. The custom of
+reading names from the diptychs died out about the 8th century.
+The diptychs, however, were retained as altar ornaments. From
+the original consular documents onwards, the outsides of the
+folds had always been richly ornamented, and when they ceased
+to be of immediate practical use they became merely decorative.
+Instead of the list of names the inside was ornamented
+like the outer, and in the middle ages the best painters of the
+day would often paint them. When folded, the portraits
+of the donor and his wife might be shown; when open there
+would be three paintings, one on each fold, of a religious
+character.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIR,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> an independent state in the North-West Frontier Province
+of India, lying to the north-east of Swat. Its importance chiefly
+arises from the fact that it commands the greater part of the route
+between Chitral and the Peshawar frontier. The quarrels and
+intrigues between the khan of Dir and Umra Khan of Jandol were
+among the chief events that led up to the Chitral Campaign of
+1895. During that expedition the khan made an agreement with
+the British Government to keep the road to Chitral open in return
+for a subsidy. Including the Bashkars, an aboriginal tribe allied
+to the Torwals and Garhuis, who inhabit Panjkora Kohistan, the
+population is estimated at about 100,000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIRCE,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> in Greek legend, daughter of Helios the sun-god, the
+second wife of Lycus, king of Thebes. She sorely persecuted
+Antiope, his first wife, who escaped to Mount Cithaeron, where
+her twin sons Amphion and Zethus were being brought up by a
+herdsman who was ignorant of their parentage. Having recognized
+their mother, the sons avenged her by tying Dirce to the
+horns of a wild bull, which dragged her about till she died. Her
+body was cast into a spring near Thebes, which was ever afterwards
+called by her name. Her punishment is the subject of the
+famous group called &ldquo;The Farnese Bull,&rdquo; by Apollonius and
+Tauriscus of Tralles, in the Naples museum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>,
+Plate I. fig. 51).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIRECT MOTION,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> in astronomy, the apparent motion of a body
+of the solar system on the celestial sphere in the direction from
+west to east; so called because this is the usual direction of
+revolution and rotation of the heavenly bodies.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIRECTORS,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> in company law, the agents by whom a trading
+or public company acts, the company itself being a legal abstraction
+and unable to do anything. As joint-stock companies
+have multiplied and their enterprise has extended, the position of
+directors has become one of increasing influence and importance.
+It is they who control the colossal funds now invested in trading
+companies, and who direct their policy (for shareholders are
+seldom more than dividend-drawers). Upon their uprightness,
+vigilance and sound judgment depends the welfare of the greatest
+part of the trade of the country concerned. It is not to be
+wondered at that in view of this influence and independence of
+action the law courts have held directors to a strict standard
+of duty, and that the parliament of the United Kingdom has
+singled out directors from other agents for special legislation in
+the Directors Liability Act 1890, the Larceny Act 1861, the
+Companies Act 1867 and the Winding-up Act 1890.</p>
+
+<p>The first directors of a company are generally appointed by the
+articles of association. Their consent to act must now, under the
+Companies Act 1908, be filed with the registrar of joint-stock companies.
+Directors other than the first are elected at the annual
+general meeting, a certain proportion of the acting directors&mdash;usually
+one-third&mdash;retiring under the articles by rotation each
+year, and their places being filled up by election. A share qualification
+is nearly always required, on the well-recognized principle
+that a substantial stake in the undertaking is the best guarantee
+of fidelity to the company&rsquo;s interests. A director once appointed
+cannot be removed during his term of office by the shareholders,
+unless there is a special provision for that purpose in the articles
+of association; but a company may dismiss a director if the
+articles&mdash;as is usually the case&mdash;authorize dismissal. The
+authority and powers of directors are prima facie those necessary
+for carrying on the ordinary business of the company, but it is
+usual to define the more important of such powers in the articles
+of association. For instance, it is commonly prescribed how and
+when the directors may make calls, to what amount they may
+borrow, how they may invest the funds of the company, in what
+circumstances they may forfeit shares, or veto transfers, in what
+manner they shall conduct their proceedings, and what shall
+constitute a quorum of the board. Whenever, indeed, specific
+directions are desirable they may properly be given by the articles.
+But superadded to and supplementing these specific powers there
+is usually inserted in the articles a general power of management
+in terms similar to those of clause 55 of the model regulations for
+a company, known as Table A (clause 71 of the revised Table).
+The powers, whether general or specific, thus confided to directors
+are in the nature of a trust, and the directors must exercise them
+with a single eye to the benefit of the company. For instance, in
+allotting shares they must consult the interests of the company,
+not favour their friends. So in forfeiting shares they must not use
+the power collusively for the purpose of relieving the shareholder
+from liability. To do so is an abuse of the power and a fraud on
+the other shareholders.</p>
+
+<p>It would give a very erroneous idea of the position and functions
+of directors to speak of them&mdash;as is sometimes done&mdash;as trustees.
+They are only trustees in the sense that every agent is. They are
+&ldquo;commercial men managing a trading concern for the benefit of
+themselves and the other shareholders.&rdquo; They have to carry on
+the company&rsquo;s business, to extend and consolidate it, and to do
+this they must have a free hand and a large discretion to deal with
+the exigencies of the <span class="correction" title="amended from commerical">commercial</span> situation. This large discretion
+the law allows them so long as they keep within the limits set
+by the company&rsquo;s memorandum and articles. They are not to be
+held liable for mere errors of judgment, still less for being defrauded.
+That would make their position intolerable. All that
+the law requires of them is that they should be faithful to their
+duties as agents&mdash;&ldquo;diligent and honest,&rdquo; to use the words of Sir
+George Jessel, formerly master of the rolls. Thus in the matter of
+diligence it is a director&rsquo;s duty to attend as far as possible all
+meetings of the board; at the same time non-attendance, unless
+gross, will not amount to negligence such as to render a director
+liable for irregularities committed by his co-directors in his
+absence. A director again must not sign cheques without informing
+himself of the purpose for which they are given. A director,
+on the same principle, must not delegate his duties to others unless
+expressly authorized to do so, as where the company&rsquo;s articles
+empower the directors to appoint a committee. Directors may,
+it is true, employ skilled persons, such as engineers, valuers or
+accountants, to assist them, but they must still exercise their
+judgment as business men on the materials before them. Then in
+the matter of honesty, a director must not accept a present in cash
+or shares or in any other form whatever from the company&rsquo;s
+vendor, because such a present is neither more nor less than a bribe
+to betray the interests of the company, nor must he make any
+profit in the matter of his agency without the knowledge and
+consent of his principal, the company. He must not, in other
+words, put himself in a position in which his duty to the company
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span>
+and his own interest conflict or even may conflict. This rule often
+comes into play in the case of contracts between a company and a
+director. There is nothing in itself invalid in such a contract, but
+the onus is on the director if he would keep such a contract to
+show that the company assented to his making a profit out of the
+contract, and for that purpose he must show that he made full and
+fair disclosure to the company of the nature and extent of his
+interest under the contract. It is for this reason that when a
+company&rsquo;s vendor is also a director he does not join the board
+until his co-directors have exercised an independent judgment on
+the propriety of the purchase.</p>
+
+<p>A director must also bear in mind&mdash;what is a fundamental
+principle of company management&mdash;that the funds of the
+company are entrusted to the directors for the objects of the
+company as defined by the company&rsquo;s memorandum of association
+and authorized by the general law, and that they must not be
+diverted from those objects or applied to purposes which are outside
+the objects of the company, <i>ultra vires</i>, as it is commonly
+called, or outside the powers of management given by the shareholders
+to the directors. This does not abridge the large discretion
+allowed to directors in carrying on the business of the
+company. The funds embarked in a trading company are
+intended to be employed for the acquisition of gain, and risk,
+greater or less according to circumstances, is necessarily incidental
+to such employment; but it is quite another matter when
+directors pay dividends out of capital, or return capital to the
+shareholders, or spend money of the company in &ldquo;rigging&rdquo; the
+market, or in buying the company&rsquo;s shares or paying commission
+for underwriting the shares of the company except where such
+commission is authorized under acts of 1900 and 1907, incorporated
+in the Companies Act 1908. Directors who in these or
+any other ways misapply the funds of the company are guilty
+of what is technically known as &ldquo;misfeasance&rdquo; or breach
+of trust, and all who join in the misapplication are jointly and
+severally liable to replace the sums so misapplied. The remedy of
+the company for misfeasance, if the company is a going concern,
+is by action against the delinquent directors; but where a
+company is being wound up, the legislature has, under the
+Winding-up Act 1890, provided a summary mode of proceeding,
+by which the official receiver or liquidator, or any creditor or
+contributory of the company, may take out what is known as a
+misfeasance summons, to compel the delinquent director or officer
+to repay the misapplied moneys or make compensation. The
+departmental committee of the Board of Trade in its report (July
+1906) recommended that the court should be given a discretionary
+power, analogous to that it already possesses in the case of
+trustees under the Judicial Trustees Act 1896, s. 3, to relieve a
+director (or a promoter) in certain cases from liability. This
+recommendation has been given effect to by s. 279 of the
+Companies Act 1908, which provides that, &ldquo;If in any proceeding
+against a director of a company for negligence or breach of trust
+it appears to a court that the director is or may be liable in respect
+of the negligence or breach of trust, but has acted honestly and
+reasonably and ought fairly to be excused for the negligence
+or breach of trust, the court may relieve him either wholly or
+partly from his liability on such terms as the court may think
+proper.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Directors who circulate a prospectus containing statements
+which they know to be false, with intent to induce any person
+to become a shareholder, may be prosecuted under § 84 of the
+Larceny Act 1861. They are also liable criminally for falsification
+of the company&rsquo;s books, and for this or any other criminal offence
+the court in winding up may, on the application of the liquidator,
+direct a prosecution. As to the liability of directors for statements
+or omissions in a prospectus see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Company</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>In managing the affairs of the company directors must meet
+together and act as a body, for the company is entitled to their
+collective wisdom in council assembled. Board meetings are held
+at such intervals as the directors think expedient. Notice of the
+meeting must be given to all directors who are within reach, but
+the notice need not specify the particular business to be transacted.
+The articles usually fix, or give the directors power to fix,
+what number shall constitute a quorum for a board meeting.
+They also empower the directors to elect a chairman of the board.
+The directors exercise their powers by a resolution of the board
+which is recorded in the directors&rsquo; minute-book.</p>
+
+<p>The court will not as a rule interfere with the discretion of
+directors honestly exercised in the management of the affairs of
+the company. The directors have prima facie the confidence of
+the shareholders, and it is not for the court to say that such confidence
+is misplaced. If the stockholders are dissatisfied with
+the management the remedy is in their own hands&mdash;they can
+call a meeting and elect a new board.</p>
+
+<p>A company&rsquo;s articles usually provide for the payment of a
+certain sum to each director for his services during the year.
+When this is the case it is an authority to the directors to pay
+themselves the amount of such remuneration. The remuneration,
+unless otherwise expressly provided, covers all expenses incidental
+to the directors&rsquo; duties. A director, for instance, cannot claim to
+be paid in addition to his fixed remuneration his travelling
+expenses for attending board meetings.</p>
+
+<p>When a company winds up, the directors&rsquo; powers of management
+come to an end. Their agency is superseded in favour of
+that of the liquidator.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. Ma.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIRECTORY,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> a term meaning literally that which guides or
+directs, and so applied to a book or set of rules giving directions
+for public worship. The <i>directorium</i> or <i>ordo</i> of the Roman Church
+contains regulations as to the Mass and office to be used on each
+day throughout the year, and the word is found in the <i>Directory
+for the Publick Worship of God</i> drawn up in 1644 at the Westminster
+Assembly. The term now usually signifies a book containing
+the names, addresses and occupations, &amp;c. of the inhabitants
+of a town or district, or of a similar list of the users of a telephone
+supply, or of the members of a particular profession or trade.
+The name <i>Directoire</i> or Directory was given to the body which
+held the executive power in France from October 1795 until
+November 1799 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolution</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIRGE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a song or hymn of mourning, particularly one sung at
+funerals or at a Service in commemoration of the dead. It is
+derived from the first word of the antiphon <i>&rdquo;Dirige, Domine,
+Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam&rdquo;</i> (Guide, O Lord, my
+God, my way in Thy sight), of the opening psalm in the office for
+the dead in the Roman Church. The antiphon is adapted from
+verse 8 of Psalm v.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIRK,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a dagger, particularly the heavy dagger carried by the
+Highlanders of Scotland. The dirk as worn in full Highland
+costume is an elaborately ornamented weapon, with cairngorms
+or other stones set in the head of the handle, which has no guard.
+Inserted in the sheath there may be two small knives. The dirk,
+in the shape of a straight blade, with a small guard, some 18 in.
+long, is worn by midshipmen in the British navy. The origin of
+the word is doubtful. The earlier forms were <i>dork</i> and <i>durk</i>, and
+the spelling <i>dirk</i>, adopted by Johnson, represents the pronunciation
+of the second form. The name seems to have been early
+applied to the daggers of the Highlanders, but the Gaelic word is
+<i>biodag</i>, and the Irish <i>duirc</i>, often stated to be the origin, is only an
+adaptation of the English word. It may be a corruption of the
+German <i>Dolch</i>, a dagger. The suggestion that it is an application
+of the Christian name &ldquo;Dirk,&rdquo; the short form of &ldquo;Dieterich,&rdquo; is
+not borne out, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, by any
+use of this name for a dagger, and is further disproved by the
+earlier English spelling.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIRSCHAU,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia,
+province of West Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 20 m. S.
+from Danzig and at the junction of the important lines of railway
+Berlin-Königsberg and Danzig-Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 14,185.
+It has a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church and several
+schools. The river is here crossed by two fine iron bridges. The
+older structure dating from the year 1857, originally used for the
+railway, is now given up to road traffic, and the railway carried
+by a new bridge completed in 1891. Dirschau has railway workshops
+and manufactories of sugar, agricultural implements and
+cement. During the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus made
+it his headquarters for many months after its capture in 1626.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISABILITY,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> a term meaning, in general, want of ability, and
+used in law to denote an incapacity in certain persons or classes of
+persons for the full enjoyment of duties or privileges, which, but
+for their disqualification, would be open to them; hence, legal
+disqualification. Thus, married women, persons under age,
+insane persons, convicted felons are under disability to do certain
+legal acts. This disability may be absolute, wholly disabling the
+person so long as it continues, or partial, ceasing on discontinuation
+of the disabling state, as attainment of full age.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISCHARGE<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (adapted from the O. Fr. <i>descharge</i>, modern
+<i>décharge</i>, from a med. Lat. <i>discargare</i>, to unload, <i>dis-</i> and <i>carricare</i>,
+to load, cf. &ldquo;charge&rdquo;), a word meaning relief from a load or
+burden, hence applied to the unloading of a ship, the firing of
+a weapon, the passage of electricity from an electrified body,
+the issue from a wound, &amp;c. From the sense of relief from an
+obligation, &ldquo;discharge&rdquo; is also applied to the release of a soldier
+or sailor from military or naval service, or of the crew of a
+merchant vessel, or to the dismissal from an office or situation.
+In law, it is used of a document or other evidence that can be
+accepted as proof of the release from an obligation, as of a receipt,
+on payment of money due. Similarly it is applied to the release
+in accordance with law of a person in custody on a criminal
+charge, and to the legal release of a bankrupt from further
+liability for debts provable in the bankruptcy except those
+incurred by fraud or debts to the crown. It is also applied to the
+reversal of an order of a court. In the case of divorce, where the
+rule <i>nisi</i> is not made absolute, the rule is said to be discharged.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISCHARGING ARCH,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> in architecture, an arch built over a
+lintel or architrave to take off the superincumbent weight. The
+earliest example is found in the Great Pyramid, over the lintels of
+the entrance passage to the tomb: it consisted of two stones only,
+resting one against the other. The same object was attained in
+the Lion Gate and the tomb of Agamemnon, both in Mycenae, and
+in other examples in Greece, where the stones laid in horizontal
+courses, one projecting over the other, left a triangular hollow
+space above the lintel of the door, which was subsequently filled
+in by vertical sculptured stone panels. The Romans frequently
+employed the discharging arch, and inside the portico of the
+Pantheon the architraves have such arches over them. In
+the Golden Gateway of the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the
+discharging arches, semicircular in form, were adopted as architectural
+features and decorated with mouldings. The same is
+found in the synagogues in Palestine of the 2nd century; and
+later, in Byzantine architecture, these moulded archivolts above
+an architrave constitute one of the characteristics of the style.
+In the early Christian churches in Rome, where a colonnade
+divided off the nave and aisles, discharging arches are turned in
+the frieze just above the architraves.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISCIPLE,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> properly a pupil, scholar (Lat. <i>discipulus</i>, from
+<i>discere</i>, to learn, and root seen in <i>pupillus</i>), but chiefly used of
+the personal followers of Jesus Christ, including the inner circle
+of the Apostles (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISCIPLES OF CHRIST,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Christians</span>, an American Protestant
+denomination, founded by Thomas Campbell, his son
+Alexander Campbell (<i>q.v.</i>) and Barton Warren Stone (1772-1844).
+Stone had been a Presbyterian minister prominent in the
+Kentucky revival of 1801, but had been turned against sectarianism
+and ecclesiastical authority because the synod had condemned
+Richard McNemar, one of his colleagues in the revival, for
+preaching (as Stone himself had done) counter to the Westminster
+Confession, on faith and the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion.
+He had organized the Springfield Presbytery, but in 1804 with his
+five fellow ministers signed &ldquo;The Last Will and Testament of the
+Springfield Presbytery,&rdquo; giving up that name and calling themselves
+&ldquo;Christians.&rdquo; Like Stone, Alexander Campbell had
+adopted (in 1812) immersion, and, like him, his two great desires
+were for Christian unity and the restoration of the ancient order
+of things. But the Campbellite doctrines differed widely from the
+hyper-Calvinism of the Baptists whom they had joined in 1813,
+especially on the points on which Stone had quarrelled with
+the Presbyterians; and after various local breaks in 1825-1830,
+when there were large additions to the Restorationists from
+the Baptist ranks, especially under the apostolic fervour and
+simplicity of the preaching of Walter Scott (1796-1861), in 1832
+the Reformers were practically all ruled out of the Baptist communion.
+The Campbells gradually lost sight of Christian unity,
+owing to the unfortunate experience with the Baptists and to the
+tone taken by those clergymen who had met them in debates;
+and for the sake of Christian union it was peculiarly fortunate
+that in January 1832 at Lexington, Kentucky, the followers of
+the Campbells and those of Stone (who had stressed union more
+than primitive Christianity) united. Campbell objected to the
+name &ldquo;Christians&rdquo; as sectarianized by Stone, but &ldquo;Disciples&rdquo;
+never drove out of use the name &ldquo;Christians.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>During the Civil War the denomination escaped an actual
+scission by following the neutral views of Campbell, who opposed
+slavery, war and abolition. In 1849 the American Christian
+Missionary Society was formed; it was immediately attacked as a
+&ldquo;human innovation,&rdquo; unwarranted by the New Testament, by
+literalists led in later years by Benjamin Franklin (secretary of the
+missionary society in 1857), who opposed all church music also.
+Isaac Errett (1820-1888) was the most prominent leader of the
+progressive party, which was considered corrupt and worldly
+by the literalists, many of whom, in spite of his efforts, broke off
+from the main body, especially in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee,
+Arkansas and Texas.</p>
+
+<p>The main body appointed in 1890 a standing committee on
+Christian union; their aim in this respect is not for absorption,
+as was clearly shown by their answer in 1887 to overtures from
+the Protestant Episcopal Church regarding Christian unity. The
+credal position of the Disciples is simple: great stress is put upon
+the phrase &ldquo;the Christ, the Son of the living God,&rdquo; and upon the
+recognition by Jesus of this confession as the foundation of His
+church; as to baptism, agreement with Baptists is only as to the
+mode, immersion; this is considered &ldquo;the primitive confession
+of Christ and a gracious token of salvation,&rdquo; and as being &ldquo;for
+the remission of sins&rdquo;; the Disciples generally deny the authority
+over Christians of the Old Covenant, and Alexander Campbell in
+particular held this view so forcibly that he was accused by
+Baptists of &ldquo;throwing away the Old Testament.&rdquo; The Lord&rsquo;s
+Supper is celebrated every Sunday, the bread being broken by
+the communicants. The Disciples are not Unitarian in fact or
+tendency, but they urge the use of simple New Testament
+phraseology as to the Godhead. Their church government is
+congregational.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The growth of the denomination has been greatest in the states
+along the Ohio river, whence they have spread throughout the Union.
+In 1908 there were 6673 ministers and 1,285,123 communicants in the
+United States. There are churches in Canada, in Great Britain and
+in Australia. Bethany College, at Bethany, West Virginia, was
+chartered in 1840, and Alexander Campbell, who had founded it as
+Buffalo Seminary, was its president until his death in 1866; other
+colleges founded by the sect are: Kentucky University, Lexington,
+Ky.; Hiram College, Hiram, Ohio (1850, until 1867 known as
+Western Reserve Eclectic Institute); Butler College, Indianapolis,
+Indiana (1855); Christian University, Canton, Missouri (1851;
+coeducational); Eureka College, in Woodford county, Illinois (1855;
+coeducational); Union Christian College, Merom, Ind. (1859);
+Texas Christian University, Waco, Texas (1873, founded as Add
+Ran College at Thorpe&rsquo;s Springs, removing to Waco in 1895); Drake
+University, Des Moines, Iowa (1881); Milligan College, Milligan,
+Tennessee (1882); Defiance College, Defiance, O. (1885); Cotner
+University, Lincoln, Nebraska (1889); Elon College, Elon, North
+Carolina (1890); American University, Harriman, Tenn. (1893);
+the Virginia Christian College, Lynchburg, Virginia (1903), and for
+negroes, the Southern Christian Institute, Edwards, Mississippi
+(1877), and the Christian Bible College, Newcastle, Henry County,
+Ky. Theological seminaries are the Berkeley Bible Seminary,
+Berkeley, California (1896); the Disciples&rsquo; Divinity House, Chicago,
+Ill. (1894); and the Eugene Divinity School, Eugene, Oregon
+(1895). &ldquo;Bible chairs&rdquo; were established in state universities and
+elsewhere by the Disciples,&mdash;at the University of Michigan (1893),
+at the University of Virginia (1899), at the University of Calcutta
+(1900) and at the University of Kansas (1901). The denomination has
+publishing houses in Cincinnati, St Louis, Louisville and Nashville.</p>
+
+<p>See Errett Gates&rsquo;s <i>History of the Disciples of Christ</i> (New
+York, 1905), in &ldquo;The Story of the Churches&rdquo; series, and his <i>Early
+Relation and Separation of Baptists and Disciples</i> (Chicago, 1904),
+a University of Chicago doctoral thesis; and B. B. Tyler&rsquo;s <i>History
+of the Disciples of Christ</i> in vol. xii. of &ldquo;The American Church
+History Series&rdquo; (New York, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISCLAIMER,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a renunciation, denial or refusal; a disavowal
+of claims. In law the term is used more particularly in the
+following senses:&mdash;(1) In the law of landlord and tenant, the direct
+repudiation of that relation by some act on the part of the tenant.
+A disclaimer may be verbal or written, but in such case it must be
+something more than a mere renunciation of the tenant&rsquo;s title, or
+it may be an act which is wholly inconsistent with the existence of
+such relation, as the setting up by the tenant of a distinct title
+either in himself or some third party. (2) In the law of bankruptcy,
+where any part of the property of a bankrupt consists of
+land of any tenure burdened with onerous covenants, of stocks or
+shares in companies, of unprofitable contracts, or of any property
+that is unsaleable, or not readily saleable, by reason of its binding
+the possessor to the performance of any onerous act, the trustee,
+notwithstanding that he has endeavoured to sell or has taken
+possession of the property, or exercised any act of ownership in
+relation to it, may, subject to certain provisions, by writing signed
+by him, at any time within twelve months after the first appointment
+of a trustee, &ldquo;disclaim&rdquo; the property (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>).
+(3) In the law of trusts, disclaimer is the refusal or renunciation of
+the office or duties of a trustee. It is an undisputed rule that no
+one is compellable to undertake a trust, so that as soon as a person
+knows he has been appointed a trustee under some instrument, he
+should determine whether he will accept the office or not. Disclaimer
+of trust should be by deed, as admitting of no ambiguity,
+but it may be by conveyance to other accepting trustees, or orally,
+or by written declaration, or even by conduct. (4) In the law of
+patents, disclaimer is the renunciation, by amendment of specifications,
+of the portion of an inventor&rsquo;s claim to protection.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISCOUNT.<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1) A money-market term for the price paid in
+order to obtain immediate realization of a bill not yet due. If a
+bill for £100 due six months hence is discounted at the rate of
+3% per annum, its holder will obtain £98, 10s. in cash for it.
+(2) A Stock-Exchange term applied to a security, not fully paid,
+which has fallen below its issue price, and so is said to stand at so
+much discount. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Premium</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISCOVERY,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> in law, the revealing or disclosing of any matter.
+The English common law courts were originally unable to compel
+a litigant before a trial to disclose the facts and documents on
+which he relied. In equity, however, a different rule prevailed,
+there being an absolute right to discovery of all material facts on
+which a case was founded. Now the practice is regulated by the
+Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, Order 31. Discovery is of two
+kinds, namely, by interrogatories and by affidavit of documents,
+provision being also made for the production and inspection of
+documents. Where a party to a suit can make an affidavit
+stating that in his belief certain specified documents are or have
+been in the possession of some other party, the court may make an
+order that such party state on affidavit whether he has or ever had
+any of those documents in his possession, or if he has parted with
+them or what has become of them. A further application may
+then be made by notice to the party who has admitted possession
+of the documents for production and inspection. Copies also may
+be taken of the more important documents. There is also discovery
+of facts obtained by means of interrogatories, <i>i.e.</i> written
+questions addressed on behalf of one party, before trial, to the
+other party, who is bound to answer them in writing upon oath.
+In order to prevent needless expense the party seeking discovery
+must first secure the cost of it by paying into court a sum of
+money, generally not less than five pounds. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Evidence</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISCUS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="diskos">&#948;&#943;&#963;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, disk), a circular plate of stone, later of
+metal, which was used by the ancient Greeks for throwing to a
+distance as a gymnastic exercise. Judging from specimens found
+by excavators, the ancient discus was about 8 or 9 in. in diameter
+and weighed from 4 to 5 &#8468;, although one of bronze, preserved
+in the British Museum, weighs over 8 &#8468;. Sometimes a kind of
+quoit, spherical in form, was used, through a hole in which a thong
+was passed to assist the athlete in throwing it. The sport of
+throwing the discus was common in the time of Homer, who
+mentions it repeatedly. It formed a part of the <i>pentathlon</i>, or
+quintuple games, in the ancient Olympic Games. Statius, in
+<i>Thebais</i>, 646-721, fully describes the use of the discus. In the
+British Museum there is a restored copy of a statue by Myron
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, Plate IV. fig. 68) of a discus-thrower (<i>discobolus</i>)
+in the act of hurling the missile; but the investigations of N. E.
+Norman Gardiner show that a wrong attitude has been adopted
+by the restorer.</p>
+
+<p>Throwing the discus was introduced as an event in modern
+athletics at the revived Olympic Games, first held at Athens in
+1896, and since that time it has become a recognized event in the
+athletic championship meetings of several European nations, as
+well as in the United States, where it has become very popular.
+According to the American rules the discus must be of a smooth,
+hard-wood body without finger-holes, weighted in the centre with
+lead disks and capped with polished brass disks, with a steel ring
+on the outside. Its weight must be 4½ &#8468;, its outside diameter
+8 in. and its thickness at the centre 2 in. It must be thrown from
+a 7-ft. circle, which may not be overstepped in throwing, and the
+throw is measured from the spot where the discus first strikes the
+ground to the point in the circumference of the circle on a line
+between the centre and the point of striking.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISINFECTANTS,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> substances employed to neutralize the action
+of pathogenic organisms, and prevent the spread of contagious or
+infectious disease. The efficiency of any disinfectant is due to
+its power of destroying, or of rendering inert, specific poisons or
+disease germs. Therefore antiseptic substances generally are to
+this extent disinfectants. So also the deodorizers, which act
+by oxidizing or otherwise changing the chemical constitution of
+volatile substances disseminated in the air, or which prevent
+noxious exhalations from organic substances, are in virtue of
+these properties effective disinfectants in certain diseases. A
+knowledge of the value of disinfectants, and the use of some of the
+most valuable agents, can be traced to very remote times; and
+much of the Levitical law of cleansing, as well as the origin of
+numerous heathen ceremonial practices, are clearly based on a
+perception of the value of disinfection. The means of disinfection,
+and the substances employed, are very numerous, as are the
+classes and conditions of disease and contagion they are designed
+to meet. Nature, in the oxidizing influence of freely circulating
+atmospheric air, in the purifying effect of water, and in the
+powerful deodorizing properties of common earth, has provided
+the most potent ever-present and acting disinfecting media. Of
+the artificial disinfectants employed or available three classes may
+be recognized:&mdash;1st, volatile or vaporizable substances, which
+attack impurities in the air; 2nd, chemical agents, for acting on
+the diseased body or on the infectious discharges therefrom; and
+3rd, the physical agencies of heat and cold. In some of these
+cases the destruction of the contagium is effected by the formation
+of new chemical compounds, by oxidation, deoxidation or other
+reaction, and in others the conditions favourable to life are
+removed or life is destroyed by high temperature. Among the
+first class, aerial or gaseous disinfectants, formic aldehyde has
+of late years taken foremost place. The vapour is a powerful
+disinfectant and deodorant, and for the surface disinfection of
+rooms, fulfils all requirements when used in sufficient amount.
+It acts more rapidly than equal quantities of sulphurous acid, and
+it does not affect colours. It is non-poisonous, though irritating
+to the eyes and throat. With the exception of iron and steel it
+does not attack metals. It can be obtained in paraform tabloids,
+and with a specially constructed spirit lamp disinfection can be
+carried out by any one. Twenty tabloids must be employed for
+every 1000 cubic ft. of space. Disinfection by sulphurous acid
+fumes is of great antiquity, and is still in very general use; for
+the purpose of destroying vermin it is more powerful than formic
+aldehyde. Camphor and some volatile oils have also been
+employed as air disinfectants, but their virtues lie chiefly in
+masking, not destroying, noxious effluvia. In the 2nd class&mdash;non-gaseous
+disinfecting compounds&mdash;all the numerous antiseptic
+substances may be reckoned; but the substances principally employed
+in practice are oxidizing agents, as potassium manganates
+and permanganates, &ldquo;Condy&rsquo;s fluid,&rdquo; and solutions of the so-called
+&ldquo;chlorides of lime,&rdquo; soda and potash, with the chlorides of
+aluminium and zinc, soluble sulphates and sulphites, solutions of
+sulphurous acid, and the tar products&mdash;carbolic, cresylic and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span>
+salicylic acids. Of the physical agents heat and cold, the latter,
+though a powerful natural disinfectant, is not practically available
+by artificial means; heat is a power chiefly relied on for purifying
+and disinfecting clothes, bedding and textile substances generally.
+Different degrees of temperature are required for the destruction
+of the virus of various diseases; but as clothing, &amp;c., can be
+exposed to a heat of about 250° Fahr. without injury, provision is
+made for submitting articles to nearly that temperature. For the
+thorough disinfection of a sick-room the employment of all three
+classes of disinfectants, for purifying the air, for destroying the
+virus at its point of origin, and for cleansing clothing, &amp;c., may be
+required.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISMAL,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> an adjective meaning dreary, gloomy, and so a name
+given to stretches of swampy land on the east coast of the United
+States, as the Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina.
+The derivation has been much discussed. In the early examples
+of the use the word is a substantive, especially in the expression
+&ldquo;in the dismal,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> in the dismal time or days. Later
+it became adjectival, especially in combination with &ldquo;days.&rdquo; It
+has been connected with &ldquo;decimal,&rdquo; med. Latin <i>decimalis</i>,
+belonging to a tithe or tenth, and thus the &ldquo;dismal days&rdquo; are the
+unpleasant days connected with the extortion and oppression
+of exacting payment of tithes. According to the <i>New English
+Dictionary</i>, quoting Professor W. W. Skeat, &ldquo;dismal&rdquo; is derived,
+through an Anglo-Fr. <i>dis mal</i>, from the Lat. <i>dies mali</i>, evil or
+unpropitious days. This Anglo-French expression, explained as
+<i>les mal jours</i>, is found in a MS. of Rauf de Linham&rsquo;s <i>Art de
+Kalender</i>, 1256. These days of evil omen were known as <i>Dies
+Aegyptiaci</i> (Du Cange, <i>Glossarium, s.v.</i>) or Egyptian days, either
+as having been instituted by Egyptian astrologers or with reference
+to the &ldquo;ten plagues&rdquo;; so Chaucer, &ldquo;I trowe hit was in
+the dismal, That were the ten woundes of Egipte&rdquo; (<i>Book of
+the Duchesse</i>, 1206). There were two such days in each month.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Skeat, Trans. <i>Philol. Soc.</i> (1888), p. 2, and note on the line in
+the &ldquo;Book of the Duchesse,&rdquo; <i>The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer</i>,
+vol. i. (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISORDERLY HOUSE,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> in law, a house in which the conduct of
+its inmates is such as to become a public nuisance, or a house
+where persons congregate to the probable disturbance of the public
+peace or other commission of crime. In England, by the Disorderly
+Houses Act 1751, the term includes common bawdy
+houses or brothels,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> common gaming houses, common betting
+houses and disorderly places of entertainment. The keeping of
+such is a misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment, and
+in the case of a brothel also punishable on summary conviction by
+the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885; the letting out for gain
+for indiscriminate prostitution of a room or rooms in a house will
+make it as much a brothel in law as if the whole house were let out
+for the purpose. Where, however, a woman occupies a house or
+room which is frequented by men for the purpose of committing
+fornication with her, she cannot be convicted of keeping a disorderly
+house. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prostitution</a></span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The etymology of this word has been confused by the early
+adoption into English usage of the O. Fr. <i>bordel</i>. The two words
+are in origin quite distinct. Brothel is an O. Eng. word for a person,
+not a place. It meant an abandoned vagabond, one who had gone to
+ruin (<i>abréothan</i>). <i>Bordel</i>, on the contrary, is a place, literally a small
+hut or shelter, especially for fornication, Med. Lat. <i>bordellum</i>,
+diminutive of the Late Lat. <i>borda</i>, board. The words were early
+confused, and brothel-house, bordel-house, bordel or brothel, are all
+used for a disorderly house, while bordel was similarly misused, and,
+like brothel in its proper meaning, was applied to a disorderly person.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISPATCH,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Despatch</span>, to send off immediately, or by
+express; particularly in the case of the sending of official
+messages, or of the immediate sending of troops to their destination,
+or the like. The word is thus used as a substantive of written
+official reports of events, battles and the like, sent by ambassadors,
+generals, &amp;c., by means of a special messenger, or of express
+correspondence generally. From the primary meaning of the
+prompt sending of a message, &amp;c., the word is used of the quick
+disposal of business, or of the disposal of a person by violence;
+hence the word means to execute or murder. The etymology of
+the word has been obscured by the connexion with the Fr.
+<i>dépêcher</i>, and <i>dépêche</i>, which are in meaning the equivalents of
+the Eng. verb and substantive. The Fr. word is made up of the
+prefix <i>de-</i>, Lat. <i>dis-</i>, and the root which appears in <i>empêcher</i>, to
+embarrass, and means literally to disentangle. The Lat. origin
+of <i>dépêcher</i> and <i>empêcher</i> is a Low Lat. <i>pedicare</i>, <i>pedica</i>, a fetter.
+The Fr. word came into Eng. as <i>depeach</i>, which was in use from
+the 15th century until &ldquo;despatch&rdquo; was introduced. This word is
+certainly direct from the Ital. <i>dispacciare</i>, or Span, <i>despachar</i>,
+which must be derived from the Lat. root appearing in <i>pactus</i>,
+fixed, fastened, from <i>pangere</i>. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> finds
+the earliest instance of &ldquo;dispatch&rdquo; in a letter to Henry VIII.
+from Bishop Tunstall, commissioner to Spain in 1516-1517.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISPENSATION,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a term with two main applications, (1) to the
+action of administering, arranging or dealing out, and (2) to the
+action of allowing certain things, rules, &amp;c., to be done away with,
+relaxed. Of these two meanings the first is to be derived from the
+classical Latin use of <i>dispensare</i>, literally, to weigh out, hence to
+distribute, especially of the orderly arrangement of a household
+by a steward; thus <i>dispensatio</i> was, in theology, the word chosen
+to translate the Greek <span class="grk" title="oikonomia">&#959;&#7984;&#954;&#959;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#943;&#945;</span>, economy, <i>i.e.</i> divine or
+religious systems, as in the Jewish, Mosaic, Christian dispensations.
+Dispensation in law is, strictly speaking, the suspension
+by competent authority of general rules of law in particular cases.
+Its object is to modify the hardships often arising from the
+rigorous application of general laws to particular cases, and its
+essence is to preserve the law by suspending its operation, <i>i.e.</i>
+making it non-existent, in such cases. It follows, then, that dispensation,
+in its strict sense, is anticipative, <i>i.e.</i> it does not absolve
+from the consequences of a legal obligation already contracted,
+but avoids a breach of the law by suspending the obligation to
+conform to it, <i>e.g.</i> a dispensation or licence to marry within the
+prohibited degrees, or to hold benefices in plurality. The term is,
+however, frequently used of the power claimed and exercised by
+the supreme legislative authority of altering or abrogating in
+particular cases conditions established under the existing law
+and of releasing individuals from obligations incurred under it,
+<i>e.g.</i> dispensations granted by the pope <i>ex plenitudine potestatis</i>
+from the obligation of celibacy, from religious and other vows,
+from <i>matrimonium ratum</i>, <i>non consummatum</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Ecclesiastical Law.</i>&mdash;In the theory of the canon law the
+dispensing power is the corollary of the legislative, the authority
+that makes laws, and no other, having power to suspend them.
+It follows that the law of nature (<i>jus naturae</i>) and <i>a fortiori</i> the
+law of God (<i>jus divinum</i>) are not subject to dispensation of any
+earthly authority, and that it is only the disciplinary laws made
+by the Church that the Church is empowered to suspend or to
+abrogate. Thus, not even the pope could grant a dispensation for
+a marriage between persons related in the direct line of ascent
+or descent, <i>e.g.</i> father and daughter, or between brother and
+sister, while dispensations are granted for marriages within
+other prohibited degrees, <i>e.g.</i> uncle and niece.</p>
+
+<p>The dispensing power, like the legislative authority, was
+formerly invested in general councils and even in provincial
+synods; but in the West, with the gradual centralization of
+authority at Rome, it became ultimately vested in the pope as
+the supreme lawgiver of the Church. Subject, however, to the
+supreme jurisdiction of the pope, the power of dispensation continued
+to reside in the other organs of the Church in exact
+proportion to their legislative capacities, <i>i.e.</i> in provincial synods
+in respect of regional rules laid down by them, and in bishops in
+respect of rules laid down by them for their dioceses. According
+to Du Cange, the earliest record of the use of the word <i>dispensatio</i>
+in this connexion is in the letter of Pope Gelasius I. of the 11th
+of March 494, to the bishops of Lucania (in Jaffé, <i>Reg. Pont. Rom.</i>,
+ed. 2, tom. i. no. 636): necessaria rerum Dispensatione constringimur, ...
+sic canonum paternorum decreta librare, ...
+ut quae praesentium necessitas temporum restaurandis Ecclesiis
+relaxanda deposcit, adhibita consideratione diligenti, quantum
+fieri potest temperemus.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Dispensations from the observance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span>
+of traditional rules were, however, during the early centuries
+exceedingly rare, and there are more instances of the popes
+repudiating than of their exercising the power to grant them.
+Thus Celestine I. (d. 432) wrote: &ldquo;The rules govern us, not we
+the rules: we are subject to the canons, since we are the servants
+of the precepts of the canons&rdquo; (<i>Epist. 3 ad Episcopos Illyrici</i>);
+and Pope Zozimus wrote even more strongly: &ldquo;This see
+possesses no authority to make any concession or change; for
+with us abides antiquity firmly rooted (<i>inconvulsis radicibus</i>),
+reverence for which the decrees of the Fathers enjoined.&rdquo; As time
+went on, however, and the Church expanded, this rigidly conservative
+attitude proved impossible to maintain, and the
+principle of &ldquo;tempering&rdquo; the law when forced to do so &ldquo;by
+the exigencies of affairs or of the times&rdquo; (<i>rerum vel temporum
+angustia</i>), as laid down by Gelasius, was adopted into the canon
+law itself. The principle was, of course, singularly open to abuse.
+In theory it was laid down from the first that dispensations were
+only to be granted in cases of urgent necessity and in the highest
+interests of the Church; in practice, from the 11th century
+onwards, the power of dispensation was used by the popes as one
+of the most potent instruments for extending their influence.
+Dispensations to hold benefices in plurality formed, with provisions
+and the papal claim to the right of direct appointment, a
+powerful means for extending the patronage of the Holy See and
+therefore its hold over the clergy, and from the 13th century
+onwards this abuse assumed vast proportions (Hinschius iii. p.
+250). Even more scandalous was the almost unrestrained traffic
+in licences and dispensations at Rome, which grew up, at least
+as early as the 14th century, owing to the fees charged for such
+dispensations having come to be regarded by the Curia as a
+regular source of revenue (Woker, <i>Das kirchliche Finanzwesen der
+Päpste</i>, Nördlingen, 1878, pp. 75, 160). Loud complaints of these
+abuses were raised in the reforming councils of Constance and
+Basel in the 15th century, but nothing was done effectually to
+check them.</p>
+
+<p>The actual practice of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon
+the decisions of the council of Trent, which left the medieval
+theory intact while endeavouring to guard against its abuses.
+The proposal put forward by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to
+subordinate the papal power of dispensation to the consent of the
+Church in general council was rejected, and even the canons of
+the council of Trent itself, in so far as they affected reformation
+of morals or ecclesiastical discipline, were decreed &ldquo;saving the
+authority of the Holy See&rdquo; (<i>Sess.</i> xxv. cap. 21, de ref.). At the
+same time it was laid down in respect of all dispensations, whether
+papal or other, that they were to be granted only for just and
+urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the Church
+(urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all
+cases <i>gratis</i>. The payment of money for a dispensation was <i>ipso
+facto</i> to make the dispensation void (<i>Sess.</i> xxv. cap. 18, de ref.).</p>
+
+<p>Though verbal dispensations are valid, papal dispensations are
+given in writing. Before the constitution <i>Sapienti</i> of Pius X.
+(1908) all dispensations in <i>foro externo</i>, especially in matrimonial
+causes, were dealt with by the Dataria Apostolica, those <i>in foro
+interno</i> by the Penitentiary, which latter also possessed <i>in foro
+externo</i> the right to grant dispensations in matrimonial causes
+to poor people. Since 1908 the Dataria only deals with dispensations
+in matters concerning benefices, dispensations in matrimonial
+matters having been transferred to the new Congregation
+on the discipline of the sacraments (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Curia Romana</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The regular form of dispensation is the <i>forma commissaria</i>
+(<i>Trid. Sess.</i> xxii. cap. 5, de ref.), <i>i.e.</i> a mandate to the bishop to
+grant the dispensation, after due inquiry, in the pope&rsquo;s name. In
+exceptional cases, <i>e.g.</i> sovereigns or bishops, the dispensation is
+sent direct to the petitioner (<i>forma gratiosa</i>). Dispensations are
+nominally gratuitous; but the officials are entitled to fees for
+drawing them up, and there are customary &ldquo;compositions&rdquo;
+(<i>compositiones</i>) which are destined for charitable objects in Rome.
+These fees were and are regulated according to the capacity of
+the petitioners to pay, the result being that the abuses which the
+council of Trent had sought to abolish continued to flourish. In
+the 17th century a specially privileged class of bankers (<i>banquiers
+expéditionnaires</i>) existed at Rome whose sole business was
+obtaining dispensations on commission, and one of these, named
+Pelletier, published at Paris in 1677, under the royal <i>imprimatur</i>,
+a regular tariff of the sums for which in any given case a dispensation
+might be obtained. That the &ldquo;urgent and just cause&rdquo;
+was, in the circumstances, a very minor consideration was to be
+expected, and the enlightened pope Benedict XIV., himself a
+canon lawyer of eminence, complained &ldquo;Dispensationem non
+raro concedi in Dataria, sine causa, nempe ob eleemosynam quae
+praestatur&rdquo; (Inst. 87, No. 26). It may be added that the worst
+abuses of this system have long since disappeared. The bishops
+have their own correspondents at Rome, and one of the duties of
+the diplomatic representatives of foreign states at the Curia is
+to see that their nationals receive their dispensations without
+overcharge.</p>
+
+<p>Bishops are by right (<i>jure ordinario</i>) competent to dispense in
+all cases expressly reserved to them by the canon law, <i>e.g.</i> in the
+matter of publication of banns of marriage. They possess besides
+special powers delegated to them by the pope and renewed every
+five years (<i>facultates quinquennales</i>), or by virtue of faculties
+granted to them personally (<i>facultates extraordinariae</i>), <i>e.g.</i> to
+dispense from rules of abstinence, from simple vows, and with
+some exceptions from the prohibition of marriage within prohibited
+degrees.</p>
+
+<p><i>Church of England.</i>&mdash;By 25 Henry VIII. cap. 21. sec 2 (1534), it
+was enacted that neither the king, his successors, nor any of his
+subjects should henceforth sue for licences, dispensations, &amp;c.,
+to the see of Rome, and that the power to issue such licences,
+dispensations, &amp;c., &ldquo;for causes not being contrary or repugnant
+to the Holy Scriptures and laws of God,&rdquo; should be vested in the
+archbishop of Canterbury for the time being, who at his own
+discretion was to issue such dispensations, &amp;c., under his seal,
+to the king and his subjects. The power of dispensation thus
+vested in the archbishops partly fell obsolete, partly has been
+curtailed by subsequent statutes, <i>e.g.</i> the Pluralities Act of 1838.
+It is now confined to granting dispensations for holding two
+benefices at once, to issuing licences for non-residence, and in
+matrimonial cases to the issuing of special licences. The dispensing
+power of bishops in the Church of England survives only in
+the right to grant marriage licences, <i>i.e.</i> dispensations from the
+obligation to publish the banns. Though, however, these licences
+and dispensations are given under the archiepiscopal and episcopal
+seals, they are actually issued by the commissaries of faculties and
+vicars-general (chancellors), independently, in virtue of the powers
+conferred on them by their patents. This has led, since the passing
+of the Divorce Acts and the Marriage with a Deceased Wife&rsquo;s
+Sister Act, to a curiously anomalous position, licences for the
+remarriage of divorced persons having been issued under the
+bishop&rsquo;s seal, while the bishop himself publicly protested that
+such marriages were contrary to &ldquo;the law of God,&rdquo; but that he
+himself had no power to prevent his chancellor licensing them.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i> (Berlin, 1883), iii. 250, &amp;c.; article
+&ldquo;Dispensation&rdquo; by Hinschius in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>
+(Leipzig, 1898); article &ldquo;Dispensation&rdquo; in Wetzer and Welte&rsquo;s
+<i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882-1901);
+F. Lichtenberger, <i>Encyclopédie des sciences religieuses</i> (Paris, 1878),
+<i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Dispense&rdquo;; Phillimore, <i>Eccl. Law</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Constitutional Law.</i>&mdash;The power of dispensation from the
+operation of the ordinary law in particular cases is, of course,
+everywhere inherent in the supreme legislative authority, however
+rarely it may be exercised. Divorce (in Ireland) by act of
+parliament may be taken as an example which still actually
+occurs. On the other hand, the dispensing power once vested in
+the crown in England is now merely of historical interest, though
+of great importance in the constitutional struggles of the past.
+This power possessed by the crown of dispensing with the statute
+law is said to have been copied from the dispensations or non
+obstante clauses granted by the popes in matters of canon law;
+the parallel between them is certainly very striking, and there can
+be no doubt that the principles of the canon law influenced the
+decisions of the courts in the matter. It was, for instance, very
+generally laid down that the king could by dispensation make it
+lawful to do what was <i>malum prohibitum</i> but not to do what was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span>
+<i>malum in se</i>, a principle of the canon law, but one difficult to
+reconcile with English legal principles, since no act is legally
+<i>malum</i> unless forbidden by law. This was pointed out by Chief
+Justice Vaughan in the celebrated judgment in the case of <i>Thomas</i>
+v. <i>Sorrell</i>, when he rejected the distinction between <i>mala in se</i> and
+<i>mala prohibita</i> as confusing, and attempted to define the dispensing
+power of the crown by limiting it to cases of individual
+breaches of penal statutes where no third party loses a right of
+action, and where the breach is not continuous, at the same time
+denying the power of the crown to dispense with any general
+penal law. This judgment, as Sir William Anson points out, only
+showed the extreme difficulty of limiting the power ascribed to the
+crown, a standing grievance from the time that parliament had
+risen to be a constituent part of the state. So long as the legal
+principle by which the law was &ldquo;the king&rsquo;s law&rdquo; survived there
+was in fact no theoretical basis for such limitation, and the matter
+resolved itself into one of the great constitutional questions
+between crown and parliament which issued in the Revolution of
+1688. The supreme crisis came owing to the use made by James
+II. of the dispensing power. His action in dispensing with the
+Test Act, in order to enable Roman Catholics to hold office under
+the crown, was supported by the courts in the test case of <i>Godden</i>
+v. <i>Hales</i>, but it made the Revolution inevitable. By the Bill of
+Rights the exercise of the dispensing power was forbidden, except
+as might be permitted by statute. At the same time the legality
+of its exercise in the past was admitted by the clause maintaining
+the validity of dispensations granted in a certain form before
+the 23rd of October 1689.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Anson, <i>Law and Custom of the Constitution</i>, part i. &ldquo;Parliament,&rdquo;
+3rd ed. pp. 311-319; F. W. Maitland, <i>Const. Hist. of England</i>
+(Cambridge, 1908), pp. 302, &amp;c.; Stubbs, <i>Const. Hist.</i> ss. 290,
+291.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In this quotation the word <i>dispensatio</i> still has its meaning of
+&ldquo;economy&rdquo;: &ldquo;we are bound by the necessary economy of things.&rdquo;
+Possibly its use by the pope in this connexion may have led to the
+technical meaning of the word <i>dispensatio</i> in the medieval canon law.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISPERSION<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>dispergere</i>, to scatter), the act or
+process of separation and distribution. Apart from the technical
+use of the term, especially in optics (see below), the expression
+particularly applied to the settlements of Jews in foreign
+countries outside Palestine. These were either voluntary, for
+purposes of trade and commerce, or the results of conquest, such
+as the captivities of Assyria and Babylonia. The word <i>diaspora</i>
+(Gr. <span class="grk" title="diaspora">&#948;&#953;&#945;&#963;&#960;&#959;&#961;&#940;</span>) is also used of these scattered communities, but
+is usually confined to the dispersion among the Hellenic and
+Roman peoples, or to the body of Christian Jews outside Palestine
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:213px; height:225px" src="images/img315a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Dispersion</span>, in <span class="sc">Optics</span>. When a beam of light which is not
+homogeneous in character, <i>i.e.</i> which does not consist of simple
+vibrations of a definite wave-length, undergoes refraction at the
+surface of any transparent medium, the different colours corresponding
+to the different wave-lengths become separated or
+<i>dispersed</i>. Thus, if a ray of white light AO (fig. 1) enters obliquely
+into the surface of a block of glass
+at O, it gives rise to the divergent
+system of rays ORV, varying continuously
+in colour from red to
+violet, the red ray OR being least
+refracted and the violet ray OV
+most so. The order of the successive
+colours in all colourless transparent
+media is red, orange, yellow, green,
+blue, indigo and violet. Dispersion
+is therefore due to the fact that
+rays of different colours possess different
+refrangibilities.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:314px; height:180px" src="images/img315b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The simplest way of showing dispersion is to refract a narrow
+beam of sunlight through a prism of glass or prismatic vessel
+containing water or other clear liquid. As the light is twice
+refracted, the dispersion is increased, and the rays, after transmission
+through the prism, form a divergent system, which may
+be allowed to fall on a sheet of white paper, forming the well-known
+solar spectrum. This method was employed by Sir Isaac
+Newton, whose experiments constitute the earliest systematic
+investigation of the phenomenon. Let O (fig. 2) represent a
+small hole in the shutter of a darkened room, and OS a narrow
+beam of sunlight which is allowed to fall on a white screen so
+as to form an image of the sun at S. If now the prism P
+be interposed as in the
+figure, the whole beam
+is not only refracted upward,
+but also spread out
+into the spectrum RV,
+the horizontal breadth of
+the band of colours being
+the same as that of the
+original image S. In an
+experiment similar to
+that here represented,
+Newton made a small hole in the screen and another small hole in
+a second screen placed behind the first. By slightly turning the
+prism P, the position of the spectrum on the first screen could
+be shifted sufficiently to cause light of any desired colour to pass
+through. Some of this light also passed through the second hole,
+and thus he obtained a narrow beam of practically homogeneous
+light in a fixed direction (the line joining the apertures in the two
+screens). Operating on this beam with a second prism, he found
+that the homogeneous light was not dispersed, and also that it
+was more refracted the nearer the point from which it was taken
+approached to the violet end of the spectrum RV. This confirmed
+his previous conclusion that the rays increase in refrangibility
+from red to violet.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 355px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:171px" src="images/img315c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Method of Crossed Prisms.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Newton also made use of the method of crossed prisms, which
+has been found of great use in studying dispersion. The prism P
+(fig. 3) refracts upwards, while the prism Q, which has its refracting
+edge perpendicular to
+that of P, refracts towards
+the right. The combined
+effect of the two is to produce
+a spectrum sloping
+up from left to right. The
+spectrum will be straight
+if the two prisms are similar
+in dispersive property, but
+if one of them is constructed
+of a material which possesses any peculiarity in this
+respect it will be revealed by the curvature of the spectrum.</p>
+
+<p>The coloured borders seen in the images produced by simple
+lenses are due to dispersion. The explanation of the colours of
+the rainbow, which are also due to dispersion, was given by
+Newton, although it was known previously to be due to refraction
+in the drops of rain (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rainbow</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>According to the wave-theory of light, refraction (<i>q.v.</i>) is due
+to a change of velocity when light passes from one medium to
+another. The phenomenon of dispersion shows that in dispersive
+media the velocity is different for lights of different wave-lengths.
+In free space, light of all wave-lengths is propagated with the same
+velocity, as is shown by the fact that stars, when occulted by the
+moon or planets, preserve their white colour up to the last
+moment of disappearance, which would not be the case if one
+colour reached the eye later than another. The absence of colour
+changes in variable stars or in the appearance of new stars is
+further evidence of the same fact. All material media, however,
+are more or less dispersive. In air and other gases, at ordinary
+pressures, the dispersion is very small, because the refractivity
+is small. The dispersive powers of gases are, however, generally
+comparable with those of liquids and solids.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Dispersive Power.</i>&mdash;In order to find the amount of dispersion caused
+by any given prism, the deviations produced by it on two rays of any
+definite pure colours may be measured. The angle of difference
+between these deviations is called the dispersion for those rays.
+For this purpose the C and F lines in the spark-spectrum of hydrogen,
+situated in the red and blue respectively, are usually employed. If
+&delta;<span class="su">F</span> and &delta;<span class="su">C</span> are the angular deviations of these rays, then &delta;<span class="su">F</span> &minus; &delta;<span class="su">C</span> is
+called the mean dispersion of the prism. If the refracting angle of the
+prism is small, then the ratio of the dispersion to the mean deviation
+of the two rays is the dispersive power of the material of the prism.
+Instead of the mean deviation, ½ (&delta;<span class="su">F</span> + &delta;<span class="su">C</span>), it is more usual to take
+the deviation of some intermediate ray. The exact position of the
+selected ray does not matter much, but the yellow D line of sodium
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span>
+is the most convenient. If we denote its deviation by &delta;<span class="su">D</span>, then we
+may put</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Dispersive power</i> = (&delta;<span class="su">F</span> - &delta;<span class="su">C</span>)/&delta;<span class="su">D</span> &emsp; &emsp; (1).</p>
+
+<p>This quantity may readily be expressed in terms of the refractive
+indices for the three colours, for if A is the angle of the prism (supposedly
+small)</p>
+
+<p class="center">&delta;<span class="su">C</span> = (&mu;<span class="su">C</span> &minus; 1)A, &delta;<span class="su">D</span> = (&mu;<span class="su">D</span> &minus; 1)A, &delta;<span class="su">F</span> = (&mu;<span class="su">F</span> &minus; 1)A,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">where &mu;<span class="su">C</span>, &mu;<span class="su">D</span>, &mu;<span class="su">F</span> are the respective indices of refraction. This gives
+at once</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Dispersive power</i> = (&mu;<span class="su">F</span> &minus; &mu;<span class="su">C</span>)/(&mu;<span class="su">D</span> &minus; 1) &emsp; &emsp; (2).</p>
+
+<p>The second of these two expressions is generally given as the
+definition of dispersive power. It is more useful than (1), as the
+refractive indices may be measured with a prism of any convenient
+angle.</p>
+
+<p>By studying the dispersion of colours in water, turpentine and
+crown glass Newton was led to suppose that dispersion is proportional
+to refraction. He concluded that there could be no
+refraction without dispersion, and hence that achromatism was
+impossible of attainment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aberration</a></span>). This conclusion was
+proved to be erroneous when Chester M. Hall in 1733 constructed
+achromatic lenses. Glasses can now be made differing considerably
+both in refractivity and dispersive power.</p>
+
+<p><i>Irrationality of Dispersion.</i>&mdash;If we compare the spectrum produced
+by refraction in a glass prism with that of a diffraction grating, we
+find not only that the order of colours is reversed, but also that the
+same colours do not occupy corresponding lengths on the two spectra,
+the blue and violet being much more extended in the refraction
+spectrum. The refraction spectra for different media also differ
+amongst themselves. This shows that the connexion between the
+refrangibility of light and its wave-length does not obey any simple
+law, but depends on the nature of the refracting medium. This
+property is referred to as the &ldquo;irrationality of dispersion.&rdquo; In a
+diffraction spectrum the diffraction is proportional to the wave_length,
+and the spectrum is said to be &ldquo;normal.&rdquo; If the increase
+of the angle of refraction were proportional to the diminution of
+wave-length for a prism of any material, the resulting spectrum
+would also be normal. This, however, is not the case with ordinary
+refracting media, the refrangibility generally increasing more and
+more rapidly as the wave-length diminishes.</p>
+
+<p>The irrationality of dispersion is well illustrated by C. Christiansen&rsquo;s
+experiments on the dispersive properties of white powders. If the
+powder of a transparent substance is immersed in a liquid of the same
+refractive index, the mixture becomes transparent and a measurement
+of the refractive index of the liquid gives the refractivity of
+the powder. Christiansen found, in an investigation of this kind,
+that the refractivity of the liquid could only be got to match that
+of the powder for mono-chromatic light, and that, if white light
+were used, brilliant colour effects were obtained, which varied in a
+remarkable manner when small changes occurred in the refractive
+index of the liquid. These effects are due to the difference in dispersive
+power of the powder and the liquid. If the refractive index
+is, for instance, the same for both in the case of green light, and a
+source of white light is viewed through the mixture, the green component
+will be completely transmitted, while the other colours are
+more or less scattered by multiple reflections and refractions at the
+surfaces of the powdered substance. Very striking colour changes
+are observed, according to R. W. Wood, when white light is transmitted
+through a paste made of powdered quartz and a mixture of
+carbon bisulphide with benzol having the same refractive index as
+the quartz for yellow light. In this case small temperature changes
+alter the refractivity of the liquid without appreciably affecting the
+quartz. R. W. Wood has studied the iridescent colours seen when a
+precipitate of potassium silicofluoride is produced by adding silicofluoric
+acid to a solution of potassium chloride, and found that they
+are due to the same cause, the refractive index of the minute crystals
+precipitated being about the same as that of the solution, which
+latter can be varied by dilution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anomalous Dispersion.</i>&mdash;In some media the usual order of the
+colours is changed. This curious phenomenon was noticed by
+W. H. Fox Talbot about 1840, but does not seem to have become
+generally known. In 1860 F. P. Leroux discovered that iodine
+vapour refracted the red rays more than the violet, the intermediate
+colours not being transmitted; and in 1870 Christiansen found that
+an alcoholic solution of fuchsine refracted the violet less than the red,
+the order of the successive colours being violet, red, orange, yellow;
+the green being absorbed and a dark interval occurring between
+the violet and red. A. Kundt found that similar effects occur with
+a large number of substances, in particular with all those which
+possess the property of &ldquo;surface colour,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>, which strongly reflect
+light of a definite colour, as do many of the aniline dyes. Such
+bodies show strong absorption bands in those colours which they
+reflect, while of the transmitted light that which is of a slightly
+greater wave-length than the absorbed light has an abnormally
+great refrangibility, and that of a slightly shorter wave-length an
+abnormally small refrangibility. The name given to this phenomenon,&mdash;&ldquo;anomalous
+dispersion&rdquo;&mdash;is an unfortunate one, as it has
+been found to obey a regular law.</p>
+
+<p>In studying the dispersion of the aniline dyes, a prism with a very
+small refracting angle is made of two glass plates slightly inclined
+to each other and enclosing a very thin wedge of the dye, which
+is either melted between the plates, or is in the form of a solution
+retained in position by surface-tension. Only very thin layers are
+sufficiently transparent to show the dispersion near or within an
+absorption band, and a large refracting angle is not required, the
+dispersion usually being very considerable. Another method,
+which has been used by R. W. Wood and C. E. Magnusson, is to
+introduce a thin film of the dye into one of the optical paths of a
+Michelson interferometer, and to determine the consequent displacement
+of the fringes. E. Mach and J. Arbes have used a method
+depending on total reflection (Drude&rsquo;s <i>Theory of Optics</i>, p. 394).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:89px" src="images/img316a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Anomalous Dispersion of Sodium Vapour.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:136px" src="images/img316b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 5.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A very remarkable example of anomalous dispersion, which was
+first observed by A. Kundt, is that exhibited by the vapour of sodium.
+It has not been found practicable to make a prism of this vapour
+in the ordinary way by enclosing it in a glass vessel of the required
+shape, as sodium vapour attacks glass, quickly rendering it opaque.
+A. E. Becquerel, however, investigated the character of the dispersion
+by using prism-shaped flames strongly coloured with sodium.
+But the best way of exhibiting the effect is by making use of a
+remarkable property of sodium vapour discovered by R. W. Wood
+and employed for this purpose in a very ingenious manner. He found
+that when sodium is heated in a hard glass tube, the vapour which
+is formed is extraordinarily cohesive, only slowly spreading out in
+a cloud with well-defined borders, which can be rendered visible by
+placing the tube in front of a sodium flame, against which the cloud
+appears black. If a long glass tube with plane ends, and containing
+some pellets of sodium is heated in the middle by a row of burners,
+the cool ends remain practically vacuous and do not become obscured.
+The sodium vapour in the middle is very dense on the heated side,
+the density diminishing rapidly towards the upper part of the tube,
+so that, although not prismatic in form, it refracts like a prism owing
+to the variation in density. Thus if a horizontal slit is illuminated
+by an arc lamp, and the light-rendered parallel by a collimating
+lens&mdash;is transmitted through the sodium tube and focused on the
+vertical slit of a spectroscope, the effect of the sodium vapour is to
+produce its refraction spectrum
+vertically on the slit.
+The image of this seen
+through the glass prism of
+the spectroscope will appear
+as in fig. 4. The whole of the
+light, with the exception of
+a small part in the neighbourhood
+of the D lines, is
+practically undeviated, so that it illuminates only a very short piece
+of the slit and is spread out into the ordinary spectrum. But the
+light of slightly greater wave-length than the D lines, being refracted
+strongly downward by the sodium vapour, illuminates the bottom of
+the slit; while that of slightly shorter wave-length is refracted
+upward and illuminates the top of the slit. Fig. 4 represents the inverted
+image seen in the
+telescope. The light corresponding
+to the D lines
+and the space between
+them is absorbed, as evidenced
+by the dark interval.
+If the sodium is only
+gently heated, so as to
+produce a comparatively
+rarefied vapour, and a grating
+spectroscope employed,
+the spectrum obtained is like that shown in fig. 5, which was
+the effect noticed by Becquerel with the sodium flame. Here the
+light corresponding to the space between the D lines is transmitted,
+being strongly refracted upward near D<span class="su">1</span>, and downward near D<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of anomalous dispersion has been applied in a very
+interesting way by W. H. Julius to explain the &ldquo;flash spectrum&rdquo;
+seen during a solar eclipse at the moment at which totality occurs.
+The conditions of this phenomenon have been imitated in the
+laboratory by Wood, and the corresponding effect obtained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Theories of Dispersion.</i>&mdash;The first attempt at a mathematical
+theory of dispersion was made by A. Cauchy and published in 1835.
+This was based on the assumption that the medium in which the
+light is propagated is discontinuous and molecular in character, the
+molecules being subject to a mutual attraction. Thus, if one molecule
+is disturbed from its mean position, it communicates the
+disturbance to its neighbours, and so a wave is propagated.
+The formula arrived at by Cauchy was</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">n = A +</td> <td>B</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>C</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ ....</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&lambda;<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="denom">&lambda;<span class="su">4</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">n being the refractive index, &lambda; the wave-length, and A, B, C, &amp;c.,
+constants depending on the material, which diminish so rapidly that
+only the first three as here written need be taken into account. If
+suitable values are chosen for these constants, the formula can be
+made to represent the dispersion of ordinary transparent media
+within the visible spectrum very well, but when extended to the
+infra-red region it often departs considerably from the truth, and
+it fails altogether in cases of anomalous dispersion. There are also
+grave theoretical objections to Cauchy&rsquo;s formula.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span></p>
+
+<p>The modern theory of dispersion, the foundation of which was laid
+by W. Sellmeier, is based upon the assumption that an interaction
+takes place between ether and matter. Sellmeier adopted the
+elastic-solid theory of the ether, and imagined the molecules to be
+attached to the ether surrounding them, but free to vibrate about
+their mean positions within a limited range. Thus the ether within
+the dispersive medium is loaded with molecules which are forced to
+perform oscillations of the same period as that of the transmitted
+wave. It can be shown mathematically that the velocity of propagation
+will be greatly increased if the frequency of the light-wave is
+slightly greater, and greatly diminished if it is slightly less than the
+natural frequency of the molecules; also that these effects become
+less and less marked as the difference in the two frequencies increases.
+This is exactly in accordance with the observed facts in the case
+of substances showing anomalous dispersion. Sellmeier&rsquo;s theory did
+not take account of absorption, and cannot be applied to calculate
+the dispersion within a broad absorption band. H. von Helmholtz,
+working on a similar hypothesis, but with a frictional term introduced
+into his equations, obtained formulae which are applicable to
+cases of absorption. A modified form of Helmholtz&rsquo;s equation, due
+to E. Ketteler and known as the Ketteler-Helmholtz formula, has
+been much used in calculating dispersion, and expresses the facts
+with remarkable accuracy. P. Drude has obtained a similar formula
+based on the electromagnetic theory, thus placing the theory of
+dispersion on a much more satisfactory basis. The fundamental
+assumption is that the medium contains positively and negatively
+charged ions or electrons which are acted on by the periodic electric
+forces which occur in wave propagation on Maxwell&rsquo;s theory. The
+equations finally arrived at are</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">n²(1 &minus; &kappa;²) = 1 + <span class="f150">&Sigma;</span></td> <td>D&lambda;²(&lambda;² &minus; &lambda;<span class="su">m</span>²)</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">(&lambda;² &minus; &lambda;<span class="su">m</span>²)² + g²&lambda;²</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">2n²&kappa;² = <span class="f150">&Sigma;</span></td> <td>Dg&lambda;³</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">(&lambda;² &minus; &lambda;<span class="su">m</span>²)² + g²&lambda;²</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">where &lambda; is the wave-length in free ether of light whose refractive
+index is n, and &lambda;<span class="su">m</span> the wave-length of light of the same period as the
+electron, &kappa; is a coefficient of absorption, and D and g are constants.
+The sign of summation &Sigma; is used in cases where there are several
+absorption bands, and consequently several similar terms on the
+right-hand side, each with a different value of &lambda;<span class="su">m</span>. This would occur
+if there were several kinds of ions, each with its own natural period.</p>
+
+<p>In a region where there is no absorption, we have &kappa; = 0 and
+therefore g = 0, and we have only one equation, namely,</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">n² = 1 + <span class="f150">&Sigma;</span></td> <td>D&lambda;²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">(&lambda;² &minus; &lambda;<span class="su">m</span>²)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">which is identical with Sellmeier&rsquo;s result. As &lambda;<span class="su">m</span>, is a wave-length
+corresponding to an absorption band, this formula can be used to
+find values of &lambda;<span class="su">m</span> which satisfy the observed values of n within the
+region of transparency, and so to determine where the absorption
+bands are situated. In this way the existence of bands in the infrared
+part of the spectrum has been predicted in the case of quartz
+and detected by experiments on the selective reflection of the material.</p>
+
+<p><i>References.</i>&mdash;For the theory of dispersion see P. Drude, <i>Theory of
+Optics</i> (Eng. trans.); R. W. Wood, <i>Physical Optics</i>; and A. Schuster,
+<i>Theory of Optics</i>. For descriptive accounts, see Wood&rsquo;s <i>Physical
+Optics</i>, T. Preston&rsquo;s <i>Theory of Light</i>, E. Edser&rsquo;s <i>Light</i>. The last work
+contains an elementary treatment of Sellmeier&rsquo;s theory.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. R. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">D&rsquo;ISRAELI<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Disraeli</span>), <span class="bold">ISAAC</span> (1766-1848), English man of
+letters, father of the earl of Beaconsfield (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Enfield
+in May 1766. He belonged to a Jewish family which, having been
+driven by the Inquisition from Spain, towards the end of the 15th
+century, settled as merchants at Venice, and assumed the name
+which has become famous; it was generally spelt D&rsquo;Israeli until
+the middle of the 19th century. In 1748 his father, Benjamin
+D&rsquo;Israeli, then only about eighteen years of age, removed to
+England, where, before passing the prime of life, he amassed
+a competent fortune, and retired from business. He belonged
+to the London congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews,
+of which his son also remained a nominal member until after
+Benjamin D&rsquo;Israeli died at the end of 1816.</p>
+
+<p>The strongly marked characteristics which determined Isaac
+D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s career were displayed to a singular degree even in
+his boyhood. He spent his time over books and in long day-dreams,
+and evinced the strongest distaste for business and all
+the more bustling pursuits of life. These idiosyncrasies met with
+no sympathy from either of his parents, whose ambitious plans
+for his future career they threatened to disappoint. When he was
+about fourteen, in the hope of changing the bent of his mind, his
+father sent him to live with his agent at Amsterdam, where he
+worked under a tutor for four or five years. Here he studied
+Bayle and Voltaire, and became an ardent disciple of Rousseau.
+Here also he wrote a long poem against commerce, which he
+produced as an exposition of his opinions when, on his return to
+England, his father announced his intention of placing him in a
+commercial house at Bordeaux. Against such a destiny D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s
+mind strongly revolted; and he carried his poem, with a letter
+earnestly appealing for advice and assistance, to Samuel Johnson;
+but when he called again a week after to receive an answer, the
+packet was returned unopened&mdash;the great Doctor was on his
+death-bed. He also addressed a letter to Dr Vicesimus Knox,
+master of Tonbridge Grammar School, begging to be received into
+his family, that he might enjoy the benefit of his learning and
+experience. How this application was answered we do not know.
+The evident firmness of his resolve, however, was not without
+effect. His parents gave up their purpose for a time. He was
+sent to travel in France, and allowed to occupy himself as he
+wished; and he had the happiness of spending some months in
+Paris, in the society of literary men, and devoted to the literary
+pursuits in which he delighted.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of 1788 he returned home, and in the next year
+he attacked Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in <i>The Gentleman&rsquo;s
+Magazine</i> in a poem in the manner of Pope, &ldquo;On the Abuse of
+Satire.&rdquo; The authorship of the poem was much debated, and it
+was attributed by some to William Hayley, upon whom it was
+actually avenged, with characteristic savageness, by its victim.
+It is greatly to Wolcot&rsquo;s credit that, on learning his mistake,
+he sought the acquaintance of his young opponent, whose friend
+he remained to the end of his life. Through the success of this
+satire D&rsquo;Israeli made the acquaintance of Henry James Pye, who
+helped to persuade his father that it would be a mistake to force
+him into a business career, and introduced him into literary circles.
+D&rsquo;Israeli dedicated his first book, <i>A Defence of Poetry</i>, to Pye in
+1790. Henceforth his life was passed in the way he best liked&mdash;in
+quiet and almost uninterrupted study. In 1802 he married Maria
+Basevi, by whom he had five children, of whom Benjamin (afterwards
+Lord Beaconsfield and Prime Minister of England) was the
+second. He was able to maintain his strenuous habits of study
+till he reached the advanced age of seventy-two, when he was
+forced, by paralysis of the optic nerve, to give up work almost
+entirely. He lived ten years longer, and died at his seat at Bradenham
+House, Buckinghamshire, on the 19th of January 1848.</p>
+
+<p>Isaac D&rsquo;Israeli is most celebrated as the author of the
+<i>Curiosities of Literature</i> (1791, subsequent volumes in 1793, 1817,
+1823 and 1834). It is a miscellany of literary and historical
+anecdotes, of original critical remarks, and of interesting and
+curious information of all kinds, animated by genuine literary
+feeling, taste and enthusiasm. With the <i>Curiosities of Literature</i>
+may be classed D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s <i>Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations</i>
+(1796), the <i>Calamities of Authors</i> (1812-1813), and the <i>Quarrels of
+Authors</i> (1814). Towards the close of his life D&rsquo;Israeli projected a
+continuous history of English literature, three volumes of which
+appeared in 1841 under the title of the <i>Amenities of Literature</i>.
+But of all his works the most delightful is his <i>Essay on the Literary
+Character</i> (1795), which, like most of his writings, abounds in
+illustrative anecdotes. In the famous &ldquo;Pope controversy&rdquo; he
+supported Byron and Campbell against Bowles and Hazlitt by
+a defence of Pope in the form of a criticism of Joseph Spence&rsquo;s
+<i>Anecdotes</i> contributed to the <i>Quarterly Review</i> (July 1820). In
+1797 D&rsquo;Israeli published three novels; one of these, <i>Mejnoun and
+Leila, the Arabian Petrarch and Laura</i>, was said to be the first
+oriental romance in English. His last novel, <i>Despotism, or the Fall
+of the Jesuits</i>, appeared in 1811, but none of his romances was
+popular. He also published a slight sketch of Jewish history,
+and especially of the growth of the Talmud, entitled the <i>Genius
+of Judaism</i> (1833).</p>
+
+<p>He was the author of two historical works&mdash;a brief defence of
+the literary merit and personal and political character of James I.
+(1816), and a learned <i>Commentary on the Life and Reign of King
+Charles I.</i> (1828-1831). This was recognized by the University
+of Oxford, which conferred upon the author the honorary degree
+of D.C.L. As an historian D&rsquo;Israeli is distinguished by two
+characteristics. In the first place, he had small interest in politics,
+and no sympathy with the passionate fervour, or adequate
+appreciation of the importance, of political struggles. And,
+secondly, with a laborious zeal then less common than now among
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span>
+historians, he sought to bring to light fresh historical material by
+patient search for letters, diaries and other manuscripts of value
+which had escaped the notice of previous students. Indeed, the
+honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of
+the modern school of historical research.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the amiable personal character and the placid life of Isaac
+D&rsquo;Israeli a charming picture is to be found in the brief memoir
+prefixed to the 1849 edition of <i>Curiosities of Literature</i>, by his son
+Lord Beaconsfield.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISS,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a market town in the southern parliamentary division of
+Norfolk, England; near the river Waveney (the boundary with
+Suffolk), 95 m. N.E. by N. from London by the Great Eastern
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3745. The town lies
+pleasantly upon a hill rising above a mere, which drains to the
+Waveney, having its banks laid out as public gardens. The church
+of St Mary exhibits Decorated and Perpendicular stone and flint
+work. There is a corn exchange and the agricultural trade is considerable;
+brushes and matting are manufactured. The poet
+and satirist, John Skelton (d. 1529), was rector here in the later
+part of his life, and is doubtfully considered a native.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISSECTION<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>dissecare</i>, to cut apart), the separation
+into parts by cutting, particularly the cutting of an animal or plant
+into parts for the purpose of examination or display of its structure.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISSENTER<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Lat. <i>dis-sentire</i>, to disagree), one who dissents
+or disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &amp;c. The term &ldquo;dissenter&rdquo;
+is, however, practically restricted to the special sense
+of a member of a religious body in England which has, for one
+reason or another, separated from the Established Church.
+Strictly, the term includes the English Roman Catholics, who in
+the original draft of the Relief Act of 1791 were styled &ldquo;Protesting
+Catholic Dissenters.&rdquo; It is in practice, however, restricted
+to the &ldquo;Protestant Dissenters&rdquo; referred to in sec. ii. of the
+Toleration Act of 1688. The term is not applied to those bodies
+who dissent from the Established Church of Scotland; and in
+speaking of members of religious bodies which have seceded
+from established churches abroad it is usual to employ the term
+&ldquo;dissidents&rdquo; (Lat. <i>dissidere</i>, to dissent). In this connotation
+the terms &ldquo;dissenter&rdquo; and &ldquo;dissenting,&rdquo; which had acquired
+a somewhat contemptuous flavour, have tended since the middle
+of the 19th century to be replaced by &ldquo;nonconformist,&rdquo; a term
+which did not originally imply secession, but only refusal to
+conform in certain particulars (<i>e.g.</i> the wearing of the surplice)
+with the authorized usages of the Established Church. Still
+more recently the term &ldquo;nonconformist&rdquo; has in its turn, as the
+political attack on the principle of a state establishment of
+religion developed, tended to give place to the style of &ldquo;Free
+Churches&rdquo; and &ldquo;Free Churchman.&rdquo; All three terms are now
+in use, &ldquo;nonconformist&rdquo; being the most usual, as it is the most
+colourless. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Congregationalism</a></span>, &amp;c.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISSOCIATION,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a separation or dispersal, the opposite of
+association. In chemistry the term is given to chemical
+reactions in which a substance decomposes into two or more
+substances, and particularly to cases in which associated molecules
+break down into simpler molecules. Thus the reactions
+NH<span class="su">4</span>Cl &hArr; NH<span class="su">3</span> + HCl, and PCl<span class="su">5</span> &hArr; PCl<span class="su">3</span> + Cl<span class="su">2</span> are instances of the
+first type; N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span> &hArr; 2NO<span class="su">2</span>, of the second (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemical Action</a></span>).
+Electrolytic or ionic dissociation is the separation of a substance
+in solution into ions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrolysis</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solution</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISSOLUTION<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>dissolvere</i>, to break up into parts),
+the act of dissolving or reducing to constituent parts, especially
+of the bringing to an end an association such as a partnership
+or building society, and particularly of the termination of an
+assembly. A dissolution of parliament in England is thus the end
+of its existence, brought about by the efflux of time in accordance
+with the Septennial Act 1716, or by an exercise of the royal
+prerogative. This is done either in person, or by commission, if
+parliament is sitting; if prorogued, then by proclamation. The
+word is used as a synonym for end or death.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISTAFF<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>, in the early forms of spinning, the &ldquo;rock&rdquo; or short
+stick round one end of which the flax, cotton or wool is loosely
+wound, and from which it is spun off by the spindle. The word is
+derived from the Old English <i>distaef</i>, the first part of which is
+connected with <i>dizen</i>, in modern English seen in &ldquo;bedizen,&rdquo; to
+deck out or embellish, originally &ldquo;to equip the distaff with flax,
+&amp;c.,&rdquo; cf. the German dialectal word <i>Diesse</i>, flax. The last part
+of the word is &ldquo;staff.&rdquo; &ldquo;Distaff&rdquo; from early times has been
+used to symbolize woman&rsquo;s work (cf. the use of &ldquo;spinster&rdquo; for
+an unmarried woman); thus the &ldquo;distaff&rdquo; or &ldquo;spindle&rdquo; side of
+a family refers to the female branch, as opposed to the &ldquo;spear&rdquo;
+or male branch. The 7th of January, the day after Epiphany,
+was formerly known as St Distaff&rsquo;s day, as women then began
+work again after the Christmas holiday.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISTILLATION<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>distillare</i>, more correctly
+<i>destillare</i>, to drop or trickle down), an operation consisting in the
+conversion of a substance or mixture of substances into vapours
+which are afterwards condensed to the liquid form; it has for its
+object the separation or purification of substances by taking
+advantage of differences in volatility. The apparatus consists of
+three parts:&mdash;the &ldquo;retort&rdquo; or &ldquo;still,&rdquo; in which the substance is
+heated; the &ldquo;condenser,&rdquo; in which the vapours are condensed;
+and the &ldquo;receiver,&rdquo; in which the condensed vapours are collected.
+Generally the components of a mixture will be vaporized in the
+order of their boiling-points; consequently if the condensates or
+&ldquo;fractions&rdquo; corresponding to definite ranges of temperature
+be separately collected, it is obvious that a more or less partial
+separation of the components will be effected. If the substance
+operated upon be practically pure to start with, or the product
+of distillation be nearly of constant composition, the operation is
+termed &ldquo;purification by distillation&rdquo; or &ldquo;rectification&rdquo;; the latter
+term is particularly used in the spirit industry. If a complex
+mixture be operated upon, and a separation effected by collecting
+the distillates in several portions, the operation is termed
+&ldquo;fractional distillation.&rdquo; Since many substances decompose
+either at, or below, their boiling-points under ordinary atmospheric
+pressure, it is necessary to lower the boiling-point by reducing
+the pressure if it be desired to distil them. This variation is
+termed &ldquo;distillation under reduced pressure or in a vacuum.&rdquo;
+The vaporization of a substance below its normal boiling-point
+can also be effected by blowing in steam or some other vapour;
+this operation is termed &ldquo;distillation with steam.&rdquo; &ldquo;Dry distillation&rdquo;
+is the term used when solid substances which do not liquefy
+on heating are operated upon; &ldquo;sublimation&rdquo; is the term used
+when a solid distils without the intervention of a liquid phase.</p>
+
+<p>Distillation appears to have been practised at very remote
+times. The Alexandrians prepared oil of turpentine by distilling
+pine-resin; Zosimus of Panopolis, a voluminous writer of the 5th
+century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>, speaks of the distillation of a &ldquo;divine water&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;panacea&rdquo; (probably from the complex mixture of calcium
+polysulphides, thiosulphate, &amp;c., and free sulphur, which is
+obtained by boiling sulphur with lime and water) and advises
+&ldquo;the efficient luting of the apparatus, for otherwise the valuable
+properties would be lost.&rdquo; The Arabians greatly improved the
+earlier apparatus, naming one form the alembic (<i>q.v.</i>); they
+discovered many ethereal oils by distilling plants and plant juices,
+alcohol by the distillation of wine, and also distilled water. The
+alchemists gave great attention to the method, as is shown by
+the many discoveries made. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric
+acids, all more or less impure, were better studied; and many
+ethereal oils were discovered. Prior to about the 18th century
+three forms of distillation were practised: (1) <i>destillatio per
+ascensum</i>, in which the retort was heated from the bottom, and
+the vapours escaped from the top; (2) <i>destillatio per latus</i>, in
+which the vapours escaped from the side; (3) <i>destillatio per
+descensum</i>, in which the retort was heated at the top, and the
+vapours led off by a pipe passing through the bottom. According
+to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of destillatio per descensum
+occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician who flourished
+at about the end of the 5th century.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times the laboratory practice of distillation was
+greatly facilitated by the introduction of the condenser named
+after Justus von Liebig; A. Kolbe and E. Frankland introduced
+the &ldquo;reflux condenser,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> a condenser so placed that the
+condensed vapours return to the distilling flask, a device permitting
+the continued boiling of a substance with little loss; W.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span>
+Dittmar and R. Anschütz, independently of one another, introduced
+&ldquo;distillation under reduced pressure&rdquo;; and &ldquo;fractional
+distillation&rdquo; was greatly aided by the columns of Wurtz (1855),
+E. Linnemann (1871), and of J. A. Le Bel and A. Henninger
+(1874). In chemical technology enormous strides have been
+made, as is apparent from the coal-gas, coal-tar, mineral oil,
+spirits and mineral acids industries.</p>
+
+<p>The subject is here treated under the following subdivisions:
+(1) ordinary distillation, (2) distillation under reduced pressure,
+(3) fractional distillation, (4) distillation with steam, (5) theory
+of distillation, (6) dry distillation, (7) distillation in chemical
+technology and (8) commercial distillation of water.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:411px; height:171px" src="images/img319a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>Ordinary Distillation.</i>&mdash;The apparatus generally used is shown
+in fig. 1. The substance is heated in a retort a, which consists of a
+large bulb drawn out at the top to form a long neck; it may also
+be provided with a tubulure, or opening, which permits the charging
+of the retort, and also the insertion of a thermometer b. The retort
+may be replaced by a distilling flask, which is a round-bottomed
+flask (generally with a lengthened neck) provided with an inclined
+side tube. The neck of the retort, or side tube of the flask, is connected
+to the condenser c by an ordinary or rubber cork, according
+to the nature of the substance distilled; ordinary corks soaked in
+paraffin wax are very effective when ordinary or rubber corks cannot
+be used. Sometimes an &ldquo;adapter&rdquo; is used; this is simply a tapering
+tube, the side tube being corked into the wider end, and the condenser
+on to the narrower end. The thermometer is placed so that the bulb
+is near the neck of the retort or the side tube of the distilling flask.
+It generally happens that much of the mercury column is outside the
+flask and consequently at a lower temperature than the bulb, hence
+a correction of the observed temperature is necessary. If N be the
+length of the unheated mercury column in degrees, t the temperature
+of this column (generally determined by a small thermometer placed
+with its bulb at the middle of the column), and T the temperature
+recorded by the thermometer, then the corrected temperature of the
+vapour is T + 0.000143 (T &minus; t) N (T. E. Thorpe, <i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i>,
+1880, p. 159).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 185px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:135px; height:246px" src="images/img319b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The mode of heating varies with the substance to be distilled.
+For highly volatile liquids, <i>e.g.</i> ether, ligroin, &amp;c., immersion of the
+flask in warm water suffices; for less volatile liquids a directly
+heated water or sand bath is used; for other liquids the flask is
+heated through wire gauze or asbestos board, or directly by a Bunsen.
+The condensing apparatus must also be conditioned by the volatility.
+With difficulty volatile substances, <i>e.g.</i> nitrobenzene, air cooling of
+the retort neck or of a straight tube connected with the distilling
+flask will suffice; or wet blotting-paper placed on the tube and
+the receiver immersed in water may be used. For less volatile liquids
+the Liebig condenser is most frequently used. In its original form,
+this consists of a long tube surrounded by an outer tube so arranged
+that cold water circulates in the annular space between the two.
+The vapours pass through the inner tube, and the cold water enters
+at the end farthest from the distilling flask. For more efficient
+condensation&mdash;and also for shortening the apparatus&mdash;the central
+tube may be flattened, bent into a succession
+of V&rsquo;s, or twisted into a spiral form, the object in
+each case being to increase the condensing surface.
+Of other common types of condenser, we may
+notice the &ldquo;spiral&rdquo; or &ldquo;worm&rdquo; type, which consists
+of a glass, copper or tin worm enclosed in
+a vessel in which water circulates; and the ball
+condenser, which consists of two concentric
+spheres, the vapour passing through the inner
+sphere and water circulating in the space between
+this and the outer (in another form the vapour
+circulates in a shell, on the outside and inside of
+which water circulates). A very effective type is
+shown in fig. 2. The condensing water enters at
+the top and is conducted to the bottom of the
+inner tube, which it fills and then flows over the
+outside of the outer tube; it collects in the
+bottom funnel and is then led off. The vapours
+pass between the inner and outer tubes.</p>
+
+<p>Practically any vessel may serve as a receiver&mdash;test tube, flask,
+beaker, &amp;c. If noxious vapours come over, it is necessary to have an
+air-tight connexion between the condenser and receiver, and to provide
+the latter with an outlet tube leading to an absorption column
+or other contrivance in which the vapours are taken up. If the
+substances operated upon decompose when heated in air, as, for
+example, the zinc alkyls which inflame, the air within the apparatus
+is replaced by some inert gas, <i>e.g.</i> nitrogen, carbon dioxide, &amp;c.,
+which is led in at the distilling flask before the process is started, and
+a slow current maintained during the operation.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Distillation under Reduced Pressure.</i>&mdash;This method is adopted
+for substances which decompose at their boiling-points under
+ordinary pressure, and, generally, when it is desirable to work at a
+lower temperature. The apparatus differs very slightly from that
+employed in ordinary distillation. The &ldquo;receiver&rdquo; must be connected
+on the one side to the condenser, and on the other to the
+exhaust pump. A safety vessel and a manometer are generally
+interposed between the pump and receiver. For the purpose of
+collecting the distillates in fractions, many forms of receivers have
+been devised. Brühl&rsquo;s is one of the simplest. It consists of a
+number of tubes mounted vertically on a horizontal circular disk
+which rotates about a vertical axis in a cylindrical vessel. This
+vessel has two tubulures: through one the end of the condenser
+projects so as to be over one of the receiving tubes; the other leads
+to the pump. By rotating the disk the tubes may be successively
+brought under the end of the condenser. Boiling under reduced
+pressure has one very serious drawback, viz. the liquid boils irregularly
+or &ldquo;bumps.&rdquo; W. Dittmar showed that this may be avoided
+by leading a fine, steady stream of dry gas-air, carbon dioxide,
+hydrogen, &amp;c., according to the substance operated upon&mdash;through
+the liquid by means of a fine capillary tube, the lower end of which
+reaches to nearly the bottom of the flask. &ldquo;Bumping&rdquo; is common
+in open boiling when the liquid is free from air bubbles and the
+interior of the vessel is very smooth. It may be diminished by
+introducing clippings of platinum foil, pieces of porcelain, glass
+beads or garnets into the liquid. &ldquo;Frothing&rdquo; is another objectionable
+feature with many liquids. When cold, froth can be immediately
+dissipated by adding a few drops of ether. In boiling liquids its
+formation may be prevented by adding paraffin wax; the wax melts
+and forms a ring on the surface of the liquid, which boils tranquilly
+in the centre.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="6"><img style="width:510px; height:235px" src="images/img319c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Wurtz.</td>
+<td class="caption">Linnemann.</td>
+<td class="caption">Le Bel-Henninger.</td>
+<td class="caption">Glynsky.</td>
+<td class="caption"> &emsp; &emsp; Young. &emsp; &emsp;&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="caption">Kreusler.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc" colspan="6">Fig. 3.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>3. <i>Fractional Distillation.</i>&mdash;By fractional distillation is meant the
+separation of a mixture having components which boil at neighbouring
+temperatures. The distilling flask has an elongated neck so that
+the less volatile vapours are condensed and return to the flask,
+while the more volatile component passes over. The success of the
+operation depends upon two factors: (1) that the heating be careful,
+slow and steady, and (2) that the column attached to the flask be
+efficient to sort out, as it were, the most volatile vapour. Three types
+of columns are employed: (1) the elongation is simply a straight or
+bulb tube; (2) the column, properly termed a &ldquo;dephlegmator,&rdquo; is
+so constructed that the vapours have to traverse a column of
+previously condensed vapour; (3) the column is encircled by a jacket
+through which a liquid circulates at the same temperature as the
+boiling-point of the most volatile component. To the first type
+belongs the simple straight tube, and the Wurtz tube (see fig. 3),
+which is simply a series of bulbs blown on a tube. These forms are
+not of much value. Several forms of the second type are in use. In
+the Linnemann column the condensed vapours temporarily collect on
+platinum gauzes (a) placed at the constrictions of a bulbed tube.
+In the Le Bel-Henninger form a series of bulbs are connected consecutively
+by means of syphon tubes (b) and having platinum gauzes
+(a) at the constrictions, so that when a certain amount of liquid
+collects in any one bulb it syphons over into the next lower bulb.
+The Glynsky form is simpler, having only one syphon tube; at the
+constrictions it is usual to have a glass bead. The &ldquo;rod-and-disk&rdquo;
+form of Sidney Young is a series of disks mounted on a central
+spindle and surrounded by a slightly wider tube. The &ldquo;pear-shaped&rdquo;
+form of the same author consists of a series of pear-shaped
+bulbs, the narrow end of one adjoining the wider end of the next
+lower one. In this class may also be placed the Hempel tube, which
+is simply a straight tube filled with glass beads. Of the third type
+is the Warren column consisting of a spiral kept at a constant
+temperature by a liquid bath. Improved forms were devised by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span>
+F. D. Brown. Kreusler&rsquo;s form is easily made and manipulated. A
+tube closed at the bottom is traversed by an open narrower tube, and
+the arrangement is fitted in the neck of the distilling flask. Water
+is led in by the inner tube, and leaves by a side tube fused on the
+wider tube. Many comparisons of the effectiveness of dephlegmating
+columns have been made (see Sidney Young, <i>Fractional Distillation</i>,
+1903). The pear-shaped form is the most effective, second in order
+is the Le Bel-Henninger, which, in turn, is better than the Glynsky.
+The main objection to the Hempel is the retention of liquid in the
+beads, and the consequent inapplicability to the distillation of small
+quantities.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Distillation with Steam.</i>&mdash;In this process a current of steam,
+which is generated in a separate boiler and superheated, if necessary,
+by circulation through a heated copper worm, is led into the distilling
+vessel, and the mixed vapours condensed as in the ordinary
+processes. This method is particularly successful in the case of
+substances which cannot be distilled at their ordinary boiling-points
+(it will be seen in the following section that distilling with steam
+implies a lowering of boiling-point), and which can be readily
+separated from water. Instances of its application are found in the
+separation of ortho- and para-nitrophenol, the o-compound distilling
+and the p- remaining behind; in the separation of aniline from the
+mixture obtained by reducing nitrobenzene; of the naphthols from
+the melts produced by fusing the naphthalene monosulphonic acids
+with potash; and of quinoline from the reaction between aniline,
+nitrobenzene, glycerin, and sulphuric acid (the product being first
+steam distilled to remove any aniline, nitrobenzene, or glycerin,
+then treated with alkali, and again steam distilled when quinoline
+comes over). With substances prone to discolorization, as, for
+example, certain amino compounds, the operation may be conducted
+in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, or the water may be saturated
+with sulphuretted hydrogen. Liquids other than water may be used:
+thus alcohol separates &alpha;-pipecoline and ether nitropropylene.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Theory of Distillation.</i>&mdash;The general observation that under a
+constant pressure a pure substance boils at a constant temperature
+leads to the conclusion that the distillate which comes over while
+the thermometer records only a small variation is of practically
+constant composition. On this fact depends &ldquo;rectification or
+purification by distillation.&rdquo; A liquid boils when its vapour pressure
+equals the superincumbent pressure (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vaporization</a></span>); consequently
+any process which diminishes the external pressure must
+also lower the boiling-point. In this we have the theory of &ldquo;distillation
+under reduced pressure.&rdquo; The theory of fractional distillation,
+or the behaviour of liquid mixtures when heated to their
+boiling-points, is more complex. For simplicity we confine ourselves
+to mixtures of two components, in which experience shows that
+three cases are to be recognized according as the components are
+(1) completely immiscible, (2) partially miscible, (3) miscible in all
+proportions.</p>
+
+<p>When the components are completely immiscible, the vapour
+pressure of the one is not influenced by the presence of the other.
+The mixture consequently distils at the temperature at which the
+sum of the partial pressures equals that of the atmosphere. Both
+components come over in a constant proportion until one disappears;
+it is then necessary to raise the temperature in order to distil
+the residue. The composition of the distillate is determinate (by
+Avogadro&rsquo;s law) if the molecular weights and vapour pressure of the
+components at the temperature of distillation be known. If M<span class="su">1</span>, M<span class="su">2</span>,
+and P<span class="su">1</span>, P<span class="su">2</span> be the molecular weights and vapour pressures of the
+components A and B, then the ratio of A to B in the distillate is
+M<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">1</span>/M<span class="su">2</span>P<span class="su">2</span>. Although, as is generally the case, one liquid (say A)
+is more volatile than the other (say B), <i>i.e.</i> P<span class="su">1</span> greater than P<span class="su">2</span>, if the
+molecular weight of A be much less than that of B, then it is obvious
+that the ratio M<span class="su">1</span>P<span class="su">1</span>/M<span class="su">2</span>P<span class="su">2</span> need not be very great, and hence the
+less volatile liquid B would come over in fair amount. These conditions
+pertain in cases where distillation with steam is successfully
+practised, the relatively high volatility of water being counterbalanced
+by the relatively high molecular weight of the other
+component; for example, in the case of nitrobenzene and water the
+ratio is 1 to 5. In general, when the substance to be distilled has a
+vapour pressure of only 10 mm. at 100° C., distillation with steam
+can be adopted, if the product can be subsequently separated from
+the water.</p>
+
+<p>When distilling a mixture of partially miscible components a
+distillate of constant composition is obtained so long as two layers
+are present, <i>i.e.</i> A dissolved in B and B dissolved in A, since both
+of these solutions emit vapours of the same composition (this follows
+since the same vapour must be in equilibrium with both solutions,
+for if it were not so a cyclic system contradicting the second law
+of thermodynamics would be realizable). The composition of the
+vapour, however, would not be the same as that of either layer. As
+the distillation proceeded one layer would diminish more rapidly than
+the other until only the latter would remain; this would then distil
+as a completely miscible mixture.</p>
+
+<p>The distillation of completely miscible mixtures is the most
+common practically and the most complex theoretically. A coordination
+of the results obtained on the distillation of mixtures of
+this nature with the introduction of certain theoretical considerations
+led to the formation of three groups distinguished by the relative
+solubilities of the vapours in the liquid components.</p>
+
+<p>(i.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in the liquid B, and the
+vapour of B readily soluble in the liquid A, there will exist a mixture
+of A and B which will have a lower vapour pressure than any other
+mixture. The vapour pressure composition curve will be convex
+to the axis of compositions, the maximum vapour pressures corresponding
+to pure A and pure B, and the minimum to some mixture
+of A and B. On distilling such a mixture under constant pressure, a
+mixture of the two components (of variable composition) will come
+over until there remains in the distilling flask the mixture of minimum
+vapour pressure. This will then distil at a constant temperature.
+Thus nitric acid, boiling-point 68°, forms a mixture with water,
+boiling point 100°, which boils at a constant temperature of 126°,
+and contains 68% of acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a similar
+mixture which boils at 110° and contains 20.2% of acid. Another
+mixture of this type is formic acid and water.</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) If the vapours be sparingly soluble in the liquids there will
+exist a mixture having a greater vapour pressure than that of any
+other mixture. The vapour pressure-composition curve will now be
+concave to the axis of composition, the minima corresponding to the
+pure components. On distilling such a mixture, a mixture of constant
+composition will distil first, leaving in the distilling flask one or
+other of the components according to the composition of the
+mixture. An example is propyl alcohol and water. At one time it
+was thought that these mixtures of constant boiling-point (an extended
+list is given in Young&rsquo;s <i>Fractional Distillation</i>) were definite
+compounds. The above theory, coupled with such facts as the
+variation of the composition of the constant boiling-point fraction
+with the pressure under which the mixture is distilled, the proportionality
+of the density of all mixtures to their composition, &amp;c.,
+shows this to be erroneous.</p>
+
+<p>(iii.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in liquid B, and the
+vapour of B sparingly soluble in liquid A, and if the vapour pressure
+of A be greater than that of B, then the vapour pressures of mixtures
+of A and B will continually diminish as one passes from 100% A
+to 100% B. The vapour tension may approximate to a linear
+function of the composition, and the curve will then be practically
+a straight line. On distilling such a mixture pure A will come over
+first, followed by mixtures in which the quantity of B continually
+increases; consequently by a sufficient number of distillations
+A and B can be completely separated.
+Examples are water and methyl or ethyl
+alcohol.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:195px; height:193px" src="images/img320.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 4.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Van&rsquo;t Hoff (<i>Theoretical and Physical
+Chemistry</i>, vol. i. p. 51) illustrates the
+five cases on one diagram. In fig. 4 let
+AB be the axis of composition, AP be the
+vapour pressure of pure A, BQ the vapour
+pressure of pure B. For immiscible liquids
+the vapour pressure curve is the horizontal
+line ab, described so that aP = QB
+and bQ = AP. For partially miscible
+liquids the curve is Pa<span class="su">1</span>b<span class="su">1</span>Q. The horizontal
+line a<span class="su">1</span>b<span class="su">1</span> corresponds to the two
+layers of liquid, and the inclined lines Pa<span class="su">1</span>Qb<span class="su">1</span> to solutions of B in A
+and of A in B. The curves Pa<span class="su">4</span>Q, having a minimum at a<span class="su">4</span>, Pa<span class="su">3</span>Q,
+having a maximum at a<span class="su">3</span>, and Pa<span class="su">5</span>Q, with neither a maximum nor
+minimum, correspond to the types i., ii., iii. of completely miscible
+mixtures.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Dry Distillation.</i>&mdash;In this process the substance operated upon
+is invariably a solid, the vapours being condensed and collected as
+in the other methods. When the substance operated upon is of
+uncertain composition, as, for example, coal, wood, coal-tar, &amp;c., the
+term destructive distillation is employed. A more general designation
+is &ldquo;pyrogenic processes,&rdquo; which also includes such operations
+as leading vapours through red-hot tubes and condensing the
+products. We may also consider here cases of sublimation wherein
+a solid vaporizes and the vapour condenses without the occurrence
+of the liquid phase.</p>
+
+<p>Dry distillation is extremely wasteful even when definite substances
+or mixtures, such as calcium acetate which yields acetone, are
+dealt with, valueless by-products being obtained and the condensate
+usually requiring much purification. Prior to 1830, little was known
+of the process other than that organic compounds generally yielded
+tarry and solid matters, but the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas (of
+acetone from acetates), of Mitscherlich (of benzene from benzoates)
+and of Persoz (of methane from acetates and lime) brought the operation
+into common laboratory practice. For efficiency the operation
+must be conducted with small quantities; caking may be prevented
+by mixing the substance with sand or powdered pumice, or, better,
+with iron filings, which also renders the decomposition more regular
+by increasing the conductivity of the mass. The most favourable
+retort is a shallow iron pan heated in a sand bath, and provided with
+a screwed-down lid bearing the delivery tube. Sidney Young has
+suggested conducting the operation in a current of carbon dioxide
+which sweeps out the vapours as they are evolved, and also heating
+in a vapour bath, <i>e.g.</i> of sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest red-hot tube syntheses of importance was
+the formation of naphthalene from a mixture of alcohol and ether
+vapours. Such condensations were especially studied by M. P. E.
+Berthelot, and shown to be very fruitful in forming hydrocarbons.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span>
+Sometimes reagents are placed in the combustion tube, for example
+lead oxide (litharge), which takes up bromine and sulphur. In its
+simplest form the apparatus consists of a straight tube, made of
+glass, porcelain or iron according to the temperature required and
+the nature of the reacting substances, heated in an ordinary combustion
+furnace, the mixture entering at one end and the vapours
+being condensed at the other. Apparatus can also be constructed
+in which the unchanged vapours are continually circulated through
+the tube. Operating in a current of carbon dioxide facilitates the
+process by preventing overheating.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Distillation in Chemical Technology.</i>&mdash;In laboratory practice
+use is made of a fairly constant type of apparatus, only trifling
+modifications being generally necessary to adapt the apparatus for
+any distillation or fractionation; in technology, on the other hand,
+many questions have to be considered which generally demand the
+adoption of special constructions for the economic distillation of
+different substances. The modes of distillation enumerated above
+all occur in manufacturing practice. Distillation in a vacuum is
+practised in two forms:&mdash;if the pump draws off steam as well as
+air it is termed a &ldquo;wet&rdquo; air-pump; if it only draws off air, it is a
+&ldquo;dry&rdquo; air-pump. In the glycerin industry the lyes obtained by
+saponifying the fats are first evaporated with &ldquo;wet vacuum&rdquo; and
+finally distilled with closed and live steam and a &ldquo;dry vacuum.&rdquo;
+Two forms of steam distillation may be distinguished:&mdash;in one the
+still is simply heated by a steam coil wound inside or outside the
+still&mdash;this is termed heating by dry steam; in the other steam is
+injected into the mass within the still&mdash;this is the distillation with
+live steam of laboratory practice. The details of the plant&mdash;the
+material and fittings of the still, the manner of heating, the form
+of the condensing plant, receivers, &amp;c.&mdash;have to be determined for
+each substance to be distilled in order to work with the maximum
+economy.</p>
+
+<p>For the distillation of liquids the retort is usually a cylindrical pot
+placed vertically; cast iron is generally employed, in which case
+the bottom is frequently incurved and thicker than the sides in order
+to take up the additional wear and tear. Sometimes linings of
+enamelled iron or other material are employed, which when worn
+can be replaced at a far lower cost than that of a new still. Glass
+stills heated by a sand bath are sometimes employed in the final
+distillation of sulphuric acid; platinum, and an alloy of platinum
+and iridium with a lining of gold rolled on (a discovery due to
+Heraeus), are used for the same purpose. Cast iron stills are provided
+with a hemispherical head or dome, generally attached to the
+body of the still by bolts, and of sufficient size to allow for any
+frothing. It is invariably provided with an opening to carry off the
+vapours produced. In its more complete form a still has in addition
+the following fittings:&mdash;The dome is provided with openings to
+admit (1) the axis of the stirring gear (in some stills the stirring gear
+rotates on a horizontal axis which traverses the side and not the head
+of the still), (2) the inlet and outlet tubes of a closed steam coil,
+(3) a tube reaching to nearly the bottom of the still to carry live
+steam, (4) a tube to carry a thermometer, (5) one or more manholes
+for charging purposes, (6) sight-holes through which the operation
+can be watched, and (7) a safety valve. The body of the still is
+provided with one or more openings at different heights to serve for
+the discharge of the residue in the still, and sometimes with a glass
+gauge to record the quantity of matter in the still. For dry distillations
+the retorts are generally horizontal cylinders, the bottom
+or lower surface being sometimes flattened. Iron and fireclay are
+the materials commonly employed; wrought iron is used in the
+manufacture of wood-spirit, fireclay for coal-gas (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gas</a></span>: <i>Manufacture</i>),
+phosphorus, zinc, &amp;c. The vertical type, however, is
+employed in the manufacture of acetone and of iodine.</p>
+
+<p>Several modes of heating are adopted. In some cases, especially
+in dry distillations, the furnace flames play directly on the retorts,
+in others, such as in the case of nitric acid, the whole still comes under
+the action of the furnace gases to prevent condensation on the upper
+part of the still, while in others the furnace gases do not play directly
+on the base or upper portion of the still but are conducted around it
+by a system of flues (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal-Tar</a></span>). Steam heating, dry or live,
+is employed alone and also as an auxiliary to direct firing.</p>
+
+<p>The condensing plant varies with the volatility of the distillate.
+Air cooling is adopted whenever possible. For example, in the less
+modern methods for manufacturing nitric acid the vapours were
+conducted directly into double-necked bottles (<i>bombonnes</i>) immersed
+in water. A more efficient arrangement consists of a stack of
+vertical pipes standing up from a main or collecting trough and
+connected at the top in consecutive pairs by a cross tube. By
+an arrangement of diaphragms in the lower trough the vapours
+are circulated through the system. As an auxiliary to air cooling the
+stack may be cooled by a slow stream of water trickling down the
+outside of the pipes, or, in certain cases, cold water may be injected
+into the condenser in the form of a spray, where it meets the ascending
+vapours. Horizontal air-cooling arrangements are also employed.
+A common type of condenser consists of a copper worm placed in a
+water bath; but more generally straight tubes of copper or cast iron
+which cross and recross a rectangular tank are employed, since this
+form is more readily repaired and cleansed. Wood-spirit, petroleum
+and coal-tar distillates are condensed in plant of the latter type.
+In cases where the condenser is likely to become plugged there is a
+pipe by means of which live steam can be injected into the condenser.
+The supply of water to the condenser is regulated according to the
+volatility of the condensate. When the vapours readily condense
+to a solid form the condensing plant may take the form of large
+chambers; such conditions prevail in the manufacture of arsenic,
+sulphur and lampblack: in the latter case (which, however, is not
+properly one of distillation) the chamber is hung with sheets on
+which the pigment collects. Large chambers are also used in the
+condensation of mercury.</p>
+
+<p>Dephlegmation of the vapours arising from such mixtures as coal-tar
+fractions, petroleum and the &ldquo;wash&rdquo; of the spirit industry, is
+very important, and many types of apparatus are employed in order
+to effect a separation of the vapours. The earliest form, invented by
+C. B. Mansfield to facilitate the fractionation of paraffin and coal-tar
+distillates, consisted in having a pipe leading from the inclined
+delivery tube of the still to the still again, so that any vapour which
+condensed in the delivery tube was returned to the still. Of really
+effective columns Coupier&rsquo;s was one of the earliest. The vapours
+rising from the still traverse a tall vertical column, and are then
+conveyed through a series of bulbs placed in a bath kept at the
+boiling-point of the most volatile constituent. The more volatile
+vapours pass over to the condensing plant, while the less volatile ones
+condense in the bulbs and are returned to the column at varying
+heights by means of connecting tubes. The French column is similar
+in action. The Coffey still is one of the most effective and is
+employed in the spirit, ammonia, coal-tar and other industries. It
+consists of a vertical column divided into a number of sections by
+horizontal plates, which are perforated so that the ascending vapours
+have to traverse a layer of liquid. Above this &ldquo;separator&rdquo; is a
+reflux condenser, termed the &ldquo;cooler,&rdquo; maintained at the correct
+temperature so that only the more volatile component passes to
+the receiver. The success of the operation chiefly depends upon the
+proper management of the cooler.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Commercial Distillation of Water.</i>&mdash;Distilled water, <i>i.e.</i> water
+free from salts and to some extent of the dissolved gases which are
+always present in natural waters, is of indispensable value in many
+operations both of scientific and industrial chemistry. The apparatus
+and process for distilling ordinary water are very simple.
+The body of the still is made of copper, with a head and worm, or
+condensing apparatus, either of copper or tin. The still is usually
+fed continuously by the heated water from the condenser. The
+first portion of the distillate brings over the gases dissolved in the
+water, ammonia and other volatile impurities, and is consequently
+rejected; scarcely two-fifths of the entire quantity of water can be
+safely used as pure distilled water.</p>
+
+<p>Apparatus for the economic production of a potable water from
+sea-water is of vital importance in the equipment of ships. The
+simple distillation of sea-water, and the production thereby of a
+certain proportion of chemically fresh water, is a very simple
+problem; but it is found that water which is merely evaporated
+and recondensed has a very disagreeable flat taste, and it is only after
+long exposure to pure atmospheric air, with continued agitation, or
+repeated pouring from one vessel to another, that it becomes
+sufficiently aerated to lose its unpleasant taste and smell and
+become drinkable. The water, moreover, till it is saturated with
+gases, readily absorbs noxious vapours to which it may be exposed.
+For the successful preparation of potable water from sea-water, the
+following conditions are essential:&mdash;1st, aeration of the distilled
+product so that it may be immediately available for drinking purposes;
+2nd, economy of coal to obtain the maximum of water with
+the minimum expenditure of fuel; and 3rd, simplicity of working
+parts, to secure the apparatus from breaking down, and enable
+unskilled attendants to work it with safety. The problem is a comparatively
+old one, for we find that R. Fitzgerald patented a process
+in 1683 having for its purpose the &ldquo;sweetening of sea-water.&rdquo; A
+history of early attempts is given in S. Hales&rsquo;s <i>Philosophical Experiments</i>,
+published in 1739. Among the earlier of the modern forms
+of apparatus which came into practical adoption are the inventions
+of Dr Normandy and of Chaplin of Glasgow, the apparatus of
+Rocher of Nantes, and that patented by Gallé and Mazeline of Havre.
+Normandy&rsquo;s apparatus, although economical and producing water
+of good quality, is very complex in its structure, consisting of very
+numerous working parts, with elaborate arrangements of pipes,
+cocks and other fittings. It is consequently expensive and requires
+careful attention for its working. It was extensively adopted in the
+British navy, the Cunard line and many other important emigrant
+and mercantile lines. Chaplin&rsquo;s apparatus, which was invented and
+patented later, has also since 1865 been sanctioned for use on emigrant,
+troop and passenger vessels. The apparatus possesses the great
+merit of simplicity and compactness, in consequence of which it is
+comparatively cheap and not liable to derangement. It was adopted
+by many important British and continental shipping companies,
+among others by the Peninsular &amp; Oriental, the Inman, the North
+German Lloyd and the Hamburg American companies.</p>
+
+<p>The modern distilling plant consists of two main parts termed
+the evaporator and condenser; in addition there must be a boiler
+(sometimes steam is run off the main boilers, but this practice has
+several disadvantages), pumps for circulating cold water in the
+condenser and for supplying salt water to the evaporator, and a
+filter through which the aerated water passes. The evaporator
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span>
+consists of a cylindrical vessel having in its lower half a horizontal
+copper coil connected to the steam supply. The cylindrical vessel
+is filled to a certain level with salt water and the steam turned on.
+The water vaporizes and is led from the dome of the evaporator
+to the head of the condenser. The water level is maintained in the
+evaporator until it contains a certain amount of salt. It is then run
+off, and replaced by fresh sea-water. The condenser consists of a
+vertical cylinder having manifolds at the head and foot and through
+which a number of tubes pass. In some types, <i>e.g.</i> the Weir, the
+condensing water circulates upwards through the tubes; in others,
+<i>e.g.</i> the Quiggins, the water circulates around the tubes. Various
+forms of the tubes have been adopted. In the Pape-Henneberg
+condenser, which has been adopted in the German navy, they are
+oval in section and tend to become circular under the pressure of
+the steam; this alteration in shape makes the tubes self-scaling.
+In the Quiggins condenser, which has been widely adopted, <i>e.g.</i> in
+the &ldquo;Lusitania,&rdquo; the steam traverses vertical copper coils tinned
+inside and outside; the coils are crescent-shaped, a form which gives
+a greater condensing surface and makes the coils self-scaling. The
+aeration of the water is effected by blowing air into the steam before
+it is condensed; as an auxiliary, the storage tanks have a false
+bottom perforated by fine holes so that if air be injected below it,
+the water is efficiently aerated by the air which traverses it in fine
+streams. After condensation the water is filtered through charcoal.
+The filter is either a separate piece of plant, or, as in the Quiggins
+form, it may be placed below the coils in the same outer vessel. In
+this plant the aeration is conducted by blowing in air at the base of
+the condenser. After filtration the water is pumped to the storage
+tanks. Many types of distilling plant are in use in addition to those
+mentioned above, for example the Rayner, Kirkaldy, Merlees,
+Normand; the United States navy has adopted a form designed by
+the Bureau of Engineering.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The general practice of laboratory distillation is
+discussed in all treatises on practical organic chemistry; reference
+may be made to Lassar-Cohn, <i>Manual of Organic Chemistry</i> (1896),
+and <i>Arbeitsmethoden für organisch-chemische Laboratorien</i> (1901);
+Hans Meyer, <i>Analyse und Konstitutionermittlung organischer
+Verbindungen</i> (1909). The theory of distillation finds a place in all
+treatises on physical chemistry. Of especial importance is Sidney
+Young, <i>Fractional Distillation</i> (1903). The history of distillation is
+to be studied in E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, <i>Die ätherischen
+Öle</i> (Berlin, 1899; Eng. tr. by E. Kremers, Milwaukee Press, 1900).
+The technology of distillation is best studied in relation to the
+several industries in which it is employed; reference should be
+made to the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal-Tar</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gas</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Petroleum</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spirits</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nitric
+Acid</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. E.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISTRACTION<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>distrahere</i>, to pull asunder), a drawing
+away or apart; a word now used generally of a state of mind,
+to mean a diversion of attention, or a violent emotion amounting
+almost to madness.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISTRESS<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>destrece</i>, <i>destresse</i>, from the past
+participle of the Lat. <i>distringere</i>, to pull apart, used in Late Lat.
+in the sense of to punish, hence to distrain), pressure, especially
+of sorrow, pain or ill-fortune. As a legal term, the action of
+distraining or distraint, the right which a landlord has of seizing
+the personal chattels of his tenant for non-payment of rent.
+Cattle <i>damage feasant</i> (doing damage or trespassing upon a neighbour&rsquo;s
+land) may also be <i>distrained</i>, <i>i.e.</i> may be detained until
+satisfaction be rendered for injury they have done. The cattle
+or other animals thus distrained are a mere pledge in the hands
+of the injured person, who has only power to retain them until
+the owner appear to make satisfaction for the mischief they have
+done. &ldquo;Distress damage feasant&rdquo; is also applicable to inanimate
+things on the land if doing damage thereto or to its produce;
+things in actual use, however, are exempt. Such distress must
+be made during the actual trespass, and by whoever is aggrieved
+by the damage. Distress for rent was also at one time regarded as
+a mere pledge or security; but the remedy, having been found to
+be speedy and efficacious, was rendered more perfect by enactments
+allowing the thing taken to be sold. Blackstone notes that
+the law of distresses in this respect &ldquo;has been greatly altered within
+a few years last past.&rdquo; The legislature, in fact, converted an
+ancient right of personal redress into a powerful remedy for the
+exclusive benefit of a single class of creditors, viz. landlords.
+Now that the relation of landlord and tenant in England has
+come to be regarded as purely a matter of contract, the language
+of the law-books seems to be singularly inappropriate. The
+defaulting tenant is a &ldquo;wrong-doer,&rdquo; the landlord is the &ldquo;injured
+party,&rdquo;; any attempt to defeat the landlord&rsquo;s remedy by carrying
+off distrainable goods is denounced as &ldquo;fraudulent and
+knavish.&rdquo; The operation of the law has, as we shall point out,
+been mitigated in some important respects, but it still remains
+an almost unique specimen of one-sided legislation.</p>
+
+<p>At common law distress was said to be incident to <i>rent service</i>,
+and by particular reservation to rent charges; but by 4 Geo. II.
+c. 28 it was extended to <i>rent seck</i>, <i>rents of assize</i> and chief rents
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rent</a></span>). It is therefore a general remedy for rent certain in
+arrear. All personal chattels are distrainable with the following
+exceptions:&mdash;(1) things in which there can be no property, as
+animals <i>ferae naturae</i>; (2) ledgers, daybooks, title-deeds, &amp;c.;
+(3) things delivered to a person following a public trade, as a horse
+sent to be shod, &amp;c.; (4) things already in the custody of the law;
+(5) things which cannot be restored in as good a plight as when
+distrained, that is, perishable articles; (6) fixtures; (7) beasts of
+the plough and instruments of husbandry while there is other
+sufficient distress to be found; (8) instruments of a man&rsquo;s trade or
+profession in actual use at the time the distress is made. If not in
+actual use they are only privileged in case there is other sufficient
+distress upon the premises. These exceptions, it will be seen,
+imply that the thing distrained is to be held as a pledge merely&mdash;not
+to be sold. They also imply that in general any chattels
+found on the land in question are to be available for the benefit of
+the landlord, whether they belong to the tenant or not. This
+principle worked with peculiar harshness in the case of lodgers,
+whose goods might be seized and sold for the payment of the rent
+due by their landlord to his superior landlord. By the Lodgers&rsquo;
+Goods Protection Act 1871, however, where a lodger&rsquo;s goods have
+been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him
+with a notice stating that the intermediate landlord has no
+interest in the property seized, but that it is the property or in the
+lawful possession of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of
+the rent due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On payment
+or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the
+distress against the goods in question. By the Law of Distress
+Amendment Act 1908 this protection was extended to under
+tenants liable to pay rent by equal quarterly instalments, as well
+as to any person whatsoever who is not a tenant of the premises or
+any part thereof nor has any beneficial interest therein. The act,
+however, excludes certain goods, particularly goods belonging to
+the husband or wife of the tenant whose rent is in arrear, goods
+comprised in any bill of sale, hire purchase agreement or settlement
+made by the tenant, goods in the possession or disposition
+of a tenant by the consent and permission of the true owner under
+such circumstances as to make the tenant reputed owner, goods
+of the partner of an immediate tenant, and goods (not being goods
+of a lodger) upon premises where any trade or business is carried
+on in which both the immediate tenant and the under tenant
+have an interest. The act does not apply where an under tenancy
+has been created in breach of a covenant or agreement between
+the landlord and his immediate tenant. The Law of Distress
+Amendment Act 1888 also absolutely exempted from distress the
+tools and implements of trade and wearing apparel and bedding
+of a tenant and his family to the value of five pounds, and the
+Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895 gave power to a court of
+summary jurisdiction to direct that such goods, when distrained
+upon, should be restored if not sold, or, if sold, to order their
+value to be paid by the persons who levied the distress or directed
+it to be levied. Originally the landlord could only seize things
+actually on the premises, so that the remedy might be defeated by
+the things being taken away. But by an act of 1710, and by the
+Distress for Rent Act 1737, he may follow things fraudulently or
+clandestinely removed off the premises within thirty days after
+their removal, unless they have been in the meantime bona fide
+sold for a valuable consideration. The sixth exception mentioned
+above was held to extend to sheaves of corn; but by an act
+of 1690 corn, when reaped, as well as hay, was made subject to
+distress. That act was modified by the Landlord and Tenant Act
+1851, under which growing crops seized by the sheriff and sold
+under an execution are liable to distress for rent which becomes
+due after the seizure and sale, if there is no other sufficient distress
+on the premises.</p>
+
+<p>Excessive or disproportionate distress exposes the distrainer
+to an action, and any irregularity formerly made the proceedings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span>
+void <i>ab initio</i>, so that the remedy was attended with considerable
+risk. The Distress for Rent Act 1737, before alluded to, in the
+interests of landlords, protected distresses for <i>rent</i> from the
+consequences of irregularity. In all cases of distress for rent, if
+the owner do not within five days (by the Law of Distress Amendment
+Act 1888, fifteen days, if the tenant make a request in
+writing to the person levying the distress and also give security
+for any additional cost that may be occasioned by such extension
+of time) replevy the same with sufficient security, the thing distrained
+may be sold towards satisfaction of the rent and charges,
+and the surplus, if any, must be returned to the owner. To
+&ldquo;replevy&rdquo; is when the person distrained upon applies to the
+proper authority (the registrar of the county court) to have
+the thing returned to his own possession, on giving security to
+try the right of taking it in an action of replevin.</p>
+
+<p>Duties and penalties imposed by act of parliament (<i>e.g.</i> payment
+of rates and taxes) are sometimes enforced by distress.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISTRIBUTION<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (Lat, <i>distribuere</i>, to deal out), a term used in
+various connexions with the general meaning of spreading out.
+In law, the word is used for the division of the personal estate
+of an intestate among the next-of-kin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Intestacy</a></span>). The
+important scientific question as to the distribution of plants and
+animals on the earth is treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Distribution</i>, and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zoological Distribution</a></span>. In economics the word is used
+generally for the transference of commodities from person to
+person or from place to place, or the dividing up of large quantities
+of commodities into smaller quantities; and in a more technical
+sense, for the division of the product of industry amongst the
+various members or classes of the community. The theory of
+economic distribution, <i>i.e.</i> the causes which determine rent, wages,
+profits and interest, forms an important subject-matter in all
+text-books. Among recent works, see E. Cannan&rsquo;s <i>History of
+Theories of Production and Distribution, 1776-1848</i> (1893), J. R.
+Common&rsquo;s <i>Distribution of Wealth</i> (1893), and H. J. Davenport&rsquo;s
+<i>Value and Distribution</i> (Chicago, 1908).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISTRICT,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a word denoting in its more general sense, a tract
+or extent of a country, town, &amp;c., marked off for administrative
+or other purposes, or having some special and distinguishing
+characteristics. The medieval Latin <i>districtus</i> (from <i>distringere</i>,
+to distrain) is defined by Du Cange as <i>Territorium feudi, seu
+tractus, in quo Dominus vassallos et tenentes suos distringere potest</i>;
+and as <i>justitiae exercendae in eo tractu facultas</i>. It was also used
+of the territory over which the feudal lord exercised his jurisdiction
+generally. It may be noted that <i>distringere</i> had a wider
+significance than &ldquo;to distrain&rdquo; in the English legal sense (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Distress</a></span>). It is defined by Du Cange as <i>compellere ad aliquid
+faciendum per mulctam, poenam, vel capto pignore</i>. In English
+usage, apart from its general application in such forms as postal
+district, registration district and the like, &ldquo;district&rdquo; has specific
+usages for ecclesiastical and local government purposes. It is thus
+applied to a division of a parish under the Church Building Acts,
+originally called a &ldquo;perpetual curacy,&rdquo; and the church serving
+such a division is properly a &ldquo;district chapel.&rdquo; Under the Local
+Government Act of 1894 counties are divided for the purposes of
+the act into urban and rural districts. In British India the word
+is used to represent the <i>zillah</i>, an administrative subdivision of
+a province or presidency. In the United States of America the
+word has many administrative, judicial and other applications.
+In South Carolina it was used instead of &ldquo;county&rdquo; for the chief
+division of the state other than in the coast region. In the
+Virginias, Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky and Maryland it answers
+to &ldquo;township&rdquo; or precinct, elsewhere the principal subdivision of
+a county. It is used for an electoral &ldquo;division,&rdquo; each state being
+divided into Congressional and senatorial districts; and also
+for a political subdivision ranking between an unorganized and an
+organized Territory&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>, the District of Columbia and Alaska.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DISTYLE<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="di-">&#948;&#953;</span>, two, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">&#963;&#964;&#8166;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, column), the
+architectural term given to a portico which has two columns
+between antae, known as <i>distyle-in-antis</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temple</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DITHMARSCHEN,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ditmarsh</span> (in the oldest form of the
+name <i>Thiatmaresgaho</i>, Dietmar&rsquo;s Gau), a territory between the
+Eider, the Elbe and the North Sea, forming the western part of
+the old duchy of Holstein, and now included in the Prussian
+province of Schleswig-Holstein. It contains about 550 sq. m.
+with 90,000 inhabitants. The territory consists to the extent of
+one half of good pasture land, which is preserved from inroads of
+the sea by banks and dams, the other half being mostly waste.
+It was originally colonized mainly from Friesland and Saxony.
+The district was subjugated and Christianized by Charlemagne
+in 804, and ranked as a separate <i>Gau</i>, included perhaps in the
+countship of Stade, or <i>Comitalus utriusque ripae</i>. From the same
+century, according to one opinion, or from the year 1182, when
+the countship was incorporated with their see, according to
+another, the archbishops of Bremen claimed supremacy over the
+land; but the inhabitants, who had developed and consolidated
+a systematic organism for self-government, made obstinate
+resistance, and rather attached themselves to the bishop of
+Schleswig. Ditmarsken, to use the Scandinavian form of the
+name, continued part of the Danish dominions till the disastrous
+battle of Bornhöved in 1227, when its former independence was
+regained. The claims of the archbishop of Bremen were now so
+far recognized that he exercised the royal rights of <i>Heerbann</i> and
+<i>Blutbann</i>,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> enjoyed the consequent emoluments, and was represented
+first by a single <i>advocatus</i>, or <i>Vogt</i>, and afterwards by one
+for each of the five Döffts, or marks, into which the land was
+divided after the establishment of Meldorf. The community was
+governed by a <i>Landrath</i> of forty-eight elective consuls, or twelve
+from each of the four marks; and even in the 14th century the
+power of the episcopal <i>advocati</i> was so slight that a chronicler
+quoted by Conrad von Maurer says, <i>De Ditmarschen leven sunder
+Heren und Hovedt unde dohn wadt se willen</i>, &ldquo;the Ditmarschen
+live without lord and head, and do what they will.&rdquo; In 1319 and
+in 1404 they succeeded in defeating the invasions of the Holstein
+nobles; and though in 1474 the land was nominally incorporated
+with the duchy by the emperor Frederick III., the attempt of the
+Danish king Hans and the duke of Gottorp to enforce the decree
+in 1500 resulted only in their complete rout in the marshes of the
+Dussend-Düwels-Warf. During the early part of the century
+which began with such prestige for Ditmarsh, it was the scene of
+violent internal conflict in regard to the religious questions of
+the time; and, thus weakened, it was obliged in 1559 to submit
+to partition among its three conquerors&mdash;King Frederick II. of
+Denmark and Dukes John and Adolphus. A new division took
+place on Duke John&rsquo;s death in 1581, by which Frederick obtained
+South Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Meldorf, and Adolphus
+obtained North Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Heide; and this
+arrangement continued till 1773, when all the Gottorp possessions
+were incorporated with the Danish crown.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dahlmann&rsquo;s edition of Neocorus, <i>Chronik von Dithmarschen</i>
+(Kiel, 1827), and <i>Geschichte Dänemarks</i> (1840-1844); Michelsen,
+<i>Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Landes Dithmarschen</i> (1834),
+<i>Sammlung altdithmarscher Rechtsquellen</i> (1842), and <i>Dithmarschen im
+Verhältniss zum bremischen Erzstift</i>; Kolster, <i>Geschichte Dithmarschens,
+nach F. R. Dahlmanns Vorlesungen</i> (1873).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> That is, the right of claiming military service, and the right of
+bringing capital offenders to justice.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DITHYRAMBIC POETRY,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> the description of poetry in which
+the character of the dithyramb is preserved. It remains quite
+uncertain what the derivation or even the primitive meaning
+of the Greek word <span class="grk" title="dithyrambos">&#948;&#953;&#952;&#973;&#961;&#945;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span> is, although many conjectures
+have been attempted. It was, however, connected from earliest
+times with the choral worship of Dionysus. A dithyramb is
+defined by Grote as a round choric dance and song in honour
+of the wine-god. The earliest dithyrambic poetry was probably
+improvised by priests of Bacchus at solemn feasts, and expressed,
+in disordered numbers, the excitement and frenzy felt by the
+worshippers. This element of unrestrained and intoxicated
+vehemence is prominent in all poetry of this class. The dithyramb
+was traditionally first practised in Naxos; it spread to
+other islands, to Boeotia and finally to Athens. Arion is said to
+have introduced it at Corinth, and to have allied it to the worship
+of Pan. It was thus &ldquo;merged,&rdquo; as Professor G. G. Murray says,
+&ldquo;into the Satyr-choir of wild mountain-goats&rdquo; out of which sprang
+the earliest form of tragedy. But when tragic drama had so far
+developed as to be quite independent, the dithyramb did not, on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span>
+that account, disappear. It flourished in Athens until after the
+age of Aristotle. So far as we can distinguish the form of the
+ancient Greek dithyramb, it must have been a kind of irregular
+wild poetry, not divided into strophes or constructed with any
+evolution of the theme, but imitative of the enthusiasm created
+by the use of wine, by what passed as the Dionysiac delirium. It
+was accompanied on some occasions by flutes, on others by the
+lyre, but we do not know enough to conjecture the reasons of the
+choice of instrument. Pindar, in whose hands the ode took such
+magnificent completeness, is said to have been trained in the
+elements of dithyrambic poetry by a certain Lasus of Hermione.
+Ion, having carried off the prize in a dithyrambic contest,
+distributed to every Athenian citizen a cup of Chian wine. In the
+opinion of antiquity, pure dithyrambic poetry reached its climax
+in a lost poem. <i>The Cyclops</i>, by Philoxenus of Cythera, a poet of
+the 4th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> After this time, the composition of dithyrambs,
+although not abandoned, rapidly declined in merit. It
+was essentially a Greek form, and was little cultivated, and always
+without success, by the Latins. The dithyramb had a spectacular
+character, combining verse with music. In modern literature,
+although the adjective &ldquo;dithyrambic&rdquo; is often used to describe
+an enthusiastic movement in lyric language, and particularly in
+the ode, pure dithyrambs have been extremely rare. There are,
+however, some very notable examples. The <i>Baccho in Toscana</i>
+of Francesco Redi (1626-1698), which was translated from the
+Italian, with admirable skill, by Leigh Hunt, is a piece of genuine
+dithyrambic poetry. <i>Alexander&rsquo;s Feast</i> (1698), by Dryden, is
+the best example in English. But perhaps more remarkable,
+and more genuinely dithyrambic than either, are the astonishing
+improvisations of Karl Mikael Bellman (1740-1795),
+whose Bacchic songs were collected in 1791 and form one of
+the most remarkable bodies of lyrical poetry in the literature
+of Sweden.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DITTERSBACH,<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Silesia, 3 m. by rail S.E. from Waldenburg and 50 m. S. W. from
+Breslau. It has coal-mines, bleach-fields and match factories.
+Population (1905) 9371.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1739-1799), Austrian
+composer and violinist, was born in Vienna on the 2nd of
+November 1739, his father&rsquo;s name being Ditters. Having shown
+as a child marked talent for the violin, he was allowed to play in
+the orchestras of St Stephen&rsquo;s and the <i>Schottenkirche</i>, where he
+attracted the attention of a notable patron of music, Prince
+Joseph Frederick of Hildburghausen (1702-1787), who is also
+remembered as a soldier for his disastrous leading of the forces of
+the Empire at Rossbach. The prince gave the boy, now eleven
+years old, a place in his private orchestra&mdash;the first of the kind
+established in Vienna,&mdash;and also saw to it that he received
+an excellent general education. The Seven Years&rsquo; War proved
+disastrous to both music and morals; and young Ditters, who
+had fallen into evil ways, fled from Hildburghausen, whither he
+had gone with the prince, to avoid the payment of his gambling
+debts. His patron generously forgave and recalled him, but
+soon afterwards gave up his orchestra at Vienna. Ditters now
+obtained a place in the Vienna opera; but he was not satisfied,
+and in 1761 eagerly accepted an invitation to accompany Gluck,
+whose acquaintance, as well as that of Haydn, he had made while
+in the service of the prince, on a professional journey to Italy.
+His success as a violinist on this occasion was equal to that
+of Gluck as composer; and on his return to Vienna he was
+recognized as the superior of Antonio Lolli, who as virtuoso
+had hitherto held the palm. In 1764 he was again associated
+with Gluck in the musical part of the ceremonies at Frankfort,
+attending the coronation of the archduke Joseph as King of the
+Romans. His next appointment was that of conductor of the
+orchestra of the bishop of Grosswardein, a Hungarian magnate,
+at Pressburg. He set up a private stage in the episcopal palace,
+and wrote for it his first &ldquo;opera buffa,&rdquo; <i>Amore in musica</i>. His
+first oratorio, <i>Isacco figura del Redentore</i>, was also written during
+this time; but the scandal of performances of light opera by the
+bishop&rsquo;s company, even on fast days and during Advent, outweighed
+this pious effort; the empress Maria Theresa sharply
+called the worldly prelate to order; and he, in a huff, dismissed
+his orchestra (1769). After a short interlude, Ditters was again
+in the service of an ecclesiastical patron, count von Schafgotsch,
+prince bishop of Breslau, at his estate of Johannesberg in Silesia.
+Here he displayed so much skill as a sportsman, that the bishop
+procured for him the office of forester (<i>Forstmeister</i>) of the
+principality of Neisse. He had already, by the same influence,
+been made knight of the Golden Spur (1770). At Johannesberg
+Ditters also produced a comic opera, <i>Il Viaggiatore americano</i>,
+and an oratorio, <i>Davide</i>. The title rôle of the latter was taken
+by a pretty Italian singer, Signora Nicolini, whom Ditters
+married. In 1773 he was ennobled as Karl von Dittersdorf, and
+at the same time was appointed administrator (<i>Amtshauptmann</i>)
+of Freyenwaldau, an office which he performed by deputy. In
+the same year his oratorio <i>Ester</i> was produced in Vienna. During
+the War of Bavarian Succession the prince bishop&rsquo;s orchestra
+was dissolved, and Dittersdorf employed himself in his office at
+Freyenwaldau; but after the peace of Tetschen (1779) he again
+became conductor of the reconstituted orchestra. From this
+time forward his output was enormous. In 1780 ten months
+sufficed for the production of his <i>Giobbe</i> (Job) and four operas,
+three of which were successful; and besides these he wrote a
+large number of &ldquo;characterized symphonies,&rdquo; founded on the
+<i>Metamorphoses</i> of Ovid. He was now at the height of his fame,
+and spent the fortune which it brought him in much luxury. But
+after a time his patron fell on evil days, the famous orchestra had
+to be reduced, and when the bishop died in 1795 his successor
+dismissed the composer with a small money gift. Poor and
+broken in health, he accepted the asylum offered to him by Ignaz
+Freiherr von Stillfried, on his estate near Neuhaus in Bohemia,
+where he spent what strength was left him in a feverish effort
+to make money by the composition of operas, symphonies and
+pianoforte pieces. He died on the 1st of October 1799, praying
+&ldquo;God&rsquo;s reward&rdquo; for whoever should save his family from
+starvation. On his death-bed he dictated to his son his
+<i>Lebensbeschreibung</i> (autobiography).</p>
+
+<p>Dittersdorf&rsquo;s chief talent was for comic opera and instrumental
+music in the sonata forms. In both of these branches his work
+still shows signs of life, and it is of great historical interest, since
+he was not only an excellent musician and a friend of Haydn but
+also a thoroughly popular writer, with a lively enough musical wit
+and sense of effect to embody in an amusing and fairly artistic
+form exactly what the best popular intelligence of the times saw
+in the new artistic developments of Haydn. Thus, while in the
+amiable monotony and diffuseness of Boccherini we may trace
+Haydn as a force tending to disintegrate the polyphonic suite-forms
+of instrumental music, in Dittersdorf on the other hand
+we see the popular conception of the modern sonata and dramatic
+style. Yet, with all his popularity, the reality of his progressive
+outlook may be gauged from the fact that, though he was at
+least as famous a violinist as Boccherini was a violoncellist, there
+is in his string quartets no trace of that tendency to sacrifice the
+ensemble to an exhibition of his own playing which in Boccherini&rsquo;s
+chamber music puts the violoncello into the same position as the
+first violin in the chamber music of Spohr. In Dittersdorf&rsquo;s
+quartets (at least six of which are worthy of their survival at the
+present day) the first violin leads indeed, but not more than is
+inevitable in such unsophisticated music where the normal place
+for melody is at the top. The appearance of greater vitality
+in the texture of Boccherini&rsquo;s quintets is produced merely by
+the fact that, his special instrument being the violoncello, his
+displays of brilliance inevitably occur in the inner parts. Six
+of Dittersdorf&rsquo;s symphonies on the <i>Metamorphoses</i> of Ovid were
+republished in 1899, the centenary of his death. In them we have
+an amusing and sometimes charming illustration of the way in
+which at transitional periods music, as at the present day, is ready
+to make crutches of literature. The end of the representation of
+the conversion of the Lycian peasants into frogs is prophetically
+and ridiculously Wagnerian in its ingenious expansion of rhythm
+and eminently expert orchestration. Every external feature of
+Dittersdorf&rsquo;s style seems admirably apt for success in German
+comic opera on a small scale; and an occasional experimental
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span>
+performance at the present day of his <i>Doktor und Apotheker</i> is
+not less his due than the survival of his best quartets.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Lebensbeschreibung</i>, published at Leipzig, 1801 (English
+translation by A. D. Coleridge, 1896); an article in the <i>Rivista
+musicale</i>, vi. 727; and the article &ldquo;Dittersdorf&rdquo; in Grove&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionary of Music and Musicians</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DITTO<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>dictum</i>, something said, Ital. <i>detto</i>,
+aforesaid), that which has been said before, the same thing. The
+word is frequently abbreviated into &ldquo;do.&rdquo; In accounts, &ldquo;ditto&rdquo;
+is indicated by two dots or a dash under the word or figure that
+would otherwise be repeated. A &ldquo;suit of dittos,&rdquo; a trade or slang
+phrase, is a suit in which coat, trousers and waistcoat are all of
+the same material.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DITTON, HUMPHRY<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1675-1715), English mathematician,
+was born at Salisbury on the 29th of May 1675. He studied
+theology, and was for some years a dissenting minister at
+Tonbridge, but on the death of his father he devoted himself
+to the congenial study of mathematics. Through the influence
+of Sir Isaac Newton he was elected mathematical master in
+Christ&rsquo;s hospital. He was author of the following memoirs and
+treatises:&mdash;&ldquo;Of the Tangents of Curves, &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol.
+xxiii.; &ldquo;A Treatise on Spherical Catoptrics,&rdquo; published in the
+<i>Phil. Trans.</i> vol. xxiv., from which it was copied and reprinted
+in the <i>Acta Eruditorum</i> (1707), and also in the Memoirs of the
+Academy of Sciences at Paris; <i>General Laws of Nature and
+Motion</i> (1705), a work which is commended by Wolfius as illustrating
+and rendering easy the writings of Galileo and Huygens, and
+the <i>Principia</i> of Newton; <i>An Institution of Fluxions, containing
+the First Principles, Operations, and Applications of that admirable
+Method, as invented by Sir Isaac Newton</i> (1706). In 1709 he
+published the <i>Synopsis Algebraica</i> of John Alexander, with many
+additions and corrections. In his <i>Treatise on Perspective</i> (1712)
+he explained the mathematical principles of that art; and
+anticipated the method afterwards elaborated by Brook Taylor.
+In 1714 Ditton published his <i>Discourse on the Resurrection of
+Jesus Christ;</i> and <i>The New Law of Fluids, or a Discourse concerning
+the Ascent of Liquids in exact Geometrical Figures, between two
+nearly contiguous Surfaces</i>. To this was annexed a tract (&ldquo;Matter
+not a Cogitative Substance&rdquo;) to demonstrate the impossibility of
+thinking or perception being the result of any combination of the
+parts of matter and motion. There was also added an advertisement
+from him and William Whiston concerning a method for
+discovering the longitude, which it seems they had published
+about half a year before. Although the method had been approved
+by Sir Isaac Newton before being presented to the Board
+of Longitude, and successfully practised in finding the longitude
+between Paris and Vienna, the board determined against it.
+This disappointment, aggravated as it was by certain lines
+written by Dean Swift, affected Ditton&rsquo;s health to such a degree
+that he died in the following year, on the 15th of October 1715.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIU,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> an island and town of India, belonging to Portugal, and
+situated at the southern extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar.
+Area of district, 20 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 14,614. The anchorage
+is fairly protected from the sea, but the depth of water is only 3 to
+4 fathoms. The channel between the island on Diu and the mainland
+is navigable only by fishing boats and small craft. The town
+is well fortified on the old system, being surrounded by a wall
+with towers at regular intervals. Many of the inhabitants are
+the well-known Banyan merchants of the east coast of Africa and
+Arabia. Native spirits are distilled from the palm, salt is made
+and fish caught. The trade of the town, however, is decayed.
+There are remains of several fine ancient buildings. The cathedral
+or Sé Matriz, dating from 1601, was formerly a Jesuit college.
+The mint, the arsenal and several convents (now ruined or
+converted to other uses) are also noteworthy. The Portuguese,
+under treaty with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, built a fort here in
+1535, but soon quarrelled with the natives and were besieged in
+1538 and 1545. The second siege is one of the most famous
+in Indo-Portuguese history, and is the subject of an epic by
+Jeronymo Corte Real (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. S. Whiteway, <i>Rise of the Portuguese Power in India</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIURETICS<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="diá">&#948;&#953;&#940;</span>, through, and <span class="grk" title="ourein">&#959;&#8016;&#961;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, pass urine),
+the name given to remedies which, under certain conditions,
+stimulate an increased flow of urine. Their mode of action
+is various. Some are absorbed into the blood, carried to the
+secretory organs (the kidneys), and stimulate them directly,
+causing an increased flow of blood; others act as stimulants
+through the nervous system. A second class act in congested
+conditions of the kidneys by diminishing the congestion. Another
+class, such as the saline diuretics, are effectual by virtue of their
+osmotic action. A fourth class are diuretic by increasing the blood
+pressure within the vessels in general, and the Malpighian tufts
+in particular,&mdash;some, as digitalis, by increasing the strength of
+the heart&rsquo;s contractions, and others, as water, by increasing the
+amount of fluid circulating in the vessels. Some remedies, as
+mercury, although not diuretic themselves, when prescribed along
+with those which have this action, increase their effect. The
+same remedy may act in more than one way, <i>e.g.</i> alcohol, besides
+stimulating the secretory organs directly, is a stimulant to the
+circulation, and thus increases the pressure within the vessels.
+Diuretics are prescribed when the quantity of urine is much
+diminished, or when, although the quantity may be normal, it is
+wished to relieve some other organ or set of organs of part of their
+ordinary work, or to aid in carrying off some morbid product
+circulating in the blood, or to hasten the removal of inflammatory
+serous exudations, or of dropsical collections of fluid. Caffeine,
+which is far the best true diuretic, acts in nearly every way
+mentioned above. Together with digitalis it is the most efficient
+remedy for cardiac dropsy. A famous diuretic pill, known as
+Guy&rsquo;s pill, consists of a grain each of mercurial pill, digitalis
+leaves and squill, made up with extract of henbane. Digitalis,
+producing its diuretic effect by its combined action on heart,
+vessels and kidneys, is much used in the oedema of mitral disease,
+but must be avoided in chronic Bright&rsquo;s disease, as it increases
+the tension of the pulse, already often dangerously high.
+Turpentine and cantharides are not now recommended as
+diuretics, as they are too irritating to the kidneys.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIURNAL MOTION,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> the relative motion of the earth and the
+heavens, which results from the rotation of our globe on its axis in
+a direction from west toward east. The actual motion consists in
+this rotation. But the term is commonly applied to the resultant
+apparent revolution of the heavens from east to west, the axis of
+which passes through the celestial poles, and is coincident in
+direction with the axis of the earth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVAN<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (Arabic <i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i>), a Persian word, derived probably from
+Aramaic, meaning a &ldquo;counting-house, office, bureau, tribunal&rdquo;;
+thence, on one side, the &ldquo;account-books and registers&rdquo; of such
+an office, and, on another, the &ldquo;room where the office or tribunal
+sits&rdquo;; thence, again, from &ldquo;account-book, register,&rdquo; a &ldquo;book
+containing the poems of an author,&rdquo; arranged in a definite order
+(alphabetical according to the rhyme-words), perhaps because of
+the saying, &ldquo;Poetry is the register (<i>d&#299;w&#257;n</i>) of the Arabs,&rdquo; and
+from &ldquo;bureau, tribunal,&rdquo; &ldquo;a long seat, formed of a mattress laid
+against the side of the room, upon the floor or upon a raised
+structure or frame, with cushions to lean against&rdquo; (Lane, <i>Lexicon</i>,
+930 f.). All these meanings existed and exist, especially &ldquo;bureau,
+tribunal,&rdquo; &ldquo;book of poems&rdquo; and &ldquo;seat&rdquo;<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a>; but the order of
+derivation may have been slightly different. The word first
+appears under the caliphate of Omar (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 634-644). Great
+wealth, gained from the Moslem conquests, was pouring into
+Medina, and a system of business management and administration
+became necessary. This was copied from the Persians and given
+the Persian name, &ldquo;divan.&rdquo; Later, as the state became more
+complicated, the term was extended over all the government
+bureaus. The divan of the Sublime Porte was for long the
+council of the empire, presided over by the grand vizier.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Von Kremer, <i>Culturgeschichte des Orients</i>, i. 64, 198.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. B. Ma.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The divan in this sense has been known in Europe certainly since
+about the middle of the 18th century. It was fashionable, roughly
+speaking, from 1820 to 1850, wherever the romantic movement in
+literature penetrated. All the boudoirs of that generation were
+garnished with divans; they even spread to coffee-houses, which
+were sometimes known as &ldquo;divans&rdquo; or &ldquo;Turkish divans&rdquo;; and
+a &ldquo;cigar divan&rdquo; remains a familiar expression.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVER,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> a name that when applied to a bird is commonly used
+in a sense even more vague than that of loom, several of the sea
+ducks or <i>Fuligulinae</i> and mergansers being frequently so called,
+to say nothing of certain of the auks or <i>Alcidae</i> and grebes; but
+in English ornithological works the term diver is generally
+restricted to the Family known as <i>Colymbidae</i>, a very well-marked
+group of aquatic birds, possessing great, though not exceptional,
+powers of submergence, and consisting of a single genus <i>Colymbus</i>
+which is composed of three, or at most four, species, all confined
+to the northern hemisphere. This Family belongs to the
+<i>Cecomorphae</i> of T. H. Huxley, and is usually supposed to occupy
+a place between the <i>Alcidae</i> and <i>Podicipedidae</i>; but to which of
+these groups it is most closely related is undecided. Professor
+Brandt in 1837 (<i>Beitr. Naturgesch. Vögel</i>, pp. 124-132) pointed out
+the osteological differences of the grebes and the divers, urging
+the affinity of the latter to the auks; while, thirty years later,
+Professor Alph. Milne-Edwards (<i>Ois. foss. France</i>, i. pp. 279-283)
+inclined to the opposite view, chiefly relying on the similarity of a
+peculiar formation of the tibia in the grebes and divers,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> which
+indeed is very remarkable, and, in the latter group, attracted the
+attention of Willughby more than 230 years ago. On the other
+hand Professor Brandt, and Rudolph Wagner shortly after
+(Naumann&rsquo;s <i>Vögel Deutschlands</i>, ix. p. 683, xii. p. 395), had
+already shown that the structure of the knee-joint in the grebes
+and divers differs in that the former have a distinct and singularly
+formed <i>patella</i> (which is undeveloped in the latter) in addition to
+the prolonged, pyramidally formed, procnemial process&mdash;which
+last may, from its exaggeration, be regarded as a character almost
+peculiar to these two groups.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The evidence furnished by oology
+and the newly-hatched young seems to favour Brandt&rsquo;s views.
+The abortion of the <i>rectrices</i> in the gerbes, while these feathers
+are fairly developed in the divers, is another point that helps to
+separate the two Families.</p>
+
+<p>The commonest species of <i>Colymbus</i> is <i>C. septentrionalis</i>, known
+as the red-throated diver from an elongated patch of dark bay
+which distinguishes the throat of the adult in summer dress.
+Immature birds want the bay patch, and have the back so much
+more spotted that they are commonly known as &ldquo;speckled
+divers.&rdquo; Next in size is the black-throated diver, <i>C. arcticus</i>,
+having a light grey head and a gular patch of purplish-black,
+above which is a semicollar of white striped vertically with black.
+Still bigger is the great northern diver, <i>C. glacialis</i> or <i>torquatus</i>,
+with a glossy black head and neck, two semicollars of white and
+black vertical stripes, and nearly the whole of the black back and
+upper surface of the wings beautifully marked with white spots,
+varying in size and arranged in belts.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Closely resembling this
+bird, so as to be most easily distinguished from it by its yellow bill,
+is <i>C. adamsi</i>. The divers live chiefly on fish, and are of eminently
+marine habit, though invariably resorting for the purpose of
+breeding to freshwater lakes, where they lay two dark brown
+eggs on the very brink; but they are not unfrequently found far
+from the sea, being either driven inland by stress of weather, or
+exhausted in their migrations. Like most birds of their build,
+they chiefly trust to swimming, whether submerged or on the
+surface, as a means of progress, but once on the wing their flight
+is strong and they can mount to a great height. In winter their
+range is too extensive and varied to be here defined, though it is
+believed never to pass, and in few directions to approach, the
+northern tropic; but the geographical distribution of the several
+forms in summer requires mention. While <i>C. septentrionalis</i>
+inhabits the north temperate zone of both hemispheres, <i>C.
+arcticus</i> breeds in suitable places from the Hebrides to Scandinavia,
+and across the Russian empire, it would seem, to Japan,
+reappearing in the north-west of North America,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> though its
+eastern limit on that continent cannot be definitely laid down;
+but it is not found in Greenland, Iceland, Shetland or Orkney.
+<i>C. glacialis</i>, on the contrary, breeds throughout the north-eastern
+part of Canada, in Greenland and in Iceland. It has been
+said to do so in Scotland as well as in Norway, but the assertion
+seems to lack positive proof, and it may be doubted whether, with
+the exception of Iceland, it is indigenous to the Old World,<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> since
+the form observed in North-eastern Asia is evidently that which
+has been called <i>C. adamsi</i>, and is also found in North-western
+America; but it may be remarked that one example of this form
+has been taken in England (<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1859, p. 206) and
+at least one in Norway (<i>Nyt Mag. for Naturvidenskaberne</i>, 1877,
+p. 134).</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The remains of <i>Colymboides minutus</i>, from the Miocene of Langy,
+described by this naturalist in the work just cited, seem to show it to
+have been a generalized form. Unfortunately its tibia is unknown.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A. H. Garrod, in his tentative and chiefly myological arrangement
+of Birds (<i>Proc Zool. Society</i>, 1874, p. 117), placed the <i>Colymbidae</i>
+and <i>Podicipedidae</i> in one order (<i>Anseriformes</i>) and the <i>Alcidae</i>
+in another (<i>Charadriiformes</i>); but the artificial nature of this
+assignment may be realized by the fact of his considering the other
+families of the former order to be <i>Anatidae</i> and <i>Spheniscidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The osteology and myology of this species are described by
+Dr Coues (<i>Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. History</i>, i. pp. 131-172, pl. 5).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Lawrence&rsquo;s <i>C. pacificus</i> seems hardly to deserve specific
+recognition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> In this connexion should be mentioned the remarkable occurrence
+in Europe of two birds of this species which had been previously
+wounded by a weapon presumably of transatlantic origin. One had
+&ldquo;an arrow headed with copper sticking through its neck,&rdquo; and
+was shot on the Irish coast, as recorded by J. Vaughan Thompson
+(<i>Nat. Hist. Ireland</i>, iii. p. 201); the other, says Herr H. C. Müller
+(<i>Vid. Medd. nat. Forening</i>, 1862, p. 35), was found dead in Kalbaksfjord
+in the Faeroes with an iron-tipped bone dart fast under
+its wing.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVERS<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> and <span class="bold">DIVING APPARATUS.</span> To &ldquo;dive&rdquo; (Old Eng.
+<i>dúfan</i>, <i>d&#375;fan</i>; cf. &ldquo;dip&rdquo;) is to plunge under water, and in the
+ordinary procedure of swimmers is distinguished from simple
+plunging in that it involves remaining under the water for an
+interval of more or less duration before coming to the surface.
+In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Swimming</a></span> the sport of diving in this sense is
+considered. Here we are only concerned with diving as the
+function of a &ldquo;diver,&rdquo; whose business it is to go under water
+(in modern times, assisted by specially devised apparatus) in
+order to work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unassisted or Natural Diving.</i>&mdash;The earliest reference to the
+practice of the art of diving for a purpose of utility occurs in the
+<i>Iliad</i>, 16, 745-750, where Patroclus compares the fall of Hector&rsquo;s
+charioteer to the action of a diver diving for oysters. Thus it
+would seem that the art was known about 1000 years before
+the Christian era. Thucydides is the first to mention the employment
+of divers for mechanical work under water. He relates that
+divers were employed during the siege of Syracuse to saw down
+the barriers which had been constructed below the surface of the
+water with the object of obstructing and damaging any Grecian
+war vessels which might attempt to enter the harbour. At the
+siege of Tyre, divers were ordered by Alexander the Great to
+impede or destroy the submarine defences of the besieged as they
+were erected. The purpose of these obstructions was analogous
+to that of the submarine mine of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of divers for the salvage of sunken property is
+first mentioned by Livy, who records that in the reign of Perseus
+considerable treasure was recovered from the sea. By a law of
+the Rhodians, their divers were allowed a proportion of the value
+recovered, varying with the risk incurred, or the depth from which
+the treasure was salved. For instance, if the diver raised it from
+a depth of eight cubits (12 ft.) he received one-third for himself;
+if from sixteen cubits (24 ft.) one half; but upon goods lost near
+the shore, and recovered from a depth of two cubits (36 in.), his
+share was only one tenth.</p>
+
+<p>These are examples of unassisted diving as practised by the
+Ancients. Their primitive method, however, is still in vogue in
+some parts of the world&mdash;notably in the Ceylon pearl fisheries and
+in the Mediterranean sponge fisheries, and it may, therefore, be
+as well to mention the system adopted by the natural, or naked,
+diver of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The volume and power of respiration of the lungs vary in
+different individuals, some persons being able to hold their breath
+longer than others, so that it naturally follows that one man may
+be able to stay longer under water than another. The longest
+time that a natural diver has been known to remain beneath the
+surface is about two minutes. Some pearl and sponge divers rub
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span>
+their bodies with oil, and put wool, saturated with oil, in their
+ears. Others hold in their mouth a piece of sponge soaked in oil,
+which they renew every time they descend. It is doubtful,
+however, whether these expedients are beneficial. The men who
+dive in this primitive fashion take with them a flat stone with a
+hole in the centre; to this is attached a rope, which is secured to
+the diving boat and serves to guide them to particular spots below.
+When the diver reaches the sea bottom he tears off as much sponge
+within reach as possible, or picks up pearl shells, as the case may
+be, and then pulls the rope to indicate to the man in the boat that
+he wishes to be hauled up. But so exhausting is the work, and so
+severe the strain on the system, that, after a number of dives in
+deep water, the men often become insensible, and blood <span class="correction" title="amended from sometime">sometimes</span>
+bursts from nose, ears and mouth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Diving Appliances.</i>&mdash;The earliest mention of any
+appliance for assisting divers is by Aristotle, who says that divers
+are sometimes provided with instruments for respiration through
+which they can draw air from above the water and which thus
+enable them to remain a long time under the sea (<i>De Part. Anim.</i>
+2, 16), and also that divers breathe by letting down a metallic
+vessel which does not get filled with water but retains the air
+within it (<i>Problem.</i> 32, 5). It is also recorded that Alexander the
+Great made a descent into the sea in a machine called a <i>colimpha</i>,
+which had the power of keeping a man dry, and at the same time
+of admitting light. Pliny also speaks of divers engaged in the
+strategy of ancient warfare, who drew air through a tube, one end
+of which they carried in their mouths, whilst the other end was
+made to float on the surface of the water. Roger Bacon in
+1240, too, is supposed to have invented a contrivance for enabling
+men to work under water; and in Vegetius&rsquo;s <i>De Re Militari</i>
+(editions of 1511 and 1532, the latter in the British Museum) is
+an engraving representing a diver wearing a tight-fitting helmet
+to which is attached a long leathern pipe leading to the surface,
+where its open end is kept afloat by means of a bladder. This
+method of obtaining air during subaqueous operations was
+probably suggested by the action of the elephant when swimming;
+the animal instinctively elevates its trunk so that the
+end is above the surface of the water, and thus is enabled to
+take in fresh air at every inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>A certain Repton invented &ldquo;water armour&rdquo; in the year 1617,
+but when tried it was found to be useless. G. A. Borelli in the
+year 1679 invented an apparatus which enabled persons to go to a
+certain depth under water, and he is credited with being the first
+to introduce means of forcing air down to the diver. For this
+purpose he used a large pair of bellows. John Lethbridge, a
+Devonshire man, in the year 1715 contrived &ldquo;a watertight leather
+case for enclosing the person.&rdquo; This leather case held about half
+a hogshead of air, and was so adapted as to give free play to
+arms and legs, so that the wearer could walk on the sea bottom,
+examine a sunken vessel and salve her cargo, returning to the
+surface when his supply of air was getting exhausted. It is said
+that Lethbridge made a considerable fortune by his invention.
+The next contrivance worthy of mention, and most nearly
+resembling the modern diving-dress, was an apparatus invented
+by Kleingert, of Breslau, in 1798. This consisted of an egg-ended
+metallic cylinder enveloping the head and the body to the hips.
+The diver was encased first of all in a leather jacket having tight-fitting
+arms, and in leather drawers with tight-fitting legs. To
+these the cylinder was fastened in such a way as to render the
+whole equipment airtight. The air supply was drawn through a
+pipe which was connected with the mouth of the diver by an ivory
+mouthpiece, the surface end being held above water after the
+manner mentioned in Vegetius, viz. by means of a floating bladder
+attached to it. The foul air escaped through another pipe held in
+a similar manner above the surface of the water, inhalation being
+performed by the mouth and exhalation by the nose, the act of
+inhalation causing the chest to expand and so to expel the vitiated
+air through the escape pipe. The diver was weighted when going
+under water, and when he wished to ascend he released one of
+his weights, and attached it to a rope which he held, and it
+was afterwards hauled up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Apparatus.</i>&mdash;This, or equally cumbersome apparatus,
+was the only diving gear in use up till 1819, in which year
+Augustus Siebe (the founder of the firm of Siebe, Gorman &amp; Co.),
+invented his &ldquo;open&rdquo; dress, worked in conjunction with an air
+force pump. This dress consisted of a metal helmet and shoulder-plate
+attached to a watertight jacket, under which, fitting more
+closely to the body, were worn trousers, or rather a combination
+suit reaching to the armpits. The helmet was fitted with an air
+inlet valve, to which one end of a flexible tube was attached, the
+other end being connected at the surface with a pump which
+supplied the diver with a constant stream of fresh air. The air,
+which kept the water well down, forced its way between the jacket
+and the under-garment, and escaped to the surface on exactly the
+same principle as that of the diving bell; hence the term &ldquo;open&rdquo;
+as applied to this dress.</p>
+
+<p>Although most excellent work was accomplished with this dress&mdash;work
+which could not be attempted before its introduction&mdash;it
+was still far from perfect. It was absolutely necessary for the
+diver to maintain an upright, or but very slightly stooping,
+position whilst under water; if he stumbled and fell, the water
+filled his dress, and, unless quickly brought to the surface, he was
+in danger of being drowned. To overcome this and other defects,
+Siebe carried out a large number of experiments extending over
+several years, which culminated, in the year 1830, in the introduction
+of his &ldquo;close&rdquo; dress in combination with a helmet fitted
+with air inlet and regulating outlet valves.</p>
+
+<p>Though, of course, vast improvements have been introduced
+since Siebe&rsquo;s death, in 1872, the fact remains that his principle is
+in universal use to this day. The submarine work which it has
+been instrumental in accomplishing is incalculable. But some
+idea of the importance of the invention may be gathered from the
+fact that diving apparatus on Siebe&rsquo;s principle is universally used
+to-day in harbour, dock, pier and breakwater construction, in
+the pearl and sponge fisheries, in recovering sunken ships, cargo
+and treasure, and that every ship in the British navy and in most
+foreign navies carries one set or more of diving apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>A modern set of diving apparatus consists essentially of six
+parts:&mdash;(1) an air pump, (2) a helmet with breastplate, (3) a
+diving dress, (4)
+a pair of heavily
+weighted boots,
+(5) a pair of back
+and chest
+weights, (6) a
+flexible non-collapsible
+air tube.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:379px; height:467px" src="images/img327.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Pump out of chest.<br />
+Two-cylinder, Double-action Air Pump for Two Divers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>A, Air-distributing arrangement, for one diver or two divers.</p>
+<p>B, Water jacket.</p>
+<p>C, Suction and discharge valves.</p></td>
+<td class="caption1"><p>D, Cylinders.</p>
+<p>E, Pressure gauges.</p>
+<p>F, Nozzles to which divers&rsquo; air pipes are attached.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Air Pumps.</i>&mdash;The
+type of air
+pump varies with
+the depth of water
+to which the diver
+has to descend; it
+will be readily understood
+that the
+greater the depth
+the greater the
+quantity of air
+required by the
+diver. The pattern
+most generally
+in favour
+amongst divers of
+all classes is a
+three-cylinder
+single-acting
+pump, which is
+suitable for almost
+every description
+of work which the
+diver may be
+called upon to
+perform, either in
+deep or shallow
+water. Another
+most useful type
+is a two-cylinder double-acting pump (figs. 1 and 2), which is
+designed to supply two divers working simultaneously in moderate
+depths of water, or one diver only in deep water. An air-distributing
+arrangement is fitted, whereby, when it is desired to send two men
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span>
+down together, each cylinder supplies air independently of the other;
+and when it is required to send one diver into deep water, the two
+cylinders are connected and the full volume of air from both is
+delivered to the one man. The same duty is also performed by a
+four-cylinder single-acting pump. Smaller pumps, having one
+double-acting or two single-acting cylinders, are also used for
+shallow water work.</p>
+
+<p>In most cases these air pumps are worked by manual power;
+this method of working is rendered necessary by the fact that the
+machines are usually placed in small boats from which the divers
+work and on which other motive power is not available. In cases,
+however, where steam or electric power is available the pumps are
+sometimes worked by their means&mdash;more particularly on harbour
+and dock works. In such instances the air is not delivered direct
+from the pump to the diver, but is delivered into an intermediate
+steel receiver to which the diver&rsquo;s air pipe is connected, the object
+being to ensure a reserve supply of air in case of a breakdown of the
+pump. Some of these combinations of pumps and motors are so
+arranged that, in the event of an accident to the motor, the pump
+can be thrown out of gear with it, and be immediately worked by
+hand power. Each pump is fitted with a gauge (or gauges), indicating
+not only the pressure of air which the pump is supplying,
+but also the depth of water at which the diver is working. The
+cylinders are water-jacketed to ensure the air delivered to the diver
+being cool, the water being drawn in and circulated round the
+cylinders by means of a small metal pump worked from an eccentric
+on the main crank-shaft. Filters are sometimes attached to the
+suction and delivery sides of the pumps to ensure the inlet of air
+being free from dirt, and the discharge of air free from dirt and oil.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:425px; height:387px" src="images/img328a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Pump in chest, ready for work.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Helmet.</i>&mdash;The helmet and breastplate (fig. 3) are made from highly
+planished tinned copper, with gun-metal valves and other fittings.
+The helmet is provided with a non-return air inlet valve to which the
+diver&rsquo;s air pipe is connected; the air when it lifts the inlet valve
+passes through three conduits&mdash;one having its outlet over the front
+glass, the others their outlets over the side glasses. In this way
+the diver gets the air fresh as it enters the helmet, and at the same
+time it prevents condensation of his breath on the glasses and keeps
+them clear. There is a regulating air outlet valve by which the
+diver adjusts his supply of air according to his requirements in different
+depths of water; the valve is usually made to be adjusted by hand,
+but sometimes it is so constructed as to be operated by the diver
+knocking his head against it, the spindle being extended through to
+the inside of the helmet and fitted at its inner extremity with a
+button or disk. By unscrewing the valve, the diver allows air to
+escape, and thus the dress is deflated; by screwing it up the air
+is retained and the dress inflated. Thus the diver can control his
+specific gravity and rise or sink at will. In case by any chance the
+diver should inflate the dress inadvertently, and wish to get rid of the
+superfluous air quickly, he can do so by opening an emergency cock,
+which is fitted on the helmet. Plate glasses in gun-metal frames are
+also fitted to the helmet, two, one on each side, being permanently
+fixed, while one in front is made either to screw in and out, or to work
+on a hinged joint like a ship&rsquo;s scuttle; the side glasses are usually
+protected by metal cross-bars, as is also sometimes the front glass.
+Some divers prefer unprotected glasses at the side of the helmet,
+instead of protected oval ones.</p>
+
+<p>The breastplate is fitted on its outer edge with metal screws and
+bands. The disposition of the screws corresponds with that of the
+holes in the india-rubber collar of the diving dress described below.
+There are other methods of making a watertight joint between the
+diver&rsquo;s breastplate and the diving dress, but, as these are only
+mechanical differences, it will suffice to describe the Siebe-Gorman
+apparatus, as exclusively adopted by the British government.
+Whatever the shape or design of the helmet or dress, Siebe&rsquo;s principle
+is the one in universal use to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The metal tabs are for carrying the diver&rsquo;s lead weights, which are
+fitted with suitable clips; the hooks&mdash;one on each side of the helmet&mdash;are
+for keeping the ropes attached to the back weight in position.
+The helmet and breastplate are fitted at their lower and upper parts
+respectively with gun-metal segmental neck rings, which make it
+possible to connect these two main parts together by one-eighth of
+a turn, a catch at the back of the helmet preventing any chance of
+unscrewing. The small eyes at the top of the helmet are for securing
+the diver&rsquo;s air pipe and life line in position and preventing them from
+swaying.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:518px; height:334px" src="images/img328b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Front view of Helmet.</td>
+<td class="caption">Side sectional view of Helmet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><p>A, Helmet.</p>
+<p>B, Breastplate.</p>
+<p>F, Emergency cock.</p>
+<p>G, Glasses in frames.</p>
+<p>H, Metal screws and bands.</p>
+<p>I, Metal tabs.</p>
+<p>J, Hooks for keeping weight ropes in position.</p>
+<p>L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured.</p></td>
+<td class="tcl f90"><p>K, Segmental neck rings.</p>
+<p>D, Air conduits.</p>
+<p>M, Telephone receiver.</p>
+<p>N, Transmitter.</p>
+<p>O, Contact piece to ring bell.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:222px; height:212px" src="images/img328c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:221px; height:215px" src="images/img328d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Back view of Helmet.</td>
+<td class="caption">Plan of Helmet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tcl f90" style="padding-left:3em;"><p>C, Air inlet valve.</p>
+<p>E, Regulating outlet valve.</p>
+<p>G, Glasses in frames.</p>
+<p>L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured.</p>
+<p>P, Connexion for telephone cable.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc pt1" colspan="2">Fig. 3.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Diving Dress</i> is a combination suit which envelops the whole
+body from feet to neck. It is made of two layers of tanned twill with
+pure rubber between, and is fitted at the neck with a vulcanized
+india-rubber collar, or band, with holes punched in it corresponding
+to the screws in the breastplate. This collar, when clamped tightly
+between the bands and the breastplate by means of the nuts, ensures
+a watertight joint. The sleeves of the dress are fitted with vulcanized
+india-rubber cuffs, which, fitting tightly round the diver&rsquo;s wrists,
+prevent the ingress of water at these parts also.</p>
+
+<p><i>Boots.</i>&mdash;These are generally made with leather uppers, beechwood
+inner soles and leaden outer soles, the latter being secured to the others
+by copper rivets. Heavy leather straps with brass buckles secure
+the boot to the foot. Each boot weighs about 16 &#8468;. Sometimes the
+main part of the boot-golosh, toe and heel, are in one brass casting,
+with leather upper part, heavy straps and brass buckles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lead Weights.</i>&mdash;These weigh 40 &#8468; each, and the diver wears one
+on his back, another on his chest. These weights and the heavy
+boots ensure the diver&rsquo;s equilibrium when under water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Belt and Knife and Small Tools.</i>&mdash;Every diver wears a heavy
+waist-belt in which he carries a strong knife in metal case, and sometimes
+other small tools.</p>
+
+<p><i>Air Pipe.</i>&mdash;The diver&rsquo;s air pipe is of a flexible, non-collapsible
+description, being made of alternate layers of strong canvas and
+vulcanized india-rubber, with steel or hard drawn metal wire embedded.
+At the ends are fitted gun-metal couplings, for connecting
+the pipe with the diver&rsquo;s pump and helmet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Signal Line.</i>&mdash;The diver&rsquo;s signal line (sometimes called life line)
+consists of a length of reverse laid Manila rope. In cases where the
+telephone apparatus is not used, the diver gives his signals by means
+of a series of pulls on the signal line in accordance with a prearranged
+code.</p>
+
+<p><i>Telephonic Apparatus.</i>&mdash;Without doubt one of the most useful
+adjuncts to the modern diving apparatus is the loud-sounding
+telephone (fig. 4), introduced by Siebe, Gorman &amp; Co., which enables
+the diver to communicate viva voce with his attendant, and vice
+versa. In the British navy the type of submarine telephonic
+apparatus used is the Graham-Davis system. This is made on two
+plans, (1) a single set of instruments, for communication between
+one diver and his attendant direct, (2) an intercommunication set
+which is used where two divers are employed. With this type the
+attendant can speak to No. 1 or No. 2 diver separately, or with both
+at the same time, and vice versa; and No. 1 can be put in communication
+with No. 2 whilst they are under water, the attendant at
+the surface being able to hear what the men are saying. The
+advantages of such a system are obvious. It is more particularly
+useful where two divers are working one either side of a ship, or
+where the divers may be engaged upon the same piece of work, but
+out of sight of one another, or out of touch. It would prove its utility
+in a marked degree in cases where a diver got into difficulties; a
+second diver sent down to his assistance could receive and give verbal
+directions and thus greatly expedite the work of rescue.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:377px; height:371px" src="images/img329a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Diver&rsquo;s Telephone Communication with the Surface.<br /><br />
+Q, Battery, with switch and bell in case.<br />
+R, Attendant&rsquo;s receiver and transmitter.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The telephone instruments in the helmet consist of one or more
+loud-sounding receivers placed either in the crown of the helmet,
+or one on each side in close proximity to the diver&rsquo;s ears. A transmitter
+of a special watertight pattern is placed between the front
+glass and one of the side glasses, and a contact piece, which, when
+the diver presses his chin against it, rings a bell at the surface, is
+fitted immediately below the front glass. A buzzer is sometimes
+fixed in the helmet to call the diver&rsquo;s attention when the attendant
+wishes to speak, but as a rule the voice is transmitted so loudly that
+this device is unnecessary. A connexion, through which the insulated
+wires connecting the instruments pass, terminates in contact pieces,
+and the telephone
+cable, embedded in
+the diver&rsquo;s signal
+line, is connected
+with it. The other
+end of the signal line
+is connected to a
+battery box at the
+surface. This box
+contains, besides
+the cells, a receiver
+and transmitter for
+the attendant, an
+electric bell, a terminal
+box, and a
+special switch, by
+means of which various
+communications
+between diver, or
+divers, and attendant
+are made. If,
+as is sometimes the
+case, the diver happens
+to be somewhat
+deaf, he can, whilst
+he is taking a message,
+stop the vibration
+of the outlet
+valve and the noise made by the escaping air, by merely pressing
+his finger on a spindle which passes through the disk of the valve,
+and thus momentarily ensure absolute silence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Speaking Tube.</i>&mdash;The rubber speaking tube which was the forerunner
+of the telephonic apparatus is now practically obsolete, though
+it is still used in isolated cases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Submarine Electric Lamps.</i>&mdash;Various forms of submarine lamps
+are used, from a powerful arc light to a self-contained hand lamp,
+the former giving about 2000 or 3000 candle-power, and requiring
+a steam-driven dynamo to supply the necessary current, the latter
+(fig. 5) giving a light of about 10 candle-power and having its own
+batteries, so that the diver carries both the light and its source in
+his hand. These submarine lamps are all constructed on the same
+principle, having the incandescent lamps, or carbons as the case
+may be, enclosed in a strong glass globe, the mechanism and connexions
+being fitted in a metal case above the globe, which is flanged
+and secured watertightly to the case.</p>
+
+<p><i>Self-contained Diving Dress.</i>&mdash;The object of the self-contained
+diving dress is to make the diver independent of air supply from the
+surface. The dress, helmet, boots and weights are of the ordinary
+pattern already described, but instead of obtaining his air supply
+by means of pumps and pipes, the diver is equipped with a knapsack
+consisting of a steel cylinder containing oxygen compressed to a
+pressure of 120 atmospheres (= about 1800 &#8468;) to the square inch,
+and chambers containing caustic soda or caustic potash. The
+helmet is connected to the chambers by tubes, and the oxygen
+cylinder is similarly connected to the chambers. The breath exhaled
+by the diver passes through a valve into the caustic soda, which
+absorbs the carbonic acid, and it is then again inhaled through
+another valve. This process of regeneration goes on automatically,
+the requisite amount of oxygen being restored to the breathed air
+in its passage through the chambers. This type of apparatus has
+been used for shallow water work, but the great majority of divers
+prefer the apparatus using pumps as the source of the air supply.</p>
+
+<p>An emergency dress, using this self-contained system for breathing,
+has been designed by Messrs Fleuss and Davis, of the firm of Siebe,
+Gorman &amp; Co., primarily as a life-saving apparatus, for enabling men
+to escape from disabled submarine boats.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:433px; height:242px" src="images/img329b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without Reflector.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>A, Metal case containing electrical fittings.</p>
+<p>B, Glass globe and incandescent lamp.</p></td>
+<td class="tcl"><p>C, Stand, which also protects the globe.</p>
+<p>D, Ring for suspending lamp.</p>
+<p>E, Reflector.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The helmet diver is indispensable in connexion with harbour and
+dock construction, bridge-building, pearl and sponge fishing, wreck
+raising and the recovery of sunken cargo and treasure. Every ship
+in the British navy carries one set or more of diving apparatus, for
+use in ease of emergency, for clearing fouled propellers, cleaning
+valves or ship&rsquo;s hull below the water line, repairing hulls if necessary,
+and recovering lost anchors, chains, torpedoes, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Greatest Depths attained.</i>&mdash;The greatest depth at which useful
+work has been performed by a diver is 182 ft. From this depth
+a Spanish diver, Angel Erostarbe, recovered £9000 in silver bars
+from the wreck of the steamer &ldquo;Skyro,&rdquo; sunk off Cape Finisterre;
+Alexander Lambert succeeded in salving £70,000 from the
+Spanish mail steamer &ldquo;Alphonso XII,&rdquo; sunk in 162 ft. of water
+off Las Palmas, Grand Canary; W. Ridyard recovered £50,000 in
+silver dollars from the &ldquo;Hamilton Mitchell,&rdquo; sunk off Leuconna
+Reef, China, in 150 ft. There are individual cases where much
+larger sums have been recovered, but those mentioned are
+particularly notable by reason of the great depth involved and
+stand out as the greatest depths at which good work has
+been done. The sponge fishers of the Mediterranean work
+at a maximum depth of about 150 ft., and the pearl divers of
+Australia at 120 ft. But submarine operations on the great
+majority of the harbour and dock works of the world are
+conducted at a depth of from 30 to 60 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The weighted tools employed by divers differ very little from
+those used by the workmen on <i>terra firma</i>. Pneumatic tools,
+worked by compressed air conveyed from the surface through
+flexible tubes, are great aids, particularly in rock removal work.
+With the rock drill the diver bores a number of holes to a given
+depth, inserts in these the charges of dynamite or other explosive
+used, attaches one end of a wire to a detonator which is inserted in
+the charge, and then comes to the surface. The boat from which
+he works is then moved away from the scene of operations, paying
+out the wire attached to the detonators, and when at a safe
+distance the free end of the wire is connected to a magneto
+exploding machine, which is then set in motion.</p>
+
+<p>A complete set of diving apparatus costs from £75 to £200,
+varying with the depth of water for which it is required.</p>
+
+<p>The pay of a diver depends upon the nature of the work upon
+which he is engaged, and also upon the depth of the water. On
+harbour and dock work the average wage is 2s. to 2s. 6d. per hour;
+on wreck work from 3s. to 5s. an hour, according to depth; on
+treasure and cargo recovery so much per day, with a percentage
+on the value recovered, generally about 5%. The pearl fishers of
+Australia get so much per ton of shell, and the sponge fishers are
+also paid by results.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span></p>
+
+<p>A problem which has been exercising the minds of those
+engaged in submarine work is the greatest depth at which it is
+possible to work, for, as is well known, many a fine vessel with
+valuable cargo and treasure is lying out of reach of the diver owing
+to the pressure which he would have to sustain were he to attempt
+to reach her. Mr Leonard Hill, and Drs Greenwood and J. J. R.
+Macleod conducted experiments in conjunction with Messrs
+Siebe, Gorman &amp; Co., with a view to solving this problem, and
+their efforts have been attended with some considerable success.
+Dr J. S. Haldane has also carried out practical experiments for
+the British Admiralty, and under his supervision two naval
+officers have succeeded in reaching the unprecedented depth of
+210 ft., at which depth the pressure is about 90 &#8468; to the square
+inch.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diving Bells.</i>&mdash;Every one is familiar with the experiment of
+placing an inverted tumbler in a bowl of water, and seeing the
+water excluded from the tumbler by the air inside it. Perhaps it
+was to some such experiment as this that the conception of the
+diving bell was due. As is well known, the pressure of water
+increases with the depth, and for all practical purposes this
+pressure can be taken at 4¼ &#8468; to every 10 ft. The following
+table shows the pressure at different depths below the surface
+of the water:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Depth.</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Pressure.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;20 ft.</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;8½ lb to the sq. in.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;40 &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">17¼&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;80 &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">34¾&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">120 &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">52½&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">160 &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">69¾&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">200 &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">87&ensp;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>If a diving bell be sunk to a depth of, say, 33 ft., the air inside
+it will be compressed to about half its original volume, and the bell
+itself will be about half filled with water. But if a supply of air be
+maintained at a pressure equal to the depth of water at which the
+bell is submerged, not only will the water be kept down to the
+cutting edge, but the bell will be ventilated and it will be possible
+for its occupants to work for hours at a stretch.</p>
+
+<p>Tradition gives Roger Bacon, in 1250, the credit for being
+the originator of the diving bell, but actual records are lost in
+antiquity. Of the records preserved to us, probably one of the
+most trustworthy is an account given in Kaspar Schott&rsquo;s work,
+<i>Technica curiosa</i>, published in the year 1664, which quoted from
+one John Taisnier, who was in the service of Charles V. This
+account describes an experiment which took place at Toledo,
+Spain, in the year 1538, before the emperor and some thousands
+of spectators, when two Greeks descended into the water in a
+large &ldquo;kettle,&rdquo; suspended by ropes, with its mouth downwards.
+The &ldquo;kettle&rdquo; was equipoised by lead fixed round its mouth.
+The men came up dry, and a lighted candle, which they had
+taken down with them, was still burning.</p>
+
+<p>Francis Bacon, in the <i>Novum Organum</i>, lib. ii., makes the
+following reference to a machine, or reservoir, of air to which
+labourers upon wrecks might resort whenever they required to
+take breath:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;A hollow vessel, made of metal, was let down equally to the
+surface of the water, and thus carried with it to the bottom of the
+sea the whole of the air which it contained. It stood upon three
+feet&mdash;like a tripod&mdash;which were in length something less than the
+height of a man, so that the diver, when he was no longer able to
+contain his breath, could put his head into the vessel, and having
+filled his lungs again, return to his work.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But it was to Dr Edmund Halley, secretary of the Royal
+Society, that undoubtedly the honour is due of having invented
+the first really practical diving bell. This is described in the
+<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, 1717, in a paper on &ldquo;The Art of
+Living Under Water by means of furnishing air at the bottom of
+the sea in any ordinary depth.&rdquo; Halley&rsquo;s bell was constructed of
+wood, and was covered with lead, which gave it the necessary
+sinking weight, and was so distributed as to ensure that it kept
+a perpendicular position when in the water. It was in the form
+of a truncated cone, 3 ft. in diameter at the top, 5 ft. at the
+bottom and 8 ft. high. In the roof a lens was introduced for
+admitting light, and also a tap to let out the vitiated air. Fresh
+air was supplied to the bell by means of two lead-lined barrels,
+each having a bung-hole in the top and bottom. To the hole in
+the top was fixed a leathern tube, weighted in such a manner that
+it always fell below the level of the bottom of the barrel so that no
+air could escape. When, however, the tube was turned up by the
+attendant in the bell, the pressure of the water rising through the
+hole in the bottom of the barrel, forced the air through the tube at
+the top and into the diving bell. These barrels were raised and
+lowered alternately, with such success that Halley says that he,
+with four others, remained at the bottom of the sea, at a depth
+of 9 to 10 fathoms, for an hour and a half at a time without
+inconvenience of any sort.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:512px; height:516px" src="images/img330.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Ordinary Diving Bell.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This type of bell was used by John Smeaton in repairing the
+foundations of Hexham Bridge in 1778, but instead of weighted
+barrels, he introduced a force pump for supplying the necessary
+air. To Smeaton too we are indebted for the first diving bell
+plant in the form with which we are familiar to-day, that celebrated
+engineer having designed a square bell of iron, for use on
+the Ramsgate harbour works, in 1788. This bell, which measured
+4½ ft. in length, 3 ft. in width and 4½ ft. in height, and weighed
+2½ tons, was made sufficiently heavy to sink by its own weight.
+It afforded room enough for two men to work, and was supplied
+with air by a force pump worked from a boat at the surface.</p>
+
+<p>Though the diving bell has been largely superseded by the
+modern diving apparatus, it is still used on certain classes of
+work the magnitude of which justifies the expense entailed, for
+it is not only a question of the cost of the bell, but of the
+powerful steam-driven crane which is needed to lower and raise
+it, and also of the gantry on which the crane travels. Sometimes
+a barge or other vessel is used for working the bell.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day, two types of diving bell are employed&mdash;the
+ordinary bell, and the air-lock bell, which, however, is not so
+largely used.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On the new national harbour works at Dover, four large diving
+bells of the ordinary type (fig. 6) were employed. These bells, in
+each of which from four to six men descended at a time, consisted
+of steel chambers, open at the bottom, measuring 17 ft. long by
+10½ ft. wide by 7 ft. high, and each weighed 35 tons. The ballast,
+which at once gives the necessary sinking weight to the bell and
+maintains its equilibrium, consisted of slabs of cast iron bolted to
+the walls of the bell, inside. Each bell was fitted with loud-sounding
+telephonic apparatus, by means of which the occupants could communicate
+either with the men attending the crane or the men looking
+after the air compressors at the surface. Electric lamps, supplied
+with current by a dynamo in the compressor room, gave the necessary
+light inside the bell. Seats and foot rails were provided for the
+men, and there were racks and hooks for the various tools. Suspended
+from the roof was an iron skip into which the men threw the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span>
+excavated material, which was emptied out when the bell was brought
+to the surface. Air was supplied to the bells by means of steam-driven
+compressors worked in a house erected on the gantry. The
+air was delivered into a steel air receiver, and thence it passed through
+a flexible tube connected to a gun-metal inlet valve in the roof of the
+diving bell; the pressure of air was regulated according to the depth
+at which the bell happened to be working. The maximum depth
+on the Dover works was between 60 and 70 ft., = about 25-30 &#8468; to
+the square inch. A bell was lowered by means of powerful steam-driven
+cranes, travelling on a gantry, to within a few feet of the water,
+and the men entered it from a boat. The bell then continued its
+descent to the bottom, where the men, with pick and shovel, levelled
+the sea bed ready to receive the large concrete blocks, weighing from
+30 to 42 tons apiece. Having completed one section, the bell was
+moved along to another. The concrete blocks were then lowered and
+placed in position by helmet divers. The bell divers, clad in thick
+woollen suits and watertight thigh boots, worked in shifts of about
+three hours each, and were paid at the rate of from 1s. to 15d.
+per hour.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 550px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan ="2"><img style="width:530px; height:822px" src="images/img331.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan ="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Air-lock Diving Bell.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>A, Working chamber.</p>
+<p>B, Air-lock.</p>
+<p>C, Pulleys and wire ropes for lowering and raising bell.</p></td>
+<td class="tcl"><p>D, Iron ladder.</p>
+<p>E, Tackles suspended from roof for raising and lowering objects.</p>
+<p>F, Air supply pipe.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The cost of an ordinary diving bell, including air compressor,
+telephonic apparatus and electric light, is from £600 to £1500,
+according to size.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Air-lock Diving Bell</i> (fig. 7) comprises an iron or steel working
+chamber similar to the ordinary diving bell, but with the addition of
+a shaft attached to its roof. At the upper end of the shaft is an airtight
+door, and about 8 ft. below this is another similar door. When
+the bell divers wish to enter the bell, they pass through the first
+door and close it after them, and then open a cock or valve and
+gradually let into the space between the two doors compressed air
+from the working chamber in order to equalize the pressure; they
+then open the second door and pass down into the working chamber,
+closing the door after them. When returning to the surface they
+reverse the operation. It can readily be imagined that, owing to its
+unwieldy character, the employment of the air-lock bell is resorted
+to only in those cases where the nature of the sea bed necessitates its
+remaining on a given spot for some considerable time, as for instance
+in the excavation of hard rock to a given depth.</p>
+
+<p>An air-lock bell supplied to the British Admiralty, for use in
+connexion with the laying of moorings at Gibraltar, has a working
+chamber measuring 15 ft. long by 10½ ft. wide, by 7½ ft. high, and a
+shaft 37½ ft. high by 3 ft. in diameter. It is built of steel plates, with
+cast-iron ballast, and its total weight is about 46 tons. The bell is
+electrically lighted, and is fitted with telephonic apparatus communicating
+with the air-compressor room and lifting-winch room.
+It is worked through a well in the centre of a specially constructed
+steel barge 85 ft. long by 40 ft. beam, having a draught of 7 ft. 6 in.
+The wire ropes, for lowering and raising the bell, work over pulleys
+which are carried on a superstructure erected over the well. Two
+sets of air compressors are fitted on the barge&mdash;one set for supplying
+air to the bell, the other set for working a pneumatic rock drill inside
+the bell. The greatest depth at which this particular bell will work
+is 40 ft. The cost of the whole plant, including barge, was about
+£14,000.</p>
+
+<p>The diving dress has, however, to a great extent supplanted the
+diving bell. This is due not only to the heavier cost of the latter, but
+more particularly to the greater mobility of the helmet diver. Bell
+divers are naturally limited to the area which their bell for the time
+being covers, whereas helmet divers can be distributed over different
+parts of a contract and work entirely independently of one another.
+The use of the diving bell is, therefore, practically limited to the work
+of levelling the sea bed, and the removal of rock.</p>
+
+<p>See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caisson Disease</a></span> as regards the physiological
+effects of compressed air.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. H. D.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVES-SUR-MER,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> a small port and seaside resort of north-western
+France on the coast of the department of Calvados, on
+the Dives, 15 m. N.E. of Caen by road. Pop. (1906) 3286. Dives
+is celebrated as the harbour whence William the Conqueror sailed
+to England in 1066. In the porch of its church (14th and 15th
+centuries) a tablet records the names of some of his companions.
+The town has a picturesque inn, adapted from a building dating
+partly from the 16th century, and market buildings dating from
+the 14th to the 16th centuries. The coast in the vicinity of Dives
+is fringed with small watering-places, those of Cabourg (to the
+west) and of Beuzeval and Houlgate (to the east) being practically
+united with it. There are large metallurgical works with electric
+motive power close to the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVIDE,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a word used technically as a noun in America and the
+British colonies for any high ridge between two valleys, forming
+a water-parting; a dividing range. For special senses of the
+verb &ldquo;to divide&rdquo; (Lat. <i>di-videre</i>, the latter part of the word
+coming from a root seen in Lat. <i>vidua</i>, Eng. &ldquo;widow&rdquo;), meaning
+generally to split up in two or more parts, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Division</a></span>. In a
+parliamentary sense, to divide (involving a separation into two
+sides, Aye and No) is to take the sense of the House by voting
+on the subject before it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVIDEND<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (Lat. <i>dividendum</i>, a thing to be divided), the net
+profit periodically divisible among the proprietors of a joint-stock
+company in proportion to their respective holdings of its
+capital. Dividend is not interest, although the word dividend is
+frequently applied to payments of interest; and a failure to pay
+dividends to shareholders does not, like a failure to pay interest
+on borrowed money, lay a company open to being declared
+bankrupt. In bankruptcy a dividend is the proportionate share
+of the proceeds of the debtor&rsquo;s estate received by a creditor. In
+England, the Companies Act 1862 provided that no dividend
+should be payable except out of the profits arising from the business
+of the company, but, in the case of companies incorporated by
+special act of parliament for the construction of railways and
+other public works which cannot be completed for a considerable
+time, it is sometimes provided that interest may during construction
+be paid to the subscribers for shares out of capital. Dividends
+(excluding occasional distributions in the form of shares) are
+ordinarily payable in cash. Most companies divide their capital
+into at least two classes, called &ldquo;preference&rdquo; shares and
+&ldquo;ordinary&rdquo; shares, of which the former are entitled out of the
+profits of the company to a preferential dividend at a fixed
+rate, and the latter to whatever remains after payment of the
+preferential dividend and any fixed charges. Before, however, a
+dividend is paid, a part of the profits is often carried to a &ldquo;reserve
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span>
+fund.&rdquo; The dividend on preference shares is either &ldquo;cumulative&rdquo;
+or contingent on the profits of each separate year or half year.
+When cumulative, if the profits of any one year are insufficient
+to pay it in full, the deficiency has to be made good out of subsequent
+profits. A cumulative preferential dividend is sometimes
+said to be &ldquo;guaranteed,&rdquo; and preferential dividends payable by
+all English companies registered under the Companies Acts 1862
+to 1908 are cumulative unless stipulated to be otherwise. Certain
+public companies are forbidden by parliament to pay dividends in
+excess of a prescribed maximum rate, but this restriction has
+been happily modified in some instances, notably in the case of
+gas companies, by the institution of a sliding scale, under which a
+gas company may so regulate the price of gas to be charged to
+consumers that any reduction of an authorized standard price
+entitles the company to make a proportionate increase of the
+authorized dividend, and any increase above the standard price
+involves a proportionate decrease of dividend. Dividends are
+usually declared yearly or half-yearly; and before any dividend
+can be paid it is, as a rule, necessary for the directors to submit
+to the shareholders, at a general meeting called for the purpose,
+the accounts of the company, with a report by the directors on its
+position and their recommendation as to the rate of the proposed
+dividend. The articles of association of a company usually
+provide that the shareholders may accept the director&rsquo;s recommendation
+as to dividend or may declare a lower one, but may
+not declare a higher one than the directors recommend. Directors
+frequently have power to pay on account of the dividend for the
+year, without consulting the shareholders, an &ldquo;interim dividend,&rdquo;
+which on ordinary shares is generally at a much lower rate than
+the final or regular dividend. An exceptionally high dividend
+is often distributed in the shape of a dividend at the usual rate
+supplemented by an additional dividend or &ldquo;bonus.&rdquo; Payment
+of dividends is made by means of cheques sent by post, called
+&ldquo;dividend warrants.&rdquo; All dividends are subject to income-tax,
+and by most companies dividends are paid &ldquo;less income-tax,&rdquo;
+in which case the tax is deducted from the amount of dividend
+payable to each proprietor. When paid without such deduction
+a dividend is said to be &ldquo;free of income-tax.&rdquo; In the latter case,
+however, the company has to make provision for payment of the
+tax before declaring the dividend, and the amount of its divisible
+profits and the rate of dividend which it is able to declare are
+consequently to that extent reduced. In respect of consols and
+certain other securities, holders of amounts of less than £1000 may
+instruct the Bank of England or Bank of Ireland to receive and
+invest their dividends. With few exceptions, the prices of
+securities dealt in on the London Stock Exchange include any
+accruing dividend not paid up to the date of purchase. At a
+certain day, after the dividend is declared, the stock or share is
+dealt in on the Stock Exchange, as <i>ex dividend</i> (or &ldquo;x. d.&rdquo;), which
+means that the current dividend is paid not to the buyer but
+to the previous holder, and the price of the stock is lower to that
+extent. The expression &ldquo;cum dividend&rdquo; is used to signify that
+the price of the security dealt in includes a dividend which, in
+the absence of any stipulation, might be supposed to belong to
+the seller of the security. On the New York Stock Exchange the
+invariable practice is to sell stock with the &ldquo;dividend on&rdquo; until
+the company&rsquo;s books are closed, after which it is usually sold
+&ldquo;ex dividend.&rdquo;</p>
+<div class="author">(S. D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVIDIVI,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> the native and commercial name for the astringent
+pods of <i>Caesalpinia coriaria</i>, a leguminous shrub of the suborder
+<i>Caesalpinieae</i>, which grows in low marshy tracts in the West
+Indies and the north of South America. The plant is between
+20 and 30 ft. in height, and bears white flowers. The pods are
+flattened, and curl up in drying; they are about ¾ in. broad, from
+2 to 3 in. long and of a rich brown colour. Dividivi was first
+brought to Europe from Caracas in 1768. It contains about 30%
+of ellagitannic acid, whence its value in leather manufacture.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVINATION<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span>, the process of obtaining knowledge of secret or
+future things by means of oracles, omens or astrology. The root
+of the word, <i>deus</i> (god) or <i>divus</i>, indicates the supposed source of
+the soothsayer&rsquo;s information, just as the equivalent Greek term,
+<span class="grk" title="mantikê">&#956;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>, indicates the spiritual source of the utterances of the seer,
+<span class="grk" title="mantis">&#956;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#962;</span>. In classical times the view was, in fact, general, as may
+be seen by Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De divinatione</i>, that not only oracles but also
+omens were signs sent by the gods; even the astrologer held that
+he gained his information, in the last resort, from the same source.
+On the side of the Stoics it was argued that if divination was a real
+art, there must be gods who gave it to mankind; against this
+it was argued that signs of future events may be given without
+any god.</p>
+
+<p>Divination is practised in all grades of culture; its votaries
+range from the Australian black to the American medium. There
+is no general agreement as to the source of the information;
+commonly it is held that it comes from the gods directly or
+indirectly. In the Bornean cult of the hawk it seems that the
+divine bird itself was regarded as having a foreknowledge of
+the future. Later it is regarded as no more than a messenger.
+Among the Australian blacks, divination is largely employed to
+discover the cause of death, where it is assumed to be due to
+magic; in some cases the spirit of the dead man is held to give
+the information, in others the living magician is the source of the
+knowledge. We find moreover a semi-scientific conception of the
+basis of divination; the whole of nature is linked together; just
+as the variations in the height of a column of mercury serve to
+foretell the weather, so the flight of birds or behaviour of cattle
+may help to prognosticate its changes; for the uncultured it is
+merely a step to the assumption that animals know things which
+are hidden from man. Haruspication, or the inspection of
+entrails, was justified on similar grounds, and in the case of omens
+from birds or animals, no less than in astrology, it was held that
+the facts from which inferences were drawn were themselves in
+part the causes of the events which they foretold, thus fortifying
+the belief in the possibility of divination.</p>
+
+<p>From a psychological point of view divinatory methods may be
+classified under two main heads: (A) autoscopic, which depend
+simply on some change in the consciousness of the soothsayer;
+(B) heteroscopic, in which he looks outside himself for guidance
+and perhaps infers rather than divines in the proper sense.</p>
+
+<p>(A) Autoscopic methods depend on (i.) sensory or (ii.) motor
+automatisms, or (iii.) mental impressions, for their results.
+(i.) Crystal-gazing (<i>q.v.</i>) is a world-wide method of divining, which
+is analogous to dreams, save that the vision is voluntarily initiated,
+though little, if at all, under the control of the scryer. Corresponding
+to crystal-gazing we have <i>shell-hearing</i> and similar
+methods, which are, however, less common; in these the information
+is gained by hearing a voice. (ii.) The divining rod (<i>q.v.</i>) is
+the best-known example of this class; divination depending on
+automatic movements of this sort is found at all stages of culture;
+in Australia it is used to detect the magician who has caused the
+death of a native; in medieval and modern times water-divining
+or <i>dowsing</i> has been largely and successfully used. Similar in
+principle is <i>coscinomancy</i>, or divining by a sieve held suspended,
+which gives indications by turning; and the equally common
+divination by a suspended ring, both of which are found from
+Europe in the west to China and Japan in the east. The ordeal by
+the Bible and key is equally popular; the book is suspended by a
+key tied in with its wards between the leaves and supported on
+two persons&rsquo; fingers, and the whole turns round when the name of
+the guilty person is mentioned. Confined to higher cultures on
+the other hand, for obvious reasons, is divination by automatic
+writing, which is practised in China more especially. The sand
+divination so widely spread in Africa seems to be of a different
+nature. <i>Trance speaking</i>, on the other hand, may be found in any
+stage of culture and there is no doubt that in many cases the
+procedure of the magician or shaman induces a state of auto-hypnotism;
+at a higher stage these utterances are termed oracles
+and are believed to be the result of inspiration (<i>q.v.</i>). (iii.) Another
+method of divination is by the aid of mental impressions;
+observation seems to show that by some process of this sort, akin
+to clairvoyance (<i>q.v.</i>), fortunes are told successfully by means of
+palmistry or by laying the cards; for the same &ldquo;lie&rdquo; of the cards
+may be diversely interpreted to meet different cases. In other
+cases the impression is involuntary or less consciously sought,
+as in dreams (<i>q.v.</i>), which, however, are sometimes induced, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span>
+purposes of divination, by the process known as incubation or
+temple sleep. Dreams are sometimes regarded as visits to or
+from gods or the souls of the dead, sometimes as signs to be
+interpreted symbolically by means of dream-books, which are
+found not only in Europe but in less cultured countries like Siam.</p>
+
+<p>(B) In heteroscopic divination the process is rather one of
+inference from external facts. The methods are very various.
+(i.) The casting of lots, <i>sortilege</i>, was common in classical
+antiquity; the Homeric heroes prayed to the gods when they cast
+lots in Agamemnon&rsquo;s leather cap, and Mopsus divined with sacred
+lots when the Argonauts embarked. Similarly dice are thrown
+for purposes of sortilege; the <i>astragali</i> or knucklebones, used
+in children&rsquo;s games at the present day, were implements of
+divination in the first instance. In Polynesia the coco-nut is
+spun like a teetotum to discover a thief. Somewhat different are
+the omens drawn from books; in ancient times the poets were
+often consulted, more especially Virgil, whence the name <i>sortes
+virgilianae</i>, just as the Bible is used for drawing texts in our own
+day, especially in Germany. (ii.) In <i>haruspication</i>, or the inspection
+of entrails, in <i>scapulomancy</i> or divination by the speal-bone
+or shoulder-blade, in divination by footprints in ashes, found
+in Australia, Peru and Scotland, the voluntary element is
+prominent, for the diviner must take active steps to secure the
+conditions necessary to divination. (iii.) In the case of <i>augury</i>
+and <i>omens</i>, on the other hand, that is not necessary. The
+behaviour and cries of birds, and <i>angang</i> or meeting with ominous
+animals, &amp;c., may be voluntarily observed, and opportunities for
+observation made; but this is not necessary for success. (iv.) In
+<i>astrology</i> we have a method which still finds believers among
+people of good education. The stars are held, not only to prognosticate
+the future but also to influence it; the child born when
+Mars is in the ascendant will be war-like; Venus has to do with
+love; the sign of the Lion presides over places where wild beasts
+are found. (v.) In other cases the tie that binds the subject of
+divination with the omen-giving object is sympathy. The name
+of the life-index is given to a tree, animal or other object believed
+to be so closely united by sympathetic ties to a human being that
+the fate of the latter is reflected in the condition of the former.
+The Polynesians set up sticks to see if the warriors they stood
+for were to fall in battle; on Hallowe&rsquo;en in our own country the
+behaviour of nuts and other objects thrown into the fire is held to
+prognosticate the lot of the person to whom they have been
+assigned. Where, as in the last two cases, the sympathetic
+bond is less strong, we find symbolical interpretation playing
+an important part.</p>
+
+<p>Sympathy and symbolism, association of ideas and analogy,
+together with a certain amount of observation, are the explanation
+of the great mass of heteroscopic divinatory formulae. But
+where autoscopic phenomena play the chief part the question of
+the origin of divination is less simple. The investigations of the
+Society for Psychical Research show that premonitions, though
+rare in our own day, are not absolutely unknown. Pseudo-premonitions,
+due to hallucinatory memory, are not unknown;
+there is also some ground for holding that crystal-gazers are able
+to perceive incidents which are happening at a distance from
+them. Divination of this sort, therefore, may be due to observation
+and experiment of a rude sort, rather than to the unchecked
+play of fancy which resulted in heteroscopic divination.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augurs</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oracle</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astrology</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Omen</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Bouché Leclercq, <i>Histoire de la divination dans
+l&rsquo;antiquité</i>; Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>, passim; Maury, &ldquo;La Magie et
+l&rsquo;astrologie,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Anth. Inst.</i> i. 163, v. 436; <i>Folklore</i>, iii. 193;
+Ellis, <i>Tshi-speaking Peoples</i>, p. 202; <i>Dictionnaire encyclopédique
+des sciences médicales</i>, xxx. 24-96; <i>Journ. of Philology</i>, xiii. 273,
+xiv. 113; Deubner, <i>De incubatione</i>; Lenormant, <i>La Divination, et
+la science de présages chez les Chaldéens</i>; Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>;
+J. Johnson, <i>Yoruba Heathenism</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVINING-ROD.<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> As indicated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magic</a></span>,
+<i>Rhabdomancy</i>, or the art of using a divining-rod for discovering
+something hidden, is apparently of immemorial antiquity, and
+the Roman <i>virgula divina</i>, as used in taking auguries by means of
+casting bits of stick, is described by Cicero and Tacitus (see also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divination</a></span>); but the special form of <i>virgula furcata</i>, or forked
+twig of hazel or willow (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hazel</a></span>), described by G. Agricola
+(<i>De re metallica</i>, 1546), and in Sebastian Munster&rsquo;s <i>Cosmography</i>
+in the early part of the 16th century, used specially for discovering
+metallic lodes or water beneath the earth, must be distinguished
+from the general superstition. The &ldquo;dowsing&rdquo; or divining-rod,
+in this sense, has a modern interest, dating from its use by
+prospectors for minerals in the German (Harz Mountains) mining
+districts; the French chemist M.E. Chevreul<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> assigns its first
+mention to Basil Valentine, the alchemist of the late 15th century.
+On account of its supposed magical powers, it may be taken
+perhaps as an historical analogue to such fairy wands as the
+<i>caduceus</i> of Mercury, the golden arrow of Herodotus&rsquo;s &ldquo;Abaris
+the Hyperborean,&rdquo; or the medieval witch&rsquo;s broomstick. But
+the existence of the modern water-finder or dowser makes the
+divining-rod a matter of more than mythological or superstitious
+interest. The <i>Schlagruthe</i> (striking-rod), or forked twig of the
+German miners, was brought to England by those engaged in the
+Cornish mines by the merchant venturers of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s
+day. Professor W. F. Barrett, F.R.S., the chief modern investigator
+of this subject, regards its employment, dating as it
+does from the revival of learning, as based on the medieval
+doctrine of &ldquo;sympathy,&rdquo; the drooping of trees and character of
+the vegetation being considered to give indications of mineral
+lodes beneath the earth&rsquo;s surface, by means of a sort of attraction;
+and such critical works as Robert Boyle&rsquo;s (1663), or the
+<i>Mineralogia Cornubiensis</i> of Pryce (1778), admitted its value in
+discovering metals. But as mining declined in Cornwall, the use
+of the dowser for searching for lodes almost disappeared, and was
+transferred to water-finding. The divining-rod has, however,
+also been used for searching for any buried objects. In the south
+of France, in the 17th century, it was employed in tracking
+criminals and heretics. Its abuse led to a decree of the Inquisition
+in 1701, forbidding its employment for purposes of justice.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times the professional dowser is a &ldquo;water-finder,&rdquo;
+and there has been a good deal of investigation into the possibility
+of a scientific explanation of his claims to be able to locate underground
+water, where it is not known to exist, by the use of a
+forked hazel-twig which, twisting in his hands, leads him by its
+directing-power to the place where a boring should be made.
+Whether justified or not, a widespread faith exists, based no doubt
+on frequent success, in the dowser&rsquo;s power; and Professor
+Barrett (<i>The Times</i>, January 21, 1905) states that &ldquo;making
+a liberal allowance for failures of which I have not heard, I have
+no hesitation in saying that where fissure water exists and the
+discovery of underground water sufficient for a domestic supply
+is a matter of the utmost difficulty, the chances of success with a
+good dowser far exceed mere lucky hits, or the success obtained
+by the most skilful observer, even with full knowledge of the local
+geology.&rdquo; Is this due to any special faculty in the dowser, or
+has the twig itself anything to do with it? Held in balanced
+equilibrium, the forked twig, in the dowser&rsquo;s hands, moves with a
+sudden and often violent motion, and the appearance of actual
+life in the twig itself, though regarded as mere stage-play by
+some, is popularly associated with the cause of the water-finder&rsquo;s
+success. The theory that there is any direct connexion
+(&ldquo;sympathy&rdquo; or electrical influence) between the divining-rod
+and the water or metal, is however repudiated by modern science.
+Professor Barrett, who with Professor Janet and others is satisfied
+that the rod twists without any intention or voluntary deception
+on the part of the dowser, ascribes the phenomenon to &ldquo;motor-automatism&rdquo;
+on the part of the dowser (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Automatism</a></span>), a
+reflex action excited by some stimulus upon his mind, which may
+be either a subconscious suggestion or an actual impression
+(obscure in its nature) from an external object or an external
+mind; both sorts of stimulus are possible, so that the dowser
+himself may make false inferences (and fail) by supposing that
+the stimulus is an external object (like water). The divining-rod
+being thus &ldquo;an indicator of any sub-conscious suggestion or
+impression,&rdquo; its indications, no doubt, may be fallacious; but
+Professor Barrett, basing his conclusions upon observed successes
+and their greater proportion to failures than anything that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span>
+chance could produce, advances the hypothesis that some persons
+(like the professional dowsers) possess &ldquo;a genuine super-normal
+perceptive faculty,&rdquo; and that the mind of a good dowser, possessing
+the idiosyncrasy of motor-automatism, becomes a blank or
+<i>tabula rasa</i>, so that &ldquo;the faintest impression made by the object
+searched for creates an involuntary or automatic motion of the
+indicator, whatever it may be.&rdquo; Like the &ldquo;homing instinct&rdquo; of
+certain birds and animals, the dowser&rsquo;s power lies beneath the
+level of any conscious perception; and the function of the forked
+twig is to act as an index of some material or other mental
+disturbance within him, which otherwise he could not interpret.</p>
+
+<p>It should be added that dowsers do not always use any rod.
+Some again use a willow rod, or withy, others a hazel-twig (the
+traditional material), others a beech or holly twig, or one from
+any other tree; others even a piece of wire or watch-spring. The
+best dowsers are said to have been generally more or less illiterate
+men, usually engaged in some humble vocation.</p>
+
+<p>Sir W. H. Preece (<i>The Times</i>, January 16, 1905), repudiating
+as an electrician the theory that any electric force is involved,
+has recorded his opinion that water-finding by a dowser is due to
+&ldquo;mechanical vibration, set up by the friction of moving water,
+acting upon the sensitive ventral diaphragm of certain exceptionally
+delicately framed persons.&rdquo; Another theory is that water-finders
+are &ldquo;exceptionally sensitive to hygrometric influences.&rdquo;
+In any case, modern science approaches the problem as one
+concerning which the facts have to be accepted, and explained
+by some natural, though obscure, cause.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See for further details Professor Barrett&rsquo;s longer discussion in parts
+32 (1897) and 38 (1900) of the <i>Proceedings of the Society for Psychical
+Research</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>La Baguette divinatoire</i> (Paris, 1845).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVISION<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>dividere</i>, to break up into parts, separate),
+a general term for the action of breaking up a whole into parts.
+Thus, in political economy, the phrase &ldquo;division of labour&rdquo;
+implies the assignment to particular workmen of the various
+portions of a whole piece of work; in mathematics division is
+the process of finding how many times one number or quantity,
+the &ldquo;divisor,&rdquo; is contained in another, the &ldquo;dividend&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arithmetic</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algebra</a></span>); in the musical terminology of the
+17th and 18th centuries, the term was used for rapid passages
+consisting of a few slow notes amplified into a florid passage,
+<i>i.e.</i> into a larger number of quick ones. The word is used also in
+concrete senses for the parts into which a thing is divided, <i>e.g.</i> a
+division of an army, an administrative or electoral division;
+similarly, a &ldquo;division&rdquo; is taken in a legislative body when votes
+are recorded for and against a proposed measure.</p>
+
+<p>In logic, division is a technical term for the process by which
+a <i>genus</i> is broken up into its <i>species</i>. Thus the genus &ldquo;animal&rdquo;
+may be divided, according to the habitat of the various kinds,
+into animals which live on land, those which live in water, those
+which live in the air. Each of these may be subdivided according
+to whether their constituent members do or do not possess certain
+other qualities. The basis of each of these divisions is called the
+<i>fundamentum divisionis</i>. It is clear that there can be no division
+in respect of those qualities which make the genus what it is.
+The various species are all alike in the possession of the generic
+attributes, but differ in other respects; they are &ldquo;variations on
+the same theme&rdquo; (Joseph, <i>Introduction to Logic</i>, 1906); each one
+has the generic, and also certain peculiar, qualities (<i>differentiae</i>),
+which latter distinguish them from other species of the same
+genus. The process of division is thus the obverse of classification
+(<i>q.v.</i>); it proceeds from genus to species, whereas classification
+begins with the particulars and rises through species to genus. In
+the exact sciences, and indeed in all argument both practical
+and theoretical, accurate division is of great importance. It is
+governed by the following rules. (1) <i>Division must be exhaustive</i>;
+all the members of the genus must find a place in one or other of
+the species; a captain who selects for his team skilful batsmen
+and bowlers only is guilty of an incomplete division of the whole
+function of a cricket team by omitting to provide himself with
+good fielders. Rectilinear figures cannot be divided into triangles
+and quadrilaterals because there are rectilinear figures which
+have more than four sides. On the other hand, triangles can be
+divided into equilateral, isosceles and scalene, since no other kind
+of triangle can exist. (2) Division <i>must be exclusive</i>, that is, each
+species must be complete in itself and not contain members of
+another species. No member of a genus must be included in more
+than one of the species. (3) In every division <i>there must be but one
+principle (fundamentum divisionis)</i>. The members of a genus
+may differ from one another in many respects, <i>e.g.</i> books may
+be divided according to external form into quarto, octavo, &amp;c.,
+or according to binding into calf, cloth, paper-backed and so on.
+They cannot, however, be divided logically into quarto, paper-backed,
+novels and remainders. When more than one principle is
+used in a division it is called &ldquo;cross division.&rdquo; (4) <i>Division must
+proceed gradually</i> (&ldquo;Divisio non facit saltum&rdquo;), <i>i.e.</i> the genus
+must be resolved into the next highest (&ldquo;proximate&rdquo;) species.
+To go straight from a <i>summum genus</i> to very small species is of no
+scientific value.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be observed that logical division is concerned exclusively
+with universals or concepts; division is of genus and species, not
+of particulars. Two other kinds of division are recognized:&mdash;<i>metaphysical
+division</i>, the separation in thought of the various
+qualities possessed by an individual thing (a piece of lead has
+weight, colour, &amp;c), and <i>physical division</i> or <i>partition</i>, the
+breaking up of an object into its parts (a watch is thought of
+as being composed of case, dial, works, &amp;c.). Logical division is
+closely allied with logical definition (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIVORCE<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (Lat. <i>divortium</i>, derived from dis-, apart, and
+vertere, to turn), the dissolution, in whole or in part, of the tie
+of marriage. It includes both the complete abrogation of the
+marriage relation known as a divorce <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i>, which
+carries with it a power on the part of both parties to the marriage
+to remarry other persons or each other, and also that incomplete
+severance not involving powers to remarry, which was formerly
+known as divorce a <i>mensa et thoro</i>, and has in England been termed
+&ldquo;judicial separation.&rdquo; Less strictly, divorce is commonly understood
+to include judicial declarations of nullity of marriage, which,
+while practically terminating the marriage relation, proceed in
+law on the basis of the marriage never having been legally
+established.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions under which, in different communities, divorce
+has at different times been permitted, vary with the aspects in
+which the relation of marriage (<i>q.v.</i>) has been regarded. When
+marriage has been deemed to be the acquisition by the husband
+of property in the wife, or when it has been regarded as a mere
+agreement between persons capable both to form and to dissolve
+that contract, we find that marriage has been dissoluble at the
+will of the husband, or by agreement of the husband and wife.
+Yet even in these cases the interest of the whole community in
+the purity of marriage relations, in the pecuniary bearings of this
+particular contract, and the condition of children, has led to the
+imposition of restrictions on, and the attachment of conditions to,
+the termination of the obligations consequent on a marriage
+legally contracted. But the main restrictions on liberty of divorce
+have arisen from the conception of marriage entertained by
+religions, and especially by one religion. Christianity has had no
+greater practical effect on the life of mankind than in its belief
+that marriage is no mere civil contract, but a vow in the sight
+of God binding the parties by obligations of conscience above
+and beyond those of civil law. Translating this conception into
+practice, Christianity not only profoundly modified the legal
+conditions of divorce as formulated in the Roman civil law, but
+in its own canon law defined its own rule of divorce, going so far
+as in the Western (at least in its unreformed condition), though
+not the Eastern, branch of Christendom to forbid all complete
+divorces, that is to say, all dissolutions of marriage carrying with
+them the right to remarry.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">History</p>
+
+<p><i>The Roman Law of Divorce before Justinian.</i>&mdash;The history of
+divorce, therefore, practically begins with the law of Rome. It
+took its earliest colour from that conception of the <i>patria potestas</i>,
+or the power of the head of the family over its members, which
+enters so deeply into the jurisprudence of ancient Rome. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span>
+wife was transferred at marriage to the authority of her husband,
+<i>in manus</i>, and consequently became so far subject to him that
+he could, at his will, renounce his rule over her, and terminate his
+companionship, subject at least to an adjustment of the pecuniary
+rights which were disturbed by such action. So clearly was the
+power of the husband derived from that of the father, that for a
+long period a father, in the exercise of his <i>potestas</i>, could take his
+daughter from her husband against the wishes of both. It may
+be presumed that this power, anomalous as it appears, was not
+unexercised, as we find that a constitution of Antoninus Pius
+prohibited a father from disturbing a harmonious union, and
+Marcus Aurelius afterwards limited this prohibition by allowing
+the interference of a father for strong and just cause&mdash;<i>magna et
+justa causa interveniente</i>. Except in so far as it was restrained
+by special legislation, the authority of a husband in the matter
+of divorce was absolute. As early indeed, however, as the time of
+Romulus, it is said that the state asserted its interest in the
+permanence of marriage by forbidding the repudiation of wives
+unless they were guilty of adultery or of drinking wine, on pain of
+forfeiture of the whole of an offender&rsquo;s property, one-half of which
+went to the wife, the other to Ceres. But the law of the XII.
+Tables, in turn, allowed freedom of divorce. It would appear,
+however, that the sense of the community was so far shocked by
+the inhumanity of treating a wife as mere property, or the risk of
+regarding marriage as a mere terminable contract, that, without
+crystallizing into positive enactment, it operated to prevent the
+exercise of so harsh and dangerous a power. It is said that for
+500 years no husband took advantage of his power, and it
+was then only by an order of a censor, however obtained, that
+Spurius Carvilius Ruga repudiated his wife for barrenness. We
+may, however, be permitted to doubt the genuineness of this
+censorial order, or at least to conjecture the influence under which
+the censor was induced to intervene, when we find that in another
+instance, that of L. Antonius, a censor punished an unjust divorce
+by expulsion from the senate, and that the exercise of their power
+by husbands increased to a great and alarming extent. Probably
+few of the admirers of the greatest of Roman orators have not
+regretted his summary and wholly informal repudiation of
+Terentia. At last the <i>lex Julia de adulteriis</i>, while recognizing a
+power of divorce both in the husband and in the wife, imposed on
+it, in the public interest, serious restrictions and consequences.
+It required a written bill of divorce (<i>libellus repudii</i>) to be given
+in the presence of seven witnesses, who must be Roman citizens
+of age, and the divorce must be publicly registered. The act was,
+however, purely an act of the party performing it, and no idea of
+judicial interference or contract seems to have been entertained.
+It was not necessary for either husband or wife giving the bill to
+acquaint the other with it before its execution, though it was
+considered proper to deliver the bill, when made, to the other
+party. In this way a wife could divorce a lunatic husband, or the
+<i>paterfamilias</i> of a lunatic wife could divorce her from her husband.
+But the <i>lex Julia</i> was also the first of a series of enactments by
+which pecuniary consequences were imposed on divorce both by
+husbands and wives, whether the intention was to restrain divorce
+by penalties of this nature, or to readjust pecuniary relations
+settled on the basis of marriage and disturbed by its rupture. It
+was provided that if the wife was guilty of adultery, her husband
+in divorcing her could retain one-sixth of her <i>dos</i>, but if she had
+committed a less serious offence, one-eighth. If the husband was
+guilty of adultery, he had to make immediate restitution of her
+dowry, or if it consisted of land, the annual proceeds for three
+years; if he was guilty of a less serious offence, he had six months
+within which to restore the <i>dos</i>. If both parties were in fault, no
+penalty fell on either. The <i>lex Julia</i> was followed by a series of
+acts of legislation extending and modifying its provisions. The
+legislation of Constantine, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 331, specified certain causes for
+which alone a divorce could take place without the imposition of
+pecuniary penalties. There were three causes for which a wife
+could divorce her husband with impunity: (1) murder, (2)
+preparation of poisons, (3) violation of tombs; but if she divorced
+him for any other cause, such as drunkenness, or gambling or
+immoral society, she forfeited her dowry and incurred the further
+penalty of deportation. There were also three causes for which a
+husband could divorce his wife without incurring any penalty:
+(1) adultery, (2) preparation of poisons, (3) acting as a procuress.
+If he divorced her for any other cause, he forfeited all interest in
+her dowry; and if he married again, the first wife could take the
+dowry of the second.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 421 the emperors Honorius and Theodosius enacted
+a law of divorce which introduced limitations on the power of
+remarriage as an additional penalty in certain cases. As regards a
+wife: (1) if she divorced her husband for grave reasons or crime,
+she retained her dowry and could remarry after five years;
+(2) if she divorced him for criminal conduct or moderate faults,
+she forfeited her dowry, became incapable of remarriage, and liable
+to deportation, nor could the emperor&rsquo;s prerogative of pardon be
+exerted in her favour. As regards a husband: if he divorced his
+wife (1) for serious crime, he retained the dowry and could remarry
+immediately; (2) for criminal conduct, he did not retain
+the dowry, but could remarry; (3) for mere dislike, he forfeited
+the property brought into the marriage and could not
+remarry.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 449 the law of divorce was rendered simpler and
+certainly more facile by Theodosius and Valentinian. It was
+provided that a wife could divorce her husband without incurring
+any penalty if he was convicted of any one of twelve offences:
+(1) treason, (2) adultery, (3) homicide, (4) poisoning, (5) forgery,
+(6) violating tombs, (7) stealing from a church, (8) robbery,
+(9) cattle-stealing, (10) attempting his wife&rsquo;s life, (11) beating his
+wife, (12) introducing immoral women to his house. If the wife
+divorced her husband for any other cause, she forfeited her dowry,
+and could not marry again for five years. A husband could
+divorce his wife without incurring a penalty for any of these
+reasons except the last, and also for the following reasons:
+(1) going to dine with men other than her relations without
+the knowledge or against the wish of her husband; (2) going
+from home at night against his wish without reasonable
+cause; (3) frequenting the circus, theatre or amphitheatre
+after being forbidden by her husband. If a husband divorced
+his wife for any other reason, he forfeited all interest in his
+wife&rsquo;s dowry, and also any property he brought into the
+marriage.</p>
+
+<p>The above sketch of the legislation prior to the time of
+Justinian, while it indicates a desire to place the husband and wife
+on something like terms of equality as regards divorce, indicates
+also, by its forbidding remarriage and by its pecuniary provisions
+in certain cases, a sense in the community of the importance in
+the public interest of restraining the violation of the contract of
+marriage. But to the Roman marriage was primarily a contract,
+and therefore side by side with this legislation there always
+existed a power of divorce by mutual consent. We must now
+turn to those principles of the Christian religion which, in
+combination with the legislation above described, produced
+the law formulated by Justinian.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Christian View of Divorce.</i>&mdash;The Christian law of divorce
+as enunciated by its Founder was expressed in a few words,
+but these, unfortunately, by no means of agreed interpretation.
+To appreciate them it is necessary to consider the enactment of
+the Mosaic law, which also was expressed in few words, but of a
+meaning involved in much doubt. The phrase in Deut. xxiv. 1-4,
+which is translated in the Authorized Version &ldquo;some uncleanness,&rdquo;
+but in the Revised Version, &ldquo;some unseemly thing,&rdquo; and
+which is the only cause stated to justify the giving of a &ldquo;bill of
+divorcement,&rdquo; was limited by the school of Shanmai to moral
+delinquency, but was extended by the rival school of Hillel to
+causes of trifling importance or even to motives of caprice. The
+wider interpretation would seem to be supported by the words
+of Christ (Matt. v. 31), who, in indicating His own doctrine in
+contradistinction to the law of Moses, said, &ldquo;Whosoever shall put
+away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication (<span class="grk" title="porneias">&#960;&#959;&#961;&#957;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>),
+causeth her to commit adultery; and whosoever shall marry her
+that is divorced committeth adultery.&rdquo; The meaning of these
+words of Christ Himself has been involved in controversy, which
+perhaps was nowhere carried on with greater acuteness or under
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span>
+more critical conditions than within the walls of the British
+parliament during the passage of the Divorce Act of 1857. That
+they justify divorce of a complete kind for moral delinquency
+of some nature is supported by the opinion probably of every
+competent scholar. But scholars of eminence have sought
+to restrict the meaning of the <span class="grk" title="logos porneias">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962; &#960;&#959;&#961;&#957;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span> to antenuptial
+incontinence concealed from the husband, and to exclude
+adultery. The effect of this view commends itself to the adherents
+of the Church of Rome, because it places the right to separation
+between husband and wife, not on a cause supervening after
+a marriage, which that Church seeks to regard as absolutely
+indissoluble, but on invalidity in the contract of marriage itself,
+and which may therefore render the marriage liable to be declared
+void without impugning its indissoluble character when rightly
+contracted. The narrower view of the meaning of <span class="grk" title="logos porneias">&#960;&#959;&#961;&#957;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span> has
+been maintained by, among others, Dr Döllinger (<i>First Ages of the
+Church</i>, ii. 226); but those who will consider the arguments of
+Professor Conington in reply to Dr Döllinger (<i>Contemp. Review</i>,
+May 1869) will probably assign the palm to the English scholar.
+A more general view points in the same direction. It is quite true
+that under the Mosaic law antenuptial incontinence was, as was
+also adultery, punishable with death. But when we consider
+the effect of adultery not only as a moral fault, but as violating
+the solemn contract of marriage and vitiating its objects, it is
+inconceivable that Christ, in employing a term of general import,
+intended to limit it to one kind, and that the less serious, of
+incontinence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Effect of Christianity on the Law of Rome.</i>&mdash;The modification
+in the civil law of Rome effected by Justinian under the joint
+influence of the previous law of Rome and that of Christianity
+was remarkable. Gibbon has summed up the change effected in
+the law of Rome with characteristic accuracy: &ldquo;The Christian
+princes were the first who specified the just causes of a private
+divorce; their institutions from Constantine to Justinian appear
+to fluctuate between the customs of the empire and the wishes of
+the Church; and the author of the Novels too frequently reforms
+the jurisprudence of the Code and Pandects.&rdquo; Divorce by mutual
+consent, hitherto, as we have seen, absolutely free, was prohibited
+(Nov. 117) except in three cases: (1) when the husband was
+impotent; (2) when either husband or wife desired to enter a
+monastery; and (3) when either of them was in captivity for a
+certain length of time. It is obvious that the two first of these
+exceptions might well commend themselves to the mind of the
+Church, the former as being rather a matter of nullity of marriage
+than of divorce, the latter as admitting the paramount claims of
+the Church on its adherents, and not inconsistent with the spirit
+of the words of St Paul himself, who clearly contemplated a
+separation between husband and wife as allowable in case either
+of them did not hold the Christian faith (1 Cor. vii. 12). At a later
+period Justinian placed a further restriction or even prohibition
+on divorce by consent by enacting that spouses dissolving a
+marriage by mutual consent should forfeit all their property, and
+be confined for life in a monastery, which was to receive one-third
+of the forfeited property, the remaining two-thirds going to the
+children of the marriage. The cause stated for this remarkable
+alteration of the law, and the abandonment of the conception of
+marriage as a civil contract <i>ut non Dei judicium contemnatur</i>
+(Nov. 134), indicates the influence of the Christian idea of
+marriage. That influence, however, did not long continue in its
+full force. The prohibitions of Justinian on divorce by consent
+were repealed by Justin (Nov. 140), his successor. &ldquo;He yielded,&rdquo;
+says Gibbon, &ldquo;to the prayers of his unhappy subjects, and
+restored the liberty of divorce by mutual consent; the civilians
+were unanimous, the theologians were divided, and the ambiguous
+word which contains the precept of Christ is flexible to any interpretation
+that the wisdom of a legislature can demand.&rdquo; It was
+difficult, the enactment stated, &ldquo;to reconcile those who once
+came to hate each other, and who, if compelled to live together,
+frequently attempted each other&rsquo;s lives.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Justinian further re-enacted, with some modifications, the
+power of divorce by a husband or wife against the will of the other.
+Divorce by a wife was allowed in five cases (Nov. 117): (1) the
+husband being party or privy to conspiracy against the state;
+(2) attempting his wife&rsquo;s life, or failing to disclose to her plots
+against it; (3) attempting to induce his wife to commit adultery;
+(4) accusing his wife falsely of adultery; (5) taking a woman to
+live in the house with his wife, or, after warning, frequenting
+a house in the same town with any woman other than his wife.
+If a wife divorced her husband for one of these reasons, she
+recovered her dowry and any property brought into the marriage
+by her husband for life with reversion to her children, or if there
+were no children, absolutely. But if she divorced him for any
+other reason, the provisions of the enactment of Theodosius and
+Valentinian were to apply. A husband was allowed to divorce his
+wife for any one of seven reasons: (1) failure to disclose to her
+husband plots against the state; (2) adultery; (3) attempting or
+failing to disclose plots against her husband&rsquo;s life; (4) frequenting
+dinners or balls with other men against her husband&rsquo;s wishes;
+(5) remaining from home against the wishes of her husband
+except with her parents; (6) going to the circus, theatre or
+amphitheatre without the knowledge or contrary to the prohibition
+of her husband; (7) procuring abortion. If the husband
+divorced his wife for any one of these reasons he retained the
+dowry absolutely, or if there were children, with reversion
+to them. If he divorced her for any other reason, the enactments
+of Theodosius and Valentinian applied. In any case of
+a divorce, if the father or mother of either spouse had advanced
+the dowry and it would be forfeited by an unreasonable divorce,
+the consent of the father or mother was necessary to render
+the divorce valid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Effect of Divorce on Children in the Law of Rome.</i>&mdash;The custody
+of the children of divorced parents was dealt with by the Roman
+law in a liberal manner. A constitution of Diocletian and
+Maximian left it to the judge to determine in his discretion to
+which of the parents the children should go. Justinian enacted
+that divorce should not impair the rights of children either as to
+inheritance or maintenance. If a wife divorced her husband for
+good cause, and she remained unmarried, the children were to be
+in her custody, but to be maintained by the father; but if the
+mother was in fault, the father obtained the custody. If he was
+unable, from want of means, to support them, but she was able
+to do so, she was obliged to take them and support them. It is
+interesting to compare these provisions as to <span class="correction" title="amended from childern">children</span> with the
+practice at present under English law, which in this respect
+reflects so closely the spirit of the law of Rome.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Canon Law of Divorce.</i>&mdash;The canon law of Rome was based
+on two main principles: (1) That there could be no divorce a
+<i>vinculo matrimonii</i>, but only <i>a mensa et thoro</i>. The rule was stated
+in the most absolute terms: <i>&rdquo;Quamdiu vivit vir licet adulter sit,
+licet sodomita, licet flagitiis omnibus coopertus, et ab uxore propter
+haec scelera derelictus, maritus ejus reputatur, cui alterum vivum
+accipere non licet&rdquo;</i> (Caus. 32, Quaest. 7, c. 7). (2) That no
+divorce could be had at the will of the parties, but only by the
+sentence of a competent, that is to say, an ecclesiastical, court.
+In this negation of a right to divorce a <i>vinculo matrimonii</i> lies
+the broad difference between the doctrines of the Eastern and
+Western Churches of Christendom. The Greek Church, understanding
+the words of Christ in the broader sense above mentioned,
+has always allowed complete divorce with a right to remarry for
+the cause of adultery. And it is said that the form at least of
+an anathema of the council of Trent was modified out of respect
+to difference on the part of the Greek Church (see Pothier 5. 6. 21).
+The papal canon law allowed a divorce a <i>mensa et thoro</i> for six
+causes: (1) adultery or unnatural offences; (2) impotency;
+(3) cruelty; (4) infidelity; (5) entering into religion; (6) consanguinity.
+The Church, however, always assumed to itself
+the right to grant licences for an absolute divorce; and further,
+by claiming the power to declare marriages null and void,
+though professedly this could be done only in cases where
+the original contract could be said to be void, it was, and
+is to this day, undoubtedly extended in practice to cases in
+which it is impossible to suppose the original contract really
+void, but in which a complete divorce is on other grounds
+desirable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span></p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Divorce in England</p>
+
+<p>In England the law of divorce, originally based on the canon
+law of Rome, underwent some, though little, permanent change
+at the Reformation, but was profoundly modified by the exercise
+of the power of the state through legislation. From the canon
+law was derived the principle that divorce could legally take
+place only by sentence of the court, and never at the will of the
+parties. Complete divorce has never been governed by any other
+principle than this; and in so far as an incomplete divorce has
+become practicable at the will of the parties, it has been by the
+intervention of civil tribunals and contrary to the law of the
+ecclesiastical courts. Those courts adopted as ground for divorce
+<i>a mensa et thoro</i> the main grounds allowed by Roman canon law,
+adultery and cruelty (Ayliffe, 22; Co. Lit. 102; 1 Salk. 162;
+Godolphin Abridg. 495). The causes of heresy and of entering
+into religion, if ever they were recognized in England, ceased to
+exist at the Reformation.</p>
+
+<p>The principles upon which the English ecclesiastical courts
+proceeded in divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i> are those which are still in
+force, and which (with some modification by statutory enactment)
+have been administered by judicial tribunals down to the present
+day. The courts by which the ecclesiastical law, and therefore
+the law of divorce, was administered were, until 1857, the courts
+of the various dioceses, including that of the archbishop of
+Canterbury, known as the Court of Arches, and that of the archbishop
+of York, known as the Consistory Court of York; but by
+statute a suitor was prevented from taking proceedings in any
+court except that determined by the residence of the person
+against whom proceedings were taken (23 Hen. VIII. c. 9). From
+these courts an appeal lay to delegates appointed in each case by
+the crown, until the establishment of the judicial committee of
+the privy council in 1836, when the appeal was given to the crown
+as advised by that body.</p>
+
+<p>The proof of adultery (to which Isidore in his <i>Book of Etymologies</i>
+gives the fanciful derivation of &ldquo;<i>ad alterius thorum</i>&rdquo;)
+was not by the canon law as received in England restricted by the
+operation of arbitrary rules. It was never, for example, required,
+as by the law of Mahomet, that the act should have been actually
+seen by competent witnesses, nor even that the case should be
+based on any particular kind of proof. It was recognized that the
+nature of the offence almost inevitably precluded direct evidence.
+One rule, however, appears to have commended itself to the
+framers of the canon law as too general in its application not to
+be regarded as a principle. The mere confession of the parties
+was not regarded as a safe ground of conviction; and this rule
+was formulated by a decretal epistle of Pope Celestine III., and,
+following it, by the 105th of the Canons of 1604. This rule has
+now been abrogated; and no doubt it is wiser not to fetter the
+discretion of the tribunal charged with the responsibility of deciding
+particular cases, but experience of divorce proceedings tends
+to confirm the belief that this rule of the canon law was founded
+on an accurate appreciation of human nature.</p>
+
+<p>Although, therefore, with the above exception, no strict rules
+of the evidence necessary to establish adultery have ever been
+established in the English courts, experience has indicated, and
+in former days judges of the ecclesiastical courts often expressed,
+the lines upon which such proof may be expected to proceed. It
+is necessary and sufficient, in general, to prove two things&mdash;first
+the guilty affection towards each other of the persons accused,
+and, secondly, an opportunity or opportunities of which, if so
+minded, their passion may have been gratified. It is obvious that
+any strong proof on either of these points renders strict proof on
+the other less needful; but when proof on both is afforded, the
+common sense of a tribunal, acting with a knowledge of human
+nature, may be trusted to draw the inevitable conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>The definition of cruelty accepted by the ecclesiastical courts
+as that of the canon law is the same as that which prevails at
+the present time; and the view of the law taken by the House of
+Lords in <i>Russell</i> v. <i>Russell</i> (1897 App. Cas. 395) was expressly
+based on the view of cruelty taken by the authorities of the
+ecclesiastical law. The best definition by older English writers
+is probably to be found in Clarke&rsquo;s <i>Praxis</i> (p. 144): &ldquo;Si maritus
+fuerit erga uxorem crudelis et ferax ac mortem comminatus et
+machinatus fuerit, vel eam inhumaniter verbis et verberibus
+tractaverit, et aliquando venenum loco potus paraverit vel
+aliquod simile commiserit, propter quod sine periculo vitae
+cum marito cohabitare aut obsequia conjugalia impendere
+non audeat ... consimili etiam causa competit viro contra
+mulierem.&rdquo; Lord Stowell, probably the greatest master of the
+civil and canon law who ever sat in an English court of justice,
+has in one of his most famous judgments (<i>Evans</i> v. <i>Evans</i>, 1790,
+1 Hagg. <i>Consist.</i> 35) echoed the above language in words often
+quoted, which have constituted the standard exposition of the
+law to the present day. &ldquo;In the older cases,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;of this
+sort which I have had the opportunity of looking into, I have
+observed that the danger of life, limb or health is usually insisted
+as the ground upon which the court has proceeded to a separation.
+This doctrine has been repeatedly applied by the court in the
+cases which have been cited. The court has never been driven
+off this ground. It has always been jealous of the inconvenience
+of departing from it, and I have heard no one case cited in which
+the court has granted a divorce without proof given of a reasonable
+apprehension of bodily hurt. I say an apprehension, because
+assuredly the court is not to wait till the hurt is actually done;
+but the apprehension must be reasonable: it must not be an
+apprehension arising from an exquisite and diseased sensibility of
+mind. Petty vexations applied to such a constitution of mind
+may certainly in time wear out the animal machine, but still
+they are not cases of legal relief; people must relieve themselves
+as well as they can by prudent resistance, by calling in the
+succours of religion and the consolation of friends; but the aid of
+courts is not to be resorted to in such cases with any effect.&rdquo; The
+risk of personal danger in cohabitation constituted, therefore,
+the foundation of legal cruelty. But this does not exclude such
+conduct as a course of persistent ill-treatment, though not
+amounting to personal violence, especially if such ill-treatment
+has in fact caused injury to health. But the person complaining
+must not be the author of his or her own wrong. If, accordingly,
+one of the spouses by his or her conduct is really the cause of the
+conduct complained of, recourse to the court would be had in vain,
+the true remedy lying in a reformation of the real cause of the
+disagreement.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to a denial of the charge or charges, the canon law
+allowed three grounds of answer: (1) <i>Compensatio criminis</i>, a setoff
+of equal guilt or recrimination. This principle is no doubt
+derived from the Roman law and it had the effect of refusing to
+one guilty spouse the remedy of divorce against the other although
+equally guilty. It was always accepted in England, although
+not in other countries, such as France and Scotland, which also
+followed the canon or civil law. In strictness, recrimination
+applied to a similar offence having been committed by the party
+charging that offence. But a decision (1888) of the English
+courts shows that a wife who had committed adultery could not
+bring a suit against her husband for cruelty (<i>Otway</i> v. <i>Otway</i> 13 P.
+D. 141). (2) <i>Condonation.</i> If the complaining spouse has, in fact,
+forgiven the offence complained of, that constitutes a conditional
+bar to any proceedings. The main and usual evidence of such
+forgiveness is constituted by a renewal of marital intercourse,
+and it is difficult-perhaps impossible-to imagine any case in
+which such intercourse would not be held to establish condonation.
+But condonation may be proved by other acts, or by words,
+having regard to the circumstances of each case. Condonation
+is, however, always presumed to be conditional on future good
+behaviour, and misconduct even of a different kind revives the
+former offence. (3) <i>Connivance</i> constitutes a complete answer to
+any charge. Nor need the husband be the active agent of the
+misconduct of the wife. Indifference or neglect imputable to a
+corrupt intention are sufficient. It will be seen presently that
+modern statute law has gone further in this direction. It is to be
+added that the connivance need not be of the very act complained
+of, but may be of an act of a similar kind. A learned judge,
+recalling the classical anecdote of Maecenas and Galba, said, &ldquo;A
+husband is not permitted to say <i>non omnibus dormio</i>.&rdquo; The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span>
+ecclesiastical courts also considered themselves bound to refuse
+relief if there was shown to be <i>collusion</i> between the parties. In
+its primary and most general sense collusion was understood to be
+an agreement between the parties for the purpose of deceiving the
+court by false or fictitious evidence; for example, an agreement
+to commit, or appear to commit, an act of adultery. Collusion,
+however, is not limited to the imposing of other than genuine
+evidence on the court. It extends to an agreement to withhold
+any material evidence; and indeed is carried further, and held to
+extend to any agreement which may have the effect of concealing
+the real and complete truth from the court (see <i>Churchward</i> v.
+<i>Churchward</i>, 1894, p. 161). This doctrine was of considerable
+importance even in the days when only divorces <i>a mensa et thoro</i>
+were granted, because at that time the parties were not permitted
+to separate by consent. At the present day it has become, with
+regard to divorce a <i>vinculo matrimonii</i>, a rule of greater and of
+more far-reaching importance.</p>
+
+<p>The canon law as accepted in England, while allowing divorces
+of the nature and for the causes above mentioned, actively interfered
+to prevent separation between husband and wife in any
+other manner. A suit known as a suit for restitution of conjugal
+rights could be brought to compel cohabitation; and on evidence
+of the desertion of either spouse, the court ordered a return to
+the matrimonial home, though it carried no further its authority
+as to the matrimonial relations within the home. To this suit an
+agreement between the parties constituted no answer. But an
+answer was afforded by any conduct which would have supported
+a decree of divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>. It is a question whether,
+indeed, the ecclesiastical courts would not have gone further, and
+refused a decree of restitution of conjugal rights on grounds which
+might appear adequate to justify such refusal, though not
+sufficient on which to ground a decree of divorce. The view of the
+court of appeal and the House of Lords has given some colour to
+this opinion, and certainly the court of appeal has held, although
+perhaps somewhat hastily, that the effect of a modern statute has
+been to allow the court to refuse restitution of conjugal rights for
+causes falling short of what would constitute ground for divorce
+(<i>Russell</i> v. <i>Russell</i>, 1895, p. 315).</p>
+
+<p>The ecclesiastical courts provided for the pecuniary rights of
+the wife by granting to her alimony during the progress of the suit,
+and a proper allowance after its termination in cases in which she
+was successful. Such payments were dependent on the pecuniary
+means, or <i>faculties</i>, as they were termed, of the husband, and were
+subject to subsequent increase or diminution in proper cases.
+But the ecclesiastical courts did not deal with the custody of
+the children of the marriage, it being probably considered that
+that matter could be determined by the common law rights of
+the father, or by the intervention of the court of chancery.</p>
+
+<p>The canon law fixed no period of limitation, either in respect of
+a suit for divorce or for restitution of conjugal rights; but, as
+regards at least suits for divorce, any substantial delay might lead
+to the imputation of acquiescence or even condonation. To that
+extent, at least, the maxim <i>vigilantibus non dormientibus jura
+subveniunt</i> applied.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that desertion by either party to a marriage,
+except as giving rise to a suit for restitution, was not treated as an
+offence by canon law in England. It formed no ground for a suit
+for divorce, and constituted no answer to such a suit by way of
+recrimination. It might indeed deprive a husband of his remedy
+if it amounted to connivance, or perhaps even if it amounted only
+to culpable neglect.</p>
+
+<p>The canon law, as administered in England, has kept clear the
+logical distinction which exists between dissolving a marriage and
+declaring it null and void. The result has been that, in England
+at least, the two proceedings have never been allowed to pass into
+one another, and a complete divorce has not been granted on
+pretence of a cause really one for declaring the marriage void <i>ab
+initio</i>. But for certain causes the courts were prepared to declare
+a marriage null and void on the suit of either party. There is,
+indeed, a distinction to be drawn between a marriage void or only
+voidable, though in both cases it became the subject of a similar
+declaration. It was void in the cases of incapacity of the parties
+to contract it, arising from want of proper age, or consanguinity,
+or from a previous marriage, or from absence of consent, a state
+of things which would arise if the marriage were compelled by
+force or induced by fraud as to the nature of the contract entered
+into or the personality of the parties. It is to be remarked that,
+in England at least, the idea of fraud as connected with the
+solemnization of marriage has been kept within these narrow
+limits. Fraud of a different kind, such as deception as to the
+property or position of the husband or wife, or antecedent
+impurity of the wife, even if resulting in a concealed pregnancy,
+has not in England (though the last-mentioned cause has in other
+countries) been held a ground for the vitiation of a marriage
+contract. A marriage was voidable, and could be declared void,
+on the ground of physical incapacity of either spouse, the absence
+of intercourse between the parties after a sufficient period of
+opportunity being almost, if not quite, conclusive on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to one cause of nullity the legislation interfered
+from consideration, it is said, of a case of special hardship.
+Before the Marriage Act of 1835 marriages within the prohibited
+degrees of consanguinity and affinity were only voidable by a
+decree of the court, and remained valid unless challenged during
+the lifetime of both the parties. But this act, while providing
+that no previous marriage between persons within the prohibited
+degrees should be annulled by a decree of the ecclesiastical
+court pronounced in a suit depending at the time of the passing
+of the act, went on to render all such marriages thereafter contracted
+in England &ldquo;absolutely null and void to all intents and
+purposes whatever.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another suit was allowed by the ecclesiastical courts which
+should be mentioned, although its bearing on divorce is indirect.
+This was the suit for <i>jactitation of marriage</i>, which in the case
+of any person falsely asserting his or her marriage to another,
+allowed such person to be put to perpetual silence by an order
+of the court. This suit, which has been of rare occurrence
+(though there was an instance, <i>Thompson</i> v. <i>Rourke</i>, in 1892),
+does not appear to have been used for the purpose of determining
+the validity of a marriage. The legislature, has, however, in the
+Legitimacy Declaration Act of 1858, provided a ready means by
+which the validity of marriages and the legitimacy of children
+can be determined, and the procedure provided has repeatedly
+been utilised.</p>
+
+<p>It should be added, as a matter closely akin to the proceedings
+in the ecclesiastical courts, that the common law took cognizance
+of one phase of matrimonial relations by allowing an action by
+the husband against a paramour, known as an action for criminal
+conversation. In such an action a husband could recover
+damages estimated according to the loss he was supposed to have
+sustained by the seduction and loss of his wife, the punishment
+of the seducer not being altogether excluded from consideration.
+Although this action was not unfrequently (and indeed, for the
+purposes of a divorce, necessarily) brought, it was one which
+naturally was regarded with disfavour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Effect of the Reformation.</i>&mdash;Great as was the indirect effect of
+the Reformation upon the law of divorce in England, the direct
+effect was small. It might, indeed, have been supposed that the
+disappearance of the sacramental idea of marriage entertained by
+the Roman Church would have ushered in the greater freedom
+of divorce which had been associated with marriage regarded
+as a civil contract. And to some extent this was the case. It
+was for some time supposed that the sentences of divorce
+pronounced by the ecclesiastical courts acquired the effect
+of allowing remarriage, and such divorces were in some cases
+granted. In <i>Lord Northampton&rsquo;s</i> case in the reign of Edward VI.
+the delegates pronounced in favour of a second marriage after a
+divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>. It was, however, finally decided in
+<i>Foljambe&rsquo;s</i> case, in the 44th year of Elizabeth, that a marriage
+validly contracted could not be dissolved for any cause. But
+the growing sense of the right to a complete divorce for adequate
+cause, when no longer any religious law to the contrary could
+be validly asserted, in time compelled the discovery of a remedy.
+The commission appointed by Henry VIII. and Edward VI. to
+reform the ecclesiastical law drew up the elaborate report known
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span>
+as the <i>Reformatio Legum</i>, and in this they recommended that
+divorces <i>a mensa et thoro</i> should be abolished, and in their place
+complete divorce allowed for the causes of adultery, desertion
+and cruelty. These proposals, however, never became law. In
+1669 a private act of parliament was granted in the case of Lord
+de Roos, and this was followed by another in the case of the duke
+of Norfolk in 1692. Such acts were, however, rare until the
+accession of the House of Hanover, only five acts passing before
+that period. Afterwards their number considerably increased.
+Between 1715 and 1775 there were sixty such acts, in the next
+twenty-five years there were seventy-four, and between 1800 and
+1850 there were ninety. In 1829 alone there were seven, and in
+1830 nine.</p>
+
+<p>The jurisdiction thus assumed by parliament to grant absolute
+divorces was exercised with great care. The case was fully
+investigated before a committee of the House of Lords, and not
+only was the substance of justice so secured, but the House of
+Lords further required that application to parliament should be
+preceded by a successful suit in the ecclesiastical courts resulting
+in a decree of divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>, and in the case of a husband
+being the applicant, a successful action at common law and the
+recovery of damages against the paramour. In this way, and
+also, if needful, on its own initiative, the House of Lords provided
+that there should be no connivance or collusion. Care was also
+taken that a proper allowance was secured to the wife in cases
+in which she was not the offending party. This procedure is still
+pursued in the case of Irish divorces.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious, however, that the necessity for costly proceedings
+before the Houses of Parliament imposed great hardship on the
+mass of the population, and there can be little doubt that this
+hardship was deeply felt. Repeated proposals were made to
+parliament with a view to reform of the law, and more than one
+commission reported on the subject. It is said that the final
+impetus was given by an address to a prisoner by Mr Justice
+Maule. The prisoner&rsquo;s wife had deserted him with her paramour,
+and he married again during her lifetime. He was indicted for
+bigamy, and convicted, and Mr Justice Maule sentenced him in
+the following words:&mdash;&ldquo;Prisoner at the bar: You have been
+convicted of the offence of bigamy, that is to say, of marrying
+a woman while you had a wife still alive, though it is true she
+has deserted you and is living in adultery with another man.
+You have, therefore, committed a crime against the laws of your
+country, and you have also acted under a very serious misapprehension
+of the course which you ought to have pursued. You
+should have gone to the ecclesiastical court and there obtained
+against your wife a decree <i>a mensa et thoro</i>. You should then
+have brought an action in the courts of common law and recovered,
+as no doubt you would have recovered, damages against
+your wife&rsquo;s paramour. Armed with these decrees, you should
+have approached the legislature and obtained an act of parliament
+which would have rendered you free and legally competent to
+marry the person whom you have taken on yourself to marry
+with no such sanction. It is quite true that these proceedings
+would have cost you many hundreds of pounds, whereas you
+probably have not as many pence. But the law knows no distinction
+between rich and poor. The sentence of the court upon
+you, therefore, is that you be imprisoned for one day, which
+period has already been exceeded, as you have been in custody
+since the commencement of the assizes.&rdquo; The grave irony of the
+learned judge was felt to represent truly a state of things well-nigh
+intolerable, and a reform in the law of divorce was felt to be
+inevitable. The hour and the man came in 1857, the man in the
+person of Sir Richard Bethell (afterwards Lord Westbury), then
+attorney-general.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Act of 1857.</i>&mdash;Probably few measures have been conceived
+with such consummate skill and knowledge, and few conducted
+through parliament with such dexterity and determination.
+The leading opponent of the measure was Mr Gladstone, backed
+by the zeal of the High Church party and inspired by his own
+matchless subtlety and resource. But the contest proved to be
+unequal, and after debates in which every line, almost every word,
+of the measure was hotly contested, especially in the House of
+Commons, the measure emerged substantially as it had been
+introduced. Not the least part of the merit and success of the
+act of 1857 is due to the skill which, while effecting a great social
+change, did so with the smallest possible amount of innovation.
+The act (which came into operation on the 1st of January 1858)
+embodied two main principles: 1. The constitution of a lay
+court for the administration of all matters connected with
+divorce. 2. The transfer to that court, with as little change as
+possible, of the powers exercised in matrimonial matters by
+(a) the House of Lords, (b) the ecclesiastical courts, (c) the courts
+of common law.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Constitution of the Court.</i>&mdash;The new court, termed &ldquo;The
+Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes,&rdquo; was constituted by
+the lord chancellor, the chiefs and the senior puisne judges of the
+three courts of common law, and the judge of the court of probate
+(which was also established in 1857), but the functions of the
+court were practically entrusted to the judge of the court of
+probate, termed the &ldquo;Judge Ordinary,&rdquo; who thus in matters
+of probate and divorce became the representative of the former
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The judge ordinary was empowered
+either to sit alone or with one or more of the other judges to
+constitute a full court. The parties to a suit obtained the right
+of trial by jury of all disputed questions of fact; and the rules
+of evidence of the common law courts were made to apply.
+An appeal to the full court was given in all matters, which the
+judge ordinary was enabled to hear sitting alone.</p>
+
+<p>1. To this court were transferred all the powers of the ecclesiastical
+courts with regard to suits for divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>, to
+which the name was given of suits for &ldquo;judicial separation,&rdquo;
+nullity, restitution of conjugal rights, and jactitation of marriage,
+and in all such proceedings it was expressly enacted (sec. 22) that
+the court should act on principles and rules as nearly as possible
+conformable to the principles and rules of the ecclesiastical
+courts. Judicial separation could be obtained by either husband
+or wife for adultery, or cruelty, or desertion continued for two
+or more years.</p>
+
+<p>2. There were also transferred to the court powers equivalent
+to those exercised by the legislature in granting absolute divorce.
+The husband could obtain a divorce for adultery, the wife could
+obtain a divorce for adultery coupled with cruelty or desertion
+for two or more years, and also for incestuous or bigamous
+adultery, or rape, or unnatural offences. The same conditions
+as had been required by the legislature were insisted on. A
+petition for dissolution (sec. 30) was to be dismissed in case of
+connivance, condonation or collusion; and further, the court
+had power, though it was not compelled, to dismiss such petition
+if the petitioner had been guilty of adultery, or if there had been
+unreasonable delay in presenting or prosecuting the petition, or
+if the petitioner had been guilty of cruelty or desertion without
+reasonable excuse, or of wilful neglect or misconduct conducing
+to the adultery. The exercise of these discretionary powers of
+the court, just and valuable as they undoubtedly are, has been
+attended with some difficulty. But the view of the legislature
+has on the whole been understood to be that the adultery of a
+petitioner should not constitute a bar to his or her proceeding,
+if it has been caused by the misconduct of the respondent, and
+that cruelty should not constitute such a bar unless it has caused
+or contributed to the misconduct of the respondent. But the
+court, while regarding its powers as those of a judicial and not
+an arbitrary discretion, has declined to fetter itself by any fixed
+rule of interpretation or practice.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be observed that this act assigned a new force to
+desertion. The ecclesiastical law regarded it only as suggestive
+of connivance or culpable neglect. But the act of 1857 made it
+(1) a ground of judicial separation if continued for two years,
+(2) a ground in part of dissolution of marriage if continued for
+the same period, (3) a bar, in the discretion of the court, to a
+petition for dissolution, though it was not made in a similar way
+any bar to a suit for judicial separation. It is also to be observed
+that the act was confined to causes of divorce recognized by the
+ecclesiastical law as administered in England. It did not either
+extend the causes of a suit for nullity by adding such grounds as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span>
+antenuptial incontinence, even if accompanied with pregnancy,
+nor did it borrow from the civil law of Rome either lunacy or
+crime as grounds for divorce.</p>
+
+<p>Much comment has been made on the different grounds on
+which divorce is allowed to a husband and to a wife,&mdash;it being
+necessary to prove infidelity in both cases, but a wife being
+compelled to show either an aggravation of that offence or an
+addition to it. Opinions probably will always differ whether the
+two sexes should be placed on an equality in this respect, abstract
+justice being invoked, and the idea of marriage as a mere contract
+pointing in one direction, and social considerations in the other.
+But the reason of the legislature for making the distinction is
+clear. It is that the wife is entitled to an absolute divorce only
+if her reconciliation with her husband is neither to be expected
+nor desired. This was no doubt the view taken by the House of
+Lords. In 1801 a Mrs Addison claimed an absolute divorce on
+the ground of her husband&rsquo;s incest with her sister. The matter
+was long debated, but Lord Thurlow, who appeared in the House
+of Lords for the last time in order to support the bill, turned the
+scale by arguing that it was improper that the wife should under
+such circumstances return to her husband (see Campbell, <i>Lives
+of the Chancellors</i>, vii. 145). &ldquo;Why do you,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;grant to
+the husband a divorce for the adultery of the wife? Because he
+ought not to forgive her, and separation is inevitable. Where
+the wife cannot forgive, and separation is inevitable by reason
+of the crime of the husband, the wife is entitled to the like
+remedy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The act (sec. 32) provided, in case of dissolution, for maintenance
+of the wife by the husband on principles similar to those
+recognized by the ecclesiastical courts, and (sec. 45) for the settlement
+of the property of a guilty wife on her husband or children;
+but this enactment was imperfect, as provision was made only
+for a settlement and not for payment of an allowance, and none
+was made for altering settlements made in view or in consequence
+of a marriage. The act (sec. 35) provides also in all divorce
+proceedings, and also in those of nullity, for provision for the
+custody, maintenance and education of children by the court:
+provisions of great value, which were unfortunately for some
+time limited by an erroneous view of the court that the age of the
+children to which such provisions applied should be considered
+limited to sixteen. The act of 1857 also transferred to the new
+court the powers exercised by the common law courts in the
+action for criminal conversation. It was made obligatory to join
+an alleged adulterer in the suit, and damages (sec. 33) might be
+claimed against him, and he might be ordered to pay the cost
+of the proceedings (sec. 34), the extent depending upon the
+circumstances of each case.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The act of 1857 in one respect went beyond a transfer of the
+powers exercised by the ecclesiastical courts or the legislature.
+It provided (sec. 21) that a wife deserted by her husband might
+apply to a magistrate in petty sessions and obtain an order
+which had the effect of protecting her earnings and property,
+and during the currency of such order of protection a wife was
+to be in the same position as if she had obtained an order for
+judicial separation. The effect of this section appears to have
+been small; but the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act
+1895 has afforded a cheap and speedy remedy to all classes.</p>
+
+<p>The framers of the act of 1857 were careful to avoid offending
+the scruples of clergymen who disapproved of the complete
+dissolution of marriage by a lay court. It was provided (secs.
+57 and 58) that no clergyman should be compelled to solemnize
+the marriage of any person whose former marriage had been
+dissolved on the ground of his or her adultery, but should permit
+any other clergyman to solemnize the marriage in any church or
+chapel in which the parties were entitled to be married. It is
+to be feared that this concession, ample as it appears, has not
+allayed conscientious objections, which are perhaps from their
+nature insuperable. The act made no provision as to the name
+to be borne by a wife after a divorce; and this omission led to
+litigation in the case of a peer&rsquo;s wife, in <i>Cowley</i> v. <i>Cowley</i>, in which
+Lady Cowley was allowed to retain her status.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modifications of the Act of 1857.</i>&mdash;Subsequent legislation has
+made good many of the defects of the act of 1857. In 1859
+power was given to the court, after a decree of dissolution or of
+nullity of marriage, to inquire into the existence of ante- and
+post-nuptial settlements, and to make orders with respect to the
+property settled either for the benefit of children of the marriage
+or their parents; and a subsequent act (41 &amp; 42 Vict. c. 19, s. 3)
+removed a doubt which was entertained whether these powers
+could be exercised if there were no children of the marriage. In
+1860 a very important change was made, having for its object a
+practical mode of preventing divorces in cases of connivance and
+collusion or of misconduct of the petitioner. It was provided
+that a claim of dissolution (a provision afterwards extended to
+decrees of nullity) should in the first instance be a decree nisi,
+which should not be made absolute until the expiration of a period
+then fixed at not less than three, but by subsequent legislation
+enlarged to not less than six, months. During the interval which
+elapsed between the decree nisi and such decree being made
+absolute, power was given to any person to intervene in the suit
+and show cause why the decree should not be made absolute,
+by reason of the same having been obtained by collusion, or by
+reason of material facts not brought before the court; and it
+was also provided that, at any time before the decree was made
+absolute, the queen&rsquo;s proctor, if led to suspect that the parties
+were acting in collusion for the purpose of obtaining a divorce
+contrary to the justice of the case, might under the direction of
+the attorney-general intervene and allege such case of collusion.
+This enactment (extended in the year 1873 to suits for nullity)
+was ill drawn and unskilfully conceived. The power given to
+any person whomsoever to intervene is no doubt too wide, and
+practically has had little or no useful effect as employed by friends
+or enemies of parties to a suit. The limitation in terms of the
+express power of the queen&rsquo;s proctor to intervene in cases of
+collusion was undoubtedly too narrow. But the queen&rsquo;s proctor,
+or the official by whom that officer was afterwards represented,
+has in practice availed himself of the general authority given to
+any person to show cause why a decree <i>nisi</i> should not be made
+absolute, and has thus been enabled to render such important
+service to the administration of justice that it is difficult to
+imagine the due execution of the law of divorce by a court without
+such assistance. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1866
+power was given to the court to order an allowance to be paid by
+a guilty husband to a wife on a dissolution of marriage. This
+act also can hardly be considered to have been drawn with
+sufficient care, inasmuch as while it provides that if the husband&rsquo;s
+means diminish, the allowance may be diminished or suspended,
+it makes no corresponding provision for increase of the allowance
+if the husband&rsquo;s means increase; nor, apparently, does it permit
+of an allowance in addition to, but only in substitution for, a
+settlement. The act makes no provision for allowance to a guilty
+wife, and it certainly is a serious defect that the power to grant
+an allowance does not extend to cases of nullity. In 1868 an
+appeal to the House of Lords was given in cases of decree for
+dissolution or nullity of marriage.</p>
+
+<p>The great changes effected by the Judicature Acts included the
+court for divorce and matrimonial causes. Under their operation
+a division of the high court of justice was constituted, under the
+designation of the probate division and admiralty division, to
+which was assigned that class of legal administration governed
+mainly by the principles and practice of the canon and civil law.
+The division consists of a president, and a justice of the high
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span>
+court, with registrars representing each branch of the jurisdiction.
+Appeals lie to the court of appeal, and thence to the
+House of Lords.</p>
+
+<p>In 1884 the legislature interfered to prevent imprisonment
+being the result of disobedience to an order for restitution of
+conjugal rights. That mode of enforcing the order of the court
+was abolished, and the matter was left to a proper adjustment
+of the pecuniary relations of the husband and wife; and a
+respondent disobeying such an order was held to be guilty
+of desertion without reasonable cause, such desertion having
+further given to it a similar effect to that assigned to desertion
+for two years or upwards. The effect of this provision has been
+that the suit for restitution of conjugal rights is most frequently
+brought for the purpose of shortening the time within which a
+wife can obtain a decree for dissolution of marriage.</p>
+
+<p>Proceedings in the divorce court have shown the improvement
+in the law of evidence which has been effected with regard to other
+legal proceedings. The act of 1857 made an inroad on the
+former law, which prohibited evidence being given by parties
+interested in the proceedings, by allowing a petitioner (sec. 43)
+to be called and examined by order of the court, absolving such
+petitioner, however, from the necessity of answering any question
+tending to show that he or she had been guilty of adultery. In
+the next year power was given to the court to dismiss any person,
+with whom a party to the suit was alleged to have committed
+adultery, from the suit if there should not appear to be sufficient
+evidence against him or her, the object being to allow such
+person to give evidence; and in 1859 it was provided that, on
+a petition by a wife for a divorce on the grounds of cruelty or
+desertion with adultery, the husband and wife could be competent
+and compellable witnesses as to the cruelty or desertion. A few
+years later, however, in 1869, the subject was finally dealt with
+by repealing all previous rules which limited the powers to give
+evidence on questions of adultery with the safeguard that no
+witness in any proceeding can be asked or bound to answer any
+question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of
+adultery, unless in the same proceeding such witness shall have
+given evidence in disproof of his or her alleged adultery. It
+has been held that the principles of these enactments apply to
+interrogatories as well as to evidence given in court.</p>
+
+<p>It is a most remarkable omission in the act of 1857, especially
+when we remember the high legal authority from whom it proceeded,
+that the act nowhere defines the class of persons with
+regard to whom the jurisdiction of the court should be exercised.
+This omission has given rise to a misapprehension of the law
+which, though now set at rest, prevailed for a considerable period,
+and has undoubtedly led to the granting of divorce in several
+cases in which it could not legally be given. It was supposed
+that the court could grant a dissolution of marriage to all persons
+who had anything more than a casual and fleeting residence
+within the jurisdiction of the court; and this view, although its
+correctness was doubted by Lord Penzance, the judge of the
+divorce court, was upheld by a majority of the judges of the court
+of appeal in the case of <i>Niboyet</i> v. <i>Niboyet</i> (4 P. D. 1). It was
+supposed that such residence gave what was termed a matrimonial
+domicile. But this view was undoubtedly erroneous as
+regards dissolution of marriage, although probably correct as
+regards judicial separation, and the true view is no doubt that
+indicated with great learning and ability by Lord Watson in a
+judgment given by him in the privy council in the case of <i>Le
+Mesurier</i> v. <i>Le Mesurier</i> (1895, App. Cas. 517), that the only
+true test of jurisdiction for a decree of divorce altering the
+status of the parties to a marriage is to be found in the domicile
+of the spouses&mdash;that is to say, of the husband, as the domicile
+of a wife follows that of her husband&mdash;at the time of the divorce.
+Domicile means a person&rsquo;s permanent home, the place at which
+he resides with no intention of making his home elsewhere, and,
+if he leaves it, with the intention of returning to it.</p>
+
+<p>It is now also clearly recognized as the law of England that the
+English courts will not recognize a divorce purporting to be made
+by a foreign tribunal with regard to persons domiciled in England.
+For a considerable time doubt appears to have clouded the law
+on this subject. In a famous case known as <i>Lolley&rsquo;s</i> case, decided
+in 1812, the judges of England (the point arose in connexion with
+a criminal charge) unanimously held &ldquo;that no sentence or act
+of any foreign country or any state could dissolve an English
+marriage <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i> for grounds on which it was not
+liable to be dissolved <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i> in England.&rdquo; This
+case has been frequently understood as deciding that a marriage
+celebrated in England cannot be dissolved elsewhere, and on
+this point the courts of Scotland differ from the view supposed
+to be taken by the English judges. But the matter has been fully
+explained in one of the most masterly of Lord Hannen&rsquo;s judgments
+(<i>Harvey</i> v. <i>Fairnie</i>, 5. P. D. 154), afterwards upheld by
+the House of Lords in 1882 (8 App. Cas. 43); and it is now clear
+that while the parties are domiciled in this country no decree
+of any foreign court dissolving their marriage will be recognized
+here, unless it proceed on the grounds on which a divorce may
+be obtained in this country, and even the exception just
+mentioned appears to rest rather on reasoning and principle than
+on the authority of any decided case. This principle received
+the highest sanction in the prosecution of Earl Russell for bigamy
+before the House of Lords (1901), in which it was held that,
+where a divorce had been refused him in England, an American
+divorce would not relieve a man from the guilt of marrying again.</p>
+
+<p><i>Summary Proceedings for Separation.</i>&mdash;The legislature has
+sought to extend the relief afforded by the courts in matrimonial
+causes by a procedure fairly to be considered within the reach of
+all classes. In 1895 an act was passed which re-enacted in an
+improved form the provisions of an act of 1878 of similar effect.
+By the act of 1895 power was given to a married woman whose
+husband (1) has been guilty of an aggravated assault upon her
+within the Offences against the Person Act 1861, or (2) convicted
+on indictment of an assault on her and sentenced to pay a fine
+of more than £5 or to imprisonment for more than two months,
+or (3) shall have deserted her, or (4) been guilty of persistent
+cruelty to her or wilful neglect to maintain her or her infant
+children, and by such cruelty or neglect shall have caused her
+to leave and live apart from him, to apply to a court of summary
+jurisdiction and to obtain an order containing all or any of the
+following provisions:&mdash;(1) that the applicant be not forced to
+cohabit with her husband, (2) that the applicant have the custody
+of any children under sixteen years of age, (3) that the husband
+pay to her an allowance not exceeding £2 a week. The act provides
+that no married woman guilty of adultery should be granted
+relief, but with the very important proviso, altering as it does the
+rule of the common law, that the husband has not conduced
+or connived at, or by wilful neglect or misconduct conduced to,
+such adultery. The provisions of this act<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> have been largely
+put in force, and no doubt to the great advantage of the poorer
+classes of the community. It will be observed that the act is
+unilateral, and affords no relief to a husband against a wife;
+and the complaint is often heard that no misconduct of the wife,
+except adultery, relieves the husband from the necessity of
+maintaining her and allowing her to share his home, unless he
+can obtain access to the high court.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Separation Deeds.</i>&mdash;Although nothing in the development of
+the law of divorce has tended to give to married persons the right
+absolutely to dissolve their marriage by consent, and, on the
+contrary, any such agreement would be held to be strong evidence
+of collusion, the view of the Church expressed in the ecclesiastical
+law has been entirely departed from as regards agreements for
+separation. Such agreements were embodied in deeds, and
+usually contained mutual covenants not to sue in the ecclesiastical
+courts for restitution of conjugal rights. The ecclesiastical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span>
+courts, however, wholly disregarded such agreements, and
+considered them as affording no answer to a suit for restitution
+of conjugal rights. For a considerable period the court of
+chancery refused to enforce the covenant in such deeds by restraining
+the parties from proceeding to the ecclesiastical courts.
+But at last a memorable judgment of Lord Westbury (1861)
+asserted the right (<i>Hunt</i> v. <i>Hunt</i>, 4 De G. F. &amp; J. 221; see also
+<i>Marshall</i> v. <i>Marshall</i>, 5 P. D. 19) of the court of chancery to
+maintain the claim of good faith in this as in other cases, and
+restrained a petitioner from suing in the ecclesiastical court contrary
+to his covenant. Thereafter these deeds became common,
+and no doubt often afford a solution of matrimonial difficulties
+of very great value. When the courts of the country became
+united under the Judicature Acts, it became practicable to set
+up in the divorce division a separation deed in answer to a
+suit for restitution of conjugal rights without the necessity of
+recourse to any other tribunal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Statistics.</i>&mdash;The statistics of divorce in England have for some
+years been regularly published in the volumes of judicial statistics
+published annually by the Home Office.</p>
+
+<p>The number of petitions for divorce (including in the term both
+divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i> and divorce <i>a vinculo</i>) for the years from
+1858 to 1905 inclusive are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 80%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc">1858</td> <td class="tcc rb">326</td> <td class="tcc">1874</td> <td class="tcc rb">469</td> <td class="tcc">1890</td> <td class="tcc">644</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1859</td> <td class="tcc rb">291</td> <td class="tcc">1875</td> <td class="tcc rb">451</td> <td class="tcc">1891</td> <td class="tcc">632</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1860</td> <td class="tcc rb">272</td> <td class="tcc">1876</td> <td class="tcc rb">536</td> <td class="tcc">1892</td> <td class="tcc">629</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1861</td> <td class="tcc rb">236</td> <td class="tcc">1877</td> <td class="tcc rb">551</td> <td class="tcc">1893</td> <td class="tcc">645</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1862</td> <td class="tcc rb">248</td> <td class="tcc">1878</td> <td class="tcc rb">632</td> <td class="tcc">1894</td> <td class="tcc">652</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1863</td> <td class="tcc rb">298</td> <td class="tcc">1879</td> <td class="tcc rb">555</td> <td class="tcc">1895</td> <td class="tcc">683</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1864</td> <td class="tcc rb">297</td> <td class="tcc">1880</td> <td class="tcc rb">615</td> <td class="tcc">1896</td> <td class="tcc">772</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1865</td> <td class="tcc rb">284</td> <td class="tcc">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">589</td> <td class="tcc">1897</td> <td class="tcc">781</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1866</td> <td class="tcc rb">279</td> <td class="tcc">1882</td> <td class="tcc rb">481</td> <td class="tcc">1898</td> <td class="tcc">750</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1867</td> <td class="tcc rb">294</td> <td class="tcc">1883</td> <td class="tcc rb">561</td> <td class="tcc">1899</td> <td class="tcc">727</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1868</td> <td class="tcc rb">303</td> <td class="tcc">1884</td> <td class="tcc rb">647</td> <td class="tcc">1900</td> <td class="tcc">698</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1869</td> <td class="tcc rb">351</td> <td class="tcc">1885</td> <td class="tcc rb">541</td> <td class="tcc">1901</td> <td class="tcc">848</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1870</td> <td class="tcc rb">351</td> <td class="tcc">1886</td> <td class="tcc rb">708</td> <td class="tcc">1902</td> <td class="tcc">987</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1871</td> <td class="tcc rb">384</td> <td class="tcc">1887</td> <td class="tcc rb">662</td> <td class="tcc">1903</td> <td class="tcc">914</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1872</td> <td class="tcc rb">374</td> <td class="tcc">1888</td> <td class="tcc rb">680</td> <td class="tcc">1904</td> <td class="tcc">822</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">1873</td> <td class="tcc rb">416</td> <td class="tcc">1889</td> <td class="tcc rb">654</td> <td class="tcc">1905</td> <td class="tcc">844</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">It is probably impossible to account for the variations which the
+above table discloses. It was no doubt natural that the year immediately
+succeeding the passing of the act which originated facilities
+for divorces <i>a vinculo</i> should exhibit a larger number of divorces than
+its successors for a considerable period. But there does not appear
+to be any adequate cause for the comparative increase which seems
+to have prevailed in the decade between 1878 and 1888, unless it be
+found in the increase of marriages which culminated in 1873 and
+1883, falling after each of those years. The number of marriages
+again rose high in 1891 and 1892, and this may account for the
+increased number of divorces in 1896 and the following years. But
+it may certainly be said with confidence that as compared with the
+growth of population the number of divorces in England has shown
+no alarming increase.</p>
+
+<p>The total number of petitions in matrimonial causes presented by
+husbands exceed those presented by wives, but in no marked degree.
+This excess would seem to be due to the fact that the larger number
+of petitions for dissolution presented by husbands, owing no doubt
+to the difference in the law affecting the two sexes, is not entirely
+counterbalanced by the much larger number of petitions for judicial
+separation presented by wives. The following figures for various
+years may be taken as typical:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1895</td> <td class="tcc allb">1896</td> <td class="tcc allb">1897</td> <td class="tcc allb">1898</td> <td class="tcc allb">1899</td> <td class="tcc allb">1905</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Petitions for Dissolution&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Presented by husbands</td> <td class="tcr rb">353</td> <td class="tcr rb">393</td> <td class="tcr rb">414</td> <td class="tcr rb">401</td> <td class="tcr rb">383</td> <td class="tcr rb">429</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Presented by wives</td> <td class="tcr rb">220</td> <td class="tcr rb">280</td> <td class="tcr rb">269</td> <td class="tcr rb">243</td> <td class="tcr rb">262</td> <td class="tcr rb">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Petitions for Judicial Separation&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Presented by husbands</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Presented by wives</td> <td class="tcr rb">106</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">96</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">87</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Totals&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;Presented by husbands</td> <td class="tcr rb">357</td> <td class="tcr rb">396</td> <td class="tcr rb">416</td> <td class="tcr rb">405</td> <td class="tcr rb">387</td> <td class="tcr rb">434</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;Presented by wives</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">326</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">376</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">365</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">345</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">340</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">410</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Speaking generally, it may be said that about 70% of the petitions
+presented are successful and result in decrees. This percentage has
+a tendency, however, to rise.</p>
+
+<p>Attempts have been made to ascertain the classes which supply
+the petitioners for divorce, but this cannot be done with such
+certainty as to warrant any but the most general conclusions. It
+may, however, safely be said that while all classes, professions and
+occupations are represented, it is certainly not those highest in the
+scale that are the largest contributors. The principles of the act of
+1857 have beyond question been justified by the relief required by
+and afforded to the general community.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Other European Countries</p>
+
+<p>We may now turn to the law of divorce as administered in the
+other countries of the modern world. On the main question
+whether marriage is to be considered indissoluble they will be
+found to range themselves on one side or the other according to
+the influence upon them of the Church of Rome and its canon
+law.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Scotland</i> it has long been the law that marriage can be dissolved
+at the instance of either party by judicial sentence on the
+grounds of adultery or of desertion, termed non-adherence, and
+the spouses could in such case remarry, except with the paramour,&mdash;at
+all events if the paramour was named in the decree (and the
+name is sometimes omitted for that reason). A divorce <i>a mensa
+et thoro</i> could also be granted for cruelty. By the Court of Session
+Act 1830, the jurisdiction in divorce was transferred from a body
+of commissaries to the court of session.</p>
+
+<p>By the law of <i>Holland</i> complete divorce could be granted
+by judicial sentence on the grounds of adultery or of wilful and
+malicious desertion, to which were added unnatural offences and
+imprisonment for life, and such divorce gave the power of remarriage,
+except with the person with whom adultery was proved
+to have been committed, but there would seem to be a doubt
+whether this power extended to the guilty party (Voet, <i>De
+divortiis</i>, lit. 24, tit. 2). Divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i> could be granted
+on the grounds allowed by the canon law.</p>
+
+<p>The Code of <i>Prussia</i> of 1794 contained elaborate provisions
+which gave great facility of divorce. A complete divorce could
+be obtained by judicial sentence for the following causes:&mdash;(1)
+Adultery or unnatural offences; and adultery by a husband
+formed no bar to his obtaining a divorce against his wife for
+adultery; and even an illicit intimacy, from which a presumption
+of adultery might arise, was held sufficient for a divorce. (2) Wilful
+desertion. (3) Obstinate refusal of the rights of marriage,
+which was considered as equivalent to desertion. (4) Incapacity
+to perform the duties of marriage, even if arising subsequent to
+the marriage; and the same effect was assigned to other incurable
+bodily defects that excited disgust and horror. (5) Lunacy,
+if after a year there was no reasonable hope of recovery. (6)
+An attempt on the life of one spouse by the other, or gross and
+unlawful attack on the honour or personal liberty. (7) Incompatibility
+of temper and quarrelsome disposition, if rising to the
+height of endangering life or health. (8) Opprobrious crime for
+which either spouse has suffered imprisonment, or a knowingly
+false accusation of such crime by one spouse of the other. (9) If
+either spouse by unlawful transactions endangers the life, honour,
+office or trade of the other, or commences an ignominious employment.
+(10) Change of religion. In addition to these causes,
+marriages, when there were no children, could be dissolved by
+mutual consent if there be no reason to suspect levity, precipitation
+or compulsion; and a judge had also power to dissolve a
+marriage in cases in which a strongly rooted dislike appeared to
+him to exist. In all cases of divorce, but sometimes subject to
+the necessity of obtaining a licence, remarriage was permissible
+(see Burge, <i>Commentaries on Colonial and Foreign Law</i>, vol. i.
+649).</p>
+
+<p>Before 1876 only a divorce <i>a vinculo</i> could be obtained in
+some of the German states, especially if the petitioner were a
+Roman Catholic. The only relief afforded was a &ldquo;perpetual
+separation.&rdquo; By the Personal Status Act 1875 perpetual separation
+orders were abolished and divorce decrees allowed in cases
+where the petitioners would, under the former law, have been
+entitled to a perpetual separation order. However, two Drafting
+Commissions under the act declined to alter the new rule, but
+under pressure from the Roman Catholic party the Reichstag
+passed a law introducing a modified separation order, termed
+&ldquo;dissolution of the conjugal community&rdquo; (<i>Aufhebung der
+ehelichen Gemeinschaft</i>). This order can be converted into a
+dissolution of the marriage at the option of either party. Under
+the Civil Code of 1900 a petitioner can obtain a divorce or judicial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span>
+separation on &ldquo;absolute&rdquo; or &ldquo;relative&rdquo; grounds. In the
+former case if the facts are established the petitioner is entitled
+to the relief prayed for; in the latter case, it is left to judicial
+discretion. The absolute grounds are adultery, bigamy, sodomy,
+an attempt against the petitioner&rsquo;s life or wilful desertion. The
+relative grounds are (a) such grave breach of marital duty or
+dishonourable or immoral conduct as would disturb the marital
+relation to such an extent that the marriage could not reasonably
+be expected to continue; (b) insanity, continued for more than
+three years during the marriage, and of so severe a nature that
+intellectual community between the parties has ceased and is not
+likely to be re-established. A divorced wife, if not exclusively
+the guilty party, may retain her husband&rsquo;s name; but if exclusively
+guilty, her former husband may compel her to resume
+her maiden name.</p>
+
+<p>By the law of <i>Denmark</i>, according to the Code of King Christian
+the Fifth, complete divorce could be obtained for incest; for
+leprosy, whether contracted before or after marriage; for transportation
+for crime or flight from justice, after three years,
+though not for crime itself; and for exile not arising from crime,
+after seven years.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>Sweden</i> complete divorce is granted by judicial sentence for
+adultery, and in <i>Russia</i> for that cause and also for incompatibility
+of temper (Ayliffe, Par. 49). On the other hand, in <i>Spain</i>
+marriage is indissoluble, and the ecclesiastical courts have
+retained their exclusive cognizance of matrimonial causes. In
+<i>Italy</i> certain articles of the Civil Code deal with separation,
+voluntary and judicial, but divorce is not allowed in any form.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>France</i> the law of divorce has had a chequered history.
+Before the Revolution the Roman canon law prevailed, marriage
+was considered indissoluble, and only divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>,
+known as <i>la séparation d&rsquo;habitation</i>, was permitted; though it
+would appear that in the earliest age of the monarchy divorce <i>a
+vinculo matrimonii</i> was allowed. <i>La séparation d&rsquo;habitation</i> was
+granted at the instance of a wife for cruelty by her husband or
+false accusation of a capital crime, or for habitual treatment with
+contempt before the inmates of the house; but a wife could not
+obtain a separation for adultery by her husband, although he
+had his remedy in case of adultery by his wife. In every case
+the sentence of a judicial tribunal, which took precautions against
+collusion, was necessary. But the Revolution may be said to
+have swept away marriage among the institutions which it overwhelmed,
+and by the law of the 20th of September 1792 so great
+facility was given for divorce <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i> as practically
+to terminate the obligations of marriage. A reaction came with
+the Code Napoléon, yet even under that system of law divorce
+remained comparatively easy. Mutual consent, expressed in
+the manner and continued for a period specified by the law, was
+cause for a divorce (the principle of the Roman law being adopted
+on this point), but such consent could not take place unless the
+husband was twenty-five years of age and the wife twenty-one,
+unless they had been married for two years, nor after twenty
+years of marriage, nor after the wife had completed her forty-fifth
+year; and further, the approval of the parents of both parties
+was required. In case of divorce by consent, the law required
+that a proper agreement should be made for the maintenance
+of the wife and the custody of the children. A husband could
+obtain a divorce <i>a vinculo matrimonii</i> for adultery, but the wife
+had no such power unless the husband had brought his mistress
+to the home. Both husband and wife could claim divorce on the
+ground of outrage, or grievous bodily injury, or condemnation
+for an infamous crime. If the divorce was for adultery, the
+erring party could not marry the partner of his or her guilt. A
+divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i> could be obtained on the same grounds as
+a divorce <i>a vinculo</i>, but not by mutual consent; and if the divorce
+<i>a mensa et thoro</i> continued in force for three years, the defendant
+party could claim a divorce <i>a vinculo</i>. On the restoration of
+royalty in 1816 divorce <i>a vinculo</i> was abolished, and pending suits
+for divorce <i>a vinculo</i> were converted into suits for separation only.</p>
+
+<p>Divorce in France, after the repeal of the provisions respecting
+it in the Code Napoléon in 1816, was re-enacted by a law of the
+27th of July 1884, the provisions of which were simplified by
+laws of 1886 and 1907. But a wide departure was made by these
+laws from the terms of the Code Napoléon. Divorce by consent
+disappeared, and the following became the causes for which
+divorce was allowed: (1) Adultery by either party to the
+marriage at the suit of the other, without, in the case of adultery
+by the husband, the aggravation of introduction of the concubine
+into the home required by the Code; (2) violence (<i>excès</i>) or
+cruelty (<i>sévices</i>); (3) <i>injures graves</i>; and (4) <i>peine afflictive et
+infamante</i>. <i>Excès</i> is defined by Locié as &ldquo;a generic expression
+comprising all acts tending to compromise the safety of the
+person, without distinction as to their object or motive, premeditation
+as well as furious anger, attempts upon life as well as
+serious woundings.&rdquo; <i>Sévices</i> are acts of ill-treatment less grave
+in character, which, while not endangering life, render existence
+in common intolerable (Kelly&rsquo;s <i>French Law of Marriage</i>, p. 122).
+<i>Injures graves</i>, as to which the courts have considered themselves
+entitled to exercise a wide discretion, have been defined as acts,
+writings or words which reflect upon the honour or the reputation
+of the party against whom they are directed. The courts have
+held that retraction at the trial does not relieve the party from
+the consequences of an <i>injure grave</i>, and that publicity is an aggravating
+but not a necessary element. A letter from one spouse to
+the other may constitute an <i>injure</i> and the courts have further
+held themselves at liberty to consider letters written after
+divorce proceedings have been commenced. <i>Injures graves</i> have
+also been considered to include material injuries, and among
+these have been classed habitual and groundless refusal of
+matrimonial rights, communication of disease and refusal to
+consent to a religious ceremony of marriage. Habitual but not
+occasional drunkenness has also been held to fall within the
+definition of an <i>injure grave</i>. <i>Peine afflictive et infamante</i> signifies
+a legal punishment involving corporal confinement and moral
+degradation.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In addition to its recognition of full divorce, the French law
+recognizes separation of two kinds, one <i>séparation de biens</i> and the
+other <i>séparation de corps</i>. The effect of <i>séparation de biens</i> is
+merely to put an end to the community of goods between the
+spouses. It necessarily follows, but may be decreed independently
+of <i>séparation de corps</i>. The grounds of <i>séparation de corps</i> are the
+same as those for a divorce; and if a <i>séparation de corps</i> has
+existed for three years, it may be turned into a divorce upon the
+application of either party to the court.</p>
+
+<p>Until 1893 a wife <i>séparée de corps</i> obtained only the capacity
+attaching to a concomitant <i>séparation de biens</i>; that is to say,
+she recovered the enjoyment and management of her separate
+property, but could not deal with real property, nor take legal
+proceedings, without the sanction of her husband or of the court.
+But by a law of the 6th of February 1893 a wife <i>séparée de corps</i>
+obtains &ldquo;the full exercise of her civil capacity, so that she shall
+not need to resort to the authority of her husband or of the court.&rdquo;
+In case of reconciliation, the wife returns to the limited capacity
+of a wife <i>séparée de biens</i>, and after the prescribed notification of
+such change of status it becomes binding on third persons.</p>
+
+<p>The provisions of French law with regard to the custody of
+the children of a dissolved marriage, and with regard to property,
+do not differ materially from those prescribed by the English acts.
+The custody of children is given to the party who has obtained
+the divorce, unless the court, on the application of the family, or
+the <i>ministère public</i>, consider it better, in the interests of the
+children, that custody should be given to the other party or a
+third person; but in every case the right of both father and
+mother to supervise the maintenance and education of the
+children, and their liability to contribute to their support, are
+continued.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span></p>
+
+<p>The law in France as to property on a divorce has been
+accurately stated as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Divorce in France effects a dissolution of the matrimonial régime
+of property as well as of the marriage itself. The decree appoints a
+notary, who is charged with the settlement of the pecuniary interests
+of the parties. By a stereotyped form of procedure the appointment
+is made invariably for the purpose of liquidating <i>la communauté
+ayant existé entre les époux</i>, irrespective of whether the régime really
+was that of community or another. In the case of aliens, therefore,
+married under the rule of separate property, it is necessary carefully
+to set this out in the notarial deed of liquidation, in order to defeat
+the presumption which might be raised by the wording of the decree
+that a community really did exist. The party against whom the
+divorce has been pronounced loses the benefit of all settlements made
+upon him or her by the other party, either by the marriage contract
+or since the marriage. On the other hand, the party in whose favour
+the divorce has been pronounced preserves the benefit of all settlements
+made in his or her favour by the unsuccessful party. If no
+such settlements were made, or if those made appear inadequate to
+ensure the subsistence of the successful party, the court may grant
+him or her permanent alimony out of the property of the other party,
+not to exceed one-third of the income, and revocable in case it ceases
+to be necessary&rdquo; (Kelly, p. 130).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On a divorce both parties are at liberty to remarry. The
+husband could remarry at once; but the wife (art. 296 of the
+Code) was only allowed to remarry after an interval of ten months.
+By the act of 1907, this article was abolished, and the wife
+allowed to remarry as soon as the judgment or decree granting
+the divorce has been entered, providing 300 days have elapsed
+since the first judgment was pronounced. A divorced husband
+may remarry his divorced wife, but if he does so, he cannot be
+again divorced, except on the ground of a sentence to a <i>peine
+afflictive et infamante</i> passed on one of them since their remarriage.
+There is, however, this limitation on the power of remarriage of
+divorced persons, that the party to the marriage against whom
+the decree has been pronounced is not allowed to marry the
+person with whom his or her guilt has been established. Such
+person, however, has no such rights as are recognized in him or
+her according to English law, and cannot take any part in the
+proceedings. But his or her name is referred to in the proceedings
+only by an initial; and French law goes even further in the
+avoidance of publicity, inasmuch as the publication of divorce
+proceedings in the press is forbidden, under heavy penalties.</p>
+
+<p>By a law of the 6th of February 1893 French jurisprudence,
+more complete at least, and perhaps wiser, than English, dealt
+with a matter previously in controversy, and decided that after a
+divorce the wife shall resume her maiden name, and may not
+continue to use the name of her divorced husband; nor may the
+husband, for business or other purposes, continue to use the name
+of his wife.</p>
+
+<p>By the law of 1886 the special procedure in divorce previously
+in force under the Code and under the law of 1884 was abolished,
+and it was provided that matrimonial causes should be tried
+according to the ordinary rules of procedure. The action therefore,
+when brought, follows the methods of procedure common to
+other civil proceedings. But there still remain certain necessary
+preliminaries to an action of divorce. A petition must be
+presented by a petitioner in person to the president of the court
+sitting in chambers, with the object of a reconciliation being
+effected. This is known as the <i>première comparation</i>. If the
+petitioner still determines to proceed, there follows the <i>seconde
+comparation</i>, on which occasion both parties appear before the
+president. If the president fails to effect a reconciliation, he
+makes an order permitting the petitioner to proceed, and deals
+with the matters necessary to be dealt with <i>pendente lite</i>, such
+matters being (1) separate residence, (2) alimony, (3) possession of
+personal effects, (4) custody of children. As regards residence,
+the wife is compelled to adhere during the proceedings to the
+residence assigned to her, but no similar restriction is placed
+on the husband. Alimony <i>pendente lite</i> is in the discretion of
+the court, having regard to the means of the parties, and
+includes a proper provision for costs. As regards the custody of
+children, the Code and the law of 1884 gave it to the husband,
+unless the court otherwise orders, but the law of 1886 leaves
+the matter wholly in the discretion of the court.</p>
+
+<p>There are certain technical rules of evidence on the trial of
+a divorce action. It is a general principle of the French law of
+evidence that documentary evidence is the best evidence, and oral
+testimony only secondary. In divorce cases adultery <i>flagrante
+delicto</i> can be proved by the official certificate of the commissary
+of police. Letters between the husband and wife are admissible
+in evidence. As to letters between the parties and third persons,
+the law, which has been doubtful, now appears to be that the wife
+may produce only such letters from third parties to her husband
+as have come into her possession accidentally, and without any
+ruse or artifice on her part; but the husband may put in evidence
+any letters written to or by his wife which he has obtained by any,
+short of criminal, means. If the documents put in evidence are
+not sufficient to satisfy the court, there follows an investigation
+by means of witnesses, termed an <i>enquête</i>. A schedule of allegations
+is drawn up, and a judge, termed a <i>juge-commissaire</i>, is
+specially appointed to conduct the inquiry. Relatives and servants,
+though not competent witnesses in ordinary civil actions,
+are so in divorce proceedings. Cross petitions may be entered;
+the substantiation of a cross petition, however, does not have the
+effect, in some cases given to it by English law, of barring a
+divorce, but a divorce may be, and often is, granted in favour
+of and against both parties <i>pour torts réciproques</i>. When a case
+comes on for trial, it is in the power of the court to order an
+adjournment for a period not exceeding six months, which is termed
+a <i>temps d&rsquo;épreuve</i>, in order to afford an opportunity for reconciliation.
+It is said, however, that this power is seldom exercised.
+An appeal may be brought against a decree of divorce within two
+months; and a decree made on appeal is subject to revision by
+the court of cassation within two months. Both references to
+the court of appeal and the court of cassation operate as a stay of
+execution. A decree must, by the law of 1886, be transcribed on
+the register of marriages within two months from its date, and
+failing this transcription, the decree is void. The transcription
+must be made at the place of celebration of the marriage, or, if the
+parties are married abroad, at the place where the parties were
+last domiciled in France. If the parties, after having married
+abroad, return to France, it has been provided, by a circular of
+the <i>Procureur de la République</i> in 1887, that the transcription may
+be made at the place of their actual domicile at the time of action
+brought, a rule which has been held to apply to the divorce of
+aliens in France. The effect of transcription does not relate back
+to the date of the decree.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Opinions may differ as to the relative merits of the English and
+French law relating to divorce. But it cannot be denied that the
+French law presents a singularly complete and well-considered
+system, and one which, obviously with the English system in view, has
+endeavoured to graft on it provisions supplementing its omissions,
+and modifying certain of its terms in accordance with the light
+afforded by experience and the changed feelings of the modern world.
+The effect of the laws of 1884 and 1886 in France has been great. The
+act of 1907 dealing with divorce, coupled with that of the 21st of July
+of the same year dealing with marriage, may also be said to mark an
+epoch in the laws relating to women. During the five years from
+1884 to 1888 the courts granted divorces in 21,064 cases, rejecting
+applications for divorce in 1524. In addition, there were 12,242
+applications for judicial separation, of which 10,739 were granted.
+A distinguished French writer, the author of a work of singular
+completeness and accuracy on the judicial system of Great Britain
+has compared these figures with the corresponding result of the
+English act of 1857. His conclusion is expressed in these words:
+&ldquo;On voit qu&rsquo;en cinq années nos tribunaux out prononcé trois fois
+plus de divorces que la haute cour d&rsquo;Angleterre n&rsquo;en a prononcé en
+trente ans. Je n&rsquo;insiste pas sur les conclusions morales à tirer de ce
+rapprochement&rdquo; (Comte de Franqueville, <i>Le Système judiciaire de
+la Grande-Bretagne</i>, ii. p. 171). It is, however, practically impossible
+to compare the number of divorces in France and in England with
+exact justice, because, as will have been seen above, the causes of
+divorce in France materially exceed those recognized by English
+law; and the absence in France of any official performing the
+functions assigned to the king&rsquo;s proctor in England cannot but have
+great influence on the number of applications for divorce, as well as
+on their results.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(St H.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">United States</p>
+
+<p>According to American practice, divorce is the termination
+by proper legal authority, sometimes legislatively but usually
+judicially, of a marriage which up to the time of the decree
+was legal and binding. It is to be distinguished from a decree of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span>
+nullity of marriage, which is simply a legal determination that
+no legal marriage has ever existed between the two parties. It is
+also to be distinguished from a decree of separation, which permits
+or commands the parties to live apart, but does not completely
+and for all purposes sever the marriage tie. The matrimonial law
+of England, as at the time of the declaration of independence,
+forms part of the common law of the United States. But as no
+ecclesiastical courts have ever existed there, the law must be
+considered to have been inoperative. There is no Federal
+jurisdiction in divorce, and it is a question for the law of each
+separate state; and though it is competent to Congress to
+authorize divorces in the Territories, still it appears that this
+subject like others is usually left to the territorial legislature. In
+the different states, and in England, divorces were at first granted
+by the legislatures, whether directly or by granting special
+authority to the tribunals to deal with particular cases. This
+practice fell into general disrepute, and by the constitution of
+some states such divorces are expressly prohibited.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the subject of divorce in the United States, and, to some
+extent, in foreign countries, a careful investigation was made by
+the American Bureau of Labour, and its report covered the years
+1867 to 1886; a further report for the period 1887 to 1906 has
+also been published by the Federal Census Bureau. The number
+of divorces was in 1886 over 25,000, and in 1906 was over 72,000,
+about double the number reported for that year from all the
+rest of the Christian world. As divorce presupposes a legal
+marriage, the amount of divorce, or the divorce-rate, is best stated
+as the ratio between the number of divorces decreed during a year
+and the number of subsisting marriages or married couples. The
+usual basis is 100,000 married couples. In 1898-1902 the divorce-rate
+was 200 divorces (400 people) to 100,000 married couples.
+This is equivalent to more than one divorce annually to each 1400
+people. The several states differ in divorce-rate, from South
+Carolina, with no provision for legal divorce, to Montana and
+Washington, where the rate is two and a half times the average for
+the country. In general the rate is about the same in the North
+as in the South, but greater in the Central states than in the East,
+and in the Western than in the Central states; but to this rule
+the New England states, Louisiana, New Mexico and Arizona
+are exceptions. The New England states have a higher rate than
+their geographical position would lead one to expect, and the
+other three, owing doubtless, in part at least, to the influence of
+the Roman Catholic Church, have a lower rate than the states
+about them. The several state groups had in 1900 the following
+divorce-rates per 100,000: South Atlantic, 196; North Atlantic,
+200; South Central, 558; North Central, 510; Western, 712.
+The divorce-rate in the United States increased rapidly and
+steadily in forty years from 27 in 1867 to 86 in 1906. But distinct
+tendencies are traceable in different regions. In the North Atlantic
+group the rate rose by 58%, in the North Central by 158%, in the
+Western by 223%, in the South Atlantic by 437%, and in the South
+Central by 685%. The great increase in the South was mainly
+due to the spread of divorce among the emancipated negroes.
+Each state determines for itself the causes for which divorce may
+be granted, and no general statement is therefore possible.</p>
+
+<p>The ground pleaded for a divorce is seldom an index to the
+motives which caused the suit to be brought. This is determined
+by the character of the law rather than by the state of mind of the
+parties; and so far as the individuals are concerned, the ground
+alleged is thus a cloak rather than a clue or revelation. Still
+those causes which have been enacted into law by the various
+state legislatures do indicate the pleas which have been endorsed
+by the social judgment of the respective communities. In the
+United States exclusive of Alaska and the recent insular accessions
+there are forty-nine different jurisdictions in the matter of divorce.
+Six out of every seven allow divorce for desertion, adultery or
+cruelty; and of the 945,625 divorces reported with their causes
+during the twenty years 1887-1906 nearly 78% were granted for
+some one of these three causes, viz. 39% for desertion, 22% for
+adultery, and 16% for cruelty. Probably nearly 9% more were
+for some combination of these causes. Three other grounds for
+divorce are admitted as legal in many or most American states, viz.
+imprisonment in 39, habitual drunkenness in 38, and neglect to
+provide in 22. About 98% of American divorces are granted on
+some one or more of these six grounds. In general the legislation
+on the subject of the causes allowed for divorce is most restrictive
+in the states on the Atlantic coast, from New York to South Carolina
+inclusive, and is least so in the Western states. The slight
+expense of obtaining a divorce in many of the states, and the lack
+of publicity which is given to the suit, are also important reasons
+for the great number of decrees issued. The importance of the
+former consideration is reflected in the fact that the divorce-rate
+for the United States as a whole shows clearly, in its fluctuations,
+the influences of good and bad times. When times are good
+and the income of the working and industrial classes likely to be
+assured, the divorce-rate rises. In periods of industrial depression
+it falls, fluctuating thus in the same way and probably for the
+same reason that the marriage-rate in industrial communities
+fluctuates. In two-thirds of the divorce suits the wife is the
+plaintiff, and the proportion slightly increased in the forty years.
+In the Northern states the percentage issued to wives (1887-1906)
+was 71, while in the Southern states it was only 56. But where
+both parties desire a decree, and each has a legal ground to urge,
+a jury will usually listen more favourably to a woman&rsquo;s suit.</p>
+
+<p>Divorce is probably especially frequent among the native
+population of the United States, and among these probably more
+common in the city than in the country. This statement cannot
+be established absolutely, since statistics afford no means of
+distinguishing the native from the foreign-born applicants. It is,
+however, the most obvious reason for explaining the fact that,
+while in Europe the city divorce-rate is from three to five times
+as great as that of the surrounding country, the difference in the
+United States between the two regions is very much less. In
+other words, the great number of foreigners in American cities
+probably tends to obscure by a low divorce-rate the high rate of
+the native population. Divorce is certainly more common in the
+New England states than in any others on the Atlantic coast
+north of Florida, and it is not unlikely that wherever the New
+England families have gone divorce is more frequent than elsewhere.
+For example, it is much more common in the northern
+counties of Ohio settled largely from New England than in the
+southern counties settled largely from the Middle Atlantic states.</p>
+
+<p>There are two statements frequently made regarding divorce in
+the United States which do not find warrant in the statistics on
+the subject. The first is, that the real motive for divorce with
+one or both parties is the desire for marriage to a third person.
+The second is, that a very large proportion of divorces are granted
+to persons who move from one jurisdiction to another in order
+to avail themselves of lax divorce laws. On the first point the
+American statistics are practically silent, since, in issuing a
+marriage licence to parties one or both of whom have been
+previously divorced, no record is generally made of the fact. In
+Connecticut, however, for a number of years this information was
+required; and, if the statements were trustworthy, the number
+of persons remarrying each year was about one-third the total
+number of persons divorcing, which is probably a rate not widely
+different from that of widows and widowers of the same age.
+Foreign figures for Switzerland, Holland and Berlin indicate that
+in those regions the proportion of the divorced who remarry
+speedily is about the same as that of widows and widowers.
+What statistical evidence there is on the subject therefore tends
+to discredit this popular opinion. The evidence on the second
+point is more conclusive, and has gone far towards decreasing
+the demand for a constitutional amendment allowing a federal
+marriage and divorce law. About four-fifths of all the divorces
+granted in the United States were issued to parties who were
+married in the state in which the decree of divorce was later
+made; and when from the remaining one-fifth are deducted those
+in which the parties migrated for other reasons than a desire to
+obtain an easy divorce, the remainder would constitute a very
+small, almost a negligible, fraction of the total number.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say how far the frequency of
+divorce in the United States has been or is a social injury; how far
+it has weakened or undermined the ideal of marriage as a lifelong
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span>
+union between man and woman. In this respect the question
+is very like that of illegitimacy; and as the most careful students
+of the latter subject agree that almost no trustworthy inference
+regarding the moral condition of a community can be derived
+from the proportion of illegitimate children born, so one may say
+regarding the prevalence of divorce that from this fact almost no
+inferences are warranted regarding the moral or social condition
+of the population. It is by no means impossible, for example,
+that the spread of divorce among the negro population in the
+South marks a step in advance from the condition of largely
+unregulated and illegal unions characteristic of the race immediately
+after the war. The prevalence of divorce in the United
+States among the native population, in urban communities,
+among the New England element, in the middle classes of society,
+and among those of the Protestant faith, indicates how closely
+this social phenomenon is interlaced with much that is characteristic
+and valuable in American civilization. In this respect, too,
+the United States perhaps represent the outcome of a tendency
+which has been at work in Europe at least since the Reformation.
+Certainly the divorce-rate is increasing in nearly every civilized
+country. Decrees of nullity of marriage and decrees of separation
+not absolutely terminating the marriage relation are relatively
+far less prevalent than they were in the medieval and early
+modern period, and many persons who under former conditions
+would have obtained relief from unsatisfactory unions through
+one or the other of these avenues now resort to divorce. The
+increasing proportion of the community who have an income
+sufficient to pay the requisite legal fees is also a factor of great
+importance. The belief in the family as an institution ordained
+of God, decreed to continue &ldquo;till death us do part,&rdquo; and in its
+relations typifying and perpetuating many holy religious ideas,
+probably became weakened in the United States during the 19th
+century, along with a weakening of other religious conceptions;
+and it is yet to be determined whether a substitute for these ideas
+can be developed under the guidance of the motive of social
+utility or individual desire. In this respect the United States is,
+as Mr Gladstone once wrote, a <i>tribus praerogativa</i>, but one who
+knows anything of the family and home life of America will not
+readily despond of the outcome.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The great source of American statistical information is the
+governmental report of over 1000 pages, <i>A Report on Marriage and
+Divorce in the United States 1867 to 1886, including an Appendix
+relating to Marriage and Divorce in Certain Countries of Europe</i>, by
+Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labour; together with the
+further report for 1887 to 1906. The statistics contained in the
+former volume have been analysed and interpreted in W. F. Willcox&rsquo;s
+<i>The Divorce Problem: A Study in Statistics</i> (Columbia University,
+New York, 1891, 1897). Further interpretations are contained in
+an article in the <i>Political Science Quarterly</i> for March 1893, entitled
+&ldquo;A Study in Vital Statistics.&rdquo; The best legal treatise is probably
+Bishop on <i>Marriage, Divorce, and Judicial Separation</i>. See also
+J. P. Lichtenberger, <i>Divorce: A Study in Social Causation</i> (New
+York, 1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. F. W.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In <i>Constantinidi</i> v. <i>Constantinidi and Lance</i> (1903), in which both
+parties were guilty of misconduct, it was held by Sir Francis Jeune
+(Lord St Helier) that where a wife has by her misconduct broken
+up the home (the husband&rsquo;s misconduct not having conduced to the
+wife&rsquo;s adultery) the court would exercise its discretion in favour of
+the husband petitioner, and, further, the wife being a rich woman,
+it was justifiable to give her husband a portion of her income, in
+order to preserve to him the position he would have occupied as her
+husband, the broad principle being that a guilty respondent should
+not be allowed to profit by divorce. But further litigation concerning
+this case occurred as to the variation of the marriage settlements
+in favour of the husband, and the decision of the court of appeal in
+July 1905 considerably modified the decision of Sir Francis Jeune.&mdash;Ed. <i>E. B.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It is to be noted that by a decision of the court of appeal in
+<i>Harriman</i> v. <i>Harriman</i> in 1909, where a wife has been deserted by
+her husband and has obtained a separation order within two years from
+the time when the desertion commenced, she loses her right to plead
+desertion under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, and is therefore
+not entitled to a divorce after two years&rsquo; desertion, upon proof of
+adultery. See also <i>Dodd</i> v. <i>Dodd</i>, 1906, 22 T. L. R. 484.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In 1909 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the
+law of divorce, with special reference to the position of the poorer
+classes.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It is interesting to observe how, according to the latest decisions
+of the House of Lords, cruelty, according to English law, includes
+some but not others of the forms of injury for which, under the term
+of <i>injures graves</i>, the French law affords a remedy. It may well
+be doubted whether the view taken by the minority of the peers in
+<i>Russell</i> v. <i>Russell</i>, which would have included in the definition of
+cruelty all, or nearly all, of that which the French law deems either
+<i>sévices</i> or <i>injures graves</i>, would not have better satisfied both the
+principles of English jurisprudence and the feelings of modern life.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIWANIEH,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a small town in Turkish Asia, about 40 m. below
+Hillah, on both banks of the Euphrates (31° 58&prime; 47&Prime; N., 44° 58&prime;
+18&Prime; E.), which is here spanned by a floating bridge. Formerly
+a military post for the control of the Affech territory, and a
+telegraph station, it was in 1893 made the capital of the sanjak,
+instead of Hillah, on account of its more strategical position.
+This transfer of the seat of government represented a step in the
+development of Turkish control over the central regions of Irak.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1802-1887), American philanthropist,
+was born at Hampden, Maine, on the 4th of April 1802.
+Her parents were poor and shiftless, and at an early age she was
+taken into the home in Boston of her grandmother, Dorothea
+Lynde, wife of Dr Elijah Dix. Here she was reared in a distinctly
+Puritanical atmosphere. About 1821 she opened a school
+in Boston, which was patronized by the well-to-do families;
+and soon afterwards she also began teaching poor and neglected
+children at home. But her health broke down, and from 1824
+to 1830 she was chiefly occupied with the writing of books of
+devotion and stories for children. Her <i>Conversations on Common
+Things</i> (1824) had reached its sixtieth edition by 1869. In 1831
+she established in Boston a model school for girls, and conducted
+this successfully until 1836, when her health again failed. In
+1841 she became interested in the condition of gaols and almshouses,
+and spent two years in visiting every such institution
+in Massachusetts, investigating especially the treatment of the
+pauper insane. Her memorial to the state legislature dealing
+with the abuses she discovered resulted in more adequate
+provision being made for the care and treatment of the insane,
+and she then extended her work into many other states. By 1847
+she had travelled from Nova Scotia to the Gulf of Mexico, and
+had visited 18 state penitentiaries, 300 county gaols and houses
+of correction, and over 500 almshouses. Her labours resulted
+in the establishment of insane asylums in twenty states and in
+Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and in the founding of many
+additional gaols and almshouses conducted on a reformed plan.
+In 1853 she secured more adequate equipment for the life-saving
+service on Sable Island, then rightly called &ldquo;the graveyard of
+ships.&rdquo; In 1854 she secured the passage by Congress of a bill
+granting to the states 12,250,000 acres of public lands, to be
+utilized for the benefit of the insane, deaf, dumb and blind;
+but the measure was vetoed by President Pierce. After this disappointment
+she went to England for rest, but at once became
+interested in the condition of the insane in Scotland, and her
+report to the home secretary opened the way for sweeping
+reforms. She extended her work into the Channel Islands, and
+then to France, Italy, Austria, Greece, Turkey, Russia, Sweden,
+Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and a part of Germany.
+Her influence over Arinori Mori, the Japanese <i>chargé d&rsquo;affaires</i> at
+Washington, led eventually to the establishment of two asylums
+for the insane in Japan. At the outbreak of the Civil War she
+offered her services to the Federal government and was appointed
+superintendent of women nurses. In this capacity she served
+throughout the war, without a day&rsquo;s furlough; and her labours
+on behalf of defectives were continued after the war. After a
+lingering illness of six years she died at Trenton, New Jersey, on
+the 17th of July 1887.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Francis Tiffany, <i>Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix</i> (Boston, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIX, JOHN ADAMS<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1798-1879), American soldier and
+political leader, was born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the
+24th of July 1798. He studied at Phillips Exeter Academy in
+1810-1811 and at the College of Montreal in 1811-1812, and as
+a boy took part in the War of 1812, becoming a second lieutenant
+in March 1814. In July 1828, having attained the rank of captain,
+he resigned from the army, and for two years practised law
+at Cooperstown, New York. In 1830-1833 he was adjutant-general
+of New York. He soon became prominent as one of the
+leaders of the Democratic party in the state, and for many years
+was a member of the so-called &ldquo;Albany Regency,&rdquo; a group of
+Democrats who between about 1820 and 1850 exercised a
+virtual control over their party in New York, dictating nominations
+and appointments and distributing patronage. From 1833
+to 1839 he was secretary of state and superintendent of schools
+in New York, and in this capacity made valuable reports concerning
+the public schools of the state, and a report (1836) which
+led to the publication of the <i>Natural History of the State of New
+York</i> (1842-1866). In 1842 he was a member of the New York
+assembly. In 1841-1843 he was editor of <i>The Northern Light</i>, a
+literary and scientific journal published in Albany. From 1845
+to 1849 he was a United States senator from New York; and
+as chairman of the committee on commerce was author of the
+warehouse bill passed by Congress in 1846 to relieve merchants
+from immediate payment of duties on imported goods. In 1848
+he was nominated for governor of New York by the Free Soil
+party, but was defeated by Hamilton Fish. His acceptance of
+the nomination, however, earned him the enmity of the southern
+Democrats, who prevented his appointment by Pierce as secretary
+of state and as minister to France in 1853. In this year Dix was
+for a few weeks assistant U.S. treasurer in New York city. In
+May 1860 he became postmaster of New York city, and from
+January until March 1861 he was secretary of the treasury of the
+United States, in which capacity he issued (January 29, 1861) to
+a revenue officer at New Orleans a famous order containing the
+words, &ldquo;if any one attempts to haul down the American flag,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span>
+shoot him on the spot.&rdquo; He rendered important services in
+hurrying forward troops in 1861, was appointed major-general
+of volunteers in June 1861, and during the Civil War commanded
+successively the department of Maryland (July 1861-May 1862),
+Fortress Monroe (May 1862-July 1863), and the department of
+the East (July 1863-July 1865). He was minister to France
+from 1866 to 1869, and in 1872 was elected by the Republicans
+governor of New York, but was defeated two years later. He had
+great energy and administrative ability, was for a time president
+of the Chicago &amp; Rock Island and of the Mississippi &amp; Missouri
+railways, first president of the Union Pacific in 1863-1868, and
+for a short time in 1872 president of the Erie. He died in New
+York city on the 21st of April 1879. Among his publications are
+<i>A Winter in Madeira and a Summer in Spain and Florence</i> (1850),
+and <i>Speeches and Occasional Addresses</i> (1864). He wrote excellent
+English versions of the <i>Dies irae</i> and the <i>Stabat mater</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Morgan Dix</span> (1827-1908), graduated at Columbia in
+1848 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1852, and was
+ordained deacon (1852) and priest (1853) in the Protestant
+Episcopalian church. In 1855-1859 he was assistant minister,
+and in 1859-1862 assistant rector, of Trinity Church, New York
+city, of which he was rector from 1862 until his death. He
+published sermons and lectures; <i>A History of the Parish of
+Trinity Church, New York City</i> (4 vols., 1898-1905); and a
+biography of his father. <i>Memoirs of John Adams Dix</i> (2 vols.,
+New York, 1883).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIXON, GEORGE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1755?-1800), English navigator. He
+served under Captain Cook in his third expedition, during which
+he had an opportunity of learning the commercial capabilities
+of the north-west coast of North America. After his return from
+Cook&rsquo;s expedition he became a captain in the royal navy. In the
+autumn of 1785 he sailed in the &ldquo;Queen Charlotte,&rdquo; in the service
+of the King George&rsquo;s Sound Company of London, to explore the
+shores of the present British Columbia, with the special object of
+developing the fur trade. His chief discoveries were those of
+Queen Charlotte&rsquo;s Islands and Sound (the latter only partial),
+Port Mulgrave, Norfolk Bay, and Dixon&rsquo;s Entrance and Archipelago.
+After visiting China, where he disposed of his cargo,
+he returned to England (1788), and published (1799) <i>A Voyage
+round the World, but more particularly to the North-West Coast of
+America</i>, the bulk of which consists of descriptive letters by
+William Beresford, his supercargo. His own contribution to the
+work included valuable charts and appendices. He is usually,
+though not with absolute certainty, identified with the George
+Dixon who was author of <i>The Navigator&rsquo;s Assistant</i> (1791) and
+teacher of navigation at Gosport.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIXON, HENRY HALL<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1822-1870), English sporting writer
+over the <i>nom de plume</i> &ldquo;The Druid,&rdquo; was born at Warwick
+Bridge, Cumberland, on the 16th of May 1822, and was educated
+at Rugby and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he graduated
+in 1846. He took up the profession of the law, but, though called
+to the bar in 1853, soon returned to sporting journalism, in which
+he had already made a name for himself, and began to write
+regularly for the <i>Sporting Magazine</i>, in the pages of which
+appeared three of his novels, <i>Post and Paddock</i> (1856), <i>Silk and
+Scarlet</i> (1859), and <i>Scott and Sebright</i> (1862). He also published
+a legal compendium entitled <i>The Law of the Farm</i> (1858), which
+ran through several editions. His other more important works
+were <i>Field and Fern</i> (1865), giving an account of the herds and
+flocks of Scotland, and <i>Saddle and Sirloin</i> (1870), treating in the
+same manner those of England. He died at Kensington on the
+16th of March 1870.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hon. Francis Lawley, <i>Life and Times of &ldquo;The Druid&rdquo;</i> (London,
+1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIXON, RICHARD WATSON<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1833-1900), English poet and
+divine, son of Dr James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister, was born
+on the 5th of May 1833. He was educated at King Edward&rsquo;s
+school, Birmingham, and on proceeding to Pembroke College,
+Oxford, became one of the famous &ldquo;Birmingham group&rdquo; there
+who shared with William Morris and Burne-Jones in the Pre-Raphaelite
+movement. He took only a second class in moderations
+in 1854, and a third in <i>Literae Humaniores</i> in 1856; but in
+1858 he won the Arnold prize for an historical essay, and in 1863
+the English Sacred Poem prize. He was ordained in 1858, was
+second master of Carlisle high school, 1863-1868, and successively
+vicar of Hayton, Cumberland, and Warkworth, Northumberland.
+He became minor canon and honorary librarian of Carlisle in
+1868, and honorary canon in 1874, he was proctor in convocation
+(1890-1894), and received the honorary degree of D.D. from
+Oxford in 1899. He died at Warkworth on the 23rd of January
+1900. Canon Dixon&rsquo;s first two volumes of verse, <i>Christ&rsquo;s
+Company</i> and <i>Historical Odes</i>, were published in 1861 and 1863
+respectively; but it was not until 1883 that he attracted
+conspicuous notice with <i>Mano</i>, an historical poem in <i>terza
+rima</i>, which was enthusiastically praised by Mr Swinburne. This
+success he followed up by three privately printed volumes. <i>Odes
+and Eclogues</i> (1884), <i>Lyrical Poems</i> (1886), and <i>The Story of
+Eudocia</i> (1888). Dixon&rsquo;s poems were during the last fifteen
+years of his life recognized as scholarly and refined exercises,
+touched with both dignity and a certain severe beauty, but he
+never attained any general popularity as a poet, the appeal of
+his poetry being directly to the scholar. A great student of
+history, his studies in that direction colour much of his poetry.
+The romantic atmosphere is remarkably preserved in <i>Mano</i>, a
+successful metrical exercise in the difficult <i>terza rima</i>. His typical
+poems have charm and melody, without introducing any new
+note or variety of rhythm. He is contemplative, sober and
+finished in literary workmanship, a typical example of the Oxford
+school. Pleasant as his poetry is, however, he will probably be
+longest remembered by the work to which he gave the best years
+of his life, his <i>History of the Church of England from the Abolition
+of the Roman Jurisdiction</i> (1878-1902). At the time of his death
+he had completed six volumes, two of which were published
+posthumously. This fine work, covering the period from 1529 to
+1570, is built upon elaborate research, and presents a trustworthy
+and unprejudiced survey of its subject.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Dixon&rsquo;s <i>Selected Poems</i> were published in 1909 with a memoir of
+the author by Robert Bridges.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1821-1879), English author
+and traveller, was born at Great Ancoats, Manchester, on the
+30th of June 1821, a member of an old Lancashire family.
+Beginning life as a clerk at Manchester, he decided, in 1846, to
+take up literature as a career. After gaining some journalistic
+experience at Cheltenham he settled in London, on the recommendation
+of Douglas Jerrold, and contributed to the <i>Athenaeum</i>
+and <i>Daily News</i>. His series of papers&mdash;&ldquo;The Literature of the
+Lower Orders&rdquo;&mdash;in the last-named journal, and a further series,
+&ldquo;London Prisons,&rdquo; were widely noticed. In 1849 appeared his
+<i>John Howard and the Prison World of Europe</i>, which proved a
+great popular success. These were followed by a <i>Life of William
+Penn</i> (1851), in which he replied to Macaulay&rsquo;s attack on Penn;
+<i>Life of Blake</i> (1852); and <i>Personal History of Lord Bacon</i> (1861),
+supplemented by <i>The Story of Lord Bacon&rsquo;s Life</i> (1862). From
+1853 to 1869 he was editor of the <i>Athenaeum</i>. In 1863 he visited
+the East, and on his return helped to found the Palestine
+Exploration Fund, and published (1865) <i>The Holy Land</i>. In
+1866 he travelled through the United States, publishing, in 1867,
+<i>New America</i>, and, the following year, <i>Spiritual Wives</i>, two supplementary
+volumes. In the autumn of 1867 he journeyed through
+the Baltic Provinces, publishing an account of his trip in <i>Free
+Russia</i> (1870). In 1871 he was in Switzerland, and in 1872 in
+Spain, where he wrote the greater part of his <i>History of Two
+Queens</i>. In 1874 he revisited the United States, giving the
+impressions of his tour in <i>The White Conquest</i> (1875). His other
+works, besides some fiction, were <i>British Cyprus</i> (1879) and
+<i>Royal Windsor</i>. He died on the 26th of December 1879. His
+daughter, Ella N. Hepworth Dixon, became known as a journalist
+and novelist.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIXON,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a city and the county seat of Lee county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., on the Rock river, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop.
+(1890) 5161; (1900) 7917 (879 foreign-born); (1910) 7216. It
+is served by the Chicago &amp; North-Western and the Illinois
+Central railways, and is connected with Sterling by an electric
+line; freight is shipped over the Hennepin Canal. The city
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span>
+has two parks of 159 and 6 acres respectively, and there is a
+Chautauqua Park, where an annual Chautauqua Assembly is
+held. Dixon is the seat of the Northern Illinois normal school
+(incorporated in 1884), and of the Rock River military academy.
+The river furnishes water power for the street railways, electric
+lighting and a number of manufacturing establishments.
+Among the manufactures are condensed milk, boxes, wire screens
+and wire cloth, lawn mowers, gas engines, cement, agricultural
+implements, shoes and wagons. The place was laid out in
+1835 by John Dixon (1784-1876), the first white settler of Lee
+county. A bronze tablet in the Howells Building, at the intersection
+of First and Peoria Streets, marks the site of his cabin,
+and in the city cemetery a granite shaft has been erected to his
+memory. Dixon was chartered as a city in 1859.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DIZFUL,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Diz-Pul</span> (&ldquo;fort-bridge&rdquo;), a town of Persia, in the
+province of Arabistan, 36 m. N.W. of Shushter, in 32° 25&prime; N.,
+48° 28&prime; E. Pop. about 25,000. It has post and telegraph offices.
+It is situated on the left bank of the Dizful river, a tributary
+of the Karun, crossed by a fine bridge of twenty-two arches, 430
+yds. in length, constructed on ancient foundations. Dizful is
+the chief place of a small district of the same name and the
+residence of the governor of Arabistan during the winter months.
+The district has twelve villages and a population of about 35,000
+(5000 Arabs of the Ali i Keth&#299;r tribe), and pays a yearly tribute
+of about £6000. The city was formerly known as Andamish, and
+in its vicinity are many remains of ancient canals and buildings
+which afford conclusive proof of former importance. 16 m. S.W.
+are the ruins of Susa, and east of them and half-way between
+Dizful and Shushter stood the old city of Junday Shapur.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DJAKOVO<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (sometimes written <i>Djakovar</i>, Hungarian <i>Diakovár</i>),
+a city of Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; in the county of Virovitica,
+100 m. E. by S. of Agram. Pop. (1900) 6824. Djakovo is a
+Roman Catholic episcopal see, whose occupant bears the title
+&ldquo;Bishop of Bosnia, Slavonia and Sirmium.&rdquo; During the life of
+Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) it was one of the chief centres of
+religious and political activity among the Croats. The cathedral,
+a vast basilica built of brick and white stone, with a central dome
+and two lofty spires above the north entrance, was founded in
+1866 and consecrated in 1882. Its style is Romanesque, chosen
+by Strossmayer as symbolical of the position of his country
+midway between east and west. The interior is magnificently
+decorated with mosaics, mural paintings and statuary, chiefly
+the work of local artists. Other noteworthy buildings are the
+nunnery, ecclesiastical seminary and episcopal palace. Djakovo
+has a thriving trade in agricultural produce. Many Roman
+remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood, but the
+earliest mention of the city is in 1244, when Béla IV. of Hungary
+confirmed the title-deeds of its owners, the bishops of Bosnia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a full description of the cathedral, in Serbo-Croatian and
+French, see the finely illustrated folio <i>Stolna Crkva u Djakovu</i>, published
+by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DLUGOSZ, JAN<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Johannes Longinus</span>] (1415-1480), Polish
+statesman and historian, was the son of Jan Dlugosz, burgrave
+of Bozeznica. Born in 1415, he graduated at the university of
+Cracow and in 1431 entered the service of Bishop Zbygniew
+Olesnicki (1389-1455), the statesman and diplomatist. He
+speedily won the favour of his master, who induced him to take
+orders and made him his secretary. His preferment was rapid.
+In 1436 we find him one of the canons of Cracow and the administrator
+of Olesnicki&rsquo;s vast estates. In 1440, on returning from
+Hungary, whither his master had escorted King Wladislaus II.,
+Dlugosz saved the life of Olesnicki from robbers. The prelate
+now employed Dlugosz on the most delicate and important
+political missions. Dlugosz brought Olesnicki the red hat from
+Rome in 1449, and shortly afterwards was despatched to Hungary
+to mediate between Hunyadi and the Bohemian condottiere
+Giszkra, a difficult mission which he most successfully accomplished.
+Both these embassies were undertaken contrary to
+the wishes of King Casimir IV., who was altogether opposed to
+Olesnicki&rsquo;s ecclesiastical policy. But though he thus sacrificed his
+own prospects to the cardinal&rsquo;s good pleasure, Dlugosz was far too
+sagacious to approve of the provocative attitude of Olesnicki, and
+frequently and fearlessly remonstrated with him on his conduct.
+In his account, however, of the quarrel between Casimir and
+Olesnicki concerning the question of priority between the cardinal
+and the primate of Poland he warmly embraced the cause of the
+former, and even pronounced Casimir worthy of dethronement.
+Such outbursts against Casimir IV. are not infrequent in
+Dlugosz&rsquo;s <i>Historia Polonica</i>, and his strong personal bias must
+certainly be taken into consideration in any critical estimate of
+that famous work. Yet as a high-minded patriot Dlugosz had
+no sympathy whatever with Olesnicki&rsquo;s opposition to Casimir&rsquo;s
+Prussian policy, and steadily supported the king during the whole
+course of the war with the Teutonic knights. When Olesnicki
+died in 1455 he left Dlugosz his principal executor. The office of
+administering the cardinal&rsquo;s estate was a very ungrateful one, for
+the family resented the liberal benefactions of their kinsman to
+the Church and the <span class="correction" title="amended from univesity">university</span>, and accused Dlugosz of exercising
+undue influence, from which charge he triumphantly vindicated
+himself. It was in the year of his patron&rsquo;s death that he began to
+write his <i>Historia Polonica</i>. This great book, the first and still
+one of the best historical works on Poland in the modern sense of
+the word, was only undertaken after mature consideration and
+an exhaustive study of all the original sources then available,
+some of which are now lost. The principal archives of Poland
+and Hungary were ransacked for the purpose, and in his account of
+his own times Dlugosz&rsquo;s intimate acquaintance with the leading
+scholars and statesmen of his day stood him in good stead. The
+style is modelled on that of Livy, of whom Dlugosz was a warm
+admirer. As a proof of the thoroughness and conscientiousness of
+Dlugosz it may be mentioned that he learned the Cyrillic alphabet
+and took up the study of Ruthenian, &ldquo;in order that this our
+history may be as plain and perfect as possible.&rdquo; The first of the
+numerous imprints of the <i>Historia Polonica</i> appeared in 1614, the
+first complete edition in 1711.</p>
+
+<p>Dlugosz&rsquo;s literary labours did not interfere with his political
+activity. In 1467 the generous and discerning Casimir IV.
+entrusted Dlugosz with the education of his sons, the eldest of
+whom, Wladislaus, at the urgent request of the king, he accompanied
+to Prague when in 1471 the young prince was elected
+king of Bohemia. Dlugosz refused the archbishopric of Prague
+because of his strong dislike of the land of the Hussites; but seven
+years later he accepted the archbishopric of Lemberg. His last
+years were devoted to his history, which he completed in 1479.
+He died on the 19th of May 1480, at Piatek.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Aleksander Semkowicz, <i>Critical Considerations of the Polish
+Works of Dlugosz</i> (Pol.; Cracow, 1874); Michael Bobrzynski and
+Stanislaw Smolka, <i>Life of Dlugosz and his Position in Literature</i> (Pol.;
+Cracow, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1760-1837), Russian statesman
+and poet, was born at his father&rsquo;s estate in the government of
+Simbirsk. In consequence of the revolt of Pugachev the family
+had to flee to St Petersburg, and there Ivan was entered at the
+school of the Semenov Guards, and afterwards obtained a post
+in the military service. On the accession of Paul to the imperial
+throne he quitted the army with the title of colonel; and
+his appointment as procurator for the senate was soon after
+renounced for the position of privy councillor. During the four
+years from 1810 to 1814 he served as minister of justice under the
+emperor Alexander; but at the close of this period he retired into
+private life, and though he lived more than twenty years, he never
+again took office, but occupied himself with his literary labours
+and the collection of books and works of art. In the matter of
+language he sided with Karamsin, and did good service by his
+own pen against the Old Slavonic party. His poems include songs,
+odes, satires, tales, epistles, &amp;c., as well as the fables&mdash;partly
+original and partly translated from Fontaine, Florian and Arnault&mdash;on
+which his fame chiefly rests. Several of his lyrics have
+become thoroughly popular from the readiness with which they
+can be sung; and a short dramatico-epic poem on Yermak, the
+Cossack conqueror of Siberia, is well known.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His writings occupy three volumes in the first five editions; in the
+6th (St Petersburg, 1823) there are only two. His memoirs, to
+which he devoted the last years of his life, were published at Moscow
+in 1866.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DNIEPER,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> one of the most important rivers of Europe (the
+<i>Borysthenes</i> of the Greeks, <i>Danapris</i> of the Romans, <i>Uzi</i> or <i>Uzu</i> of
+the Turks, Eksi of the Tatars, <i>Elice</i> of Visconti&rsquo;s map (1381),
+<i>Lerene</i> of Contarini (1437), <i>Luosen</i> of Baptista of Genoa (1514),
+and <i>Lussem</i> in the same century). It belongs entirely to Russia,
+and rises in the government of Smolensk, in a swampy district
+(alt. 930 ft.) at the foot of the Valdai Hills, not far from the
+sources of the Volga and the Dvina, in 55° 52&rsquo; N. and 33° 41&rsquo; E.
+Its length is about 1410 m. and it drains an area of 202,140 sq. m.
+In the first part of its course, which may be said to end at
+Dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating country of Carboniferous
+formation; in the second it passes west to Orsha, south
+through the fertile plain of Chernigov and Kiev, and then south-east
+across the rocky steppe of the Ukraine to Ekaterinoslav.
+About 45 m. S. of this town it has to force its way across the same
+granitic offshoot of the Carpathian mountains which interrupts
+the course of the Dniester and the Bug, and for a distance of about
+25 m. rapid succeeds rapid. The fall of the river in that distance
+is 155 ft. The Dnieper, having got clear of the rocks, continues
+south-west through the grassy plains of Kherson and Taurida,
+and enters the Black Sea, or rather a <i>liman</i> or bay of the Black
+Sea, by a considerable estuary in 46° 30&prime; N. and 32° 20&prime; E. On
+this ramifying <i>liman</i>, into which the Bug also pours its waters,
+stand Nikolaiev and the fortified town of Ochakov. Navigation
+extends as far up as Dorogobuzh, where the depth is about 12 ft.,
+and rafts are floated down from the higher reaches. The banks
+are generally high, more particularly the left bank. About the
+town of Smolensk the breadth is 455 ft., at the confluence of the
+Pripet 1400, and in some parts of the Ekaterinoslav district more
+than 1¼ m. In the course above the rapids the channel varies
+very greatly in nature and depth, and it is not infrequently
+interrupted by shallows. The rapids, or <i>porogs</i>, form a serious
+obstacle to navigation; it is only for a few weeks when the river
+is in flood that they are passable, and even then the venture is not
+without risk and can only be undertaken with the assistance of
+special pilots. It is from these falls that the Cossacks of the
+Ukraine came to be known as Zaporogian Cossacks. As early
+as 1732 an attempt was made to improve the channel. A canal,
+which ultimately proved too small for use, was constructed at
+Nenasitets in 1780 at private expense; blastings were carried out
+in 1798 and 1799 at various parts; in 1805 a canal was formed at
+Kaindatski, and the channel straightened at Sursk; by 1807 a
+new canal was completed at Nenasitets; in 1833 a passage was
+cleared through the Staro-kaindatski porog; and in the period
+1843 to 1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. The result
+has been not only to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural
+channel, but also to furnish a series of artificial canals by which
+vessels can make their way when the river is low. Of the
+tributaries of the Dnieper the following are navigable,&mdash;the
+Berezina and the Pripet from the right, and the Sozh and the
+Desna from the left. By means of the Dnieper-Bug (King&rsquo;s)
+canal, and the Berezina and Oginski canals, this river has a sort
+of water connexion with the Baltic Sea. In the estuary the
+fisheries give employment to large numbers of people. At Kiev
+the river is free from ice on an average of 234 days in the year, at
+Ekaterinoslav 270 and at Kherson 277.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DNIESTER<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (<i>Tyras</i> and <i>Danaster</i> or <i>Danastris</i> of classical
+authors, <i>Nistrul</i> of the Rumanians, and <i>Turla</i> of the Turks), a
+river of south-eastern Europe belonging to the basin of the Black
+Sea. It rises on the northern slope of the Carpathian mountains
+in Austrian Galicia, and belongs for the first 350 m. of its course
+to Austrian, for the remaining 515 m. to Russian, territory. It
+drains an area of 29,670 sq. m., of which 16,500 sq. m. belong to
+Russia. It is excessively meandering, and the current in most
+parts even during low water is decidedly rapid as compared with
+Russian rivers generally, the mean rate being calculated at 1<span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">11</span> m.
+per hour. The average width of the channel is from 500 to 750 ft.,
+but in some places it attains as much as 1400 ft.; the depth is
+various and changeable. The principal interruption in the
+navigable portion of the river, besides a sprinkling of rocks in the
+bed and the somewhat extensive shallows, is occasioned by a
+granitic spur from the Carpathians, which gives rise to the Yampol
+Rapids. For ordinary river craft the passage of these rapids is
+rendered possible, but not free from danger, by a natural channel
+on the left side, and by a larger and deeper artificial channel on
+the right; for steamboats they form an insuperable barrier. The
+river falls into the sea by several arms, passing through a shallow
+<i>liman</i> or lagoon, a few miles S.W. of Odessa. There are two
+periodical floods,&mdash;the earlier and larger caused by the breaking
+up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of February or in
+March; and the later due to the melting of the snows in the
+Carpathians, and taking place about June. The spring flood
+raises the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of
+the river submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent
+country. In some years the general state of the water is so low
+that navigation is possible only for three or four weeks, while
+in other years it is so high that navigation continues without
+interruption; but in recent years considerable improvements
+have been effected at government expense. In consequence
+the traffic has increased, the Dniester tapping regions of great
+productiveness, especially in cereals and timber, namely, Galicia,
+Podolia and Bessarabia. Steamboat traffic was introduced in the
+lower reaches in 1840. The fisheries of the lower course and of
+the estuary are of considerable importance; and these, together
+with those of the lakes which are formed by the inundations,
+furnish a valuable addition to the diet of the people in the shape
+of carp, pike, tench, salmon, sturgeon and eels. Its tributaries
+are numerous, but not of individual importance, except perhaps
+the Sereth in Galicia.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOAB,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duab</span> or <span class="sc">Dooab</span>, a name, like the Greek Mesopotamia,
+applied in India, according to its derivation (<i>do</i>, two, and <i>ab</i>,
+river), to the stretch of country lying between any two rivers, as
+the Bari Doab between the Sutlej and the Ravi, the Rechna Doab
+between the Ravi and the Chenab, the Jech Doab between the
+Chenab and Jhelum, and the Sind Sagar Doab between the
+Jhelum and the Indus, but frequently employed, without any
+distinctive adjunct, as the proper name for the region between
+the Ganges and its great tributary the Jumna. In like manner
+the designation of Doab canal is given to the artificial channel
+which breaks off from the Jumna near Fyzabad, and flows almost
+parallel with the river till it reunites with it at Delhi.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1799-1859), American
+churchman, Protestant Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, was born
+in Trenton, New Jersey, on the 27th of May 1799. He graduated
+at Union College, Schenectady, New York, in 1818, studied
+theology and, in 1821, was ordained deacon and in 1823 priest by
+Bishop Hobart, whom he assisted in Trinity church, New York.
+With George Upfold (1796-1872), bishop of Indiana from 1849
+to 1872, Doane founded St Luke&rsquo;s in New York City. In 1824-1828
+he was professor of belles-lettres in Washington (now
+Trinity) College, Hartford, Connecticut, and at this time he was
+one of the editors of the <i>Episcopal Watchman</i>. He was assistant
+in 1828-1830 and rector in 1830-1832 of Christ church, Boston,
+and was bishop of New Jersey from October 1832 to his death at
+Burlington, New Jersey, on the 27th of April 1859. The diocese
+of New Jersey was an unpromising field, but he took up his work
+there with characteristic vigour, especially in the foundation of
+St Mary&rsquo;s Hall (1837, for girls) and Burlington College (1846) as
+demonstrations of his theory of education under church control.
+His business management of these schools got him heavily into
+debt, and in the autumn of 1852 a charge of lax administration
+came before a court of bishops, who dismissed it. The schools
+showed him an able and wise disciplinarian, and his patriotic
+orations and sermons prove him a speaker of great power.
+He belonged to the High Church party and was a brilliant
+controversialist. He published <i>Songs by the Way</i> (1824), a
+volume of poems; and his hymns beginning &ldquo;Softly now the
+light of day&rdquo; and &ldquo;Thou art the Way&rdquo; are well known.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life and Writings of George Washington Doane</i> (4 vols., New
+York, 1860-1861), edited by his son, William Croswell Doane
+(b. 1832), first bishop of Albany.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBBS FERRY,<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> a village of Westchester county, New York,
+on the E. bank of the Hudson river 2 m. N. of Yonkers. Pop.
+(1890) 2083; (1900) 2888; (1910 U. S. census) 3455. Dobbs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span>
+Ferry is served by the Hudson River division of the New York
+Central railway. There are many fine country places, two private
+schools&mdash;the Mackenzie school for boys and the Misses Masters&rsquo;
+school for girls&mdash;and the children&rsquo;s village (with about thirty
+cottages) of the New York juvenile asylum. The name of the
+village was derived from a Swede, Jeremiah Dobbs, whose family
+probably moved hither from Delaware, and who at the beginning
+of the last quarter of the 18th century had a skiff ferry,
+which was kept up by his family for a century afterwards.
+Because Dobbs Ferry had been a part of Philipse Manor all lands
+in it were declared forfeit at the time of the War of American
+Independence (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yonkers</a></span>), and new titles were derived from
+the commissioners of forfeitures. The position of the village
+opposite the northernmost end of the Palisades gave it importance
+during the war. The region was repeatedly raided by camp
+followers of each army; earthworks and a fort, commanding
+the Hudson ferry and the ferry to Paramus, New Jersey, were
+built; the British army made Dobbs Ferry a rendezvous, after
+the battle of White Plains, in November 1776, and the continental
+division under General Benjamin Lincoln was here at the
+end of January 1777. The American army under Washington
+encamped near Dobbs Ferry on the 4th of July 1781, and started
+thence for Yorktown in the following month. In the Van Brugh
+Livingston house on the 6th of May 1783, Washington and
+Governor George Clinton met General Sir Guy Carleton, afterwards
+Lord Dorchester, to negotiate for the evacuation by the
+British troops of the posts they still held in the United States.
+In 1873 the village was incorporated as Greenburgh, from the
+township of the same name which in 1788 had been set apart
+from the manor of Phillipsburgh; but the name Dobbs Ferry
+was soon resumed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1824-1874), English poet
+and critic, was born on the 5th of April 1824 at Cranbrook, Kent.
+His father was a wine merchant, his mother a daughter of Samuel
+Thompson (1766-1837), a London political reformer. The
+family moved to Cheltenham when Dobell was twelve years old.
+He was educated privately, and never attended either school or
+university. He refers to this in some lines on Cheltenham College
+in imitation of Chaucer, written in his eighteenth year. After
+a five years&rsquo; engagement he married, in 1844, Emily Fordham, a
+lady of good family. An acquaintance with Mr (subsequently Sir
+James) Stansfeld and with the Birmingham preacher-politician,
+George Dawson (1821-1876), which afterwards led to the
+foundation of the Society of the Friends of Italy, fed the young
+enthusiast&rsquo;s ardour for the liberalism of the day. Meanwhile,
+Dobell wrote a number of minor poems, instinct with a passionate
+desire for political reform. <i>The Roman</i> appeared in 1850, under
+the <i>nom de plume</i> of &ldquo;Sydney Yendys.&rdquo; Next year he travelled
+through Switzerland with his wife; and after his return he
+formed friendships with Robert Browning, Philip Bailey, George
+MacDonald, Emanuel Deutsch, Lord Houghton, Ruskin, Holman
+Hunt, Mazzini, Tennyson and Carlyle. His second long poem,
+<i>Balder</i>, appeared in 1854. The three following years were spent
+in Scotland. Perhaps his closest friend at this time was Alexander
+Smith, in company with whom he published, in 1855, a number
+of sonnets on the Crimean War, which were followed by a
+volume on <i>England in Time of War</i>. Although by no means
+a rich man he was always ready to help needy men of letters,
+and it was through his exertions that David Gray&rsquo;s poems
+were published. In 1869 a horse, which he was riding, fell and
+rolled over with him. His health, which had for several years
+necessitated his wintering abroad, was seriously affected by this
+accident, and he was from this time more or less of an invalid,
+until his death on the 22nd of August 1874.</p>
+
+<p>As a poet Dobell belongs to the &ldquo;spasmodic school,&rdquo; as it was
+named by Professor Aytoun, who parodied its style in <i>Firmilian</i>.
+The epithet, however, was first applied by Carlyle to Byron.
+The school includes George Gilfillan, Philip James Bailey, John
+Stanyan Bigg (1826-1865), Dobell, Alexander Smith, and,
+according to some critics, Gerald Massey. It was characterized
+by an under-current of discontent with the mystery of existence,
+by vain effort, unrewarded struggle, sceptical unrest, and an
+uneasy straining after the unattainable. It thus faithfully
+reflected a certain phase of 19th century thought. The productions
+of the school are marked by an excess of metaphor
+and a general extravagance of language. On the other hand,
+they exhibit freshness and originality often lacking in more
+conventional writings. Dobell&rsquo;s poem, <i>The Roman</i>, dedicated
+to the interests of political liberty in Italy, is marked by
+pathos, energy and passionate love of freedom, but it is overlaid
+with monologue, which is carried to a dreary excess in
+<i>Balder</i>, relieved though the latter is by fine descriptive passages,
+and by some touching songs. Dobell&rsquo;s suggestive, but too
+ornate prose writings were collected and edited with an introductory
+note by Professor J. Nichol (<i>Thoughts on Art, Philosophy
+and Religion</i>) in 1876. In his religious views Dobell was a
+Christian of the Broad Church type; and socially he was one of
+the most amiable and true-hearted of men. His early interest
+in the cause of oppressed nationalities, shown in his friendship
+with Kossuth, Emanuel Deutsch and others, never lessened,
+although his views of home politics underwent some change from
+the radical opinions of his youth. In Gloucestershire Dobell
+was well known as an advocate of social reform, and he was a
+pioneer in the application of the co-operative system to private
+enterprise.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The standard edition of his poems (1875) by Professor Nichol
+includes a memoir.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DÖBELN,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on
+the (Freiberg) Mulde, two arms of which embrace the town as
+an island, 35 m. S.E. from Leipzig by rail, and at the junction of
+lines to Dresden, Chemnitz, Riesa and Oschatz. Pop. (1905)
+including the garrison, 18,907. It has two Evangelical churches,
+of which the Nikolai-kirche, dating in its present form from 1485,
+is a handsome edifice; a medieval town hall, a former Benedictine
+nunnery and a monument to Luther. There are an agricultural
+and a commercial school. The industries include wool-spinning,
+iron-founding, carriage, agricultural implement, and metal-printing
+and stamping works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBERAN,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Dobberan</span>, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy
+of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, about 2 m. from the shores of
+the Baltic and 7 W. of Rostock by rail. Pop. 5000. Besides the
+ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded by Pribislaus, prince of
+Mecklenburg, in 1173, and secularized in 1552, it possesses an
+Evangelical Gothic church of the 14th century, one of the finest in
+north Germany, a grand-ducal palace, a theatre, an exchange and
+a concert hall. Owing to its delightful situation amid beech
+forests and to its chalybeate waters, Doberan has become a
+favourite summer resort. Numerous villa residences have been
+erected and promenades and groves laid out. In 1793 Duke
+Frederick Francis caused the first seaside watering-place in
+Germany to be established on the neighbouring coast, 4 m.
+distant, at the spot where the Heiligen-Damm, a great bank of
+rocks about 1000 ft. broad and 15 ft. high, stretches out into the
+sea and forms an excellent bathing ground. Though no longer
+so popular as in the early part of the 19th century, it is still
+frequented, and is connected with Doberan by a tramway.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DÖBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1780-1849), German
+chemist, was born near Hof in Bavaria on the 15th of December
+1780. After studying pharmacy at Münchberg, he started a
+chemical manufactory in 1803, and in 1810 was appointed
+professor of chemistry, pharmacy and technology at Jena,
+where he died on the 24th of March 1849. The Royal Society&rsquo;s
+<i>Catalogue</i> enumerates 171 papers by him on various chemical
+topics, but his name is best known for his experiments on
+platinum in a minute state of division and on the oxidation
+products of alcohol. In 1822 he showed that when a mass
+of platinum black, supplied with alcohol by a wick is enclosed
+in a jar to which the air has limited access, acetic acid and water
+are produced; this experiment formed the basis of the Schützenbach
+Quick Vinegar Process. A year later he noticed that
+spongy platinum in presence of oxygen can bring about the ignition
+of hydrogen, and utilized this fact to construct his &ldquo;hydrogen
+lamp,&rdquo; the prototype of numerous devices for the self-ignition of
+coal-gas burners. He studied the formation of aldehyde from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span>
+alcohol by various methods, also obtaining its crystalline compound
+with ammonia, and he was the discoverer of furfurol.
+An early observation of the diffusion of gases was recorded by
+him in 1823 when he noticed the escape of hydrogen from a
+cracked jar, attributing it to the capillary action of fissures.
+His works included treatises on pneumatic chemistry (1821-1825)
+and the chemistry of fermentation (1822).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A correspondence which he carried on with Goethe and Charles
+August, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, was collected and published
+at Weimar by Schade in 1856.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBREE, PETER PAUL<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1782-1825), English classical scholar
+and critic, was born in Guernsey. He was educated at Reading
+school under Richard Valpy and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
+where he was elected fellow. He was appointed regius professor
+of Greek in 1823, and died in Cambridge on the 24th of September
+1825. He was an intimate friend of Porson, whom he took as his
+model in textual criticism, although he showed less caution in
+conjectural emendation. After Porson&rsquo;s death (1808) Dobree
+was commissioned with Monk and Blomfield to edit his literary
+remains, which had been bequeathed to Trinity College. Illness
+and a subsequent journey to Spain delayed the work until 1820,
+when Dobree brought out the <i>Plutus</i> of Aristophanes (with his
+own and Porson&rsquo;s notes) and all Porson&rsquo;s <i>Aristophanica</i>. Two
+years later he published the <i>Lexicon</i> of Photius from Porson&rsquo;s
+transcript of the Gale MS. in Trinity College library, to which he
+appended a <i>Lexicon rhetoricum</i> from the margin of a Cambridge
+MS. of Harpocration. James Scholefield, his successor in the
+Greek professorship, brought out selections from his notes
+(<i>Adversaria</i>, 1831-1833) on Greek and Latin authors (especially
+the orators), and a reprint of the <i>Lexicon rhetoricum</i>, together
+with notes on inscriptions (1834-1835). The latest edition of the
+<i>Adversaria</i> is by William Wagner (in Bohn&rsquo;s <i>Collegiate Series</i>,
+1883).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An appreciative estimate of Dobree as a scholar will be found in
+J. Bake&rsquo;s <i>Scholica hypomnemata</i>, ii. (1839) and in the <i>Philological
+Museum</i>, i. (1832) by J. C. Hare.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DÖBRENTEI, GABOR<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Gabriel</span>] (1786-1851), Hungarian
+philologist and antiquary, was born at Nagyszöllös in 1786.
+He completed his studies at the universities of Wittenberg and
+Leipzig, and was afterwards engaged as a tutor in Transylvania.
+At this period he originated and edited the <i>Erdélyi Muzeum</i>,
+which, notwithstanding its important influence on the development
+of the Magyar language and literature, soon failed for want
+of support. In 1820 Döbrentei settled at Pest, and there he spent
+the rest of his life. He held various official posts, but continued
+zealously to pursue the studies for which he had early shown a
+strong preference. His great work is the <i>Ancient Monuments of
+the Magyar Language</i> (<i>Régi Magyar Nyelvemlékek</i>), the editing
+of which was entrusted to him by the Hungarian Academy. The
+first volume was published in 1838 and the fifth was in course
+of preparation at the time of his death. Döbrentei was one of
+the twenty-two scholars appointed in 1825 to plan and organize,
+under the presidency of Count Teleki, the Hungarian Academy.
+In addition to his great work he wrote many valuable papers
+on historical and philological subjects, and many biographical
+notices of eminent Hungarians. These appeared in the Hungarian
+translation of Brockhaus&rsquo;s <i>Conversations-Lexikon</i>. He translated
+into Hungarian <i>Macbeth</i> and other plays of Shakespeare, Sterne&rsquo;s
+letters from Yorick to Eliza (1828), several of Schiller&rsquo;s tragedies,
+and Molière&rsquo;s <i>Avare</i>, and wrote several original poems. Döbrentei
+does not appear to have taken any part in the revolutionary
+movement of 1848. He died at his country house, near Pest,
+on the 28th of March 1851.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBRITCH,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Hajiolupazarjik</span>, the principal town in the
+Bulgarian Dobrudja. Pop. (1901) 13,436. The town is noted
+for its <i>panaïr</i> or great fair, chiefly for horses and cattle, held
+annually in the summer, which formerly attracted a large
+concourse from all parts of eastern Europe, but has declined in
+importance.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1717-1791), Austrian Roman
+Catholic missionary, was born at Gratz, in Styria. He joined the
+Society of Jesus in 1736, and in 1749 proceeded to Paraguay,
+where for eighteen years he worked devotedly first among the
+Guaranis, and then among the Abipones. Returning to Europe
+on the expulsion of the Jesuits from South America, he settled at
+Vienna, obtained the friendship of Maria Theresa, survived the
+extinction of his order, composed the history of his mission, and
+died on the 17th of July 1791. The lively if rather garrulous book
+on which his title to remembrance rests, appeared at Vienna in
+1784, in the author&rsquo;s own Latin, and in a German translation by
+Professor Krail of the university of Pest. Of its contents some idea
+may be obtained from its extended title:&mdash;<i>Historia de Abiponibus,
+Equestri Bellicosaque Paraguariae Natione, locupletata Copiosis
+Barbararum Gentium, Urbium, Fluminum, Ferarum, Amphibiorum,
+Insectorum, Serpentium praecipuorum, Piscium, Avium,
+Arborum, Plantarum aliarumque ejusdem Provinciae Proprietatum
+Observationibus</i>. In 1822 there appeared in London an anonymous
+translation sometimes ascribed to Southey, but really the
+work of Sara Coleridge, who had undertaken the task to defray
+the college expenses of one of her brothers. A delicate compliment
+was paid to the translator by Southey in the third canto of
+his <i>Tale of Paraguay</i>, the story of which was derived from the
+pages of Dobrizhoffer&rsquo;s narrative:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;And if he could in Merlin&rsquo;s glass have seen</p>
+<p class="i05">By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught,</p>
+<p class="i05">The old man would have felt as pleased, I ween,</p>
+<p class="i05">As when he won the ear of that great Empress Queen.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1753-1829), Hungarian philologist,
+was born of Bohemian parentage at Gjermet, near Raab, in
+Hungary. He received his first education in the German school
+at Bischofteinitz, made his first acquaintance with Bohemian
+at the Deutschbrod gymnasium, studied for some time under
+the Jesuits at Klattau, and then proceeded to the university of
+Prague. In 1772 he was admitted among the Jesuits at Brünn;
+but on the dissolution of the order in 1773 he returned to Prague
+to study theology. After holding for some time the office of tutor
+in the family of Count Nostitz, he obtained an appointment first
+as vice-rector, and then as rector, in the general seminary at
+Hradisch; but in 1790 he lost his post through the abolition
+of the seminaries throughout Austria, and returned as a guest
+to the house of the count. In 1792 he was commissioned by
+the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit Stockholm, Abo,
+Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which had
+been scattered by the Thirty Years&rsquo; War; and on his return
+he accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy. His
+reason began to give way in 1795, and in 1801 he had to be
+confined in a lunatic asylum; but by 1803 he had completely
+recovered. The rest of his life was mainly spent either in Prague
+or at the country seats of his friends Counts Nostitz and Czernin;
+but his death took place at Brünn, whither he had gone in 1828
+to make investigations in the library. While his fame rests
+chiefly on his labours in Slavonic philology his botanical studies
+are not without value in the history of the science.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following is a list of his more important works, <i>Fragmentum
+Pragense evangelii S. Marci, vulgo autographi</i> (1778); a periodical
+for Bohemian and Moravian Literature (1780-1787); <i>Scriptores
+rerum Bohemicarum</i> (2 vols., 1783); <i>Geschichte der böhm. Sprache
+und ältern Literatur</i> (1792); <i>Die Bildsamkeit der slaw. Sprache</i> (1799);
+a <i>Deutsch-böhm. Wörterbuch</i> compiled in collaboration with Leschka-Puchmayer
+and Hanka (1802-1821); <i>Entwurf eines Pflanzensystems
+nach Zahlen und Verhältnissen</i> (1802); <i>Glagolitica</i> (1807); <i>Lehrgebäude
+der böhm. Sprache</i> (1809); <i>Institutiones linguae slavicae dialecti
+veteris</i> (1822); <i>Entwurf zu einem allgemeinen Etymologikon der
+slaw. Sprachen</i> (1813); <i>Slowanka zur Kenntniss der slaw. Literatur</i>
+(1814); and a critical edition of Jordanes, <i>De rebus Geticis</i>, for
+Pertz&rsquo;s <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>. See Palacky, <i>J. Dobrowskys
+Leben und gelehrtes Wirken</i> (1833).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBRUDJA<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (Bulgarian <i>Dobritch</i>, Rumanian <i>Dobrogea</i>), also
+written <span class="sc">Dobrudscha</span>, and <span class="sc">Dobruja</span>, a region of south-eastern
+Europe, bounded on the north and west by the Danube, on the
+east by the Black Sea, and on the south by Bulgaria. Pop. (1900)
+267,808; area, 6000 sq. m. The strategic importance of this
+territory was recognized by the Romans, who defended it on
+the south by &ldquo;Trajan&rsquo;s Wall,&rdquo; a double rampart, drawn from
+Constantza, on the Black Sea, to the Danube. In later times it
+was utilized by Russians and Turks, as in the wars of 1828, 1854
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span>
+and 1878, when it was finally wrested from Turkey. By the treaty
+of Berlin, in 1878, the Russians rewarded their Rumanian allies
+with this land of mountains, fens and barren steppes, peopled by
+Turks, Bulgarians, Tatars, Jews and other aliens; while, to add
+to the indignation of Rumania, they annexed instead the fertile
+country of Bessarabia, largely inhabited by Rumans. After 1880,
+however, the steady decrease of aliens, and the development of
+the Black Sea ports, rendered the Dobrudja a source of prosperity
+to Rumania.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBSINA<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Dobschau</i>), a town of Hungary, 165 m. N.E. of
+Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 5109. It is situated in the county
+of Gömör, at the foot of the Radzim (3200 ft. high) in the central
+Carpathians, and lies to the south of the beautiful Straczena
+valley, watered by the river Göllnitz, and enclosed on all sides
+by mountains. In the vicinity are mines of iron, cobalt, copper
+and mercury, some of them being very ancient. But the most
+remarkable feature is a large cavern some 3¾ m. N.W., in which
+is an icefield nearly 2 acres in extent, containing formations
+which are at once most curious and strikingly beautiful. This
+cavern, which lies in the above-mentioned Straczena valley,
+was discovered in 1870. The place was founded in the first half
+of the 14th century by German miners.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1840-&emsp;&emsp;), English poet and man
+of letters, was born at Plymouth on the 18th of January 1840,
+being the eldest son of George Clarisse Dobson, a civil engineer,
+and on his grandmother&rsquo;s side of French descent. When he was
+about eight years old the family moved to Holyhead, and his
+first school was at Beaumaris, in the Isle of Anglesea. He was
+afterwards educated at Coventry, and the Gymnase, Strassburg,
+whence he returned at the age of sixteen with the intention
+of becoming a civil engineer. He had a taste for art, and in
+his earlier years at the office continued to study it at South
+Kensington, at his leisure, but without definite ambition. In
+December 1856 he entered the Board of Trade, gradually rising to
+a principalship in the harbour department, from which he withdrew
+in the autumn of 1901. He married in 1868 Frances Mary,
+daughter of Nathaniel Beardmore of Broxbourne, Herts, and
+settled at Ealing. His official career was industrious though
+uneventful, but as poet and biographer he stands among the most
+distinguished of his time. The student of Mr Austin Dobson&rsquo;s
+work will be struck at once by the fact that it contains nothing
+immature: there are no <i>juvenilia</i> to criticize or excuse. It was
+about 1864 that Mr Dobson first turned his attention to composition
+in prose and verse, and some of his earliest known pieces
+remain among his best. It was not until 1868 that the appearance
+of <i>St Paul&rsquo;s</i>, a magazine edited by Anthony Trollope, afforded
+Mr Dobson an opportunity and an audience; and during the next
+six years he contributed to its pages some of his favourite poems,
+including &ldquo;Tu Quoque,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Gentleman of the Old School,&rdquo; &ldquo;A
+Dialogue from Plato,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Une Marquise.&rdquo; Many of his poems
+in their original form were illustrated&mdash;some, indeed, actually
+written to support illustrations. By the autumn of 1873 Mr
+Dobson had produced sufficient verse for a volume, and put forth
+his <i>Vignettes in Rhyme</i>, which quickly passed through three
+editions. During the period of their appearance in the magazine
+the poems had received unusual attention, George Eliot, among
+others, extending generous encouragement to the anonymous
+author. The little book at once introduced him to a larger public.
+The period was an interesting one for a first appearance, since
+the air was full of metrical experiment. Swinburne&rsquo;s bold and
+dithyrambic excursions into classical metre had given the clue
+for an enlargement of the borders of English prosody; and, since
+it was hopeless to follow him in his own line without necessary loss
+of vigour, the poets of the day were looking about for fresh forms
+and variations. It was early in 1876 that a small body of English
+poets lit upon the French forms of Theodore de Banville, Marot
+and Villon, and determined to introduce them into English verse.
+Mr Austin Dobson, who had already made successful use of the
+triolet, was at the head of this movement, and in May 1876 he
+published in <i>The Prodigals</i> the first original ballade written in
+English. This he followed by English versions of the rondel,
+rondeau and villanelle. An article in the <i>Cornhill Magazine</i> by
+Mr Edmund Gosse, &ldquo;A Plea for Certain Exotic Forms of Verse,&rdquo;
+appearing in July 1877, simultaneously with Mr Dobson&rsquo;s second
+volume, <i>Proverbs in Porcelain</i>, drew the general eye to the
+possibilities and achievements of the movement. The experiment
+was extremely fortunate in its introduction. Mr Dobson is above
+all things natural, spontaneous and unaffected in poetic method;
+and in his hands a sheaf of metrical forms, essentially artificial
+and laborious, was made to assume the colour and bright
+profusion of a natural product. An air of pensive charm, of
+delicate sensibility, pervades the whole of these fresh revivals;
+and it is perhaps this personal touch of humanity which has
+given something like stability to one side of a movement otherwise
+transitory in influence. The fashion has faded, but the
+flowers of Mr Dobson&rsquo;s French garden remain bright and
+scented.</p>
+
+<p>In 1883 Mr Dobson published <i>Old-World Idylls</i>, a volume which
+contains some of his most characteristic work. By this time his
+taste was gradually settling upon the period with which it has
+since become almost exclusively associated; and the spirit of
+the 18th century is revived in &ldquo;The Ballad of Beau Brocade&rdquo;
+and in &ldquo;The Story of Rosina,&rdquo; as nowhere else in modern English
+poetry. In &ldquo;Beau Brocade,&rdquo; indeed, the pictorial quality of his
+work, the dainty economy of eloquent touches, is at its very
+best: every couplet has its picture, and every picture is true and
+vivacious. The touch has often been likened to that of Randolph
+Caldecott, with which it has much in common; but Mr Dobson&rsquo;s
+humour is not so &ldquo;rollicking,&rdquo; his portraiture not so broad, as
+that of the illustrator of &ldquo;John Gilpin.&rdquo; The appeal is rather
+to the intellect, and the touches of subdued pathos in the
+&ldquo;Gentleman&rdquo; and &ldquo;Gentlewoman of the Old School&rdquo; are
+addressed directly to the heart. We are in the 18th century, but
+see it through the glasses of to-day; and the soft intercepting
+sense of change which hangs like a haze between ourselves and
+the subject is altogether due to the poet&rsquo;s sympathy and sensibility.
+<i>At the Sign of the Lyre</i> (1885) was the next of Mr Dobson&rsquo;s
+separate volumes of verse, although he has added to the body of
+his work in a volume of <i>Collected Poems</i> (1897). <i>At the Sign of the
+Lyre</i> contains examples of all his various moods. The admirably
+fresh and breezy &ldquo;Ladies of St James&rsquo;s&rdquo; has precisely the
+qualities we have traced in his other 18th-century poems; there
+are ballades and rondeaus, with all the earlier charm; and in
+&ldquo;A Revolutionary Relic,&rdquo; as in &ldquo;The Child Musician&rdquo; of the
+<i>Old-World Idylls</i>, the poet reaches a depth of true pathos which
+he does not often attempt, but in which, when he seeks it, he
+never fails. At the pole opposite to these are the light occasional
+verses, not untouched by the influence of Praed, but also quite
+individual, buoyant and happy. But the chief novelty in <i>At the
+Sign of the Lyre</i> was the series of &ldquo;Fables of Literature and Art,&rdquo;
+founded in manner upon Gay, and exquisitely finished in
+scholarship, taste and criticism. It is in these perhaps, more than
+in any other of his poems, that we see how with much felicity Mr
+Dobson interpenetrates the literature of fancy with the literature
+of judgment. After 1885 Mr Dobson was engaged principally
+upon critical and biographical prose, by which he has added very
+greatly to the general knowledge of his favourite 18th century.
+His biographies of <i>Fielding</i> (1883), <i>Bewick</i> (1884), <i>Steele</i> (1886),
+<i>Goldsmith</i> (1888), <i>Walpole</i> (1890) and <i>Hogarth</i> (1879-1898) are
+studies marked alike by assiduous research, sympathetic presentation
+and sound criticism. It is particularly noticeable that
+Mr Dobson in his prose has always added something, and often a
+great deal, to our positive knowledge of the subject in question,
+his work as a critic never being solely aesthetic. In <i>Four Frenchwomen</i>
+(1890), in the three series of <i>Eighteenth-Century Vignettes</i>
+(1892-1894-1896), and in <i>The Paladin of Philanthropy</i> (1899),
+which contain unquestionably his most delicate prose work,
+the accurate detail of each study is relieved by a charm of
+expression which could only be attained by a poet. In 1901
+he collected his hitherto unpublished poems in a volume entitled
+<i>Carmina Votiva</i>. Possessing an exquisite talent of defined
+range, Mr Austin Dobson may be said in his own words to
+have &ldquo;held his pen in trust for Art&rdquo; with a service sincere and
+distinguished.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOBSON, WILLIAM<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1610-1646), English portrait and
+historical painter, was born in London. His father was master of
+the alienation office, but by improvidence had fallen into reduced
+circumstances. The son was accordingly bound an apprentice
+to a stationer and picture dealer in Holborn Bridge; and while
+in his employment he began to copy the pictures of Titian and
+Van Dyck. He also took portraits from life under the advice
+and instruction of Francis Cleyn, a German artist of considerable
+repute. Van Dyck, happening to pass a shop in Snow Hill where
+one of Dobson&rsquo;s pictures was exposed, sought out the artist, and
+presented him to Charles I., who took Dobson under his protection,
+and not only sat to him several times for his own portrait,
+but caused the prince of Wales, Prince Rupert and many others
+to do the same. The king had a high opinion of his artistic ability,
+styled him the English Tintoretto, and appointed him serjeant-painter
+on the death of Van Dyck. After the fall of Charles,
+Dobson was reduced to great poverty, and fell into dissolute
+habits. He died at the early age of thirty-six. Excellent
+examples of Dobson&rsquo;s portraits are to be seen at Blenheim,
+Chatsworth and several other country seats throughout England.
+The head in the &ldquo;Decollation of St John the Baptist&rdquo; at Wilton
+is said to be a portrait of Prince Rupert.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCETAE<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span>, a name applied to those thinkers in the early
+Christian Church who held that Christ, during his life, had not
+a real or natural, but only an apparent (<span class="grk" title="dokein">&#948;&#959;&#954;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to appear) or
+phantom body. Other explanations of the <span class="grk" title="dokêsis">&#948;&#972;&#954;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> or appearance
+have, however, been suggested, and, in the absence of any
+statement by those who first used the word of the grounds on
+which they did so, it is impossible to determine between them
+with certainty. The name Docetae is first used by Theodoret
+(<i>Ep.</i> 82) as a general description, and by Clement of Alexandria
+as the designation of a distinct sect,<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of which he says that Julius
+Cassianus was the founder. Docetism, however, undoubtedly
+existed before the time of Cassianus. The origin of the heresy is
+to be sought in the Greek, Alexandrine and Oriental philosophizing
+about the imperfection or rather the essential impurity of
+matter. Traces of a Jewish Docetism are to be found in Philo;
+and in the Christian form it is generally supposed to be combated
+in the writings of John,<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and more formally in the epistles of
+Ignatius.<a name="fa3l" id="fa3l" href="#ft3l"><span class="sp">3</span></a> It differed much in its complexion according to the
+points of view adopted by the different authors. Among the
+Gnostics and Manichaeans it existed in its most developed type,
+and in a milder form it is to be found even in the writings of the
+orthodox teachers. The more thoroughgoing Docetae assumed
+the position that Christ was born without any participation of
+matter; and that all the acts and sufferings of his human life,
+including the crucifixion, were only apparent. They denied
+accordingly, the resurrection and the ascent into heaven. To this
+class belonged Dositheus, Saturninus, Cerdo, Marcion and their
+followers, the Ophites, Manichaeans and others. Marcion, for
+example, regarded the body of Christ merely as an &ldquo;umbra,&rdquo; a
+&ldquo;phantasma.&rdquo; His denial (due to his abhorrence of the world)
+that Jesus was born or subjected to human development, is in
+striking contrast to the value which he sets on Christ&rsquo;s death on
+the cross. The other, or milder school of Docetae, attributed to
+Christ an ethereal and heavenly instead of a truly human body.
+Amongst these were Valentinus, Bardesanes, Basilides, Tatian
+and their followers. They varied considerably in their estimation
+of the share which this body had in the real actions and sufferings
+of Christ. Clement and Origen, at the head of the Alexandrian
+school, took a somewhat subtle view of the Incarnation, and
+Docetism pervades their controversies with the Monarchians.
+Hilary especially illustrates the prevalence of naive Docetic views
+as regards the details of the Incarnation. Docetic tendencies
+have also been developed in later periods of ecclesiastical history,
+as for example by the Priscillianists and the Bogomils, and also
+since the Reformation by Jacob Boehme, Menno Simons and a
+small fraction of the Anabaptists. Docetism springs from the
+same roots as Gnosticism, and the Gnostics generally held
+Docetic views (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gnosticism</a></span>).</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Not a distinct sect, but a continuous type of Christology. Hippolytus,
+however (<i>Philosophumena</i>, viii. 8-11), speaks of a definite party
+who called themselves Docetae.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> 1 <i>Ep.</i> iv. 2, ii. 22, v. 6, 20; 2 <i>Ep.</i> 7, cf. Jerome (<i>Dial. adv.
+Lucifer</i>. § 23 &ldquo;Apostolis adhuc in saeculo superstitibus, adhuc apud
+Judaeam Christi sanguine recenti, phantasma Domini corpus
+asserebatur&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3l" id="ft3l" href="#fa3l"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Ad Trall.</i> 9 f., <i>Ad Smyrn.</i> 2, 4, <i>Ad Ephes.</i> 7. Cf. Polycarp,
+<i>Ad Phil.</i> 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCHMIAC<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="dochmê">&#948;&#959;&#967;&#956;&#942;</span>, a hand&rsquo;s breadth), a form of
+verse, consisting of <i>dochmii</i> or pentasyllabic feet (usually o _ _ o -).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCK<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span>, a word applied to (1) a plant (see below), (2) an
+artificial basin for ships (see below), (3) the fleshy solid part of
+an animal&rsquo;s tail, and (4) the railed-in enclosure in which a
+prisoner is placed in court at his trial. Dock (1) in O.E. is
+<i>docce</i>, represented by Ger. <i>Dockea-blatter</i>, O.Fr. <i>docque</i>, Gael.
+<i>dogha</i>; Skeat compares Gr. <span class="grk" title="daukos">&#948;&#945;&#8166;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, a kind of parsnip. Dock (2)
+appears in Dutch (<i>dok</i>) and English in the 16th century; thence
+it was adopted into other languages. It has been connected with
+Med. Lat. <i>doga</i>, cap, Gr. <span class="grk" title="dochê">&#948;&#959;&#967;&#942;</span>, receptacle, from <span class="grk" title="dechesthai">&#948;&#941;&#967;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>, to receive.
+Dock (3), especially used of a horse or dog, appears in English
+in the 14th century; a parallel is found in Icel. <i>docke</i>, stumpy
+tail, and Ger. <i>Docke</i>, bundle, skein, is also connected with it.
+This word has given the verb &ldquo;to dock,&rdquo; to cut short, curtail,
+especially used of the shortening of an animal&rsquo;s tail by severing
+one or more of the vertebrae. The English Kennel Club (Rules,
+1905, revised 1907) disqualifies from prize-winning dogs whose
+tails have been docked; several breeds are, however, excepted,
+<i>e.g.</i> varieties of terriers and spaniels, poodles, &amp;c., and such
+foreign dogs as may from time to time be determined by the
+club. The prisoners&rsquo; dock (4) is apparently to be referred to
+Flem. <i>dok</i>, pen or hutch. It was probably first used in thieves&rsquo;
+slang; according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i> it was known
+after 1610 in &ldquo;bail-dock,&rdquo; a room at the corner of the Old
+Bailey left open at the top, &ldquo;in which during the trials are put
+some of the malefactors&rdquo; (<i>Scots. Mag.</i>, 1753).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCK<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span>, in botany, the name applied to the plants constituting
+the section <i>Lapathum</i> of the genus <i>Rumex</i>, natural order Polygonaceae.
+They are biennial or perennial herbs with a stout root-stock,
+and glabrous linear-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaves
+with a rounded, obtuse or hollowed base and a more or less wavy
+or crisped margin. The flowers are arranged in more or less
+crowded whorls, the whole forming a denser or looser panicle;
+they are generally perfect, with six sepals, six stamens and a
+three-sided ovary bearing three styles with much-divided stigmas.
+The fruit is a triangular nut enveloped in the three enlarged
+leathery inner sepals, one or all of which bear a tubercle. In the
+common or broad-leaved dock, <i>Rumex obtusifolius</i>, the flower-stem
+is erect, branching, and 18 in. to 3 ft. high, with large radical
+leaves, heart-shaped at the base, and more or less blunt; the
+other leaves are more pointed, and have shorter stalks. The
+whorls are many-flowered, close to the stem and mostly leafless.
+The root is many-headed, black externally and yellow within.
+The flowers appear from June to August. In autumn the whole
+plant may become of a bright red colour. It is a troublesome
+weed, common by roadsides and in fields, pastures and waste
+places throughout Europe. The great water dock, <i>R. hydrolapathum</i>,
+believed to be the <i>herba britannica</i> of Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i>
+xxv. 6), is a tall-growing species; its root is used as an antiscorbutic.
+Other British species are <i>R. crispus</i>; <i>R. conglomeratus</i>,
+the root of which has been employed in dyeing; <i>R. sanguineus</i>
+(bloody dock, or bloodwort); <i>R. palustris</i>; <i>R. pulcher</i> (fiddle
+dock), with fiddle-shaped leaves; <i>R. maritimus</i>; <i>R. aquaticus</i>;
+<i>R. pratensis</i>. The naturalized species, <i>R. alpinus</i>, or &ldquo;monk&rsquo;s
+rhubarb,&rdquo; was early cultivated in Great Britain, and was accounted
+an excellent remedy for ague, but, like many other such
+drugs, is now discarded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCK<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span>, in marine and river engineering. Vessels require to
+lie afloat alongside quays provided with suitable appliances in
+sheltered sites in order to discharge and take in cargoes conveniently
+and expeditiously; and a basin constructed for this
+purpose, surrounded by quay walls, is known as a dock. The
+term is specially applied to basins adjoining tidal rivers, or close
+to the sea-coast, in which the water is maintained at a fairly
+uniform level by gates, which are closed when the tide begins to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span>
+fall, as exemplified by the Liverpool and Havre docks (figs. 1
+and 2). Sometimes, however, at ports situated on tidal rivers
+near their tidal limit, as at Glasgow (fig. 3), Hamburg and
+Rouen, and at some ports near the sea-coast, such as Southampton
+(fig. 4) and New York, the tidal range is sufficiently moderate
+for dock gates to be dispensed with, and for open basins and river
+quays to serve for the accommodation of vessels. For ports
+established on the sea-coast of tideless seas, such as the Mediterranean,
+on account of the rivers being barred by deltas at
+their outlets, like the Rhone and the Tiber, and thus rendered
+inaccessible, open basins, provided with quays and protected by
+breakwaters, furnish the necessary commercial requirements for
+sea-going vessels, as for example at Marseilles (fig. 5), Genoa,
+Naples and Trieste. These open basins, however, are precisely
+the same as closed docks, except for the absence of dock gates,
+and the accommodation for shipping at the quays round basins
+in river ports is so frequently supplemented by river quays,
+that closed docks, open basins and river quays are all naturally
+included in the general consideration of dock works.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:226px" src="images/img354a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Liverpool Docks, North End. Scale <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">20,000</span>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:753px; height:386px" src="images/img354b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Havre Docks and Outer Harbour.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:471px; height:277px" src="images/img354c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Glasgow Docks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:408px; height:447px" src="images/img354d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Southampton Docks and River Quays.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Low-lying land adjoining a tidal river or estuary frequently
+provides suitable sites for docks; for the position, being more
+or less inland, is sheltered; the low level reduces the excavation
+required for forming the docks, and enables the excavated
+<span class="sidenote">Sites for Docks.</span>
+materials to be utilized in raising the ground at the
+sides for quays, and the river furnishes a sheltered
+approach channel. Notable instances of these are the
+docks of the ports of London, Liverpool,
+South Wales, Southampton,
+Hull, Belfast, St Nazaire, Rotterdam,
+Antwerp and Hamburg. Sometimes
+docks are partially formed on
+foreshores reclaimed from estuaries,
+as at Hull, Grimsby, Cardiff, Liverpool,
+Leith and Havre; whilst at
+Bristol, a curved portion of the river
+Avon was appropriated for a dock,
+and a straight cut made for the river.
+By carrying docks across sharp bends
+of tidal rivers, upper and lower entrances
+can be provided, thereby conveniently
+separating the inland and
+sea-going traffic; and of this the
+London, Surrey Commercial, West
+India, and Victoria and Albert docks
+are examples on the Thames and
+Chatham dockyard on the Medway.
+Occasionally, when a small tidal river
+has a shallow entrance, or an estuary exhibits signs of silting up,
+docks alongside, formed on foreshores adjoining the sea-coast,
+are provided with a sheltered entrance direct from the sea,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span>
+as exemplified by the Sunderland docks adjacent to the
+mouth of the river Wear, and the Havre docks at the outlet
+of the Seine estuary (fig. 2). Some old ports, originally established
+on sandy coasts where a creek, maintained by the influx
+and efflux of the tide from low-lying spaces near the shore,
+afforded some shelter and an outlet to the sea across the beach,
+have had their access improved by parallel jetties and dredging;
+and docks have been readily formed in the low-lying land only
+separated by sand dunes from the sea, as at Calais, Dunkirk
+(fig. 6) and Ostend (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>). In sheltered places on
+the sea-coast, docks have sometimes been constructed on low-lying
+land bordering the shore, with direct access to the sea,
+as at Barrow and Hartlepool; whilst at Mediterranean ports
+open basins have been formed in the sea, by establishing quays
+along the foreshore, from which wide, solid jetties, lined with
+quay walls, are carried into the sea at intervals at right angles to
+the shore, being sheltered by an outlying breakwater
+parallel to the coast, and reached at each
+end through the openings left between the projecting
+jetties and the breakwater, as at Marseilles (fig. 5)
+and Trieste, and at the extensions at Genoa (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>) and Naples. Where, however, the basins
+are formed within the partial protection of a bay,
+as in the old ports of Genoa and Naples, the requisite
+additional shelter has been provided by
+converging breakwaters across the opening of the
+bay; and an entrance to the port is left between
+the breakwaters. The two deep arms of the sea at
+New York, known as the Hudson and East rivers,
+are so protected by Staten Island and Long Island
+that it has been only necessary to form open basins
+by projecting wide jetties or quays into them from
+the west and east shores of Manhattan Island, and
+from the New Jersey and Brooklyn shores, at intervals,
+to provide adequate accommodation for Atlantic liners
+and the sea-going trade of New York.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:410px" src="images/img355a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Port of Marseilles. Basins and Extensions.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The accessibility of a port depends upon the depth of its
+approach channel, which also determines the depth of the docks
+or basins to which it leads; for it is useless to give a
+depth to a dock much in excess of the depth down to
+<span class="sidenote">Approach channels.</span>
+which there is a prospect of carrying the channel by
+which it is reached. The great augmentation, however, in the
+power and capacity for work of modern dredgers, and especially
+of suction dredgers in sand (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dredge</a></span>), together with the
+increasing draught of vessels, has resulted in a considerable
+increase being made in the available depth of rivers and channels
+leading to docks, and has necessitated the making of due
+allowance for the possibility of a reasonable improvement in
+determining the depth to be given to a new dock. On the other
+hand, there is a limit to the deepening of an approach channel,
+depending upon its length, the local conditions as regards
+silting, and the resources and prospects of trade of the port, for
+every addition to the depth generally involves a corresponding
+increase in the cost of maintenance.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:636px; height:323px" src="images/img355b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Dunkirk Docks and Jetty Channel.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:353px; height:469px" src="images/img356a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Tilbury Docks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>At tidal ports the available depth for vessels should be
+reckoned from high water of the lowest neap tides, as the standard
+which is certain to be reached at high tide; and the period
+during which docks can be entered at each tide depends upon the
+nature of the approach channel, the extent of the tidal range and
+the manner in which the entrance to the docks is effected. Thus
+where the tidal range is very large, as in the Severn estuary, the
+approach channels to some of the South Wales ports are nearly
+dry at low water of spring tides, and it would be impossible to
+make these ports accessible near low tide; whereas at high
+water, even of neap tides, vessels of large draught can enter their
+docks. At Liverpool, with a rise of 31 ft. at equinoctial spring
+tides, owing to the deep channel between Liverpool and
+Birkenhead and into the outer estuary of the Mersey in Liverpool
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span>
+Bay, maintained by the powerful tidal scour resulting from the
+filling and emptying of the large inner estuary, access to the
+river by the largest vessels has been rendered possible, at any
+state of the tide, by dredging a channel through the Mersey bar;
+but the docks cannot be entered till the water has risen above
+half-tide level, and the gates are closed directly after high water.
+A large floating
+landing-stage,
+however, about
+half a mile in
+length, in front of
+the centre of the
+docks, connected
+with the shore by
+several hinged
+bridges and rising
+and falling with
+the tide, enables
+Atlantic liners to
+come alongside and
+take on board or
+disembark their
+passengers at any
+time.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:668px; height:458px" src="images/img356b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Barry Docks.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Comparatively
+small tidal rivers
+offer the best
+opportunity of a
+considerable improvement
+in the
+approach channel
+to a port; for they
+can be converted into artificially deep channels by dredging,
+and their necessary maintenance is somewhat aided by the
+increased influx and efflux of tidal water due to the lowering
+of the low-water line by the outflow of the ebb tide being facilitated
+by the deepening. Thus systematic, continuous dredging
+in the Tyne and the Clyde has raised the Tyne ports and
+Glasgow into first-class ports. In large tidal rivers and estuaries,
+docks should be placed alongside a concave bank which the deep
+navigable channel hugs, as effected at Hull and Antwerp, or
+close to a permanently deep channel in an estuary, such as chosen
+for Garston and the entrance to the Manchester ship canal at
+Eastham in the inner Mersey estuary, and for Grimsby and the
+authorized Illingham dock in the Humber estuary; for a channel
+carried across an estuary to deep water requires constant dredging
+to maintain its depth. Occasionally, extensive draining works
+and dredging have to be executed to form an adequately deep
+channel through a shifting estuary and shallow river to a port,
+as for instance on the Weser to Bremerhaven and Bremen, on
+the Seine to Honfleur and Rouen, on the Tees to Middlesborough
+and Stockton, on the Ribble to Preston, on the Maas to Rotterdam
+and on the Nervion to Bilbao (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">River Engineering</a></span>). Southampton
+possesses the very rare combination of advantages of a
+well-sheltered and fairly deep estuary, a rise of only 12 ft. at
+spring tides, and a position at the head of Southampton Water
+at the confluence of two rivers (fig. 4), so that, with a moderate
+amount of dredging and the construction of quays along the lower
+ends of the river with a depth of 35 ft. in front of them at low
+water, it is possible for vessels of the largest draught to come
+alongside or leave the quays at any state of the tide. This
+circumstance has enabled Southampton to attract some of the
+Atlantic steamers formerly running to Liverpool.</p>
+
+<p>Ports on tideless seas have to be placed where deep water
+approaches the shore, and where there is an absence of littoral
+drift. The basins of such ports are always accessible for vessels
+of the draught they provide for; but they require most efficient
+protection, and, unlike tidal ports, they are not able <span class="correction" title="amended from to">on</span> exceptional
+occasions to admit a vessel of larger draught than the
+basins have been formed to accommodate. Occasionally, an old
+port whose approach channel has become inadequate for modern
+vessels, or from which the sea has receded, has been provided
+with deep access from the sea by a ship canal, as exemplified by
+Amsterdam and Bruges; whilst Manchester has become a seaport
+by similar works (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manchester Ship Canal</a></span>). In such
+cases, however, perfectly sheltered open basins are formed inland
+at the head of the ship canal, in the most convenient available
+site; and the size of vessels that can use the port depends wholly
+on the dimensions and facility of access of the ship canal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<p>Docks require to be so designed that they may provide the
+maximum length of quays in proportion to the water area consistent
+with easy access for vessels to the quays; but often the space
+available does not admit of the adoption of
+<span class="sidenote">Design of Docks.</span>
+the best forms, and the design has
+to be made as suitable as practicable
+under the existing conditions.
+On this account, and owing to the small size
+of vessels in former times, the docks of old
+ports present a great variety in size and
+arrangement, being for the most part narrow
+and small, forming a sort of string of docks
+communicating with one another, and provided
+with locks or entrances at suitable
+points for their common use, as noticeable
+in the older London and Liverpool docks.
+Though narrow timber jetties were introduced
+in some of the wider London docks for increasing
+the length of quays by placing
+vessels alongside them, no definite arrangement
+of docks was adopted in carrying out
+the large Victoria and Albert docks between
+1850 and 1880; whilst the Victoria dock was
+made wide with solid quays, provided with
+warehouses, projecting from the northern
+quay wall, thereby affording a large accommodation
+for vessels lying end on to the
+north quay, the Albert dock subsequently
+constructed was given about half the width
+of the earlier dock, but made much longer, so
+that vessels lie alongside the north and south
+quays in a long line. This change of form,
+however, was probably dictated by the
+advantage of stretching across the remainder
+of the wide bend, in order to obtain a second
+entrance in a lower reach of the river. The
+Tilbury docks, the latest and lowest docks
+on the Thames, were constructed on the most approved modern
+system, consisting of a series of branch docks separated by wide,
+well-equipped solid quays, and opening straight into a main dock
+or basin communicating with the entrance lock, in which vessels
+can turn on entering or leaving the docks (fig. 7). The most
+recently constructed Liverpool docks, also, at the northern end
+have been given this form; and the older docks adjoining them
+to the south have been transformed by reconstruction into a
+similar series of branch docks opening into a dock alongside the
+river wall, leading to a half-tide basin or river entrances (fig. 1).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span>
+The Manchester and Salford docks were laid out on a precisely
+similar system, which was also adopted for the most recent docks
+at Dunkirk (fig. 6) and Prince&rsquo;s dock at Glasgow (fig. 3), and
+at some of the principal Rhine ports; whilst the Alexandra dock at
+Hull resembles it in principle. The basins in tideless seas have
+naturally been long formed in accordance with this system (fig. 5).
+The Barry docks furnish an example of the special arrangements
+for a coal-shipping port, with numerous coal-tips served by sidings
+(fig. 8).</p>
+
+<p>Tidal basins, as they are termed, are generally interposed in the
+docks of London between the entrance locks and the docks, with the
+object of facilitating the passage of vessels out of and into
+the docks before and after high water, by lowering the
+<span class="sidenote">Tidal and half-tide basins.</span>
+water in the basin as soon as the tide has risen sufficiently,
+and opening the lock gates directly a level has been
+formed with the tide in the river. Then the vessels which have
+collected in the basin, when level with the dock, are readily passed
+successively into the river. The incoming vessels are next brought
+into the basin, and the gates are closed; and the water in the basin
+having been raised to the level in the dock, the gates shutting off
+the basin from the dock when the water was lowered are opened, and
+the vessels are admitted to the dock. In this manner, by means of
+an inner pair of gates, the basin can be used as a large lock without
+unduly altering the water-level in the dock, and saves the delay of
+locking most of the vessels out and in, the lock being only used for
+the smaller vessels leaving early or coming in late on the tide. Similar
+tidal basins have also been provided at Cardiff, Penarth, Barry (fig. 8),
+Sunderland, Antwerp and other docks.</p>
+
+<p>The large half-tide docks introduced at the most modern Liverpool
+docks (fig. 1) serve a similar purpose as tidal basins; but being much
+larger, and approached by entrances instead of locks, the exit and
+entrance of vessels are effected by lowering their water-level on a
+rising tide, and opening the gates, which are then closed at high water
+to prevent the lowering of the water-level in the dock, and to avoid
+closing the gates against a strong issuing current.</p>
+
+<p>The tidal basins outside the locks at Tilbury and Barry are
+quite open to the tide, and have been carried down to 24 ft. and 16 ft.
+respectively below low water of spring tides, in order to afford vessels
+a deep sheltered approach to the lock in each case, available at or
+near low water (figs. 7 and 8). Such basins, however, open to a
+considerable tidal range where the water is densely charged with
+silt, are exposed to a large deposit in the fairly still water, and their
+depth has to be constantly maintained by sluicing or dredging.</p>
+
+<p>Where the range of tide is moderate, or on large inland rivers,
+docks or basins are usefully supplemented by river quays, which
+though subject to changes in the water-level, and exposed
+to currents in the river, are very convenient for access,
+<span class="sidenote">River quays.</span>
+and are sometimes very advantageously employed in
+regulating a river and keeping up its banks when deepened by
+dredging. Generally 10 to 12 ft. is the limit of the tidal range convenient
+for the adoption of open basins and river quays; but the
+banks of the Tyne have been utilized for quays, jetties and coal-staiths,
+with a somewhat larger maximum tidal range; and a long
+line of quays stretching along the right bank of the Scheldt in front
+of Antwerp, constructed so as to regulate this reach of the river,
+accommodates a large sea-going traffic, with a rise at spring tides
+of 15 ft.</p>
+
+<p>When a dock has to be formed on land, the excavation is effected
+by men with barrows and powerful steam navvies, loading into
+wagons drawn in trains by locomotives to the place of
+deposit, usually to raise the land at the sides for forming
+<span class="sidenote">Excavations for docks.</span>
+quays. Directly the underground water-level is reached,
+the water has to be removed from the excavations by
+pumps raising the inflowing water from sumps, lined with timber,
+sunk down below the lowest foundations at suitable positions, so
+that the lower portions of the dock walls and sills of the lock or
+entrance may be built out of water. A cofferdam has to be constructed
+extending out from the bank of the river or approach channel
+in front of the site of the proposed entrance or lock, so that the
+excavations for the entrance to the dock may be pushed forwards,
+and the lock or entrance built under its protection. Sometimes the
+lowest portion of the excavation for the dock can be accomplished
+economically by dredging, after the dock walls and lock have been
+completed and the water admitted.</p>
+
+<p>Where a dock is partially or wholly constructed on reclaimed land,
+the reclamation bank for enclosing the site and excluding the tide
+has to be undertaken first by tipping an embankment from each
+end with wagons, protected and consolidated along its outer toe
+by rubble stone or chalk. When the ends of the embankments are
+approaching one another, it is essential to connect them by a long
+low bank of selected materials brought up gradually in successive
+layers, and retaining the water in the enclosure to the level of this
+bank, so that the influx and efflux of the tide, filling and emptying
+the reclaimed area, may take place over a long length, and in smaller
+volume as the low bank is raised. In this way a reduction is effected
+of the tidal current in and out, which in the case of a large enclosure
+and a considerable tidal range, would create such a scour in the
+narrowing gap between two high embankments as to wash away
+their ends and prevent the closing of the gap. Occasionally the final
+closure is effected by lowering timber panels in grooves between
+a series of piles driven down at intervals across the gap. On the
+closing of the reclamation bank the water is pumped out; and
+the excavation is carried on in the ordinary manner. It is very
+important that such an embankment should be carried well above
+the level of the highest tide which might be raised by a high wind;
+and in exposed sites, the outer slope of the bank should be protected
+by pitching from the action of waves, for any overtopping or erosion
+of the bank might result in a large breach through it, and the flooding
+of the works inside.</p>
+
+<p>Docks are generally surrounded by walls retaining the quays,
+alongside which vessels lie for discharging and taking in cargoes.
+In order to ascertain the nature of the strata upon which
+these walls have to be founded, borings are taken at the
+<span class="sidenote">Foundations for dock walls.</span>
+outset to the requisite depth at intervals near the line
+of the walls, but inside the dock area if the piercing of
+quicksand is anticipated, as in excavating for the foundations, these
+holes might give rise to the outflow, under pressure, of underlying
+quicksand into the foundations. As docks are generally formed near
+rivers or estuaries, these strata are commonly alluvial; but being
+situated at some depth below the surface, they are usually fairly
+hard. When they consist of gravel, clay or firm sand, the walls
+can be founded on the natural bottom excavated a few feet below
+the bottom of the dock, their weight being somewhat distributed by
+making them rest on a broad bed of concrete filling up the excavation
+at the bottom. When, however, fine sand or silt charged with
+water, or quicksand is met with at the required depth, the necessary
+pumping and excavation for the foundations might occasion the
+influx of sand or silt with the water into the excavations, leading
+to settlement and slips; or the soft stratum might be too thick to
+remove. The wall may then be founded on bearing piles driven down
+to a solid stratum, and having their tops joined together by walings
+and planking, or by a layer of concrete, upon which the wall is built.
+Or the soft stratum can be enclosed with a double row of sheet piling
+along the front and back of the line of wall, by which it sometimes
+becomes sufficiently confined and consolidated to sustain the weight
+of the wall on a broad foundation of concrete; or it can be excavated
+without any danger of sand or silt running in from outside; whilst
+the sheet piling at the back relieves the wall to some extent from
+the pressure of the earth behind it, and in front retains the wall from
+sliding forwards. Firmer foundations have been obtained by sinking
+brick, concrete or masonry wells through soft ground to a solid
+stratum, upon which the dock wall is built. Clusters of small concrete
+cylinders, in sets of three in front, and a line of double cylinders at
+the back, were used for the foundations of the walls of Prince&rsquo;s dock
+at Glasgow. Wells of rubble masonry were sunk in the silty foreshore
+of the Seine estuary for the walls of the Bellot docks at Havre;
+and they served as piers, connected by arches, for the foundations of a
+continuous dock wall above, being carried down to a considerable
+depth through alluvium at the St Nazaire, Bordeaux and Rochefort
+docks. These well foundations, derived from the old Indian system,
+are built up upon a curb, sometimes furnished with a cutting edge
+underneath, and gradually sunk by excavating inside; and eventually
+the central hollow is filled up solid with concrete or masonry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:181px; height:251px" src="images/img357.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Havre Bellot
+Dock Wall.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:171px; height:318px" src="images/img358a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Liverpool
+Dock Wall.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:209px; height:317px" src="images/img358b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Tilbury Basin
+Wall.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:220px; height:279px" src="images/img358c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Barry Dock
+Wall.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The walls round a dock serve as retaining walls to keep up the
+quays; and though they have the support of the water in front of
+them when the docks are in use, they have to sustain the full pressure
+of the filling at the back on the completion of the dock before the
+water is admitted. They have, accordingly, to be increased in
+<span class="sidenote">Dock walls.</span>
+thickness downwards to support the pressure increasing
+with the depth. This pressure, with perfectly dry material,
+would be represented by the weight of half the prism of
+filling between the natural slope of the material behind and the back
+of the wall; but the pressure is often increased by the accumulation
+of water at the back, which, with fine silty
+backing, is liable to exert a sort of fluid
+pressure against the wall proportionate to
+the density of the mixture of silt and water.
+The increase of thickness towards the base
+used formerly to be effected by a batter on
+the face, as well as by steps out at the back;
+but the vertical form now given to the sides
+of large vessels necessitates a corresponding
+fairly vertical face for the wall, to prevent
+the upper part of the vessel being kept
+unduly away from the quay. Examples of
+the most modern types of dock walls are
+given in figs. 9 to 12.</p>
+
+<p>The height of a dock wall depends upon
+the depth of water always available for
+vessels, at tideless sea-ports and at ports
+removed from tidal influences, such as Manchester,
+Bruges and the ports on the Rhine;
+this depth should not be less than 28 to 30 ft. for large sea-going
+vessels, together with a margin of 5 to 8 ft. above the normal water-level
+for the quays, and the foundations below. At tidal ports,
+however, an addition has to be made equal to the difference in
+height between the high-water levels of spring and neap tides; so
+that at ports with a large tidal range, such as the South Wales
+ports on the Severn estuary and Liverpool, specially high dock
+walls are necessary. Under normal conditions, a dock wall should
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span>
+be given a width at a height half-way between dock-bottom and
+quay-level, equal to one-third of its height above dock-bottom, and
+a width of half this height at dock-bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Dock walls are constructed of masonry,
+brickwork or concrete, or of concrete with a
+facing of masonry or brickwork. Masonry is
+adopted where large stone quarries are readily
+accessible, in the form of rubble masonry with
+dressed stone on the face, as for instance at
+the Hull and Barry docks, and forms a very
+durable wall; but strong overhead staging
+carrying powerful gantries is necessary for
+laying large blocks. Brickwork has been often
+used where bricks are the ordinary building
+material of the district or can be made on the
+works, and requires only ordinary scaffolding;
+and harder or pressed bricks are employed for
+the facework. Concrete is very commonly
+resorted to now where sand and stones are
+readily procured; and where clean, sharp
+sand and gravel are found in thick layers in
+the excavations for a dock, as in the alluvial
+strata bordering the Thames, dock walls can
+be constructed cheaply and economically with
+concrete deposited within timber framing,
+dispensing with regular scaffolding and skilled
+labour. Such walls require to be given a facing of stronger concrete,
+or of blue bricks, as at Tilbury, to guard against abrasion
+by vessels, chains and ropes; and dock walls are commonly provided
+at the top with granite or other hard stone coping where the
+wear is greatest. The foundations for dock walls are excavated in
+a trench below dock-bottom, only lined
+with timbering where the faces of the
+trench cannot stand for a short time
+without support, and with sheet piling
+through very unstable silt or sand; and
+the trench is conveniently filled up solid
+with concrete, carried out in short lengths
+in untrustworthy ground. To reduce
+the amount of filling behind the wall, the
+excavation at the back above dock-bottom,
+preparatory for the trench, is
+given as steep a slope as practicable,
+supported sometimes towards the base
+by timbering and struts; but occasionally
+the wall is built within a timbered
+trench carried down to the required
+depth, before the excavation for the
+dock in front of it has been executed, as
+effected at Tilbury. The filling at the
+back is thus reduced to a minimum, and
+the lower portion of the excavation can
+be accomplished by dredging, if expedient,
+after the admission of the water, the
+dock wall in this way being exposed to the least possible pressure behind.</p>
+
+<p>The walls of open basins are often constructed out of water
+precisely like dock walls, as in the case of the basins forming the
+Manchester, Bruges and Glasgow docks; and basin walls open
+to the tide, as at Glasgow and in the tidal basin outside Tilbury
+docks (fig. 7), differ only from dock
+walls in being exposed to variations
+in the pressure at the back resulting
+from the lowering of the water-level
+in front, which is, indeed, shared to
+some extent by the walls round closed
+docks where the difference in the high-water
+levels of springs and neaps
+is considerable. The walls, however,
+round basins in tideless seas, such as
+Marseilles, occasionally those inside
+harbours, and especially quay walls
+along rivers and round open basins
+alongside rivers, have to be constructed
+under water.</p>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:295px; height:269px" src="images/img358d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Marseilles Quay Wall.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:352px; height:388px" src="images/img358e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Antwerp Quay Wall, founded by
+compressed air.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:331px; height:290px" src="images/img358f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Caracciolo Jetty Quay Wall,
+Genoa.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:374px; height:277px" src="images/img359a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Glasgow River Quay Wall.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:313px; height:313px" src="images/img359b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Rouen Quay Wall.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>At Marseilles, the simple expedient
+was long ago adopted of constructing
+the quay walls lining the basins formed
+in the sea, by depositing tiers of large
+concrete blocks on a rubble foundation,
+one on top of the other, till they
+<span class="sidenote">Open basin and river quay walls founded under water.</span>
+reached sea-level, and then building a solid masonry quay wall
+out of water on the top up to quay-level, faced with ashlar
+(fig. 13), the wall being backed by rubble for some distance
+behind up to the water-level. The same system was employed
+for the quay walls at Trieste, and at Genoa and
+other Italian ports. A quay wall inside Marmagao harbour,
+on the west coast of India, was erected on a foundation
+layer of rubble by the sloping-block system, to
+provide against unequal settlement on the soft bottom (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Breakwater</a></span>).
+The quay walls alongside the river Liffey, and round the
+adjacent basins below Dublin, were erected under water by building
+rubble-concrete blocks of 360 tons on staging carried out into the
+water, from which they
+were lifted one by one by a
+powerful floating derrick,
+which conveyed the block
+to the site, and deposited
+it on a levelled bottom at
+low tide in a depth of 28
+ft., raising the wall a little
+above low water. After a
+row of these blocks had
+been laid, and connected
+together by filling the
+grooves formed at the sides
+and the interstices between
+the blocks with concrete,
+a continuous masonry wall
+faced with ashlar was built
+on the top out of water. A
+quay wall was built up to
+a little above low water on
+a similar principle at Cork, with three smaller blocks as a foundation,
+in lengths of 8 ft. Cylindrical well foundations have been
+extensively used for the foundations of the quay walls along the
+Clyde, formerly made of brick, but subsequently of concrete, sunk
+through a considerable variety of alluvial strata, but mostly sand
+and gravel fully
+charged with water.
+Compressed air in
+bottomless caissons
+has been increasingly
+employed in
+recent years for
+carrying down the
+subaqueous foundations
+of river quay
+walls, through alluvial
+deposits, to a
+solid stratum.
+About 1880, a long
+line of river quays
+was commenced in
+front of Antwerp,
+extending in the
+central portion a
+considerable distance
+out into the
+Scheldt, with the
+object of regulating
+the width of the
+river simultaneously
+with the provision
+of deep quays for
+sea-going vessels;
+and the quay wall was erected, out of water, on the flat tops of a
+series of wrought-iron caissons, 82 ft. long and 29½ ft. wide, constructed
+on shore, floated out one by one to their site in the river
+between two barges, and gradually lowered as the wall was built up
+inside a plate-iron enclosure round the roof of the caisson, which
+was eventually sunk by
+aid of compressed air
+through the bed of the
+river to a compact
+stratum (fig. 14). The
+weight of the wall
+counteracted the tendency
+of the caisson
+and the enclosure
+above it to float; and
+the caisson, furnished
+with seven circular
+wrought-iron shafts,
+provided with air-locks
+at the top for the admission
+of men and
+materials and for the
+removal of the excavations,
+was gradually
+carried down by excavating
+inside the
+working chamber at
+the bottom, 6¼ ft. high, till a good foundation was reached. The
+working chamber was then filled with concrete through some of the
+shafts, the plate-iron sides of the upper enclosure were removed to
+be used for another length of wall, the shafts were drawn out and
+the hollows left by them filled with concrete, the apertures between
+adjacent lengths were closed at each face with wooden panels and
+filled with concrete, and a continuous quay wall was completed
+above. The most recent quay walls constructed in the old harbour
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span>
+at Genoa were founded under water on a rubble mound in a similar
+manner by the aid of compressed air (fig. 15). Quay walls also on
+the Clyde have been founded on caissons, consisting of a bottomless
+steel structure, surmounted by a brick superstructure having
+hollows filled with concrete, in lengths of 80 ft. and 27 ft., and
+widths of 18 ft. and 21 ft. respectively, carried down by means of
+compressed air from 54 to 70 ft. below quay-level, on the top
+of which a continuous wall of concrete, faced with brickwork,
+and having a
+granite coping,
+was built up from
+near low-water
+level (fig. 16). In
+many cases where
+soft strata extend
+to considerable
+depths, river
+quays and basin
+walls have been
+constructed by
+building a light
+quay wall upon a
+series of bearing
+and raking piles
+driven into, and
+if possible
+through, the soft
+alluvium. Thus
+the walls along the Seine, and round the basins at Rouen, were built
+upon bearing piles carried down through the alluvial bed of the river
+to the chalk. The lower portion of the quay wall was constructed
+of concrete faced with brickwork within water-tight timber caissons,
+resting upon the piles at a depth of 9¾ ft. below low water; and upon
+this a rubble wall faced with bricks was erected from low water to
+quay-level, backed by rubble stone laid on a timber flooring supported
+by piles, together with chalk, to form a quay right back to
+the top of the slope of the bank of the deepened river (fig. 17). The
+quay walls of the open
+basins bordering the
+Hudson river at New
+York have had, in certain
+parts, to be founded
+on bearing piles combined
+with raking piles,
+driven into a thick bed
+of soft silt where no firm
+stratum could be reached,
+and where, therefore, the
+weight could only be
+borne by the adherence
+of the long piles in the
+silt. Before driving the
+piles, however, the silt
+round the upper part of
+the piles and under the
+quay wall was consolidated
+by depositing small
+stones in a trench dredged
+to a depth of 30 ft. below
+low water; the piles
+were driven through these stones, and were further kept in place
+by a long toe of rubble stone in front and a backing of rubble stone
+behind carried nearly up to quay-level, behind which a light filling
+of ashes and earth was raised to quay-level. The slight quay wall
+resting upon the front rows of bearing piles was carried up under
+water by 70-ton concrete blocks deposited by means of a floating
+derrick; and the upper part of the wall was built of concrete faced
+with ashlar masonry (fig. 18). The basin and quay walls at Bremen,
+Bremerhaven and Hamburg were built on a series of bearing and
+raking piles driven down to a firm stratum, the wall being begun
+a few feet below low water. At Southampton, ferro-concrete piles
+were employed in constructing the deep quays; and a wharfing of
+timber pilework has been frequently used for river quays.</p>
+
+<p>Where the increase of trade is moderate and the conditions of the
+traffic permit, and also at coal-shipping ports, economy in construction
+is obtained by giving sloping sides to a portion of a dock in place
+of dock walls, the slope being pitched where necessary with stone;
+and the length of the slope projecting into a dock is sometimes
+reduced by substituting sheet piling for the slope at the toe up to
+a certain height. By this arrangement jetties can be carried out
+across the slope as required, enabling vessels to lie against their
+ends; and coal-tips are very conveniently extended out across the
+slope at suitable intervals (fig. 8).</p>
+
+<p>As dock walls, especially before the admission of water into the
+dock, constitute high retaining walls, not infrequently founded upon
+soft or slippery strata, and backed up with the excavated materials
+from alluvial beds, into which water is liable to percolate,
+<span class="sidenote">Failures of dock walls.</span>
+they are naturally exposed under unfavourable conditions
+to the danger of failure. A dock wall erected on unsatisfactory
+foundations is liable, where the bottom is soft, to
+settle down at its toe, owing to the pressure at the back, and to
+fall forwards into the dock, as occurred at Belfast; or where the
+silty bottom slips forward under the weight of the backing, the
+wall may follow the slip at the bottom and settle down at the back,
+falling to some extent backwards, as exemplified by the failure of
+the Empress basin wall at Southampton. The most common form,
+however, of failure is the sliding forwards of a dock wall, with little
+or no subsidence, on a silty or slippery stratum under the pressure
+imposed by the backing. Thus the Kidderpur dock walls furnish an
+instance of sliding forwards on muddy silt, and part of the South
+West India dock walls on two underlying, detached, slippery seams
+of London clay.</p>
+
+<p>To avoid these failures with untrustworthy foundations, great care
+has to be exercised in selecting the best hard material available,
+unaffected by water, for the backing, which should be brought up
+in thin, horizontal layers carefully consolidated; and where there
+is a possibility of water accumulating at the back, pipes should be
+introduced at intervals near the bottom right through the wall in
+building it, and rubble stone deposited close to the back of the wall,
+so as to carry off any water from behind, these pipes being stopped up
+just before the water is let into the dock. These precautions, moreover,
+are assisted by reducing the amount of backing to a minimum
+in the construction of the wall, best effected by building the wall
+inside a timbered trench. The liability to slide forwards can be
+obviated by carrying down the foundations of the wall sufficiently
+below dock-bottom to provide an efficient buttress of earth in front
+of the wall, and also by making the base of the wall slope down
+towards the back, thereby forcing the wall in sliding forwards to
+mount the slope, or to push forward a larger mass of earth; whilst
+a row of sheet piling in front of the foundations offers a very effectual
+impediment to a forward movement, and, in combination with
+bearing piles, prevents settlement at the toe in soft ground. In
+very treacherous foundations it may be advisable to defer the
+completion of the backing till after the admission of the water; but
+the additional stability given to a retaining wall or reservoir dam by
+an ample batter in front, is precluded in dock walls by the modern
+requirements of vessels.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:505px; height:279px" src="images/img359c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;New York Quay Wall, Hudson river.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Silt accumulates in docks where the lowering of the water-level
+by locking, the drawing down of half-tide basins, and the raising of
+the water at spring tides, involve the admission of considerable
+volumes of tidal water heavily charged with silt,
+which is deposited in still water and has to be periodically
+<span class="sidenote">Maintenance of depth.</span>
+removed by dredging. To avoid this, the water is sometimes
+replenished from some clear inland source, an arrangement
+adopted at some of the South Wales ports opening into the muddy
+Severn estuary, and at the Alexandra dock, Hull, to exclude the
+silty waters of the Humber. At the Kidderpur docks on the Húgli,
+the water from the river for replenishing the docks is conducted by a
+circuitous canal, in which it deposits its burden of silt before it is
+pumped into the docks.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to deal expeditiously with the cargoes and goods
+brought into and despatched from docks, numerous sidings
+communicating with the railways of the district are
+arranged along the quays, which are also provided
+<span class="sidenote">Equipment on quays.</span>
+with steam, hydraulic or electric travelling cranes at
+intervals alongside the docks, basins or river, for discharging
+or loading vessels, and with sheds and warehouses for the storage
+of merchandise, &amp;c., the arrangements depending largely upon
+the special trade of the port. Though different sources of power
+are sometimes made use of at different parts of the same port,
+as for example at Hamburg, where the numerous cranes are
+worked by steam, hydraulic power or most recently by electricity,
+and a few by gas engines, it is generally most convenient
+to work the various installations by one form of power from a
+central station. Water-pressure has been very commonly used
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span>
+as the motive power at docks, being generated by a steam-engine
+and stored up by one or more accumulators, from which
+the water is transmitted under pressure through strong cast-iron
+pipes to the hydraulic engines which actuate the cranes, lifts,
+coal-tips, capstans, swing-bridges and gate machinery throughout
+the docks (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Power Transmission</a></span>: <i>Hydraulic</i>). The
+intermittent working of the machinery in docks results in a
+considerable variation in the power needed at different times;
+but economical working is secured by arranging that when the
+accumulators are full, steam is automatically shut off from the
+pumping engines, but is supplied again as soon as water is drawn
+off. Electricity affords another means for the economical transmission
+of power to a distance suited for intermittent working;
+as far back as 1902 it was being adopted at Hamburg as the
+source of power for the machinery of the extensive additional
+basins then recently opened for traffic.</p>
+
+<p>At ports where the principal trade is the export of coal from
+neighbouring collieries, special provision has to be made for its
+rapid shipment. Coal-tips, accordingly, are erected
+at the sides of the dock in these ports, with sidings on
+<span class="sidenote">Coal-tips.</span>
+the quays at the back for receiving the trains of coal trucks, from
+which two lines of way diverge to each coal-tip, one serving for
+the conveyance of the full wagons one by one to the tip, after
+passing over a weigh-bridge, and the other for the return of the
+empty wagons to the siding where the empty train is made up
+for returning to the colliery (fig. 8). Each full wagon is either
+run at a low level upon a cradle at the tip, then raised on the
+cradle within a wrought-iron lattice tower to a suitable height,
+and lastly, tipped up at the back for discharging the coal; or it
+is brought along a high-level road on to a cradle raised to this
+level on the tower, and tipped up at this or some slightly modified
+level. The coal is discharged down an adjustable iron shoot,
+gradually narrowed so as to check the fall; and on first discharging
+into the hold of a vessel, an anti-breakage box is suspended
+below the mouth of the shoot. When full, this is lowered
+to the bottom of the hold and emptied, thereby gradually forming
+a cone of coal upon which the coal can be discharged directly
+from the shoot without danger of breakage. Other contrivances
+are also adopted with the same object.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<p>In designing dock works, it is expedient to make provision, as
+far as possible, for future extensions as the trade of the port increases.
+Generally this can be effected alongside tidal rivers and estuaries
+by utilizing sites lower down the river, as carried out on
+<span class="sidenote">Dock extensions.</span>
+the Thames for the port of London, or reclaiming unoccupied
+foreshores of an estuary, as adopted for extensions
+of the ports of Liverpool, Hull and Havre. At ports on the sea-coast
+of tideless seas, it is only necessary to extend the outlying breakwater
+parallel to the shore line, and form additional basins under its
+shelter, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and Genoa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harbour</a></span>). Quays
+also along rivers furnish very valuable opportunities of readily
+extending the accommodation of ports. Ports, however, established
+inland like Manchester, though extremely serviceable in converting
+an inland city into a seaport, are at the disadvantage of having to
+acquire very valuable land for any extensions that may be required;
+but, nevertheless, some compensation is afforded by the complete
+shelter in which the extensions can be carried out, when compared
+with Liverpool, where the additions to the docks can only be effected
+by troublesome reclamation works along the foreshore to the north,
+in increasingly exposed situations.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Dock Entrances and Locks.</i>&mdash;The size of vessels which a port
+can admit depends upon the depth and width of the entrance
+to the docks; for, though the access of vessels is also governed
+by the depth of the approach channel, this channel is often
+capable of being further deepened to some extent by dredging;
+whereas the entrance, formed of solid masonry or concrete,
+cannot be adapted, except by troublesome and costly works
+sometimes amounting to reconstruction, to the increasing
+dimensions of vessels. Accordingly, in designing new dock
+works with entrances and locks, it is essential to look forward
+to the possible future requirements of vessels. The necessity for
+such forethought is illustrated by the rapid increase which has
+taken place in the size of the largest ocean liners. Thus the
+&ldquo;City of Rome,&rdquo; launched in 1881, is 560 ft. long, and 52¼ ft. beam,
+and has a maximum recorded draught of 27½ ft.; the &ldquo;Campania&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Lucania,&rdquo; in 1893, measure 600 ft. by 65 ft.; the &ldquo;Oceanic,&rdquo;
+in 1899, 685½ ft. by 68¼ ft., with a maximum draught of 31<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ft.;
+the &ldquo;Baltic,&rdquo; in 1903, 709 ft. by 75 ft., with a maximum draught
+of 31¾ ft.; and the &ldquo;Lusitania&rdquo; and &ldquo;Mauretania,&rdquo; launched in
+1906, 787½ ft. by 88 ft.</p>
+
+<p>The width and depth of access to docks are of more importance
+than the length of locks; for docks which are reached through
+entrances with a single pair of gates have to admit
+vessels towards high water when the water-level in the
+<span class="sidenote">Dimensions of entrances and locks.</span>
+dock is the same as in the approach channel, or through
+a half-tide basin drawn down to the level of the water
+outside, and are therefore accessible to vessels of any length,
+provided the width of the entrance and depth over the sill are
+adequate; whilst at docks which are entered through locks,
+vessels which are longer than the available length of the lock can
+get in at high water when both pairs of gates of the lock are open.
+Open basins are generally given an ample width of entrance, and
+river quays also are always accessible to the longest and broadest
+vessels; but in a tidal river the available depth has to be reckoned
+from the lowest low water of spring tides, instead of from the
+lowest high water of neap tides, if the vessels in the open basins
+and alongside the river quays have to be always afloat.</p>
+
+<p>Many years ago the Canada lock at Liverpool, the outer North
+lock at Birkenhead, the Ramsden lock and entrance at Barrow-in-Furness,
+and the Eure entrance at Havre, were given a width
+of 100 ft. Probably this was done with the view of admitting
+paddle steamers, since subsequent entrances at Liverpool were
+given widths of 80 and 65 ft.; whereas none of the locks in
+the port of London has been made wider than 80 ft., which has
+been the standard maximum width since the completion of the
+Victoria dock in 1866. The widest locks at Cardiff are 80 ft., and
+the entrance to the Barry docks is the same; but the lock of the
+Alexandra dock, Hull, opened in 1885, was made 85 ft. wide.
+At Liverpool, where the access to the docks is mainly through
+entrances, on account of the small width between the river and
+the high ground rising at the back, and where ample provision
+has to be made for the largest Atlantic liners, though the entrances
+to the Langton dock, completed in 1881, leading to the latest
+docks at the northern end were made 65 ft. wide, with their sills
+3 ft. below low water of spring tides and 20½ ft. below high water
+of the lowest neap tides, the two new entrances to the deepened
+Brunswick dock near the southern end, giving access to the
+adjacent reconstructed docks, completed in 1906, were made 80
+and 100 ft. wide, with sills 28 ft. below high water of the lowest
+neap tides. Moreover, the three new entrances to the new Sandon
+half-tide dock, completed in 1906, communicating with the
+reconstructed line of docks to the south of the Canada basin, and
+with the latest northern extensions of the Liverpool docks, were
+made 40 ft. wide with a depth over the sill of 24½ ft., and 80 and
+100 ft. wide on each end of the central entrance, with sills 29 ft.
+below high water of the lowest neap tides, each entrance being
+provided with two pairs of gates, in case of any accident occurring
+to one pair, according to the regular custom at Liverpool.
+Powers were also obtained in 1906 for the construction of a half-tide
+dock and two branch docks to the north of the Hornby dock,
+which are to be reached from the river by two entrances designed
+to be 130 ft. wide, with sills 38½ ft. below high water of the lowest
+neap tides, so as to meet fully the assumed future increase in the
+beam and draught of the largest vessels; whilst the authorized
+extension of the river wall northwards will enable additional
+docks to be constructed in communication with these entrances
+when required.</p>
+
+<p>Though, with the exception of Southampton and Dover, other
+British ports do not aim, like Liverpool, at accommodating the
+largest Atlantic liners at all times, the depths of the sills at the
+principal ports have been increased in the most recent extensions.
+Thus at the port of London the sills of the first lock of the Albert
+dock were 26½ ft. below high water of neap tides, and of the
+second lock adjoining, 32½ ft. deep; whilst the sills of the lock
+of the Tilbury docks are 40½ ft. below high water of neap tides.
+Moreover, in spite of the great range of tide at the South Wales
+ports on the Severn estuary, the available depth at high water
+of neap tides of 25 ft. at the Roath lock, Cardiff, was increased
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span>
+in the lock of the new dock to 31½ ft.; the depth at the entrance
+to the Barry docks, opened in 1889, was 29½ ft., but at the lock
+opened in 1896 was made 41<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> ft.; whilst a depth of 34 ft. has
+been proposed for the new lock of the Alexandra dock extension
+at Newport, nearly 10 ft. deeper than the existing lock sills there.
+Similar improvements in depth have also been made or designed
+at other ports to provide for the increasing draught of vessels.</p>
+
+<p>The length of locks has also been increased, from 550 ft. at the
+Albert dock, to 700 ft. at Tilbury in the port of London, from
+300 ft. to 550 ft. at Hull, and from 350 ft. to 660 ft. at Cardiff.
+The lock at the Barry docks is 647 ft. long, though only 65 ft.
+wide. A lock constructed in connexion with the improvement
+works at Havre, carried out in 1896-1907, was given an available
+length of 805 ft. and a width of 98½ ft., with a depth over the sills
+of 34¾ ft. at high water of neap tides.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:527px; height:541px" src="images/img361.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Barry Docks, Entrance.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<p>Entrances with a single pair of gates, closing against a raised sill
+at the bottom and meeting in the centre, have to be made long
+enough to provide a recess in each side wall at the back to receive
+the gates when they are opened, and to form a buttress in front on
+<span class="sidenote">Entrances to docks.</span>
+each side to bear the thrust of the gates when closed
+against a head of water inside. A masonry floor is laid
+on the bottom in continuation of the sill, serving as an
+apron against erosion by water leaking between or under the gates,
+and by the current through the sluiceways in the gates, when
+opened for scouring the entrance channel or to assist in lowering the
+water in a half-tide dock for opening the gates (fig. 19). A sluiceway
+in each side wall, closed by a vertical sluice-gate, generally
+provided in duplicate in case of accidents and worked by a machine
+actuated by hydraulic pressure, enables the half-tide basin to be
+brought down to the level of the approach channel outside with a
+rising tide, so that vessels may be brought into or passed out of the
+basin towards high water. The advantages of these entrances are,
+that they occupy comparatively little room where the space is limited,
+and are much less costly than locks; whilst in conjunction with a
+half-tide basin they serve the same purpose as a lock with a rising
+tide. Vessels also pass more readily through the short entrances
+than through locks; and as entrances are only used towards high
+water, their sills need not be placed so low as the outer sills of locks
+to accommodate vessels of large draught. On the other hand, they
+are accessible for a more limited period at each tide than locks;
+and they do not allow of the exclusion of silt-bearing tidal water,
+and therefore necessitate a greater amount of dredging in the docks,
+and especially in half-tide basins, for maintenance. Entrances,
+however, at large ports are frequently supplemented by the addition
+of a lock at some convenient site, rendering the ports accessible for
+the smaller class of vessels for some time before and after high water,
+as for instance at Liverpool, Barry, Havre and St Nazaire. A
+small basin with an entrance at each end&mdash;an arrangement often
+adopted&mdash;is in reality, for all practical purposes, a lock with a very
+large lock-chamber. An entrance or passage with gates has also to
+be provided at the inner end of a large half-tide basin like the basins
+adopted at Liverpool, to shut off the half-tide basin from the docks
+to which it gives access, and maintain their water-level when the
+water is drawn down in the basin to admit vessels before high tide.</p>
+
+<p>Reverse gates pointing outwards are sometimes added in passages
+to docks and at entrances, to render the water-level in one set of
+docks independent of adjacent docks, to exclude silty tidal water and
+very high tides, and also to protect the gates of outer entrances in
+exposed situations from swell, which might force them open slightly
+and lead to a damaging shock on their closing again.</p>
+
+<p>Locks differ from entrances in having a pair of gates with arrangements
+similar to an entrance at each end, separated from one
+another by a lock-chamber, which should be large enough
+to receive the longest and broadest vessel coming regularly
+<span class="sidenote">Locks at docks.</span>
+to the port. These dock locks are similar in principle to
+locks on canals and canalized rivers, but are on a much larger scale.
+The lock-chamber has its water raised or lowered in proportion to
+the difference in level between the water-level in the dock and the
+water in the entrance channel, by passing water, when the gates are
+closed at both ends, from the dock into the lock-chamber or from
+the lock-chamber into the entrance channel, through large sluiceways
+in the side walls, controlled, as at entrances, by vertical sluice-gates.
+In this way the vessel is raised or lowered in the chamber, till, when
+a level has been reached, the intervening pair of gates is opened
+and the vessel is passed into the dock or out to the channel. Generally
+the upper and lower sills of a lock are at the same level, a foot
+or two higher than dock-bottom; and the depth at which they are
+laid is governed by the same considerations as the sill of an entrance.
+Vessels longer than the available length between the two pairs of
+gates can be admitted close to high water, when the water in the
+dock and outside is at the same level, and both pairs of gates can be
+opened. When the range of tide at a port is large, and the depth in
+the approach channel is sufficient to allow vessels to come up or go out
+some time before and after high water, and also where the water in
+the dock is kept up to a high level from an inland source to exclude
+very silty tidal water, it is expedient to reduce the cost of construction
+by limiting the depth of the excavations for the dock, and
+consequently also the height of the dock walls, to what is necessary
+to provide a sufficient depth of water below high water of the lowest
+neap tides, or below the water-level to which the water in the dock is
+always maintained, for the vessels of largest draught frequenting the
+port, or those which may be reasonably expected in the near future.
+The upper sill of the lock is then determined by the level of dock-bottom;
+but the lower sill is taken down approximately to the depth
+of the bottom of the approach channel, or to the depth to which it
+can be carried by dredging, so as to enable the lock to admit or let
+out at any time all vessels which can navigate the approach channel.
+Thus, for instance, the outer and intermediate sills of the lock at the
+Barry docks are 9 ft. lower then the upper sill.</p>
+
+<p>The foundations for the sill and side walls at each end of a lock,
+and also for the side walls and invert commonly enclosing the lock-chamber
+at the sides and bottom, are generally constructed simultaneously
+with the dock works, under shelter of a cofferdam across
+the entrance channel, and in the excavations kept dry by means of
+pumps. The foundations under the sills and adjacent side walls are
+carried down to a lower level than the rest, and if possible to a water-tight
+stratum, to prevent infiltration of water under them owing to
+the water-pressure on the upper side of the gates; or sometimes one
+or two rows of sheet piling have been driven across the lock under the
+sills to an impermeable stratum, to stop any flow. The foundations
+for the sills consist usually of concrete deposited in a trench extended
+out under the adjoining side walls. The sill, projecting generally
+about 2 ft. above the adjacent gate floor over which the gates turn,
+is built of granite; and the same material is also used for the hollow
+quoins in which the heelpost, or pivot, of the dock gates turns, and
+which, together with the sills, are exposed to considerable wear.
+The side walls of the lock-chamber are very similar in construction
+to the dock walls; but they are strengthened against the loss of
+water-pressure in front of them when the water is lowered in the
+chamber by an inverted arch of masonry, brickwork or concrete,
+termed an &ldquo;invert,&rdquo; laid across the bottom of the chamber along
+its whole length, against which the toe of each side wall abuts and
+effectually prevents any forward movement. The side walls also,
+alongside the gates at each end, abut against a thick level gate floor
+and apron, and, moreover, are considerably widened to provide space
+for the sluiceways and gate machinery.</p>
+
+<p>The new Florida lock (fig. 20), forming the main entrance through
+the new approach harbour and tidal harbour to the Eure dock and
+other docks of the port of Havre, is the largest lock hitherto constructed.
+It has an available length of chamber between the gates
+of 805 ft., a width of 98½ ft., and depths over the sills of 15¾ ft. at
+the lowest low water of spring tides, 23½ ft. at low water of neap tides,
+35 ft. at high water of neap tides, and 40½ ft. at high water of spring
+tides. Owing to the alluvial stratum at the site of the lock close to
+the Seine estuary, of which it doubtless at one time formed part, the
+foundations for the sill and side walls or heads at each end of the
+lock were executed by aid of compressed air. The foundations for
+these heads were carried down to an impermeable stratum by means
+of two bottomless caissons, filled eventually with concrete, 213½ ft.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span>
+long across the lock and 105 ft. wide in the line of the lock at the upper
+end, and 206¾ ft. long and 116½ ft. wide at the lower end, to a depth
+of 18 ft. below the sill at the upper end, and 41 ft. at the lower end,
+owing to the dip down seawards and southward of the water-tight
+stratum. These caissons were provided for their sinkage with
+temporary dams of masonry closing the opening of the lock at the
+extremities of each caisson, enabling the gates to be subsequently
+erected under their shelter. The junctions between the foundations
+of the heads and the adjacent foundations were effected by small
+movable caissons carried down in recesses provided in the buried
+caissons. The connexions with the adjacent quay walls were accomplished
+by two supplementary side caissons at the end of each
+head; and the north side wall of the lock was founded by means of
+seven bottomless caissons sunk by aid of compressed air, on account
+of the proximity of the tidal harbour on that side. The south side
+wall was founded for a length of about 200 ft. at its western end in
+an excavated trench kept dry by pumping; but the greater portion
+was founded in a dredged trench in which bearing piles were driven
+under water, on which the masonry was built in successive layers,
+about 3¼ ft. thick, in a movable caisson 93½ ft. long and 37¾ ft. wide;
+whilst a bottomless caisson, left in the work, was employed for
+founding about 100 ft. of wall at the eastern end. The bed of concrete
+also, 10 ft. thick, forming the floor of the chamber, was carried
+out for 82 ft. at the western end in the open air, and the remainder in
+the same movable caisson as used for the south wall. Two sluiceways
+on each side running the whole length of the lock, differing 6½ ft.
+in level, communicate with the lock-chamber through openings in
+the side walls, 67¼ ft. apart, and provide for the filling and emptying
+of the chamber.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:283px" src="images/img362a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Florida Lock, Havre Docks, Sections and Plan.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The gates closing the entrances and locks at docks are made of
+wood or of iron. In iron gates, the heelpost, or a vertical closing strip
+attached to the outer side of the gate close to the heelpost,
+the meeting-post at the end of each gate closing against
+<span class="sidenote">Dock gates.</span>
+each other when the gates are shut, and the sill piece fitting
+against the sill are generally made of wood. Wooden gates consist of
+a series of horizontal framed beams, made thicker and put closer together
+towards the bottom to resist the water-pressure increasing with
+the depth, fastened to the heelpost and meeting-post at the two ends
+and to intermediate uprights, and supporting water-tight planking on
+the inner face (fig. 21). Iron gates have generally an outer as well as an
+inner skin of iron plates braced vertically and horizontally by plate-iron
+ribs, the horizontal ribs being placed nearer together and the
+plates made thicker towards the bottom (figs. 22 and 23). Greenheart
+is the wood used for gates exposed to salt water, as it resists
+the attack of the teredo in temperate climates.
+As cellular iron gates are made water-tight, and
+have to be ballasted with enough water to
+prevent their flotation, or are provided with
+air chambers below and are left open to the
+rising tide on the outer side above, the gates
+are light in the water and are easily moved;
+whereas greenheart gates with their fastenings
+are considerably heavier than water, so that
+a considerable weight has to be moved when
+the water is somewhat low in the dock and the
+gates therefore only partially immersed. On
+the other hand, wooden gates are less liable
+than iron gates to be seriously damaged if run
+into by a vessel.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:687px; height:534px" src="images/img362b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Wooden Dock Gate.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Iron Segmental Dock Gate.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Straight Iron Dock Gate.</td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<p>Dock gates are sometimes made straight,
+closing against a straight sill (figs. 20 and 23);
+and occasionally they are made segmental with
+the inner faces forming a continuous circular
+arc and closing against a sill corresponding to
+the outer curves of the gates (fig. 22), or by
+means of a projecting sill piece against a
+straight sill (fig. 21). More frequently the
+gates, curved on both faces, meet at an angle
+forming a Gothic arch in plan, and close by
+aid of a projecting piece against a straight sill,
+which in the Barry entrance gates is modified
+by making the outer faces nearly straight
+(fig. 19), giving an unusual width to the centre
+of the gates. The pressures produced by a
+head of water against these gates when closed
+depends not only on the form of the gates, but
+also upon the projection given to the angle of
+the sill in proportion to the width of the lock,
+which is known as the rise, and is generally
+placed at a distance along the centre line of
+the lock, from a line joining the centres of the
+heel-posts, of about one-fourth the width. With straight gates, the
+stresses consist, first of a transverse stress due to the water-pressure
+against the gate, which increases with the head of water and
+length of the gate; and secondly, of a compressive stress along
+the gate, resulting from the pressure of the other gate against its
+meeting-post, which is equal to half the water-pressure on the gate
+multiplied by the tangent of half the angle between the closed gates,
+varying inversely with the rise. Though an increase in the rise
+reduces this stress, it increases the length of the gate and the transverse
+stress, and also the length of the lock. By curving the gates
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span>
+suitably, the transverse stress is reduced and the longitudinal
+compressive stress is augmented, till at last, when the gates form a
+horizontal segmental arch, the stresses become wholly compressive and
+uniform in each horizontal section, increasing with the depth;
+and the total stress is equal to the pressure on a unit of surface
+multiplied by the radius of curvature. Though the water-pressure is most
+uniformly and economically borne by cylindrical gates, they are longer,
+and encroach more upon the lines of quay with their curved recesses than
+straighter gates; and, consequently, Gothic-arched gates are often
+preferred. Straight gates afford the greatest simplicity in construction.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:508px; height:461px" src="images/img363a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24</span>.&mdash;Sliding Caisson.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25</span>.&mdash;Ship Caisson.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Gates in wide entrances or locks are generally supported towards their
+outer end by a roller running along a castiron roller-path on the gate
+floor (figs. 19, 21 and 22), as well as by the heelpost, fitted over a
+steel pivot at the bottom, and tied back against the hollow quoins at
+the top by anchor straps and bolts, on which the gate turns. In some
+cases, by placing the water ballast in iron gates close to the heelpost,
+a roller has been dispensed with, even, for instance, at the wide
+entrance at Havre (fig. 23). The gates are opened and closed, either by
+an opening and a closing chain for each gate, fastened on either side
+and worked from opposite side walls by hydraulic power, or by a single
+hydraulic piston or bar hinged to the inner side of each gate (figs.
+19 and 20). The latter system has the advantages of being simpler
+and occupying less space in the side walls, of avoiding the slight loss
+of available depth over the sill due to the two closing chains crossing
+on the sill when the gates are open, and especially of keeping the gates
+closed against a swell in exposed sites.</p>
+
+<p>A sliding or rolling caisson is occasionally placed across each end of a
+lock in place of a pair of dock gates, being Caissons drawn back into a
+recess at the side for opening docks. the lock. As a caisson chamber has
+to be covered for over to provide a continuous quay or roadway on the
+<span class="sidenote">Caissons for docks.</span>
+top, a lowering platform is supplied to enable the caisson to pass under
+the small girders spanning the top of the chamber, or the caisson is
+sunk down sufficiently (fig. 24). The caisson is furnished with an air
+chamber to give it flotation, which is adjusted by ballast according to
+the depth of water. The advantages of a caisson, as compared with a pair
+of gates, are that the gate recesses, gate floor, hollow quoins and
+arrangements for working in the side walls are dispensed with, so that
+the lock can be made shorter, and the work at each head is rendered less
+complicated. The caisson itself also serves as a very strong movable
+bridge, and therefore is often preferred at dockyards to dock gates. By
+improvements in the hauling machinery, a caisson can open or close a
+lock as quickly as dock gates; the caissons at Zeebrugge lock, at the
+entrance to the Bruges ship canal, are drawn across the lock or into
+their chamber by electricity in two minutes. A caisson is specially
+useful in cases where there may be a head of water on either side, as
+then it takes the place of two pairs of gates pointing in opposite
+directions, or for closing an entrance against a current. A caisson,
+however, requires a much larger amount of material than a pair of dock
+gates, and a considerable width on one side for its chamber, so that
+under ordinary conditions gates are generally used at docks.</p>
+
+<p>A ship caisson, so called from its presenting some resemblance in
+section to the hull of a vessel, occupies too much time in being towed,
+floated into position, and sunk into grooves at the bottom and sides of
+an entrance for closing it, and then refloated and towed away for
+opening the entrance again, to be used at entrances and locks to docks
+(fig. 25). Being, however, simple in construction, taking up little
+space, and requiring no chamber or machinery for moving it, this form of
+caisson is generally used for closing the entrance to a graving dock,
+where it remains for several days in place during the execution of
+repairs to a vessel in the dock. A ship caisson only requires the
+admission of sufficient water to sink it when in position across the
+entrance to a graving dock; and this water has to be pumped out before
+it can be floated, and removed to some vacant position in the
+neighbouring dock till it is again required. Like a sliding or rolling
+caisson, it provides a bridge for crossing over the entrance of the
+graving dock when in position.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Graving Docks.</i> - Provision has to be made at ports for the repairs of
+vessels frequenting them. The simplest arrangement is a timber gridiron,
+on which a vessel settles with a falling tide, and can then be inspected
+and slightly cleaned and repaired till the tide floats it again.
+Inclined slipways are sometimes provided, up which a vessel resting in a
+cradle on wheels can be drawn out of the water; and they are also used
+for shipbuilding, the vessel when ready for launching being allowed to
+slide down them into the water. Graving or dry docks, however, opening
+out of a dock, are the usual means provided for enabling the cleaning
+and repairs of vessels to be carried out.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:209px" src="images/img363b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26</span>.&mdash;Plan of Southampton Graving Dock.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:598px; height:235px" src="images/img363c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27</span>.&mdash;Cross Section of Southampton Graving Dock.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A graving dock consists of an enclosure, surrounded by side walls
+stepped on the face, and paved at the bottom with a thick floor
+sloping slightly down from the centre to drains along the sides, long
+enough to receive the longest vessel likely to come to the port. Its
+entrance, at the end adjoining the dock, is just wide enough to admit
+the vessel of greatest beam, and deep enough over the sill to receive
+the vessel of greatest draught, when light, at the lowest water-level of
+the dock (figs. 26 and 27). Graving docks are constructed of
+masonry, brickwork or concrete, or formerly in America of timber; they
+should be founded on a solid impervious stratum, or, where that is
+impracticable, they should be built upon bearing piles and enclosed
+within sheet piling, to prevent settlement and the infiltration of water
+under pressure below the dock. Keel blocks are laid along the centre
+line of the dock, for the keel of the vessel to rest on when the water
+is pumped out; and the vessel is further supported on each side by
+timber shores supported on the steps or &ldquo;altars&rdquo; of the side walls,
+which are lined with granite or other hard stone, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span>
+blue bricks, or, when constructed of concrete, with a facing of stronger
+concrete, to enable these altars to withstand the wear and shocks
+to which they are subjected. Steps and slides are provided at convenient
+places at the sides to give access for men and materials to
+the bottom of the dock; and culverts and drains lead the water
+to pumps for removing the water from the dock when the entrance
+has been closed, and to keep it dry whilst a vessel is under repair.
+Culverts in the side walls of the entrance enable water to be admitted
+for filling the dock to let the vessel out. Graving docks are generally
+closed by ship caissons; but where they open direct on to a tidal
+river, and there is some exposure, gates are adopted, or sometimes
+sliding caissons.</p>
+
+<p>The dimensions of graving docks vary considerably with the
+nature of the trade and the date of construction; and sometimes
+an intermediate entrance is provided to accommodate two smaller
+vessels. The sizes of some of the largest graving docks are as follows:
+Liverpool, Canada dock, 925½ ft. long, 94 ft. width of entrance, and
+29 ft. depth at the ordinary water-level in the dock; Southampton,
+851¾ ft. by 90 ft., and 29½ ft. depth at high-water neaps (figs. 26 and
+27); Tilbury, 875 ft. by 70 ft. by 31½ ft.; and Glasgow, 880 ft. by
+80 ft. by 26½ ft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Floating Dry Docks.</i>&mdash;Where there is no site available for a graving
+dock, or the ground is very treacherous, floating dry docks, built
+originally of wood, but more recently of iron or steel, have occasionally
+been resorted to. The first Bermuda dock towed across the
+Atlantic in 1869, and the new dock launched in 1902, 545 ft. by 100 ft.,
+are notable examples. Water is admitted into the pontoon at the
+bottom to sink the dock sufficiently to admit a vessel at its open end;
+and then the water is pumped out of compartments in the pontoon
+till the vessel is raised out of water. It is only necessary to find a
+sheltered site, with a sufficient depth of water, for conducting the
+operations.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. F. V.-H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCKET<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (perhaps from &ldquo;dock,&rdquo; to curtail or cut short, with
+the diminutive suffix <i>et</i>, but the origin of the word is obscure; it
+has come into use since the 15th century), in law, a brief summary
+or digest of a case, or a memorandum of legal decisions; also
+the alphabetical list of cases down for trial, or of suits pending.
+Such cases are said to be &ldquo;on the docket.&rdquo; In commercial use, a
+docket is a warrant from the custom-house, stating that the duty
+on goods entered has been paid, or the label fastened to goods,
+showing their destination, value, contents, &amp;c., and, generally,
+any indorsement on the back of a document, briefly setting out
+its contents.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCK WARRANT<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span>, in law, a document by which the owner of a
+marine or river dock certifies that the holder is entitled to goods
+imported and warehoused in the docks. In the Factors Act 1889
+it is included in the phrase &ldquo;document of title&rdquo; and is defined
+as any document or writing, being evidence of the title of any
+person therein named ... to the property in any goods or
+merchandise lying in any warehouse or wharf and signed or
+certified by the person having the custody of the goods. It
+passes by indorsement and delivery and transfers the absolute
+right to the goods described in it. A dock warrant is liable to a
+stamp duty of threepence, which may be denoted by an adhesive
+stamp, to be cancelled by the person by whom the instrument is
+executed or issued.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCKYARDS.<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> In the fullest meaning of the word, a &ldquo;dock-yard&rdquo;
+(or &ldquo;navy yard&rdquo; in America) is a government establishment
+where warships of every kind are built and repaired, and
+supplied with the men and stores required to maintain them in
+a state of efficiency for war. Thus a dockyard in this extended
+sense would include slips for building ships, workshops for
+manufacturing their machinery, dry docks for repairing them,
+stores of arms, ammunition, coal, provisions, &amp;c., with basins in
+which they may lie while being supplied with such things, and an
+establishment for providing the <i>personnel</i> necessary for manning
+them. But in practice few, if any, existing dockyards are of so
+complete a nature; many of them, for instance, do not undertake
+the building of ships at all, while others are little more than
+harbours where a ship may replenish her stores of coal, water and
+provisions and carry out minor repairs. Private firms are relied
+upon for the construction of many ships down to an advanced
+stage, the government dockyards completing and equipping them
+for commission.</p>
+
+<p><i>Great Britain.</i>&mdash;Previous to the reign of Henry VIII., the
+kings of England had neither naval arsenals nor dockyards, nor
+any regular establishment of civil or naval officers to provide
+ships of war, or to man them. There are, however, strong evidences
+of the existence of dockyards, or of something answering
+thereto, at very early dates, at Rye, Shoreham and Winchelsea.
+In November 1243 the sheriff of Sussex was ordered to enlarge
+the house at Rye in which the king&rsquo;s galleys were kept, so that it
+might contain seven galleys. In 1238 the keepers of some of the
+king&rsquo;s galleys were directed to cause those vessels to be breamed,
+and a house to be built at Winchelsea for their safe custody. In
+1254 the bailiffs of Winchelsea and Rye were ordered to repair
+the buildings in which the king&rsquo;s galleys were kept at Rye. At
+Portsmouth and at Southampton there seem to have been
+at all times depôts for both ships and stores, though there was
+no regular dockyard at Portsmouth till the middle of the 16th
+century. It would appear, from a curious poem in Hakluyt&rsquo;s
+<i>Collection</i> called &ldquo;The Policie of Keeping the Sea,&rdquo; that Littlehampton,
+unfit as it now is, was the port at which Henry VIII.
+built</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+
+<p style="margin-left:10em;">&ldquo;his great <i>Dromions</i></p>
+<p>Which passed other great shippes of the commons.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;dromion,&rdquo; &ldquo;dromon,&rdquo; or &ldquo;dromedary&rdquo; was a large warship,
+the prototype of which was furnished by the Saracens.
+Roger de Hoveden, Richard of Devizes and Peter de Longtoft
+celebrate the struggle which Richard I., in the &ldquo;Trench the Mer,&rdquo;
+on his way to Palestine, had with a huge dromon,&mdash;&ldquo;a marvellous
+ship! a ship than which, except Noah&rsquo;s ship, none greater was
+ever read of.&rdquo; This vessel had three masts, was very high out
+of the water, and is said to have had 1500 men on board. It
+required the united force of the king&rsquo;s galleys, and an obstinate
+fight, to capture the dromon.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of a regular British navy, by the establishment
+of dockyards, and the formation of a board, consisting of certain
+commissioners for the management of its affairs, was first laid
+by Henry VIII., and the first dockyard erected during his reign
+was that of Woolwich. Those of Portsmouth, Deptford, Chatham
+and Sheerness followed in succession. Plymouth was founded by
+William III. Pembroke was established in 1814, a small yard
+having previously existed at Milford.</p>
+
+<p>The most important additions yet made at any one period to
+the dockyard and harbour works required to meet the necessities
+of the British fleet were those sanctioned by the Naval Works
+Acts of 1895 and subsequent years, the total estimated cost, as
+stated in the act of 1899, being over 23½ millions sterling. The
+works proposed under these acts were classified under three heads,
+viz. (a) the enclosure and defence of harbours against torpedo
+attacks; (b) adapting naval ports to the present needs of the
+fleet; (c) naval barracks and hospitals. Under the first heading
+were included the defensive harbours at Portland, Dover and
+Gibraltar. Under heading (b) were included the deepening of
+harbours and approaches, the dockyard extensions at Gibraltar,
+Keyham (Devonport), Simons Bay, and Hong-Kong, with
+sundry other items. Under heading (c) were included the naval
+barracks at Chatham, Portsmouth and Keyham; the naval
+hospitals at Chatham, Haslar and Haulbowline; the colleges
+at Keyham and Dartmouth; and other items.</p>
+
+<p>Great Britain possesses dockyards at Portsmouth, Devonport,
+Chatham, Malta and Gibraltar, each in charge of an admiral-superintendent,
+and at Sheerness and Pembroke in charge of a
+captain-superintendent, together with establishments at Ascension,
+Bermuda, Simons Town (Cape of Good Hope), Queenstown
+(Haulbowline); Hong-Kong, Portland, Sydney and Weihaiwei.
+The Indian Government has dockyards at Bombay and Calcutta.
+The medical establishments include Ascension, Bermuda, Cape
+of Good Hope, Chatham, Dartmouth, Deal, Gibraltar, Haslar,
+Haulbowline, Hong-Kong, Malta, Osborne, Plymouth, Portland,
+Portsmouth, Sheerness, Sydney, Yarmouth, Yokohama and
+Weihaiwei.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangements for the administrative control of the dockyards
+have varied with those adopted for the regulation of the
+navy as a whole. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Admiralty Administration</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Navy</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>.) At the present time, whether at home or abroad, they
+lie within the province of the controller of the navy (the third lord
+of the board of admiralty); and the director of dockyards, whose
+office, replacing that of surveyor of dockyards was created in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span>
+December 1885, is responsible to the controller for the building of
+ships, boats, &amp;c., in dockyards, and for the maintenance and
+repair of ships and boats, and of all steam machinery in ships,
+boats, dockyards and factories. The director of naval construction,
+who is also deputy-controller, is responsible, not only for
+the design of ships, but for their construction, in the sense that he
+approves great numbers of working drawings of structural parts
+prepared at the dockyards. But the director of dockyards is
+the admiralty official under whose instructions the work goes
+on, involving the employment and supervision of an army of
+artisans and labourers. Instructions, therefore, emanate from
+the admiralty, but the details lie with the dockyard officials, and
+in practice there is a considerable decentralization of duties.</p>
+
+<p>The chief function of a dockyard is the building and maintaining
+of ships in efficiency. The constructive work is carried out
+under the care of the chief constructor of the yard, in accordance
+with plans sent down from the admiralty. The calculations for
+displacement, involving the draught of water forward and aft,
+have already been made, and, in order to ensure accuracy in the
+carrying out of the design, an admirable system has been devised
+for weighing everything that is built into the new ships or that
+goes on board; and it is astonishing how very closely the actual
+displacement approximates to that which was intended, particularly
+when the tendency of weights to increase, in perfecting
+a ship for commission, is considered.</p>
+
+<p>The ship having been built to her launching weight, the duty of
+putting her into the water devolves upon the chief constructor of
+the yard, and failures in this matter are so extremely rare that
+it may almost be said they do not occur. As soon as the ship
+is water-borne the responsibility falls upon the king&rsquo;s harbour
+master, who has charge of her afloat and of moving her into the
+fitting basins. When the ship has been brought alongside the
+wharf, the responsibility of the chief constructor of the yard
+is resumed, and the ship is carried forward to completion by
+the affixing of armour plating (if that has not been done before
+launching), the mounting of guns, the instalment of engines,
+boilers, and electrical and hydraulic gear, and the fitting of cabins
+for officers, mess places for men, and storerooms, and a vast
+volume of other work unnecessary to be specified. In regard to
+the complicated details of guns and torpedoes, the captains of the
+gunnery and torpedo schools have a function of supervision. The
+captain of the fleet reserve also closely watches the work, because,
+when the heads of all departments have reported the ship to be
+ready, she has to be inspected by the commander-in-chief at
+the port, and then passed into the fleet reserve as ready for sea,
+and there the captain of the fleet reserve is responsible for her
+efficiency. Other important officers of a dockyard are the chief
+engineer; the superintendent civil engineer, who has charge of
+the work involved in keeping all buildings, docks, basins, caissons,
+roads, &amp;c., in repair; the naval store officer, who has charge of
+most of the stores in the dockyard; and the cashier of the yard,
+whose name sufficiently expresses his duties.</p>
+
+<p>The system of conducting business at the dockyards is analogous
+to that which prevails at the admiralty. There is personal communication
+between the officers responsible for the work, and
+facilities are afforded for coming to rapid decisions upon matters
+that are in hand, and the operations are conducted with an ease
+which contributes much to efficiency. In 1844 the custom was
+introduced of all the principal officers of the dockyard meeting
+at the superintendent&rsquo;s office at 9.30 A.M. every day, to hear the
+orders from the admiralty and discuss the work of the day. But
+this system of &ldquo;readings&rdquo; was abolished at the beginning of
+1906, the naval establishments inquiry committee considering
+that the assembling of the officials was unnecessary since the
+communications after reception are copied and sent to the
+departments concerned.</p>
+
+<p>The police force necessary in a dockyard is in some cases
+supplied from the London metropolitan police, and is under
+the orders of the superintendent of the yard for duties connected
+with it, and under the commissioner of police for the discipline
+and disposition of the force. The charges are, of course, paid by
+the admiralty, and the system answers well.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;The shore stations under control of the
+Navy Department (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Admiralty Administration</a></span>), and
+collectively known as naval stations, are under different names
+according to their nature. Of those called <i>Navy Yards</i>, and
+intended for the general purpose of sources of supply and for
+repairs of ships, there are within the United States eight in
+number. Two of them are on the Pacific coast, situated on Puget
+Sound, at Bremerton, Washington; and at Mare Island, near
+San Francisco. The other six are on the Atlantic coast, and
+are situated at Portsmouth, N.H.; Boston, Mass.; Brooklyn,
+N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; Washington, D.C.; and Norfolk, Va.
+There are also naval stations at Port Royal and Charleston, S.C.;
+Key West and Pensacola, Fla.; New Orleans, La.; Guantanamo,
+Cuba; Culebra and San Juan, Porto Rico; Honolulu,
+H.I.; Cavite, P.I.; Tutuila, Samoa; and Island of Guam, in
+the Ladrones Islands. The floating dock Dewey, having a lifting
+capacity of 18,500 gross tons with a free-board of 2 ft., was
+stationed in the Philippine Islands in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these, there are important naval stations established
+for special purposes, which in some cases are also available for
+ports of supply and for repairs. These are: the U.S. Naval
+Academy, Annapolis, Md., for the instruction of naval cadets;
+the training stations at Newport, R.I., and Yerba Buena Island,
+Cal., for the instruction of apprentices; the proving ground at
+Indian Head, Md., on the Potomac river, where all government-built
+ordnance is tested; the War College at Newport, R.I., for
+the instruction of officers; the torpedo station at Newport, for
+the instruction of officers and men in torpedoes, electricity and
+submarine diving; the naval observatory at Washington; and
+the marine post at Sitka, Alaska. Coaling depôts have been
+established at Honolulu, Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, and at
+Manila, P.I. Naval hospitals are located at the Portsmouth,
+Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk and Mare
+Island yards; at Las Animas, Colo.; at Newport, R.I.; Cañacao,
+P.I.; Sitka, Alaska; and Yokohama, Japan.</p>
+
+<p>The commandant of a navy yard and station, who is usually
+a rear-admiral, is its commander-in-chief. His official assistants
+are called heads of departments. The captain of the yard, who
+is next in succession to command, has general charge of the water
+front and the ships moored there, and of the police of the navy
+yard; it is his duty to keep the commandant informed as to the
+nature and efficiency of all work in progress. The equipment
+officer has charge of anchors, chains, rigging, sails and the electric
+generating plant. The other heads of departments are the
+ordnance officer, the naval constructor, the engineering officer,
+the general storekeeper, the paymaster of the yard, the surgeon
+and the civil engineer. The clerks and draughtsmen employed
+by these officers are appointed under civil service rules, and
+their employment is continuous so long as funds are available.
+The foremen are selected by competitive examination, and their
+number is fixed. In the employment of mechanics and labourers,
+veterans are given preference, after which follow persons previously
+employed who have displayed especial efficiency and good
+conduct. The rates of wages are determined semi-annually by
+a board of officers, who ascertain the wages paid by private
+establishments in the vicinity of the navy yard. Eight hours
+constitute the legal work day. When emergencies necessitate
+longer hours the workmen are paid at the ordinary rate plus
+50%.</p>
+
+<p>The nature and extent of work to be performed upon naval
+vessels is determined by the secretary of the navy; the commandant
+then issues the necessary orders. The material required
+is obtained by a system of requisitions, which provide for the
+purchase from the lowest bidder after open competition. Heads
+of departments initiate the purchase of materials which are
+peculiar to their own work; ordinary commercial articles,
+however, are usually carried in a special stock called the &ldquo;Naval
+Supply Fund,&rdquo; which may be drawn upon by any head of department.
+All materials are inspected, both as to quantity and
+quality, by a board of inspectors consisting of three officers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;The French coast is divided into five naval arrondissements,
+which have their headquarters at the five naval ports of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span>
+which Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon are the most important, Lorient
+and Rochefort being of lesser degree. All are building and fitting-out
+yards. Corsica, which has naval stations at Ajaccio, Porto Vecchio,
+Bonifacio and other places, is a dependency of the arsenal at Toulon.
+On the African coast there are docking facilities in Algeria. Bizerta,
+the Tunisian port, has been made a naval base by the deepening
+and fortifying of the canal which is the approach to the inner
+lake. There are arsenals also at Saïgon and Hai-phong, and an
+establishment at Diego Suarez.</p>
+
+<p>The subsidiary establishments in France are the gun foundry at
+Ruelle; the steel and iron works at Guérigny, where anchors, chains
+and armour-plate are made; and the works at Indret, on an island
+in the lower Loire, where machinery is constructed. There are
+many private shipbuilding establishments in the country, the most
+important being the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée at La
+Seyne, on the lesser roadstead at Toulon where many French and
+foreign warships of the largest classes have been built. The same
+company has a building yard at Havre. Other establishments are
+the Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire, at Saint Nazaire; the Normand
+Yard, at Havre; and the Chantiers de la Gironde, near Bordeaux.</p>
+
+<p>Each of the arrondissements above mentioned is divided into
+sous-arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial
+ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the men
+of the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with the dockyards
+as naval arsenals. In each arrondissement the vice-admiral,
+who is naval prefect, is the immediate representative of the minister
+of marine, and has full direction and command of the arsenal, which
+is his headquarters. He is thus commander-in-chief, as also governor-designate
+for time of war, but his authority does not extend to ships
+belonging to organized squadrons or divisions. The naval prefect is
+assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff (except at Lorient and
+Rochefort, where the office is filled by a captain), and a certain number
+of officers, the special functions of the chief of the staff having
+relation principally to the efficiency and <i>personnel</i> of the fleet, while
+the &ldquo;major-general,&rdquo; who is usually a rear-admiral, is concerned
+chiefly with the <i>matériel</i>. There are also directors of stores, of naval
+construction, of the medical service and of the submarine defences
+(which are concerned with torpedoes, mines and torpedo-boats),
+as well as of naval ordnance and works. The prefect directs the
+operations of the arsenal, and is responsible for its efficiency and for
+that of the ships which are there in reserve. In regard to the constitution
+and maintenance of the naval forces, the administration of the
+arsenals is divided into three principal departments, the first concerned
+with naval construction, the second with ordnance, including
+gun-mountings and small-arms, and the third with the so-called
+submarine defences, dealing with all torpedo <i>matériel</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germany.</i>&mdash;With the expansion of the German navy considerable
+additions have been made to the two principal dockyards. These
+are Wilhelmshaven, the naval headquarters on the North Sea, and
+Kiel, the headquarters on the Baltic, Danzig being an establishment
+of lesser importance, and Kiao-chau an undeveloped base in the
+Shantung peninsula, China. The chief official at each home dockyard
+is the superintendent (<i>Oberwerftdirektor</i>), who is a rear-admiral
+or senior captain directly responsible to the naval secretary of state.
+Under the superintendent&rsquo;s orders are the chief of the Ausrüstung
+department, or captain of the fleet reserve, the directors of ordnance,
+torpedoes, navigation, naval construction, engineering and harbour
+works, with some other officers. The chiefs of the constructive and
+engineering departments are responsible for the building of ships and
+machinery, and for the maintenance of the hulls and machinery of
+existing vessels; while the works department has charge of all work
+on the quays, docks, &amp;c., in the dockyard and port. A great advance
+has been made in increasing the efficiency and capabilities of the
+imperial dockyards by introducing a system of continuous work in
+the building of new ships and effecting alterations in others, and
+German material is exclusively used. The Schichau Works at
+Elbing and Danzig, the Vulkan Yard at Bredow, near Stettin, the
+Weser Company at Bremen, and the establishment of Blohm and
+Voss at Hamburg, are important establishments which have built
+many vessels for the German navy, as well as for foreign states.</p>
+
+<p><i>Italy.</i>&mdash;The principal Italian state dockyards are Spezia, Naples
+and Venice, the first named being by far the most important. It
+covers an area, including the water spaces, of 629 acres, and there
+are five dry docks, three being 433 ft. long and 105 ft. wide, and two
+361 ft. long and 98 ft. 6 in. wide. The dockyard is very completely
+equipped with machinery of the best British, German and Italian
+makes, and it has built several of the finest Italian ships. The
+number of hands employed in the yard averages 4000. There are
+two building slips, and for smaller vessels there are two in the
+neighbouring establishment of San Bartolommeo (which is the headquarters
+for submarine mining), and one at San Vito, where is a
+Government gun factory. Castellammare di Stabia is subsidiary
+to Naples. A large dry dock has been built at Taranto. There is
+a small naval establishment at Maddalena Island on the Strait of
+Bonifacio. The Italian Government has no gun or torpedo factories,
+nearly all the ordnance coming from the Armstrong factory at
+Pozzuoli near Naples, and the torpedoes from the Schwarzkopf
+factory at Venice, while armour-plates are produced at the important
+works at Terni. Machinery is supplied by the firms of
+Ansaldo, Odero, Orlando, Guppy &amp; Hawthorn and Pattison. The
+three establishments first named have important shipbuilding yards,
+and have constructed vessels for the Italian and foreign navies.
+The Orlando Yard at Leghorn is Government property, but is
+leased by the firm, and possesses five building slips.</p>
+
+<p><i>Austria-Hungary.</i>&mdash;The naval arsenal is on the well-protected
+harbour of Pola, in Istria, which is the headquarters of the national
+navy, and includes establishments of all kinds for the maintenance
+of the fleet. There are large building and docking facilities, and a
+number of warships have been built there. There is a construction
+yard also at Trieste. A new coaling and torpedo station is at Teodo,
+large magazines and stores are at Vallelunga, and the mining establishment
+is at Ficella. The shipbuilding branch of the navy is under the
+direction of a chief constructor (<i>Oberster-Ingenieur</i>), assisted by seven
+constructors, of whom two are of the first class. The engineering and
+ordnance branches are similarly organized.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spain.</i>&mdash;The Spanish dockyards are of considerable antiquity, but
+of diminishing importance. There is an establishment at Ferrol,
+another at Cartagena, and a third at Cadiz. They are well equipped
+in all necessary respects, but are not provided with continuous work.
+A recent arrangement is the specialization of the yards, Ferrol being
+designed for larger, and Carthagena for smaller, building work. The
+ordnance establishment is at Carraca.</p>
+
+<p><i>Russia.</i>&mdash;In Russia the naval ports are of two classes. The most
+important are Kronstadt, St Petersburg and Nikolayev. Of lesser
+importance are Reval, Sveaborg, Sevastopol, Batum, Baku and
+Vladivostok. The administration of the larger ports, except St
+Petersburg, which is under special regulations, is in the hands of
+vice-admirals, who are commanders-in-chief, while the smaller ports
+are under the direction of rear-admirals. All are directly under the
+minister of marine, except that the Black Sea ports and Astrabad,
+on the Caspian, are subordinate to the commander-in-chief at
+Nikolayev. Sevastopol has grown in importance, and become
+mainly a naval harbour, the commercial harbour being removed to
+Theodosia. The Russian government has also proposed to remodel
+the harbour works at St Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Emperor
+Alexander III. Port at Libau, on the Baltic, is in a region less liable
+to be icebound in the winter. There are no strictly private yards for
+the building of large vessels in Russia, except that of the Black Sea
+Company at Nikolayev. Messrs Creighton build torpedo-boats at
+Åbo in Finland, and the admiralty has steel works at Ijora, where
+some torpedo-boats have been built. Other ordnance and steel
+works are at Obukhov and Putilov.</p>
+
+<p><i>Japan.</i>&mdash;The principal Japanese dockyard, which was established
+by the Shogunate in 1866, is Yokosuka. French naval constructors
+and engineers were employed, and several wooden ships were built.
+The Japanese took the administration into their own hands in 1875,
+and built a number of vessels of small displacement in the yard.
+The limit of size was about 5000 tons, but the establishment has been
+enlarged so that vessels of the first class may be built there. There
+is a first-class modern dry dock which will take the largest battleship.
+Shipbuilding would be undertaken to a larger extent but for the fact
+that nearly all material has to come from abroad. Down to 1905
+all the important vessels of the Japanese navy were built in Great
+Britain, France, Germany and the United States, but at the end of
+that year a first-class cruiser of 13,500 tons (the &ldquo;Tsukuba&rdquo;) was
+launched from the important yard at Kure. There are other yards
+at Sassebo and Maisuru.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCTOR<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (Lat. for &ldquo;teacher&rdquo;), the title conferred by the
+highest university degree. Originally there were only two
+degrees, those of bachelor and master, and the title doctor was
+given to certain masters as a merely honorary appellation.
+The process by which it became established as a degree superior
+to that of master cannot be clearly traced. At Bologna it seems
+to have been conferred in the faculty of law as early as the
+12th century. Paris conferred the degree in the faculty of
+divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150. In
+England it was introduced in the 13th century; and both in
+England and on the continent it was long confined to the faculties
+of law and divinity. Though the word is so commonly used as
+synonymous with &ldquo;physician,&rdquo; it was not until the 14th century
+that the doctor&rsquo;s degree began to be conferred in medicine. The
+tendency since has been to extend it to all faculties; thus in
+Germany, in the faculty of arts, it has replaced the old title of
+<i>magister</i>. The doctorate of music was first conferred at Oxford
+and Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Doctors of the Church</i> are certain saints whose doctrinal writings
+have obtained, by the universal consent of the Church
+or by papal decree, a special authority. In the case of the great
+schoolmen a characteristic qualification was added to the title
+doctor, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;angelicus&rdquo; (Aquinas), &ldquo;mellifluus&rdquo; (Bernard).
+The doctors of the Church are: for the East, SS. Athanasius,
+Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom; for
+the West, SS. Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span>
+Great, Anselm, Bernard, Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas.
+To these St Alphonso dei Liguori was added by Pope Pius IX.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCTORS&rsquo; COMMONS,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> the name formerly applied to a
+society of ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct
+profession for the practice of the civil and canon laws. Some
+members of the profession purchased in 1567 a site near St Paul&rsquo;s,
+on which at their own expense they erected houses (destroyed in
+the great fire, but rebuilt in 1672) for the residence of the judges
+and advocates, and proper buildings for holding the ecclesiastical
+and admiralty courts. In 1768 a royal charter was obtained
+by virtue of which the then members of the society and their
+successors were incorporated under the name and title of &ldquo;The
+College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and
+Admiralty Courts.&rdquo; The college consisted of a president (the
+dean of Arches for the time being) and of those doctors of law
+who, having regularly taken that degree in either of the universities
+of Oxford or Cambridge, and having been admitted
+advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the archbishop of
+Canterbury, were elected fellows in the manner prescribed by
+the charter. There were also attached to the college thirty-four
+proctors, whose duties were analogous to those of solicitors.
+The judges of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected
+from this college. By the Court of Probate Act 1857 the
+college was empowered to sell its real and personal estate and
+to surrender its charter, and it was enacted that on such
+surrender the college should be dissolved and the property
+thereof belong to the then existing members as tenants in
+common for their own use and benefit. The college was accordingly
+dissolved, and the various ecclesiastical courts which
+sat at Doctors&rsquo; Commons (the Court of Arches, the Prerogative
+Court, the Faculty Court and the Court of Delegates) are now
+open to the whole bar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCTRINAIRES,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> the name given to the leaders of the moderate
+and constitutional Royalists in France after the second restoration
+of Louis XVIII. in 1815. The name, as has often been the
+case with party designations, was at first given in derision, and
+by an enemy. In 1816 the <i>Nain jaune réfugié</i>, a French paper
+published at Brussels by Bonapartist and Liberal exiles, began
+to speak of M. Royer-Collard as the &ldquo;doctrinaire&rdquo; and also as
+<i>le père Royer-Collard de la doctrine chrétienne</i>. The <i>pères de la
+doctrine chrétienne</i>, popularly known as the &ldquo;doctrinaires,&rdquo; were
+a French religious order founded in 1592 by César de Bus. The
+choice of a nickname for M. Royer-Collard does credit to the
+journalistic insight of the contributors to the <i>Nain jaune réfugié</i>,
+for he was emphatically a man who made it his business to preach
+a doctrine and an orthodoxy. The popularity of the name and
+its rapid extension to M. Royer-Collard&rsquo;s colleagues is the sufficient
+proof that it was well chosen and had more than a personal
+application. These colleagues came, it is true, from various
+quarters. The duc de Richelieu and M. de Serre had been Royalist
+<i>émigrés</i> during the revolutionary and imperial epoch. MM.
+Royer-Collard himself, Lainé, and Maine de Biran had sat in the
+revolutionary Assemblies. MM. Pasquier, Beugnot, de Barante,
+Cuvier, Mounier, Guizot and Decazes had been imperial officials.
+But they were closely united by political principle, and also by a
+certain similarity of method. Some of them, notably Guizot and
+Maine de Biran, were theorists and commentators on the principles
+of government. M. de Barante was an eminent man of letters.
+All were noted for the doctrinal coherence of their principles and
+the dialectical rigidity of their arguments. The object of the
+party as defined by M. (afterwards the duc) Decazes was to
+&ldquo;nationalize the monarchy and to royalize France.&rdquo; The means
+by which they hoped to attain this end were a loyal application
+of the charter granted by Louis XVIII., and the steady co-operation
+of the king with the moderate Royalists to defeat the
+extreme party known as the Ultras, who aimed at the complete
+undoing of the political and social work of the Revolution. The
+Doctrinaires were ready to allow the king a large discretion in
+the choice of his ministers and the direction of national policy.
+They refused to allow that ministers should be removed in
+obedience to a hostile vote in the chamber. Their ideal in fact
+was a combination of a king who frankly accepted the results
+of the Revolution, and who governed in a liberal spirit, with the
+advice of a chamber elected by a very limited constituency, in
+which men of property and education formed, if not the whole,
+at least the very great majority of the voters. Their views were
+set forth by Guizot in 1816 in his treatise <i>Du gouvernement
+représentatif et de l&rsquo;état actuel de la France.</i> The chief organs of
+the party in the press were the <i>Indépendent</i>, renamed the <i>Constitutionnel</i>
+in 1817, and the <i>Journal des débats</i>. The supporters
+of the Doctrinaires in the country were chiefly ex-officials of the
+empire,&mdash;who believed in the necessity for monarchical government
+but had a lively memory of Napoleon&rsquo;s tyranny and a
+no less lively hatred of the <i>ancien régime</i>&mdash;merchants, manufacturers
+and members of the liberal professions, particularly the
+lawyers. The history of the Doctrinaires as a separate political
+party began in 1816 and ended in 1830. In 1816 they obtained
+the co-operation of Louis XVIII., who had been frightened by
+the violence of the Ultras in the <i>Chambre introuvable</i> of 1815.
+In 1830 they were destroyed by Charles X. when he took the
+Ultra prince de Polignac as his minister and entered on the conflict
+with Liberalism in France which ended in his overthrow.
+During the revolution of 1830 the Doctrinaires became absorbed
+in the Orleanists, from whom they had never been separated on
+any ground of principle (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;doctrinaire&rdquo; has become naturalized in English
+terminology, as applied, in a slightly contemptuous sense, to a
+theorist, as distinguished from a practical man of affairs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Duvergier de Hauranne, <i>Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire
+en France</i> (Paris, 1857-1871), vol. iii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DOCUMENT<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span>, strictly, in law, that which can serve as evidence
+or proof, and is written or printed, or has an inscription or any
+significance that can be &ldquo;read&rdquo;; thus a picture, authenticated
+photograph, seal or the like would furnish &ldquo;documentary
+evidence.&rdquo; More generally the word is used for written or printed
+papers that provide information or evidence on a subject. The
+Latin <i>documentum</i>, from which the word is derived, meant, in
+classical times, a lesson, example or proof (<i>docere</i>, to teach), and
+only in medieval Latin came to be applied to an <i>instrumentum</i>, or
+record in writing. The classical Latin use is found in English;
+thus Jeremy Taylor (Works, ed. 1835, i. 815) speaks of punishment
+being a &ldquo;single and sudden document if instantly inflicted&rdquo;
+(see <span class="sc">Diplomatic</span>; and <span class="sc">Evidence</span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODD, WILLIAM<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1729-1777), English divine, was born at
+Bourne in Lincolnshire in May 1729. He was admitted a sizar
+of Clare Hall, Cambridge, in 1745, and took the degree of B.A.
+in 1750, being fifteenth wrangler. On leaving the university he
+married a young woman of a more than questionable reputation,
+whose extravagant habits helped to ruin him. In 1751 he
+was ordained deacon, and in 1753 priest, and he soon became a
+popular and celebrated preacher. His first preferment was the
+lectureship of West-Ham and Bow. In 1754 he was also chosen
+lecturer of St Olave&rsquo;s, Hart Street; and in 1757 he took the
+degree of M.A. at Cambridge, subsequently becoming LL.D.
+He was a strenuous supporter of the Magdalen hospital, founded
+in 1758, and soon afterwards became preacher at the chapel of
+that charity. In 1763 he obtained a prebend at Brecon, and in
+the same year he was appointed one of the king&rsquo;s chaplains,&mdash;soon
+after which the education of Philip Stanhope, afterwards
+earl of Chesterfield, was committed to his care. In 1768 he had
+a fashionable congregation and was held in high esteem, but
+indiscreet ambition led to his ruin. On the living of St George&rsquo;s,
+Hanover Square, becoming vacant in 1774, Mrs Dodd wrote
+an anonymous letter to the wife of the lord chancellor, offering
+three thousand guineas if, by her assistance, Dodd were promoted
+to the benefice. This letter having been traced, a complaint was
+immediately made to the king, and Dodd was dismissed from his
+office as chaplain. After residing for some time at Geneva and
+Paris, he returned to England in 1776. He still continued to
+exercise his clerical functions, but his extravagant habits soon
+involved him in difficulties. To meet his creditors he forged
+a bond on his former pupil Lord Chesterfield for £4200, and
+actually received the money. He was detected, committed to
+prison, tried at the Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span>
+death; and, in spite of numerous applications for mercy, he was
+executed at Tyburn on the 27th of June 1777. Samuel Johnson
+was very zealous in pleading for a pardon, and a petition from
+the city of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr Dodd was a
+voluminous writer and possessed considerable abilities, with but
+little judgment and much vanity. He wrote one or two comedies,
+and his <i>Beauties of Shakespeare</i>, published in 1752, was long a
+well-known work; while his <i>Thoughts in Prison</i>, a poem in blank
+verse, written between his conviction and execution, naturally
+attracted much attention. He published a large number of
+sermons and other theological works, including a <i>Commentary
+on the Bible</i> (1765-1770). A list of his fifty-five writings and an
+account of the writer is included in the <i>Thoughts in Prison</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also P. Fitzgerald, <i>A Famous Forgery</i> (1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<p><span class="bold">DODDER<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (Frisian <i>dodd</i>, a bunch; Dutch <i>dot</i>, ravelled thread),
+the popular name of the annual, leafless, twining, parasitic plants
+forming the genus
+<i>Cuscuta</i>, formerly
+regarded as representing
+a distinct
+natural order
+Cuscutaceae, but
+now generally
+ranked as a tribe
+of the natural
+order Convolvulaceae.
+The genus
+contains nearly
+100 species and is
+widely distributed
+in the temperate
+and warmer parts
+of the earth. The
+slender thread-like
+stem is white,
+yellow, or red in
+colour, bears no
+leaves, and attaches
+itself by
+suckers to the stem
+or leaves of some
+other plant round
+which it twines
+and from which it
+derives its nourishment.
+It bears
+clusters of small
+flowers with a
+four- or five-toothed
+calyx, a
+cup-shaped corolla
+with four or five
+stamens inserted
+on its tube, and
+sometimes a ring
+of scales below the
+stamens; the two-celled
+ovary becomes when ripe a capsule splitting by a ring
+just above the base. The seeds are angular and contain a
+thread-like spirally coiled embryo which bears no cotyledons.
+On coming in contact with the living stem of some other plant
+the seedling dodder throws out a sucker, by which it attaches
+itself and begins to absorb the sap of its foster-parent; it then
+soon ceases to have any connexion with the ground. As it
+grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself firmly on
+the host-plant (fig. 2). After making a few turns round one stem
+the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining
+and branching till it resembles &ldquo;fine, closely-tangled, wet catgut.&rdquo;
+The injury done to flax, clover, hop and bean crops by
+species of dodder is often very great. <i>C. europaea</i>, the greater
+dodder (fig. 1) is found parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches and
+the hop; <i>C. Epilinum</i>, on flax; <i>C. Epithymum</i>, on furze, ling
+and thyme. <i>C. Trifolii</i>, the Clover Dodder, is perhaps a subspecies
+of the last mentioned.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:354px; height:685px" src="images/img368a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:313px; height:397px" src="images/img368b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;<i>Cuscuta europaea</i>, Dodder.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;<i>Cuscuta glomerata</i>. Section
+through union between parasite and host.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>1. Flower removed from 2, Calyx.</p>
+<p>3. Ovary cut across.</p>
+<p>4. Fruit enveloped by a persistent corolla.</p>
+<p>5. Seed.</p>
+<p>6. Embryo. &emsp; &emsp; 1-6 enlarged.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl" style="padding-left: 3em;"><p>c, stem of host.</p>
+<p>d, stem of <i>Cuscuta</i>.</p>
+<p>h, haustoria.</p>
+<p> &emsp; (After Dodel-Port.)</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODDRIDGE, PHILIP<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (1702-1751), English Nonconformist
+divine, was born in London on the 26th of June 1702. His
+father, Daniel Doddridge, was a London merchant, and his
+mother the orphan daughter of the Rev. John Bauman, a
+Lutheran clergyman who had fled from Prague to escape religious
+persecution, and had held for some time the mastership of the
+grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. Before he could
+read, his mother taught him the history of the Old and New
+Testament by the assistance of some blue Dutch chimney-tiles.
+He afterwards went to a private school in London, and in 1712
+to the grammar school
+at Kingston-upon-Thames.
+About 1715
+he was removed to a
+private school at St
+Albans, where he was
+much influenced by the
+Presbyterian minister,
+Samuel Clarke. He declined
+offers which would
+have led him into the
+Anglican ministry or the
+bar, and in 1719 entered
+the very liberal academy
+for dissenters at Kibworth
+in Leicestershire,
+taught at that time by
+the Rev. John Jennings,
+whom Doddridge succeeded
+in the ministry
+at that place in 1723,
+declining overtures from
+Coventry, Pershore and
+London (Haberdashers&rsquo;
+Hall). In 1729, at a
+general meeting of Nonconformist
+ministers, he was chosen to conduct the academy
+established in that year at Market Harborough. In the same
+year he received an invitation from the independent congregation
+at Northampton, which he accepted. Here he continued
+his multifarious labours; but the church seems to have decreased,
+and his many engagements and bulky correspondence
+interfered seriously with his pulpit work, and with the discipline
+of his academy, where he had some 200 students to whom he
+lectured on philosophy and theology in the mathematical or
+Spinozistic style. In 1751 his health, which had never been
+good, broke down, and he sailed for Lisbon on the 30th of
+September of that year; but the change was unavailing, and
+he died there on the 26th of October. His popularity as a
+preacher is said to have been chiefly due to his &ldquo;high susceptibility,
+joined with physical advantages and perfect sincerity.&rdquo;
+His sermons were mostly practical in character, and his great
+aim was to cultivate in his hearers a spiritual and devotional
+frame of mind. He laboured for the attainment of a united
+Nonconformist body, which should retain the cultured element
+without alienating the uneducated. His principal works are,
+<i>The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul</i> (1745), which best
+illustrates his religious genius, and has been widely translated;
+<i>The Family Expositor</i> (6 vols., 1739-1756), <i>Life of Colonel
+Gardiner</i> (1747); and a <i>Course of Lectures on Pneumatology,
+Ethics and Divinity</i> (1763). He also published several courses
+of sermons on particular topics, and is the author of many well-known
+and justly admired hymns, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;O God of Bethel, by
+whose hand.&rdquo; In 1736 both the universities at Aberdeen gave
+him the degree of D.D.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoirs</i>, by Rev. Job Orton (1766); <i>Letters to and from
+Dr Doddridge</i>, by Rev. Thomas Stedman (1790); and <i>Correspondence
+and Diary</i>, in 5 vols., by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys
+(1829). The best life is Stanford&rsquo;s <i>Philip Doddridge</i> (1880). Doddridge&rsquo;s
+academy is now represented by New College, Hampstead, in
+the library of which there is a large collection of his manuscripts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODDS, ALFRED AMÉDÉE<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1842-&emsp;&emsp;), French general, was
+born at St Louis, Senegal, on the 6th of February 1842; his
+father&rsquo;s family was of Anglo-French origin. He was educated at
+Carcassonne and at St Cyr, and in 1864 joined the marine infantry
+as a sub-lieutenant. He was promoted captain for his services
+during the disturbances in Réunion in 1868-69, in the course
+of which he was wounded. He served as a company commander
+in the Franco-German War, was taken prisoner at Sedan but
+escaped, and took part in the campaigns of the Loire and of the
+East. In 1872 he was sent to West Africa, and, except when on
+active service in Cochin China (1878) and Tong-King (1883), he
+remained on duty in Senegal for the next twenty years, taking
+a prominent part in the operations which brought the countries
+of the Upper Senegal and Upper Niger under French rule. He
+led the expeditions against the Boal and Kayor (1889), the
+Serreres (1890) and the Futa (1891), and from 1888 to 1891 was
+colonel commanding the troops in Senegal. At the close of 1891
+he returned to France to command the eighth marine infantry
+at Toulon. In April 1892 Dodds was selected to command the
+expeditionary force in Dahomey; he occupied Abomey, the
+hostile capital, in November, and in a second campaign (1894)
+he completed the subjugation of the country. He was then
+appointed inspector-general of the marine infantry, and after a
+tour of the French colonies was given the command of the XX.
+(Colonial) Army Corps, subsequently becoming inspector-general
+of colonial troops and a member of the <i>Conseil supérieur de
+guerre</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODECAHEDRON<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dôdeka">&#948;&#974;&#948;&#949;&#954;&#945;</span>, twelve, and <span class="grk" title="hedra">&#7957;&#948;&#961;&#945;</span>, a face
+or base), in geometry, a solid enclosed by twelve plane faces. The
+&ldquo;ordinary dodecahedron&rdquo; is one of the Platonic solids (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polyhedron</a></span>). The Greeks discovered that if a line be divided in
+extreme and mean proportion, then the whole line and the greater
+segment are the lengths of the edge of a cube and dodecahedron
+inscriptible in the same sphere. The &ldquo;small stellated dodecahedron,&rdquo;
+the &ldquo;great dodecahedron&rdquo; and the &ldquo;great stellated
+dodecahedron&rdquo; are Kepler-Poinsot solids; and the &ldquo;truncated&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;snub dodecahedra&rdquo; are Archimedean solids (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polyhedron</a></span>).
+In crystallography, the regular or ordinary dodecahedron
+is an impossible form since the faces cut the axes in
+irrational ratios; the &ldquo;pentagonal dodecahedron&rdquo; of crystallographers
+has irregular pentagons for faces, while the geometrical
+solid, on the other hand, has regular ones. The &ldquo;rhombic
+dodecahedron,&rdquo; one of the geometrical semiregular solids, is
+an important crystal form. Many other dodecahedra exist as
+crystal forms, for which see <span class="sc">Crystallography</span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODECASTYLE<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="dôdeka">&#948;&#974;&#948;&#949;&#954;&#945;</span>, twelve, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">&#963;&#964;&#8166;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, column),
+the architectural term given to a temple where the portico has
+twelve columns in front, as in the portico added to the temple
+of Demeter at Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the
+arsenal at the Peiraeus.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DÖDERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span>
+(1791-1863), German philologist, was born at Jena on the 19th
+of December 1791. His father, Johann Christoph Döderlein,
+professor of theology at Jena, was celebrated for his varied
+learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and for the important
+influence he exerted in guiding the transition movement
+from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Döderlein,
+after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and
+Schulpforta (Pforta), studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen
+and Berlin. He devoted his chief attention to philology under the
+instruction of such men as F. Thiersch, G. F. Creuzer, J. H. Voss,
+F. A. Wolf, August Böckh and P. K. Buttmann. In 1815, soon
+after completing his studies at Berlin, he accepted the appointment
+of ordinary professor of philology in the academy of Bern.
+In 1819 he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became second
+professor of philology in the university and rector of the
+gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and
+rhetoric and director of the philological seminary. He died on
+the 9th of November 1863. Döderlein&rsquo;s most elaborate work as a
+philologist was marred by over-subtlety, and lacked method
+and clearness. He is best known by his <i>Lateinische Synonymen
+und Etymologien</i> (1826-1838), and his <i>Homerisches Glossarium</i>
+(1850-1858). To the same class belong his <i>Lateinische Wortbildung</i>
+(1838), <i>Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik</i> (1839),
+and the <i>Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologie</i> (1841), besides
+various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use
+of schools and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been
+translated into English. To critical philology Döderlein contributed
+valuable editions of Tacitus (<i>Opera</i>, 1847; <i>Germania</i>,
+with a German translation) and Horace (<i>Epistolae</i>, with a German
+translation, 1856-1858; <i>Satirae</i>, 1860). His <i>Reden und Aufsätze</i>
+(Erlangen, 1843-1847) and <i>Offentliche Reden</i> (1860) consist
+chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various subjects in
+paedagogy and philology.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1842-1909), American
+soldier and military writer, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts,
+on the 28th of May 1842. He received a military education in
+Germany and subsequently studied at Heidelberg and London
+University, returning to the United States in 1861. At the outbreak
+of the Civil War he at once enlisted in the federal army, and
+he soon rose to commissioned rank. He served in the Army of
+the Potomac until Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. Incapacitated
+for further active service, he continued to be employed in administrative
+posts to the end of the war, and for several years thereafter
+he served at army headquarters, becoming captain in 1866
+and brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He retired in 1870. His
+works include <i>The Campaign of Chancellorsville</i> (1881), <i>A Bird&rsquo;s
+Eye View of our Civil War</i> (1882, later edition 1897), a complete,
+accurate and remarkably concise account of the whole war,
+<i>Patroclus and Penelope, a Chat in the Saddle</i> (1883), <i>Great Captains</i>
+(1886), a series of lectures, <i>Riders of Many Lands</i> (1893), and
+a series of large illustrated volumes entitled <i>A History of the Art of
+War</i>, being lives of &ldquo;Great Captains,&rdquo; including <i>Alexander</i> (2 vols.,
+1888), <i>Hannibal</i> (2 vols., 1889), <i>Caesar</i> (2 vols., 1892), <i>Gustavus
+Adolphus</i> (2 vols., 1896) and <i>Napoleon</i> (4 vols., 1904-1907). He
+died in France, at Versailles, on the 26th of October 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> [<span class="sc">&rdquo;Lewis Carroll&rdquo;</span>]
+(1832-1898), English mathematician and author, son of the Rev.
+Charles Dodgson, vicar of Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that
+village on the 27th of January 1832. The literary life of &ldquo;Lewis
+Carroll&rdquo; became familiar to a wide circle of readers, but the
+private life of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was retired and practically
+uneventful. After four years&rsquo; schooling at Rugby, Dodgson
+matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850; and from
+1852 till 1870 held a studentship there. He took a first class in
+the final mathematical school in 1854, and the following year was
+appointed mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he
+continued to fill till 1881. In 1861 he was ordained deacon, but
+he never took priest&rsquo;s orders, possibly because of a stammer which
+prevented reading aloud. His earliest publications, beginning
+with <i>A Syllabus of Plane Algebraical Geometry</i> (1860) and <i>The
+Formulae of Plane Trigonometry</i> (1861), were exclusively mathematical;
+but late in the year 1865 he published, under the
+pseudonym of &ldquo;Lewis Carroll,&rdquo; <i>Alice&rsquo;s Adventures in Wonderland</i>,
+a work that was the outcome of his keen sympathy with the
+imagination of children and their sense of fun. Its success was
+immediate, and the name of &ldquo;Lewis Carroll&rdquo; has ever since been
+a household word. A dramatic version of the &ldquo;Alice&rdquo; books by
+Mr Savile Clarke was produced at Christmas, 1886, and has since
+enjoyed many revivals. Mr Dodgson was always very fond of
+children, and it was an open secret that the original of &ldquo;Alice&rdquo;
+was a daughter of Dean Liddell. <i>Alice</i> was followed (in the
+&ldquo;Lewis Carroll&rdquo; series) by <i>Phantasmagoria</i>, in 1869; <i>Through
+the Looking-Glass</i>, in 1871; <i>The Hunting of the Snark</i> (1876);
+<i>Rhyme and Reason</i> (1883); <i>A Tangled Tale</i> (1885); and
+<i>Sylvie and Bruno</i> (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He wrote skits
+on Oxford subjects from time to time. <i>The Dynamics of a
+Particle</i> was written on the occasion of the contest between
+Gladstone and Mr Gathorne Hardy (afterwards earl of
+Cranbrook); and <i>The New Belfry</i> in ridicule of the erection put
+up at Christ Church for the bells that were removed from the
+Cathedral tower. While &ldquo;Lewis Carroll&rdquo; was delighting
+children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson periodically published mathematical
+works&mdash;<i>An Elementary Treatise on Determinants</i> (1867);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span>
+<i>Euclid, Book V., proved Algebraically</i> (1874); <i>Euclid and his
+Modern Rivals</i> (1879), the work on which his reputation as a
+mathematician largely rests; and <i>Curiosa Mathematica</i> (1888).
+Throughout this dual existence Mr Dodgson pertinaciously
+refused to acquiesce in being publicly identified with &ldquo;Lewis
+Carroll.&rdquo; Though the fact of his authorship of the &ldquo;Alice&rdquo;
+books was well known, he invariably stated, when occasion called
+for such a pronouncement, that &ldquo;Mr Dodgson neither claimed nor
+acknowledged any connexion with the books not published under
+his name.&rdquo; He died at Guildford, on the 14th of January 1898.
+His memory is appropriately kept green by a cot in the Children&rsquo;s
+Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London, which was endowed
+perpetually by a public subscription.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S. D. Collingwood, <i>Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODO<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (from the Portuguese <i>Dóudo</i>, a simpleton), a large bird
+formerly inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct&mdash;the
+<i>Didus ineptus</i> of Linnaeus. When, in 1507, the Portuguese
+discovered the island which we now know as Mauritius they named
+it <i>Ilha do Cerné</i>, from a notion that it must be the island of that
+name mentioned by Pliny; but most authors have insisted that
+it was known to the seamen of that nation as <i>Ilha do Cisne</i>&mdash;perhaps
+but a corruption of Cerne, and brought about by their
+finding it stocked with large fowls, which, though not aquatic,
+they likened to swans, the most familiar to them of bulky birds.
+In 1598 the Dutch, under Van Neck, took possession of the island
+and renamed it Mauritius. A narrative of this voyage was
+published, in 1601, if not earlier, and has been often reprinted.
+Here we have birds spoken of as big as swans or bigger, with large
+heads, no wings, and a tail consisting of a few curly feathers. The
+Dutch called them <i>Walgvögels</i> (the word is variously spelled), <i>i.e.</i>
+nauseous birds, either because no cooking made them palatable,
+or because this island-paradise afforded an abundance of fare so
+much superior. De Bry gives two admirably quaint prints of
+the doings of the Hollanders, and in one of them the <i>Walgvögel</i>
+appears, being the earliest published representation of its unwieldy
+form, with a footnote stating that the voyagers brought
+an example alive to Holland. Among the company there was a
+draughtsman, and from a sketch of his, Clusius, a few years after,
+gave a figure of the bird, which he vaguely called &ldquo;<i>Gallinaceus
+Gallus peregrinus</i>,&rdquo; but described rather fully. Meanwhile two
+other Dutch fleets had visited Mauritius. One of them had rather
+an accomplished artist on board, and his drawings fortunately still
+exist (see article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bird</a></span>). Of the other a journal kept by one of
+the skippers was subsequently published. This in the main
+corroborates what has been before said of the birds, but adds the
+curious fact that they were now called by some <i>Dodaarsen</i> and by
+others <i>Dronten</i>.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Henceforth Dutch narrators, though several times mentioning
+the bird, fail to supply any important fact in its history. Their
+navigators, however, were not idle, and found work for their
+naturalists and painters. Clusius says that in 1605 he saw at
+Pauw&rsquo;s House in Leyden a dodo&rsquo;s foot,<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> which he minutely
+describes. In a copy of Clusius&rsquo;s work in the high school of
+Utrecht is pasted an original drawing by Van de Venne superscribed
+&ldquo;Vera effigies huius avis <i>Walghvögel</i> (quae &amp; a nautis
+<i>Dodaers</i> propter foedam posterioris partis crassitiem nuncupatur),
+qualis viua Amsterodamum perlata est ex insula Mauritii. Anno
+M.DC.XXVI.&rdquo; Now a good many paintings of the dodo drawn
+from life by Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) exist; and the paintings
+by him at Berlin and Vienna&mdash;dated 1626 and 1628&mdash;as
+well as the picture by Goiemare, belonging to the duke of
+Northumberland, dated 1627, may be with greater plausibility
+than ever considered portraits of a captive bird. It is even
+probable that this was not the first example painted in Europe.
+In the private library of the emperor Francis I. of Austria was a
+series of pictures of various animals, supposed to be by the Dutch
+artist Hoefnagel, who was born about 1545. One of these
+represents a dodo, and, if there be no mistake in Von Frauenfeld&rsquo;s
+ascription, it must almost certainly have been painted before
+1626, while there is reason to think that the original may have
+been kept in the <i>vivarium</i> of the emperor Rudolf II., and that the
+portion of a dodo&rsquo;s head, which was found in the museum at
+Prague about 1850, belonged to this example. The other pictures
+by Roelandt Savery, like those in the possession of the Zoological
+Society of London and others, are undated, but were probably all
+painted about the same time&mdash;1626-1628. The large picture in
+the British Museum, once belonging to Sir Hans Sloane, by an
+unknown artist, but supposed to be by Roelandt Savery, is also
+undated; while the still larger one at Oxford (considered to be by
+the younger Savery) bears a much later date, 1651. Undated also
+is a picture in Holland said to be by Pieter Holsteyn.</p>
+
+<p>In 1628 we have the evidence of the first English observer of
+the bird&mdash;one Emanuel Altham, who mentions it in two letters
+written on the same day from Mauritius to his brother at home
+(<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> 1874, pp. 447-449). In one he says: &ldquo;You
+shall receue ... a strange fowle: which I had at the Iland
+Mauritius called by ye portingalls a Do Do: which for the rareness
+thereof I hope wilbe welcome to you.&rdquo; The passage in the
+other letter is to the same effect, with the addition of the words
+&ldquo;if it liue.&rdquo; In the same fleet with Altham sailed Sir Thomas
+Herbert, whose <i>Travels</i> ran through several editions. It is plain
+that he could not have reached Mauritius till 1629, though 1627
+has been usually assigned as the date of his visit. The fullest
+account he gives of the bird is in his edition of 1638: &ldquo;The Dodo
+comes first to a description: here, and in <i>Dygarrois</i><a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (and no
+where else, that ever I could see or heare of) is generated the Dodo
+(a Portuguize name it is, and has reference to her simpleness,) a
+Bird which for shape and rareness might be call&rsquo;d a Phoenix
+(wer&rsquo;t in Arabia:)&rdquo; &amp;c. Herbert was weak as an etymologist,
+but his positive statement, corroborated as it is by Altham,
+cannot be set aside, and hence we do not hesitate to assign a
+Portuguese derivation for the word.<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Herbert also gave a figure
+of the bird.</p>
+
+<p>Proceeding chronologically we next come upon a curious bit
+of evidence. This is contained in a MS. diary kept between 1626
+and 1640, by Thomas Crossfield of Queen&rsquo;s College, Oxford, where,
+under the year 1634, mention is casually made of one Mr Gosling
+&ldquo;who bestowed the Dodar (a blacke Indian bird) vpon ye
+Anatomy school.&rdquo; Nothing more is known of it. About 1638,
+Sir Hamon Lestrange tells us, as he walked London streets he saw
+the picture of a strange fowl hung out on a cloth canvas, and
+going in to see it found a great bird kept in a chamber &ldquo;somewhat
+bigger than the largest Turky cock, and so legged and footed, but
+shorter and thicker.&rdquo; The keeper called it a dodo and showed
+the visitors how his captive would swallow &ldquo;large peble stones
+... as bigge as nutmegs.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1651 Morisot published an account of a voyage made by
+François Cauche, who professed to have passed fifteen days in
+Mauritius, or &ldquo;l&rsquo;isle de Saincte Apollonie,&rdquo; as he called it, in
+1638. According to De Flacourt the narrative is not very
+trustworthy, and indeed certain statements are obviously
+inaccurate. Cauche says he saw there birds bigger than swans,
+which he describes so as to leave no doubt of his meaning dodos;
+but perhaps the most important facts (if they be facts) that he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page371" id="page371"></a>371</span>
+relates are that they had a cry like a gosling (&ldquo;il a un cry comme
+l&rsquo;oison&rdquo;), and that they laid a single white egg (&ldquo;gros comme un
+pain d&rsquo;un sol&rdquo;) on a mass of grass in the forests. He calls them
+&ldquo;oiseaux de Nazaret,&rdquo; perhaps, as a marginal note informs us,
+from an island of that name which was then supposed to lie more
+to the northward, but is now known to have no existence.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:543px" src="images/img371a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Skeleton of a Dodo, <i>Didus ineptus</i>, Museum of Zoology,
+Cambridge, and cast of a Head in Oxford.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the catalogue of Tradescant&rsquo;s <i>Collection of Rarities, preserved
+at South Lambeth</i>, published in 1656, we have entered among the
+&ldquo;Whole Birds,&rdquo; a &ldquo;Dodar from the island <i>Mauritius</i>; it is not
+able to flie being so big.&rdquo; This specimen may well have been the
+skin of the bird seen by Lestrange some eighteen years before, but
+anyhow we are able to trace the specimen through Willughby,
+Edward Llwyd and Thomas Hyde, till it passed in or before 1684
+to the Ashmolean collection at Oxford. In 1755 it was ordered
+to be destroyed, but, in accordance with the original orders of
+Ashmole, its head and right foot were preserved, and still ornament
+the museum of that university. In the second edition of a
+<i>Catalogue of many Natural Rarities</i>, &amp;c., &ldquo;to be seen at the place
+formerly called the Music House, near the West End of St Paul&rsquo;s
+Church,&rdquo; collected by one Hubert <i>alias</i> Forbes, and published in
+1665, mention is made of a &ldquo;legge of a Dodo, a great heavy bird
+that cannot fly; it is a Bird of the Mauricius Island.&rdquo; This is
+supposed to have subsequently passed into the possession of the
+Royal Society. At all events such a specimen is included in
+Grew&rsquo;s list of their treasures which was published in 1681. This
+was afterwards transferred to the British Museum. It is a left
+foot, without the integuments, but it differs sufficiently in size
+from the Oxford specimen to forbid its having been part of the
+same individual. In 1666 Olearius brought out the <i>Gottorffische
+Kunst Kammer</i>, wherein he describes the head of a <i>Walghvögel</i>
+which some sixty years later was removed to the museum at
+Copenhagen, and is now preserved there, having been the means
+of first leading zoologists, under the guidance of Prof. J. Th.
+Reinhardt, to recognize the true affinities of the bird.</p>
+
+<p>We have passed over all but the principal narratives of voyagers
+or other notices of the bird. A compendious bibliography, up to
+the year 1848, will be found in Strickland&rsquo;s classical work,<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and
+the list was continued by Von Frauenfeld<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> for twenty years later.
+The last evidence we have of the dodo&rsquo;s existence is furnished by a
+journal kept by Benj. Harry, and now in the British Museum
+(<i>MSS. Addit. 3668.</i> II. D). This shows its survival till 1681, but
+the writer&rsquo;s sole remark upon it is that its &ldquo;fflesh is very hard.&rdquo;
+The successive occupation of the island by different masters
+seems to have destroyed every tradition relating to the bird, and
+doubts began to arise whether such a creature had ever existed.
+Dr Henry Duncan, Scottish minister and journalist, in 1828,
+showed how ill-founded these doubts were, and some ten years
+later William John Broderip with much diligence collected all the
+available evidence into an admirable essay, which in its turn was
+succeeded by Strickland&rsquo;s monograph just mentioned. But in
+the meanwhile little was done towards obtaining any material
+advance in our knowledge, Prof. Reinhardt&rsquo;s determination of its
+affinity to the pigeons (<i>Columbae</i>) excepted; and it was hardly
+until George Clark&rsquo;s discovery in 1865 of a large number of dodos&rsquo;
+remains in the mud of a pool (the Mare aux Songes) that zoologists
+generally were prepared to accept that affinity without question.
+The examination of bone after bone by Sir R. Owen (<i>Trans.
+Zool. Soc.</i> vi. p. 49) confirmed the judgment of the Danish
+naturalist.</p>
+
+<p>In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the government of Mauritius,
+sent a great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward
+Newton.<a name="fa7m" id="fa7m" href="#ft7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a> From these the first correctly restored and properly
+mounted skeleton was prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded
+to the museum of Mauritius. Good specimens are in the British
+Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge, England.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:319px; height:580px" src="images/img371b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;The Solitaire of Rodriguez
+(<i>Pezophaps solitarius</i>). From Leguat&rsquo;s
+figure.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny
+hook; the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow.
+The plumage was dark
+ash-coloured, with
+whitish breast and
+tail, yellowish white
+wings (incapable of
+flight). The short tail
+formed a curly tuft.</p>
+
+<p>The dodo is said to
+have inhabited forests
+and to have laid one
+large white egg on a
+mass of grass. Besides
+man, hogs and other
+imported animals
+seem to have exterminated
+it. But the
+dodo is not the only
+member of its family
+that has vanished.
+The little island which
+has successively borne
+the name of Mascaregnas,
+England&rsquo;s
+Forest, Bourbon and
+Réunion, and lies to
+the southward of
+Mauritius, had also an
+allied bird, now dead
+and gone. Of this not
+a relic has been
+handled by any naturalist.
+The latest description
+of it, by Du
+Bois in 1674, is very
+meagre, while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure, apparently intended
+to represent it. It was originally called the &ldquo;solitaire,&rdquo; but this
+name was also applied to <i>Pezophaps solitarius</i> of Rodriguez by
+the Huguenot exile Leguat, who described and figured it about
+1691.</p>
+
+<p>The solitaire, Didus solitarius of Gmelin, referred by Strickland
+to a district genus Pezophaps, is supposed to have lingered in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page372" id="page372"></a>372</span>
+island of Rodriguez until about 1761. Leguat<a name="fa8m" id="fa8m" href="#ft8m"><span class="sp">8</span></a> has given a
+delightful description of its quaint habits. The male stood about
+2 ft. 9 in. high; its colour was brownish grey, that of its mate
+more inclined to brown, with a whitish breast. The wings were
+rudimentary, the tail very small, almost hidden, and the thigh
+feathers were thick and curled &ldquo;like shells.&rdquo; A round mass of
+bone, &ldquo;as big as a musket ball,&rdquo; was developed on the wings of
+the males, and they used it as a weapon of offence while they
+whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five
+minutes, making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The
+mien was fierce and the walk stately, the birds living singly or
+in pairs. The nest was a heap of palm leaves a foot high, and
+contained a single large egg which was incubated by both parents.
+The food consisted of seeds and leaves, and the birds aided
+digestion by swallowing large stones; these were used by the
+Dutch sailors to sharpen their knives with. One of these stones,
+nearly an inch and a half in length, of extremely hard volcanic
+rock, is in the Cambridge museum. The fighting knobs mentioned
+above, are very interesting, large exostoses on one of the wrist-bones
+of either wing; they were undoubtedly covered with a
+thick, callous skin. Thousands of bones of this curious flightless
+pigeon were collected through Sir E. Newton&rsquo;s<a name="fa9m" id="fa9m" href="#ft9m"><span class="sp">9</span></a> exertions, and
+by H. H. Sclater on behalf of the Royal Society of London. The
+results are several almost complete skeletons of both sexes,
+composed however out of the enormous mass of the dissociated
+bones.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.; H. F. G.)</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:625px" src="images/img372.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Skeleton of a male Solitaire, <i>Pezophaps solitarius</i>,
+Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.</td></tr></table>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The etymology of these names has been much discussed. That of
+the latter, which has generally been adopted by German and French
+authorities, seems to defy investigation, but the former has been
+shown by Prof. Schlegel (<i>Versl. en Mededeel. K. Akad. Wetensch.</i>
+ii. pp. 255 et seq.) to be the homely name of the dabchick or little
+grebe (<i>Podiceps minor</i>), of which the Dutchmen were reminded by
+the round stern and tail diminished to a tuft that characterized
+the dodo. The same learned authority suggests that dodo is a
+corruption of <i>Dodaars</i>, but, as will presently be seen, we herein think
+him mistaken.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> What has become of the specimen (which may have been a relic
+of the bird brought home by Van Neck&rsquo;s squadron) is not known.
+Broderip and Dr Gray have suggested its identity with that now in
+the British Museum, but on what grounds is not apparent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> Rodriguez; an error.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Hence we venture to dispute Prof. Schlegel&rsquo;s supposed origin of
+&ldquo;Dodo.&rdquo; The Portuguese must have been the prior nomenclators,
+and if, as is most likely, some of their nation, or men acquainted
+with their language, were employed to pilot the Hollanders, we see
+at once how the first Dutch name <i>Walghvögel</i> would give way. The
+meaning of <i>Doudo</i> not being plain to the Dutch, they would, as is
+the habit of sailors, convert it into something they did understand.
+Then <i>Dodaers</i> would easily suggest itself.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>The Dodo and its Kindred</i>, by H. E. Strickland and A. G. Melville
+(London, 1848, 4to).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Neu aufgefundene Abbildung des Dronte</i>, by Georg Ritter von
+Frauenfeld (Wien, 1868, fol.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> E. Newton and H. Gadow, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> xiii. (1893) pp.
+281-302, pls.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8m" id="ft8m" href="#fa8m"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Voyage et aventures de François Leguat</i>, &amp;c. (2 vols., London,
+1708). An English translation, edited with many additional illustrations
+by Captain Oliver, has been published by the Hakluyt
+Society (2 vols., 1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9m" id="ft9m" href="#fa9m"><span class="fn">9</span></a> E. Newton and J. W. Clark, <i>Phil. Trans.</i> clix. (1869), pp. 327-362;
+clxviii. (1879), pp. 448-451.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODONA<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span>, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and venerable
+of all Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near
+Tsacharovista. In later times the Greeks of the south looked on
+the inhabitants of Epirus as barbarians; nevertheless for Dodona
+they always preserved a certain reverence, and the temple there
+was the object of frequent missions from them. This temple was
+dedicated to Zeus, and connected with the temple was an oracle
+which enjoyed more reputation in Greece than any other save
+that at Delphi, and which would seem to date from earlier times
+than the worship of Zeus; for the normal method of gathering
+the responses of the oracle was by listening to the rustling of
+an old oak tree, which was supposed to be the seat of the deity.
+We seem here to have a remnant of the very ancient and widely
+diffused tree-worship. Sometimes, however, auguries were taken
+in other manners, being drawn from the moaning of doves in the
+branches, the murmur of a fountain which rose close by, or the
+resounding of the wind in the brazen caldrons which formed
+a circle all round the temple. Croesus proposed to the oracle
+his well-known question; Lysander sought to obtain from it a
+sanction for his ambitious views; the Athenians frequently
+appealed to its authority during the Peloponnesian War. But
+the most frequent votaries were the neighbouring tribes of the
+Acarnanians and Aetolians, together with the Boeotians, who
+claimed a special connexion with the district.</p>
+
+<p>Dodona is not unfrequently mentioned by ancient writers. It is
+spoken of in the <i>Iliad</i> as the stormy abode of Selli who sleep on the
+ground and wash not their feet, and in the <i>Odyssey</i> an imaginary
+visit of Odysseus to the oracle is referred to. A Hesiodic fragment
+gives a complete description of the Dodonaea or Hellopia, which
+is called a district full of corn-fields, of herds and flocks and
+of shepherds, where is built on an extremity (<span class="grk" title="ep eschatiê">&#7952;&#960;&#8125; &#7952;&#963;&#967;&#945;&#964;&#943;&#8131;</span>)
+Dodona, where Zeus dwells in the stem of an oak (<span class="grk" title="phêgos">&#966;&#951;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span>). The
+priestesses were called doves (<span class="grk" title="peleiai">&#960;&#941;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#945;&#953;</span>) and Herodotus tells a
+story which he learned at Egyptian Thebes, that the oracle of
+Dodona was founded by an Egyptian priestess who was carried
+away by the Phoenicians, but says that the local legend substitutes
+for this priestess a black dove, a substitution in which
+he tries to find a rational meaning. From inscriptions and later
+writers we learn that in historical times there was worshipped,
+together with Zeus, a consort named Dione (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zeus</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oracle</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dione</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The ruins, consisting of a theatre, the walls of a town, and some
+other buildings, had been conjectured to be those of Dodona by
+Wordsworth in 1832, but the conjecture was changed into
+ascertained fact by the excavations of Constantin Carapanos. In
+1875 he made some preliminary investigations; soon after, an
+extensive discovery of antiquities was made by peasants, digging
+without authority; and after this M. Carapanos made a systematic
+excavation of the whole site to a considerable depth. The
+topographical and architectural results are disappointing, and
+show either that the site always retained its primitive simplicity,
+or else that whatever buildings once existed have been very
+completely destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>To the south of the hill, on which are the walls of the town, and
+to the east of the theatre, is a plateau about 200 yds. long and 50
+yds. wide. Towards the eastern end of this terrace are the scanty
+remains of a building which can hardly be anything but the
+temple of Zeus; it appears to have consisted of pronaos, naos
+or cella, and opisthodomus, and some of the lower drums of the
+internal columns of the cella were still resting on their foundations.
+No trace of any external colonnade was found. The
+temple was about 130 ft. by 80 ft. It had been converted into a
+Christian church, and hardly anything of its architecture seems to
+have survived. In it and around it were found the most interesting
+products of excavation&mdash;statuettes and decorative bronzes,
+many of them bearing dedications to Zeus Naïus and Dione, and
+inscriptions, including many small tablets of lead which contained
+the questions put to the oracle. Farther to the west, on the same
+terrace, were two rectangular buildings, which M. Carapanos
+conjectures to have been connected with the oracle, but which
+show no distinguishing features.</p>
+
+<p>Below the terrace was a precinct, surrounded by walls and
+flanked with porticoes and other buildings; it is over 100 yds. in
+length and breadth, and of irregular shape. One of the buildings
+on the south-western side contained a pedestal or altar, and is
+identified by M. Carapanos as a temple of Aphrodite, on the
+insufficient evidence of a single dedicated object; it does not
+seem to have any of the characteristics of a temple. In front of
+the porticoes are rows of pedestals, which once bore statues and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page373" id="page373"></a>373</span>
+other dedications. At the southern corner of the precinct is a
+kind of gate or propylaeum, flanked with two towers, between
+which are placed two coarse limestone drums. If these are <i>in situ</i>
+and belong to the original gateway, it must have been of a very
+rough character; it does not seem probable that they carried,
+as M. Carapanos suggests, the statuette and bronze bowl by
+which divinations were carried on.</p>
+
+<p>The chief interest of the excavation centres in the smaller
+antiquities discovered, which have now been transferred from
+M. Carapanos&rsquo;s collection to the National Museum in Athens.
+Among the dedications, the most interesting historically are a
+set of weapons dedicated by King Pyrrhus from the spoils of
+the Romans, including characteristic specimens of the pilum.
+The leaden tablets of the oracle contain no certain example of a
+response, though there are many questions, varying from matters
+of public policy or private enterprise to inquiries after stolen
+goods.</p>
+
+<p>The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the Aetolians in 219
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, but the oracle survived to the times of Pausanias and even of
+the emperor Julian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Wordsworth, <i>Greece</i> (1839), p. 247; Constantin Carapanos,
+<i>Dodone et ses ruines</i> (Paris, 1878). For the oracle inscriptions, see
+E. S. Roberts in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, vol. i. p. 228. (E. GR.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODS, MARCUS<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1834-1909), Scottish divine and biblical
+scholar, was born at Belford, Northumberland, the youngest son
+of Rev. Marcus Dods, minister of the Scottish church of that town.
+He was trained at Edinburgh Academy and Edinburgh University,
+graduating in 1854. Having studied theology for five years
+he was licensed in 1858, and in 1864 became minister of Renfield
+Free Church, Glasgow, where he worked for twenty-five years. In
+1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament Exegesis in
+the New College, Edinburgh, of which he became principal on the
+death of Dr Rainy in 1907. He died in Edinburgh on the 26th of
+April 1909. Throughout his life, both ministerial and professorial,
+he devoted much time to the publication of theological books.
+Several of his writings, especially a sermon on Inspiration
+delivered in 1878, incurred the charge of unorthodoxy, and
+shortly before his election to the Edinburgh professorship he
+was summoned before the General Assembly, but the charge was
+dropped by a large majority, and in 1891 he received the honorary
+degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University. He edited Lange&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of Christ</i> in English (Edinburgh, 1864, 6 vols.), Augustine&rsquo;s
+works (1872-1876), and, with Dr Alexander Whyte, Clark&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Handbooks for Bible Classes&rdquo; series. In the Expositor&rsquo;s
+Bible series he edited Genesis and 1 Corinthians, and he was also a
+contributor to the 9th edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>
+and Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>. Among other important
+works are: <i>The Epistle to the Seven Churches</i> (1865); <i>Israel&rsquo;s Iron
+Age</i> (1874); <i>Mohammed, Buddha and Christ</i> (1877); <i>Handbook
+on Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi</i> (1879); <i>The Gospel according
+to St John</i> (1897), in the Expositor&rsquo;s Greek Testament; <i>The
+Bible, its Origin and Nature</i> (1904), the Bross Lectures, in which
+he gave an able sketch of the use of Old Testament criticism, and
+finally set forth his Theory of Inspiration. Apart from his great
+services to Biblical scholarship he takes high rank among those
+who have sought to bring the results of technical criticism within
+the reach of the ordinary reader.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODSLEY, ROBERT<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1703-1764), English bookseller and
+miscellaneous writer, was born in 1703 near Mansfield,
+Nottinghamshire, where his father was master of the free school.
+He is said to have been apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in
+Mansfield, from whom he ran away, taking service as a footman.
+In 1729 Dodsley published his first work, <i>Servitude; a Poem ...
+written by a Footman</i>, with a preface and postscript ascribed to
+Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, <i>A Muse in Livery,
+or the Footman&rsquo;s Miscellany</i>, was published by subscription in
+1732, Dodsley&rsquo;s patrons comprising many persons of high rank.
+This was followed by a satirical farce called <i>The Toyshop</i> (Covent
+Garden, 1735), in which the toyman indulges in moral observations
+on his wares, a hint which was probably taken from Thomas
+Randolph&rsquo;s <i>Conceited Pedlar</i>. The profits accruing from the sale
+of his works enabled Dodsley to establish himself with the help of
+his friends&mdash;Pope lent him £100&mdash;as a bookseller at the &ldquo;Tully&rsquo;s
+Head&rdquo; in Pall Mall in 1735. His enterprise soon made him one
+of the foremost publishers of the day. One of his first publications
+was Dr Johnson&rsquo;s <i>London</i>, for which he gave ten guineas in
+1738. He published many of Johnson&rsquo;s works, and he suggested
+and helped to finance the <i>English Dictionary</i>. Pope also made
+over to Dodsley his interest in his letters. In 1738 the publication
+of Paul Whitehead&rsquo;s <i>Manners</i>, voted scandalous by the Lords,
+led to a short imprisonment. Dodsley published for Edward
+Young and Mark Akenside, and in 1751 brought out Thomas
+Gray&rsquo;s <i>Elegy</i>. He also founded several literary periodicals: <i>The
+Museum</i> (1746-1767, 3 vols.); <i>The Preceptor containing a general
+course of education</i> (1748, 2 vols.), with an introduction by Dr
+Johnson; <i>The World</i> (1753-1756, 4 vols.); and <i>The Annual
+Register</i>, founded in 1758 with Edmund Burke as editor. To
+these various works, Horace Walpole, Akenside, Soame Jenyns,
+Lord Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield, Burke and others were
+contributors. Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor of
+two collections: <i>Select Collection of Old Plays</i> (12 vols., 1744;
+2nd edition with notes by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition,
+by W. C. Hazlitt, 1874-1876, 15 vols.); and <i>A collection of Poems
+by Several Hands</i> (1748, 3 vols.), which passed through many
+editions. In 1737 his <i>King and the Miller of Mansfield</i>, a
+&ldquo;dramatic tale&rdquo; of King Henry II., was produced at Drury
+Lane, and received with much applause; the sequel, <i>Sir John
+Cockle at Court</i>, a farce, appeared in 1738. In 1745 he published a
+collection of his dramatic works, and some poems which had been
+issued separately, in one volume under the modest title of <i>Trifles</i>.
+This was followed by <i>The Triumph of Peace, a Masque occasioned
+by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle</i> (1749); a fragment, entitled
+<i>Agriculture</i>, of a long tedious poem in blank verse on <i>Public
+Virtue</i> (1753); <i>The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green</i> (acted at
+Drury Lane 1739, printed 1741); and an ode, <i>Melpomene</i> (1757).
+His tragedy of <i>Cleone</i> (1758) had a long run at Covent Garden,
+2000 copies being sold on the day of publication, and it passed
+through four editions within the year. Lord Chesterfield is,
+however, almost certainly the author of the series of mock
+chronicles of which <i>The Chronicle of the Kings of England</i> by
+&ldquo;Nathan ben Saddi&rdquo; (1740) is the first, although they were
+included in the <i>Trifles</i> and &ldquo;ben Saddi&rdquo; was received as Dodsley&rsquo;s
+pseudonym. <i>The Economy of Human Life</i> (1750), a collection of
+moral precepts frequently reprinted, is also by Lord Chesterfield.
+In 1759 Dodsley retired, leaving the conduct of the business to his
+brother James (1724-1797), with whom he had been many years
+in partnership. He published two more works, <i>The Select Fables
+of Aesop translated by R. D.</i> (1764) and the <i>Works of William
+Shenstone</i> (3 vols., 1764-1769). He died at Durham while on
+a visit to his friend the Rev. Joseph Spence, on the 23rd of
+September 1764.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <i>Shadows of the Old Booksellers</i>, by Charles Knight (1865),
+pp. 189-216; &ldquo;At Tully&rsquo;s Head&rdquo; in <i>Eighteenth Century Vignettes</i>,
+2nd series, by Austin Dobson (1894); E. Solly in <i>The Bibliographer</i>,
+v. (1884) pp. 57-61. Dodsley&rsquo;s poems are reprinted with a memoir
+in A. Chalmers&rsquo;s <i>Works of English Poets</i>, vol. xv. (1810).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">DODSWORTH, ROGER<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1585-1654), English antiquary, was
+born near Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire. He devoted himself early to
+antiquarian research, in which he was greatly assisted by the
+fact that his father, Matthew Dodsworth, was registrar of York
+cathedral, and could give him access to the records preserved
+there. He married the widow of Laurence Rawsthorne of Hutton
+Grange, where he subsequently resided till his death in August
+1654. At various times in his life he was enabled to study the
+records in the library of Sir Robert Cotton, in Skipton Castle,
+and in the Tower of London. He collected a vast store of
+materials for a history of Yorkshire, a <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>,
+and an English baronage. The second of these was published
+with considerable additions by Sir William Dugdale (2 vols.,
+1655 and 1661). The MSS. were left to Thomas, third Lord
+Fairfax, who by his will bequeathed them (160 volumes in all) to
+the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Portions have been printed
+by the Yorkshire Archaeological Society (<i>Dodsworth&rsquo;s Yorkshire
+Notes</i>, 1884) and the Chetham Society (copies of Lancashire postmortem
+inquisitions, 1875-1876).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5, by Various
+
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 8, Slice 5, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5
+       "Dinard" to "Dodsworth"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: June 4, 2010 [EBook #32689]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 5 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(5) Letters with a dot below are represented as [x.].
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article DIPLOMATIC: "Of later date was the Ars dictaminis of
+      Bernard of Chartres of the 12th century." Omitted a superfluous '('.
+
+    Article DIPTERA: "they are simply Cyclorrhapha much modified owing
+      to parasitism, and in view of the closely similar mode of
+      reproduction in the tsetse-flies the special designation Pupipara
+      should be abandoned." 'similar' amended from 'similiar'.
+
+    Article DIPTERA: "The famous Tertiary beds at Florissant, Colorado,
+      have yielded a considerable number of remarkably well-preserved
+      Tipulidae." 'of' amended from 'or'.
+
+    Article DIRECTORS: "They have to carry on the company's business,
+      to extend and consolidate it, and to do this they must have a free
+      hand and a large discretion to deal with the exigencies of the
+      commercial situation." 'commercial' amended from 'commerical'.
+
+    Article DIVERS: "But so exhausting is the work, and so severe the
+      strain on the system, that, after a number of dives in deep water,
+      the men often become insensible, and blood sometimes bursts from
+      nose, ears and mouth." 'sometimes' amended from 'sometime'.
+
+    Article DIVORCE: "It is interesting to compare these provisions as
+      to children with the practice at present under English law, which
+      in this respect reflects so closely the spirit of the law of Rome."
+      'children' amended from 'childern'.
+
+    Article DLUGOSZ, JAN: "The office of administering the cardinal's
+      estate was a very ungrateful one, for the family resented the
+      liberal benefactions of their kinsman to the Church and the
+      university, and accused Dlugosz of exercising undue influence".
+      'university' amended from 'univesity'.
+
+    Article DOCK: "The basins of such ports are always accessible for
+      vessels of the draught they provide for; but they require most
+      efficient protection, and, unlike tidal ports, they are not able on
+      exceptional occasions to admit a vessel of larger draught than the
+      basins have been formed to accommodate." 'on' amended from 'to'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VIII, SLICE V
+
+            Dinard to Dodsworth
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  DINARD                           DISSECTION
+  DINDIGUL                         DISSENTER
+  KARL WILHELM DINDORF             DISSOCIATION
+  D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-VINCENT       DISSOLUTION
+  DINEIR                           DISTAFF
+  DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON           DISTILLATION
+  DINGHY                           DISTRACTION
+  DINGLE                           DISTRESS
+  DINGO                            DISTRIBUTION
+  DINGWALL                         DISTRICT
+  DINKA                            DISTYLE
+  DINKELSBUHL                      DITHMARSCHEN
+  DINNER                           DITHYRAMBIC POETRY
+  DINOCRATES                       DITTERSBACH
+  DINOFLAGELLATA                   DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON
+  DINOTHERIUM                      DITTO
+  DINWIDDIE, ROBERT                DITTON, HUMPHRY
+  DIO CASSIUS                      DIU
+  DIOCESE                          DIURETICS
+  DIO CHRYSOSTOM                   DIURNAL MOTION
+  DIOCLETIAN                       DIVAN
+  DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF             DIVER
+  DIODATI, GIOVANNI                DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS
+  DIODORUS CRONUS                  DIVES-SUR-MER
+  DIODORUS SICULUS                 DIVIDE
+  DIODOTUS                         DIVIDEND
+  DIOGENES                         DIVIDIVI
+  DIOGENES APOLLONIATES            DIVINATION
+  DIOGENES LAERTIUS                DIVINING-ROD
+  DIOGENIANUS                      DIVISION
+  DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO            DIVORCE
+  DIOMEDES (Greek legend)          DIWANIEH
+  DIOMEDES (Latin grammarian)      DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE
+  DION                             DIX, JOHN ADAMS
+  DIONE                            DIXON, GEORGE
+  DIONYSIA                         DIXON, HENRY HALL
+  DIONYSIUS (pope)                 DIXON, RICHARD WATSON
+  DIONYSIUS (tyrant of Syracuse)   DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH
+  DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS          DIXON
+  DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS                DIZFUL
+  DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS       DJAKOVO
+  DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES             DLUGOSZ, JAN
+  DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS          DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH
+  DIONYSIUS THRAX                  DNIEPER
+  DIONYSUS                         DNIESTER
+  DIOPHANTUS                       DOAB
+  DIOPSIDE                         DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON
+  DIOPTASE                         DOBBS FERRY
+  DIORITE                          DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON
+  DIP                              DOBELN
+  DIPHENYL                         DOBERAN
+  DIPHILUS                         DOBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG
+  DIPHTHERIA                       DOBREE, PETER PAUL
+  DIPLODOCUS                       DOBRENTEI, GABOR
+  DIPLOMACY                        DOBRITCH
+  DIPLOMATIC                       DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN
+  DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS             DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH
+  DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD            DOBRUDJA
+  DIPSOMANIA                       DOBSINA
+  DIPTERA                          DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN
+  DIPTERAL                         DOBSON, WILLIAM
+  DIPTYCH                          DOCETAE
+  DIR                              DOCHMIAC
+  DIRCE                            DOCK
+  DIRECT MOTION                    DOCK (botany)
+  DIRECTORS                        DOCK (marine and river engineering)
+  DIRECTORY                        DOCKET
+  DIRGE                            DOCK WARRANT
+  DIRK                             DOCKYARDS
+  DIRSCHAU                         DOCTOR
+  DISABILITY                       DOCTORS' COMMONS
+  DISCHARGE                        DOCTRINAIRES
+  DISCHARGING ARCH                 DOCUMENT
+  DISCIPLE                         DODD, WILLIAM
+  DISCIPLES OF CHRIST              DODDER
+  DISCLAIMER                       DODDRIDGE, PHILIP
+  DISCOUNT                         DODDS, ALFRED AMEDEE
+  DISCOVERY                        DODECAHEDRON
+  DISCUS                           DODECASTYLE
+  DISINFECTANTS                    DODERLEIN, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG
+  DISMAL                           DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT
+  DISORDERLY HOUSE                 DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE
+  DISPATCH                         DODO
+  DISPENSATION                     DODONA
+  DISPERSION                       DODS, MARCUS
+  D'ISRAELI, ISAAC                 DODSLEY, ROBERT
+  DISS                             DODSWORTH, ROGER
+
+
+
+
+DINARD, a seaside town of north-western France, in the department of
+Ille-et-Vilaine. The town, which is the chief watering-place of
+Brittany, is situated on a rocky promontory at the mouth of the Rance
+opposite St Malo, which is about 1 m. distant. It is a favourite resort
+of English and Americans as well as of the French, its attractions being
+the beauty of its situation, the mildness of the climate and the good
+bathing. It has two casinos and numerous luxurious hotels and elegant
+villas. Together with the adjoining watering-place of St Enogat, Dinard
+has a population of 4882 (1906).
+
+
+
+
+DINDIGUL, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, 880
+ft. above the sea, 40 m. from Madura by rail. Pop. (1901) 25,182.
+Dindigul has risen into importance as the centre of a trade in tobacco
+and manufacture of cigars, which are exported to England. There are two
+large European cigar factories here. The town has manufactures of silk,
+muslin and blankets, and an export trade in hides and cardamoms; and
+there is a large native Christian population, with two churches. The
+ancient fort, well preserved, stands on a rock rising 350 ft. above the
+town; this was formerly a position of great strategic importance,
+commanding passes into Madura from Coimbatore, and figured prominently
+in the military operations of the Mahrattas in the 17th and 18th
+centuries, and of Hyder Ali in 1755 seq., being thrice captured by the
+British (1767, 1783, 1790). After the two first captures it was restored
+to Hyder Ali under treaty; after the third it was ceded to the East
+India Company.
+
+
+
+
+KARL WILHELM DINDORF (1802-1883), German classical scholar, was born at
+Leipzig on the 2nd of January 1802. From his earliest years he showed a
+strong taste for classical studies, and after completing F. Invernizi's
+edition of Aristophanes at an early age, and editing several grammarians
+and rhetoricians, was in 1828 appointed extraordinary professor of
+literary history in his native city. Disappointed at not obtaining the
+ordinary professorship when it became vacant in 1833, he resigned his
+post in the same year, and devoted himself entirely to study and
+literary work. His attention had at first been chiefly given to
+Athenaeus, whom he edited in 1827, and to the Greek dramatists, all of
+whom he edited separately and combined in his _Poetae scenici Graeci_
+(1830 and later editions). He also wrote a work on the metres of the
+Greek dramatic poets, and compiled special lexicons to Aeschylus and
+Sophocles. He edited Procopius for Niebuhr's _Corpus_ of the Byzantine
+writers, and between 1846 and 1851 brought out at Oxford an important
+edition of Demosthenes; he also edited Lucian and Josephus for the Didot
+classics. His last important editorial labour was his _Eusebius of
+Caesarea_ (1867-1871). Much of his attention was occupied by the
+republication of Stephanus's _Thesaurus_ (Paris, 1831-1865), chiefly
+executed by him and his brother Ludwig, a work of prodigious labour and
+utility. His reputation suffered somewhat through the imposture
+practised upon him by the Greek Constantine Simonides, who succeeded in
+deceiving him by a fabricated fragment of the Greek historian Uranius.
+The book was printed, and a few copies had been circulated, when the
+forgery was discovered, just in time to prevent its being given to the
+world under the auspices of the university of Oxford. Shortly after the
+death of his brother, he lost all his property and his library by rash
+speculations. He died on the 1st of August 1883.
+
+His brother LUDWIG (1805-1871) was born at Leipzig on the 3rd of January
+1805, and died there on the 6th of September 1871. He never held any
+academical position, and led so secluded a life that many doubted his
+existence, and declared that he was a mere pseudonym. The important
+share which he took in the edition of the _Thesaurus_ is nevertheless
+authenticated by his own signature to his contributions. He also
+published valuable editions of Polybius, Dio Cassius and other Greek
+historians.
+
+
+
+
+D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THEODORE-VINCENT (1851-   ), French musical composer,
+was born in Paris, on the 27th of March 1851. He studied composition and
+the organ at the Paris Conservatoire under Cesar Franck, and obtained
+the grand prize offered by the city of Paris in 1885 with _Le Chant de
+la Cloche_, a dramatic legend after Schiller. His principal works,
+beside the above, are the symphonic trilogy _Wallenstein_, the symphonic
+works entitled _Saugefleurie_, _La Foret enchantee_, _Istar_, _Symphonie
+sur un air montagnard francais_; overture to _Anthony and Cleopatra_;
+_Ste Marie Magdeleine_, a cantata; _Attendez-moi sous l'orme_, a one-act
+opera; _Fervaal_, a musical drama in three acts. Vincent d'Indy is
+perhaps the most prominent among the disciples of Cesar Franck. Imbued
+with very high aims, he was always guided by a lofty ideal, and few
+musicians have attained so complete a mastery over the art of
+instrumentation. His music, however, lacks simplicity, and can never
+become popular in the widest sense. His opera _Fervaal_, which is styled
+"action musicale", is constructed upon the system of _Leit-motifs_. Its
+legendary subject recalls both _Parsifal_ and _Tristan_, and the music
+is also suggestive of Wagnerian influence. D'Indy can scarcely be
+considered so typical a representative of modern French music as his
+juniors Alfred Bruneau, the composer of _Le Reve_, _L'Attaque du
+moulin_, _Messidor_, or Gustave Charpentier, the author of _Louise_, who
+chose subjects of modern life for their operatic works.
+
+
+
+
+DINEIR, a small town in Asia Minor, built amidst the ruins of
+Celaenae-Apamea, near the sources of the Maeander (Menderes). It is the
+terminus of the Smyrna-Aidin-Dineir railway. Pop. 1400. (See APAMEA.)
+
+
+
+
+DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON (1814-1881), German poet and dramatist, was born
+at Halsdorf, in Hesse Cassel, on the 30th of June 1814. Having studied
+at the university of Marburg, he became in 1836 a master at the Lyceum
+in Cassel, from which he was transferred to Fulda in 1838. In 1839 he
+produced a novel, _Unter der Erde_, which obtained considerable success,
+and in 1841 published the book by which he is best remembered, the
+_Lieder eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwachters_. These poems, animated as
+they are by a spirit of bitter opposition to everything that savours of
+despotism, were an effective contribution to the political poetry of the
+day. The popularity of this book determined Dingelstedt to take up a
+literary career, and in 1841 he obtained an appointment on the staff of
+the _Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung_. In 1843, however, the satirist of
+German princes accepted, to the general surprise, the appointment of
+private librarian to the king of Wurttemberg, and in the same year he
+married the celebrated Bohemian opera singer, Jenny Lutzer. In 1845 he
+published a volume of poems, some of which, treating of modern life,
+possessed great literary rather than strictly poetical merit. A
+subsequent collection, published in 1852, attracted little attention.
+The success of his tragedy _Das Haus der Barneveldt_ (1850) obtained for
+him the position of intendant at the court theatre at Munich, where he
+soon became the centre of literary society. He incurred, however, the
+animosity of the Jesuit clique at the court, and in 1856 was suddenly
+dismissed on the most frivolous charges. A similar position was offered
+to him at Weimar through the influence of Liszt, and he remained there
+until 1867. His administration was most successful, and he especially
+distinguished himself by presenting all Shakespeare's historical plays
+upon the stage in an unbroken cycle. In 1867 he became director of the
+court opera house in Vienna, and in 1872 of the Hofburgtheater, a
+position he held until his death on the 15th of May 1881. Among his
+other works may be noticed an autobiographical sketch of his Munich
+career, entitled _Munchener Bilderbogen_ (1879), _Die Amazone_, an art
+novel of considerable merit (1869), translations of several of
+Shakespeare's comedies, and several writings dealing with questions of
+practical dramaturgy. He was ennobled in 1867 by the king of Bavaria and
+in 1876 was created _Freiherr_ by the emperor of Austria.
+
+  Dingelstedt's _Samtliche Werke_ appeared in 12 vols. (1877-1878), but
+  this edition is far from complete. On his life see, besides the
+  autobiography mentioned above, J. Rodenberg, _Heimaterinnerungen an F.
+  Dingelstedt_ (Berlin, 1882), and by the same author, _F. Dingelstedt,
+  Blatter aus seinem Nachlass_ (2 vols., 1891). Also an essay by A.
+  Stern in _Zur Literatur der Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+DINGHY, or DINGEY (from the Hindu _d[=e]ng[=i]_ a small boat, the
+diminutive of _denga_, a sloop or coasting vessel), a boat of greatly
+varying size and shape, used on the rivers of India; the term is applied
+also, in certain districts, to a larger boat used for coasting purposes.
+The name was adopted by the merchantmen trading with India, and is now
+generally used to designate the small extra boat kept for general
+purposes on a man-of-war or merchant vessel, and also, on the Thames,
+for small pleasure boats built for one or two pairs of sculls.
+
+
+
+
+DINGLE, a seaport and market town of county Kerry, Ireland, in the west
+parliamentary division, the terminus of the Tralee and Dingle railway.
+Pop. (1901) 1786. This may be considered the most westerly town in the
+United Kingdom unless Knightstown at Valencia Island be excepted; it
+lies on the south side of the northernmost of the great promontories
+which protrude into the Atlantic on the south-western coast of Ireland,
+on the fine natural harbour of Dingle Bay, in a wild hilly district
+abundant in relics of antiquity. The town, which is the centre of a
+considerable fishing industry, especially in mackerel, was in the 16th
+century of no little importance as a seaport; it had also a noted
+manufacture of linen. It was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, and
+returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union.
+
+
+
+
+DINGO, a name applied apparently by Europeans to the warrigal, or native
+Australian dog, the Canis dingo of J. F. Blumenbach. The dingo is a
+stoutly-built, rather short-legged, sandy-coloured dog, intermediate in
+size between a jackal and a wolf, and measuring about 51 in. in total
+length, of which the tail takes up about eleven. In general appearance
+it is very like some of the pariah dogs of India and Egypt; and, except
+on distributional grounds, there is no reason for regarding it as
+specifically distinct from such breeds. Dingos, which are found both
+wild and tame, interbreed freely with European dogs introduced into the
+country, and it may be that the large amount of black on the back of
+many specimens may be the result of crossing of this nature.
+
+The main point of interest connected with the dingo relates to its
+origin; that is to say, whether it is a member of the indigenous
+Australian fauna (among which it is the only large placental mammal), or
+whether it has been introduced into the country by man. There seems to
+be no doubt that fossilized remains of the dingo occur intermingled with
+those of the extinct Australian mammals, such as giant kangaroos, giant
+wombats and the still more gigantic _Diprotodon_. And since remains of
+man have apparently not yet been detected in these deposits, it has been
+thought by some naturalists that the dingo must be an indigenous
+species. This was the opinion of Sir Frederick McCoy, by whom the
+deposits in question were regarded as probably of Pliocene age. A
+similar view is adopted by D. Ogilvy in a _Catalogue of Australian
+Mammals_, published at Sydney in 1892; the writer going however one step
+further and expressing the belief that the dingo is the ancestor of all
+domesticated dogs. The latter contention cannot for a moment be
+sustained; and there are also strong arguments against the indigenous
+origin of the dingo. That the animal now occurs in a wild state is no
+argument whatever as to its being indigenous, seeing that a domesticated
+breed introduced by man into a new country abounding in game would
+almost certainly revert to the wild state. The apparent absence of human
+remains in the beds yielding dingo teeth and bones (which are almost
+certainly not older than the Pleistocene) is of only negative value, and
+liable to be upset by new discoveries. Then, again (as has been pointed
+out by R. I. Pocock in the first part of the _Kennel Encyclopaedia_,
+1907), the absence of any really wild species of the typical group of
+the genus _Canis_ between Burma and Siam on the one hand and Australia
+on the other is a very strong argument against the dingo being
+indigenous, seeing that, whether brought by man or having travelled
+thither of its own accord, the dingo must have reached its present
+habitat by way of the Austro-Malay archipelago. If it had followed that
+route in the course of nature, it is inconceivable that it would not
+still be found on some portions of the route. On the supposition that
+the dingo was introduced by man, we have now fairly decisive evidence
+that the native Australian, in place of being (as formerly supposed) a
+member of the negro stock, is a low type of Caucasian allied to the
+Veddahs of Ceylon and the Toalas of Celebes. Consequently the Australian
+natives must be presumed to have reached the island-continent by way of
+Malaya; and if this be admitted, nothing is more likely than that they
+should have been accompanied by pariah dogs of the Indian type.
+Confirmation of this is afforded by the occurrence in the mountains of
+Java of a pariah-like dog which has reverted to an almost completely
+wild condition; and likewise by the fact that the old voyagers met with
+dogs more or less similar to the dingo in New Guinea, New Zealand and
+the Solomon and certain other of the smaller Pacific islands. On the
+whole, then, the most probable explanation of the case is that the dingo
+is an introduced species closely allied to the Indian pariah dog.
+Whether the latter represents a truly wild type now extinct, cannot be
+determined. If so, all pariahs should be classed with the Australian
+warrigal under the name of _Canis dingo_. If, on the other hand,
+pariahs, and consequently the dingo, cannot be separated specifically
+from the domesticated dogs of western Europe, then the dingo should be
+designated _Canis familiaris dingo_.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+DINGWALL, a royal and police burgh and county town of the shire of Ross
+and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2519. It is situated near the head
+of Cromarty Firth where the valley of the Peffery unites with the
+alluvial lands at the mouth of the Conon, 18-1/2 m. N.W. of Inverness by
+the Highland railway. Its name, derived from the Scandinavian
+_Thingvollr_, "field or meeting-place of the _thing_," or local
+assembly, preserves the Norse origin of the town; its Gaelic designation
+is Inverpefferon, "the mouth of the Peffery." The 18th-century town
+house, and some remains of the ancient mansion of the once powerful
+earls of Ross still exist. There is also a public park. An obelisk, 57
+ft. high, was erected over the grave of the 1st earl of Cromarty. The
+town belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs. It is a
+flourishing distributing centre and has an important corn market and
+auction marts. Some shipping is carried on at the harbour at the mouth
+of the Peffery, about a mile below the burgh. Branch lines of the
+Highland railway run to Strathpeffer and to Strome Ferry and Kyle of
+Lochalsh (for Skye). Alexander II. created Dingwall a royal borough in
+1226, and its charter was renewed by James IV. On the top of Knockfarrel
+(Gaelic, _cnoc_, hill; _faire_, watch, or guard), a hill about 3 m. to
+the west, is a large and very complete vitrified fort with ramparts.
+
+
+
+
+DINKA (called by the Arabs _Jange_), a widely spread negro people
+dwelling on the right bank of the White Nile to about 12 deg. N., around
+the mouth of the Babr-el-Ghazal, along the right bank of that river and
+on the banks of the lower Sobat. Like the Shilluk, they were greatly
+harried from the north by Nuba-Arabic tribes, but remained comparatively
+free owing to the vast extent of their country, estimated to cover
+40,000 sq. m., and their energy in defending themselves. They are a tall
+race with skins of almost blue black. The men wear practically no
+clothes, married women having a short apron, and unmarried girls a
+fringe of iron cones round the waist. They tattoo themselves with tribal
+marks, and extract the lower incisors; they also pierce the ears and lip
+for the attachment of ornaments, and wear a variety of feather, iron,
+ivory and brass ornaments. Nearly all shave the head, but some give the
+hair a reddish colour by moistening it with animal matter. Polygamy is
+general; some headmen have as many as thirty or more wives; but six is
+the average number. They are great cattle and sheep breeders; the men
+tend their beasts with great devotion, despising agriculture, which is
+left to the women; the cattle are called by means of drums. Save under
+stress of famine cattle are never killed for food, the people subsisting
+largely on durra. The Dinkas reverence the cow, and snakes, which they
+call "brothers." Their folklore recognizes a good and evil deity; one of
+the two wives of the good deity created man, and the dead go to live
+with him in a great park filled with animals of enormous size. The evil
+deity created cripples. The Dinka came, in 1899, under the control of
+the Sudan government, justice being administered as far as possible in
+accord with tribal custom. A compendium of Dinka laws was compiled by
+Captain H. D. E. O'Sullivan.
+
+  See G. A. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_ (1874); W. Junker,
+  _Travels in Africa_, Eng. edit. (London, 1890-1892); _The
+  Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+DINKELSBUHL, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the
+Wornitz, 16 m. N. from Nordlingen, on the railway to Dombuhl. Pop. 5000.
+It is an interesting medieval town, still surrounded by old walls and
+towers, and has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches. Notable
+is the so-called _Deutsches Haus_, the ancestral home of the counts of
+Drechsel-Deufstetten, a fine specimen of the German renaissance style of
+wooden architecture. There are a Latin and industrial school, several
+benevolent institutions, and a monument to Christoph von Schmid
+(1768-1854), a writer of stories for the young. The inhabitants carry on
+the manufacture of brushes, gloves, stockings and gingerbread, and deal
+largely in cattle.
+
+Fortified by the emperor Henry I., Dinkelsbuhl received in 1305 the same
+municipal rights as Ulm, and obtained in 1351 the position of a free
+imperial city, which it retained till 1802, when it passed to Bavaria.
+Its municipal code, the _Dinkelsbuhler Recht_, published in 1536, and
+revised in 1738, contained a very extensive collection of public and
+private laws.
+
+
+
+
+DINNER, the chief meal of the day, eaten either in the middle of the
+day, as was formerly the universal custom, or in the evening. The word
+"dine" comes through Fr. from Med. Lat. _disnare_, for _disjejunare_, to
+break one's fast (_jejunium_); it is, therefore, the same word as Fr.
+_dejeuner_, to breakfast, in modern France, to take the midday meal,
+_diner_ being used for the later repast. The term "dinner-wagon,"
+originally a movable table to hold dishes, is now used of a two-tier
+sideboard.
+
+
+
+
+DINOCRATES, a great and original Greek architect, of the age of
+Alexander the Great. He tried to captivate the ambitious fancy of that
+king with a design for carving Mount Athos into a gigantic seated
+statue. This plan was not carried out, but Dinocrates designed for
+Alexander the plan of the new city of Alexandria, and constructed the
+vast funeral pyre of Hephaestion. Alexandria was, like Peiraeus and
+Rhodes (see HIPPODAMUS), built on a regular plan; the streets of most
+earlier towns being narrow and confused.
+
+
+
+
+DINOFLAGELLATA, so called by O. Butschli (= the CILIOFLAGELLATA of E.
+Claparide and H. Lachmann), a group of Protozoa, characterized as
+Mastigophora, provided with two flagella, the one anterior extended in
+locomotion, the other coiled round its base, or lying in a transverse
+groove. The body is bounded by a firm pellicle, often supplemented by an
+armour ("lorica") of cuticular cellulose plates, with usually a marked
+longitudinal groove from which the anterior flagellum springs, and an
+oblique or spiral transverse groove for the second flagellum. In
+_Polykrikos_ (fig. 2, 9) there are eight transverse grooves each with
+its flagellum. The armour-plates are often exquisitely sculptured, and
+may be produced into spines or perpendicular plates to give greater
+surface extension, as we find in other plankton organisms. The cortical
+plasma may protrude pseudopodia in the longitudinal groove; it contains
+trichocysts in several species, true nematocysts in _Polykrikos_. It
+contains chromatophores in many species, coloured by a mixed lipochrome
+pigment which appears to be distinct from diatomin. The endoplasm is
+ramified between alveoli; it contains a large nucleus (in _Polykrikos_
+there are eight nuclei, accompanied by smaller, more numerous bodies
+regarded by O. Butschli as micro-nuclei). Besides the other spaces are
+definite rounded or oval vacuoles with a permanent pellicular wall
+termed by Schutt "pusules"; these open by a duct or ducts into the
+longitudinal groove. They enlarge and diminish, and are possibly
+excretory like the "contractile vacuoles" of other Protista; though it
+has been suggested that by their communication with the medium they
+subserve nutrition. Nutrition is of course holozoic or saprophytic in
+the colourless forms, holophytic in the coloured; but these divergent
+methods are exhibited by different species of the same genus, or even by
+individuals of one and the same species under different conditions.
+Binary fission has been widely observed, both in the active condition or
+after loss of the flagella: it differs from that of true Flagellates in
+not being longitudinal, but transverse or oblique (fig, 2, 2). Repeated
+fission (brood-formation) within a cyst has also been observed, as in
+_Pyrocystis_ and _Ceratium_; and possibly the chains of _Ceratium_ and
+other (fig. 2, 5 and 6) genera are due to the non-separation of the
+brood-cells. Conjugation of adults has been observed in several species,
+the most complete account being that of Zederbauer on _Ceratium
+hirundinella_ (marine): either mate puts forth a tube which meets and
+opens into that of the other (as in some species of _Chlamydomonas_ and
+Desmids); the two cell-bodies fuse in this tube, and encyst to form a
+resting zygospore. The Dinoflagellates are relatively large for
+Mastigophora, many attaining 50 [mu] (1/500") in length. The majority are
+marine; but some genera (_Ceratium_, _Peridinium_) include fresh-water
+species. Many are highly phosphorescent and some by their abundance
+colour the water of the sea or pool which they dwell in. Like so many
+coloured Protista, they frequently possess a pigmented "eye-spot" in
+which may be sunk a spheroidal refractive body ("lens").
+
+[Illustration: After F. Schutt in Engler and Prantl's
+_Pflanzenfamilien_, by permission of Wm Engelmann.
+
+FIG. 1.--_Peridinium divergens_ showing longitudinal and transverse
+grooves in which lie the respective flagella l.f., t.f.; s.p., large
+"sack pusule" discharging through a tube by pore o'; c.p., "collective
+pusule discharging at o, and surrounded by a ring of formative" or
+"daughter pusules"; n, nucleus.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+
+From Delage and Herouard's _Traite de zoologie concrete_, by permission
+of Schleicher Freres.
+
+  1. Modified from Schutt, _Ornithoceras_.
+  2. Diagram of transverse fission of a Dinoflagellate.
+  3. After Schutt, _Exuviaeella_.
+  4. After Stein, _Prorocentrum_.
+  5, 6. _Ceratium_, single and series.
+  7. _Pouchetia fusus_ (Schutt).
+  8. _Citharistes_.
+  9. After Butschli, _Polykrikos_.]
+
+The affinities of the Dinoflagellata are certainly with those
+Cryptomonadine Flagellates which possess two unequal flagella; the
+zoospores or young of the Cystoflagellates are practically colourless
+Dinoflagellates.
+
+  1. _Gymnodiniaceae_: body naked, or with a simple cellulose or
+  gelatinous envelope; both grooves present. _Pyrocystis_ (Murray),
+  often encysted, spherical or crescentic, becoming free within cyst
+  wall, and escaping whole or after brood-divisions as a form like
+  _Gymnodinium_; _Gymnodinium_ (Stein); _Hemidinium_ (Stein);
+  _Pouchetia_ (Schutt) (fig. 2, 7) with complex eye-spot; to this group
+  we may refer _Polykrikos_ (Butschli) (fig. 2, 9), with its metameric
+  transverse grooves and flagella.
+
+  2. _Prorocentraceae_ (Schutt) ( = the Adinida of Bergh); body
+  surrounded by a firm shell of two valves without a girdle band;
+  transverse groove absent; transverse flagellum coiled round base of
+  longitudinal. _Exuviaeella_ (Cienk.) (fig. 2, 3); _Prorocentrum_
+  (Ehrb.) (fig. 2, 4).
+
+  3. _Peridiniaceae_ (Schutt); body with a shell of plates, a girdle
+  band along the transverse groove, in which the transverse flagellum
+  lies. Genera, _Peridinium_ (Ehrb.) (fig. 1), fresh-water and marine;
+  _Ceratium_ (Schrank) (fig. 2, 5, 6), fresh-water and marine;
+  _Citharistes_ (Stein); _Ornithoceras_ (Claparede and Lachmann) (fig.
+  2, 1).
+
+  LITERATURE.--R. S. Bergh, "Der Organismusder Cilioflagellaten,"
+  _Morphol. Jahrbuch_, vii. (1881); F. von Stein, _Organismus der
+  Infusionsthiere_, Abth. 3, 2. Halfte; _Die Naturgeschichte der
+  arthrodelen Flagellaten_ (1883); Butschli, "Mastigophora" (in Bronn's
+  _Thierreich_, i. Abth. 2), 1881-1887; G. Pouchet, various observations
+  on Dinoflagellates, _Journal de l'anatomie et de la physiologie_
+  (1885, 1887, 1891); F. Schutt, "Die Peridineen der Plankton
+  Expedition" (_Ergebnisse d. Pl. Exed._ i. Th. vol. iv. 1895); and
+  "Peridiniales" in Engler and Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_, vol. i. Abt.
+  2 b. (1896); Zederbauer, _Berichte d. deutschen botanischen
+  Gesellschaft_, vol. xx. (1900); Delage and Herouard, _Traite de
+  zoologie concrete_, vol. i. _La Cellule et les protozoaires_ (1896).
+       (M. HA.)
+
+
+
+
+DINOTHERIUM, an extinct mammal, fossil remains of which occur in the
+Miocene beds of France, Germany, Greece and Northern India. These
+consist chiefly of teeth and the bones of the head. An entire skull,
+obtained from the Lower Pliocene beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in
+1836, measured 4-1/2 ft. in length and 3 ft. in breadth, and indicates an
+animal exceeding the elephant in size. The upper jaw is apparently
+destitute of incisor and canine teeth, but possesses five molars on each
+side, with a corresponding number in the jaw beneath. The most
+remarkable feature, however, consists in the front part of the lower jaw
+being bent downwards and bearing two tusk-like incisors also directed
+downwards and backwards. _Dinotherium_ is a member of the group
+Proboscidea, of the line of descent of the elephants.
+
+
+
+
+DINWIDDIE, ROBERT (1693-1770), English colonial governor of Virginia,
+was born near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1693. From the position of customs
+clerk in Bermuda, which he held in 1727-1738, he was promoted to be
+surveyor-general of the customs "of the southern ports of the continent
+of America," as a reward for having exposed the corruption in the West
+Indian customs service. In 1743 he was commissioned to examine into the
+customs service in the Barbadoes and exposed similar corruption there.
+In 1751-1758 he was lieutenant-governor of Virginia, first as the deputy
+of Lord Albemarle and then, from July 1756 to January 1758, as deputy
+for Lord Loudon. He was energetic in the discharge of his duties, but
+aroused much animosity among the colonists by his zeal in looking after
+the royal quit-rents, and by exacting heavy fees for the issue of
+land-patents. It was his chief concern to prevent the French from
+building in the Ohio Valley a chain of forts connecting their
+settlements in the north with those on the Gulf of Mexico; and in the
+autumn of 1753 he sent George Washington to Fort Le Boeuf, a newly
+established French post at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, with a
+message demanding the withdrawal of the French from English territory.
+As the French refused to comply, Dinwiddie secured from the reluctant
+Virginia assembly a grant of L10,000 and in the spring of 1754 he sent
+Washington with an armed force toward the forks of the Ohio river "to
+prevent the intentions of the French in settling those lands." In the
+latter part of May Washington encountered a French force at a spot
+called Great Meadows, near the Youghiogheny river, in what is now
+south-western Pennsylvania, and a skirmish followed which precipitated
+the French and Indian War. Dinwiddie was especially active at this time
+in urging the co-operation of the colonies against the French in the
+Ohio Valley; but none of the other governors, except William Shirley of
+Massachusetts, was then much concerned about the western frontier, and
+he could accomplish very little. His appeals to the home government,
+however, resulted in the sending of General Edward Braddock to Virginia
+with two regiments of regular troops; and at Braddock's call Dinwiddie
+and the governors of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland
+met at Alexandria, Virginia, in April 1755, and planned the initial
+operations of the war. Dinwiddie's administration was marked by a
+constant wrangle with the assembly over money matters; and its obstinate
+resistance to military appropriations caused him in 1754 and 1755 to
+urge the home government to secure an act of parliament compelling the
+colonies to raise money for their protection. In January 1758 he left
+Virginia and lived in England until his death on the 27th of July 1770
+at Clifton, Bristol.
+
+  _The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor of
+  Virginia_ (1751-1758), published in two volumes, at Richmond, Va., in
+  1883-1884, by the Virginia Historical Society, and edited by R. A.
+  Brock, are of great value for the political history of the colonies in
+  this period.
+
+
+
+
+DIO CASSIUS (more correctly CASSIUS DIO), COCCEIANUS (c. A.D. 150-235),
+Roman historian, was born at Nicaea in Bithynia. His father was Cassius
+Apronianus, governor of Dalmatia and Cilicia under Marcus Aurelius, and
+on his mother's side he was the grandson of Dio Chrysostom, who had
+assumed the surname of Cocceianus in honour of his patron the emperor
+Cocceius Nerva. After his father's death, Dio Cassius left Cilicia for
+Rome (180) and became a member of the senate. During the reign of
+Commodus, Dio practised as an advocate at the Roman bar, and held the
+offices of aedile and quaestor. He was raised to the praetorship by
+Pertinax (193), but did not assume office till the reign of Septimius
+Severus, with whom he was for a long time on the most intimate footing.
+By Macrinus he was entrusted with the administration of Pergamum and
+Smyrna; and on his return to Rome he was raised to the consulship about
+220. After this he obtained the proconsulship of Africa, and again on
+his return was sent as legate successively to Dalmatia and Pannonia. He
+was raised a second time to the consulship by Alexander Severus, in 229;
+but on the plea of ill health soon afterwards retired to Nicaea, where
+he died. Before writing his history of Rome ([Greek: Rhomaika] or
+[Greek: Rhomaike Historia]), Dio Cassius had dedicated to the emperor
+Severus an account of various dreams and prodigies which had presaged
+his elevation to the throne (perhaps the [Greek: Enodia] attributed to
+Dio by Suidas), and had also written a biography of his
+fellow-countryman Arrian. The history of Rome, which consisted of
+eighty books,--and, after the example of Livy, was divided into
+decades,--began with the landing of Aeneas in Italy, and was continued
+as far as the reign of Alexander Severus (222-235). Of this great work
+we possess books 36-60, containing the history of events from 68
+B.C.-A.D. 47; books 36 and 55-60 are imperfect. We also have part of 35
+and 36-80 in the epitome of John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century Byzantine
+monk. For the earlier period the loss of Dio's work is partly supplied
+by the history of Zonaras, who followed him closely. Numerous fragments
+are also contained in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Dio's
+work is a most important authority for the history of the last years of
+the republic and the early empire. His industry was great and the
+various important offices he held afforded him ample opportunities for
+historical investigation. His style, though marred by Latinisms, is
+clearer than that of his model Thucydides, and his narrative shows the
+hand of the practised soldier and politician; the language is correct
+and free from affectation. But he displays a superstitious regard for
+miracles and prophecies; he has nothing to say against the arbitrary
+acts of the emperors, which he seems to take as a matter of course; and
+his work, although far more than a mere compilation, is not remarkable
+for impartiality, vigour of judgment or critical historical faculty.
+
+  The best edition with notes is that of H. S. Reimar (1750-1752), new
+  ed. by F. G. Sturz (1824-1836); text by I. Melber (1890 foll.), with
+  account of previous editions, and U. P. Boissevain (1895-1901);
+  translation by H. B. Foster (Troy, New York, 1905 foll.), with full
+  bibliography; see also W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen
+  Litteratur_ (1898), p. 675; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa's
+  _Realencyclopadie_, iii. pt. 2 (1899); C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in
+  das Studium der alten Geschichte_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+DIOCESE (formed on Fr. _diocese_, in place of the Eng. form
+_diocess_--current until the 19th century--from Lat. _dioecesis_, med.
+Lat. variant _diocesis_, from Gr. [Greek: dioikesis], "housekeeping,"
+"administration," [Greek: dioikein], "to keep house," "to govern"), the
+sphere of a bishop's jurisdiction. In this, its sole modern sense, the
+word diocese (_dioecesis_) has only been regularly used since the 9th
+century, though isolated instances of such use occur so early as the
+3rd, what is now known as a diocese having been till then usually called
+a _parochia_ (parish). The Greek word [Greek: dioikesis], from meaning
+"administration," came to be applied to the territorial circumscription
+in which administration was exercised. It was thus first applied e.g. to
+the three districts of Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada, which were added to
+Cilicia in Cicero's time (between 56 and 50 B.C.). The word is here
+equivalent to "assize-districts" (Tyrrell and Purser's edition of Cicero
+_Epist. ad fam._ iii. 8. 4; xiii. 67; cf. Strabo xiii. 628-629). But in
+the reorganization of the empire, begun by Diocletian and completed by
+Constantine, the word "diocese" acquired a more important meaning, the
+empire being divided into twelve dioceses, of which the
+largest--Oriens--embraced sixteen provinces, and the
+smallest--Britain--four (see ROME: _Ancient History_; and W. T. Arnold,
+_Roman Provincial Administration_, pp. 187, 194-196, which gives a list
+of the dioceses and their subdivisions). The organization of the
+Christian church in the Roman empire following very closely the lines of
+the civil administration (see CHURCH HISTORY), the word diocese, in its
+ecclesiastical sense, was at first applied to the sphere of
+jurisdiction, not of a bishop, but of a metropolitan.[1] Thus Anastasius
+Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886), in his life of Pope Dionysius, says that he
+assigned churches to the presbyters, and established dioceses
+(_parochiae_) and provinces (_dioeceses_). The word, however, survived
+in its general sense of "office" or "administration," and it was even
+used during the middle ages for "parish" (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.
+"Dioecesis" 2).
+
+The practice, under the Roman empire, of making the areas of
+ecclesiastical administration very exactly coincide with those of the
+civil administration, was continued in the organization of the church
+beyond the borders of the empire, and many dioceses to this day preserve
+the limits of long vanished political divisions. The process is well
+illustrated in the case of English bishoprics. But this practice was
+based on convenience, not principle; and the limits of the dioceses,
+once fixed, did not usually change with the changing political
+boundaries. Thus Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, complains that not only
+his metropolitanate (_dioecesis_) but his bishopric (_parochia_) is
+divided between two realms under two kings; and this inconvenient
+overlapping of jurisdictions remained, in fact, very common in Europe
+until the readjustments of national boundaries by the territorial
+settlements of the 19th century. In principle, however, the subdivision
+of a diocese, in the event of the work becoming too heavy for one
+bishop, was very early admitted, e.g. by the first council at Lugo in
+Spain (569), which erected Lugo into a metropolitanate, the consequent
+division of diocese being confirmed by the king of the second council,
+held in 572. Another reason for dividing a diocese, and establishing a
+new see, has been recognized by the church as duly existing "if the
+sovereign should think fit to endow some principal village or town with
+the rank and privileges of a city" (Bingham, lib. xvii. c. 5). But there
+are canons for the punishment of such as might induce the sovereign so
+to erect any town into a city, solely with the view of becoming bishop
+thereof. Nor could any diocese be divided without the consent of the
+primate.
+
+In England an act of parliament is necessary for the creation of new
+dioceses. In the reign of Henry VIII. six new dioceses were thus created
+(under an act of 1539); but from that time onward until the 19th century
+they remained practically unchanged. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners
+Act 1836, which created two new dioceses (Ripon and Manchester),
+remodelled the state of the old dioceses by an entirely new adjustment
+of the revenues and patronage of each see, and also extended or
+curtailed the parishes and counties in the various jurisdictions.
+
+By the ancient custom of the church the bishop takes his title, not from
+his diocese, but from his see, i.e. the place where his cathedral is
+established. Thus the old episcopal titles are all derived from cities.
+This tradition has been broken, however, by the modern practice of
+bishops in the United States and the British colonies, e.g. archbishop
+of the West Indies, bishop of Pennsylvania, Wyoming, &c. (see BISHOP).
+
+  See Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, ii. 38, &c.; Joseph Bingham, _Origines
+  ecclesiasticae_, 9 vols. (1840); Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.
+  "Dioecesis"; _New English Dictionary_ (Oxford, 1897), s. "Diocese."
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For exceptions see Hinschius ii. p. 39, note 1.
+
+
+
+
+DIO CHRYSOSTOM (c. A.D. 40-115), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born
+at Piusa (mod. _Brusa_), a town at the foot of Mount Olympus in
+Bithynia. He was called Chrysostom ("golden-mouthed") from his
+eloquence, and also to distinguish him from his grandson, the historian
+Dio Cassius; his surname Cocceianus was derived from his patron, the
+emperor Cocceius Nerva. Although he did much to promote the welfare of
+his native place, he became so unpopular there that he migrated to Rome,
+but, having incurred the suspicion of Domitian, he was banished from
+Italy. With nothing in his pocket but Plato's _Phaedo_ and Demosthenes'
+_De falsa legatione_, he wandered about in Thrace, Mysia, Scythia and
+the land of the Getae. He returned to Rome on the accession of Nerva,
+with whom and his successor Trajan he was on intimate terms. During this
+period he paid a visit to Prusa, but, disgusted at his reception, he
+went back to Rome. The place and date of his death are unknown; it is
+certain, however, that he was alive in 112, when the younger Pliny was
+governor of Bithynia.
+
+Eighty orations, or rather essays on political, moral and philosophical
+subjects, have come down to us under his name; the _Corinthiaca_,
+however, is generally regarded as spurious, and is probably the work of
+Favorinus of Arelate. Of the extant orations the following are the most
+important:--_Borysthenitica_ (xxxvi.), on the advantages of monarchy,
+addressed to the inhabitants of Olbia, and containing interesting
+information on the history of the Greek colonies on the shores of the
+Black Sea; _Olympica_ (xii.), in which Pheidias is represented as
+setting forth the principles which he had followed in his statue of
+Zeus, one passage being supposed by some to have suggested Lessing's
+_Laocoon_; _Rhodiaca_ (xxxi.), an attack on the Rhodians for altering
+the names on their statues, and thus converting them into memorials of
+famous men of the day (an imitation of Demosthenes' _Leptines_); _De
+regno_ (i.-iv.), addressed to Trajan, a eulogy of the monarchical form
+of government, under which the emperor is the representative of Zeus
+upon earth; _De Aeschylo et Sophocle et Euripide_ (lii.), a comparison
+of the treatment of the story of Philoctetes by the three great Greek
+tragedians; and _Philoctetes_ (lix.), a summary of the prologue to the
+lost play by Euripides. In his later life, Dio, who had originally
+attacked the philosophers, himself became a convert to Stoicism. To this
+period belong the essays on moral subjects, such as the denunciation of
+various cities (Tarsus, Alexandria) for their immorality. Most pleasing
+of all is the _Euboica_ (vii.), a description of the simple life of the
+herdsmen and huntsmen of Euboea as contrasted with that of the
+inhabitants of the towns. _Troica_ (xi.), an attempt to prove to the
+inhabitants of Ilium that Homer was a liar and that Troy was never
+taken, is a good example of a sophistical rhetorical exercise. Amongst
+his lost works were attacks on philosophers and Domitian, and _Getica_
+(wrongly attributed to Dio Cassius by Suidas), an account of the manners
+and customs of the Getae, for which he had collected material on the
+spot during his banishment. The style of Dio, who took Plato and
+Xenophon especially as his models, is pure and refined, and on the whole
+free from rhetorical exaggeration. With Plutarch he played an important
+part in the revival of Greek literature at the end of the 1st century of
+the Christian era.
+
+  Editions: J. J. Reiske (Leipzig, 1784); A. Emperius (Brunswick, 1844);
+  L. Dindorf (Leipzig, 1857), H. von Arnim (Berlin, 1893-1896). The
+  ancient authorities for his life are Philostratus, _Vit. Soph._ i. 7;
+  Photius, _Bibliotheca_, cod. 209; Suidas, s.v.; Synesius, [Greek:
+  Dion]. On Dio generally see H. von Arnim, _Leben und Werke des Dion
+  von Prusa_ (Berlin, 1898); C. Martha, _Les Moralistes sous l'empire
+  romain_ (1865); W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_
+  (1898), S 520; J. E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (2nd
+  ed., 1906); W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, v. pt. 1
+  (1905). The _Euboica_ has been abridged by J. P. Mahaffy in _The Greek
+  World under Roman Sway_ (1890), and there is a translation of _Select
+  Essays_ by Gilbert Wakefield (1800).
+
+
+
+
+DIOCLETIAN (GAIUS AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245-313), Roman
+emperor 284-305, is said to have been born at Dioclea, near Salona, in
+Dalmatia. His original name was Diocles. Of humble origin, he served
+with high distinction and held important military commands under the
+emperors Probus and Aurelian, and accompanied Carus to the Persian War.
+After the death of Numerianus he was chosen emperor by the troops at
+Chalcedon, on the 17th of September 284, and slew with his own hands
+Arrius Aper, the praefect of the praetorians. He thus fulfilled the
+prediction of a druidess of Gaul, that he would mount a throne as soon
+as he had slain a wild boar (_aper_). Having been installed at
+Nicomedia, he received general acknowledgment after the murder of
+Carinus. In consequence of the rising of the Bagaudae in Gaul, and the
+threatening attitude of the German peoples on the Rhine, he appointed
+Maximian Augustus in 286; and, in view of further dangers and
+disturbances in the empire, proclaimed Constantius Chlorus and Galerius
+Caesars in 293. Each of the four rulers was placed at a separate
+capital--Nicomedia, Mediolanum (Milan), Augusta Trevirorum (Trier),
+Sirmium. This amounted to an entirely new organization of the empire, on
+a plan commensurate with the work of government which it now had to
+carry on. At the age of fifty-nine, exhausted with labour, Diocletian
+abdicated his sovereignty on the 1st of May 305, and retired to Salona,
+where he died eight years afterwards (others give 316 as the year of his
+death). The end of his reign was memorable for the persecution of the
+Christians. In defence of this it may be urged that he hoped to
+strengthen the empire by reviving the old religion, and that the church
+as an independent state over whose inner life at least he possessed no
+influence, appeared to be a standing menace to his authority. Under
+Diocletian the senate became a political nonentity, the last traces of
+republican institutions disappeared, and were replaced by an absolute
+monarchy approaching to despotism. He wore the royal diadem, assumed the
+title of lord, and introduced a complicated system of ceremonial and
+etiquette, borrowed from the East, in order to surround the monarchy and
+its representative with mysterious sanctity. But at the same time he
+devoted his energies to the improvement of the administration of the
+empire; he reformed the standard of coinage, fixed the price of
+provisions and other necessaries of daily life, remitted the tax upon
+inheritances and manumissions, abolished various monopolies, repressed
+corruption and encouraged trade. In addition, he adorned the city with
+numerous buildings, such as the thermae, of which extensive remains are
+still standing (Aurelius Victor, _De Caesaribus_, 39; Eutropius ix. 13;
+Zonaras xii. 31).
+
+  See A. Vogel, _Der Kaiser Diocletian_ (Gotha, 1857), a short sketch,
+  with notes on the authorities; T. Preuss, _Kaiser Diocletian und seine
+  Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1869); V. Casagrandi, _Diocleziano_ (Faenza, 1876); H.
+  Schiller, _Gesch. der romischen Kaiserzeit_, ii. (1887); T. Bernhardt,
+  _Geschichte Roms von Valerian bis zu Diocletians Tod_ (1867); A. J.
+  Mason, _The Persecution of Diocletian_ (1876); P. Allard, _La
+  Persecution de Diocletien_ (1890); V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie_, iv. (1898); Gibbon.
+  _Decline and Fall_, chaps. 13 and 16; A. W. Hunzinger, _Die
+  Diocletianische Staatsreform_ (1899); O. Seeck, "Die Schatzungsordnung
+  Diocletians" in _Zeitschrift fur Social- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte_
+  (1896), a valuable paper with notes containing references to sources;
+  and O. Seeck, _Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt_, vol. i.
+  cap. 1. On his military reforms see T. Mommsen in _Hermes_, xxiv., and
+  on his tariff system, Diocletian, Edict of.
+
+
+
+
+DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (_De pretiis rerum venalium_), an imperial edict
+promulgated in A.D. 301, fixing a maximum price for provisions and other
+articles of commerce, and a maximum rate of wages. Incomplete copies of
+it have been discovered at various times in various places, the first
+(in Greek and Latin) in 1709, at Stratonicea in Caria, by W. Sherard,
+British consul at Smyrna, containing the preamble and the beginning of
+the tables down to No. 403. This partial copy was completed by W. Bankes
+in 1817. A second fragment (now in the museum at Aix in Provence) was
+brought from Egypt in 1809; it supplements the preamble by specifying
+the titles of the emperors and Caesars and the number of times they had
+held them, whereby the date of publication can be accurately determined.
+For other fragments and their localities see _Corpus Inscriptionum
+Latinarum_ (iii., 1873, pp. 801 and 1055; and supplement i, 1893, p.
+1909); special mention may be made of those of Elatea, Plataea and
+Megalopolis. Latin being the official language all over the empire,
+there was no official Greek translation (except for Greece proper), as
+is shown by the variations in those portions of the text of which more
+than one Greek version is extant. Further, all the fragments come from
+the provinces which were under the jurisdiction of Diocletian, from
+which it is argued that the edict was only published in the eastern
+portion of the empire; certainly the phrase _universo orbi_ in the
+preamble is against this, but the words may merely be an exaggerated
+description of Diocletian's special provinces, and if it had been
+published in the western portion as well, it is curious that no traces
+have been found of it. The articles mentioned in the edict, which is
+chiefly interesting as giving their relative values at the time, include
+cereals, wine, oil, meat, vegetables, fruits, skins, leather, furs,
+foot-gear, timber, carpets, articles of dress, and the wages range from
+the ordinary labourer to the professional advocate. The unit of money
+was the denarius, not the silver, but a copper coin introduced by
+Diocletian, of which the value has been fixed approximately at 1/5th of
+a penny. The punishment for exceeding the prices fixed was death or
+deportation. The edict was a well-intended but abortive attempt, in
+great measure in the interests of the soldiers, to meet the distress
+caused by several bad harvests and commercial speculation. The actual
+effect was disastrous: the restrictions thus placed upon commercial
+freedom brought about a disturbance of the food supply in non-productive
+countries, many traders were ruined, and the edict soon fell into
+abeyance.
+
+  See Lactantius, _De mortibus persecutorum_, vii., a contemporary who,
+  as a Christian, writes with natural bias against Diocletian; T.
+  Mommsen, _Das Edict Diocletians_ (1851); W. M. Leake, _An Edict of
+  Diocletian_ (1826); W. H. Waddington, _L'Edit de Diocletien_ (1864),
+  and E. Lepaulle, _L'Edit de maximum_ (1886), both containing
+  introductions and ample notes; J. C. Rolfe and F. B. Tarbell in
+  _Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens_, v.
+  (1892) (Plataea); W. Loring in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xi.
+  (1890) (Megalopolis); P. Paris in _Bulletin de correspondance
+  hellenique_, ix. (1885) (Elatea). There is an edition of the whole by
+  Mommsen, with notes by H. Blumner (1893).
+
+
+
+
+DIODATI, GIOVANNI (1576-1649), Swiss Protestant divine, was born at
+Geneva on the 6th of June 1576, of a noble family originally belonging
+to Lucca, which had been expatriated on account of its Protestantism. At
+the age of twenty-one he was nominated professor of Hebrew at Geneva on
+the recommendation of Theodor Beza. In 1606 he became professor of
+theology, in 1608 pastor, or parish minister, at Geneva, and in the
+following year he succeeded Beza as professor of theology. As a preacher
+he was eloquent, bold and fearless. He held a high place among the
+reformers of Geneva, by whom he was sent on a mission to France in 1614.
+He had previously visited Italy, and made the acquaintance of Paolo
+Sarpi, whom he endeavoured unsuccessfully to engage in a reformation
+movement. In 1618-1619 he attended the synod of Dort, and took a
+prominent part in its deliberations, being one of the six divines
+appointed to draw up the account of its proceedings. He was a thorough
+Calvinist, and entirely sympathized with the condemnation of the
+Arminians. In 1645 he resigned his professorship, and died at Geneva on
+the 3rd of October 1649. Diodati is chiefly famous as the author of the
+translation of the Bible into Italian (1603, edited with notes, 1607).
+He also undertook a translation of the Bible into French, which appeared
+with notes in 1644. Among his other works are his _Annotationes in
+Biblia_ (1607), of which an English translation (_Pious and Learned
+Annotations upon the Holy Bible_) was published in London in 1648, and
+various polemical treatises, such as _De fictitio Pontificiorum
+Purgatorio_ (1619); _De justa secessione Reformatorum ab Ecclesia
+Romana_ (1628); _De Antichristo_, &c. He also published French
+translations of Sarpi's _History of the Council of Trent_, and of Edwin
+Sandys's _Account of the State of Religion in the West_.
+
+
+
+
+DIODORUS CRONUS (4th century B.C.), Greek philosopher of the Megarian
+school. Practically nothing is known of his life. Diogenes Laertius (ii.
+111) tells a story that, while staying at the court of Ptolemy Soter,
+Diodorus was asked to solve a dialectical subtlety by Stilpo. Not being
+able to answer on the spur of the moment, he was nicknamed [Greek: ho
+Kronos] (the God, equivalent to "slowcoach") by Ptolemy. The story goes
+that he died of shame at his failure. Strabo, however, says (xiv. 658;
+xvii. 838) that he took the name from Apollonius, his master. Like the
+rest of the Megarian school he revelled in verbal quibbles, proving that
+motion and existence are impossible. His was the famous sophism known as
+the [Greek: Kyrieyon]. The impossible cannot result from the possible; a
+past event cannot become other than it is; but if an event, at a given
+moment, had been possible, from this possible would result something
+impossible; therefore the original event was impossible. This problem
+was taken up by Chrysippus, who admitted that he could not solve it.
+Apart from these verbal gymnastics, Diodorus did not differ from the
+Megarian school. From his great dialectical skill he earned the title
+[Greek: ho dialektikos], or [Greek: dialektikotatos], a title which was
+borne by his five daughters, who inherited his ability.
+
+  See Cicero, _De Fato_, 6, 7, 9; Aristotle, _Metaphysica_, [theta] 3;
+  Sext. Empiric., _adv. Math._ x. 85; Ritter and Preller, _Hist. philos.
+  Gr. et Rom._ chap. v. SS 234-236 (ed. 1869); and bibliography appended
+  to article MEGARIAN SCHOOL.
+
+
+
+
+DIODORUS SICULUS, Greek historian, born at Agyrium in Sicily, lived in
+the times of Julius Caesar and Augustus. From his own statements we
+learn that he travelled in Egypt between 60-57 B.C. and that he spent
+several years in Rome. The latest event mentioned by him belongs to the
+year 21 B.C. He asserts that he devoted thirty years to the composition
+of his history, and that he undertook frequent and dangerous journeys in
+prosecution of his historical researches. These assertions, however,
+find little credit with recent critics. The history, to which Diodorus
+gave the name [Greek: bibliotheke historike] (_Bibliotheca historica_,
+"Historical Library"), consisted of forty books, and was divided into
+three parts. The first treats of the mythic history of the non-Hellenic,
+and afterwards of the Hellenic tribes, to the destruction of Troy; the
+second section ends with Alexander's death; and the third continues the
+history as far as the beginning of Caesar's Gallic War. Of this
+extensive work there are still extant only the first five books,
+treating of the mythic history of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Ethiopians
+and Greeks; and also the 11th to the 20th books inclusive, beginning
+with the second Persian War, and ending with the history of the
+successors of Alexander, previous to the partition of the Macedonian
+empire (302). The rest exists only in fragments preserved in Photius and
+the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The faults of Diodorus
+arise partly from the nature of the undertaking, and the awkward form of
+annals into which he has thrown the historical portion of his narrative.
+He shows none of the critical faculties of the historian, merely setting
+down a number of unconnected details. His narrative contains frequent
+repetitions and contradictions, is without colouring, and monotonous;
+and his simple diction, which stands intermediate between pure Attic and
+the colloquial Greek of his time, enables us to detect in the narrative
+the undigested fragments of the materials which he employed. In spite of
+its defects, however, the _Bibliotheca_ is of considerable value as to
+some extent supplying the loss of the works of older authors, from which
+it is compiled. Unfortunately, Diodorus does not always quote his
+authorities, but his general sources of information were--in history and
+chronology, Castor, Ephorus and Apollodorus; in geography, Agatharchides
+and Artemidorus. In special sections he followed special
+authorities--e.g. in the history of his native Sicily, Philistus and
+Timaeus.
+
+  _Editio princeps_, by H. Stephanus (1559); of other editions the best
+  are: P. Wesseling (1746), not yet superseded; L. Dindorf (1828-1831);
+  (text) L. Dindorf (1866-1868, revised by F. Vogel, 1888-1893 and C. T.
+  Fischer, 1905-1906). The standard works on the sources of Diodorus are
+  C. G. Heyne, _De fontibus et auctoribus historiarum Diodori_, printed
+  in Dindorf's edition, and C. A. Volquardsen, _Die Quellen der
+  griechischen und sicilischen Geschichten bei Diodor_ (1868); A. von
+  Mess, _Rheinisches Museum_ (1906); see also L. O. Brocker,
+  _Untersuchungen uber Diodor_ (1879), short, but containing much
+  information; O. Maass, _Kleitarch und Diodor_ (1894- ); G. J.
+  Schneider, _De Diodori fontibus_, i.-iv. (1880); C. Wachsmuth,
+  _Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte_ (1895); GREECE;
+  _Ancient History_, "Authorities."
+
+
+
+
+DIODOTUS, Seleucid satrap of Bactria, who rebelled against Antiochus II.
+(about 255) and became the founder of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom
+(Trogus, _Prol._ 41; Justin xli. 4, 5, where he is wrongly called
+Theodotus; Strabo xi. 515). His power seems to have extended over the
+neighbouring provinces. Arsaces, the chieftain of the nomadic (Dahan)
+tribe of the Parni, fled before him into Parthia and here became the
+founder of the Parthian kingdom (Strabo l.c.). When Seleucus II. in 239
+attempted to subjugate the rebels in the east he seems to have united
+with him against the Parthians (Justin xli. 4, 9). Soon afterwards he
+died and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II., who concluded a peace
+with the Parthians (Justin l.c.). Diodotus II. was killed by another
+usurper, Euthydemus (Polyb. xi. 34, 2). Of Diodotus I. we possess gold
+and silver coins, which imitate the coins of Antiochus II.; on these he
+sometimes calls himself Soter, "the saviour." As the power of the
+Seleucids was weak and continually attacked by Ptolemy II., the eastern
+provinces and their Greek cities were exposed to the invasion of the
+nomadic barbarians and threatened with destruction (Polyb. xi. 34, 5);
+thus the erection of an independent kingdom may have been a necessity
+and indeed an advantage to the Greeks, and this epithet well deserved.
+Diodotus Soter appears also on coins struck in his memory by the later
+Graeco-Bactrian kings Agathocles and Antimachus. Cf. A. v. Sallet, _Die
+Nachfolger Alexanders d. Gr. in Baktrien und Indien_; Percy Gardner,
+_Catal. of the Coins of the Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and
+India_ (Brit. Mus.); see also BACTRIA.     (ED. M.)
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENES, "the Cynic," Greek philosopher, was born at Sinope about 412
+B.C., and died in 323 at Corinth, according to Diogenes Laertius, on the
+day on which Alexander the Great died at Babylon. His father, Icesias, a
+money-changer, was imprisoned or exiled on the charge of adulterating
+the coinage. Diogenes was included in the charge, and went to Athens
+with one attendant, whom he dismissed, saying, "If Manes can live
+without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?" Attracted by the
+ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, he became his pupil, despite the
+brutality with which he was received, and rapidly excelled his master
+both in reputation and in the austerity of his life. The stories which
+are told of him are probably true; in any case, they serve to
+illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured himself
+to the vicissitudes of weather by living in a tub belonging to the
+temple of Cybele. The single wooden bowl he possessed he destroyed on
+seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his hands. On a voyage to
+Aegina he was captured by pirates and sold as a slave in Crete to a
+Corinthian named Xeniades. Being asked his trade, he replied that he
+knew no trade but that of governing men, and that he wished to be sold
+to a man who needed a master. As tutor to the two sons of Xeniades, he
+lived in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted entirely to
+preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. At the Isthmian games
+he lectured to large audiences who turned to him from Antisthenes. It
+was, probably, at one of these festivals that he craved from Alexander
+the single boon that he would not stand between him and the sun, to
+which Alexander replied "If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes."
+On his death, about which there exist several accounts, the Corinthians
+erected to his memory a pillar on which there rested a dog of Parian
+marble. His ethical teaching will be found in the article CYNICS (q.v.).
+It may suffice to say here that virtue, for him, consisted in the
+avoidance of all physical pleasure; that pain and hunger were positively
+helpful in the pursuit of goodness; that all the artificial growths of
+society appeared to him incompatible with truth and goodness; that
+moralization implies a return to nature and simplicity. He has been
+credited with going to extremes of impropriety in pursuance of these
+ideas; probably, however, his reputation has suffered from the undoubted
+immorality of some of his successors. Both in ancient and in modern
+times, his personality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to
+painters. Ancient busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre
+and the Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is
+represented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani.
+Rubens, Jordaens, Steen, Van der Werff, Jeaurat, Salvator Rosa and Karel
+Dujardin have painted various episodes in his life.
+
+  The chief ancient authority for his life is Diogenes Laertius vi. 20;
+  see also Mayor's notes on Juvenal, _Satires_, xiv. 305-314; and
+  article CYNICS.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENES APOLLONIATES (c. 460 B.C.), Greek natural philosopher, was a
+native of Apollonia in Crete. Although of Dorian stock, he wrote in the
+Ionic dialect, like all the _physiologi_ (physical philosophers). There
+seems no doubt that he lived some time at Athens, where it is said that
+he became so unpopular (probably owing to his supposed atheistical
+opinions) that his life was in danger. The views of Diogenes are
+transferred in the _Clouds_ (264 ff.) of Aristophanes to Socrates. Like
+Anaximenes, he believed air to be the one source of all being, and all
+other substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction.
+His chief advance upon the doctrines of Anaximenes is that he asserted
+air, the primal force, to be possessed of intelligence--"the air which
+stirred within him not only prompted, but instructed. The air as the
+origin of all things is necessarily an eternal, imperishable substance,
+but as soul it is also necessarily endowed with consciousness." In fact,
+he belonged to the old Ionian school, whose doctrines he modified by the
+theories of his contemporary Anaxagoras, although he avoided his
+dualism. His most important work was [Greek: Peri physeos] (_De
+natura_), of which considerable fragments are extant (chiefly in
+Simplicius); it is possible that he wrote also Against the Sophists and
+_On the Nature of Man_, to which the well-known fragment about the veins
+would belong; possibly these discussions were subdivisions of his great
+work.
+
+  Fragments in F. Mullach, _Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum_, i.
+  (1860); F. Panzerbieter, _Diogenes Apolloniates_ (1830), with
+  philosophical dissertation; J. Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_
+  (1892); H. Ritter and L. Preller, _Historia philosophiae_ (4th ed.,
+  1869), SS 59-68; E. Krause, _Diogenes von Apollonia_ (1909). See
+  IONIAN SCHOOL.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENES LAERTIUS (or LAERTIUS DIOGENES), the biographer of the Greek
+philosophers, is supposed by some to have received his surname from the
+town of Laerte in Cilicia, and by others from the Roman family of the
+Laertii. Of the circumstances of his life we know nothing. He must have
+lived after Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), whom he mentions, and
+before Stephanus of Byzantium (c. A.D. 500), who quotes him. It is
+probable that he flourished during the reign of Alexander Severus (A.D.
+222-235) and his successors. His own opinions are equally uncertain. By
+some he was regarded as a Christian; but it seems more probable that he
+was an Epicurean. The work by which he is known professes to give an
+account of the lives and sayings of the Greek philosophers. Although it
+is at best an uncritical and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as
+giving us an insight into the private life of the Greek sages, justly
+led Montaigne to exclaim that he wished that instead of one Laertius
+there had been a dozen. He treats his subject in two divisions which he
+describes as the Ionian and the Italian schools; the division is quite
+unscientific. The biographies of the former begin with Anaximander, and
+end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and Chrysippus; the latter begins
+with Pythagoras, and ends with Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its
+various branches, is classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and
+sceptics are treated under the Italic. The whole of the last book is
+devoted to Epicurus, and contains three most interesting letters
+addressed to Herodotus, Pythocles and Menoeceus. His chief authorities
+were Diocles of Magnesia's _Cursory Notice_ ([Greek: Epidrome]) _of
+Philosophers_ and Favorinus's _Miscellaneous History_ and _Memoirs_.
+From the statements of Burlaeus (Walter Burley, a 14th-century monk) in
+his _De vita et moribus philosophorum_ the text of Diogenes seems to
+have been much fuller than that which we now possess. In addition to the
+_Lives_, Diogenes was the author of a work in verse on famous men, in
+various metres.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Editio princeps_ (1533); H. Hubner and C. Jacobitz
+  with commentary (1828-1833); C. G. Cobet (1850), text only. See F.
+  Nietzsche, "De Diogenis Laertii fontibus" in _Rheinisches Museum_,
+  xxiii., xxiv. (1868-1869); J. Freudenthal, "Zu Quellenkunde Diog.
+  Laert.," in _Hellenistische Studien_, iii. (1879); O. Maass, _De
+  biographis Graecis_ (1880); V. Egger, _De fontibus Diog. Laert._
+  (1881). There is an English translation by C. D. Yonge in Bohn's
+  Classical Library.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGENIANUS, of Heraclea on the Pontus (or in Caria), Greek grammarian,
+flourished during the reign of Hadrian. He was the author of an
+alphabetical lexicon, chiefly of poetical words, abridged from the great
+lexicon ([Greek: Peri glosson]) of Pamphilus of Alexandria (fl. A.D. 50)
+and other similar works. It was also known by the title [Greek:
+Periergopenetes] (for the use of "industrious poor students"). It formed
+the basis of the lexicon, or rather glossary, of Hesychius of
+Alexandria, which is described in the preface as a new edition of the
+work of Diogenianus. We still possess a collection of proverbs under his
+name, probably an abridgment of the collection made by himself from his
+lexicon (ed. by E. Leutsch and F. W. Schneidewin in _Paroemiographi
+Graeci_, i. 1839). Diogenianus was also the author of an Anthology of
+epigrams, of treatises on rivers, lakes, fountains and promontories; and
+of a list (with map) of all the towns in the world.
+
+
+
+
+DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO, one of the early Christian apologies. Diognetus,
+of whom nothing is really known, has expressed a desire to know what
+Christianity really means--"What is this new race" of men who are
+neither pagans nor Jews? "What is this new interest which has entered
+into men's lives now and not before?" The anonymous answer begins with a
+refutation of the folly of worshipping idols, fashioned by human hands
+and needing to be guarded if of precious material. The repulsive smell
+of animal sacrifices is enough to show their monstrous absurdity. Next
+Judaism is attacked. Jews abstain from idolatry and worship one God, but
+they fall into the same error of repulsive sacrifice, and have absurd
+superstitions about meats and sabbaths, circumcision and new moons. So
+far the task is easy; but the mystery of the Christian religion "think
+not to learn from man." A passage of great eloquence follows, showing
+that Christians have no obvious peculiarities that mark them off as a
+separate race. In spite of blameless lives they are hated. Their home is
+in heaven, while they live on earth. "In a word, what the soul is in a
+body, this the Christians are in the world.... The soul is enclosed in
+the body, and yet itself holdeth the body together: so Christians are
+kept in the world as in a prison-house, and yet they themselves hold the
+world together." This strange life is inspired in them by the almighty
+and invisible God, who sent no angel or subordinate messenger to teach
+them, but His own Son by whom He created the universe. No man could have
+known God, had He not thus declared Himself. "If thou too wouldst have
+this faith, learn first the knowledge of the Father. For God loved men,
+for whose sake He made the world.... Knowing Him, thou wilt love Him and
+imitate His goodness; and marvel not if a man can imitate God; he can,
+if God will." By kindness to the needy, by giving them what God has
+given to him, a man can become "a god of them that receive, an imitator
+of God." "Then shalt thou on earth behold God's life in heaven; then
+shalt thou begin to speak the mysteries of God." A few lines after this
+the letter suddenly breaks off.
+
+Even this rapid summary may show that the writer was a man of no
+ordinary power, and there is no other early Christian writing outside
+the New Testament which appeals so strongly to modern readers. The
+letter has been often classed with the writings of the Apostolic
+Fathers, and in some ways it seems to mark the transition from the
+sub-apostolic age to that of the Apologists. Bishop Lightfoot, who
+speaks of the letter as "one of the noblest and most impressive of early
+Christian apologies," places it c. A.D. 150, and inclines to identify
+Diognetus with the tutor of Marcus Aurelius. Harnack and others would
+place it later, perhaps in the 3rd century. There are some striking
+parallels in method and language to the Apology of Aristides (q.v.), and
+also to the early "Preaching of Peter."
+
+The one manuscript which contained this letter perished by fire at
+Strassburg in 1870, but happily it had been accurately collated by Reuss
+nine years before. It formed part of a collection of works supposed to
+be by Justin Martyr, and to this mistaken attribution its preservation
+is no doubt due. Both thought and language mark the author off entirely
+from Justin. The end of the letter is lost, but there followed in the
+codex the end of a homily,[1] which was attached without a break to the
+epistle: this points to the loss in some earlier codex of pages
+containing the end of the letter and the beginning of the homily.
+
+  The Epistle may be read in J. B. Lightfoot's _Apostolic Fathers_ (ed.
+  min.), where there is also a translation into English.     (J. A. R.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Chapters xi. and xii., which Lightfoot suggested might be the work
+    of Pantaenus.
+
+
+
+
+DIOMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Tydeus, one of the bravest of the
+heroes of the Trojan War. In the _Iliad_ he is the favourite of Athena,
+by whose aid he not only overcomes all mortals who venture to oppose
+him, but is even enabled to attack the gods. In the post-Homeric story,
+he made his way with Odysseus by an underground passage into the citadel
+of Troy and carried off the Palladium, the presence of which within the
+walls secured Troy against capture (Virgil, _Aeneid_, ii. 164). On his
+return to Argos, finding that his wife had been unfaithful, he removed
+to Aetolia, and thence to Daunia (Apulia), where he married the daughter
+of King Daunus. He was buried or mysteriously disappeared on one of the
+islands in the Adriatic called after him Diomedeae, his sorrowing
+companions being changed into birds by the gods out of compassion (Ovid,
+_Metam._ xiv. 457 ff.). He was the reputed founder of Argyrippa (Arpi)
+and other Italian cities (_Aeneid_, xi. 243 ff.). He was worshipped as a
+hero not only in Greece, but on the coast of the Adriatic, as at Thurii
+and Metapontum. At Argos, his native place, during the festival of
+Athena, his shield was carried through the streets as a relic, together
+with the Palladium, and his statue was washed in the river Inachus.
+
+
+
+
+DIOMEDES, Latin grammarian, flourished at the end of the 4th century
+A.D. He was the author of an extant _Ars grammatica_ in three books,
+dedicated to a certain Athanasius. The third book is the most important,
+as containing extracts from Suetonius's _De poetis_. Diomedes wrote
+about the same time as Charisius (q.v.) and used the same sources
+independently. The works of both grammarians are valuable, but whereas
+much of Charisius has been lost, the Ars of Diomedes has come down to us
+complete. In book i. he treats of the eight parts of speech; in ii. of
+the elementary ideas of grammar and of style; in iii. of quantity and
+metres.
+
+  The best edition is in H. Keil's _Grammatici Latini_, i.; see also C.
+  von Paucker, _Kleinere Studien_, i. (1883), on the Latinity of
+  Diomedes.
+
+
+
+
+DION, tyrant of Syracuse (408-353 B.C.), the son of Hipparinus, and
+brother-in-law of Dionysius the Elder. In his youth he was an admirer
+and pupil of Plato, whom Dionysius had invited to Syracuse; and he used
+every effort to inculcate the maxims of his master in the mind of the
+tyrant. The stern morality of Dion was distasteful to the younger
+Dionysius, and the historian Philistus, a faithful supporter of despotic
+power, succeeded in procuring his banishment on account of alleged
+intrigues with the Carthaginians. The exiled philosopher retired to
+Athens, where he was at first permitted to enjoy his revenues in peace;
+but the intercession of Plato (who had again visited Syracuse to procure
+Dion's recall) only served to exasperate the tyrant, and at length
+provoked him to confiscate the property of Dion, and give his wife to
+another. This last outrage roused Dion. Assembling a small force at
+Zacynthus, he sailed to Sicily (357) and was received with
+demonstrations of joy. Dionysius, who was in Italy, returned to Sicily,
+but was defeated and obliged to flee. Dion himself was soon after
+supplanted by the intrigues of Heracleides, and again banished. The
+incompetency of the new leader and the cruelties of Apollocrates, the
+son of Dionysius, soon led to his recall. He had, however, scarcely made
+himself master of Sicily when the people began to express their
+discontent with his tyrannical conduct, and he was assassinated by
+Callippus, an Athenian who had accompanied him in his expedition.
+
+  See _Lives_ by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi. 6-20)
+  and in modern times by T. Lau (1860); see also SYRACUSE and SICILY:
+  _History_.
+
+
+
+
+DIONE, in the earliest Greek mythology, the wife of Zeus. As such she is
+associated with Zeus Naius (the god of fertilizing moisture) at Dodona
+(Strabo vii. p. 329), by whose side she sits, adorned with a bridal veil
+and garland and holding a sceptre. As the oracle declined in importance,
+her place as the wife of Zeus was taken by Hera. It is probable that in
+very early times the cult of Dione existed in Athens, where she had an
+altar before the Erechtheum. After her admission to the general
+religious system of the Greeks, Dione was variously described. In the
+_Iliad_ (v. 370) she is the mother by Zeus of Aphrodite, who is herself
+in later times called Dione (the epithet Dionaeus was given to Julius
+Caesar as claiming descent from Venus). In Hesiod (_Theog._ 353) she is
+one of the daughters of Oceanus; in Pherecydes (ap. schol. _Iliad_,
+xviii. 486), one of the nymphs of Dodona, the nurses of Dionysus; in
+Euripides (frag. 177), the mother of Dionysus; in Hyginus (fab. 9. 82),
+the daughter of Atlas, wife of Tantalus and mother of Pelops and Niobe.
+Others make her a Titanid, the daughter of Uranus and Gaea (Apollodorus
+i. 1). Speaking generally, Dione may be regarded as the female
+embodiment of the attributes of Zeus, to whose name her own is related
+as Juno (= Jovino) to Jupiter.
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIA, festivals in honour of the god Dionysus generally, but in
+particular the festivals celebrated in Attica and by the branches of the
+Attic-Ionic race in the islands and in Asia Minor. In Attica there were
+two festivals annually. (1) The lesser Dionysia, or [Greek: ta kat
+agrous], was held in the country places for four days (about the 19th to
+the 22nd of December) at the first tasting of the new wine. It was
+accompanied by songs, dance, phallic processions and the impromptu
+performances of itinerant players, who with others from the city
+thronged to take part in the excitement of the rustic sports. A
+favourite amusement was the Ascoliasmus, or dancing on one leg upon a
+leathern bag ([Greek: askos]), which had been smeared with oil. (2) The
+_greater_ Dionysia, or [Greek: ta en astei], was held in the city of
+Athens for six days (about the 28th of March to the 2nd of April). This
+was a festival of joy at the departure of winter and the promise of
+summer, Dionysus being regarded as having delivered the people from the
+wants and troubles of winter. The religious act of the festival was the
+conveying of the ancient image of the god, which had been brought from
+Eleutherae to Athens, from the ancient sanctuary of the Lenaeum to a
+small temple near the Acropolis and back again, with a chorus of boys
+and a procession carrying masks and singing the dithyrambus. The
+festival culminated in the production of tragedies, comedies and satyric
+dramas in the great theatre of Dionysus. Other festivals in honour of
+Dionysus were the Anthesteria (q.v.); the Lenaea (about the 28th to the
+31st of January), or festival of vats, at which, after a great public
+banquet, the citizens went through the city in procession to attend the
+dramatic representations; the Oschophoria (October-November), a vintage
+festival, so called from the branches of vine with grapes carried by
+twenty youths from the ephebi, two from each tribe, in a race from the
+temple of Dionysus in Athens to the temple of Athena Sciras in Phalerum.
+
+  See A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); L. Preller,
+  _Griechische Mythologie_; L. C. Purser in Smith's _Dictionary of
+  Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1890); article DIONYSOS in W. H. Roscher's
+  _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and the exhaustive account with bibliography
+  by J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_.
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS, pope from 259 to 268. To Dionysius, who was elected pope in
+259 after the persecution of Valerian, fell the task of reorganizing the
+Roman church, which had fallen into great disorder. At the protest of
+some of the faithful at Alexandria, he demanded from the bishop of
+Alexandria, also called Dionysius, explanations touching his doctrine.
+He died on the 26th of December 268.
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS (c. 432-367 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, began life as a clerk
+in a public office, but by courage and diplomacy succeeded in making
+himself supreme (see SYRACUSE). He carried on war with Carthage with
+varying success; his attempts to drive the Carthaginians entirely out of
+the island failed, and at his death they were masters of at least a
+third of it. He also carried on an expedition against Rhegium and its
+allied cities in Magna Graecia. In one campaign, in which he was joined
+by the Lucanians, he devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton and
+Locri. After a protracted siege he took Rhegium (386), and sold the
+inhabitants as slaves. He joined the Illyrians in an attempt to plunder
+the temple of Delphi, pillaged the temple of Caere on the Etruscan
+coast, and founded several military colonies on the Adriatic. In the
+Peloponnesian War he espoused the side of the Spartans, and assisted
+them with mercenaries. He also posed as an author and patron of
+literature; his poems, severely criticized by Philoxenus, were hissed at
+the Olympic games; but having gained a prize for a tragedy on the
+_Ransom of Hector_ at the Lenaea at Athens, he was so elated that he
+engaged in a debauch which proved fatal. According to others, he was
+poisoned by his physicians at the instigation of his son. His life was
+written by Philistus, but the work is not extant. Dionysius was regarded
+by the ancients as a type of the worst kind of despot--cruel, suspicious
+and vindictive. Like Peisistratus, he was fond of having distinguished
+literary men about him, such as the historian Philistus, the poet
+Philoxenus, and the philosopher Plato, but treated them in a most
+arbitrary manner.
+
+  See Diod. Sic. xiii., xiv., xv.; J. Bass, _Dionysius I. von Syrakus_
+  (Vienna, 1881), with full references to authorities in footnotes;
+  articles SICILY and SYRACUSE.
+
+His son DIONYSIUS, known as "the Younger," succeeded in 367 B.C. He was
+driven from the kingdom by Dion (356) and fled to Locri; but during the
+commotions which followed Dion's assassination, he managed to make
+himself master of Syracuse. On the arrival of Timoleon he was compelled
+to surrender and retire to Corinth (343), where he spent the rest of his
+days in poverty (Diodorus Siculus xvi.; Plutarch, _Timoleon_).
+
+  See SYRACUSE and TIMOLEON; and, on both the Dionysii, articles by B.
+  Niese in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, v. pt. 1 (1905).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS (or "the Areopagite"), named in Acts xvii. 34 as
+one of those Athenians who believed when they had heard Paul preach on
+Mars Hill. Beyond this mention our only knowledge of him is the
+statement of Dionysius, bishop of Corinth (fl. A.D. 171), recorded by
+Eusebius (_Church Hist._ iii. 4; iv. 23), that this same Dionysius the
+Areopagite was the first "bishop" of Athens. Some hundreds of years
+after the Areopagite's death, his name was attached by the
+Pseudo-Areopagite to certain theological writings composed by the
+latter. These were destined to exert enormous influence upon medieval
+thought, and their fame led to the extension of the personal legend of
+the real Dionysius. Hilduin, abbot of St Denys (814-840), identified him
+with St Denys, martyr and patron-saint of France. In Hilduin's
+_Areopagitica_, the Life and Passion of the most holy Dionysius (Migne,
+_ Patrol. Lat._ tome 106), the Areopagite is sent to France by Clement
+of Rome, and suffers martyrdom upon the hill where the monastery called
+St Denys was to rise in his honour. There is no earlier trace of this
+identification, and Gregory of Tours (d. 594) says (_Hist. Francorum_,
+i. 18) that St Denys came to France in the reign of Decius (A.D. 250),
+which falls about midway between the presumptive death of the real
+Areopagite and the probable date of the writings to which he owed his
+adventitious fame.
+
+Traces of the influence of these writings appear in the works of Eastern
+theologians in the early part of the 6th century. They also were cited
+at the council held in Constantinople in 533, which is the first certain
+dated reference to them. In the West, Gregory the Great (d. 604) refers
+to them in his thirty-fourth sermon on the gospels (Migne, _Pat. Lat._
+tome 76, col. 1254). They did not, however, become generally known in
+the Western church till after the year 827, when the Byzantine emperor
+Michael the Stammerer sent a copy to Louis the Pious. It was given over
+to the care of the above-mentioned abbot Hilduin. In the next generation
+the scholar and philosopher Joannes Scotus Erigena (q.v.) translated the
+Dionysian writings into Latin. This appears to have been the only Latin
+translation until the 12th century when another was made, followed by
+several others.
+
+Thus, the author, date and place of composition of these writings are
+unknown. External evidence precludes a date later than the year 500, and
+the internal evidence from the writings themselves precludes any date
+prior to 4th-century phases of Neo-platonism. The extant writings of the
+Pseudo-Areopagite are: (a) [Greek: Peri tes ouranias hierarchias],
+_Concerning the Celestial Hierarchy_, in fifteen chapters. (b) [Greek:
+Peri tes ekklesiastikes hierarchias], _Concerning the Ecclesiastical
+Hierarchy_, in seven chapters. (c) [Greek: Peri theion onomaton],
+_Concerning Divine Names_, in thirteen chapters. (d) [Greek: Peri
+mystikes theologias], _Concerning Mystic Theology_, in five chapters.
+(e) Ten letters addressed to various worthies of the apostolic period.
+
+Although these writings seem complete, they contain references to others
+of the same author. But of the latter nothing is known, and they may
+never have existed.
+
+The writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite are of great interest, first as a
+striking presentation of the heterogeneous elements that might unite in
+the mind of a gifted man in the 5th century, and secondly, because of
+their enormous influence upon subsequent Christian theology and art.
+Their ingredients--Christian, Greek, Oriental and Jewish--are not
+crudely mingled, but are united into an organic system. Perhaps
+theological philosophic fantasy has never constructed anything more
+remarkable. The system of Dionysius was a proper product of its
+time,--lofty, apparently complete, comparable to the _Enneads_ of
+Plotinus which formed part of its materials. But its materials abounded
+everywhere, and offered themselves temptingly to the hand strong enough
+to build with them. There was what had entered into Neo-platonism, both
+in its dialectic form as established by Plotinus, and in its
+magic-mystic modes devised by Iamblichus (d. c. 333). There was Jewish
+angel lore and Eastern mood and fancy; and there was Christianity so
+variously understood and heterogeneously constituted among Syro-Judaic
+Hellenic communities. Such Christianity held materials for formula and
+creed; also principles of liturgic and sacramental doctrine and priestly
+function; also a mass of popular beliefs as to intermediate superhuman
+beings who seemed nearer to men than any member of the Trinity.
+
+Out of this vast spiritual conglomerate, Pseudo-Dionysius formed his
+system. It was not juristic,--not Roman, Pauline or Augustinian. Rather
+he borrowed his constructive principles from Hellenism in its last great
+creation, Neo-platonism. That had been able to gather and arrange within
+itself the various elements of latter-day paganism. The Neo-platonic
+categories might be altered in name and import, and yet the scheme
+remain a scheme; since the general principle of the transmission of life
+from the ultimate Source downward through orders of mediating beings
+unto men, might readily be adapted to the Christian God and his
+ministering angels. Pseudo-Dionysius had lofty thoughts of the sublime
+transcendence of the ultimate divine Source. That source was not remote
+or inert; but a veritable Source from which life streamed to all lower
+orders of existence,--in part directly, and in part indirectly as power
+and guidance through the higher orders to the lower. Life, creation,
+every good gift, is from God directly; but his flaming ministers also
+intervene to guide and aid the life of man; and the life which through
+love floods forth from God has its counterflow whereby it draws its own
+creations to itself. God is at once absolutely transcendent and
+universally immanent. To live is to be united with God; evil is the
+nonexistent, that is, severance from God. Whatever is, is part of the
+forth-flowing divine life which ever purifies, enlightens and perfects,
+and so draws all back to the Source.
+
+The transcendent Source, as well as the universal immanence, is the
+Triune God. Between that and men are ranged the three triads of the
+Celestial Hierarchy: Seraphim, Cherubim and Thrones; Dominations,
+Virtues, Powers; Principalities, Archangels, Angels. Collectively their
+general office is to raise mankind to God through purification,
+illumination and perfection; and to all may be applied the term angel.
+The highest triad, which is nearest God, contemplates the divine
+effulgence, and reflects it onward to the second; the third, and more
+specifically angelic triad, immediately ministers to men. The sources of
+these names are evident: seraphim and cherubim are from the Old
+Testament; later Jewish writings gave names to archangels and angels,
+who also fill important functions in the New Testament. The other names
+are from Paul (Eph. i. 21; Col. i. 16).
+
+Such is the system of Pseudo-Dionysius, as presented mainly in _The
+Celestial Hierarchy_. That work is followed by _The Ecclesiastical
+Hierarchy_, its counterpart on earth. What the primal triune Godhead is
+to the former, Jesus is to the latter. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy
+likewise is composed of Triads. The first includes the symbolic
+sacraments: Baptism, Communion, Consecration of the Holy Chrism. Baptism
+signifies purification; Communion signifies enlightening; the Holy
+Chrism signifies perfecting. The second triad is made up of the three
+orders of Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons, or rather, as the Areopagite
+names them: Hierarchs, Light-bearers, Servitors. The third triad
+consists of monks, who are in a state of perfection, the initiated
+laity, who are in a state of illumination, and the catechumens, in a
+state of purification. All worship, in this treatise, is a celebration
+of mysteries, and the pagan mysteries are continually suggested by the
+terms employed.
+
+The work _Concerning the Divine Names_ is a noble discussion of the
+qualities which may be predicated of God, according to the warrant of
+the terms applied to him in Scripture. The work _Concerning Mystic
+Theology_ explains the function of symbols, and shows that he who would
+know God truly must rise above them and above the conceptions of God
+drawn from sensible things.
+
+The works of Pseudo-Dionysius began to influence theological thought in
+the West from the time of their translation into Latin by Erigena. Their
+use may be followed through the writings of scholastic philosophers,
+e.g. Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas and many others. In
+poetry we find their influence in Dante, Spenser, Milton. The fifteenth
+chapter of _The Celestial Hierarchy_ constituted the canon of symbolical
+angelic lore for the literature and art of the middle ages. Therein the
+author explains in what respect theology ascribes to angels the
+qualities of fire, why the thrones are said to be _fiery_ ([Greek:
+pyrinous]); why the seraphim are _burning_ ([Greek: emprestas]) as their
+name indicates. The fiery form signifies, with Celestial Intelligences,
+likeness to God. Dionysius explains the significance of the parts of the
+human body when given to celestial beings: feet are ascribed to angels
+to denote their unceasing movement on the divine business, and their
+feet are winged to denote their celerity. He likewise explains the
+symbolism of wands and axes, of brass and precious stones, when joined
+to celestial beings; and what wheels and a chariot denote when furnished
+to them,--and much more besides.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is an enormous literature on Pseudo-Dionysius.
+  The reader may be first referred to the articles in Smith's
+  _Dictionary of Christian Biography_ and Hauck's _Realencyklopadie fur
+  protestantische Theologie_ (Leipzig, 1898). The bibliography in the
+  latter is very full. Some other references, especially upon the later
+  influence of these works, are given in H. O. Taylor's _Classical
+  Heritage of the Middle Ages_ (Macmillan, 1903). The works themselves
+  are in Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, tomes 3 and 4, with a Latin
+  version. Erigena's version is in Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ t. 122. _Vita
+  Dionysii_ by Hilduin is in Migne, _Pat. Lat._ 106. There is an English
+  version by Parker (London, 1894 and 1897).     (H. O. T.)
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS, one of the most learned men of the 6th century, and
+especially distinguished as a chronologist, was, according to the
+statement of his friend Cassiodorus, a Scythian by birth, "_Scytha
+natione_." This may mean only that he was a native of the region
+bordering on the Black Sea, and does not necessarily imply that he was
+not of Greek origin. Such origin is indicated by his name and by his
+thorough familiarity with the Greek language. His surname "Exiguus" is
+usually translated "the Little," but he probably assumed it out of
+humility. He was living at Rome in the first half of the 6th century,
+and is usually spoken of as abbot of a Roman monastery. Cassiodorus,
+however, calls him simply "monk," while Bede calls him "abbot." But as
+it was not unusual to apply the latter term to distinguished monks who
+were not heads of their houses, it is uncertain whether Dionysius was
+abbot in fact or only by courtesy. He was in high repute as a learned
+theologian, was profoundly versed in the Holy Scriptures and in canon
+law, and was also an accomplished mathematician and astronomer. We owe
+to him a collection of 401 ecclesiastical canons, including the
+apostolical canons and the decrees of the councils of Nicaea,
+Constantinople, Chalcedon and Sardis, and also a collection of the
+decretals of the popes from Siricius (385) to Anastasius II. (498).
+These collections, which had great authority in the West (see CANON
+LAW), were published by Justel in 1628. Dionysius did good service to
+his contemporaries by his translations of many Greek works into Latin;
+and by these translations some works, the originals of which have
+perished, have been handed down to us. His name, however, is now perhaps
+chiefly remembered for his chronological labours. It was Dionysius who
+introduced the method of reckoning the Christian era which we now use
+(see CHRONOLOGY). His friend Cassiodorus depicts in glowing terms the
+character of Dionysius as a saintly ascetic, and praises his wisdom and
+simplicity, his accomplishments and his lowly-mindedness, his power of
+eloquent speech and his capacity of silence. He died at Rome, some time
+before A.D. 550.
+
+  His works have been published in Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, tome 67;
+  see especially A. Tardif, _Histoire des sources du droit canonique_
+  (Paris, 1887), and D. Pitra, _Analecta novissima, Spicilegii
+  Solesmensis continuatio_, vol. i. p. 36 (Paris, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS ("of Halicarnassus"), Greek historian and
+teacher of rhetoric, flourished during the reign of Augustus. He went to
+Rome after the termination of the civil wars, and spent twenty-two years
+in studying the Latin language and literature and preparing materials
+for his history. During this period he gave lessons in rhetoric, and
+enjoyed the society of many distinguished men. The date of his death is
+unknown. His great work, entitled [Greek: Romaike archaiologia] (Roman
+Antiquities), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical period to
+the beginning of the first Punic War. It was divided into twenty
+books,--of which the first nine remain entire, the tenth and eleventh
+are nearly complete, and the remaining books exist in fragments in the
+excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus and an epitome discovered by
+Angelo Mai in a Milan MS. The first three books of Appian, and
+Plutarch's _Life of Camillus_ also embody much of Dionysius. His chief
+object was to reconcile the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon
+the good qualities of their conquerors. According to him, history is
+philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried out from
+the point of view of the Greek rhetorician. But he has carefully
+consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of Livy are the
+only connected and detailed extant accounts of early Roman history.
+
+Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in which
+he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic models:--_The Art
+of Rhetoric_ (which is rather a collection of essays on the theory of
+rhetoric), incomplete, and certainly not all his work; _The Arrangement
+of Words_ ([Greek: Peri syntheseos onomaton]), treating of the
+combination of words according to the different styles of oratory; _On
+Imitation_ ([Greek: Peri mimeseos]), on the best models in the different
+kinds of literature and the way in which they are to be imitated--a
+fragmentary work; _Commentaries on the Attic Orators_ ([Greek: Peri ton
+archaion rhetoron hypomnematismoi]), which, however, only deal with
+Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates and (by way of supplement) Dinarchus; _On the
+admirable Style of Demosthenes_ ([Greek: Peri tes lektikes Demosthenous
+deinotetos]); and _On the Character of Thucydides_ ([Greek: Peri tou
+Thoukydidou charakteros]), a detailed but on the whole an unfair
+estimate. These two treatises are supplemented by letters to Cn.
+Pompeius and Ammaeus (two).
+
+  Complete edition by J. J. Reiske (1774-1777); of the _Archaeologia_ by
+  A. Kiessling and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885-1891); Opuscula by
+  Usener and Radermacher (1899); Eng. translation by E. Spelman (1758).
+  A full bibliography of the rhetorical works is given in W. Rhys
+  Roberts's edition of the Three Literary Letters (1901); the same
+  author published an edition of the _De compositione verborum_ (1910,
+  with trans.); see also M. Egger, _Denys d'Halicarnasse_ (1902), a very
+  useful treatise. On the sources of Dionysius see O. Bocksch, "De
+  fontibus Dion. Halicarnassensis" in _Leipziger Studien_, xvii. (1895).
+  Cf. also J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (1906).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, author of a [Greek: Periegesis tes oikoumenes], a
+description of the habitable world in Greek hexameter verse, written in
+a terse and elegant style. Nothing certain is known of the date or
+nationality of the writer, but there is some reason for believing that
+he was an Alexandrian, who wrote in the time of Hadrian (some put him as
+late as the end of the 3rd century). The work enjoyed a high degree of
+popularity in ancient times as a school-book; it was translated into
+Latin by Rufus Festus Avienus, and by the grammarian Priscian. The
+commentary of Eustathius is valuable.
+
+  The best editions are by G. Bernhardy (1828) and C. Muller (1861) in
+  their _Geographici Graeci minores_; see also E. H. Bunbury, _Ancient
+  Geography_ (ii. p. 480), who regards the author as flourishing from
+  the reign of Nero to that of Trajan, and U. Bernays, _Studien zu Dion.
+  Perieg._ (1905). There are two old English translations: T. Twine
+  (1572, black letter), J. Free (1789, blank verse).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS ("of Tell-Ma[h.]r[=e]"), patriarch or supreme
+head of the Syrian Jacobite Church during the years 818-848, was born at
+Tell-Ma[h.]r[=e] near Ra[k.][k.]a (ar-Ra[k.][k.]ah) on the Bal[=i]kh. He
+was the author of an important historical work, which has seemingly
+perished except for some passages quoted by Barhebraeus and an extract
+found by Assemani in Cod. _Vat._ 144 and published by him in the
+_Bibliotheca orientalis_ (ii. 72-77). He spent his earlier years as a
+monk at the convent of [K.]en-neshr[=e] on the upper Euphrates; and when
+this monastery was destroyed by fire in 815, he migrated northwards to
+that of Kais[=u]m in the district of Samos[=a]ta. At the death of the
+Jacobite patriarch Cyriacus in 817, the church was agitated by a dispute
+about the use of the phrase "heavenly bread" in connexion with the
+Eucharist. An anti-patriarch had been appointed in the person of Abraham
+of [K.]artam[=i]n, who insisted on the use of the phrase in opposition
+to the recognized authorities of the church. The council of bishops who
+met at Ra[k.][k.]a in the summer of 818 to choose a successor to
+Cyriacus had great difficulty in finding a worthy occupant of the
+patriarchal chair, but finally agreed on the election of Dionysius,
+hitherto known only as an honest monk who devoted himself to historical
+studies. Sorely against his will he was brought to Ra[k.][k.]a, ordained
+deacon and priest on two successive days, and raised to the supreme
+ecclesiastical dignity on the 1st of August. From this time he showed
+the utmost zeal in fulfilling the duties of his office, and undertook
+many journeys both within and without his province. The ecclesiastical
+schism continued unhealed during the thirty years of his patriarchate.
+The details of this contest, of his relations with the caliph Ma'm[=u]n,
+and of his many travels--including a journey to Egypt, on which he
+viewed with admiration the great Egyptian monuments,--are to be found in
+the _Ecclesiastical Chronicle_ of Barhebraeus.[1] He died in 848, his
+last days having been especially embittered by Mahommedan oppression.
+We learn from Michael the Syrian that his _Annals_ consisted of two
+parts each divided into eight chapters, and covered a period of 260
+years, viz. from the accession of the emperor Maurice (582-583) to the
+death of Theophilus (842-843).
+
+In addition to the lost _Annals_, Dionysius was from the time of
+Assemani until 1896 credited with the authorship of another important
+historical work--a _Chronicle_, which in four parts narrates the history
+of the world from the creation to the year A.D. 774-775 and is preserved
+entire in _Cod. Vat._ 162. The first part (edited by Tullberg, Upsala,
+1850) reaches to the epoch of Constantine the Great, and is in the main
+an epitome of the Eusebian Chronicle.[2] The second part reaches to
+Theodosius II. and follows closely the _Ecclesiastical History_ of
+Socrates; while the third, extending to Justin II., reproduces the
+second part of the _History_ of John of Asia or Ephesus, and also
+contains the well-known chronicle attributed to Joshua the Stylite. The
+fourth part[3] is not like the others a compilation, but the original
+work of the author, and reaches to the year 774-775--apparently the date
+when he was writing. On the publication of this fourth part by M.
+Chabot, it was discovered and clearly proved by Noldeke (_Vienna
+Oriental Journal_, x. 160-170), and Nau (_Bulletin critique_, xvii.
+321-327), who independently reached the same conclusion, that Assemani's
+opinion was a mistake, and that the chronicle in question was the work
+not of Dionysius of Tell-Ma[h.]r[=e] but of an earlier writer, a monk of
+the convent of Zu[k.]n[=i]n near [=A]mid (Diarbekr) on the upper Tigris.
+Though the author was a man of limited intelligence and destitute of
+historical skill, yet the last part of his work at least has
+considerable value as a contemporary account of events during the middle
+period of the 8th century.     (N. M.)
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Ed. Abbeloos and Lamy, i. 343-386; cf. Wright, _Syriac
+    Literature_, 196-200, and Chabot's introduction to his translation of
+    the fourth part of the _Chronicle_ of (pseudo) Dionysius.
+
+  [2] See the studies by Siegfried and Gelzer, _Eusebii canonum epitome
+    ex Dionysii Telmaharensis chronico petita_ (Leipzig, 1884), and von
+    Gutschmid, _Untersuchungen uber die syrische Epitome der Eusebischen
+    Canones_ (Stuttgart, 1886).
+
+  [3] Text and translation by J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSIUS THRAX (so called because his father was a Thracian), the
+author of the first Greek grammar, flourished about 100 B.C. He was a
+native of Alexandria, where he attended the lectures of Aristarchus, and
+afterwards taught rhetoric in Rhodes and Rome. His [Greek: Techne
+grammatike], which we possess (though probably not in its original
+form), begins with the definition of grammar and its functions. Dealing
+next with accent, punctuation marks, sounds and syllables, it goes on to
+the different parts of speech (eight in number) and their inflections.
+No rules of syntax are given, and nothing is said about style. The
+authorship of Dionysius was doubted by many of the early middle-age
+commentators and grammarians, and in modern times its origin has been
+attributed to the oecumenical college founded by Constantine the Great,
+which continued in existence till 730. But there seems no reason for
+doubt; the great grammarians of imperial times (Apollonius Dyscolus and
+Herodian) were acquainted with the work in its present form, although,
+as was natural considering its popularity, additions and alterations may
+have been made later. The [Greek: Techne] was first edited by J. A.
+Fabricius from a Hamburg MS. and published in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_,
+vi. (ed. Harles). An Armenian translation, belonging to the 4th or 5th
+century, containing five additional chapters, was published with the
+Greek text and a French version, by M. Cirbied (1830). Dionysius also
+contributed much to the criticism and elucidation of Homer, and was the
+author of various other works--amongst them an account of Rhodes, and a
+collection of [Greek: Meletai] (literary studies), to which the
+considerable fragment in the _Stromata_ (v. 8) of Clement of Alexandria
+probably belongs.
+
+  Editions, with scholia, by I. Bekker in _Anecdota Graeca_, ii. and G.
+  Uhlig (1884), reviewed exhaustively by P. Egenolff in Bursian's
+  _Jahresbericht_, vol. xlvi. (1888); Scholia, ed. A. Hilgard (1901);
+  see also W. Horschelmann, _De Dionysii Thracis interpretibus
+  veteribus_ (1874); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, i.
+  (1906).
+
+
+
+
+DIONYSUS (probably = "son of Zeus," from [Greek: Dios] and [Greek:
+nysos], a Thracian word for "son"), in Greek mythology, originally a
+nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially of the vine;
+hence, distinctively, the god of wine. The names Bacchus ([Greek:
+Bakchos], in use among the Greeks from the 5th century), Sabazius, and
+Bassareus, are also Thracian names of the god. The two first (like
+Iacchus, Bromius and Euios) have been connected with the loud "shout"
+([Greek: sabazein = bazein = euazein]) of his worshippers, Bassareus
+with [Greek: bassarai], the fox-skin garments of the Thracian
+Bacchanals. It has been suggested (J. E. Harrison _Prolegomena to Greek
+Religion_) that Sabazius and Bromius = "beer-god," "god of a cereal
+intoxicant" (cf. Illyrian _sabaia_ and modern Greek [Greek: bromi],
+"oats"), while W. Ridgeway (_Classical Review_, January 1896), comparing
+Apollo Smintheus, interprets Bassareus as "he who keeps away the foxes
+from the vineyards" (for various interpretations of these and other
+cult-titles, see O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. pp. 1408,
+1532, especially the notes).
+
+In Homer, notwithstanding the frequent mention of the use of wine,
+Dionysus is never mentioned as its inventor or introducer, nor does he
+appear in Olympus; Hesiod is the first who calls wine the gift of
+Dionysus. On the other hand, he is spoken of in the _Iliad_ (vi. 130
+foll., a passage belonging to the latest period of epic), as "raging,"
+an epithet that indicates that in those comparatively early times the
+orgiastic character of his worship was recognized. In fact, Dionysus may
+be regarded under two distinct aspects: that of a popular national Greek
+god of wine and cheerfulness, and that of a foreign deity, worshipped
+with ecstatic and mysterious rites introduced from Thrace. According to
+the usual tradition, he was born at Thebes--originally the local centre
+of his worship in Greece--and was the son of Zeus, the fertilizing rain
+god, and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, a personification of earth.
+Before the child was mature, Zeus appeared to Semele at her request in
+his majesty as god of lightning, by which she was killed, but the infant
+was saved from the flames by Zeus (or Hermes). The epithet [Greek:
+perikionios], originally referring to an ivy-crowned, pillar-shaped
+fetish of the god, afterwards gave rise to the legend of a miraculous
+growth of ivy "round the pillars" of the royal palace, whereby the
+infant Dionysus was preserved from the flames. Zeus took him up,
+enclosed him within his own thigh till he came to maturity, and then
+brought him to the light, so that he was twice born; it was to celebrate
+this double birth that the _dithyrambus_ (also used as an epithet of the
+god) was sung (see _Etym. Mag._ s.v.). It has been suggested that this
+is an allusion to the _couvade_ of certain barbarous tribes, amongst
+whom it is customary, when a child is born, for the husband to take to
+his bed and receive medical treatment, as if he shared the pains of
+maternity (see COUVADE, and references there). Dionysus was then
+conveyed by Hermes to be brought up by the nymphs of Nysa, a purely
+imaginary spot, afterwards localized in different parts of the world,
+which claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the god. As
+soon as Dionysus was grown up, he started on a journey through the
+world, to teach the cultivation of the vine and spread his worship among
+men. While so engaged he met with opposition, even in his own country,
+as in the case of Pentheus, king of Thebes, who opposed the orgiastic
+rites introduced by Dionysus among the women of Thebes, and, having been
+discovered watching one of these ceremonies, was mistaken for some
+animal of the chase, and slain by his own mother (see A. G. Bather,
+_Journ. Hell. Studies_, xiv. 1894). A similar instance is that of
+Lycurgus, a Thracian king, from whose attack Dionysus saved himself by
+leaping into the sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis. Lycurgus
+was blinded by Zeus and soon died, or became frantic and hewed down his
+own son, mistaking him for a vine. At Orchomenus, the three daughters of
+Minyas refused to join the other women in their nocturnal orgies, and
+for this were transformed into birds (see AGRIONIA). These and similar
+stories point to the vigorous resistance offered to the introduction of
+the mystic rites of Dionysus, in places where an established religion
+already existed. On the other hand, when the god was received hospitably
+he repaid the kindness by the gift of the vine, as in the case of
+Icarius of Attica (see ERIGONE).
+
+The worship of Dionysus was actively conducted in Asia Minor,
+particularly in Phrygia and Lydia. Here, as Sabazius, he was associated
+with the Phrygian goddess Cybele, and was followed in his expeditions by
+a _thiasos_ (retinue) of centaurs, and satyrs, with Pan and Silenus. In
+Lydia his triumphant return from India was celebrated by an annual
+festival on Mount Tmolus; in Lydia he assumed the long beard and long
+robe which were afterwards given him in his character of the "Indian
+Bacchus," the conqueror of the East, who, after the campaigns of
+Alexander, was reported to have advanced as far as the Ganges. The other
+incidents in which he appears in a purely triumphal character are his
+transforming into dolphins the Tyrrhene pirates who attacked him, as
+told in the Homeric hymn to Dionysus and represented on the monument of
+Lysicrates at Athens, and his part in the war of the gods against the
+giants. The former story has been connected with the sailors' custom of
+hanging vine leaves, ivy and bunches of grapes round the masts of
+vessels in honour of vintage festivals. The adventure with the pirates
+occurred on his voyage to Naxos, where he found Ariadne abandoned by
+Theseus. At Naxos Ariadne (probably a Cretan goddess akin to Aphrodite)
+was associated with Dionysus as his wife, by whom he was the father of
+Oenopion (wine-drinker), Staphylus (grape), and Euanthes (blooming), and
+their marriage was annually celebrated by a festival. Having compelled
+all the world to recognize his divinity, he descended to the underworld
+to bring up his mother, who was afterwards worshipped with him under the
+name of Thyone ("the raging"), he himself being called after her
+Thyoneus.
+
+Another phase in the myth of Dionysus originated in observing the decay
+of vegetation in winter, to suit which he was supposed to be slain and
+to join the deities of the lower world. This phase of his character was
+developed by the Orphic poets, he having here the name of Zagreus ("torn
+in pieces"), and being no longer the Theban god, but a son of Zeus and
+Persephone. The child was brought up secretly, watched over by Curetes;
+but the jealous Hera discovered where he was, and sent Titans to the
+spot, who, finding him at play, tore him to pieces, and cooked and ate
+his limbs, while Hera gave his heart to Zeus. The tearing in pieces is
+referred by some to the torture experienced by the grape
+(_Naturschmerz_) when crushed for making into wine (cf. Burns's _John
+Barleycorn_); but it is better to refer it to the tearing of the flesh
+of the victim at sacrifices at which the deity or the sacred animal was
+slain, and sacramentally eaten raw (cf. the title [Greek: omestes] given
+to Dionysus in certain places, probably pointing to human sacrifice.) To
+connect this with the myth of the Theban birth of Dionysus, it is said
+that Zeus gave the child's heart to Semele, or himself swallowed it and
+gave birth to the new Dionysus (called Iacchus from his worshippers' cry
+of rejoicing), who was cradled and swung in a winnowing fan ([Greek:
+liknos]; see J. E. Harrison, _Journ. Hellenic Studies_, xxiii.), the
+swinging being supposed to act as a charm in awakening vegetation from
+its winter sleep. The conception of Zagreus, or the winter Dionysus,
+appears to have originated in Crete, but it was accepted also in Delphi,
+where his grave was shown, and sacrifice was secretly offered at it
+annually on the shortest day. The story is in many respects similar to
+that of Osiris. According to others, Zagreus was originally a god of the
+chase, who became a hunter of men and a god of the underworld, more akin
+to Hades than to Dionysus (see also TITANS).
+
+Dionysus further possessed the prophetic gift, and his oracle at Delphi
+was as important as that of Apollo. Like Hermes, Dionysus was a god of
+the productiveness of nature, and hence Priapus was one of his regular
+companions, while not only in the mysteries but in the rural festivals
+his symbol, the phallus, was carried about ostentatiously. His symbols
+from the animal kingdom were the bull (perhaps a totemistic attribute
+and identified with him), the panther, the lion, the tiger, the ass, the
+goat, and sometimes also the dolphin and the snake. His personal
+attributes are an ivy wreath, the thyrsus (a staff with pine cone at the
+end), the laurel, the pine, a drinking cup, and sometimes the horn of a
+bull on his forehead. Artistically he was represented mostly either as a
+youth of soft, nearly feminine form, or as a bearded and draped man, but
+frequently also as an infant, with reference to his birth or to his
+bringing up in "Nysa." His earliest images were of wood with the
+branches still attached in parts, whence he was called Dionysus
+Dendrites, an allusion to his protection of trees generally (according
+to Pherecydes in C. W. Muller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ iv. p. 637, the word
+[Greek: nysa] signified "tree"). It is suggested that the cult of
+Dionysus absorbed that of an old tree-spirit. He was figured also, like
+Hermes, in the form of a pillar or term surmounted by his head. For the
+connexion of Dionysus with Greek tragedy see DRAMA.
+
+  See Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, v. (1910); also O. Rapp,
+  _Beziehungen des Dionysuskultus zu Thrakien_ (1882); O. Ribbeck,
+  _Anfange und Entwickelung des Dionysuskultes in Attica_ (1869); A.
+  Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_, ii. p. 241; L. Dyer, _The Gods in
+  Greece_ (1891); J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
+  Religion_ (1903); J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, ii (1900), pp.
+  160, 291, who regards the bull and goat form of Dionysus as
+  expressions of his proper character as a deity of vegetation; F. A.
+  Voigt in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; L. Preller, _Griechische
+  Mythologie_ (4th ed. by C. Robert); F. Lenormant (s.v. "Bacchus") in
+  Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; O. Kern in
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_ (with list of cult titles); W.
+  Pater, _Greek Studies_ (1895); E. Rohde, _Psyche_, ii., who finds the
+  origin of the Hellenic belief in the immortality of the soul in the
+  "enthusiastic" rites of the Thracian Dionysus, which lifted persons
+  out of themselves, and exalted them to a fancied equality with the
+  gods; O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte_, ii.
+  (1907), who considers Boeotia, not Thrace, to have been the original
+  home of Dionysus; P. Foucart, "Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique" in
+  _Memoires de l'Institut national de France_, xxxvii. (1906), who finds
+  the prototype of Dionysus in Egypt. _The Great Dionysiak Myth_
+  (1877-1878) by R. Brown contains a wealth of material, but is weak in
+  scholarship. For a striking survival of Dionysiac rites in Thrace
+  (Bizye), see Dawkins, in _J.H.S._ (1906), p. 191.
+
+
+
+
+DIOPHANTUS, of Alexandria, Greek algebraist, probably flourished about
+the middle of the 3rd century. Not that this date rests on positive
+evidence. But it seems a fair inference from a passage of Michael
+Psellus (_Diophantus_, ed. P. Tannery, ii. p. 38) that he was not later
+than Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea from A.D. 270, while he is not quoted
+by Nicomachus (fl. c. A.D. 100), nor by Theon of Smyrna (c. A.D. 130),
+nor does Greek arithmetic as represented by these authors and by
+Iamblichus (end of 3rd century) show any trace of his influence, facts
+which can only be accounted for by his being later than those
+arithmeticians at least who would have been capable of understanding him
+fully. On the other hand he is quoted by Theon of Alexandria (who
+observed an eclipse at Alexandria in A.D. 365); and his work was the
+subject of a commentary by Theon's daughter Hypatia (d. 415). The
+_Arithmetica_, the greatest treatise on which the fame of Diophantus
+rests, purports to be in thirteen Books, but none of the Greek MSS.
+which have survived contain more than six (though one has the same text
+in seven Books). They contain, however, a fragment of a separate tract
+on _Polygonal Numbers_. The missing books were apparently lost early,
+for there is no reason to suppose that the Arabs who translated or
+commented on Diophantus ever had access to more of the work than we now
+have. The difference in form and content suggests that the _Polygonal
+Numbers_ was not part of the larger work. On the other hand the
+_Porisms_, to which Diophantus makes three references ("we have it in
+the Porisms that ..."), were probably not a separate book but were
+embodied in the _Arithmetica_ itself, whether placed all together or, as
+Tannery thinks, spread over the work in appropriate places. The
+"Porisms" quoted are interesting propositions in the theory of numbers,
+one of which was clearly that _the difference between two cubes can be
+resolved into the sum of two cubes_. Tannery thinks that the solution of
+a complete quadratic promised by Diophantus himself (I. def. 11), and
+really assumed later, was one of the Porisms.
+
+  Among the great variety of problems solved are problems leading to
+  determinate equations of the first degree in one, two, three or four
+  variables, to determinate quadratic equations, and to indeterminate
+  equations of the first degree in one or more variables, which are,
+  however, transformed into determinate equations by arbitrarily
+  assuming a value for one of the required numbers, Diophantus being
+  always satisfied with a rational, even if fractional, result and not
+  requiring a solution in integers. But the bulk of the work consists of
+  problems leading to indeterminate equations of the second degree, and
+  these universally take the form that one or two (and never more)
+  linear or quadratic functions of one variable x are to be made
+  rational square numbers by finding a suitable value for x. A few
+  problems lead to indeterminate equations of the third and fourth
+  degrees, an easy indeterminate equation of the sixth degree being
+  also found. The general type of problem is to find two, three or four
+  numbers such that different expressions involving them in the first
+  and second, and sometimes the third, degree are squares, cubes, partly
+  squares and partly cubes, &c. E.g. _To find three numbers such that
+  the product of any two added to the sum of those two gives a square_
+  (III. 15, ed. Tannery); _To find four numbers such that, if we take
+  the square of their sum [+-] any one of them singly, all the resulting
+  numbers are squares_ (III. 22); _To find two numbers such that their
+  product [+-] their sum gives a cube_ (IV. 29); _To find three squares
+  such that their continued product added to any one of them gives a
+  square_ (V. 21). Book VI. contains problems of finding rational
+  _right-angled triangles_ such that different functions of their parts
+  (the sides and the area) are squares. A word is necessary on
+  Diophantus' notation. He has only one symbol (written somewhat like a
+  final sigma) for an unknown quantity, which he calls [Greek: arithmos]
+  (defined as "an undefined number of units"); the symbol may be a
+  contraction of the initial letters [alpha][rho], as [Delta]^[Upsilon],
+  [Kappa]^[Upsilon], [Delta]^[Upsilon][Delta], &c., are for the powers
+  of the unknown ([Greek: dynamis], square; [Greek: kubos], cube;
+  [Greek: dynamodynamis], fourth power, &c.). The only other algebraical
+  symbol is [graphic: /|\] for minus; plus being expressed by merely
+  writing terms one after another. With one symbol for an unknown, it
+  will easily be understood what scope there is for adroit assumptions,
+  for the required numbers, of expressions in the one unknown which are
+  at once seen to satisfy some of the conditions, leaving only one or
+  two to be satisfied by the particular value of x to be determined.
+  Often assumptions are made which lead to equations in x which cannot
+  be solved "rationally," i.e. would give negative, surd or imaginary
+  values; Diophantus then traces how each element of the equation has
+  arisen, and formulates the auxiliary problem of determining how the
+  assumptions must be corrected so as to lead to an equation (in place
+  of the "impossible" one) which can be solved rationally. Sometimes his
+  x has to do duty twice, for different unknowns, in one problem. In
+  general his object is to reduce the final equation to a simple one by
+  making such an assumption for the side of the square or cube to which
+  the expression in x is to be equal as will make the necessary number
+  of coefficients vanish. The book is valuable also for the propositions
+  in the theory of numbers, other than the "porisms," stated or assumed
+  in it. Thus Diophantus knew that _no number of the form 8n + 7 can be
+  the sum of three squares_. He also says that, if 2n + 1 is to be the
+  sum of two squares, "n must not be odd" (i.e. _no number of the form
+  4n + 3, or 4n - 1, can be the sum of two squares_), and goes on to
+  add, practically, the condition stated by Fermat, "and the double of
+  it [n] increased by one, when divided by the greatest square which
+  measures it, must not be divisible by a prime number of the form 4n -
+  1," except for the omission of the words "when divided ... measures
+  it."
+
+  # AUTHORITIES.--The first to publish anything on Diophantus in Europe
+  was Rafael Bombelli, who embodied in his Algebra (1572) all the
+  problems of Books I.-IV. and some of Book V. interspersing them with
+  his own problems. Next Xylander (Wilhelm Holzmann) published a Latin
+  translation (Basel, 1575), an altogether meritorious work, especially
+  having regard to the difficulties he had with the text of his MS. The
+  Greek text was first edited by C. G. Bachet (_Diophanti Alexandrini
+  arithmeticorum libri sex, et de numeris multangulis liber unus, nunc
+  primum graece et latine editi atque absolutissimis commentariis
+  illustrati_ ... Lutetiae Parisiorum ... MDCXXI.). A reprint of 1670 is
+  only valuable because it contains P. de Fermat's notes; as far as the
+  Greek text is concerned it is much inferior to the other. There are
+  two German translations, one by Otto Schulz (1822) and the other by G.
+  Wertheim (Leipzig, 1890), and an English edition in modern notation
+  (T. L. Heath, _Diophantos of Alexandria: A Study in the History of
+  Greek Algebra_ (Cambridge, 1885)). The Greek text has now been
+  definitively edited (with Latin translation, Scholia, &c.) by P.
+  Tannery (Teubner, vol. i., 1893; vol. ii., 1895). General accounts of
+  Diophantus' work are to be found in H. Hankel and M. Cantor's
+  histories of mathematics, and more elaborate analyses are those of
+  Nesselmann (_Die Algebra der Griechen_, Berlin, 1842) and G. Loria
+  (_Le Scienze esatte nell' antica Grecia_, libro v., Modena, 1902, pp.
+  95-158).     (T. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+DIOPSIDE, an important member of the pyroxene group of rock-forming
+minerals. It is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate, CaMg(SiO3)2, and
+crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Usually some iron is present
+replacing magnesium, and when this predominates there is a passage to
+hedenbergite, CaFe(SiO3)2, a closely allied variety of monoclinic
+pyroxene. These are distinguished from augite by containing little or no
+aluminium. Diopside is colourless, white, pale green to dark green or
+nearly black in colour, the depth of the colour depending on the amount
+of iron present. The specific gravity and optical constants also vary
+with the chemical composition; the sp. gr. of diopside is 3.2,
+increasing to 3.6 in hedenbergite, and the angle of optical extinction
+in the plane of symmetry varies between 38 deg. and 47 deg. in the two
+extremes of the series. Crystals are usually prismatic in habit with a
+rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure: the angle between the
+prism faces m, parallel to which there are perfect cleavages, is 92 deg.
+50'.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Several varieties, depending on differences in structure and chemical
+composition, have been distinguished, viz. coccolite (from [Greek:
+kokkos], a grain), a granular variety; salite or sahlite, from Sala in
+Sweden; malacolite; diallage; violane, a lamellar variety of a dark
+violet-blue colour; chrome-diopside, a bright green variety containing a
+small amount of chromium; and many others. Belonging to the same series
+with diopside and hedenbergite is a manganese pyroxene, known as
+schefierite, which has the composition (Ca, Mg) (Fe, Mn) (Si03)2.
+
+Diopside is the characteristic pyroxene of metamorphic rocks, occurring
+especially in crystalline limestones, and often in association with
+garnet and epidote. It is also an essential constituent of some
+pyroxene-granites, diorites and a few other igneous rocks, but the
+characteristic pyroxene of this class of rocks is augite. Fine
+transparent crystals of a pale green colour occur, with crystals of
+yellowish-red garnet (hessonite) and chlorite, in veins traversing
+serpentine in the Ala valley near Turin in Piedmont: a crystal of this
+variety ("alalite") is represented in the accompanying figure. These, as
+well as the long, transparent, bottle-green crystals from the Zillerthal
+in the Tyrol, have occasionally been cut as gem-stones. Good crystals
+have been found also at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals,
+Traversella near Ivrea in Piedmont ("traversellite"), Nordmark in
+Sweden, Monroe in New York, Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and
+several other places: at Nordmark the large, rectangular black crystals
+occur with magnetite in the iron mines.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+DIOPTASE, a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper
+orthosilicate, H2CuSiO4, crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemihedral
+class of the rhombohedral system. The degree of symmetry is the same as
+in the mineral phenacite, there being only an axis of triad symmetry and
+a centre of symmetry. The crystals have the form of a hexagonal prism m
+terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alternate edges between these being
+sometimes replaced by the faces of a rhombohedron s. The faces are
+striated parallel to the edges between r, s and m. There are perfect
+cleavages parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which truncate the
+polar edges of r: from the cleavage cracks internal reflections are
+often to be seen in the crystal, and it was on account of this that the
+mineral was named dioptase, by R. J. Hauy in 1797, from [Greek:
+diopteuein], "to see into." The crystals vary from transparent to
+translucent with a vitreous lustre, and are bright emerald-green in
+colour; they thus have a certain resemblance to emerald, hence the early
+name emerald-copper (German, _Kupfer-Smaragd_). Hardness 5; sp. gr. 3.3.
+The mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of
+gelatinous silica. At a red heat it blackens and gives off water. The
+fine crystals from Mount Altyn-Tube on the western slopes of the Altai
+Mountains in the Kirghiz Steppes, Asiatic Russia, line cavities in a
+compact limestone; they were first sent to Europe in 1785 by Achir
+Mahmed, a Bucharian merchant, after whom the mineral has been named
+archirite. More recently, in 1890, good crystals of similar habit, but
+rather darker in colour, have been found with quartz and malachite near
+Komba in the French Congo. As drusy crystalline crusts it has been found
+at Copiapo in Chile and in Arizona.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially in Russia
+and Persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of hardness and the
+transparency is imperfect.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+DIORITE (from the Gr. [Greek: diorizein] to distinguish, from [Greek:
+dia] through, [Greek: oros], a boundary), in petrology, the name given
+by Hauy to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of
+plagioclase felspar and hornblende. As they are richer in the dark
+coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark grey,
+and have a higher specific gravity than granite. They also rarely show
+visible quartz. But there are diorites of many kinds, as the name
+applies rather to a family of rocks than to a single species. Some
+contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene; many have a small amount
+of quartz. Orthoclase is rarely entirely absent, and when it is fairly
+common the rock becomes a tonalite; in this way a transition is
+furnished between diorites and granites. It is rare to find the pure
+types of "hornblende-diorite," "augite-diorite," &c., but in most cases
+the rocks contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such
+combinations as "hornblende-biotite-diorite" are commonest in nature.
+
+The felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase to
+labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers being
+more alkaline than the internal. Small fluid enclosures and black
+grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great numbers.
+Weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and kaolin. The biotite
+is always brown or yellow; the hornblende usually green, but sometimes
+brown or yellowish brown in those diorites which have affinities to
+lamprophyres. The augite is nearly always green but sometimes has a
+reddish tinge; bronzite and hypersthene have their usual green and brown
+shades. Apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present;
+sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite, chlorite,
+muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary. The structure is
+not essentially different from that of granite. The ferromagnesian
+minerals crystallize comparatively early and have some idiomorphism; the
+felspar usually follows and only in part shows good crystalline
+outlines. Orthoclase and quartz, if present, are last to separate out,
+and fill the spaces between the other minerals; often they
+interpenetrate to form micropegmatite. In many diorites the plagioclase
+felspar has crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has
+less perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply
+formed individuals of felspar. This produces the ophitic structure (very
+common also in the dolerites). More rarely biotite and augite exhibit
+the same relations to the plagioclase. Orbicular structure also
+occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact the orbicular diorite of
+Corsica (also called "Napoleonite" or "Corsite") was for a long time the
+best-known example of this structure. The rock seems composed of
+spheroids, about an inch in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of
+dark-coloured dioritic matrix. The spheroids have a radiate structure
+and often show concentric dark and pale shells. These consist of
+hornblende (dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and
+bytownite (grey or nearly white). Occasionally diorites have a parallel
+banded or foliated structure, but these must not be confounded with the
+epidiorites, which are metamorphic rocks and also have a conspicuous
+foliation.
+
+Diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros, which
+contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally olivine; but
+the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are admittedly somewhat
+vague, e.g. some authors would call rocks gabbro which others would
+regard as augite-diorite. The hornblendites differ from the diorites in
+containing little felspar, and consist principally of hornblende. Among
+varietal designations given to rocks of the diorite family are
+"banatite" for an augite-diorite with or without quartz (from the
+Schemnitz district), "granodiorite" for a quartz-hornblende-diorite
+(essentially the same as tonalite) from California, &c., "adamellite"
+for the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of Monte Adamello (Alps),
+"ornite" for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from Sweden.
+     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+DIP (Old Eng. _dyppan_, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in
+"deep"), the angle which the magnetic needle makes with the horizon. A
+freely suspended magnetic needle will not maintain a horizontal position
+except at the magnetic equator. Over the N. magnetic pole the
+north-seeking end of the needle points directly downwards and dips at an
+intermediate angle at intermediate distances between the magnetic poles
+and equator. There are secular progressive variations of dip as well as
+of declination and the maxima are independent of each other. In 1576
+the dip at London was 71 deg. 50', in 1720 (max.) 74 deg. 42', in 1900
+67 deg. 9'. (For Dip Circle see INCLINOMETER.)
+
+
+
+
+DIPHENYL (phenyl benzene), C6H5.C6H5, a hydrocarbon found in that
+fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between 240-300 deg. C.,
+from which it may be obtained by warming with sulphuric acid, separating
+the acid layer and strongly cooling the undissolved oil. It may be
+artificially prepared by passing benzene vapour through a red-hot tube;
+by the action of sodium on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action
+of stannous chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of
+solid phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (R. Mohlau, _Berichte,
+1893, 26_, 1997) C6H5N2.HSO4 + C6H6 = H2SO4 + N2 + C6H5.C6H5. L.
+Gattermann (_Berichte, 1890, 23_, 1226) has also prepared it by the
+decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate with alcohol and
+copper powder. It crystallizes in plates (from alcohol) melting at 70-71
+deg. C. and boiling at 254 deg. C. It is oxidized by chromic acid in
+glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid, dilute nitric acid and
+chromic acid mixture being without effect. It is not reduced by
+hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium in the presence of amyl
+alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl C12H14.
+
+  Many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitution
+  derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. Of the
+  disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from
+  diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (q.v.).
+
+  _Orthoaminodiphenyl_,
+
+         NH2
+     __   |__
+    /  \__/  \ ,
+    \__/  \__/
+
+  is prepared by the action of bromine and caustic soda on
+  orthophenylbenzamide (R. Hirsch, _Berichte, 1892, 25_, 1974); when its
+  vapour is passed over heated lime, carbazol (q.v.) is formed.
+
+  _Diorthodiaminodiphenyl_,
+
+    NH2 NH2
+     __|  |__
+    /  \__/  \ ,
+    \__/  \__/
+
+  is obtained by the reduction of the corresponding nitro compound
+  (obtained by the action of ethyl nitrite at 0 deg. C. on
+  metadinitrobenzidine hydrochloride). Its tetrazo compound on reduction
+  gives a hydrazine which, on warming with hydrochloric acid at 150 deg.
+  C., decomposes into ammonium chloride and _phenazone_,
+
+       N = N
+     __|   |__
+    /  \___/  \
+    \__/   \__/
+
+  (C12H8N2). One of the most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the
+  theoretical point of view, is _diphenic acid_ or diorthodiphenyl
+  carboxylic acid, which can be obtained from
+  diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid,
+         __    __
+    H2N /  \__/  \ NH2 ,
+        \__/  \__/
+           |  |
+        HOOC  COOH
+
+  or from phenanthrene (q.v.), the constitution of which it determines.
+  See BENZIDINE for diparadiaminodiphenyl.
+
+
+
+
+DIPHILUS, of Sinope, poet of the new Attic comedy and contemporary of
+Menander (342-291 B.C.). Most of his plays were written and acted at
+Athens, but he led a wandering life, and died at Smyrna. He was on
+intimate terms with the famous courtesan Gnathaena (Athenaeus xiii. pp.
+579, 583). He is said to have written 100 comedies, the titles of fifty
+of which are preserved. He sometimes acted himself. To judge from the
+imitations of Plautus. (_Casina_ from the [Greek: Kleroumenoi],
+_Asinaria_ from the [Greek: Onagos], _Rudens_ from some other play), he
+was very skilful in the construction of his plots. Terence also tells us
+that he introduced into the _Adelphi_ (ii. 1) a scene from the [Greek:
+Synapothneskontes], which had been omitted by Plautus in his adaptation
+(_Commorientes_) of the same play. The style of Diphilus was simple and
+natural, and his language on the whole good Attic; he paid great
+attention to versification, and was supposed to have invented a peculiar
+kind of metre. The ancients were undecided whether to class him among
+the writers of the New or Middle comedy. In his fondness for
+mythological subjects (_Hercules_, _Theseus_) and his introduction on
+the stage (by a bold anachronism) of the poets Archilochus and Hipponax
+as rivals of Sappho, he approximates to the spirit of the latter.
+
+  Fragments in H. Koch, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, ii.; see J.
+  Denis, _La Comedie grecque_ (1886), ii. p. 414; R. W. Bond in
+  _Classical Review_ (Feb. 1910, with trans. of _Emporos_ fragm.).
+
+
+
+
+DIPHTHERIA (from [Greek: diphthera], a skin or membrane), the term
+applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by a
+membranous exudation on a mucous surface, generally on the tonsils and
+back of the throat or pharynx.
+
+In general the symptoms at the commencement of an attack of diphtheria
+are comparatively slight, being those commonly accompanying a cold, viz.
+chilliness and depression. Sometimes more severe phenomena usher in the
+attack, such as vomiting and diarrhoea. A slight feeling of uneasiness
+in the throat is experienced along with some stiffness of the back of
+the neck. When looked at the throat appears reddened and somewhat
+swollen, particularly in the neighbourhood of the tonsils, the soft
+palate and upper part of pharynx, while along with this there is
+tenderness and swelling of the glands at the angles of the jaws. The
+affection of the throat spreads rapidly, and soon the characteristic
+exudation appears on the inflamed surface in the form of greyish-white
+specks or patches, increasing in extent and thickness until a
+yellowish-looking false membrane is formed. This deposit is firmly
+adherent to the mucous membrane beneath or incorporated with it, and if
+removed leaves a raw, bleeding, ulcerated surface, upon which it is
+reproduced in a short period. The appearance of the exudation has been
+compared to wet parchment or washed leather, and it is more or less
+dense in texture. It may cover the whole of the back of the throat, the
+cavity of the mouth, and the posterior nares, and spread downwards into
+the air-passages on the one hand and into the alimentary canal on the
+other, while any wound on the surface of the body is liable to become
+covered with it. This membrane is apt to be detached spontaneously, and
+as it loosens it becomes decomposed, giving a most offensive and
+characteristic odour to the breath. There is pain and difficulty in
+swallowing, but unless the disease has affected the larynx no affection
+of the breathing. The voice acquires a snuffling character. When the
+disease invades the posterior nares an acrid, fetid discharge, and
+sometimes also copious bleeding, takes place from the nostrils. Along
+with these local phenomena there is evidence of constitutional
+disturbance of the most severe character. There may be no great amount
+of fever, but there is marked depression and loss of strength. The pulse
+becomes small and frequent, the countenance pale, the swelling of the
+glands of the neck increases, which, along with the presence of albumen
+in the urine, testifies to a condition of blood poisoning. Unless
+favourable symptoms emerge death takes place within three or four days
+or sooner, either from the rapid extension of the false membrane into
+the air-passage, giving rise to asphyxia, or from a condition of general
+collapse, which is sometimes remarkably sudden. In cases of recovery the
+change for the better is marked by an arrest in the extension of the
+false membrane, the detachment and expectoration of that already formed,
+and the healing of the ulcerated mucous membrane beneath. Along with
+this there is a general improvement in the symptoms, the power of
+swallowing returns, and the strength gradually increases, while the
+glandular enlargement of the neck diminishes, and the albumen disappears
+from the urine. Recovery, however, is generally slow, and it is many
+weeks before full convalescence is established. Even, however, where
+diphtheria ends thus favourably, the peculiar sequelae already mentioned
+are apt to follow, generally within a period of two or three weeks after
+all the local evidence of the disease has disappeared. These secondary
+affections may occur after mild as well as after severe attacks, and
+they are principally in the form of paralysis affecting the soft palate
+and pharynx, causing difficulty in swallowing with regurgitation of food
+through the nose, and giving a peculiar nasal character to the voice.
+There are, however, other forms of paralysis occurring after diphtheria,
+especially that affecting the muscles of the eye, which produces a loss
+of the power of accommodation and consequent impairment of vision. There
+may be, besides, paralysis of both legs, and occasionally also of one
+side of the body (hemiplegia). These symptoms, however, after continuing
+for a variable length of time, almost always ultimately disappear.
+
+Under the name of the _Malum Egyptiacum_, Aretaeus in the 2nd century
+gives a minute description of a disease which in all its essential
+characteristics corresponds to diphtheria. In the 16th, 17th and 18th
+centuries epidemics of diphtheria appear to have frequently prevailed
+in many parts of Europe, particularly in Holland, Spain, Italy, France,
+as well as in England, and were described by physicians belonging to
+those countries under various titles; but it is probable that other
+diseases of a similar nature were included in their descriptions, and no
+accurate account of this affection had been published till M. Bretonneau
+of Tours in 1821 laid his celebrated treatise on the subject before the
+French Academy of Medicine. By him the term _La Diphtherite_ was first
+given to the disease.
+
+Great attention has been paid to diphtheria in recent years, with some
+striking results. Its cause and nature have been definitely ascertained,
+the conditions which influence its prevalence have been elucidated, and
+a specific "cure" has been found. In the last respect it occupies a
+unique position at the present time. In the case of several other
+zymotic diseases much has been done by way of prevention, little or
+nothing for treatment; in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed,
+but treatment has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin,
+which constitutes the most important contribution to practical medicine
+as yet made by bacteriology.
+
+
+  Causation.
+
+The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified by
+Klebs and Loffler in 1883 (see PARASITIC DISEASES). It has been shown by
+experiment that the symptoms of diphtheria, including the after-effects,
+are produced by a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which lodge in
+the air-passages and multiply in a susceptible subject. The natural
+history of the organism outside the body is not well understood, but
+there is some reason to believe that it lives in a dormant condition in
+suitable soils. Recent research does not favour the theory that it is
+derived from defective drains or "sewer gas," but these things, like
+damp and want of sunlight, probably promote its spread, by lowering the
+health of persons exposed to them, and particularly by causing an
+unhealthy condition of the throat, rendering it susceptible to the
+contagion. Defective drainage, or want of drainage, may also act, by
+polluting the ground, and so providing a favourable soil for the germ,
+though it is to be noted that "the steady increase in the diphtheria
+mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improvement in
+regard of such sanitary circumstances as water supply, sewerage, and
+drainage" (Thorne Thorne). Cats and cows are susceptible to the
+diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys and other birds have been
+known to suffer from a disease like diphtheria, but other domestic
+animals appear to be more or less resistant or immune. In human beings
+the mere presence of the germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there
+must also be susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists.
+Individuals exhibit all degrees of resistance up to complete immunity.
+Children are far more susceptible than adults, but even children may
+have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without showing any
+symptoms of illness. Altogether there are many obscure points about this
+micro-organism, which is apt to assume a puzzling variety of forms.
+Nevertheless its identification has greatly facilitated the diagnosis of
+the disease, which was previously a very difficult matter, often
+determined in an arbitrary fashion on no particular principles.
+
+Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore throat in
+which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found, the illness is
+regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms are quite
+unmistakable. One result of this is a large transference of registered
+mortality from other throat affections, and particularly from croup, to
+diphtheria. Croup, which never had a well-defined application, and is
+not recognized by the College of Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria,
+appears to be dying out from the medical vocabulary in Great Britain. In
+France the distinction has never been recognized.
+
+
+  Prevalence.
+
+Diphtheria is endemic in all European and American countries, and is
+apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly. It is far more
+prevalent on the continent than in England, and still more so in the
+United States and Canada. The following table, compiled from figures
+collected by Dr Newsholme, shows how London compares with some foreign
+cities. The figures give the mean death-rate from diphtheria and croup
+for the term of years during which records have been kept. The period
+varies in different cases, and therefore the comparison is only a rough
+one.
+
+  _Mean Death-Rates from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living._
+
+    New York           1610   |   Munich               990
+    Chicago            1400   |   Milan                990
+    Buenos Aires       1360   |   Florence             830
+    Trieste            1300   |   Vienna               770
+    Dresden            1290   |   Stockholm            720
+    Berlin             1190   |   St Petersburg        650
+    Boston             1160   |   Moscow               640
+    Marseilles         1130   |   Paris                630
+    Christiania        1090   |   Hamburg              490
+    Budapest           1880   |   London               386
+
+There is comparatively little diphtheria in India and Japan, but in
+Egypt, the Cape and Australasia it prevails very extensively among the
+urban populations. The mortality varies greatly from year to year in all
+countries and cities. In Berlin, for instance, it has oscillated between
+a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum of 340 in 1896; in New York
+between 2760 in 1877 and 680 in 1868; in Christiania between 3290 in
+1887 and 170 in 1871. In some American cities still higher maxima have
+been recorded. In other words, diphtheria, though always endemic,
+exhibits at times a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or
+even pandemic. The following table for 1859-99 shows fairly well the
+periodical rise and fall in England and Wales. Diphtheria and croup are
+given both separately and together, showing the increasing transference
+from one to the other of late years. Diphtheria was first entered
+separately in the year 1859.
+
+  _Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in
+  England and Wales._
+
+    +---------------+-------------+----------+-------------+
+    | Years.        | Diphtheria. |  Croup.  | Diphtheria  |
+    |               |             |          | and Croup.  |
+    +---------------+-------------+----------+-------------+
+    | 1859          |     517     |   286    |     803     |
+    | 1860          |     261     |   220    |     481     |
+    | 1861-70       |     185     |   246    |     431     |
+    | 1871-80       |     121     |   168    |     289     |
+    | 1881-90       |     163     |   144    |     307     |
+    | 1891-95       |     254     |    70    |     324     |
+    | 1896-97       |     269     |    43    |     312     |
+    | 1898          |     244     |    27    |     271     |
+    | 1899          |     293     |    32    |     325     |
+    +---------------+-------------+----------+-------------+
+
+  The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years
+  are:--(1900) 316; (1901) 296; (1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184;
+  (1905) 174; (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166.
+
+Several facts are roughly indicated by the table. It begins with an
+extremely severe epidemic, which has not been approached since. Then
+follows a fall extending over twenty years. On the whole this diminution
+was progressive, though not in reality so steady as the decennial
+grouping makes it appear, being interrupted by smaller oscillations in
+single years and groups of years. Still the main fact holds good. After
+1880 an opposite movement began, likewise interrupted by minor
+oscillations, but on the whole progressive, and culminating in the year
+1893 with a death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865. After
+1896 a marked fall again took place. This is partly accounted for by the
+use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable scale in 1895, and
+did not become general until a year or two later at least. Its effects
+were only then fully felt. The registrar-general's returns record
+mortality, not prevalence--that is to say, the number of deaths, not of
+cases.
+
+On the whole, we get clear evidence of an epidemic rise and fall, which
+may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions. The belief, held
+until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in Great Britain
+was obviously premature; it did rise over a series of years, but has now
+ebbed again. Moreover, the general prevalence during the last thirty
+years has been notably less than in the previous twelve years. Yet it is
+during years since 1870 that compulsory education has been in existence
+and main drainage chiefly carried out. It follows that neither school
+attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence over the
+epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions. What are those
+conditions? Dr Newsholme has advanced the theory, based on an elaborate
+examination of statistics in various countries, that the activity of
+diphtheria is connected with the rainfall, and he lays down the
+following general induction from the facts: "Diphtheria only becomes
+epidemic in years in which the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics
+are on the largest scale when three or more years of deficient rainfall
+follow each other." He points out that the comparative rarity of
+diphtheria in tropical climates, which are characterized by excessive
+rainfall, and its greater prevalence in continental than in insular
+countries, confirm his theory. His observations seem quite contrary to
+the view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted, that
+wet weather favours diphtheria. The two, however, are not
+irreconcilable. The key to the problem--and possibly to many other
+epidemiological problems--may perhaps be found in the movements of the
+subsoil water. It has been suggested by different observers, and
+particularly by Mr M. A. Adams, who has for some years made a study of
+the subsoil water at Maidstone, that there is a definite connexion
+between it and diphtheria. In England the underground water normally
+reaches its lowest level at the end of the summer; then it gradually
+rises, fed by percolation from the winter rains, reaching a maximum
+level about the end of March, after which it gradually sinks. This
+maximum level Mr Adams calls the annual spring cleaning of the soil, and
+his observations go to show that when the normal movement is arrested or
+disturbed, diphtheria becomes active. Now that is what happens in
+periods of drought. The underground water does not rise to its usual
+level, and there is no spring cleaning. The hypothesis, then, is this:
+The diphtheria bacillus lives in the soil, but is "drowned out" in wet
+periods by the subsoil water. In droughty ones it lives and flourishes
+in the warm, dry soil; then when rain comes, it is driven out with the
+ground air into the houses. This process will continue for some time, so
+that epidemic outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet. But
+they begin in drought, and are stopped by long-continued periods of
+copious rainfall. This is quite in keeping with the observed fact that
+diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the last
+quarter of the year. The summer develops the poison in the soil, the
+autumnal rains bring it out. The fact that the same cause does not
+produce the same effect in tropical countries may perhaps be explained
+by the extreme violence of the alternations, which are too great to suit
+this particular micro-organism, or possibly the regularity of the
+rainfall prevents its development.
+
+The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good deal of evidence, and
+notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic or pandemic prevalence
+in Great Britain, culminating in 1859, with a prolonged period of
+exceptionally deficient rainfall. Again, the highest death-rate
+registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year of similarly exceptional
+drought. But it is no more than an hypothesis, and the fate of former
+theories is a warning against drawing conclusions from statistics and
+records extending over too short a period of time. The warning is
+particularly necessary in connexion with meteorological conditions,
+which are apt to upset all calculations. As it happens, a period of
+deficient rainfall even greater than that of 1854-1858 has recently been
+experienced. It began in 1893 and culminated in the extraordinary season
+of 1899. The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896, 1898 and 1899, and the
+deficiency of rainfall was not made good by any considerable excess in
+1894 and 1897. It surpassed all records at Greenwich; streams and wells
+ran dry all over the country, and the flow of the Thames and Lea was
+reduced to the lowest point ever recorded. There should be, according to
+the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of
+diphtheria. To a certain extent it has held good. There was a marked
+rise in 1893-1896 over the preceding period, though not so large as
+might have been expected, but it was followed by a decided fall in
+1897-1898. The experience of 1898 contradicts, that of 1899 supports,
+the theory. Further light is therefore required; but perhaps the failure
+of the recent drought to produce results at all comparable with the
+epidemic of the 'fifties may be due to variations in the resistance of
+the disease, which differs widely in different years. It may also be due
+in part to improved sanitation, to the notification of infectious
+diseases, the use of isolation hospitals, which have greatly developed
+in quite recent years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of
+antitoxin. If these be the real explanations, then scientific and
+administrative work has not been thrown away after all in combating this
+very painful and fatal enemy of the young.
+
+
+  Dissemination.
+
+The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria, and its
+epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do not touch the
+question of actual dissemination. The contagion is spread by means which
+are in constant operation, whether the general amount of disease is
+great or small. Water, so important in some epidemic diseases, is
+believed not to be one of them, though a negative proof based on absence
+of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. On the other hand, milk is
+undoubtedly a means of dissemination. Several outbreaks of an almost
+explosive character, besides minor extensions of disease from one place
+to another, have been traced to this cause. Milk may be contaminated in
+various ways--at the dairy, for instance, or on the way to
+customers,--but several cases, investigated by the officers of the Local
+Government Board and others, have been thought to point to infection
+from cows suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder. The part
+played by aerial convection is undetermined, but there is no reason to
+suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any distance by wind or
+air currents. Instances which seem to point to the contrary may be
+explained in other ways, and particularly by the fact, now fully
+demonstrated, that persons suffering from minor sore throats, not
+recognized as diphtheria, may carry the disease about and introduce it
+into other localities. Human intercourse is the most important means of
+dissemination, the contagion passing from person to person either by
+actual contact, as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and
+articles, or by mere proximity. In the last case the germs must be
+supposed to be air-borne for short distances, and to enter with the
+breath. Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of
+diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons using
+them. At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth Asylum in 1898 the
+infection clung obstinately to a particular ward, in spite of the prompt
+removal of all cases, and fresh ones continued to occur until it had
+been thoroughly disinfected, after which there were no more. The part
+played by human intercourse in fostering the spread of the disease
+suggests that it would naturally be more prevalent in urban communities,
+where people congregate together more, than in rural ones. This is at
+variance with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this
+country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated
+districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still rather a
+rural disease. That view is based upon an analysis of the distribution
+by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 1880, and it has been
+generally accepted and repeated until it has become a sort of axiom. Of
+course the facts of distribution are facts, but the general inference
+drawn from them, that diphtheria peculiarly affects the country and is
+changing its _habitat_, may be erroneous. Dr Newsholme, by taking a
+wider basis of experience, has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and
+finds that diphtheria does not, in fact, flourish more in
+sparsely-peopled districts. "When a sufficiently long series of years is
+taken," he says, "it appears clear that there is more diphtheria in
+urban than in rural communities." The rate for London has always been in
+excess of that for the whole of England and Wales. Its distribution at
+any given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by their
+incidental co-operation, not by any property or predilection for town or
+country inherent in the disease. There are the epidemic conditions of
+soil and rainfall, previously discussed, which vary widely in different
+localities at different times; there is the steady influence of regular
+intercourse, and the accidental element of special distribution by
+various means. These things may combine to alter the incidence. In
+short, accident plays too great a part to permit any general conclusion
+to be drawn from distribution, except from a very wide basis of
+experience. The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden. For
+instance, the county of London for some years headed the list, having a
+far higher death-rate than any other. In 1898 it dropped to the fifth
+place, and was surpassed by Rutland, a purely rural county, which had
+the lowest mortality of all in the previous year and very nearly the
+lowest for the previous ten years. Again, South Wales, which had had a
+low mortality for some years, suddenly came into prominence as a
+diphtheria district, and in 1898 had the highest death-rate in the
+country. Staffordshire and Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an
+urban, the other a rural, county. All the northern counties, both rural
+and urban,--namely, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland,
+Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lincolnshire,--had a very high rate
+in 1861-1870, and a low one in 1896-1898. It is obviously unsafe to draw
+general conclusions from distribution data on a small scale. Diphtheria
+appears to creep about very slowly, as a rule, from place to place, and
+from one part of a large town to another; it forsakes one district and
+appears in another; occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great
+energy, presumably because the local conditions are exceptionally
+favourable, which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the
+susceptibility of the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground.
+But through it all personal infection is the chief means of spread.
+
+The acceptance of this doctrine has directed great attention to the
+practical question of school influence. There is no doubt whatever that
+it plays a very considerable part in spreading diphtheria. The incidence
+of the disease is chiefly on children, and nothing so often and
+regularly brings large numbers together in close contact under the same
+roof as school attendance. Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and
+extensive opportunities for personal infection. Many outbreaks have
+definitely been traced to schools. In London the subject has been very
+fully investigated by Sir Shirley Murphy, the medical officer of health
+to the London County Council, and by Dr W. R. Smith, formerly medical
+officer of health to the London School Board. Sir Shirley Murphy has
+shown that a special incidence on children of school age began to
+manifest itself after the adoption of compulsory education, and that the
+summer holidays are marked by a distinct diminution of cases, which is
+succeeded by an increase on the return to school. Dr W. R. Smith's
+observations are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school
+influence, and to showing that it is less important than other factors;
+which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked. It appears that
+the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school age, and that
+liability diminishes progressively after school age is reached. But this
+by no means disposes of the importance of school influence, as the
+younger children at home may be infected by older ones, who have picked
+up the contagion at school, but, being less susceptible, are less
+severely affected and exhibit no worse symptoms than a sore throat. From
+a practical point of view the problem is a difficult one to deal with,
+as it is virtually impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection,
+on account of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering
+how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of
+schools, it would probably be to the advantage of the authorities to
+discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children with sore
+throats. A fact of some interest revealed by statistics is that in the
+earliest years of life the incidence of diphtheria is greater upon male
+than upon female children, but from three years onwards the position is
+reversed, and with every succeeding year the relative female liability
+becomes greater. This is probably due to the habit of kissing maintained
+among females, but more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood
+onwards.
+
+All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating the sick
+in isolation hospitals. Of late years this preventive measure has been
+carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to the better provision of
+such hospitals and the greater willingness of the public to make use of
+them; and probably the improvement so effected has had some share in
+keeping down the prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate
+proportions. Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons
+is hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence of
+symptoms, exhibited by some individuals. A further difficulty arises
+with reference to the discharge of patients. It has been proved that
+the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the air-passages in
+certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it does persist for
+several weeks after convalescence. On returning home such cases may, and
+often do, infect others.
+
+
+  Treatment.
+
+Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has overshadowed
+all other methods. We owe this drug originally to the Berlin school of
+bacteriologists, and particularly to Dr Behring. The idea of making use
+of serum arose about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with
+Mechnikov's theory of phagocytosis, by which is meant the action of the
+phagocytes or white corpuscles of the blood in destroying the bacteria
+of disease. It was shown by the German bacteriologists that the serum or
+liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more important part in
+resisting disease, and the idea of combating the toxins produced by
+pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum injected into the blood
+presented itself to several workers. The idea was followed up and worked
+out independently in France and Germany, so successfully that by the
+year 1894 the serum treatment had been tried on a considerable scale
+with most encouraging results. Some of these were published in Germany
+in the earlier part of that year, and at the International Hygienic
+Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut
+Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than that of his
+German colleagues, read a paper giving the result of several hundred
+cases treated in Paris. When all allowance for errors had been made,
+they showed a remarkable and even astonishing reduction of mortality,
+fully confirming the conclusions drawn from the German experiments. This
+consensus of independent opinion proved a great stimulus to further
+trial, and before long one _clinique_ after another told the same tale.
+The evidence was so favourable that Professor Virchow--the last man to
+be carried away by a novelty--declared it "the imperative duty of
+medical men to use the new remedy" (_The Times_, 19th October 1894).
+Since then an enormous mass of facts has accumulated from all quarters
+of the globe, all testifying to the value of antitoxin in the treatment
+of diphtheria. The experience of the hospitals of the London
+Metropolitan Asylums Board for five years before and after antitoxin may
+be given as a particularly instructive illustration; but the subsequent
+reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11.3 in 1901, 10.8 in
+1902, 9.3 in 1903, and an average of 9 in 1904-1908) added further
+confirmation.
+
+  _Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board's
+  Hospitals._
+
+      Before Antitoxin.      |       After Antitoxin.
+                  Mortality  |                  Mortality
+    Year.         per cent.  |    Year.          per cent.
+                             |
+    1890            33.55    |    1895            22.85
+    1891            30.61    |    1896            21.20
+    1892            29.51    |    1897            17.79
+    1893            30.42    |    1898            15.37
+    1894            29.29    |    1899            13.95
+
+The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years was 32,835,
+or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result is a reduction of
+mortality by more than one-half. It is a fair inference that the
+treatment saves the lives of about 1000 children every year in London
+alone. This refers to all cases. Those which occur in the hospitals as a
+sequel to scarlet fever, and consequently come under treatment from the
+commencement, show very much more striking results. The case mortality,
+which was 46.8% in 1892 and 58.8% in 1893, has been reduced to 3.6%
+since the introduction of antitoxin. But the evidence is not from
+statistics alone. The beneficial effect of the treatment is equally
+attested by clinical observation. Dr Roux's original account has been
+confirmed by a cloud of witnesses year after year. "One may say," he
+wrote, "that the appearance of most of the patients is totally different
+from what it used to be. The pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in
+the wards; the expression of the children is brighter and more lively."
+Adult patients have described the relief afforded by inoculation; it
+acts like a charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like a
+cloud in the course of a few hours. Finally, the counteracting effect of
+antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the diphtheritic
+toxin on the nervous tissues has been demonstrated pathologically. There
+are some who still affect scepticism as to the value of this drug. They
+cannot be acquainted with the evidence, for if the efficacy of antitoxin
+in the treatment of diphtheria has not been proved, then neither can the
+efficacy of any treatment for anything be said to be proved.
+Prophylactic properties are also claimed for the serum; but protection
+is necessarily more difficult to demonstrate than cure, and though there
+is some evidence to support the claim, it has not been fully made out.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Adams, _Public Health_, vol. vii.; Thorne Thorne,
+  _Milroy Lectures_ (1891); Newsholme, _Epidemic Diphtheria_; W. R.
+  Smith, _Harben Lectures_ (1899); Murphy, _Report to London County
+  Council_ (1894); Sims Woodhead, _Report to Metropolitan Asylums Board_
+  (1901).
+
+
+
+
+DIPLODOCUS, a gigantic extinct land reptile discovered in rocks of Upper
+Jurassic age in western North America, the best-known example of a
+Sauropodous Dinosaur. The first scattered remains of a skeleton were
+found in 1877 by Prof. S.W. Williston near Canon City, Colorado; and the
+tail and hind-limb of this specimen were described in the following year
+by Prof. O.C. Marsh. He noticed that in the part of the tail which
+dragged on the ground, each chevron bone below the vertebral column
+consisted of a pair of bars; and as so peculiar an arrangement for the
+protection of the artery and vein beneath the tail had not previously
+been observed in any animal, he proposed the name _Diplodocus_ ("double
+beam" or "double bar") for the new reptile, adding the specific name
+_longus_ in allusion to the elongated shape of the tail vertebrae. In
+1884 Prof. Marsh described the head, vertebrae and pelvis of the same
+skeleton, which is now in the National Museum, Washington. In 1897 the
+next important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments,
+apparently of _Diplodocus longus_, was obtained by the American Museum
+of Natural History, New York, from Como Bluffs, Wyoming. In 1899-1900
+large parts of two skeletons of another species, in a remarkable state
+of preservation, were disinterred by Messrs J. L. Wortman, O. A.
+Peterson and J. B. Hatcher in Sheep Creek, Albany county, Wyo., and
+these are now exhibited with minor discoveries in the Carnegie Museum,
+Pittsburg. There are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the
+University of Wyoming. In 1901 Mr J. B. Hatcher studied the new species
+at Pittsburg, named it _Diplodocus carnegii_, and published the first
+restored sketch of a complete skeleton. Shortly afterwards plaster casts
+of the finest specimens were prepared under the direction of Mr J. B.
+Hatcher and Dr W. J. Holland, and these were skilfully combined to form
+the cast of a completely reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to
+the British Museum by Andrew Carnegie in 1905. This reconstruction is
+based primarily on a well-preserved chain of vertebrae, extending from
+the second cervical to the twelfth caudal, associated with the ribs,
+pelvis and several limb-bones. The tail is completed from two other
+specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals 13 to 36 and 37 to 73
+respectively in apparently unbroken series. Prof. Marsh's specimen in
+Washington supplied the greater part of the skull; and the fore-foot is
+copied from a specimen in New York.
+
+[Illustration: Reconstructed Skeleton of _Diplodocus carnegii_, Hatcher,
+about one-hundredth natural size. A and B, Caudal Vertebrae Nos. 36 and
+70 of the same are about one-quarter natural size.]
+
+The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of _Diplodocus carnegii_ measures
+84 ft. in length and 12 ft. 9 in. in maximum height at the hind-limbs.
+It displays the elongated neck and tail and the relatively small head so
+characteristic of the Sauropodous Dinosaurs. The skull is inclined to
+the axis of the neck, denoting a browsing animal; while the feeble blunt
+teeth and flat expanded snout suggest feeding among succulent
+water-weeds. The large narial opening at the highest point of the head
+probably indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have been
+a soft valve to close the nostrils when under water. The diminutive
+brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a walnut, is noteworthy.
+There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in the neck, 11 in the back, 5 in
+the sacrum and 73 in the tail. The presacral vertebrae are of remarkably
+light construction, the plates and struts of bone being arranged to give
+the greatest strength with the least weight. The end of the tail is a
+flexible lash, which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail
+of some existing lizards. The feet, notwithstanding the weight they had
+to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a crocodile, with claws
+only on the three inner toes. There is no external armour.
+
+  See O. C. Marsh, _Amer. Journ. Sci._ ser. 3, vol. xvi. (1878), p. 414,
+  pl. viii., and loc. cit. vol. xxvii. (1884), p. 161, pls. iii., iv.;
+  H. F. Osborn, Mem. _Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vol. i. pt. v. (1899); J.
+  B. Hatcher, _Mem. Carnegie Mus._ vol. i. No. 1 (1901), and vol. ii.
+  No. 1 (1903); W. J. Holland, _Mem. Carnegie Mus._ vol. ii. No. 6
+  (1906).     (A. S. Wo.)
+
+
+
+
+DIPLOMACY (Fr. _diplomatie_), the art of conducting international
+negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, has the same
+derivation as Diplomatic (q.v.), and, according to the _New English
+Dictionary_, was first used in England so late as 1796 by Burke. Yet
+there is no other word in the English language that could supply its
+exact sense. The need for such a term was indeed not felt; for what we
+know as diplomacy was long regarded, partly as falling under the _Jus
+gentium_ or international law, partly as a kind of activity morally
+somewhat suspect and incapable of being brought under any system.
+Moreover, though in a certain sense it is as old as history, diplomacy
+as a uniform system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed
+by a diplomatic hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of
+quite modern growth even in Europe. It was finally established only at
+the congresses of Vienna (1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), while its
+effective extension to the great monarchies of the East, beyond the
+bounds of European civilization, was comparatively an affair of
+yesterday. So late as 1876 it was possible for the writer on this
+subject in the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ to say that
+"it would be an historical absurdity to suppose diplomatic relations
+connecting together China, Burma and Japan, as they connect the great
+European powers."
+
+_Principles._--Though diplomacy has been usually treated under the head
+of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant with the facts
+to place international law under diplomacy. The principles and rules
+governing the intercourse of states, defined by a long succession of
+international lawyers, have no sanction save the consensus of the
+powers, established and maintained by diplomacy (see BALANCE OF POWER);
+in so far as they have become, by international agreement, more than
+mere pious opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for
+mutual convenience, which it is the function of diplomacy to safeguard
+or to use for its own ends. In any case they by no means cover the whole
+field of diplomatic activity; and, were they swept away, the art of
+diplomacy, developed through long ages of experience, would survive.
+
+This experience may perhaps be called the science, as distinct from the
+art, of diplomacy. It covers not only the province of international law,
+but the vast field of recorded experience which we know as history, of
+which indeed international law is but a part; for, as Bielfeld in his
+_Institutions politiques_ (La Haye, 1760, t. I. ch. ii. S 13) points
+out, "public law is founded on facts. To know it we must know history,
+which is the soul of this science as of politics in general." The broad
+outlook on human affairs implied in "historical sense" is more necessary
+to the diplomatist under modern conditions than in the 18th century,
+when international policy was still wholly under the control of princes
+and their immediate advisers. Diplomacy was then a game of wits played
+in a narrow circle. Its objects too were narrower; for states were
+practically regarded as the property of their sovereigns, which it was
+the main function of their "agents" to enlarge or to protect, while
+scarcely less important than the preservation or rearrangement of
+territorial boundaries was that of precedence and etiquette generally,
+over which an incredible amount of time was wasted. The _haute
+diplomatie_ thus resolved itself into a process of exalted haggling,
+conducted with an utter disregard of the ordinary standards of morality,
+but with the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever more
+and more elaborate rules. Much of the outcome of these dead debates has
+become stereotyped in the conventions of the diplomatic service; but the
+character of diplomacy itself has undergone a great change. This change
+is threefold: firstly, as the result of the greater sense of the
+community of interests among nations, which was one of the outcomes of
+the French Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of democracy, with
+its expression in parliamentary assemblies and in the press; thirdly,
+through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic agent, due to
+modern means of communication.
+
+The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of Count Kaunitz
+of the 17th of July 1791, in which, in face of the Revolution, he
+impressed upon the powers the duty of making common cause for the
+purpose of preserving "public peace, the tranquillity of states, the
+inviolability of possessions, and the faith of treaties." The duty of
+watching over the common interests of Europe, or of the world, was thus
+for the first time officially recognized as a function of diplomacy,
+since common action could only be taken as the result of diplomatic
+negotiations. It would be easy to exaggerate the effective results of
+this idea, even when it had crystallized in the Grand Alliance of 1814
+and been proclaimed to the world in the Holy Alliance of the 26th of
+September 1815 and the declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle. The cynical
+picture given by La Bruyere of the diplomatist of the 18th century still
+remained largely true: "His talk is only of peace, of alliances, of the
+public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality he is
+thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his master or of
+his republic."[1] The proceedings of the congress of Vienna proved how
+little the common good weighed unless reinforced by particular
+interests; but the conception of "Europe" as a political entity none the
+less survived. The congresses, notably the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(q.v.) in 1818, were in a certain sense European parliaments, and their
+ostensible object was the furtherance of common interests. Had the
+imperial dreamer Alexander I. of Russia had his way, they would have
+been permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance,
+and would have included, not the great powers only, but representatives
+of every state (see ALEXANDER I. and EUROPE: _History_). Whatever the
+effective value of that "Concert of Europe" which was the outcome of the
+period of the congresses, it certainly produced a great effect on the
+spirit and the practice of diplomacy. In the congresses and conferences
+diplomacy assumes international functions both legislative and
+administrative. The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own
+government, but to "Europe." Thus Castlereagh was accused of
+subordinating the interests of Great Britain to those of Europe; and the
+same charge was brought, perhaps with greater justice, against
+Metternich in respect of Austria. Canning's principle of "Every nation
+for itself and God for us all!" prevailed, it is true, over that of
+Alexander's "Confederation of Europe"; yet, as one outcome of the
+congresses, every diplomatic agent, though he represents the interests
+of his own state, has behind him the whole body of the treaties which
+constitute the public law of the world, of which he is in some sort the
+interpreter and the guardian.
+
+Parallel with this development runs the second process making for
+change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public opinion. To
+discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is impossible; but the
+subject is too important to be altogether passed over, since it is one
+of the main problems of modern international intercourse, and concerns
+every one who by his vote may influence the policy of the state to which
+he belongs. The question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public
+discussion of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of
+diplomacy for better or for worse? To the diplomatist of the old school
+the answer seems clear. For him diplomacy was too delicate and too
+personal an art to survive the glare and confusion of publicity.
+Metternich, the last representative of the old _haute diplomatie_, lived
+to moralize over the ruin caused by the first manifestations of the "new
+diplomacy," the outcome of the rise of the power of public opinion. He
+had early, from his own point of view, unfavourably contrasted the
+"limited" constitutional monarchies of the west with the "free"
+autocracies of the east of Europe, free because they were under no
+obligation to give a public account of their actions. He himself was a
+master of the old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose
+under a cloud of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal
+fascination. But public opinion was for him only a dangerous force to be
+kept under control; and, even had he realized the necessity for
+appealing to it, he had none of the qualities that would have made the
+appeal successful. In direct antagonism to him was George Canning, who
+may be called the great prototype of the "new diplomacy," and to
+Metternich was a "malevolent meteor hurled by divine providence upon
+Europe." Canning saw clearly the immense force that would be added to
+his diplomatic action if he had behind him the force of public opinion.
+In answer to Metternich's complaint of the tone of speeches in
+parliament and of the popular support given in England to revolutionary
+movements, he wrote, "Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad,
+must be secure in its sources of strength at home: and the sources of
+that strength are in the sympathy between the people and the government;
+in the union of the public sentiment with the public counsels; in the
+reciprocal confidence of the House of Commons and the crown."[2]
+
+It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning was wholly
+right and Metternich wholly wrong. The conditions of the Habsburg
+monarchy were not those of Great Britain,[3] and even if it had been
+possible to speak of a public opinion in the Austrian empire at all, it
+certainly possessed no such organ as the British parliament. But the
+argument may be carried yet further. In the abstract the success of the
+policy of a minister in a democratic state must ultimately rest upon the
+support of public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the
+conduct of foreign affairs its peculiar dangers. In the difficult game
+of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary. Secret sources of
+information would be dried up were they to be lightly revealed; a plain
+exposition of policy would often give an undue advantage to the other
+party to a negotiation. Thus, even in Great Britain, the diplomatic
+correspondence laid before parliament is carefully edited, and all
+governments are jealous of granting access to their modern archives. Yet
+a representative assembly is apt to be resentful of such reservations.
+Its members know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign
+affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated by
+explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness. Canning himself
+had experience of this in the affair of the capture of the Danish fleet
+at Copenhagen; and Castlereagh's diplomacy was hampered by the bitter
+attacks of an opposition which accused him, with little justice, of
+pursuing a policy which he dared not reveal in its full scope to
+parliament. Moreover, the appeal to public opinion may be used as a
+diplomatic weapon for ends no less "selfish" than any aimed at by the
+old diplomacy. Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as
+that of Metternich, was a master of the art of taking the world into his
+confidence--when it suited him to do so; and the "reptile press," hired
+to give a seemingly independent support to his policy, was one of his
+most potent weapons. So far the only necessary consequence of the growth
+of the power of public opinion on the art of diplomacy has been to
+extend the sphere of its application; it is but one more factor to be
+dealt with; and experience has proved that it is subject to the wiles of
+a skilful diplomatist no less than were the princes and statesmen with
+whom the old diplomacy was solely concerned.
+
+The third factor making for change--the revolution in the means of
+communication which has brought all the world into closer touch--remains
+to be discussed. It is obvious that before the invention of the
+telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far more responsible position
+than he is now, when he can, in most cases, receive immediate
+instructions from his government on difficult questions as they arise.
+When communication was still slow there was often no time to await
+instructions, or the instructions when they arrived were not seldom
+already out of date and had to be set aside on the minister's own
+responsibility. It would, however, be easy to exaggerate the importance
+of this change as affecting the character and status of diplomatic
+agents. It is true that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign
+affairs to hold the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far
+greater extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend
+for information and advice on the "man on the spot," and the success of
+their policy largely depends upon his qualities of discretion and
+judgment. The growth of democracy, moreover, has given to the ambassador
+a new and peculiar importance; for he represents not only the sovereign
+to the sovereign, but the nation to the nation; and, as a succession of
+notable American ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his
+personal qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and
+ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations. It marks an
+immense advance in the comity of international intercourse when the
+representatives of friendly powers are no longer regarded as "spies
+rather than ambassadors," to be "quickly heard and dismissed," as
+Philippe de Commines would have them, but as agreeable guests to be
+parted from with regret.
+
+As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly impossible to
+lay down a general rule, for the same qualities are obviously not
+required in Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris as in Pekin. Yet the
+effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks largely in the works of the
+earlier theorists, and the demands they make are sufficiently alarming.
+Ottaviano Maggi, himself a diplomatist of the brilliant age of the
+Renaissance, has left us in his _De legato_ (Hanoviae, 1596) his idea of
+what an ambassador should be. He must not only be a good Christian but a
+learned theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotle
+and Plato, and able at a moment's notice to solve in correct dialectical
+form the most abstruse problems; he must be well read in the classics,
+and an expert in mathematics, architecture, music, physics and civil and
+canon law. He must not only know how to write and speak Latin with
+classical refinement, but he must be a master of Greek, Spanish, French,
+German and Turkish. He must have a sound knowledge of history, geography
+and the science of war; but at the same time is not to neglect the
+poets, and never to be without his Homer. Add to this that he must be
+well born, rich and of a handsome presence, and we have a portrait of a
+diplomatist whose original can hardly have existed even in that age of
+brilliant versatility. The Dutchman Frederikus de Marselaer, in his
+[Greek: kerukeion] _sive legationum insigne_ (Antwerp, 1618), is
+scarcely less exacting than the Venetian. His ideal ambassador is a
+nobleman of fine presence and in the prime of life, famous, rich,
+munificent, abstemious, not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no
+flatterer, learned, eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good
+linguist, widely read, prudent and cautious, but brave and--as he adds
+somewhat superfluously--many-sided.
+
+With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the
+qualifications demanded by the exigencies of practical politics may be
+cited by way of illuminating contrast. At the court of the empress
+Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of diplomatic success
+than all the talents and virtues, and the princess of Zerbst (mother of
+the empress Catherine II.) wrote to Frederick of Prussia advising him to
+replace his elderly ambassador by a handsome young man with a good
+complexion; and the essential qualification for an ambassador to
+Switzerland, Germany, Poland, Denmark and Russia used to be that he
+should be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood
+to strong liquors, under the table.
+
+_History._--In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of the
+intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a mere brute
+struggle for the mastery;[4] in a narrower sense, with which the present
+article is alone concerned, it is that of the methods and spirit of
+diplomatic intercourse and of the character and status of diplomatic
+agents. Earlier writers on the office and functions of ambassadors, such
+as Gentilis or Archbishop Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin
+to God himself, who created the angels to be his legates; and they
+fortify their arguments by copious examples drawn from ancient history,
+sacred and profane. But, whatever the influence upon it of earlier
+practice, modern diplomacy really dates from the rise of permanent
+missions, and the consequent development of the diplomatic hierarchy as
+an international institution. Of this the first beginnings are traceable
+to the 15th century and to Italy. There had, of course, during the
+middle ages been embassies and negotiations; but the embassies had been
+no more than temporary missions directed to a particular end and
+conducted by ecclesiastics or nobles of a dignity appropriate to each
+occasion; there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a
+professional diplomatic class. To the evolution of such a class the
+Italy of the Renaissance, the nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave
+the first impetus. This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous
+independent states, between which there existed a lively intercourse and
+a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in miniature the modern states'
+system of Europe. In feudal Europe there had been little room for
+diplomacy; but in northern and central Italy feudalism had never taken
+root, and in the struggles of the peninsula diplomacy had early played a
+part as great as, or greater than, war. Where all were struggling for
+the mastery, the existence of each depended upon alliances and
+counter-alliances, of which the object was the maintenance of the
+balance of power. In this school there was trained a notable succession
+of men of affairs. Thus, in the 13th and 14th centuries Florence counted
+among her envoys Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and later on could boast
+of agents such as Capponi, Vettori, Guicciardini and Machiavelli. Papal
+Rome, too, as was to be expected, had always been a fruitful
+nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some authorities have traced the
+beginnings of modern diplomacy to a conscious imitation of her legatine
+system.[5]
+
+It is, however, in Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy are to
+be sought.[6] So early as the 13th century the republic, with a view to
+safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a series of rules
+for the conduct of its ambassadors. Thus, in 1236, envoys to the court
+of Rome are forbidden to procure a benefice for anyone without leave of
+the doge and little council; in 1268 ambassadors are commanded to
+surrender on their return any gifts they may have received, and by
+another decree they are compelled to take an oath to conduct affairs to
+the honour and advantage of the republic. About the same time it was
+decided that diplomatic agents were to hand in, on their return, a
+written account of their mission; in 1288 this was somewhat expanded by
+a law decreeing that ambassadors were to deposit, within fifteen days of
+their return, a written account of the replies made to them during their
+mission, together with anything they might have seen or heard to the
+honour or in the interests of the republic. These provisions, which were
+several times renewed, notably in 1296, 1425 and 1533, are the origin of
+the famous reports of the Venetian ambassadors to the senate, which are
+at once a monument to the political genius of Venetian statesmen and a
+mine of invaluable historical material.[7]
+
+These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations, many
+others also dating to the 13th century, by which the Venetian government
+sought to systematize its diplomatic service. That permanent diplomatic
+agencies were not established by it earlier than was the case is
+probably due to the distrust of its agents by which most of this
+legislation of the republic is inspired. In the 13th century two or
+three months was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to
+reside at a foreign court; in the 15th century the period of residence
+was extended to two years, and in the 16th century to three. This latter
+rule continued till the end of the republic; the embassy had become
+permanent, but the ambassador was changed every three years.
+
+The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions has been
+the subject of much debate and controversy. The theory that it was due,
+in the first instance, to the evolution of the Venetian consulates
+(_bajulats_) in the Levant into permanent diplomatic posts, and that the
+idea was thence transferred to the West, is disproved by the fact that
+Venice had established other permanent embassies before the baylo (q.v.)
+at Constantinople was transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first
+rank. Nor is the first known instance of the appointment of a permanent
+ambassador Venetian. The earliest record[8] is contained in the
+announcement by Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1455, of his
+intention to maintain a permanent embassy at Genoa[9]; and in 1460 the
+duke of Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, archdeacon of Vercelli, as his
+permanent representative to the Curia.[10] Though, however, the early
+records of such appointments are rare, the practice was probably common
+among the Italian states. Its extension to countries outside Italy was a
+somewhat later development. In 1494 Milan is already represented in
+France by a permanent ambassador. In 1495 Zacharia Contarini, Venetian
+ambassador to the emperor Maximilian, is described by Sanuto (_Diarii_,
+i. 294) as _stato ambasciatore_; and from the time of Charles V.
+onwards the succession of ambassadors of the republic at the imperial
+court is fairly traceable. In 1496 "as the way to the British Isles is
+very long and very dangerous," two merchants resident in London, Pietro
+Contarini and Luca Valaressa, were appointed by the republic
+_subambasciatores_; and in June of the same year Andrea Trevisano
+arrived in London as permanent ambassador at the court of Henry VII.[11]
+Florence, too, from 1498 onwards, was represented at the courts of
+Charles V. and of France by permanent ambassadors.
+
+During the same period the practice had been growing up among the other
+European powers. Spain led the way in 1487 by the appointment of Dr
+Roderigo Gondesalvi de Puebla as ambassador in England. As he was still
+there in 1500, the Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the
+oldest still surviving post of the new permanent diplomacy. Other states
+followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the 16th
+century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm. The
+precarious relations between the European powers during the 16th
+century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of the system. Thus
+it was not till after good relations had been established with France by
+the treaty of London that, in 1519, Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr West were
+sent to Paris as resident English ambassadors, and, after the renewed
+breach between the two countries, no others were appointed till the
+reign of Elizabeth. Nine years before, Sir Robert Wingfield, whose
+simplicity earned him the nickname of "Summer-shall-be-green," had been
+sent as ambassador to the court of Charles V., where he remained from
+1510 to 1517; and in 1520 the mutual appointment of resident ambassadors
+was made a condition of the treaty between Henry VIII. and Charles V. In
+1517 Thomas Spinelly, who had for some years represented England at the
+court of the Netherlands, was appointed "resident ambassador to the
+court of Spain," where he remained till his death on the 22nd of August
+1522. These are the most important early instances of the new system.
+Alone of the great powers, the emperor remained permanently
+unrepresented at foreign courts. In theory this was the result of his
+unique dignity, which made him superior to all other potentates;
+actually it was because, as emperor, he could not speak for the
+practically independent princes nominally his vassals. It served all
+practical purposes if he were represented abroad by his agents as king
+of Spain or archduke of Austria.
+
+All the evidence now available goes to prove that the establishment of
+permanent diplomatic agencies was not an unconscious and accidental
+development of previous conditions, but deliberately adopted as an
+obvious convenience. But, while all the powers were agreed as to the
+convenience of maintaining such agencies abroad, all were equally agreed
+in viewing the representatives accredited to them by foreign states with
+extreme suspicion. This attitude was abundantly justified by the
+peculiar ethics of the new diplomacy. The old "orators" of the
+Summer-shall-be-green type could not long hold their own against the new
+men who had studied in the school of Italian statecraft, for whom the
+end justified the means. Machiavelli had gathered in _The Prince_ and
+_The Discourses on Livy_ the principles which underlay the practice of
+his day in Italy; Francis I., the first monarch to establish a
+completely organized diplomatic machinery, did most to give these
+principles a European extension. By the close of the 16th century
+diplomacy had become frankly "Machiavellian," and the ordinary rules of
+morality were held not to apply to the intercourse between nations. This
+was admitted in theory as well as in practice. Germonius, after a
+vigorous denunciation of lying in general, argues that it is permissible
+for the safety or convenience (_commodo_) of princes, since _salus
+populi suprema lex_, and _quod non permittit naturalis ratio, admittit
+civilis_; and he adduces in support of this principle the answer given
+by Ulysses to Neoptolemus, in the _Ajax_ of Sophocles, and the examples
+of Abraham, Jacob and David. Paschalius, while affirming that an
+ambassador must study to speak the truth, adds that he is not such a
+"rustic boor" as to say that an "official lie" (_officiosum mendacium_)
+is never to be employed, or to deny that an ambassador should be, on
+occasion, _splendide mendax_.[12] The situation is summed up in the
+famous definition of Sir Henry Wotton, which, though excused by himself
+as a jest, was held to be an indiscreet revelation of the truth: "An
+ambassador is an honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his
+country."[13] The most successful liar, in fact, was esteemed the most
+successful diplomatist. "A prime article of the catechism of
+ambassadors," says Bayle in his _Dictionnaire critique_ (1699),
+"whatever their religion, is to invent falsehoods and to go about making
+society believe them." So universally was this principle adopted that,
+in the end, no diplomatist even expected to be believed; and the best
+way to deceive was--as Bismarck cynically avowed--to tell the truth.
+
+But, in addition to being a liar _ex officio_, the ambassador was also
+"an honourable spy." "The principal functions of an envoy," says
+Francois de Callieres, himself an ex-ambassador of Louis XIV., "are two;
+the first is to look after the affairs of his own prince; the second is
+to discover the affairs of the other." A clever minister, he maintains,
+will know how to keep himself informed of all that goes on in the mind
+of the sovereign, in the councils of ministers or in the country; and
+for this end "good cheer and the warming effect of wine" are excellent
+allies.[14] This being so, it is hardly to be wondered at that foreign
+ambassadors were commonly regarded as perhaps necessary, but certainly
+very unwelcome, guests. The views of Philippe de Commines have already
+been quoted above, and they were shared by a long series of theoretical
+writers as well as by men of affairs. Gentilis is all but alone in his
+protest against the view that all ambassadors were _exploratores magis
+quam oratores_, and to be treated as such. So early as 1481 the
+government of Venice had decreed the penalty of banishment and a heavy
+fine for any one who should talk of affairs of state with a foreign
+envoy, and though the more civilized princes did not follow the example
+of the sultan, who by way of precaution locked the ambassador of
+Ferdinand II., Jerome Laski, into "a dark and stinking place without
+windows," they took the most minute precautions to prevent the
+ambassadors of friendly powers from penetrating into their secrets.
+Charles V. thought it safest to keep them as far away as possible from
+his court. So did Francis I.; and, when affairs were critical, he made
+his frequent changes of residence and his hunting expeditions the excuse
+for escaping from their presence. Henry VII. forbade his subjects to
+hold any intercourse with them, and, later on, set spies upon them and
+examined their correspondence--a practice by no means confined to
+England. If the system of permanent embassies survived, it is clear that
+this was mainly due to the belief of the sovereigns that they gained
+more by maintaining "honourable spies" at foreign courts than they lost
+by the presence of those of foreign courts at their own. It was purely a
+question of the balance of advantage. Neither among statesmen nor among
+theorists was there any premonition of the great part to be played by
+the permanent diplomatic body in the development and maintenance of the
+concert of Europe. To Paschalius the permanent embassies were "a
+miserable outgrowth of a miserable age."[15] Grotius himself condemned
+them as not only harmful, but useless, the proof of the latter being
+that they were unknown to antiquity.[16]
+
+_Development of the Diplomatic Hierarchy._--The history of the
+diplomatic body[17] is, like that of other bodies, that of the
+progressive differentiation of functions. The middle ages knew no
+classification of diplomatic agents; the person sent on mission is
+described indifferently as _legatus_, _orator_, _nuntius_, _ablegatus_,
+_commissarius_, _procurator_, _mandatarius_, _agens_ or _ambaxator_
+(_ambassator_, &c.). In Gundissalvus, _De legato_ (1485), the oldest
+printed work on the subject, the word _ambasiator_, first found in a
+Venetian decree of 1268, is applied to any diplomat. Florence was the
+first to make distinction; the _orator_ was appointed by the council of
+the republic; the _mandatorio_, with inferior powers, by the Council of
+Ten. In 1500 Machiavelli, who held only the latter rank, wrote from
+France urging the Signoria to send _ambasiadori_. This was, however,
+rather a question of powers than of dignity. But the causes which
+ultimately led to the elaborate differentiation of diplomatic ranks were
+rather questions of dignity than of functions.[18] The breakdown of
+feudalism, with the consequent rise of a series of sovereign states or
+of states claiming to be sovereign, of very various size and importance,
+led to a certain confusion in the ceremonial relation between them,
+which had been unknown to the comparatively clearly defined system of
+the middle ages. The smaller states were eager to assert the dignity of
+their actual or practical independence; the greater powers were equally
+bent on "keeping them in their place." If the emperor, as has been
+stated above, was too exalted to send ambassadors, certain of the lesser
+states were soon esteemed too humble to be represented at the courts of
+the great powers save by agents of an inferior rank. By the second half
+of the 16th century, then, there are two classes of diplomatists,
+ambassadors and residents or agents, the latter being accounted
+ambassadors of the second class.[19] At first the difference of rank was
+determined by the status of the sovereign by whom or to whom the
+diplomatic agent was accredited; but early in the 16th century it became
+fairly common for powers of the first rank to send agents of the second
+class to represent them at courts of an equal status. The reasons were
+various, and not unamusing. First and foremost came the question of
+expense. The ambassador, as representing the person of his sovereign,
+was bound by the sentiment of the age to display an exaggerated
+magnificence. His journeys were like royal progresses, his state entries
+surrounded with every circumstance of pomp, and it was held to be his
+duty to advertise the munificence of his prince by boundless largesses.
+Had this munificence been as unlimited in fact as in theory, all might
+have been well, but, in that age of vaulting ambitions, depleted
+exchequers were the rule rather than the exception in Europe; the
+records are full of pitiful appeals from ambassadors for arrears of pay,
+and appointment to an embassy often meant ruin, even to a man of
+substance. To give but one example, Sir Richard Morison, Edward VI.'s
+ambassador in Germany, had to borrow money to pay his debts before he
+could leave Augsburg (_Cal. State Pap. Edw. VI._, No. 467), and later on
+he writes from Hamburg (April 9, 1552) that he could buy nothing,
+because everyone believed that he had packed up in readiness to flit
+secretly, for "How must they buy things, where men know their stuff is
+ready trussed up, and they fleeting every day?" (ib. No. 544). But the
+dignity of ambassador carried another drawback besides expense; his
+function of "honourable spy" was seriously hampered by the trammels of
+his position. He was unable to move freely in society, but lived a
+ceremonial existence in the midst of a crowd of retainers, through whom
+alone it was proper for him to communicate with the world outside. It
+followed that, though the office of ambassador was more dignified, that
+of agent was more generally useful.
+
+Yet a third cause, possibly the most immediately potent, encouraged the
+growth of the lesser diplomatic ranks: the question of precedence among
+powers theoretically equal. Modern diplomacy has settled a difficulty
+which caused at one time much heart-burning and even bloodshed by a
+simple appeal to the alphabet. Great Britain feels no humiliation in
+signing after France, if the reason be that her name begins with G; had
+she not been Great, she would sign before. The vexed question of the
+precedence of ambassadors, too, has been settled by the rule, already
+referred to above, as to seniority of appointment. But while the
+question remained unsettled it was obviously best to evade it; and this
+was most easily done by sending an agent of inferior rank to a court
+where the precedence claimed for an ambassador would have been refused.
+
+Thus set in motion, the process of differentiation continues until the
+system is stereotyped in the 19th century. It is unnecessary to trace
+this evolution here in any detail. It is mainly a question of names, and
+diplomatic titles are no exception to the general rule by which all
+titles tend to become cheapened and therefore, from time to time, need
+to be reinforced by fresh verbal devices. The method was the familiar
+one of applying terms that had once implied a particular quality in a
+fashion that implied actually nothing. The ambassador extraordinary had
+originally been one sent on an extraordinary mission; for the time and
+purpose of this mission his authority superseded that of the resident
+ambassador. But by the middle of the 17th century the custom had grown
+up of calling all ambassadors "extraordinary," in order to place them on
+an equality with the others. The same process was extended to
+diplomatists of the second rank; and envoys (_envoye_ for _ablegatus_)
+were always "extraordinary," and as such claimed and received precedence
+over mere "residents," who in their day had asserted the same claim
+against the agents--all three terms having at one time been synonymous.
+Similarly a "minister plenipotentiary" had originally meant an agent
+armed with full powers (_plein-pouvoir_); but, by a like process, the
+combination came to mean as little as "envoy extraordinary"--though a
+plenipotentiary _tout simple_ is still an agent, of no ceremonially
+defined dignity, despatched with full powers to treat and conclude.
+Finally, the evolution of the title of a diplomatist of the second rank
+is crowned by the high-sounding combination, now almost exclusively
+used, of "envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary." The
+ultimate fate of the simple title "resident" was the same as that of
+"agent." Both had been freely sold by needy sovereigns to all and sundry
+who were prepared to pay for what gave them a certain social status. The
+"agent" fell thus into utter discredit, and those "residents" who were
+still actual diplomatic agents became "ministers resident" to
+distinguish them from the common herd.
+
+The classification of diplomatic agents was for the first time
+definitively included in the general body of international law by the
+_Reglement_ of the 19th of March 1815 at Vienna[20]; and the whole
+question was finally settled at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(November 21, 1818) when, the proposal to establish precedence by the
+status of the accrediting powers having wisely been rejected, diplomatic
+agents were divided into four classes: (1) Ambassadors, legates,
+nuncios; (2) Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, and
+other ministers accredited direct to the sovereign; (3) Ministers
+resident; (4) Charges d'affaires. With a few exceptions (e.g. Turkey),
+this settlement was accepted by all states, including the United States
+of America.
+
+_Rights and Privileges of Diplomatic Agents._--These are partly founded
+upon immemorial custom, partly the result of negotiations embodied in
+international law. The most important, as it is the most ancient, is the
+right of personal _inviolability_ extended to the diplomatic agent and
+the members of his suite. This inviolability is maintained after a
+rupture between the two governments concerned, and even after the
+outbreak of war. The habit of the Ottoman government of imprisoning in
+the Seven Towers the ambassador of a power with which it quarrelled was
+but an exception which proved the rule. The second important right is
+that of exterritoriality (q.v.), a convenient fiction by which the house
+and equipages of the diplomatic agent are regarded as the territory of
+the power by whom he is accredited. This involves the further principle
+that the agent is in no way subject to the receiving government. He is
+exempt from taxation and from the payment at least of certain local
+rates. He also enjoys immunity (1) from civil jurisdiction, e.g. he
+cannot be sued, nor can his goods be seized, for debt; (2) from criminal
+jurisdiction, e.g. he cannot be arrested and tried for a criminal
+offence. For a crime of violence, however, or for plotting against the
+state, he can be placed under the necessary restraint and expelled the
+country.[21] These immunities extend to all the members of an envoy's
+suite. The difficulties that might be supposed to arise from such
+exemptions have not in practice been found very serious; for though, in
+the case of crimes committed by servants of agents of the first or
+second class the procedure is not clearly defined, each case would
+easily be made the subject of arrangement. In certain cases, e.g.
+embassies in Turkey, the exterritoriality of ambassadors implies a
+fairly extensive criminal jurisdiction; in other cases the dismissal of
+the servant would deprive him of his diplomatic immunity and bring him
+under the law of the land. The right of granting asylum claimed by
+diplomatic agents in virtue of that of exterritoriality, at one time
+much abused, is now strictly limited. A political or criminal offender
+may seek asylum in a foreign embassy; but if, after a request has been
+formally made for his surrender, the ambassador refuses to deliver him
+up, the authorities may take the measures necessary to effect his
+arrest, and even force an entrance into the embassy for the purpose. The
+"right of chapel" (_droit de chapelle_, or _droit de culte_), enjoyed by
+envoys in reference to their exterritoriality, i.e. the right of free
+exercise of religious worship within their house, formerly of great
+importance, has been rendered superfluous by the spread of religious
+toleration. (See L. Oppenheim, _Internat. Law_ (London, 1905), i. p. 441,
+&c.; A.W. Haffter, _Das europaische Volkerrecht_ (Berlin, 1888), p. 435,
+&c.)
+
+_The Personnel of the "Corps diplomatique."_--The establishment of
+diplomacy as a regular branch of the civil service is of modern growth,
+and even now by no means universal. From old time states naturally chose
+as their agents those who would best serve their interests in the matter
+in hand. In the middle ages diplomacy was practically a monopoly of the
+clergy, who as a class alone possessed the necessary qualifications: and
+in later times, when learning had spread to the laity as well, there
+were still potent reasons why the clergy should continue to be employed
+as diplomatic agents. Of these reasons the most practical was that of
+expense; for the wealth of the church formed an inexhaustible reserve
+which was used without scruple for secular purposes. Francis I. of
+France, who by the Concordat with Rome had in his hands the patronage of
+all the sees and abbeys in France, used this partly to reward his
+clerical ministers, partly as a great secret service fund for bribing
+the ambassadors of other powers, partly for the payment of those
+high-placed spies at foreign courts maintained by the elaborately
+organized system known as the _Secret du Roi_.[22] None the less, in
+the 16th century, laymen as diplomats are already well in evidence. They
+are usually lawyers, rarely soldiers, occasionally even simple
+merchants. Not uncommonly they were foreigners, like the Italian Thomas
+Spinelly mentioned above, drawn from that cosmopolitan class of
+diplomats who were ready to serve any master. Though nobles were often
+employed as ambassadors by all the powers, Venice alone made nobility a
+condition of diplomatic service. They were professional in the sense
+that, for the most part, diplomacy was the main occupation of their
+lives; there was, however, no graded diplomatic service in which, as at
+present, it was possible to rise on a fixed system from the position of
+simple _attache_ to that of minister and ambassador. The "attache to the
+embassy" existed[23]; but he was not, as is now the case, a young
+diplomat learning his profession, but an experienced man of affairs,
+often a foreigner employed by the ambassador as adviser, secret service
+agent and general go-between, and he was without diplomatic status.[24]
+The 18th century saw the rise of the diplomatic service in the modern
+sense. The elaboration of court ceremonial, for which Versailles had set
+the fashion, made it desirable that diplomatic agents should be
+courtiers, and young men of rank about the court began to be attached to
+missions for the express purpose of teaching them the art of diplomacy.
+Thus arose that aristocratic diplomatic class, distinguished by the
+exquisite refinement of its manners, which survived from the 18th
+century into the 19th. Modern democracy has tended to break with this
+tradition, but it still widely prevails. Even in Great Britain, where
+the rest of the public services have been thrown open to all classes, a
+certain social position is still demanded for candidates for the
+diplomatic service and the foreign office, and in addition to passing a
+competitive examination, they must be nominated by someone of recognized
+station prepared to vouch for their social qualifications. In America,
+where no regular diplomatic service exists, all diplomatic agents are
+nominated by the president.
+
+The existence of an official diplomatic service, however, by no means
+excludes the appointment of outsiders to diplomatic posts. It is, in
+fact, one of the main grievances of the regular diplomatic body that the
+great rewards of their profession, the embassies, are so often assigned
+to politicians or others who have not passed through the drudgery of the
+service. But though this practice has, doubtless, sometimes been abused,
+it is impossible to criticize the wisdom of its occasional application.
+
+A word may be added as to the part played by women in diplomacy. So far
+as their unofficial influence upon it is concerned, it would be
+impossible to exaggerate its importance; it would suffice to mention
+three names taken at random from the annals of the 19th century, Madame
+de Stael, Baroness von Krudener, and Princess Lieven. Gentz comments on
+the "feminine intrigues" that darkened the counsels of the congresses of
+Vienna and Aix-la-Chapelle, and from which the powers so happily escaped
+in the bachelor seclusion of Troppau. Nor is it to be supposed that
+statesmen will ever renounce a diplomatic weapon so easy of disguise and
+so potent for use. A brilliant _salon_ presided over by a woman of charm
+may be a most valuable centre of a political propaganda; and ladies are
+still widely employed in the secret diplomacy of the powers. Their
+employment as regularly accredited diplomatic agents, however, though
+not unknown, has been extremely rare. An interesting instance is the
+appointment of Catherine of Aragon, when princess of Wales, as
+representative of her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, at the court of
+Henry VII. (G. A. Bergenroth, _Calendar of State Papers ... England and
+Spain--in the Archives at Simancas, &c._, i. pp. xxxiii, cxix).
+
+  LITERATURE.--Besides general works on international law (q.v.) which
+  necessarily deal with the subject of diplomacy, a vast mass of
+  treatises on diplomatic agents exists. The earliest printed work is
+  the _Tractatus de legato_ (Rome, 1485) of Gundissalvus (Gonsalvo de
+  Villadiego), professor of law at Salamanca, auditor for Spain at the
+  Roman court of the Rota, and bishop of Oviedo; but the first really
+  systematic writer on the subject was Albericus Gentilis, _De
+  legationibus libri iii_. (London, 1583, 1585, Hanover, 1596, 1607,
+  1612). For a full bibliography of works on ambassadors see Baron
+  Diedrich H. L. von Ompteda, _Litteratur des gesammten sowohl
+  naturlichen als positiven Volkerrechts_ (Regensburg, 1785), p. 534,
+  &c., which was completed and continued by the Prussian minister Karl
+  Albert von Kamptz, in _Neue Literatur des Volkerrechts seit dem Jahre
+  1784_ (Berlin, 1817), p. 231. A list of writers, with critical and
+  biographical remarks, is also given in Ernest Nys's "Les Commencements
+  de la diplomatie et le droit d'ambassade jusqu'a Grotius," in the
+  _Revue de droit international_, vol. xvi. p. 167. Other useful modern
+  works on the history of diplomacy are: E. C. Grenville-Murray,
+  _Embassies and Foreign Courts, a History of Diplomacy_ (2nd ed.,
+  1856); J. Zeller, _La Diplomatie francaise vers le milieu du XVI^e
+  siecle_ (Paris, 1881); A. O. Meyer, _Die englische Diplomatie in
+  Deutschland zur Zeit Eduards VI. und Mariens_ (Breslau, 1900); and,
+  above all, Otto Krauske, _Die Entwickelung der standgien Diplomatie
+  vom funfzehnten Jahrhundert bis zu den Beschlussen von 1815 und 1818_,
+  in Gustav Schmoller's _Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche
+  Forschungen_, vol. v. (Leipzig, 1885). To these may be added, as
+  admirably illustrating in detail the early developments of modern
+  diplomacy, Logan Pearsall Smith's _Life and Letters of Sir Henry
+  Wotton_ (Oxford, 1907). Of works on modern diplomacy the most
+  important are the _Guide diplomatique_ of Baron Charles de Martens,
+  new edition revised by F. H. Geffcken, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1866), and P.
+  Pradier-Fodere, _Cours de droit diplomatique_, 2 vols. (Paris, 1881).
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] La Bruyere, _Caracteres_, ii. 77 (ed. P. Jouast, Paris, 1881).
+
+  [2] To Wellesley, in Stapleton's _Canning_, i. 374.
+
+  [3] For the motives of Metternich's foreign policy see
+    AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_ (iii. 332-333).
+
+  [4] e.g. _A History of Diplomacy in the International Development of
+    Europe_, by D. J. Hill (London and New York, 1905).
+
+  [5] For this see Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i. p. 498.
+
+  [6] The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their
+    diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their trade
+    expansion in the Levant early brought them into close contact. For
+    Byzantine diplomacy see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER: _Diplomacy_.
+
+  [7] See Eugenio Alberi, _Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti al
+    senato_, 15 vols. (Florence, 1839-1863).
+
+  [8] The _apocrisiarii_ ([Greek: apokrisiarioi]) or _responsales_
+    should perhaps be mentioned, though they certainly did not set the
+    precedent for the modern permanent missions. They were resident
+    agents, practically legates, of the popes at the court of
+    Constantinople. They were established by Pope Leo I., and continued
+    until the Iconoclastic controversy broke the intimate ties between
+    East and West. See Luxardo, _Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht
+    der Papste_ (Innsbruck, 1878); also Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i.
+    501.
+
+  [9] N. Bianchi, _Le Materie politiche relative all' estero degli
+    archivi di stato piemontese_ (Bologna, Modena, 1875), p. 29.
+
+  [10] Ib. Note 2, _teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum._
+
+  [11] The first ambassador of Venice to visit England was Zuanne da
+    Lezze, who came in 1319 to demand compensation for the plundering of
+    Venetian ships by English pirates.
+
+  [12] Germonius, _De legatis principum et populorum libri tres_ (Rome,
+    1627), chap. vi. p. 164; Paschalius, _Legatus_ (Rouen, 1598), p. 302.
+    Etienne Dolet, who had been secretary to Cardinal Jean du Bellay, and
+    was burned for atheism in 1546, in his _De officio legati_ (1541)
+    advises ambassadors to surround themselves with taciturn servants, to
+    employ vigilant spies, and to set afoot all manner of fictions,
+    especially when negotiating with the court of Rome or with the
+    Italian princes.
+
+  [13] See Pearsall Smith, _Sir Henry Wotton_, pp. 49, 126 et seq.
+
+  [14] Francois de Callieres, _De la maniere de negocier avec les
+    souverains_ (Brussels, 1716). See also A. Sorel, _Recueil des
+    instructions donnees aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France_ (Paris,
+    1884), e.g. vol. _Autriche_, pp. 77, 88, 102, 112.
+
+  [15] "Nova res est, quod sciam, et infelicis hujus aetatis infelix
+    partus.... Hinc oriri securitatem universorum, hinc stabiliri pacem
+    gentium. Quae utinam tam vere dicerentur, quam speciose. Ego quidem,
+    ne quid dissimulem, ab istis seorsum sentio. Nimirum, effoeta
+    virtutis, foecunda fraudis haec saecula video peperisse spissata haec
+    imperia, sive summas potestates, unde, ut e vomitariis, hae legationes
+    undatim se fundunt." Paschalius, _Legatus_ (1598), p. 447. So too
+    Felix de la Mothe Le Vayer (1547-1625), in his _Legatus_ (Paris,
+    1579), says "Legatos tunc primum aut non multum post institutos fuisse
+    cum Pandora malorum omnium semina in hunc mundum ... demisit."
+
+  [16] _De jure belli et pacis_ (Amsterdam, 1621), ii. c. 18, S 3, n. 2.
+
+  [17] The term _corps diplomatique_ originated about the middle of the
+    18th century. "The Chancellor Furst," says Ranke (xxx. 47, note),
+    "does not use it as yet in his report (1754) but he knows it," and it
+    would appear that it had just been invented at Vienna. "Corps
+    diplomatique, nom qu'une dame donna un jour a ce corps nombreux de
+    ministres etrangers a Vienne."
+
+  [18] So too Pradier-Fodere, vol. i. p. 262.
+
+  [19] Thus Charles V. would not allow the representatives of the duke
+    of Mantua, Ferrara, &c., to style themselves "ambassadors," on the
+    ground that this title could be borne only by the agents of kings and
+    of the republic of Venice, and not by those of states whose
+    sovereignty was impaired by any feudal relation to a superior power.
+    (See Krauske p. 155.)
+
+  [20] See Pradier-Fodere, i. 265.
+
+  [21] Gentilis, who had been consulted by the government in the case
+    of the Spanish ambassador, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, expelled for
+    intriguing against Queen Elizabeth, lays this down definitely. An
+    ambassador, he says, need not be received, and he may be expelled. In
+    actual practice a diplomatic agent who has made himself objectionable
+    is withdrawn by his government on the representations of that to
+    which he is accredited, and it is customary, before an ambassador is
+    despatched, to find out whether he is a _persona grata_ to the power
+    to which he is accredited.
+
+  [22] See Zeller.
+
+  [23] A. O. Meyer, p. 22.
+
+  [24] See the amusing account of the methods of these agents in
+    Morysine to Cecil (January 23, 1551-1552), _Cal. State Pap. Edw.
+    VI._, No. 530.
+
+
+
+
+DIPLOMATIC, the science of diplomas, founded on the critical study of
+the "diplomatic" sources of history: diplomas, charters, acts, treaties,
+contracts, judicial records, rolls, chartularies, registers, &c. The
+employment of the word "diploma," as a general term to designate an
+historical document, is of comparatively recent date. The Roman diploma,
+so called because it was formed of two sheets of metal which were shut
+together (Gr. [Greek: diploun], to double) like the leaves of a book,
+was the passport or licence to travel by the public post; also, the
+certificate of discharge, conferring privileges of citizenship and
+marriage on soldiers who had served their time; and, later, any imperial
+grant of privileges. The word was adopted, rather pedantically, by the
+humanists of the Renaissance and applied by them to important deeds and
+to acts of sovereign authority, to privileges granted by kings and by
+great personages; and by degrees the term became extended and embraced
+generally the documents of the middle ages.
+
+_History of the Study._--The term "diplomatic," the French
+_diplomatique_, is a modern adaptation of the Latin phrase _res
+diplomatica_ employed in early works upon the subject, and more
+especially in the first great text-book, the _De re diplomatica_, issued
+in 1681 by the learned Benedictine, Dom Jean Mabillon, of the abbey of
+St Germain-des-Pres. Mabillon's treatise was called forth by an earlier
+work of Daniel van Papenbroeck, the editor of the _Acta Sanctorum_ of
+the Bollandists, who, with no great knowledge or experience of archives,
+undertook to criticize the historical value of ancient records and
+monastic documents, and raised wholesale suspicions as to their
+authenticity in his _Propylaeum antiquarium circa veri ac falsi
+discrimen in vetustis membranis_, which he printed in 1675. This was a
+rash challenge to the Benedictines, and especially to the congregation
+of St Maur, or confraternity of the Benedictine abbeys of France, whose
+combined efforts produced great literary works which still remain as
+monuments of profound learning. Mabillon was at that time engaged in
+collecting material for a great history of his order. He worked silently
+for six years before producing the work above referred to. His
+refutation of Papenbroeck's criticisms was complete, and his rival
+himself accepted Mabillon's system of the study of diplomatic as the
+true one. The _De re diplomatica_ established the science on a secure
+basis; and it has been the foundation of all subsequent works on the
+subject, although the immediate result of its publication was a flood of
+controversial writings between the Jesuits and the Benedictines, which,
+however, did not affect its stability.
+
+In Spain, the Benedictine Perez published, in 1688, a series of
+dissertations following the line of Mabillon's work. In England, Madox's
+_Formulare Anglicanum_, with a dissertation concerning ancient charters
+and instruments, appeared in 1702, and in 1705 Hickes followed with his
+_Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus_, both accepting the principles
+laid down by the learned Benedictine. In Italy, Maffei appeared with
+his _Istoria diplomatica_ in 1727, and Muratori, in 1740, introduced
+dissertations on diplomatic into his great work, the _Antiquitates
+Italicae_. In Germany, the first diplomatic work of importance was that
+by Bessel, entitled _Chronicon Gotwicense_ and issued in 1732; and this
+was followed closely by similar works of Baring, Eckhard and Heumann.
+
+France, however, had been the cradle of the science, and that country
+continued to be the home of its development. Mabillon had not taken
+cognizance of documents later than the 13th century. Arising out of a
+discussion relative to the origin of the abbey of St Victor en Caux and
+the authenticity of its archives, a more comprehensive work than
+Mabillon's was compiled by the two Benedictines, Dom Toustain and Dom
+Tassin, viz. the _Nouveau Traite de diplomatique_, in six volumes,
+1750-1765, which embraced more than diplomatic proper and extended to
+all branches of Latin palaeography. With great industry the compilers
+gathered together a mass of details; but their arrangement is faulty,
+and the text is broken up into such a multitude of divisions and
+subdivisions that it is tediously minute. However, its more extended
+scope has given the _Nouveau Traite_ an advantage over Mabillon's work,
+and modern compilations have drawn largely upon it.
+
+As a result of the Revolution, the archives of the middle ages lost in
+France their juridical and legal value; but this rather tended to
+enhance their historical importance. The taste for historical literature
+revived. The Academie des Inscriptions fostered it. In 1821 the Ecole
+des Chartes was founded; and, after a few years of incipient inactivity,
+it received a further impetus, in 1829, by the issue of a royal
+ordinance re-establishing it. Thenceforth it has been an active centre
+for the teaching and for the encouragement of the study of diplomatic
+throughout the country, and has produced results which other nations may
+envy. Next to France, Germany and Austria are distinguished as countries
+where activity has been displayed in the systematic study of diplomatic
+archives, more or less with the support of the state. In Italy, too,
+diplomatic science has not been neglected. In England, after a long
+period of regrettable indifference to the study of the national and
+municipal archives of the country, some effort has been made in recent
+years to remove the reproach. The publications of the Public Record
+Office and of the department of MSS. in the British Museum are more
+numerous and are issued more regularly than in former times; and an
+awakened interest is manifested by the foundation in the universities of
+a few lectureships in diplomatic and palaeography, and by the attention
+which those subjects receive in such an institution as the London School
+of Economics, and in the publications of private literary societies. But
+such efforts can never show the systematic results which are to be
+attained by a special institution of the character of the French Ecole
+des Chartes.
+
+_Extent of the Science._--The field covered by the study of diplomatic
+is so extensive and the different kinds of documents which it takes into
+its purview are so numerous and various, that it is impossible to do
+more than give a few general indications of their nature. No nation can
+have advanced far on the path of civilization before discovering the
+necessity for documentary evidence both in public and in private life.
+The laws, the constitutions, the decrees of government, on the one hand,
+and private contracts between man and man, on the other, must be
+embodied in formal documents, in order to ensure permanent record. In
+the case of a nation advancing independently from a primitive to a later
+stage of civilization we should have to trace the origin of its
+documentary records and examine their development from a rudimentary
+condition. But in an inquiry into the history of the documents of the
+middle ages in Europe we do not begin with primitive forms. Those ages
+inherited the documentary system which had been created and developed by
+the Romans; and, imperfect and limited in number as are the earliest
+surviving charters and diplomas of European medieval history, they
+present themselves to us fully developed and cast in the mould and
+employing the methods and formulae of the earlier tradition. Based on
+this foundation the chanceries of the several countries of Europe, as
+they came into existence and were organized, reduced to method and rule
+on one general system the various documents which the exigencies of
+public and of private life from time to time called into existence, each
+individual chancery at the same time following its own line of practice
+in detail, and evolving and confirming particular formulas which have
+become characteristic of it.
+
+_Classification of Documents._--If we classify these documents under the
+two main heads of public and private deeds, we shall have to place in
+the former category the legislative, administrative, judicial,
+diplomatic documents emanating from public authority in public form:
+laws, constitutions, ordinances, privileges, grants and concessions,
+proclamations, decrees, judicial records, pleas, treaties; in a word,
+every kind of deed necessary for the orderly government of a civilized
+state. In early times many of these were comprised under the general
+term of "letters," _litterae_, and to the large number of them which
+were issued in open form and addressed to the community the specific
+title of "letters patent," _litterae patentes_, was given. In
+contradistinction those public documents which were issued in closed
+form under seal were known as "close letters," _litterae clausae_.
+
+Such public documents belong to the state archives of their several
+countries, and are the monuments of administrative and political and
+domestic history of a nation from one generation to another. In no
+country has so perfect a series been preserved as in our own. Into the
+Public Record Office in London have been brought together all the
+collections of state archives which were formerly stored in different
+official repositories of the kingdom. Beginning with the great survey of
+Domesday, long series of enrolments of state documents, in many
+instances extending from the times of the Angevin kings to our own day
+in almost unbroken sequence, besides thousands of separate deeds of all
+descriptions, are therein preserved (see RECORD).
+
+Under the category of private documents must be included, not only the
+deeds of individuals, but also those of corporate bodies representing
+private interests and standing in the position of individual units in
+relation to the state, such as municipal bodies and monastic
+foundations. The largest class of documents of this character is
+composed of those numerous conveyances of real property and other title
+deeds of many descriptions and dating from early periods which are
+commonly described by the generic name of "charters," and which are to
+be found in thousands, not only in such public repositories as the
+Public Record Office and the British Museum, but also in the archives of
+municipal and other corporate bodies throughout the country and in the
+muniment-rooms of old families. There are also the records of the
+manorial courts preserved in countless court-rolls and registers; also
+the scattered muniments of the dissolved monasteries represented by the
+many collections of charters and the valuable chartularies, or registers
+of charters, which have fortunately survived and exist both in public
+and in private keeping.
+
+It will be noticed that in this enumeration of public and private
+documents in England reference is made to rolls. The practice of
+entering records on rolls has been in favour in England from a very
+early date subsequent to the Norman Conquest; and while in other
+countries the comprehensive term of "charters" (literally "papers": Gr.
+[Greek: chartes]) is employed as a general description of documents of
+the middle ages, in England the fuller phrase "charters and rolls" is
+required. The master of the rolls, the _Magister Rotulorum_, is the
+official keeper of the public records.
+
+From the great body of records, both public and private, many fall
+easily and naturally into the class in which the text takes a simpler
+narrative form; such as judicial records, laws, decrees, proclamations,
+registers, &c., which tell their own story in formulae and phraseology
+early developed and requiring little change. These we may leave on one
+side. For fuller description we select those deeds which, conferring
+grants and favours and privileges, conform more nearly to the idea of
+the Roman diploma and have received the special attention of the
+chanceries in the development and arrangement of their formulae and in
+their methods of execution.
+
+
+    Structure of medieval diplomas.
+
+  All such medieval deeds are composed of certain recognized members or
+  sections, some essential, others special and peculiar to the most
+  elaborate and solemn documents. A deed of the more elaborate character
+  is made up of two principal divisions: 1. the TEXT, in which is set
+  out the object of the deed, the statement of the considerations and
+  circumstances which have led to it, and the declaration of the will
+  and intention of the person executing the deed, together with such
+  protecting clauses as the particular circumstances of the case may
+  require; 2. the PROTOCOL (originally, the first sheet of a papyrus
+  roll; Gr. [Greek: protos], first, and [Greek: kollan], to glue),
+  consisting of the introductory and of the concluding formulae:
+  superscription, address, salutation, &c., at the beginning, and date,
+  formulae of execution, &c., at the end, of the deed. The latter
+  portion of the protocol is sometimes styled the eschatocol (Gr.
+  [Greek: eschatos], last, and [Greek: kollan], to glue). While the text
+  followed certain formulae which had become fixed by common usage, the
+  protocol was always special and varied with the practices of the
+  several chanceries, changing in a sovereign chancery with each
+  successive reign.
+
+
+    The Invocation.
+
+    The Superscription.
+
+    The Address.
+
+    The Salutation.
+
+  The different sections of a full deed, taking them in order under the
+  heads of Initial Protocol, Text and Final Protocol or Eschatocol, are
+  as follows:--The initial protocol consists of the Invocation, the
+  Superscription, the Address and the Salutation. 1. The INVOCATION,
+  lending a character of sanctity to the proceedings, might be either
+  verbal or symbolic. The verbal invocation consisted usually of some
+  pious ejaculation, such as _In nomine Dei, In nomine domini nostri
+  Jesu Christi_; from the 8th century, _In nomine Sanctae et individuae
+  Trinitatis_; and later, _In nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus
+  Sancti_. The symbolic form was usually the _chrismon_, or monogram
+  composed of the Greek initials [Chi][Rho] of the name of Christ. In
+  the course of the 10th and 11th centuries this symbol came to be so
+  scrawled that it had probably lost all meaning with the scribes. From
+  the 9th century the letter C (initial of _Christus_) came gradually
+  into use, and in German imperial diplomas it superseded the
+  _chrismon_. Stenographic signs of the system known as Tironian notes
+  were also sometimes added to this symbol down to the end of the 10th
+  century, expressing such a phrase as _Ante omnia Christus_, or
+  _Christus_, or _Amen_. From the Merovingian period, too, a cross was
+  often used. The symbol gradually died out after the 12th century for
+  general use, surviving only in notarial instruments and wills. 2. The
+  SUPERSCRIPTION (_superscriptio, intitulatio_) expressed the name and
+  titles of the grantor or person issuing the deed. 3. The ADDRESS. As
+  diplomas were originally in epistolary form the address was then a
+  necessity. While in Merovingian deeds the old pattern was adhered to,
+  in the Carolingian period the address was sometimes omitted. From the
+  8th century it was not considered necessary, and a distinction arose
+  in the case of royal acts, those having the address being styled
+  letters, and those omitting it, charters. The general form of address
+  ran in phrase as _Omnibus_ (or _Universis_) _Christi fidelibus
+  presentes litteras inspecturis_. 4. The SALUTATION was expressed in
+  such words as _Salutem_; _Salutem et dilectionem_; _Salutem et
+  apostolicam benedictionem_, but it was not essential.
+
+
+    The Preamble.
+
+    The Notification.
+
+    The Exposition.
+
+    The Disposition.
+
+    The Final Clauses.
+
+  Then follows the text in five sections: the Preamble, the
+  Notification, the Exposition, the Disposition and the Final Clauses.
+  5. The PREAMBLE (_prologus_, _arenga_): an ornamental introduction
+  generally composed of pious or moral sentiments, a _prefatio ad
+  captandam benevolentiam_ which _facit ad ornamentum_, degenerating
+  into tiresome platitudes. It became stereotyped at an early age: in
+  the 10th and 11th centuries it was a most ornate performance; in the
+  12th century it was cut short; in the 13th century it died out. 6. The
+  NOTIFICATION (_notificatio_, _promulgatio_) was the publication of the
+  purport of the deed introduced by such a phrase as _notum sit_, &c. 7.
+  The EXPOSITION set out the motives influencing the issue of the deed.
+  8. The DISPOSITION described the object of the deed and the will and
+  intention of the grantor. 9. The FINAL CLAUSES ensured the fulfilment
+  of the terms of the deed; guarded against infringement, by comminatory
+  anathemas and imprecations, not infrequently of a vehement
+  description, or by penalties; guaranteed the validity of the deed;
+  enumerated the formalities of subscription and execution; reserved
+  rights, &c.
+
+
+    The Date.
+
+    The Appreciation.
+
+    The Authentication.
+
+  Next comes the final protocol or eschatocol comprising: the Date, the
+  Appreciation, the Authentication. It was particularly in this portion
+  of the deed that the varying practices of the several chanceries led
+  to minute and intricate distinctions at different periods. 10. The
+  DATE. By the Roman law every act must be dated by the day and the year
+  of execution. Yet in the middle ages, from the 9th to the 12th
+  century, a large proportion of deeds bears no date. In the most
+  ancient charters the date clause was frequently separated from the
+  body of the deed and placed in an isolated position at the foot of the
+  sheet. From the 12th century it commonly followed the text
+  immediately. Certain classes of documents, such as decrees of
+  councils, notarial deeds, &c., began with the date. The usual formula
+  was _data, datum, actum, factum, scriptum_. In the Carolingian period
+  a distinction grew up between _datum_ and _actum_, the former applying
+  to the time, the latter to the place, of date. In the papal chancery
+  from an early period down to the 12th century the use of a double date
+  prevailed, the first following the text and being inserted by the
+  scribe when the deed was written (_scriptum_), the second being added
+  at the foot of the deed on its execution (_actum_), by the chancellor
+  or other high functionary. From the Roman custom of dating by the
+  consular year arose the medieval practice of dating by the regnal year
+  of emperor, king or pope. Special dates were sometimes employed, such
+  as the year of some great historical event, battle, siege, pestilence,
+  &c. 11. The APPRECIATION. The _feliciter_ of the Romans became the
+  medieval _feliciter in Domino_, or _In Dei nomine feliciter_, or the
+  more simple _Deo gratias_ or the still more simple _Amen_, for the
+  auspicious closing of a deed. In Merovingian and Carolingian diplomas
+  it follows the date; in other cases it closes the text. In the greater
+  papal bulls it appears in the form of a triple _Amen_. _Benevalete_
+  was also employed as the appreciation in early deeds; but in
+  Merovingian diplomas and in papal bulls this valedictory salutation
+  becomes a mark of authentication, as will be noticed below. 12. The
+  AUTHENTICATION was a solemn proceeding which was discharged by more
+  than one act. The most important was the subscription or subscriptions
+  of the person or persons from whom the deed emanated. The laws of the
+  late Roman empire required the subscriptions and the impressions of
+  the signet seals of the parties and of the witnesses to the deed. The
+  subscription (_subscriptio_) comprised the name, signature and
+  description of the person signing. The impression of the signet (not
+  the signature) was the _signum_, sometimes _signaculum_, rarely
+  _sigillum_. The practice of subscribing with the autograph signature
+  obtained in the early middle ages, as appears from early documents
+  such as those of Ravenna. But from the 7th century it began to
+  decline, and by the 12th century it had practically ceased. In Roman
+  deeds an illiterate person affixed his mark, or _signum manuale_,
+  which was attested. The cross being an easy form for a mark, it was
+  very commonly used and naturally became connected with the Christian
+  symbol. Hence, in course of time, it came to be attached very
+  generally to subscriptions, autograph or otherwise. Great personages
+  who were illiterate required something more elaborate than a common
+  mark. Hence arose the use of the monogram, the _caracter nominis_,
+  composed of the letters of the name. The emperor Justin, who could not
+  write, made use of a monogram, as did also Theodoric, king of the
+  Ostrogoths. Those Merovingian kings, likewise, who were illiterate,
+  had their individual monograms; and at length Charlemagne adopted the
+  monogram as his regular form of signature. From his reign down to that
+  of Philip the Fair the monogram was the recognized sign manual of the
+  sovereigns of France (see AUTOGRAPHS). It was employed by the German
+  emperors down to the reign of Maximilian I. The royal use of the
+  monogram was naturally imitated by great officers and ecclesiastics.
+  But another form of sign manual also arose out of the subscription.
+  The closing word (usually _subscripsi_), written or abbreviated as
+  _sub._, or _ss._ or _s._, was often finished off with flourishes and
+  interlacings, sometimes accompanied with Tironian notes, the whole
+  taking the shape of a domed structure to which the French have given
+  the name of _ruche_ or bee-hive. Thus in the early middle ages we have
+  deeds authenticated by the subscription, usually autograph, giving the
+  name and titles of the person executing, and stating the part taken by
+  him in the deed, and closing with the _subscripsi_, often in shape of
+  the ruche and constituting the _signum manuale_. If not autograph, the
+  subscription might be impersonal in such form as _signum_ (or _signum
+  manus_) + N. In the Carolingian period, while phrases were constantly
+  used in the body of the deed implying that it was executed by
+  autograph subscription, it did not necessarily follow that such
+  subscription was actually written in person. The ruche was also
+  adopted by chancellors, notaries and scribes as their official mark.
+  While autograph subscriptions continued to be employed, chiefly by
+  ecclesiastics, down to the beginning of the 12th century, the monogram
+  was perpetuated from the 10th century by the notaries. Their marks,
+  simple at first, became so elaborate from the end of the 13th century
+  that they found it necessary to add their names in ordinary writing,
+  or also to employ a less complicated design. This was the commencement
+  of the modern practice of writing the signature which first came into
+  vogue in the 14th century.
+
+
+    The Benevalete.
+
+    The Rota.
+
+  To lend further weight and authority to the subscription, certain
+  symbols and forms were added at different periods. Imitating, the
+  corroborative _Legi_ of the Byzantine quaestor and the _Legimus_ of
+  the Eastern emperors, the Frankish chancery in the West made use of
+  the same form, notably in the reign of Charles the Bald, in some of
+  whose diplomas the _Legimus_ appears written in larger letters in red.
+  The valedictory _Benevalete_, employed in early deeds as a form of
+  appreciation (see above), appears in Merovingian and in early
+  Carolingian royal diplomas, and also in papal bulls, as an
+  authenticating addition to the subscription. In the diplomas it was
+  written in cursive letters in two lines, _Bene valete_, just to the
+  right of the incision cut in the sheet to hold fast the seal, which
+  sometimes even covered part of the word. In the most ancient papal
+  bulls it was written by the pope himself at the foot of the deed. in
+  two lines, generally in larger capital or uncial characters, placed
+  between two crosses. From the beginning of the 11th century it became
+  the fashion to link the letters; and, dating from the time of Leo IX.,
+  A.D. 1048-1054, the _Benevalete_ was inscribed in form of a monogram.
+  During Leo's pontificate it was also accompanied with a flourish
+  called the _Komma_, which was only an exaggeration of the mark of
+  punctuation (_periodus_) which from the 9th to the 11th century closed
+  the subscription and generally resembled the modern semicolon. Leo's
+  successors abandoned the _Komma_, but the monogrammatic _Benevalete_
+  continued, invariable in form, but from time to time varying in size.
+  In Leo IX.'s pontificate also was introduced the _Rota_. This sign,
+  when it had received its final shape in the 11th century, was in form
+  of a wheel, composed of two concentric circles, in the space between
+  which was written the motto or device of the pope (_signum papae_),
+  usually a short sentence from one of the Psalms or some other portion
+  of Scripture; preceded by a small cross, which the pontiff himself
+  sometimes inscribed. The central space within the wheel was divided
+  (by cross lines) into four quarters, the two upper ones being occupied
+  by the names of the apostles St Peter and St Paul, and the two lower
+  ones by the name of the pope. The _Rota_ was placed on the left of the
+  subscription, the monogrammatic _Benevalete_ on the right. The two
+  signs were likewise adopted by certain ecclesiastical chanceries and
+  by feudal lords, particularly in the 12th century. From the same
+  period also the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs adopted the _Rota_,
+  the _signo rodado_, which is so conspicuous in the royal charters of
+  the Peninsula.
+
+
+    Sealing.
+
+  Besides the subscription, an early auxiliary method of authentication
+  was by the impression of the seal which, as noticed above, was
+  required by the Roman law. But the general use of the signet gradually
+  failed, and by the 7th century it had ceased. Still it survived in the
+  royal chanceries, and the sovereigns both of the Merovingian and of
+  the Carolingian lines had their seals; and, in the 8th century, the
+  mayors of the palace likewise. It is interesting to find instances of
+  the use of antique intaglios for the purpose by some of them. In
+  England too there is proof that the Mercian kings Offa and Coenwulf
+  used seals, in imitation of the Frankish monarchs. In the 7th century,
+  and still more so in the 8th and 9th centuries, the royal seals were
+  of exaggerated size: the precursors of the great seals of the later
+  sovereigns of western Europe. The waxen seals of the early diplomas
+  were in all cases _en placard_: that is, they were attached to the
+  face of the document and not suspended from it, being held in position
+  by a cross-cut incision in the material, through which the wax was
+  pressed and then flattened at the back. On the cessation of autograph
+  signatures in subscriptions, the general use of seals revived,
+  beginning in the 10th century and becoming the ordinary method of
+  authentication from the 12th to the 15th century inclusive. Even when
+  signatures had once again become universal, the seal continued to hold
+  its place; and thus sealing is, to the present day, required for the
+  legal execution of a deed. The attachment _en placard_ was
+  discontinued, as a general practice, in the middle of the 11th
+  century; and seals thenceforward were, for the most part, suspended,
+  leathern thongs being used at first, and afterwards silken and hempen
+  cords or parchment labels. In documents of minor importance it was
+  sometimes the custom to impress the seal or seals on one or more
+  strips of the parchment of the deed itself, cut, but not entirely
+  detached, from the lower margin, and left to hang loose. Besides waxen
+  impressions of seals, impressions in metal, bearing a device on both
+  faces, after the fashion of a coin, and suspended, were employed from
+  an early period. The most widely known instances are the _bullae_
+  attached to papal documents, generally of lead. The earliest surviving
+  papal _bulla_ is one of Pope Zacharias, A.D. 746, but earlier examples
+  are known from drawings. The papal _bulla_ was a disk of metal stamped
+  on both sides. From the time of Boniface V. to Leo IV., A.D. 617-855,
+  the name of the pontiff, in the genitive case, was impressed on the
+  obverse, and his title as pope on the reverse, e.g. _Bonifati/ papae_.
+  After that period, for some time, the name was inscribed in a circle
+  round a central ornament. Other variations followed; but at length in
+  the pontificate of Paschal II., A.D. 1099, the _bulla_ took the form
+  which it afterwards retained: on the obverse, the heads of the
+  apostles St Peter and St Paul; on the reverse, the pope's name, title
+  and number in succession. In the period of time between his election
+  and consecration, the pope made use of the half-bull, that is, the
+  obverse only was impressed. It should be mentioned that, in order to
+  conform to modern conditions and for convenience of despatch through
+  the post, Leo XII., in 1878, substituted for the leaden _bulla_ a red
+  ink stamp bearing the heads of the two apostles with the name of the
+  pope inscribed as a legend.
+
+  The Carolingian monarchs also used metal _bullae_. None of
+  Charlemagne's have survived, but there are still extant leaden
+  examples of Charles the Bald. The use of lead was not persisted in
+  either in the chancery of France or in that of Germany. Golden
+  _bullae_ were employed on special occasions by both popes and temporal
+  monarchs; for example, they were attached to the confirmations of the
+  elections of the emperors in the 12th and 13th centuries; the bull of
+  Leo X. conferring the title of Defender of the Faith on Henry VIII. in
+  1524, and the deed of alliance between Henry and Francis I. in 1527,
+  had golden _bullae_; and other examples could be cited. But lead has
+  always been the common metal to be thus employed. In the southern
+  countries of Europe, where the warmth of the climate renders wax an
+  undesirable material, leaden _bullae_ have been in ordinary use, not
+  only in Italy but also in the Peninsula, in southern France, and in
+  the Latin East (see SEALS).
+
+
+    Formularies.
+
+  The necessity of conforming to exact phraseology in diplomas and of
+  observing regularity in expressing formulas naturally led to the
+  compilation of formularies. From the early middle ages the art of
+  composition, not only of charters but also of general correspondence,
+  was commonly taught in the monasteries. The teacher was the
+  _dictator_, his method of teaching was described by the verb
+  _dictare_, and his teaching was _dictamen_ or the _ars dictaminis_.
+  For the use of these monastic schools, formularies and manuals
+  comprising formulas and models for the composition of the various acts
+  and documents soon became indispensable. At a later stage such
+  formularies developed into the models and treatises for epistolary
+  style which have had their imitations even in modern times. The
+  widespread use of the formularies had the advantage of imposing a
+  certain degree of uniformity on the phrasing of documents of the
+  western nations of Europe. Those compilations which are of an earlier
+  period than the 11th century have been systematically examined and are
+  published; those of more recent date still remain to be thoroughly
+  edited. The early formularies are of the simpler kind, being
+  collections of formulas without dissertation. The _Formulae Marculfi_,
+  compiled by the monk Marculf about the year 650, was the most
+  important work of this nature of the Merovingian period and became the
+  official formulary of the time; and it continued in use in a revised
+  edition in the early Carolingian chancery. Of the same period there
+  are extant formularies compiled at various centres, such as Angers,
+  Tours, Bourges, Sens, Reichenau, St Gall, Salzburg, Passau,
+  Regensburg, Cordova, &c. (see Giry, _Manuel de diplomatique_, pp.
+  482-488). The _Liber diurnus Romanorum Pontificum_ was compiled in the
+  7th and 8th centuries, and was employed in the papal chancery to the
+  end of the 11th century. Of the more developed treatises and manuals
+  of epistolary rhetoric which succeeded, and which originated in Italy,
+  the earliest example was the _Breviarium de dictamine_ of the monk
+  Alberic of Monte Cassino, compiled about the year 1075. Another
+  well-known work, the _Rationes dictandi_, is also attributed to the
+  same author. Of later date was the _Ars dictaminis_ of Bernard of
+  Chartres of the 12th century. Among special works on formularies are:
+  E. de Roziere, _Recueil general des formules usitees dans l'empire des
+  Francs_ (3 vols., Paris, 1861-1871); K. Zeumer, _Formulae Merovingici
+  et Karolini aevi_ (Hanover, 1886); and L. Rockinger, _Briefsteller und
+  Formelbucher des 11 bis. 14 Jahrhunderts_ (Munich, 1863-1864).
+
+_Organization._--The formalities observed by the different chanceries of
+medieval Europe, which are to be learned from a study of the documents
+issued by them, are so varied and often so minute, that it is impossible
+to give a full account of them within the limits of the present article.
+We can only state some of the results of the investigations of students
+of diplomatic.
+
+
+  Papal Chancery.
+
+The chancery which stands first and foremost is the papal chancery. On
+account of its antiquity and of its steady development, it has served as
+a model for the other chanceries of Europe. Organized in remote times,
+it adopted for the structure of its letters a number of formulas and
+rules which developed and became more and more fixed and precise from
+century to century. The Apostolic court being organized from the first
+on the model of the Roman imperial court, the early pontiffs would
+naturally have collected their archives, as the emperors had done, into
+_scrinia_. Pope Julius I., A.D. 337-353, reorganized the papal archives
+under an official _schola notariorum_, at the head of which was a
+_primicerius notariorum_. Pope Damasus, A.D. 366-384, built a record
+office at the Lateran, _archivium sanctae Romanae ecclesiae_, where the
+archives were kept and registers of them compiled. The collection and
+orderly arrangement of the archives provided material for the
+establishment of regular diplomatic usages, and the science of formulae
+naturally followed.
+
+For the study of papal documents four periods have been defined, each
+successive period being distinguished from its predecessor by some
+particular development of forms and procedure. The first period is
+reckoned from the earliest times to the accession of Leo IX., A.D. 1048.
+For almost the whole of the first eight centuries no original papal
+documents have survived. But copies are found in canonical works and
+registers, many of them false, and others probably not transcribed in
+full or in the original words; but still of use, as showing the growth
+of formulas. The earliest original document is a fragment of a letter of
+Adrian I., A.D. 788. From that date there is a series, but the documents
+are rare to the beginning of the 11th century, all down to that period
+being written on papyrus. The latest existing papyrus document in
+France is one of Sergius IV., A.D. 1011; in Germany, one of Benedict
+VIII., A.D. 1022. The earliest document on vellum is one of John XVIII.,
+A.D. 1005. The nomenclature of papal documents even at an early period
+is rather wide. In their earliest form they are Letters, called in the
+documents themselves, _litterae_, _epistola_, _pagina_, _scriptum_,
+sometimes _decretum_. A classification, generally accepted, divides them
+into: 1. Letters or Epistles: the ordinary acts of correspondence with
+persons of all ranks and orders; including constitutions (a later term)
+or decisions in matters of faith and discipline, and encyclicals giving
+directions to bishops of the whole church or of individual countries. 2.
+Decrees, being letters promulgated by the popes of their own motion. 3.
+Decretals, decisions on points of ecclesiastical administration or
+discipline. 4. Rescripts (called in the originals _preceptum_,
+_auctoritas_, _privilegium_), granting requests to petitioners. But
+writers differ in their terms, and such subdivisions must be more or
+less arbitrary. The comprehensive term "bull" (the name of the leaden
+papal seal, _bulla_, being transferred to the document) did not come
+into use until the 13th century.
+
+Copies of papal deeds were collected into registers or _bullaria_. Lists
+showing the chronological sequence of documents are catalogues of acts.
+When into such lists indications from narrative sources are introduced
+they become _regesta_ (_res gestae_): a term not to be confused with
+"register."
+
+Clearness and conciseness have been recognized as attributes of early
+papal letters; but even in those of the 4th century certain rhythmical
+periods have been detected in their composition which became more marked
+under Leo the Great, A.D. 440-461, and which developed into the _cursus_
+or prose rhythm of the pontifical chancery of the 11th and 12th
+centuries.
+
+In the most ancient deeds the pope styles himself _Episcopus_, sometimes
+_Episcopus Catholicae Ecclesiae_, or _Episcopus Romanae Ecclesiae_,
+rarely _Papa_. Gregory I, A.D. 590, was the first to adopt the form
+_Episcopus, servus servorum Dei_, which became general in the 9th
+century, and thenceforth was invariable.
+
+The second period of papal documents extends from Leo IX. to the
+accession of Innocent III., A.D. 1048-1198. At the beginning of the
+period formulae tended to take more definite shape and to become fixed.
+In the superscription of bulls a distinction arose: those which
+conferred lasting privileges employing the words _in perpetuum_ to close
+this clause; those whose benefaction was of a transitory character using
+the form of salutation, _salutem et apostolicam benedictionem_. But it
+was under Urban II., A.D. 1088-1099, that the principal formulae became
+stereotyped. Then the distinction between documents of lasting, and
+those of transitory, value became more exactly defined; the former class
+being known as greater bulls, _bullae majores_ (also called
+_privilegia_), the latter lesser bulls, _bullae minores_. The leading
+characteristics of the greater bulls were these: The first line
+containing the superscription and closing with the words _in perpetuum_
+(or, sometimes, _ad perpetuam_, or _aeternam_, _rei memoriam_) was
+written in tall and slender ornamental letters, close packed; the final
+clauses of the text develop with tendency to fixity; the pope's
+subscription is accompanied with the _rota_ on the left and the
+_benevalete_ monogram on the right; and certain elaborate forms of
+dating are punctiliously observed. The introduction of subscriptions of
+cardinals as witnesses had gradually become a practice. Under Victor
+II., A.D. 1055-1057, the practice became more confirmed, and after the
+time of Innocent II., A.D. 1130-1145, the subscriptions of the three
+orders were arranged according to rank, those of the cardinal bishops
+being placed in the centre under the papal subscription, those of the
+priests under the _rota_ on the left, and those of the deacons under the
+_benevalete_ on the right. In the lesser bulls simpler forms were
+employed; there was no introductory line of stilted letters; the
+salutation, _salutem et apostolicam benedictionem_, closed the
+superscription; the final clauses were shortened; there was neither
+papal subscription, nor _rota_, nor _benevalete_; the date was simple.
+
+From the time of Adrian I., A.D. 772-795, the system of double dating
+was followed in the larger bulls. The first date was written by the
+scribe of the document, _scriptum per manum N._ with the month (rarely
+the day of the month) and year of the indiction. The second, the actual
+date of the execution of the deed, was entered (ostensibly) by some high
+official, _data_, or _datum, per manum N._, and contained the day of the
+month (according to the Roman calendar), the year of indiction, the year
+of pontificate (in some early deeds, also the year of the empire and the
+post-consulate year), and the year of the Incarnation, which, however,
+was gradually introduced and only became more common in the course of
+the 11th century. For example, a common form of a full date would run
+thus: _Datum Laterani, per manum N., sanctae Romanae ecclesiae diaconi
+cardinalis, xiiii. kl. Maii, indictione V., anno dominicae Incarnationis
+mxcvii., pontificatus autem domini papae Urbani secundi X^o_. The simpler
+form of the date of a lesser bull might be: _Datum Laterani, iii. non.
+Jan., pontificatus nostri anno iiii_.
+
+By degrees the use of the lesser bulls almost entirely superseded that
+of the greater bulls, which became exceptional in the 13th century and
+almost ceased after the migration to Avignon in 1309. In modern times
+the greater bulls occasionally reappear for very solemn acts, as _bullae
+consistoriales_, executed in the consistory.
+
+The third period of papal documents extends from Innocent III. to
+Eugenius IV., A.D. 1198-1431. The pontificate of Innocent III. was a
+most important epoch in the history of the development of the papal
+chancery. Formulas became more exactly fixed, definitions more precise,
+the observation of rules and precedents more constant. The staff of the
+chancery was reorganized. The existing series of registers of papal
+documents was then commenced. The growing use of lesser bulls for the
+business of the papal court led to a further development in the 13th
+century. They were now divided into two classes: _Tituli_ and
+_Mandamenta_. The former conferred favours, promulgated precepts,
+judgments, decisions, &c. The latter comprised ordinances, commissions,
+&c., and were executive documents. There are certain features which
+distinguish the two classes. In the _tituli_, the initial letter of the
+pope's name is ornamented with openwork and the other letters are
+stilted. In the _mandamenta_, the initial is filled in solid and the
+other letters are of the same size as the rest of the text. In the
+_tituli_, enlarged letters mark the beginnings of the text and of
+certain clauses; but not in the _mandamenta_. In the former the mark of
+abbreviation is a looped sign; in the latter it is a horizontal stroke.
+In the former the old practice of leaving a gap between the letters s
+and t, and c and t, whenever they occur together in a word (e.g. _is
+te_, _sanc tus_), and linking them by a coupling stroke above the line
+is continued; in the latter it disappears. The leaden bulla attached to
+a _titulus_ (as a permanent deed) is suspended by cords of red and
+yellow silks; while that of a _mandamentum_ (a temporary deed) hangs
+from a hempen cord.
+
+In the fourth period, extending from 1431 to the present time, the
+_tituli_ and _mandamenta_ have continued to be the ordinary documents in
+use; but certain other kinds have also arisen. Briefs (_brevia_), or
+apostolic letters, concerning the personal affairs of the pope or the
+administration of the temporal dominion, or conceding indulgences, came
+into general use in the 13th century in the pontificate of Eugenius IV.
+They are written in the italic hand on thin white vellum; and the name
+of the pope with his style as _papa_ is written at the head of the
+sheet, e.g. _Eugenius papa iiii_. They are closed and sealed with Seal
+of the Fisherman, _sub anulo Piscatoris_. Briefs have almost superseded
+the _mandamenta_. The documents known as Signatures of the court of Rome
+or Latin letters, and used principally for the expedition of
+indulgences, were first introduced in the 15th century. They were drawn
+in the form of a petition to the pope, which he granted by the words
+_fiat ut petatur_ written across the top. They were not sealed; and only
+the pontifical year appears in the date. Lastly, the documents to which
+the name of _Motu proprio_ is given are also without seal and are used
+in the administration of the papal court, the formula _placet et ita
+motu proprio mandamus_ being signed by the pope.
+
+The character of the handwriting employed by the papal chancery is
+discussed in the article PALAEOGRAPHY. Here it will be enough to state
+that the early style was derived from the Lombardic hand, and that it
+continued in use down to the beginning of the 12th century; but that,
+from the 10th century, owing to the general adoption of the Caroline
+minuscule writing, it began to fall and gradually became so unfamiliar
+to the uninitiated, that, while it still continued in use for papal
+bulls, it was found necessary to accompany them with copies written in
+the more intelligible Caroline script. The intricate, fanciful
+character, known as the _Litera sancti Petri_, was invented in the time
+of Clement VIII., A.D. 1592-1605, was fully developed under Alexander
+VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of the year 1878 by
+Leo XIII.
+
+
+  Merovingian chancery.
+
+Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as ninety
+authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven are originals,
+the earliest being of the year 625. The most ancient examples were
+written on papyrus, vellum superseding that material towards the end of
+the 7th century. All these diplomas are technically letters, having the
+superscription and address and, at the foot, close to the seal, the
+valedictory _benevalete_. They commence with a monogrammatic invocation,
+which, together with the superscription and address written in fanciful
+elongated letters, occupies the first line. The superscription always
+runs in the form, _N. rex Francorum_. The most complete kinds of
+diplomas were authenticated by the king's subscription, that of the
+_referendarius_ (the official charged with the custody of the royal
+seal), the impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of
+prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was usually
+autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too illiterate to
+write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The referendary, if he
+countersigned the royal subscription, added the word _optulit_ to his
+own signature; if he subscribed independently, he wrote _recognovit et
+subscripsit_, the end of the last word being usually lost in flourishes
+forming a _ruche_. The date gave the place, day, month and year of the
+reign. The Merovingian royal diplomas are of two classes: (1) Precepts,
+conferring gifts, favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the
+documents themselves as _praeceptum_, _praeceptio_, _auctoritas_; some
+drawn up in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others
+less precise and formal. (2) Judgments (_judicia_), which required no
+preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign's
+judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and were
+sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were the _cartae
+de mundeburde_, taking persons under the royal protection, and
+_indiculi_ or letters transmitting orders or notifying decisions; but no
+examples have survived.
+
+
+  Carolingian chancery.
+
+The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural, but
+little from those of their predecessors. As mayors of the palace,
+Charles Martel and Pippin took the style of _vir inluster_. On becoming
+king, Pippin retained it; _Pippinus, vir inluster, rex Francorum_, and
+it continued to be part of the royal title till Charlemagne became
+emperor. The royal subscription was in form of a sign-manual or mark,
+but Charlemagne elaborated this into a monogram of the letters of his
+name built up on a cross. In 775 the royal title of Charlemagne became
+_Carolus, gratia Dei rex Francorum et Langobardorum, ac patricius
+Romanorum_, the last words being assumed on his visit to Rome in 774. On
+becoming emperor in 800, he was styled _Imperator, Romanum gubernans
+imperium, rex Francorum et Langobardorum_. It is to be noticed that
+thenceforth his name was spelt with initial K (as it was on the
+monogram), having previously been written with C in the deeds. Most of
+his diplomas were authenticated by the subscription of the chancellor
+and impression of the seal. A novelty in the form of dating was also
+introduced, two words, _datum_ (for time) and _actum_ (for place), being
+now employed. The character of the writing of the diplomas, founded on
+the Roman cursive hand, which had become very intricate under the
+Merovingians, improved under their successors, yet the reform which was
+introduced into the literary script hardly affected the cursive writing
+of diplomatic until the latter part of Charlemagne's reign. The archaic
+style was particularly maintained in judgments, which were issued by the
+private chancery of the palace, a department more conservative in its
+methods than the imperial chancery. It was in the reign of Louis
+Debonair, A.D. 814-840, that the Carolingian diploma took its final
+shape. A variation now appears in the monogram, that monarch's
+sign-manual being built up, not on a cross as previously, but on the
+letter H., the initial of his name Hludovicus, and serving as the
+pattern for successive monarchs of the name of Louis.
+
+In the Carolingian chancery the staff was exclusively ecclesiastical; at
+its head was the chancellor, whose title is traced back to the
+_cancellarius_, or petty officer under the Roman empire, stationed at
+the bar or lattice (_cancelli_) of the basilica or other law court and
+serving as usher. As keeper of the royal archives his subscription was
+indispensable for royal acts. The diplomas were drawn up by the
+notaries, an important body, upon whom devolved the duty of maintaining
+the formulae and traditions of the office. It has been observed that in
+the 9th century the documents were drawn carefully, but that in the 10th
+century there was a great degeneration in this respect. Under the early
+Capetian kings there was great confusion and want of uniformity in their
+diplomas; and it was not until the reign of Louis VI., A.D. 1108, that
+the formulae were again reduced to rules.
+
+
+  Imperial German chancery.
+
+The acts of the imperial chancery of Germany followed the patterns of
+the Carolingian diplomas, with little variation down to the reign of
+Frederick Barbarossa, A.D. 1152-1190. The sovereign's style was _N.
+divina favente clementia rex_; after coronation at Rome he became
+_imperator augustus_. At the end of the 10th century, Otto III.
+developed the latter title into _Romanorum imperator augustus_. Under
+Henry III., and regularly from the time of Henry V., A.D. 1106-1125, the
+title before coronation has been _Romanorum rex_. The royal monogram did
+not necessarily contain all the letters of the name; but, on the other
+hand, from the year 976, it became more complicated and combined the
+imperial title with the name. For example, the monogram of Henry II.
+combines the words _Henricus Romanorum imperator augustus_. The
+flourished _ruches_ also, as in the Frankish chanceries, were in vogue.
+Eventually they were used by certain of the chancellors as a sign-manual
+and took fanciful shapes, such as a building with a cupola, or even a
+diptych. They disappear early in the 12th century, the period when in
+other respects the chancery of the Holy Roman Empire largely adopted a
+more simple style in its diplomas. Lists of witnesses, in support of the
+royal and official subscriptions, were sometimes added in the course of
+the 11th century, and they appear regularly in documents a hundred years
+later.
+
+
+  Diplomatic in England.
+
+For the study of diplomatic in England, material exists in two distinct
+series of documents, those of the Anglo-Saxon period, and those
+subsequent to the Norman Conquest. The Anglo-Saxon kings appear to have
+borrowed, partially, the style of their diplomas from the chanceries of
+their Frankish neighbours, introducing at the same time modifications
+which give those documents a particular character marking their
+nationality. In some of the earlier examples we find that the lines of
+the foreign style are followed more or less closely; but very soon a
+simpler model was adopted which, while it varied in formulas from reign
+to reign, lasted in general construction down to the time of the Norman
+Conquest. The royal charters were usually drawn up in Latin, sometimes
+in Anglo-Saxon, and began with a preamble or exordium (in some instances
+preceded by an invocation headed with the chrismon or with a cross), in
+the early times of a simple character, but, later, drawn out not
+infrequently to great length in involved and bombastic periods. Then
+immediately followed the disposing or granting clause, often accompanied
+with a few words explaining the motive, such as, for the good of the
+soul of the grantor; and the text was closed with final clauses of
+varying extent, protecting the deed against infringement, &c. In early
+examples the dating clause gave the day and month (often according to
+the Roman calendar) and the year of the indiction; but the year of the
+Incarnation was also immediately adopted; and, later, the regnal year
+also. The position of this clause in the charter was subject to
+variation. The subscriptions of the king and of the personages
+witnessing the deed, each preceded by a cross, but all written by the
+hand of the scribe, usually closed the charter. A peculiarity was the
+introduction, in many instances, either in the body of the charter, or
+in a separate paragraph at the end, of the boundaries of the land
+granted, written in the native tongue. The sovereigns of the several
+kingdoms of the Heptarchy, as well as those of the United Kingdom,
+usually styled themselves _rex_. But from the time of AEthelstan, A.D.
+825-840, they also assumed fantastic titles in the text of their
+charters, such as: _rex et primicerius_, _rex et rector_, _gubernator et
+rector_, _monarchus_, and particularly the Greek _basileus_, and
+_basileus industrius_. At the same time the name of Albion was also
+frequently used for Britain.
+
+A large number of documents of the Anglo-Saxon period, dating from the
+7th century, has survived, both original and copies entered in
+chartularies. Of distinct documents there are nearly two hundred; but a
+large proportion of these must be set aside as copies (both contemporary
+and later) or as spurious deeds.
+
+Although there is evidence, as above stated, of the use of seals by
+certain of the Mercian kings, the method of authentication of diplomas
+by seal impression was practically unknown to the Anglo-Saxon
+sovereigns, save only to Edward the Confessor, who, copying the custom
+which obtained upon the continent, adopted the use of a great seal.
+
+With the Norman Conquest the old tradition of the Anglo-Saxons
+disappeared. The Conqueror brought with him the practice of the Roman
+chancery, which naturally followed the Capetian model; and his diplomas
+of English origin differed only from those of Normandy by the addition
+of his new style, _rex Anglorum_, in the superscription. But even from
+the first there was a tendency to simplicity in the new English
+chancery, not improbably suggested by the brief formalities of
+Anglo-Saxon charters, and, side by side with the more formal royal
+diplomas, others of shorter form and less ceremony were issued, which by
+the reign of Henry II. quite superseded the more solemn documents. These
+simpler charters began with the royal superscription, the address, and
+the salutation, e.g. _Willelmus, Dei gratia rex Anglorum, N. episcopo et
+omnibus baronibus et fidelibus suis Francis et Anglis salutem_. Then
+followed the notification and the grant, e.g. _Sciatis me concessisse_,
+&c., generally without final clauses, or, if any, brief clauses of
+protection and warranty; and, at the end, the list of witnesses and the
+date. The regnal year was usually cited; but the year of the Incarnation
+was also sometimes given. The great seal was appended. To some of the
+Conqueror's charters his subscription and those of his queen and sons
+are attached, written by the scribe, but accompanied with crosses which
+may or may not be autograph. By the reign of John the simpler form of
+royal charters had taken final shape, and from this time the acts of the
+kings of England have been classified under three heads: viz. (1)
+Charters, generally of the pattern described above; (2) Letters patent,
+in which the address is general, _Universis presentes litteras
+inspecturis_, &c.; the corroborative clause describes the character of
+the document, _In cujus rei testimonium has literas nostras fieri
+fecimus patentes_; the king himself is his own witness, _Teste me ipso_;
+and the great seal is appended; (3) Close letters, administrative
+documents conveying orders, the king witnessing, _Teste me ipso_.
+
+The style of the English kings down to John was, with few exceptions,
+_Rex Anglorum_; thenceforward, _Rex Angliae_. Henry II. added the feudal
+titles, _dux Normannorum et Aquitanorum et comes Andegavorum_, which
+Henry III. curtailed to _dux Aquitaniae_. John added the title _dominus
+Hiberniae_; Edward III., on claiming the crown of France, styled himself
+rex _Angliae et Franciae_, the same title being borne by successive
+kings down to the year 1801; and Henry VIII., in 1521, assumed the title
+of _fidei defensor_. The formula _Dei gratia_ does not consistently
+accompany the royal title until the reign of Henry II., who adopted it
+in 1173 (see L. Delisle, _Memoire sur la chronologie des chartes de
+Henri II._, in the _Bibl. de l'Ecole des Chartes_, lxvii. 361-401).
+
+
+  Private deeds.
+
+The forms adopted in the royal chanceries were naturally imitated in the
+composition of private deeds which in all countries form the mass of
+material for historical and diplomatic research. The student of English
+diplomatic will soon remark how readily the private charters, especially
+conveyances of real property, fall into classes, and how stereotyped the
+phraseology and formulae of each class become, only modified from time
+to time by particular acts of legislation. The brevity of the early
+conveyances is maintained through successive generations, with only
+moderate growth as time progresses through the 12th, 13th and 14th
+centuries. The different kinds of deeds which the requirements of
+society have from time to time called into existence must be learned by
+the student from the text-books. But a particular form of document which
+was especially in favour in England should be mentioned. This was the
+chirograph (Gr. [Greek: cheir], a hand, [Greek: graphein], to write),
+which is found even in the Anglo-Saxon period, and which got its name
+from the word _chirographum_, _cirographum_ or _cyrographum_ being
+written in large letters at the head of the deed. At first the word was
+written, presumably, at the head of each of the two authentic copies
+which the two parties to a transaction would require. Then it became the
+habit to use the word thus written as a tally, the two copies of the
+deed being written on one sheet, head to head, with the word between
+them, which was then cut through longitudinally in a straight, or more
+commonly waved or indented (_in modum dentium_) line, each of the two
+copies thus having half of the word at the head. Any other word, or a
+series of letters, might thus be employed; and more than two copies of a
+deed could thus be made to tally. The chirograph was the precursor of
+the modern indenture, the commonest form of English deeds, though no
+longer a tally. In other countries, the notarial instrument has
+performed the functions which the chirograph and indenture have
+discharged for us.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--General treatises, handbooks,, &c., are J. Mabillon, _De
+  re diplomatica_ (1709); Tassin and Toustain, _Nouveau Traite de
+  diplomatique_ (1750-1765); T. Madox, _Formulare Anglicanum_ (1702); G.
+  Hickes, _Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus_ (1703-1705); F. S.
+  Maffei, _Istoria diplomatica_ (1727); G. Marini, _I Papiri
+  diplomatici_ (1805); G. Bessel, _Chronicon Gotwicense (De diplomatibus
+  imperatorum ac regum Germaniae)_ (1732); A. Fumagalli, _Delle
+  istituzioni diplomatiche_ (1802); M. F. Kopp, _Palaeographia critica_
+  (1817-1829); K. T. G. Schonemann, _Versuch eines vollstandigen Systems
+  der Diplomatik_ (1818); T. Sickel, _Lehre von den Urkunden der ersten
+  Karolinger_ (1867); J. Ficker, _Beitrage zur Urkundenlehre_
+  (1877-1878); A. Gloria, _Compendio delle lezioni di paleografia e
+  diplomatica_ (1870); C. Paoli, _Programma scolastico di paleografia
+  Latina e di diplomatica_ (1888-1890); H. Bresslau, _Handbuch der
+  Urkundenlehre fur Deutschland und Italien_ (1889); A. Giry, _Manuel de
+  diplomatique_ (1894); F. Leist, _Urkundenlehre_ (1893); E. M.
+  Thompson, _Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography_, cap. xix.
+  (1906); J. M. Kemble, _Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici_ (1839-1848);
+  W. G. Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_ (1885-1893); J. Munoz y Rivero,
+  _Manuel de paleografia diplomatica Espanola_ (1890); M. Russi,
+  _Paleografia e diplomatica de' documenti delle provincie Napolitane_
+  (1883). Facsimiles are given in J. B. Silvestrestre _Paleographie
+  universelle_ (English edition, 1850); and in the _Facsimiles_, &c.,
+  published by the Palaeographical Society (1873-1894) and the New
+  Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.); and also in the following
+  works:--A. Champollion-Figeac, _Chartes et manuscrits sur papyrus_
+  (1840); J. A. Letronne, _Diplomes et chartes de l'epoque
+  merovingienne_ (1845-1866); J. Tardif, _Archives de l'Empire:
+  Facsimile de chartes et diplomes merovingiens et carlovingiens_
+  (1866); G. H. Pettz, _Schrifttafeln zum Gebrauch bei diplomatischen
+  Vorlesungen_ (1844-1869); H. von Sybel and T. Sickel, _Kaiserurkunden
+  in Abbildungen_ (1880-1891); J. von Pflugk-Harttung, _Specimina
+  selecta chartarum Pontificum Romanorum_ (1885-1887); _Specimina
+  palaeographica regestorum Romanorum pontificum_ (1888); _Recueil de
+  fac-similes a l'usage de l'Ecole des Chartes_ (not published) (1880,
+  &c.); J. Munoz y Rivero, _Chrestomathia palaeographica: scripturae
+  Hispanae veteris specimina_ (1890); E. A. Bond, _Facsimiles of Ancient
+  Charters in the British Museum_ (1873-1878): W. B. Sanders,
+  _Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts_ (charters) (1878-1884); G. F.
+  Warner and H. J. Ellis, _Facsimiles of Royal and other Charters in the
+  British Museum_ (1903).     (E. M. T.)
+
+
+
+
+DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS, early Greek sculptors, who worked together, and
+are said to have been pupils of Daedalus. Pliny assigns to them the date
+580 B.C., and says that they worked at Sicyon, which city from their
+time onwards became one of the great schools of sculpture. They also
+made statues for Cleonae and Argos. They worked in wood, ebony and
+ivory, and apparently also in marble. It is curious that no inscription
+bearing their names has come to light.
+
+
+
+
+DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD (1673-1734), German theologian and alchemist, son
+of a Lutheran pastor, was born at the castle of Frankenstein, near
+Darmstadt, on the 10th of August 1673. He studied theology at Giessen.
+After a short visit to Wittenberg he went to Strassburg, where he
+lectured on alchemy and chiromancy, and occasionally preached. He gained
+considerable popularity, but was obliged after a time to quit the city,
+owing to his irregular manner of living. He had up to this time espoused
+the cause of the orthodox as against the pietists; but in his two first
+works, published under the name "Christianus Democritus," _Orthodoxia
+Orthodoxorum_ (1697) and _Papismus vapulans Protestantium_ (1698), he
+assailed the fundamental positions of the Lutheran theology. He held
+that religion consisted not in dogma but exclusively in love and
+self-sacrifice. To avoid persecution he was compelled to wander from
+place to place in Germany, Holland, Denmark and Sweden. He took the
+degree of doctor of medicine at Leiden in 1711. He discovered Prussian
+blue, and by the destructive distillation of bones prepared the
+evil-smelling product known as Dippel's animal oil. He died near
+Berleburg on the 25th of April 1734.
+
+  An enlarged edition of Dippel's collected works was published at
+  Berleburg in 1743. See the biographies by J. C. G. Ackermann (Leipzig,
+  1781), H. V. Hoffmann (Darmstadt, 1783), K. Henning (1881) and W.
+  Bender (Bonn, 1882); also a memoir by K. Bucher in the _Historisches
+  Taschenbuch_ for 1858.
+
+
+
+
+DIPSOMANIA (from [Gr. dipsa], thirst, and [Greek: mania], madness), a
+term formerly applied to the attacks of delirium (q.v.) caused by
+alcoholic poisoning. It is now sometimes loosely used as equivalent to
+the condition of incurable inebriates, but strictly should be confined
+to the pathological and insatiable desire for alcohol, sometimes
+occurring in paroxysms.
+
+
+
+
+DIPTERA ([Greek: dis], double, [Greek: ptera], wings), a term (first
+employed in its modern sense by Linnaeus, _Fauna Suecica_, 1st ed.,
+1746, p. 306) used in zoological classification for one of the Orders
+into which the _Hexapoda_, or Insecta, are divided. The relation of the
+Diptera (two-winged flies, or flies proper) to the other Orders is dealt
+with under Hexapoda (q.v.).
+
+The chief characteristic of the Diptera is expressed in the name of the
+Order, since, with the exception of certain aberrant and apterous forms,
+flies possess but a single pair of membranous wings, which are attached
+to the meso-thorax. Wing-covers and hind-wings are alike absent, and the
+latter are represented by a pair of little knobbed organs, the halteres
+or balancers, which have a controlling and directing function in flight.
+The other structural characters of the Order may be briefly summarized
+as:--mouth-parts adapted for piercing and sucking, or for suction alone,
+and consisting of a proboscis formed of the labium, and enclosing
+modifications of the other usual parts of the mouth, some of which,
+however, may be wanting; a thorax fused into a single mass; and legs
+with five-jointed tarsi. The wings, which are not capable of being
+folded, are usually transparent, but occasionally pigmented and adorned
+with coloured spots, blotches or bands; the wing-membrane, though
+sometimes clothed with minute hairs, seldom bears scales; the
+wing-veins, which are of great importance in the classification of
+Diptera, are usually few in number and chiefly longitudinal, there being
+a marked paucity of cross-veins. In a large number of Diptera an
+incision in the posterior margin of the wing, near the base, marks off a
+small lobe, the posterior lobe or alula, while connected with this but
+situated on the thorax itself there is a pair of membranous scales, or
+squamae, which when present serve to conceal the halteres. The antennae
+of Diptera, which are also extremely important in classification, are
+thread-like in the more primitive families, such as the _Tipulidae_
+(daddy-long-legs), where they consist of a considerable number of
+joints, all of which except the first two, and sometimes also the last
+two, are similar in shape; in the more specialized families, such as the
+_Tabanidae_ (horse-flies), _Syrphidae_ (hover-flies) or _Muscidae_
+(house-flies, blue-bottles and their allies), the number of antennal
+joints is greatly reduced by coalescence, so that the antennae appear to
+consist of only three joints. In these forms, however, the third joint
+is really a complex, which in many families bears in addition a jointed
+bristle (arista) or style, representing the terminal joints of the
+primitive antenna. Although in the case of the majority of Diptera the
+body is more or less clothed with hair, the hairy covering is usually so
+short that to the unaided eye the insects appear almost bare; some
+forms, however, such as the bee-flies (_Bombylius_) and certain
+robber-flies (_Asilidae_) are conspicuously hairy. Bristles are usually
+present on the legs, and in the case of many families on the body also;
+those on the head and thorax are of great importance in classification.
+
+Between 40,000 and 50,000 species of Diptera are at present known, but
+these are only a fraction of those actually in existence. The species
+recognized as British number some 2700, but to this total additions are
+constantly being made. As a rule flies are of small or moderate size,
+and many, such as certain blood-sucking midges of the genus
+_Ceratopogon_, are even minute; as extremes of size may be mentioned a
+common British midge, _Ceratopogon varius_, the female of which measures
+only 1-1/4 millimetre, and the gigantic _Mydaidae_ of Central and South
+America as well as certain Australian robber-flies, which have a body
+1-3/4 in. long, with a wing-expanse of 3-1/4 in. In bodily form Diptera
+present two main types, either, as in the case of the more primitive and
+generalized families, they are gnat- or midge-like in shape, with
+slender bodies and long, delicate legs, or else they exhibit a more or
+less distinct resemblance to the common house-fly, having compact and
+stoutly built bodies and legs of moderate length. Diptera in general are
+not remarkable for brilliancy of coloration; as a rule they are dull and
+inconspicuous in hue, the prevailing body-tints being browns and greys;
+occasionally, however, more especially in species (_Syrphidae_) that
+mimic Hymenoptera, the body is conspicuously banded with yellow; a few
+are metallic, such as the species of _Formosia_, found in the islands of
+the East Indian Archipelago, which are among the most brilliant of all
+insects. The sexes in Diptera are usually alike, though in a number of
+families with short antennae the males are distinguished by the fact
+that their eyes meet together (or nearly so) on the forehead.
+Metamorphosis in Diptera is complete; the larvae are utterly different
+from the perfect insects in appearance, and, although varying greatly in
+outward form, are usually footless grubs; those of the _Muscidae_ are
+generally known as maggots. The pupa either shows the appendages of the
+perfect insect, though these are encased in a sheath and adherent to the
+body, or else it is entirely concealed within the hardened and
+contracted larval integument, which forms a barrel-shaped protecting
+capsule or puparium.
+
+Diptera are divided into some sixty families, the exact classification
+of which has not yet been finally settled. The majority of authors,
+however, follow Brauer in dividing the order into two sections,
+Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha, according to the manner in which the
+pupa-case splits to admit of the escape of the perfect insect. The
+general characteristics of the pupae in these two sections have already
+been described.
+
+In the Orthorrhapha, in the pupae of which the appendages of the perfect
+insect are usually visible, the pupa-case generally splits in a straight
+line down the back near the cephalic end; in front of this longitudinal
+cleft there may be a small transverse one, the two together forming a
+T-shaped fissure. In the Cyclorrhapha on the other hand, in which the
+actual pupa is concealed within the hardened larval skin, the imago
+escapes through a circular orifice formed by pushing off or through the
+head end of the puparium. The Diptera Orthorrhapha include the more
+primitive and less specialized families such as the _Tipulidae_
+(daddy-long-legs), _Culicidae_ (gnats or mosquitoes), _Chironomidae_
+(midges), _Mycetophilidae_ (fungus-midges), _Tabanidae_ (horse-flies),
+_Asilidae_ (robber-flies), &c. The Diptera Cyclorrhapha on the other
+hand consist of the most highly specialized families, such as the
+_Syrphidae_ (hover-flies), _Oestridae_ (bot and warble flies), and
+_Muscidae_ (_sensu latiore_--the house-fly and its allies, including
+tsetse-flies, flesh-flies, _Tachininae_, or flies the larvae of which
+are internal parasites of caterpillars, &c). It is customary to divide
+the Orthorrhapha into the two divisions Nematocera and Brachycera, in
+the former of which the antennae are elongate and in a more or less
+primitive condition, as described above, while in the latter these
+organs are short, and, as already explained, apparently composed of only
+three joints.
+
+Within the divisions named--Orthorrhapha Nematocera, Orthorrhapha
+Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha--the constituent families are usually
+grouped into a series of "superfamilies," distinguished by features of
+structure or habit. Certain extremely aberrant Diptera, which, in
+consequence of the adoption of a parasitic mode of life, have undergone
+great structural modification, are further remarkable for their peculiar
+mode of reproduction, on account of which the families composing the
+group are often termed Pupipara. In these forms the pregnant female,
+instead of laying eggs, as Diptera usually do, or even producing a
+number of minute living larvae, gives birth at one time but to a single
+larva, which is retained within the oviduct of the mother until adult,
+and assumes the pupal state immediately on extrusion. The Pupipara are
+also termed Eproboscidea (although they actually possess a
+well-developed and functional proboscis), and by some dipterists the
+Eproboscidea are regarded as a suborder and contrasted as such with the
+rest of the Diptera, which are styled the suborder Proboscidea. By other
+writers Proboscidea and Eproboscidea are treated as primary divisions of
+the Cyclorrhapha. In reality, however, the families designated
+Eproboscidea (_Hippoboscidae_, _Braulidae_, _Nycteribiidae_ and
+_Streblidae_), are not entitled to be considered as constituting either
+a suborder, or even a main division of the Cyclorrhapha; they are simply
+Cyclorrhapha much modified owing to parasitism, and in view of the
+closely similar mode of reproduction in the tsetse-flies the special
+designation Pupipara should be abandoned. Before leaving the subject of
+classification it may be noted in passing that in 1906 Professor
+Lameere, of Brussels, proposed a scheme for the classification of
+Diptera which as regards both the limits of the families and their
+grouping into higher categories differs considerably from that in
+current use.
+
+Little light on the relationship and evolution of the various families
+of Diptera is afforded by fossil forms, since as a rule the latter are
+readily referable to existing families. With the exception of a few
+species from the Solenhofen lithographic Oolite, fossil Diptera belong
+to the Tertiary Period, during which the members of this order attained
+a high degree of development. In amber, as proved by the deposits on the
+shores of the Baltic, the proverbial "fly" is more numerous than any
+other creatures, and with very few exceptions representatives of all the
+existing families have been found. The famous Tertiary beds at
+Florissant, Colorado, have yielded a considerable number of remarkably
+well-preserved _Tipulidae_ (in which family are included the most
+primitive of existing Diptera), as also species belonging to other
+families, such as _Mycetophilidae_ and even _Oestridae_.
+
+Diptera as an order are probably more widely distributed over the
+earth's surface than are the representatives of any similar division of
+the animal kingdom. Flies seem capable of adapting themselves to
+extremes of cold equally as well as to those of heat, and species
+belonging to the order are almost invariably included in the collections
+brought back by members of Arctic expeditions. Others are met with in
+the most isolated localities; thus the Rev. A. E. Eaton discovered on
+the desolate shores of Kerguelen's Island apterous and semi-apterous
+Diptera (_Tipulidae_ and _Ephydridae_) of a degraded type adapted to the
+climatic peculiarities of the locality. Many bird parasites belonging to
+the _Hippoboscidae_ have naturally been carried about the world by their
+hosts, while other species, such as the house-fly, blow-fly and
+drone-fly, have in like manner been disseminated by human agency. Most
+families and a large proportion of genera are represented throughout the
+world, but in some cases (e.g. _Glossina_--see TSETSE-FLY) the
+distribution of a genus is limited to a continent. As a rule the general
+_facies_ as well as dimensions are remarkably uniform throughout a
+family, so that tropical species often differ little in appearance from
+those inhabiting temperate regions. Many instances of exaggerated and
+apparently unnatural structure nevertheless occur, as in the case of the
+genera _Pangonia_, _Nemestrina_, _Achias_, _Diopsis_ and the family
+_Celyphidae_, and, as might be expected, it is chiefly in tropical
+species that these peculiarities are found. To a geographical
+distribution of the widest extent, Diptera add a range of habits of the
+most diversified nature; they are both animal and vegetable feeders, an
+enormous number of species acting, especially in the larval state, as
+scavengers in consuming putrescent or decomposing matter of both kinds.
+The phytophagous species are attached to various parts of plants, dead
+or alive; and the carnivorous in like manner feed on dead or living
+flesh, or its products, many larvae being parasitic on living animals of
+various classes (in Australia the larva of a species of _Muscidae_ is
+even a parasite of frogs), especially the caterpillars of Lepidoptera,
+which are destroyed in great numbers by _Tachininae_. The recent
+discovery of a bloodsucking maggot, which is found in native huts
+throughout the greater part of tropical and subtropical Africa, and
+attacks the inmates when asleep, is of great interest.
+
+It may confidently be asserted that, of insects which directly or
+indirectly affect the welfare of man, Diptera form the vast majority,
+and it is a moot point whether the good effected by many species in the
+rapid clearing away of animal and vegetable impurities, and in keeping
+other insect enemies in check, counterbalances the evil and annoyance
+wrought by a large section of the Order. The part played by certain
+blood-sucking Diptera in the dissemination of disease is now well known
+(see MOSQUITO and TSETSE-FLY), and under the term _myiasis_ medical
+literature includes a lengthy recital of instances of the presence of
+Dipterous larvae in various parts of the living human body, and the
+injuries caused thereby. That Diptera of the type of the common
+house-fly are often in large measure responsible for the spread of such
+diseases as cholera and enteric fever is undeniable, and as regards
+blood-sucking forms, in addition to those to which reference has already
+been made, it is sufficient to mention the vast army of pests
+constituted by the midges, sand-flies, horse-flies, &c., from the
+attacks of which domestic animals suffer equally with man, in addition
+to being frequently infested with the larvae of the bot and warble flies
+(_Gastrophilus_, _Oestrus_ and _Hypoderma_). Lastly, as regards the
+phytophagous forms, there can be no doubt that the destruction of
+grass-lands by "leather-jackets" (the larvae of crane-flies, or
+daddy-long-legs,--_Tipula oleracea_ and _T. paludosa_), of divers fruits
+by _Ceratitis capitata_ and species of _Dacus_, and of wheat and other
+crops by the Hessian-fly (_Mayetiola destructor_) and species of
+_Oscinis_, _Chlorops_, &c., is of very serious consequence.
+
+With many writers it is customary to treat the fleas as a sub-order of
+Diptera, under the title Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera. Since, however,
+although undoubtedly allied to the Diptera, they must have diverged from
+the ancestral stem at an early period, before the existing forms of
+Diptera became so extremely specialized, it seems better to regard the
+fleas as constituting an independent order (see FLEA).     (E. E. A.)
+
+
+
+
+DIPTERAL (Gr. for "double-winged"), the architectural term applied to
+those temples which have a double range of columns in the peristyle, as
+in the temple of Diana at Ephesus.
+
+
+
+
+DIPTYCH (Gr. [Greek: diptychos], two-folding), (1) A tablet made with a
+hinge to open and shut, used in the Roman empire for letters (especially
+love-letters), and official tokens of the commencement of a consul's,
+praetor's or aedile's term of office. The latter variety of diptych was
+inscribed with the magistrate's name and bore his portrait, and was
+issued to his friends and the public generally. They were made of
+boxwood or maple. More costly examples were in cedar, ivory (q.v.),
+silver or sometimes gold. They were often sent as New Year gifts.
+
+(2)In the primitive church when the worshippers brought their own
+offerings of bread and wine, from which were taken the Communion
+elements, the names of the contributors were recorded on diptychs and
+read aloud. To these names were early added those of deceased members of
+the community whom it was desired to commemorate. This custom rapidly
+developed into a kind of commemoration of saints and benefactors, living
+and dead; especially, in each church, were the names of those who had
+been its bishops recorded. The custom was maintained until the lists
+became so long that it was impossible to read them through, and the
+observance in this form had to be abandoned. The insertion of a name on
+the diptych, thereby securing the prayers of the church, was a privilege
+from which a person could be excluded on account of suspicion of heresy
+or by the intrigues of enemies. His name could, if written, be expunged
+under similar circumstances. The names thus written were read from the
+ambo, in which the diptych was kept. The reading of these names during
+the canon of the mass gave rise to the term _canonization_. By various
+councils it was ordained that the name of the pope should always be
+inserted in the diptych list.
+
+The addition of _dates_ resulted from the custom of recording baptisms
+and deaths; and thus the diptych developed into a calendar and formed
+the germ of the elaborate system of festologies, martyrologies and
+calendars which developed in the church.
+
+The diptych went by various names in the early church--mystical tablets,
+anniversary books, ecclesiastical matriculation registers or books of
+the living. According to the names inscribed, bishops, the dead or the
+living, a diptych might be a _diptycha episcoporum_, _diptycha
+mortuorum_ or _diptycha vivorum_.
+
+In course of time the list of the names swelled to such proportions that
+the space afforded by the diptych was insufficient. A third fold was
+consequently provided, and the tablet became a _triptych_ (though the
+name _diptych_ was retained as a general term for the object). Further
+room was afforded by the insertion of leaves of parchment or wood
+between the folds. The custom of reading names from the diptychs died
+out about the 8th century. The diptychs, however, were retained as altar
+ornaments. From the original consular documents onwards, the outsides of
+the folds had always been richly ornamented, and when they ceased to be
+of immediate practical use they became merely decorative. Instead of the
+list of names the inside was ornamented like the outer, and in the
+middle ages the best painters of the day would often paint them. When
+folded, the portraits of the donor and his wife might be shown; when
+open there would be three paintings, one on each fold, of a religious
+character.     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+DIR, an independent state in the North-West Frontier Province of India,
+lying to the north-east of Swat. Its importance chiefly arises from the
+fact that it commands the greater part of the route between Chitral and
+the Peshawar frontier. The quarrels and intrigues between the khan of
+Dir and Umra Khan of Jandol were among the chief events that led up to
+the Chitral Campaign of 1895. During that expedition the khan made an
+agreement with the British Government to keep the road to Chitral open
+in return for a subsidy. Including the Bashkars, an aboriginal tribe
+allied to the Torwals and Garhuis, who inhabit Panjkora Kohistan, the
+population is estimated at about 100,000.
+
+
+
+
+DIRCE, in Greek legend, daughter of Helios the sun-god, the second wife
+of Lycus, king of Thebes. She sorely persecuted Antiope, his first wife,
+who escaped to Mount Cithaeron, where her twin sons Amphion and Zethus
+were being brought up by a herdsman who was ignorant of their parentage.
+Having recognized their mother, the sons avenged her by tying Dirce to
+the horns of a wild bull, which dragged her about till she died. Her
+body was cast into a spring near Thebes, which was ever afterwards
+called by her name. Her punishment is the subject of the famous group
+called "The Farnese Bull," by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, in
+the Naples museum (see GREEK ART, Plate I. fig. 51).
+
+
+
+
+DIRECT MOTION, in astronomy, the apparent motion of a body of the solar
+system on the celestial sphere in the direction from west to east; so
+called because this is the usual direction of revolution and rotation of
+the heavenly bodies.
+
+
+
+
+DIRECTORS, in company law, the agents by whom a trading or public
+company acts, the company itself being a legal abstraction and unable to
+do anything. As joint-stock companies have multiplied and their
+enterprise has extended, the position of directors has become one of
+increasing influence and importance. It is they who control the colossal
+funds now invested in trading companies, and who direct their policy
+(for shareholders are seldom more than dividend-drawers). Upon their
+uprightness, vigilance and sound judgment depends the welfare of the
+greatest part of the trade of the country concerned. It is not to be
+wondered at that in view of this influence and independence of action
+the law courts have held directors to a strict standard of duty, and
+that the parliament of the United Kingdom has singled out directors from
+other agents for special legislation in the Directors Liability Act
+1890, the Larceny Act 1861, the Companies Act 1867 and the Winding-up
+Act 1890.
+
+The first directors of a company are generally appointed by the articles
+of association. Their consent to act must now, under the Companies Act
+1908, be filed with the registrar of joint-stock companies. Directors
+other than the first are elected at the annual general meeting, a
+certain proportion of the acting directors--usually one-third--retiring
+under the articles by rotation each year, and their places being filled
+up by election. A share qualification is nearly always required, on the
+well-recognized principle that a substantial stake in the undertaking is
+the best guarantee of fidelity to the company's interests. A director
+once appointed cannot be removed during his term of office by the
+shareholders, unless there is a special provision for that purpose in
+the articles of association; but a company may dismiss a director if the
+articles--as is usually the case--authorize dismissal. The authority and
+powers of directors are prima facie those necessary for carrying on the
+ordinary business of the company, but it is usual to define the more
+important of such powers in the articles of association. For instance,
+it is commonly prescribed how and when the directors may make calls, to
+what amount they may borrow, how they may invest the funds of the
+company, in what circumstances they may forfeit shares, or veto
+transfers, in what manner they shall conduct their proceedings, and what
+shall constitute a quorum of the board. Whenever, indeed, specific
+directions are desirable they may properly be given by the articles. But
+superadded to and supplementing these specific powers there is usually
+inserted in the articles a general power of management in terms similar
+to those of clause 55 of the model regulations for a company, known as
+Table A (clause 71 of the revised Table). The powers, whether general or
+specific, thus confided to directors are in the nature of a trust, and
+the directors must exercise them with a single eye to the benefit of the
+company. For instance, in allotting shares they must consult the
+interests of the company, not favour their friends. So in forfeiting
+shares they must not use the power collusively for the purpose of
+relieving the shareholder from liability. To do so is an abuse of the
+power and a fraud on the other shareholders.
+
+It would give a very erroneous idea of the position and functions of
+directors to speak of them--as is sometimes done--as trustees. They are
+only trustees in the sense that every agent is. They are "commercial men
+managing a trading concern for the benefit of themselves and the other
+shareholders." They have to carry on the company's business, to extend
+and consolidate it, and to do this they must have a free hand and a
+large discretion to deal with the exigencies of the commercial
+situation. This large discretion the law allows them so long as they
+keep within the limits set by the company's memorandum and articles.
+They are not to be held liable for mere errors of judgment, still less
+for being defrauded. That would make their position intolerable. All
+that the law requires of them is that they should be faithful to their
+duties as agents--"diligent and honest," to use the words of Sir George
+Jessel, formerly master of the rolls. Thus in the matter of diligence it
+is a director's duty to attend as far as possible all meetings of the
+board; at the same time non-attendance, unless gross, will not amount to
+negligence such as to render a director liable for irregularities
+committed by his co-directors in his absence. A director again must not
+sign cheques without informing himself of the purpose for which they are
+given. A director, on the same principle, must not delegate his duties
+to others unless expressly authorized to do so, as where the company's
+articles empower the directors to appoint a committee. Directors may, it
+is true, employ skilled persons, such as engineers, valuers or
+accountants, to assist them, but they must still exercise their judgment
+as business men on the materials before them. Then in the matter of
+honesty, a director must not accept a present in cash or shares or in
+any other form whatever from the company's vendor, because such a
+present is neither more nor less than a bribe to betray the interests of
+the company, nor must he make any profit in the matter of his agency
+without the knowledge and consent of his principal, the company. He must
+not, in other words, put himself in a position in which his duty to the
+company and his own interest conflict or even may conflict. This rule
+often comes into play in the case of contracts between a company and a
+director. There is nothing in itself invalid in such a contract, but the
+onus is on the director if he would keep such a contract to show that
+the company assented to his making a profit out of the contract, and for
+that purpose he must show that he made full and fair disclosure to the
+company of the nature and extent of his interest under the contract. It
+is for this reason that when a company's vendor is also a director he
+does not join the board until his co-directors have exercised an
+independent judgment on the propriety of the purchase.
+
+A director must also bear in mind--what is a fundamental principle of
+company management--that the funds of the company are entrusted to the
+directors for the objects of the company as defined by the company's
+memorandum of association and authorized by the general law, and that
+they must not be diverted from those objects or applied to purposes
+which are outside the objects of the company, _ultra vires_, as it is
+commonly called, or outside the powers of management given by the
+shareholders to the directors. This does not abridge the large
+discretion allowed to directors in carrying on the business of the
+company. The funds embarked in a trading company are intended to be
+employed for the acquisition of gain, and risk, greater or less
+according to circumstances, is necessarily incidental to such
+employment; but it is quite another matter when directors pay dividends
+out of capital, or return capital to the shareholders, or spend money of
+the company in "rigging" the market, or in buying the company's shares
+or paying commission for underwriting the shares of the company except
+where such commission is authorized under acts of 1900 and 1907,
+incorporated in the Companies Act 1908. Directors who in these or any
+other ways misapply the funds of the company are guilty of what is
+technically known as "misfeasance" or breach of trust, and all who join
+in the misapplication are jointly and severally liable to replace the
+sums so misapplied. The remedy of the company for misfeasance, if the
+company is a going concern, is by action against the delinquent
+directors; but where a company is being wound up, the legislature has,
+under the Winding-up Act 1890, provided a summary mode of proceeding, by
+which the official receiver or liquidator, or any creditor or
+contributory of the company, may take out what is known as a misfeasance
+summons, to compel the delinquent director or officer to repay the
+misapplied moneys or make compensation. The departmental committee of
+the Board of Trade in its report (July 1906) recommended that the court
+should be given a discretionary power, analogous to that it already
+possesses in the case of trustees under the Judicial Trustees Act 1896,
+s. 3, to relieve a director (or a promoter) in certain cases from
+liability. This recommendation has been given effect to by s. 279 of the
+Companies Act 1908, which provides that, "If in any proceeding against a
+director of a company for negligence or breach of trust it appears to a
+court that the director is or may be liable in respect of the negligence
+or breach of trust, but has acted honestly and reasonably and ought
+fairly to be excused for the negligence or breach of trust, the court
+may relieve him either wholly or partly from his liability on such terms
+as the court may think proper."
+
+Directors who circulate a prospectus containing statements which they
+know to be false, with intent to induce any person to become a
+shareholder, may be prosecuted under S 84 of the Larceny Act 1861. They
+are also liable criminally for falsification of the company's books, and
+for this or any other criminal offence the court in winding up may, on
+the application of the liquidator, direct a prosecution. As to the
+liability of directors for statements or omissions in a prospectus see
+COMPANY.
+
+In managing the affairs of the company directors must meet together and
+act as a body, for the company is entitled to their collective wisdom in
+council assembled. Board meetings are held at such intervals as the
+directors think expedient. Notice of the meeting must be given to all
+directors who are within reach, but the notice need not specify the
+particular business to be transacted. The articles usually fix, or give
+the directors power to fix, what number shall constitute a quorum for a
+board meeting. They also empower the directors to elect a chairman of
+the board. The directors exercise their powers by a resolution of the
+board which is recorded in the directors' minute-book.
+
+The court will not as a rule interfere with the discretion of directors
+honestly exercised in the management of the affairs of the company. The
+directors have prima facie the confidence of the shareholders, and it is
+not for the court to say that such confidence is misplaced. If the
+stockholders are dissatisfied with the management the remedy is in their
+own hands--they can call a meeting and elect a new board.
+
+A company's articles usually provide for the payment of a certain sum to
+each director for his services during the year. When this is the case it
+is an authority to the directors to pay themselves the amount of such
+remuneration. The remuneration, unless otherwise expressly provided,
+covers all expenses incidental to the directors' duties. A director, for
+instance, cannot claim to be paid in addition to his fixed remuneration
+his travelling expenses for attending board meetings.
+
+When a company winds up, the directors' powers of management come to an
+end. Their agency is superseded in favour of that of the liquidator.
+     (E. MA.)
+
+
+
+
+DIRECTORY, a term meaning literally that which guides or directs, and so
+applied to a book or set of rules giving directions for public worship.
+The _directorium_ or _ordo_ of the Roman Church contains regulations as
+to the Mass and office to be used on each day throughout the year, and
+the word is found in the _Directory for the Publick Worship of God_
+drawn up in 1644 at the Westminster Assembly. The term now usually
+signifies a book containing the names, addresses and occupations, &c. of
+the inhabitants of a town or district, or of a similar list of the users
+of a telephone supply, or of the members of a particular profession or
+trade. The name _Directoire_ or Directory was given to the body which
+held the executive power in France from October 1795 until November 1799
+(see FRENCH REVOLUTION).
+
+
+
+
+DIRGE, a song or hymn of mourning, particularly one sung at funerals or
+at a Service in commemoration of the dead. It is derived from the first
+word of the antiphon _"Dirige, Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam
+meam"_ (Guide, O Lord, my God, my way in Thy sight), of the opening
+psalm in the office for the dead in the Roman Church. The antiphon is
+adapted from verse 8 of Psalm v.
+
+
+
+
+DIRK, a dagger, particularly the heavy dagger carried by the Highlanders
+of Scotland. The dirk as worn in full Highland costume is an elaborately
+ornamented weapon, with cairngorms or other stones set in the head of
+the handle, which has no guard. Inserted in the sheath there may be two
+small knives. The dirk, in the shape of a straight blade, with a small
+guard, some 18 in. long, is worn by midshipmen in the British navy. The
+origin of the word is doubtful. The earlier forms were _dork_ and
+_durk_, and the spelling _dirk_, adopted by Johnson, represents the
+pronunciation of the second form. The name seems to have been early
+applied to the daggers of the Highlanders, but the Gaelic word is
+_biodag_, and the Irish _duirc_, often stated to be the origin, is only
+an adaptation of the English word. It may be a corruption of the German
+_Dolch_, a dagger. The suggestion that it is an application of the
+Christian name "Dirk," the short form of "Dieterich," is not borne out,
+according to the _New English Dictionary_, by any use of this name for a
+dagger, and is further disproved by the earlier English spelling.
+
+
+
+
+DIRSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, province of West
+Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 20 m. S. from Danzig and at
+the junction of the important lines of railway Berlin-Konigsberg and
+Danzig-Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 14,185. It has a Roman Catholic and a
+Protestant church and several schools. The river is here crossed by two
+fine iron bridges. The older structure dating from the year 1857,
+originally used for the railway, is now given up to road traffic, and
+the railway carried by a new bridge completed in 1891. Dirschau has
+railway workshops and manufactories of sugar, agricultural implements
+and cement. During the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus made it his
+headquarters for many months after its capture in 1626.
+
+
+
+
+DISABILITY, a term meaning, in general, want of ability, and used in law
+to denote an incapacity in certain persons or classes of persons for the
+full enjoyment of duties or privileges, which, but for their
+disqualification, would be open to them; hence, legal disqualification.
+Thus, married women, persons under age, insane persons, convicted felons
+are under disability to do certain legal acts. This disability may be
+absolute, wholly disabling the person so long as it continues, or
+partial, ceasing on discontinuation of the disabling state, as
+attainment of full age.
+
+
+
+
+DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. _descharge_, modern _decharge_, from
+a med. Lat. _discargare_, to unload, _dis-_ and _carricare_, to load,
+cf. "charge"), a word meaning relief from a load or burden, hence
+applied to the unloading of a ship, the firing of a weapon, the passage
+of electricity from an electrified body, the issue from a wound, &c.
+From the sense of relief from an obligation, "discharge" is also applied
+to the release of a soldier or sailor from military or naval service, or
+of the crew of a merchant vessel, or to the dismissal from an office or
+situation. In law, it is used of a document or other evidence that can
+be accepted as proof of the release from an obligation, as of a receipt,
+on payment of money due. Similarly it is applied to the release in
+accordance with law of a person in custody on a criminal charge, and to
+the legal release of a bankrupt from further liability for debts
+provable in the bankruptcy except those incurred by fraud or debts to
+the crown. It is also applied to the reversal of an order of a court. In
+the case of divorce, where the rule _nisi_ is not made absolute, the
+rule is said to be discharged.
+
+
+
+
+DISCHARGING ARCH, in architecture, an arch built over a lintel or
+architrave to take off the superincumbent weight. The earliest example
+is found in the Great Pyramid, over the lintels of the entrance passage
+to the tomb: it consisted of two stones only, resting one against the
+other. The same object was attained in the Lion Gate and the tomb of
+Agamemnon, both in Mycenae, and in other examples in Greece, where the
+stones laid in horizontal courses, one projecting over the other, left a
+triangular hollow space above the lintel of the door, which was
+subsequently filled in by vertical sculptured stone panels. The Romans
+frequently employed the discharging arch, and inside the portico of the
+Pantheon the architraves have such arches over them. In the Golden
+Gateway of the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the discharging arches,
+semicircular in form, were adopted as architectural features and
+decorated with mouldings. The same is found in the synagogues in
+Palestine of the 2nd century; and later, in Byzantine architecture,
+these moulded archivolts above an architrave constitute one of the
+characteristics of the style. In the early Christian churches in Rome,
+where a colonnade divided off the nave and aisles, discharging arches
+are turned in the frieze just above the architraves.
+
+
+
+
+DISCIPLE, properly a pupil, scholar (Lat. _discipulus_, from _discere_,
+to learn, and root seen in _pupillus_), but chiefly used of the personal
+followers of Jesus Christ, including the inner circle of the Apostles
+(q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or CHRISTIANS, an American Protestant denomination,
+founded by Thomas Campbell, his son Alexander Campbell (q.v.) and Barton
+Warren Stone (1772-1844). Stone had been a Presbyterian minister
+prominent in the Kentucky revival of 1801, but had been turned against
+sectarianism and ecclesiastical authority because the synod had
+condemned Richard McNemar, one of his colleagues in the revival, for
+preaching (as Stone himself had done) counter to the Westminster
+Confession, on faith and the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion. He
+had organized the Springfield Presbytery, but in 1804 with his five
+fellow ministers signed "The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield
+Presbytery," giving up that name and calling themselves "Christians."
+Like Stone, Alexander Campbell had adopted (in 1812) immersion, and,
+like him, his two great desires were for Christian unity and the
+restoration of the ancient order of things. But the Campbellite
+doctrines differed widely from the hyper-Calvinism of the Baptists whom
+they had joined in 1813, especially on the points on which Stone had
+quarrelled with the Presbyterians; and after various local breaks in
+1825-1830, when there were large additions to the Restorationists from
+the Baptist ranks, especially under the apostolic fervour and
+simplicity of the preaching of Walter Scott (1796-1861), in 1832 the
+Reformers were practically all ruled out of the Baptist communion. The
+Campbells gradually lost sight of Christian unity, owing to the
+unfortunate experience with the Baptists and to the tone taken by those
+clergymen who had met them in debates; and for the sake of Christian
+union it was peculiarly fortunate that in January 1832 at Lexington,
+Kentucky, the followers of the Campbells and those of Stone (who had
+stressed union more than primitive Christianity) united. Campbell
+objected to the name "Christians" as sectarianized by Stone, but
+"Disciples" never drove out of use the name "Christians."
+
+During the Civil War the denomination escaped an actual scission by
+following the neutral views of Campbell, who opposed slavery, war and
+abolition. In 1849 the American Christian Missionary Society was formed;
+it was immediately attacked as a "human innovation," unwarranted by the
+New Testament, by literalists led in later years by Benjamin Franklin
+(secretary of the missionary society in 1857), who opposed all church
+music also. Isaac Errett (1820-1888) was the most prominent leader of
+the progressive party, which was considered corrupt and worldly by the
+literalists, many of whom, in spite of his efforts, broke off from the
+main body, especially in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and
+Texas.
+
+The main body appointed in 1890 a standing committee on Christian union;
+their aim in this respect is not for absorption, as was clearly shown by
+their answer in 1887 to overtures from the Protestant Episcopal Church
+regarding Christian unity. The credal position of the Disciples is
+simple: great stress is put upon the phrase "the Christ, the Son of the
+living God," and upon the recognition by Jesus of this confession as the
+foundation of His church; as to baptism, agreement with Baptists is only
+as to the mode, immersion; this is considered "the primitive confession
+of Christ and a gracious token of salvation," and as being "for the
+remission of sins"; the Disciples generally deny the authority over
+Christians of the Old Covenant, and Alexander Campbell in particular
+held this view so forcibly that he was accused by Baptists of "throwing
+away the Old Testament." The Lord's Supper is celebrated every Sunday,
+the bread being broken by the communicants. The Disciples are not
+Unitarian in fact or tendency, but they urge the use of simple New
+Testament phraseology as to the Godhead. Their church government is
+congregational.
+
+  The growth of the denomination has been greatest in the states along
+  the Ohio river, whence they have spread throughout the Union. In 1908
+  there were 6673 ministers and 1,285,123 communicants in the United
+  States. There are churches in Canada, in Great Britain and in
+  Australia. Bethany College, at Bethany, West Virginia, was chartered
+  in 1840, and Alexander Campbell, who had founded it as Buffalo
+  Seminary, was its president until his death in 1866; other colleges
+  founded by the sect are: Kentucky University, Lexington, Ky.; Hiram
+  College, Hiram, Ohio (1850, until 1867 known as Western Reserve
+  Eclectic Institute); Butler College, Indianapolis, Indiana (1855);
+  Christian University, Canton, Missouri (1851; coeducational); Eureka
+  College, in Woodford county, Illinois (1855; coeducational); Union
+  Christian College, Merom, Ind. (1859); Texas Christian University,
+  Waco, Texas (1873, founded as Add Ran College at Thorpe's Springs,
+  removing to Waco in 1895); Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa (1881);
+  Milligan College, Milligan, Tennessee (1882); Defiance College,
+  Defiance, O. (1885); Cotner University, Lincoln, Nebraska (1889); Elon
+  College, Elon, North Carolina (1890); American University, Harriman,
+  Tenn. (1893); the Virginia Christian College, Lynchburg, Virginia
+  (1903), and for negroes, the Southern Christian Institute, Edwards,
+  Mississippi (1877), and the Christian Bible College, Newcastle, Henry
+  County, Ky. Theological seminaries are the Berkeley Bible Seminary,
+  Berkeley, California (1896); the Disciples' Divinity House, Chicago,
+  Ill. (1894); and the Eugene Divinity School, Eugene, Oregon (1895).
+  "Bible chairs" were established in state universities and elsewhere by
+  the Disciples,--at the University of Michigan (1893), at the
+  University of Virginia (1899), at the University of Calcutta (1900)
+  and at the University of Kansas (1901). The denomination has
+  publishing houses in Cincinnati, St Louis, Louisville and Nashville.
+
+  See Errett Gates's _History of the Disciples of Christ_ (New York,
+  1905), in "The Story of the Churches" series, and his _Early Relation
+  and Separation of Baptists and Disciples_ (Chicago, 1904), a
+  University of Chicago doctoral thesis; and B. B. Tyler's _History of
+  the Disciples of Christ_ in vol. xii. of "The American Church History
+  Series" (New York, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+DISCLAIMER, a renunciation, denial or refusal; a disavowal of claims. In
+law the term is used more particularly in the following senses:--(1) In
+the law of landlord and tenant, the direct repudiation of that relation
+by some act on the part of the tenant. A disclaimer may be verbal or
+written, but in such case it must be something more than a mere
+renunciation of the tenant's title, or it may be an act which is wholly
+inconsistent with the existence of such relation, as the setting up by
+the tenant of a distinct title either in himself or some third party.
+(2) In the law of bankruptcy, where any part of the property of a
+bankrupt consists of land of any tenure burdened with onerous covenants,
+of stocks or shares in companies, of unprofitable contracts, or of any
+property that is unsaleable, or not readily saleable, by reason of its
+binding the possessor to the performance of any onerous act, the
+trustee, notwithstanding that he has endeavoured to sell or has taken
+possession of the property, or exercised any act of ownership in
+relation to it, may, subject to certain provisions, by writing signed by
+him, at any time within twelve months after the first appointment of a
+trustee, "disclaim" the property (see BANKRUPTCY). (3) In the law of
+trusts, disclaimer is the refusal or renunciation of the office or
+duties of a trustee. It is an undisputed rule that no one is compellable
+to undertake a trust, so that as soon as a person knows he has been
+appointed a trustee under some instrument, he should determine whether
+he will accept the office or not. Disclaimer of trust should be by deed,
+as admitting of no ambiguity, but it may be by conveyance to other
+accepting trustees, or orally, or by written declaration, or even by
+conduct. (4) In the law of patents, disclaimer is the renunciation, by
+amendment of specifications, of the portion of an inventor's claim to
+protection.
+
+
+
+
+DISCOUNT. (1) A money-market term for the price paid in order to obtain
+immediate realization of a bill not yet due. If a bill for L100 due six
+months hence is discounted at the rate of 3% per annum, its holder will
+obtain L98, 10s. in cash for it. (2) A Stock-Exchange term applied to a
+security, not fully paid, which has fallen below its issue price, and so
+is said to stand at so much discount. See PREMIUM.
+
+
+
+
+DISCOVERY, in law, the revealing or disclosing of any matter. The
+English common law courts were originally unable to compel a litigant
+before a trial to disclose the facts and documents on which he relied.
+In equity, however, a different rule prevailed, there being an absolute
+right to discovery of all material facts on which a case was founded.
+Now the practice is regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883,
+Order 31. Discovery is of two kinds, namely, by interrogatories and by
+affidavit of documents, provision being also made for the production and
+inspection of documents. Where a party to a suit can make an affidavit
+stating that in his belief certain specified documents are or have been
+in the possession of some other party, the court may make an order that
+such party state on affidavit whether he has or ever had any of those
+documents in his possession, or if he has parted with them or what has
+become of them. A further application may then be made by notice to the
+party who has admitted possession of the documents for production and
+inspection. Copies also may be taken of the more important documents.
+There is also discovery of facts obtained by means of interrogatories,
+i.e. written questions addressed on behalf of one party, before trial,
+to the other party, who is bound to answer them in writing upon oath. In
+order to prevent needless expense the party seeking discovery must first
+secure the cost of it by paying into court a sum of money, generally not
+less than five pounds. See also EVIDENCE.
+
+
+
+
+DISCUS (Gr. [Greek: diskos], disk), a circular plate of stone, later of
+metal, which was used by the ancient Greeks for throwing to a distance
+as a gymnastic exercise. Judging from specimens found by excavators, the
+ancient discus was about 8 or 9 in. in diameter and weighed from 4 to 5
+lb., although one of bronze, preserved in the British Museum, weighs
+over 8 lb. Sometimes a kind of quoit, spherical in form, was used,
+through a hole in which a thong was passed to assist the athlete in
+throwing it. The sport of throwing the discus was common in the time of
+Homer, who mentions it repeatedly. It formed a part of the _pentathlon_,
+or quintuple games, in the ancient Olympic Games. Statius, in _Thebais_,
+646-721, fully describes the use of the discus. In the British Museum
+there is a restored copy of a statue by Myron (see GREEK ART, Plate IV.
+fig. 68) of a discus-thrower (_discobolus_) in the act of hurling the
+missile; but the investigations of N. E. Norman Gardiner show that a
+wrong attitude has been adopted by the restorer.
+
+Throwing the discus was introduced as an event in modern athletics at
+the revived Olympic Games, first held at Athens in 1896, and since that
+time it has become a recognized event in the athletic championship
+meetings of several European nations, as well as in the United States,
+where it has become very popular. According to the American rules the
+discus must be of a smooth, hard-wood body without finger-holes,
+weighted in the centre with lead disks and capped with polished brass
+disks, with a steel ring on the outside. Its weight must be 4-1/2 lb.,
+its outside diameter 8 in. and its thickness at the centre 2 in. It must
+be thrown from a 7-ft. circle, which may not be overstepped in throwing,
+and the throw is measured from the spot where the discus first strikes
+the ground to the point in the circumference of the circle on a line
+between the centre and the point of striking.
+
+
+
+
+DISINFECTANTS, substances employed to neutralize the action of
+pathogenic organisms, and prevent the spread of contagious or infectious
+disease. The efficiency of any disinfectant is due to its power of
+destroying, or of rendering inert, specific poisons or disease germs.
+Therefore antiseptic substances generally are to this extent
+disinfectants. So also the deodorizers, which act by oxidizing or
+otherwise changing the chemical constitution of volatile substances
+disseminated in the air, or which prevent noxious exhalations from
+organic substances, are in virtue of these properties effective
+disinfectants in certain diseases. A knowledge of the value of
+disinfectants, and the use of some of the most valuable agents, can be
+traced to very remote times; and much of the Levitical law of cleansing,
+as well as the origin of numerous heathen ceremonial practices, are
+clearly based on a perception of the value of disinfection. The means of
+disinfection, and the substances employed, are very numerous, as are the
+classes and conditions of disease and contagion they are designed to
+meet. Nature, in the oxidizing influence of freely circulating
+atmospheric air, in the purifying effect of water, and in the powerful
+deodorizing properties of common earth, has provided the most potent
+ever-present and acting disinfecting media. Of the artificial
+disinfectants employed or available three classes may be
+recognized:--1st, volatile or vaporizable substances, which attack
+impurities in the air; 2nd, chemical agents, for acting on the diseased
+body or on the infectious discharges therefrom; and 3rd, the physical
+agencies of heat and cold. In some of these cases the destruction of the
+contagium is effected by the formation of new chemical compounds, by
+oxidation, deoxidation or other reaction, and in others the conditions
+favourable to life are removed or life is destroyed by high temperature.
+Among the first class, aerial or gaseous disinfectants, formic aldehyde
+has of late years taken foremost place. The vapour is a powerful
+disinfectant and deodorant, and for the surface disinfection of rooms,
+fulfils all requirements when used in sufficient amount. It acts more
+rapidly than equal quantities of sulphurous acid, and it does not affect
+colours. It is non-poisonous, though irritating to the eyes and throat.
+With the exception of iron and steel it does not attack metals. It can
+be obtained in paraform tabloids, and with a specially constructed
+spirit lamp disinfection can be carried out by any one. Twenty tabloids
+must be employed for every 1000 cubic ft. of space. Disinfection by
+sulphurous acid fumes is of great antiquity, and is still in very
+general use; for the purpose of destroying vermin it is more powerful
+than formic aldehyde. Camphor and some volatile oils have also been
+employed as air disinfectants, but their virtues lie chiefly in masking,
+not destroying, noxious effluvia. In the 2nd class--non-gaseous
+disinfecting compounds--all the numerous antiseptic substances may be
+reckoned; but the substances principally employed in practice are
+oxidizing agents, as potassium manganates and permanganates, "Condy's
+fluid," and solutions of the so-called "chlorides of lime," soda and
+potash, with the chlorides of aluminium and zinc, soluble sulphates and
+sulphites, solutions of sulphurous acid, and the tar products--carbolic,
+cresylic and salicylic acids. Of the physical agents heat and cold, the
+latter, though a powerful natural disinfectant, is not practically
+available by artificial means; heat is a power chiefly relied on for
+purifying and disinfecting clothes, bedding and textile substances
+generally. Different degrees of temperature are required for the
+destruction of the virus of various diseases; but as clothing, &c., can
+be exposed to a heat of about 250 deg. Fahr. without injury, provision is
+made for submitting articles to nearly that temperature. For the
+thorough disinfection of a sick-room the employment of all three classes
+of disinfectants, for purifying the air, for destroying the virus at its
+point of origin, and for cleansing clothing, &c., may be required.
+
+
+
+
+DISMAL, an adjective meaning dreary, gloomy, and so a name given to
+stretches of swampy land on the east coast of the United States, as the
+Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina. The derivation has been
+much discussed. In the early examples of the use the word is a
+substantive, especially in the expression "in the dismal," i.e. in the
+dismal time or days. Later it became adjectival, especially in
+combination with "days." It has been connected with "decimal," med.
+Latin _decimalis_, belonging to a tithe or tenth, and thus the "dismal
+days" are the unpleasant days connected with the extortion and
+oppression of exacting payment of tithes. According to the _New English
+Dictionary_, quoting Professor W. W. Skeat, "dismal" is derived, through
+an Anglo-Fr. _dis mal_, from the Lat. _dies mali_, evil or unpropitious
+days. This Anglo-French expression, explained as _les mal jours_, is
+found in a MS. of Rauf de Linham's _Art de Kalender_, 1256. These days
+of evil omen were known as _Dies Aegyptiaci_ (Du Cange, _Glossarium_,
+s.v.) or Egyptian days, either as having been instituted by Egyptian
+astrologers or with reference to the "ten plagues"; so Chaucer, "I trowe
+hit was in the dismal, That were the ten woundes of Egipte" (_Book of
+the Duchesse_, 1206). There were two such days in each month.
+
+  See Skeat, Trans. _Philol. Soc._ (1888), p. 2, and note on the line in
+  the "Book of the Duchesse," _The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer_,
+  vol. i. (1894).
+
+
+
+
+DISORDERLY HOUSE, in law, a house in which the conduct of its inmates is
+such as to become a public nuisance, or a house where persons congregate
+to the probable disturbance of the public peace or other commission of
+crime. In England, by the Disorderly Houses Act 1751, the term includes
+common bawdy houses or brothels,[1] common gaming houses, common betting
+houses and disorderly places of entertainment. The keeping of such is a
+misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment, and in the case of a
+brothel also punishable on summary conviction by the Criminal Law
+Amendment Act 1885; the letting out for gain for indiscriminate
+prostitution of a room or rooms in a house will make it as much a
+brothel in law as if the whole house were let out for the purpose.
+Where, however, a woman occupies a house or room which is frequented by
+men for the purpose of committing fornication with her, she cannot be
+convicted of keeping a disorderly house. See also PROSTITUTION.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The etymology of this word has been confused by the early
+    adoption into English usage of the O. Fr. _bordel_. The two words are
+    in origin quite distinct. Brothel is an O. Eng. word for a person,
+    not a place. It meant an abandoned vagabond, one who had gone to ruin
+    (_abreothan_). _Bordel_, on the contrary, is a place, literally a
+    small hut or shelter, especially for fornication, Med. Lat.
+    _bordellum_, diminutive of the Late Lat. _borda_, board. The words
+    were early confused, and brothel-house, bordel-house, bordel or
+    brothel, are all used for a disorderly house, while bordel was
+    similarly misused, and, like brothel in its proper meaning, was
+    applied to a disorderly person.
+
+
+
+
+DISPATCH, or DESPATCH, to send off immediately, or by express;
+particularly in the case of the sending of official messages, or of the
+immediate sending of troops to their destination, or the like. The word
+is thus used as a substantive of written official reports of events,
+battles and the like, sent by ambassadors, generals, &c., by means of a
+special messenger, or of express correspondence generally. From the
+primary meaning of the prompt sending of a message, &c., the word is
+used of the quick disposal of business, or of the disposal of a person
+by violence; hence the word means to execute or murder. The etymology of
+the word has been obscured by the connexion with the Fr. _depecher_, and
+_depeche_, which are in meaning the equivalents of the Eng. verb and
+substantive. The Fr. word is made up of the prefix _de-_, Lat. _dis-_,
+and the root which appears in _empecher_, to embarrass, and means
+literally to disentangle. The Lat. origin of _depecher_ and _empecher_
+is a Low Lat. _pedicare_, _pedica_, a fetter. The Fr. word came into
+Eng. as _depeach_, which was in use from the 15th century until
+"despatch" was introduced. This word is certainly direct from the Ital.
+_dispacciare_, or Span, _despachar_, which must be derived from the Lat.
+root appearing in _pactus_, fixed, fastened, from _pangere_. The _New
+English Dictionary_ finds the earliest instance of "dispatch" in a
+letter to Henry VIII. from Bishop Tunstall, commissioner to Spain in
+1516-1517.
+
+
+
+
+DISPENSATION, a term with two main applications, (1) to the action of
+administering, arranging or dealing out, and (2) to the action of
+allowing certain things, rules, &c., to be done away with, relaxed. Of
+these two meanings the first is to be derived from the classical Latin
+use of _dispensare_, literally, to weigh out, hence to distribute,
+especially of the orderly arrangement of a household by a steward; thus
+_dispensatio_ was, in theology, the word chosen to translate the Greek
+[Greek: oikonomia], economy, i.e. divine or religious systems, as in the
+Jewish, Mosaic, Christian dispensations. Dispensation in law is,
+strictly speaking, the suspension by competent authority of general
+rules of law in particular cases. Its object is to modify the hardships
+often arising from the rigorous application of general laws to
+particular cases, and its essence is to preserve the law by suspending
+its operation, i.e. making it non-existent, in such cases. It follows,
+then, that dispensation, in its strict sense, is anticipative, i.e. it
+does not absolve from the consequences of a legal obligation already
+contracted, but avoids a breach of the law by suspending the obligation
+to conform to it, e.g. a dispensation or licence to marry within the
+prohibited degrees, or to hold benefices in plurality. The term is,
+however, frequently used of the power claimed and exercised by the
+supreme legislative authority of altering or abrogating in particular
+cases conditions established under the existing law and of releasing
+individuals from obligations incurred under it, e.g. dispensations
+granted by the pope _ex plenitudine potestatis_ from the obligation of
+celibacy, from religious and other vows, from _matrimonium ratum_, _non
+consummatum_, &c.
+
+1. _Ecclesiastical Law._--In the theory of the canon law the dispensing
+power is the corollary of the legislative, the authority that makes
+laws, and no other, having power to suspend them. It follows that the
+law of nature (_jus naturae_) and _a fortiori_ the law of God (_jus
+divinum_) are not subject to dispensation of any earthly authority, and
+that it is only the disciplinary laws made by the Church that the Church
+is empowered to suspend or to abrogate. Thus, not even the pope could
+grant a dispensation for a marriage between persons related in the
+direct line of ascent or descent, e.g. father and daughter, or between
+brother and sister, while dispensations are granted for marriages within
+other prohibited degrees, e.g. uncle and niece.
+
+The dispensing power, like the legislative authority, was formerly
+invested in general councils and even in provincial synods; but in the
+West, with the gradual centralization of authority at Rome, it became
+ultimately vested in the pope as the supreme lawgiver of the Church.
+Subject, however, to the supreme jurisdiction of the pope, the power of
+dispensation continued to reside in the other organs of the Church in
+exact proportion to their legislative capacities, i.e. in provincial
+synods in respect of regional rules laid down by them, and in bishops in
+respect of rules laid down by them for their dioceses. According to Du
+Cange, the earliest record of the use of the word _dispensatio_ in this
+connexion is in the letter of Pope Gelasius I. of the 11th of March 494,
+to the bishops of Lucania (in Jaffe, _Reg. Pont. Rom._, ed. 2, tom. i.
+no. 636): necessaria rerum Dispensatione constringimur, ... sic canonum
+paternorum decreta librare, ... ut quae praesentium necessitas temporum
+restaurandis Ecclesiis relaxanda deposcit, adhibita consideratione
+diligenti, quantum fieri potest temperemus.[1] Dispensations from the
+observance of traditional rules were, however, during the early
+centuries exceedingly rare, and there are more instances of the popes
+repudiating than of their exercising the power to grant them. Thus
+Celestine I. (d. 432) wrote: "The rules govern us, not we the rules: we
+are subject to the canons, since we are the servants of the precepts of
+the canons" (_Epist. 3 ad Episcopos Illyrici_); and Pope Zozimus wrote
+even more strongly: "This see possesses no authority to make any
+concession or change; for with us abides antiquity firmly rooted
+(_inconvulsis radicibus_), reverence for which the decrees of the
+Fathers enjoined." As time went on, however, and the Church expanded,
+this rigidly conservative attitude proved impossible to maintain, and
+the principle of "tempering" the law when forced to do so "by the
+exigencies of affairs or of the times" (_rerum vel temporum angustia_),
+as laid down by Gelasius, was adopted into the canon law itself. The
+principle was, of course, singularly open to abuse. In theory it was
+laid down from the first that dispensations were only to be granted in
+cases of urgent necessity and in the highest interests of the Church; in
+practice, from the 11th century onwards, the power of dispensation was
+used by the popes as one of the most potent instruments for extending
+their influence. Dispensations to hold benefices in plurality formed,
+with provisions and the papal claim to the right of direct appointment,
+a powerful means for extending the patronage of the Holy See and
+therefore its hold over the clergy, and from the 13th century onwards
+this abuse assumed vast proportions (Hinschius iii. p. 250). Even more
+scandalous was the almost unrestrained traffic in licences and
+dispensations at Rome, which grew up, at least as early as the 14th
+century, owing to the fees charged for such dispensations having come to
+be regarded by the Curia as a regular source of revenue (Woker, _Das
+kirchliche Finanzwesen der Papste_, Nordlingen, 1878, pp. 75, 160). Loud
+complaints of these abuses were raised in the reforming councils of
+Constance and Basel in the 15th century, but nothing was done
+effectually to check them.
+
+The actual practice of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon the
+decisions of the council of Trent, which left the medieval theory intact
+while endeavouring to guard against its abuses. The proposal put forward
+by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to subordinate the papal power of
+dispensation to the consent of the Church in general council was
+rejected, and even the canons of the council of Trent itself, in so far
+as they affected reformation of morals or ecclesiastical discipline,
+were decreed "saving the authority of the Holy See" (_Sess._ xxv. cap.
+21, de ref.). At the same time it was laid down in respect of all
+dispensations, whether papal or other, that they were to be granted only
+for just and urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the
+Church (urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all
+cases _gratis_. The payment of money for a dispensation was _ipso facto_
+to make the dispensation void (_Sess._ xxv. cap. 18, de ref.).
+
+Though verbal dispensations are valid, papal dispensations are given in
+writing. Before the constitution _Sapienti_ of Pius X. (1908) all
+dispensations in _foro externo_, especially in matrimonial causes, were
+dealt with by the Dataria Apostolica, those _in foro interno_ by the
+Penitentiary, which latter also possessed _in foro externo_ the right to
+grant dispensations in matrimonial causes to poor people. Since 1908 the
+Dataria only deals with dispensations in matters concerning benefices,
+dispensations in matrimonial matters having been transferred to the new
+Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments (see CURIA ROMANA).
+
+The regular form of dispensation is the _forma commissaria_ (_Trid.
+Sess._ xxii. cap. 5, de ref.), i.e. a mandate to the bishop to grant the
+dispensation, after due inquiry, in the pope's name. In exceptional
+cases, e.g. sovereigns or bishops, the dispensation is sent direct to
+the petitioner (_forma gratiosa_). Dispensations are nominally
+gratuitous; but the officials are entitled to fees for drawing them up,
+and there are customary "compositions" (_compositiones_) which are
+destined for charitable objects in Rome. These fees were and are
+regulated according to the capacity of the petitioners to pay, the
+result being that the abuses which the council of Trent had sought to
+abolish continued to flourish. In the 17th century a specially
+privileged class of bankers (_banquiers expeditionnaires_) existed at
+Rome whose sole business was obtaining dispensations on commission, and
+one of these, named Pelletier, published at Paris in 1677, under the
+royal _imprimatur_, a regular tariff of the sums for which in any given
+case a dispensation might be obtained. That the "urgent and just cause"
+was, in the circumstances, a very minor consideration was to be
+expected, and the enlightened pope Benedict XIV., himself a canon lawyer
+of eminence, complained "Dispensationem non raro concedi in Dataria,
+sine causa, nempe ob eleemosynam quae praestatur" (Inst. 87, No. 26). It
+may be added that the worst abuses of this system have long since
+disappeared. The bishops have their own correspondents at Rome, and one
+of the duties of the diplomatic representatives of foreign states at the
+Curia is to see that their nationals receive their dispensations without
+overcharge.
+
+Bishops are by right (_jure ordinario_) competent to dispense in all
+cases expressly reserved to them by the canon law, e.g. in the matter of
+publication of banns of marriage. They possess besides special powers
+delegated to them by the pope and renewed every five years (_facultates
+quinquennales_), or by virtue of faculties granted to them personally
+(_facultates extraordinariae_), e.g. to dispense from rules of
+abstinence, from simple vows, and with some exceptions from the
+prohibition of marriage within prohibited degrees.
+
+_Church of England._--By 25 Henry VIII. cap. 21. sec 2 (1534), it was
+enacted that neither the king, his successors, nor any of his subjects
+should henceforth sue for licences, dispensations, &c., to the see of
+Rome, and that the power to issue such licences, dispensations, &c.,
+"for causes not being contrary or repugnant to the Holy Scriptures and
+laws of God," should be vested in the archbishop of Canterbury for the
+time being, who at his own discretion was to issue such dispensations,
+&c., under his seal, to the king and his subjects. The power of
+dispensation thus vested in the archbishops partly fell obsolete, partly
+has been curtailed by subsequent statutes, e.g. the Pluralities Act of
+1838. It is now confined to granting dispensations for holding two
+benefices at once, to issuing licences for non-residence, and in
+matrimonial cases to the issuing of special licences. The dispensing
+power of bishops in the Church of England survives only in the right to
+grant marriage licences, i.e. dispensations from the obligation to
+publish the banns. Though, however, these licences and dispensations are
+given under the archiepiscopal and episcopal seals, they are actually
+issued by the commissaries of faculties and vicars-general
+(chancellors), independently, in virtue of the powers conferred on them
+by their patents. This has led, since the passing of the Divorce Acts
+and the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Act, to a curiously
+anomalous position, licences for the remarriage of divorced persons
+having been issued under the bishop's seal, while the bishop himself
+publicly protested that such marriages were contrary to "the law of
+God," but that he himself had no power to prevent his chancellor
+licensing them.
+
+  See Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_ (Berlin, 1883), iii. 250, &c.; article
+  "Dispensation" by Hinschius in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_
+  (Leipzig, 1898); article "Dispensation" in Wetzer and Welte's
+  _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882-1901); F.
+  Lichtenberger, _Encyclopedie des sciences religieuses_ (Paris, 1878),
+  s.v. "Dispense"; Phillimore, _Eccl. Law_.
+
+2. _Constitutional Law._--The power of dispensation from the operation
+of the ordinary law in particular cases is, of course, everywhere
+inherent in the supreme legislative authority, however rarely it may be
+exercised. Divorce (in Ireland) by act of parliament may be taken as an
+example which still actually occurs. On the other hand, the dispensing
+power once vested in the crown in England is now merely of historical
+interest, though of great importance in the constitutional struggles of
+the past. This power possessed by the crown of dispensing with the
+statute law is said to have been copied from the dispensations or non
+obstante clauses granted by the popes in matters of canon law; the
+parallel between them is certainly very striking, and there can be no
+doubt that the principles of the canon law influenced the decisions of
+the courts in the matter. It was, for instance, very generally laid down
+that the king could by dispensation make it lawful to do what was _malum
+prohibitum_ but not to do what was _malum in se_, a principle of the
+canon law, but one difficult to reconcile with English legal principles,
+since no act is legally _malum_ unless forbidden by law. This was
+pointed out by Chief Justice Vaughan in the celebrated judgment in the
+case of _Thomas_ v. _Sorrell_, when he rejected the distinction between
+_mala in se_ and _mala prohibita_ as confusing, and attempted to define
+the dispensing power of the crown by limiting it to cases of individual
+breaches of penal statutes where no third party loses a right of action,
+and where the breach is not continuous, at the same time denying the
+power of the crown to dispense with any general penal law. This
+judgment, as Sir William Anson points out, only showed the extreme
+difficulty of limiting the power ascribed to the crown, a standing
+grievance from the time that parliament had risen to be a constituent
+part of the state. So long as the legal principle by which the law was
+"the king's law" survived there was in fact no theoretical basis for
+such limitation, and the matter resolved itself into one of the great
+constitutional questions between crown and parliament which issued in
+the Revolution of 1688. The supreme crisis came owing to the use made by
+James II. of the dispensing power. His action in dispensing with the
+Test Act, in order to enable Roman Catholics to hold office under the
+crown, was supported by the courts in the test case of _Godden_ v.
+_Hales_, but it made the Revolution inevitable. By the Bill of Rights
+the exercise of the dispensing power was forbidden, except as might be
+permitted by statute. At the same time the legality of its exercise in
+the past was admitted by the clause maintaining the validity of
+dispensations granted in a certain form before the 23rd of October 1689.
+
+  See Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_, part i. "Parliament,"
+  3rd ed. pp. 311-319; F. W. Maitland, _Const. Hist. of England_
+  (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 302, &c.; Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ ss. 290, 291.
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In this quotation the word _dispensatio_ still has its meaning of
+    "economy": "we are bound by the necessary economy of things."
+    Possibly its use by the pope in this connexion may have led to the
+    technical meaning of the word _dispensatio_ in the medieval canon
+    law.
+
+
+
+
+DISPERSION (from Lat. _dispergere_, to scatter), the act or process of
+separation and distribution. Apart from the technical use of the term,
+especially in optics (see below), the expression particularly applied to
+the settlements of Jews in foreign countries outside Palestine. These
+were either voluntary, for purposes of trade and commerce, or the
+results of conquest, such as the captivities of Assyria and Babylonia.
+The word _diaspora_ (Gr. [Greek: diaspora]) is also used of these
+scattered communities, but is usually confined to the dispersion among
+the Hellenic and Roman peoples, or to the body of Christian Jews outside
+Palestine (see JEWS).
+
+DISPERSION, in OPTICS. When a beam of light which is not homogeneous in
+character, i.e. which does not consist of simple vibrations of a
+definite wave-length, undergoes refraction at the surface of any
+transparent medium, the different colours corresponding to the different
+wave-lengths become separated or _dispersed_. Thus, if a ray of white
+light AO (fig. 1) enters obliquely into the surface of a block of glass
+at O, it gives rise to the divergent system of rays ORV, varying
+continuously in colour from red to violet, the red ray OR being least
+refracted and the violet ray OV most so. The order of the successive
+colours in all colourless transparent media is red, orange, yellow,
+green, blue, indigo and violet. Dispersion is therefore due to the fact
+that rays of different colours possess different refrangibilities.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+The simplest way of showing dispersion is to refract a narrow beam of
+sunlight through a prism of glass or prismatic vessel containing water
+or other clear liquid. As the light is twice refracted, the dispersion
+is increased, and the rays, after transmission through the prism, form a
+divergent system, which may be allowed to fall on a sheet of white
+paper, forming the well-known solar spectrum. This method was employed
+by Sir Isaac Newton, whose experiments constitute the earliest
+systematic investigation of the phenomenon. Let O (fig. 2) represent a
+small hole in the shutter of a darkened room, and OS a narrow beam of
+sunlight which is allowed to fall on a white screen so as to form an
+image of the sun at S. If now the prism P be interposed as in the
+figure, the whole beam is not only refracted upward, but also spread out
+into the spectrum RV, the horizontal breadth of the band of colours
+being the same as that of the original image S. In an experiment similar
+to that here represented, Newton made a small hole in the screen and
+another small hole in a second screen placed behind the first. By
+slightly turning the prism P, the position of the spectrum on the first
+screen could be shifted sufficiently to cause light of any desired
+colour to pass through. Some of this light also passed through the
+second hole, and thus he obtained a narrow beam of practically
+homogeneous light in a fixed direction (the line joining the apertures
+in the two screens). Operating on this beam with a second prism, he
+found that the homogeneous light was not dispersed, and also that it was
+more refracted the nearer the point from which it was taken approached
+to the violet end of the spectrum RV. This confirmed his previous
+conclusion that the rays increase in refrangibility from red to violet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Newton also made use of the method of crossed prisms, which has been
+found of great use in studying dispersion. The prism P (fig. 3) refracts
+upwards, while the prism Q, which has its refracting edge perpendicular
+to that of P, refracts towards the right. The combined effect of the two
+is to produce a spectrum sloping up from left to right. The spectrum
+will be straight if the two prisms are similar in dispersive property,
+but if one of them is constructed of a material which possesses any
+peculiarity in this respect it will be revealed by the curvature of the
+spectrum.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Method of Crossed Prisms.]
+
+The coloured borders seen in the images produced by simple lenses are
+due to dispersion. The explanation of the colours of the rainbow, which
+are also due to dispersion, was given by Newton, although it was known
+previously to be due to refraction in the drops of rain (see RAINBOW).
+
+According to the wave-theory of light, refraction (q.v.) is due to a
+change of velocity when light passes from one medium to another. The
+phenomenon of dispersion shows that in dispersive media the velocity is
+different for lights of different wave-lengths. In free space, light of
+all wave-lengths is propagated with the same velocity, as is shown by
+the fact that stars, when occulted by the moon or planets, preserve
+their white colour up to the last moment of disappearance, which would
+not be the case if one colour reached the eye later than another. The
+absence of colour changes in variable stars or in the appearance of new
+stars is further evidence of the same fact. All material media, however,
+are more or less dispersive. In air and other gases, at ordinary
+pressures, the dispersion is very small, because the refractivity is
+small. The dispersive powers of gases are, however, generally comparable
+with those of liquids and solids.
+
+  _Dispersive Power._--In order to find the amount of dispersion caused
+  by any given prism, the deviations produced by it on two rays of any
+  definite pure colours may be measured. The angle of difference between
+  these deviations is called the dispersion for those rays. For this
+  purpose the C and F lines in the spark-spectrum of hydrogen, situated
+  in the red and blue respectively, are usually employed. If [delta]F
+  and [delta]C are the angular deviations of these rays, then [delta]F -
+  [delta]C is called the mean dispersion of the prism. If the refracting
+  angle of the prism is small, then the ratio of the dispersion to the
+  mean deviation of the two rays is the dispersive power of the material
+  of the prism. Instead of the mean deviation, 1/2 ([delta]F + [delta]C),
+  it is more usual to take the deviation of some intermediate ray. The
+  exact position of the selected ray does not matter much, but the
+  yellow D line of sodium is the most convenient. If we denote its
+  deviation by [delta]D, then we may put
+
+    _Dispersive power_ = ([delta]F - [delta]C)/[delta]D    (1).
+
+  This quantity may readily be expressed in terms of the refractive
+  indices for the three colours, for if A is the angle of the prism
+  (supposedly small)
+
+    [delta]C = ([mu]C - 1)A,
+    [delta]D = ([mu]D - 1)A,
+    [delta]F = ([mu]F - 1)A,
+
+  where [mu]C,[mu]D,[mu]F are the respective indices of refraction. This
+  gives at once
+
+    _Dispersive power_ = ([mu]F - [mu]C)/([mu]D - 1)       (2).
+
+  The second of these two expressions is generally given as the
+  definition of dispersive power. It is more useful than (1), as the
+  refractive indices may be measured with a prism of any convenient
+  angle.
+
+  By studying the dispersion of colours in water, turpentine and crown
+  glass Newton was led to suppose that dispersion is proportional to
+  refraction. He concluded that there could be no refraction without
+  dispersion, and hence that achromatism was impossible of attainment
+  (see ABERRATION). This conclusion was proved to be erroneous when
+  Chester M. Hall in 1733 constructed achromatic lenses. Glasses can now
+  be made differing considerably both in refractivity and dispersive
+  power.
+
+  _Irrationality of Dispersion._--If we compare the spectrum produced by
+  refraction in a glass prism with that of a diffraction grating, we
+  find not only that the order of colours is reversed, but also that the
+  same colours do not occupy corresponding lengths on the two spectra,
+  the blue and violet being much more extended in the refraction
+  spectrum. The refraction spectra for different media also differ
+  amongst themselves. This shows that the connexion between the
+  refrangibility of light and its wave-length does not obey any simple
+  law, but depends on the nature of the refracting medium. This property
+  is referred to as the "irrationality of dispersion." In a diffraction
+  spectrum the diffraction is proportional to the wave-length, and the
+  spectrum is said to be "normal." If the increase of the angle of
+  refraction were proportional to the diminution of wave-length for a
+  prism of any material, the resulting spectrum would also be normal.
+  This, however, is not the case with ordinary refracting media, the
+  refrangibility generally increasing more and more rapidly as the
+  wave-length diminishes.
+
+  The irrationality of dispersion is well illustrated by C.
+  Christiansen's experiments on the dispersive properties of white
+  powders. If the powder of a transparent substance is immersed in a
+  liquid of the same refractive index, the mixture becomes transparent
+  and a measurement of the refractive index of the liquid gives the
+  refractivity of the powder. Christiansen found, in an investigation of
+  this kind, that the refractivity of the liquid could only be got to
+  match that of the powder for mono-chromatic light, and that, if white
+  light were used, brilliant colour effects were obtained, which varied
+  in a remarkable manner when small changes occurred in the refractive
+  index of the liquid. These effects are due to the difference in
+  dispersive power of the powder and the liquid. If the refractive index
+  is, for instance, the same for both in the case of green light, and a
+  source of white light is viewed through the mixture, the green
+  component will be completely transmitted, while the other colours are
+  more or less scattered by multiple reflections and refractions at the
+  surfaces of the powdered substance. Very striking colour changes are
+  observed, according to R. W. Wood, when white light is transmitted
+  through a paste made of powdered quartz and a mixture of carbon
+  bisulphide with benzol having the same refractive index as the quartz
+  for yellow light. In this case small temperature changes alter the
+  refractivity of the liquid without appreciably affecting the quartz.
+  R. W. Wood has studied the iridescent colours seen when a precipitate
+  of potassium silicofluoride is produced by adding silicofluoric acid
+  to a solution of potassium chloride, and found that they are due to
+  the same cause, the refractive index of the minute crystals
+  precipitated being about the same as that of the solution, which
+  latter can be varied by dilution.
+
+  _Anomalous Dispersion._--In some media the usual order of the colours
+  is changed. This curious phenomenon was noticed by W. H. Fox Talbot
+  about 1840, but does not seem to have become generally known. In 1860
+  F. P. Leroux discovered that iodine vapour refracted the red rays more
+  than the violet, the intermediate colours not being transmitted; and
+  in 1870 Christiansen found that an alcoholic solution of fuchsine
+  refracted the violet less than the red, the order of the successive
+  colours being violet, red, orange, yellow; the green being absorbed
+  and a dark interval occurring between the violet and red. A. Kundt
+  found that similar effects occur with a large number of substances, in
+  particular with all those which possess the property of "surface
+  colour," i.e., which strongly reflect light of a definite colour, as
+  do many of the aniline dyes. Such bodies show strong absorption bands
+  in those colours which they reflect, while of the transmitted light
+  that which is of a slightly greater wave-length than the absorbed
+  light has an abnormally great refrangibility, and that of a slightly
+  shorter wave-length an abnormally small refrangibility. The name given
+  to this phenomenon,--"anomalous dispersion"--is an unfortunate one, as
+  it has been found to obey a regular law.
+
+  In studying the dispersion of the aniline dyes, a prism with a very
+  small refracting angle is made of two glass plates slightly inclined
+  to each other and enclosing a very thin wedge of the dye, which is
+  either melted between the plates, or is in the form of a solution
+  retained in position by surface-tension. Only very thin layers are
+  sufficiently transparent to show the dispersion near or within an
+  absorption band, and a large refracting angle is not required, the
+  dispersion usually being very considerable. Another method, which has
+  been used by R. W. Wood and C. E. Magnusson, is to introduce a thin
+  film of the dye into one of the optical paths of a Michelson
+  interferometer, and to determine the consequent displacement of the
+  fringes. E. Mach and J. Arbes have used a method depending on total
+  reflection (Drude's _Theory of Optics_, p. 394).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Anomalous Dispersion of Sodium Vapour.]
+
+  A very remarkable example of anomalous dispersion, which was first
+  observed by A. Kundt, is that exhibited by the vapour of sodium. It
+  has not been found practicable to make a prism of this vapour in the
+  ordinary way by enclosing it in a glass vessel of the required shape,
+  as sodium vapour attacks glass, quickly rendering it opaque. A. E.
+  Becquerel, however, investigated the character of the dispersion by
+  using prism-shaped flames strongly coloured with sodium. But the best
+  way of exhibiting the effect is by making use of a remarkable property
+  of sodium vapour discovered by R. W. Wood and employed for this
+  purpose in a very ingenious manner. He found that when sodium is
+  heated in a hard glass tube, the vapour which is formed is
+  extraordinarily cohesive, only slowly spreading out in a cloud with
+  well-defined borders, which can be rendered visible by placing the
+  tube in front of a sodium flame, against which the cloud appears
+  black. If a long glass tube with plane ends, and containing some
+  pellets of sodium is heated in the middle by a row of burners, the
+  cool ends remain practically vacuous and do not become obscured. The
+  sodium vapour in the middle is very dense on the heated side, the
+  density diminishing rapidly towards the upper part of the tube, so
+  that, although not prismatic in form, it refracts like a prism owing
+  to the variation in density. Thus if a horizontal slit is illuminated
+  by an arc lamp, and the light-rendered parallel by a collimating
+  lens--is transmitted through the sodium tube and focused on the
+  vertical slit of a spectroscope, the effect of the sodium vapour is to
+  produce its refraction spectrum vertically on the slit. The image of
+  this seen through the glass prism of the spectroscope will appear as
+  in fig. 4. The whole of the light, with the exception of a small part
+  in the neighbourhood of the D lines, is practically undeviated, so
+  that it illuminates only a very short piece of the slit and is spread
+  out into the ordinary spectrum. But the light of slightly greater
+  wave-length than the D lines, being refracted strongly downward by the
+  sodium vapour, illuminates the bottom of the slit; while that of
+  slightly shorter wave-length is refracted upward and illuminates the
+  top of the slit. Fig. 4 represents the inverted image seen in the
+  telescope. The light corresponding to the D lines and the space
+  between them is absorbed, as evidenced by the dark interval. If the
+  sodium is only gently heated, so as to produce a comparatively
+  rarefied vapour, and a grating spectroscope employed, the spectrum
+  obtained is like that shown in fig. 5, which was the effect noticed by
+  Becquerel with the sodium flame. Here the light corresponding to the
+  space between the D lines is transmitted, being strongly refracted
+  upward near D1, and downward near D2.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+  The theory of anomalous dispersion has been applied in a very
+  interesting way by W. H. Julius to explain the "flash spectrum" seen
+  during a solar eclipse at the moment at which totality occurs. The
+  conditions of this phenomenon have been imitated in the laboratory by
+  Wood, and the corresponding effect obtained.
+
+  _Theories of Dispersion._--The first attempt at a mathematical theory
+  of dispersion was made by A. Cauchy and published in 1835. This was
+  based on the assumption that the medium in which the light is
+  propagated is discontinuous and molecular in character, the molecules
+  being subject to a mutual attraction. Thus, if one molecule is
+  disturbed from its mean position, it communicates the disturbance to
+  its neighbours, and so a wave is propagated. The formula arrived at by
+  Cauchy was
+
+                B           C
+    n = A + --------- + --------- + ....
+            [lambda]2   [lambda]4
+
+  n being the refractive index, [lambda] the wave-length, and A, B, C,
+  &c., constants depending on the material, which diminish so rapidly
+  that only the first three as here written need be taken into account.
+  If suitable values are chosen for these constants, the formula can be
+  made to represent the dispersion of ordinary transparent media within
+  the visible spectrum very well, but when extended to the infra-red
+  region it often departs considerably from the truth, and it fails
+  altogether in cases of anomalous dispersion. There are also grave
+  theoretical objections to Cauchy's formula.
+
+  The modern theory of dispersion, the foundation of which was laid by
+  W. Sellmeier, is based upon the assumption that an interaction takes
+  place between ether and matter. Sellmeier adopted the elastic-solid
+  theory of the ether, and imagined the molecules to be attached to the
+  ether surrounding them, but free to vibrate about their mean positions
+  within a limited range. Thus the ether within the dispersive medium is
+  loaded with molecules which are forced to perform oscillations of the
+  same period as that of the transmitted wave. It can be shown
+  mathematically that the velocity of propagation will be greatly
+  increased if the frequency of the light-wave is slightly greater, and
+  greatly diminished if it is slightly less than the natural frequency
+  of the molecules; also that these effects become less and less marked
+  as the difference in the two frequencies increases. This is exactly in
+  accordance with the observed facts in the case of substances showing
+  anomalous dispersion. Sellmeier's theory did not take account of
+  absorption, and cannot be applied to calculate the dispersion within a
+  broad absorption band. H. von Helmholtz, working on a similar
+  hypothesis, but with a frictional term introduced into his equations,
+  obtained formulae which are applicable to cases of absorption. A
+  modified form of Helmholtz's equation, due to E. Ketteler and known as
+  the Ketteler-Helmholtz formula, has been much used in calculating
+  dispersion, and expresses the facts with remarkable accuracy. P. Drude
+  has obtained a similar formula based on the electromagnetic theory,
+  thus placing the theory of dispersion on a much more satisfactory
+  basis. The fundamental assumption is that the medium contains
+  positively and negatively charged ions or electrons which are acted on
+  by the periodic electric forces which occur in wave propagation on
+  Maxwell's theory. The equations finally arrived at are
+                              ____
+                              \      D[lambda]^2([lambda]^2 - [lambda]_m^2)
+    n^2(1 - [kappa]^2) = 1 +   >   ------------------------------------------,
+                              /___ ([lambda^2 - [lambda]_m^2) + g^2[lmabda]^2
+                        ____
+                        \                   Dg[lambda]^3
+        2n^2[kappa]^2 =  >   -------------------------------------------,
+                        /___ ([lambda]^2 - [lambda]_m^2) + g^2[lmabda]^2
+
+  where [lambda] is the wave-length in free ether of light whose
+  refractive index is n, and [lambda]_m the wave-length of light of the
+  same period as the electron, [kappa] is a coefficient of absorption,
+  and D and g are constants. The sign of summation [Sigma] is used in
+  cases where there are several absorption bands, and consequently
+  several similar terms on the right-hand side, each with a different
+  value of [lambda]_m. This would occur if there were several kinds of
+  ions, each with its own natural period.
+
+  In a region where there is no absorption, we have [kappa] = 0 and
+  therefore g = 0, and we have only one equation, namely,
+
+              ____
+              \             D[lambda]^2
+    n^2 = 1 +  >    --------------------------,
+              /___ ([lambda]^2 - [lambda]_m^2)
+
+  which is identical with Sellmeier's result. As [lambda]_m, is a
+  wave-length corresponding to an absorption band, this formula can be
+  used to find values of [lambda]_m which satisfy the observed values
+  of n within the region of transparency, and so to determine where the
+  absorption bands are situated. In this way the existence of bands in
+  the infrared part of the spectrum has been predicted in the case of
+  quartz and detected by experiments on the selective reflection of the
+  material.
+
+  _References._--For the theory of dispersion see P. Drude, _Theory of
+  Optics_ (Eng. trans.); R. W. Wood, _Physical Optics_; and A. Schuster,
+  _Theory of Optics_. For descriptive accounts, see Wood's _Physical
+  Optics_, T. Preston's _Theory of Light_, E. Edser's _Light_. The last
+  work contains an elementary treatment of Sellmeier's theory.
+       (J. R. C.)
+
+
+
+
+D'ISRAELI (or DISRAELI), ISAAC (1766-1848), English man of letters,
+father of the earl of Beaconsfield (q.v.), was born at Enfield in May
+1766. He belonged to a Jewish family which, having been driven by the
+Inquisition from Spain, towards the end of the 15th century, settled as
+merchants at Venice, and assumed the name which has become famous; it
+was generally spelt D'Israeli until the middle of the 19th century. In
+1748 his father, Benjamin D'Israeli, then only about eighteen years of
+age, removed to England, where, before passing the prime of life, he
+amassed a competent fortune, and retired from business. He belonged to
+the London congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, of which his son
+also remained a nominal member until after Benjamin D'Israeli died at
+the end of 1816.
+
+The strongly marked characteristics which determined Isaac D'Israeli's
+career were displayed to a singular degree even in his boyhood. He spent
+his time over books and in long day-dreams, and evinced the strongest
+distaste for business and all the more bustling pursuits of life. These
+idiosyncrasies met with no sympathy from either of his parents, whose
+ambitious plans for his future career they threatened to disappoint.
+When he was about fourteen, in the hope of changing the bent of his
+mind, his father sent him to live with his agent at Amsterdam, where he
+worked under a tutor for four or five years. Here he studied Bayle and
+Voltaire, and became an ardent disciple of Rousseau. Here also he wrote
+a long poem against commerce, which he produced as an exposition of his
+opinions when, on his return to England, his father announced his
+intention of placing him in a commercial house at Bordeaux. Against such
+a destiny D'Israeli's mind strongly revolted; and he carried his poem,
+with a letter earnestly appealing for advice and assistance, to Samuel
+Johnson; but when he called again a week after to receive an answer, the
+packet was returned unopened--the great Doctor was on his death-bed. He
+also addressed a letter to Dr Vicesimus Knox, master of Tonbridge
+Grammar School, begging to be received into his family, that he might
+enjoy the benefit of his learning and experience. How this application
+was answered we do not know. The evident firmness of his resolve,
+however, was not without effect. His parents gave up their purpose for a
+time. He was sent to travel in France, and allowed to occupy himself as
+he wished; and he had the happiness of spending some months in Paris, in
+the society of literary men, and devoted to the literary pursuits in
+which he delighted.
+
+In the beginning of 1788 he returned home, and in the next year he
+attacked Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in _The Gentleman's Magazine_ in a
+poem in the manner of Pope, "On the Abuse of Satire." The authorship of
+the poem was much debated, and it was attributed by some to William
+Hayley, upon whom it was actually avenged, with characteristic
+savageness, by its victim. It is greatly to Wolcot's credit that, on
+learning his mistake, he sought the acquaintance of his young opponent,
+whose friend he remained to the end of his life. Through the success of
+this satire D'Israeli made the acquaintance of Henry James Pye, who
+helped to persuade his father that it would be a mistake to force him
+into a business career, and introduced him into literary circles.
+D'Israeli dedicated his first book, _A Defence of Poetry_, to Pye in
+1790. Henceforth his life was passed in the way he best liked--in quiet
+and almost uninterrupted study. In 1802 he married Maria Basevi, by whom
+he had five children, of whom Benjamin (afterwards Lord Beaconsfield and
+Prime Minister of England) was the second. He was able to maintain his
+strenuous habits of study till he reached the advanced age of
+seventy-two, when he was forced, by paralysis of the optic nerve, to
+give up work almost entirely. He lived ten years longer, and died at his
+seat at Bradenham House, Buckinghamshire, on the 19th of January 1848.
+
+Isaac D'Israeli is most celebrated as the author of the _Curiosities of
+Literature_ (1791, subsequent volumes in 1793, 1817, 1823 and 1834). It
+is a miscellany of literary and historical anecdotes, of original
+critical remarks, and of interesting and curious information of all
+kinds, animated by genuine literary feeling, taste and enthusiasm. With
+the _Curiosities of Literature_ may be classed D'Israeli's
+_Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations_ (1796), the _Calamities of
+Authors_ (1812-1813), and the _Quarrels of Authors_ (1814). Towards the
+close of his life D'Israeli projected a continuous history of English
+literature, three volumes of which appeared in 1841 under the title of
+the _Amenities of Literature_. But of all his works the most delightful
+is his _Essay on the Literary Character_ (1795), which, like most of his
+writings, abounds in illustrative anecdotes. In the famous "Pope
+controversy" he supported Byron and Campbell against Bowles and Hazlitt
+by a defence of Pope in the form of a criticism of Joseph Spence's
+_Anecdotes_ contributed to the _Quarterly Review_ (July 1820). In 1797
+D'Israeli published three novels; one of these, _Mejnoun and Leila, the
+Arabian Petrarch and Laura_, was said to be the first oriental romance
+in English. His last novel, _Despotism, or the Fall of the Jesuits_,
+appeared in 1811, but none of his romances was popular. He also
+published a slight sketch of Jewish history, and especially of the
+growth of the Talmud, entitled the _Genius of Judaism_ (1833).
+
+He was the author of two historical works--a brief defence of the
+literary merit and personal and political character of James I. (1816),
+and a learned _Commentary on the Life and Reign of King Charles I._
+(1828-1831). This was recognized by the University of Oxford, which
+conferred upon the author the honorary degree of D.C.L. As an historian
+D'Israeli is distinguished by two characteristics. In the first place,
+he had small interest in politics, and no sympathy with the passionate
+fervour, or adequate appreciation of the importance, of political
+struggles. And, secondly, with a laborious zeal then less common than
+now among historians, he sought to bring to light fresh historical
+material by patient search for letters, diaries and other manuscripts of
+value which had escaped the notice of previous students. Indeed, the
+honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of the
+modern school of historical research.
+
+  Of the amiable personal character and the placid life of Isaac
+  D'Israeli a charming picture is to be found in the brief memoir
+  prefixed to the 1849 edition of _Curiosities of Literature_, by his
+  son Lord Beaconsfield.
+
+
+
+
+DISS, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of Norfolk,
+England; near the river Waveney (the boundary with Suffolk), 95 m. N.E.
+by N. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 3745. The town lies pleasantly upon a hill rising above a mere,
+which drains to the Waveney, having its banks laid out as public
+gardens. The church of St Mary exhibits Decorated and Perpendicular
+stone and flint work. There is a corn exchange and the agricultural
+trade is considerable; brushes and matting are manufactured. The poet
+and satirist, John Skelton (d. 1529), was rector here in the later part
+of his life, and is doubtfully considered a native.
+
+
+
+
+DISSECTION (from Lat. _dissecare_, to cut apart), the separation into
+parts by cutting, particularly the cutting of an animal or plant into
+parts for the purpose of examination or display of its structure.
+
+
+
+
+DISSENTER (Lat. _dis-sentire_, to disagree), one who dissents or
+disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &c. The term "dissenter" is,
+however, practically restricted to the special sense of a member of a
+religious body in England which has, for one reason or another,
+separated from the Established Church. Strictly, the term includes the
+English Roman Catholics, who in the original draft of the Relief Act of
+1791 were styled "Protesting Catholic Dissenters." It is in practice,
+however, restricted to the "Protestant Dissenters" referred to in sec.
+ii. of the Toleration Act of 1688. The term is not applied to those
+bodies who dissent from the Established Church of Scotland; and in
+speaking of members of religious bodies which have seceded from
+established churches abroad it is usual to employ the term "dissidents"
+(Lat. _dissidere_, to dissent). In this connotation the terms
+"dissenter" and "dissenting," which had acquired a somewhat contemptuous
+flavour, have tended since the middle of the 19th century to be replaced
+by "nonconformist," a term which did not originally imply secession, but
+only refusal to conform in certain particulars (e.g. the wearing of the
+surplice) with the authorized usages of the Established Church. Still
+more recently the term "nonconformist" has in its turn, as the political
+attack on the principle of a state establishment of religion developed,
+tended to give place to the style of "Free Churches" and "Free
+Churchman." All three terms are now in use, "nonconformist" being the
+most usual, as it is the most colourless. (See CONGREGATIONALISM, &c.)
+
+
+
+
+DISSOCIATION, a separation or dispersal, the opposite of association. In
+chemistry the term is given to chemical reactions in which a substance
+decomposes into two or more substances, and particularly to cases in
+which associated molecules break down into simpler molecules. Thus the
+reactions NH4Cl <=> NH3 + HCl, and PCl5 <=> PCl3 + Cl2 are instances of the
+first type; N2O4 <=> 2NO2, of the second (see CHEMICAL ACTION).
+Electrolytic or ionic dissociation is the separation of a substance in
+solution into ions (see ELECTROLYSIS; SOLUTION).
+
+
+
+
+DISSOLUTION (from Lat. _dissolvere_, to break up into parts), the act of
+dissolving or reducing to constituent parts, especially of the bringing
+to an end an association such as a partnership or building society, and
+particularly of the termination of an assembly. A dissolution of
+parliament in England is thus the end of its existence, brought about by
+the efflux of time in accordance with the Septennial Act 1716, or by an
+exercise of the royal prerogative. This is done either in person, or by
+commission, if parliament is sitting; if prorogued, then by
+proclamation. The word is used as a synonym for end or death.
+
+
+
+
+DISTAFF, in the early forms of spinning, the "rock" or short stick round
+one end of which the flax, cotton or wool is loosely wound, and from
+which it is spun off by the spindle. The word is derived from the Old
+English _distaef_, the first part of which is connected with _dizen_,
+in modern English seen in "bedizen," to deck out or embellish,
+originally "to equip the distaff with flax, &c.," cf. the German
+dialectal word _Diesse_, flax. The last part of the word is "staff."
+"Distaff" from early times has been used to symbolize woman's work (cf.
+the use of "spinster" for an unmarried woman); thus the "distaff" or
+"spindle" side of a family refers to the female branch, as opposed to
+the "spear" or male branch. The 7th of January, the day after Epiphany,
+was formerly known as St Distaff's day, as women then began work again
+after the Christmas holiday.
+
+
+
+
+DISTILLATION (from the Lat. _distillare_, more correctly _destillare_,
+to drop or trickle down), an operation consisting in the conversion of a
+substance or mixture of substances into vapours which are afterwards
+condensed to the liquid form; it has for its object the separation or
+purification of substances by taking advantage of differences in
+volatility. The apparatus consists of three parts:--the "retort" or
+"still," in which the substance is heated; the "condenser," in which the
+vapours are condensed; and the "receiver," in which the condensed
+vapours are collected. Generally the components of a mixture will be
+vaporized in the order of their boiling-points; consequently if the
+condensates or "fractions" corresponding to definite ranges of
+temperature be separately collected, it is obvious that a more or less
+partial separation of the components will be effected. If the substance
+operated upon be practically pure to start with, or the product of
+distillation be nearly of constant composition, the operation is termed
+"purification by distillation" or "rectification"; the latter term is
+particularly used in the spirit industry. If a complex mixture be
+operated upon, and a separation effected by collecting the distillates
+in several portions, the operation is termed "fractional distillation."
+Since many substances decompose either at, or below, their
+boiling-points under ordinary atmospheric pressure, it is necessary to
+lower the boiling-point by reducing the pressure if it be desired to
+distil them. This variation is termed "distillation under reduced
+pressure or in a vacuum." The vaporization of a substance below its
+normal boiling-point can also be effected by blowing in steam or some
+other vapour; this operation is termed "distillation with steam." "Dry
+distillation" is the term used when solid substances which do not
+liquefy on heating are operated upon; "sublimation" is the term used
+when a solid distils without the intervention of a liquid phase.
+
+Distillation appears to have been practised at very remote times. The
+Alexandrians prepared oil of turpentine by distilling pine-resin;
+Zosimus of Panopolis, a voluminous writer of the 5th century A.D.,
+speaks of the distillation of a "divine water" or "panacea" (probably
+from the complex mixture of calcium polysulphides, thiosulphate, &c.,
+and free sulphur, which is obtained by boiling sulphur with lime and
+water) and advises "the efficient luting of the apparatus, for otherwise
+the valuable properties would be lost." The Arabians greatly improved
+the earlier apparatus, naming one form the alembic (q.v.); they
+discovered many ethereal oils by distilling plants and plant juices,
+alcohol by the distillation of wine, and also distilled water. The
+alchemists gave great attention to the method, as is shown by the many
+discoveries made. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, all more or
+less impure, were better studied; and many ethereal oils were
+discovered. Prior to about the 18th century three forms of distillation
+were practised: (1) _destillatio per ascensum_, in which the retort was
+heated from the bottom, and the vapours escaped from the top; (2)
+_destillatio per latus_, in which the vapours escaped from the side; (3)
+_destillatio per descensum_, in which the retort was heated at the top,
+and the vapours led off by a pipe passing through the bottom. According
+to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of destillatio per descensum
+occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician who flourished at
+about the end of the 5th century.
+
+In modern times the laboratory practice of distillation was greatly
+facilitated by the introduction of the condenser named after Justus von
+Liebig; A. Kolbe and E. Frankland introduced the "reflux condenser,"
+i.e. a condenser so placed that the condensed vapours return to the
+distilling flask, a device permitting the continued boiling of a
+substance with little loss; W. Dittmar and R. Anschutz, independently
+of one another, introduced "distillation under reduced pressure"; and
+"fractional distillation" was greatly aided by the columns of Wurtz
+(1855), E. Linnemann (1871), and of J. A. Le Bel and A. Henninger
+(1874). In chemical technology enormous strides have been made, as is
+apparent from the coal-gas, coal-tar, mineral oil, spirits and mineral
+acids industries.
+
+The subject is here treated under the following subdivisions: (1)
+ordinary distillation, (2) distillation under reduced pressure, (3)
+fractional distillation, (4) distillation with steam, (5) theory of
+distillation, (6) dry distillation, (7) distillation in chemical
+technology and (8) commercial distillation of water.
+
+  1. _Ordinary Distillation._--The apparatus generally used is shown in
+  fig. 1. The substance is heated in a retort a, which consists of a
+  large bulb drawn out at the top to form a long neck; it may also be
+  provided with a tubulure, or opening, which permits the charging of
+  the retort, and also the insertion of a thermometer b. The retort may
+  be replaced by a distilling flask, which is a round-bottomed flask
+  (generally with a lengthened neck) provided with an inclined side
+  tube. The neck of the retort, or side tube of the flask, is connected
+  to the condenser c by an ordinary or rubber cork, according to the
+  nature of the substance distilled; ordinary corks soaked in paraffin
+  wax are very effective when ordinary or rubber corks cannot be used.
+  Sometimes an "adapter" is used; this is simply a tapering tube, the
+  side tube being corked into the wider end, and the condenser on to the
+  narrower end. The thermometer is placed so that the bulb is near the
+  neck of the retort or the side tube of the distilling flask. It
+  generally happens that much of the mercury column is outside the flask
+  and consequently at a lower temperature than the bulb, hence a
+  correction of the observed temperature is necessary. If N be the
+  length of the unheated mercury column in degrees, t the temperature of
+  this column (generally determined by a small thermometer placed with
+  its bulb at the middle of the column), and T the temperature recorded
+  by the thermometer, then the corrected temperature of the vapour is T
+  + 0.000143 (T - t) N (T. E. Thorpe, _Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1880, p.
+  159).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  The mode of heating varies with the substance to be distilled. For
+  highly volatile liquids, e.g. ether, ligroin, &c., immersion of the
+  flask in warm water suffices; for less volatile liquids a directly
+  heated water or sand bath is used; for other liquids the flask is
+  heated through wire gauze or asbestos board, or directly by a Bunsen.
+  The condensing apparatus must also be conditioned by the volatility.
+  With difficulty volatile substances, e.g. nitrobenzene, air cooling of
+  the retort neck or of a straight tube connected with the distilling
+  flask will suffice; or wet blotting-paper placed on the tube and the
+  receiver immersed in water may be used. For less volatile liquids the
+  Liebig condenser is most frequently used. In its original form, this
+  consists of a long tube surrounded by an outer tube so arranged that
+  cold water circulates in the annular space between the two. The
+  vapours pass through the inner tube, and the cold water enters at the
+  end farthest from the distilling flask. For more efficient
+  condensation--and also for shortening the apparatus--the central tube
+  may be flattened, bent into a succession of V's, or twisted into a
+  spiral form, the object in each case being to increase the condensing
+  surface. Of other common types of condenser, we may notice the
+  "spiral" or "worm" type, which consists of a glass, copper or tin worm
+  enclosed in a vessel in which water circulates; and the ball
+  condenser, which consists of two concentric spheres, the vapour
+  passing through the inner sphere and water circulating in the space
+  between this and the outer (in another form the vapour circulates in a
+  shell, on the outside and inside of which water circulates). A very
+  effective type is shown in fig. 2. The condensing water enters at the
+  top and is conducted to the bottom of the inner tube, which it fills
+  and then flows over the outside of the outer tube; it collects in the
+  bottom funnel and is then led off. The vapours pass between the inner
+  and outer tubes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+  Practically any vessel may serve as a receiver--test tube, flask,
+  beaker, &c. If noxious vapours come over, it is necessary to have an
+  air-tight connexion between the condenser and receiver, and to provide
+  the latter with an outlet tube leading to an absorption column or
+  other contrivance in which the vapours are taken up. If the substances
+  operated upon decompose when heated in air, as, for example, the zinc
+  alkyls which inflame, the air within the apparatus is replaced by some
+  inert gas, e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, &c., which is led in at the
+  distilling flask before the process is started, and a slow current
+  maintained during the operation.
+
+  2. _Distillation under Reduced Pressure._--This method is adopted for
+  substances which decompose at their boiling-points under ordinary
+  pressure, and, generally, when it is desirable to work at a lower
+  temperature. The apparatus differs very slightly from that employed in
+  ordinary distillation. The "receiver" must be connected on the one
+  side to the condenser, and on the other to the exhaust pump. A safety
+  vessel and a manometer are generally interposed between the pump and
+  receiver. For the purpose of collecting the distillates in fractions,
+  many forms of receivers have been devised. Bruhl's is one of the
+  simplest. It consists of a number of tubes mounted vertically on a
+  horizontal circular disk which rotates about a vertical axis in a
+  cylindrical vessel. This vessel has two tubulures: through one the end
+  of the condenser projects so as to be over one of the receiving tubes;
+  the other leads to the pump. By rotating the disk the tubes may be
+  successively brought under the end of the condenser. Boiling under
+  reduced pressure has one very serious drawback, viz. the liquid boils
+  irregularly or "bumps." W. Dittmar showed that this may be avoided by
+  leading a fine, steady stream of dry gas-air, carbon dioxide,
+  hydrogen, &c., according to the substance operated upon--through the
+  liquid by means of a fine capillary tube, the lower end of which
+  reaches to nearly the bottom of the flask. "Bumping" is common in open
+  boiling when the liquid is free from air bubbles and the interior of
+  the vessel is very smooth. It may be diminished by introducing
+  clippings of platinum foil, pieces of porcelain, glass beads or
+  garnets into the liquid. "Frothing" is another objectionable feature
+  with many liquids. When cold, froth can be immediately dissipated by
+  adding a few drops of ether. In boiling liquids its formation may be
+  prevented by adding paraffin wax; the wax melts and forms a ring on
+  the surface of the liquid, which boils tranquilly in the centre.
+
+  [Illustration: Wurtz. Linnemann. Le Bel-Henninger. Glynsky. Young.
+  Kreusler.
+
+  FIG. 3.]
+
+  3. _Fractional Distillation._--By fractional distillation is meant the
+  separation of a mixture having components which boil at neighbouring
+  temperatures. The distilling flask has an elongated neck so that the
+  less volatile vapours are condensed and return to the flask, while the
+  more volatile component passes over. The success of the operation
+  depends upon two factors: (1) that the heating be careful, slow and
+  steady, and (2) that the column attached to the flask be efficient to
+  sort out, as it were, the most volatile vapour. Three types of columns
+  are employed: (1) the elongation is simply a straight or bulb tube;
+  (2) the column, properly termed a "dephlegmator," is so constructed
+  that the vapours have to traverse a column of previously condensed
+  vapour; (3) the column is encircled by a jacket through which a liquid
+  circulates at the same temperature as the boiling-point of the most
+  volatile component. To the first type belongs the simple straight
+  tube, and the Wurtz tube (see fig. 3), which is simply a series of
+  bulbs blown on a tube. These forms are not of much value. Several
+  forms of the second type are in use. In the Linnemann column the
+  condensed vapours temporarily collect on platinum gauzes (a) placed at
+  the constrictions of a bulbed tube. In the Le Bel-Henninger form a
+  series of bulbs are connected consecutively by means of syphon tubes
+  (b) and having platinum gauzes (a) at the constrictions, so that when
+  a certain amount of liquid collects in any one bulb it syphons over
+  into the next lower bulb. The Glynsky form is simpler, having only one
+  syphon tube; at the constrictions it is usual to have a glass bead.
+  The "rod-and-disk" form of Sidney Young is a series of disks mounted
+  on a central spindle and surrounded by a slightly wider tube. The
+  "pear-shaped" form of the same author consists of a series of
+  pear-shaped bulbs, the narrow end of one adjoining the wider end of
+  the next lower one. In this class may also be placed the Hempel tube,
+  which is simply a straight tube filled with glass beads. Of the third
+  type is the Warren column consisting of a spiral kept at a constant
+  temperature by a liquid bath. Improved forms were devised by F. D.
+  Brown. Kreusler's form is easily made and manipulated. A tube closed
+  at the bottom is traversed by an open narrower tube, and the
+  arrangement is fitted in the neck of the distilling flask. Water is
+  led in by the inner tube, and leaves by a side tube fused on the wider
+  tube. Many comparisons of the effectiveness of dephlegmating columns
+  have been made (see Sidney Young, _Fractional Distillation_, 1903).
+  The pear-shaped form is the most effective, second in order is the Le
+  Bel-Henninger, which, in turn, is better than the Glynsky. The main
+  objection to the Hempel is the retention of liquid in the beads, and
+  the consequent inapplicability to the distillation of small
+  quantities.
+
+  4. _Distillation with Steam._--In this process a current of steam,
+  which is generated in a separate boiler and superheated, if necessary,
+  by circulation through a heated copper worm, is led into the
+  distilling vessel, and the mixed vapours condensed as in the ordinary
+  processes. This method is particularly successful in the case of
+  substances which cannot be distilled at their ordinary boiling-points
+  (it will be seen in the following section that distilling with steam
+  implies a lowering of boiling-point), and which can be readily
+  separated from water. Instances of its application are found in the
+  separation of ortho- and para-nitrophenol, the o-compound distilling
+  and the p- remaining behind; in the separation of aniline from the
+  mixture obtained by reducing nitrobenzene; of the naphthols from the
+  melts produced by fusing the naphthalene monosulphonic acids with
+  potash; and of quinoline from the reaction between aniline,
+  nitrobenzene, glycerin, and sulphuric acid (the product being first
+  steam distilled to remove any aniline, nitrobenzene, or glycerin, then
+  treated with alkali, and again steam distilled when quinoline comes
+  over). With substances prone to discolorization, as, for example,
+  certain amino compounds, the operation may be conducted in an
+  atmosphere of carbon dioxide, or the water may be saturated with
+  sulphuretted hydrogen. Liquids other than water may be used: thus
+  alcohol separates [alpha]-pipecoline and ether nitropropylene.
+
+  5. _Theory of Distillation._--The general observation that under a
+  constant pressure a pure substance boils at a constant temperature
+  leads to the conclusion that the distillate which comes over while the
+  thermometer records only a small variation is of practically constant
+  composition. On this fact depends "rectification or purification by
+  distillation." A liquid boils when its vapour pressure equals the
+  superincumbent pressure (see VAPORIZATION); consequently any process
+  which diminishes the external pressure must also lower the
+  boiling-point. In this we have the theory of "distillation under
+  reduced pressure." The theory of fractional distillation, or the
+  behaviour of liquid mixtures when heated to their boiling-points, is
+  more complex. For simplicity we confine ourselves to mixtures of two
+  components, in which experience shows that three cases are to be
+  recognized according as the components are (1) completely immiscible,
+  (2) partially miscible, (3) miscible in all proportions.
+
+  When the components are completely immiscible, the vapour pressure of
+  the one is not influenced by the presence of the other. The mixture
+  consequently distils at the temperature at which the sum of the
+  partial pressures equals that of the atmosphere. Both components come
+  over in a constant proportion until one disappears; it is then
+  necessary to raise the temperature in order to distil the residue. The
+  composition of the distillate is determinate (by Avogadro's law) if
+  the molecular weights and vapour pressure of the components at the
+  temperature of distillation be known. If M1, M2, and P1, P2 be the
+  molecular weights and vapour pressures of the components A and B, then
+  the ratio of A to B in the distillate is M1P1/M2P2. Although, as is
+  generally the case, one liquid (say A) is more volatile than the other
+  (say B), i.e. P1 greater than P2, if the molecular weight of A be much
+  less than that of B, then it is obvious that the ratio M1P1/M2P2 need
+  not be very great, and hence the less volatile liquid B would come
+  over in fair amount. These conditions pertain in cases where
+  distillation with steam is successfully practised, the relatively high
+  volatility of water being counterbalanced by the relatively high
+  molecular weight of the other component; for example, in the case of
+  nitrobenzene and water the ratio is 1 to 5. In general, when the
+  substance to be distilled has a vapour pressure of only 10 mm. at 100
+  deg. C., distillation with steam can be adopted, if the product can be
+  subsequently separated from the water.
+
+  When distilling a mixture of partially miscible components a
+  distillate of constant composition is obtained so long as two layers
+  are present, i.e. A dissolved in B and B dissolved in A, since both of
+  these solutions emit vapours of the same composition (this follows
+  since the same vapour must be in equilibrium with both solutions, for
+  if it were not so a cyclic system contradicting the second law of
+  thermodynamics would be realizable). The composition of the vapour,
+  however, would not be the same as that of either layer. As the
+  distillation proceeded one layer would diminish more rapidly than the
+  other until only the latter would remain; this would then distil as a
+  completely miscible mixture.
+
+  The distillation of completely miscible mixtures is the most common
+  practically and the most complex theoretically. A coordination of the
+  results obtained on the distillation of mixtures of this nature with
+  the introduction of certain theoretical considerations led to the
+  formation of three groups distinguished by the relative solubilities
+  of the vapours in the liquid components.
+
+  (i.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in the liquid B, and the
+  vapour of B readily soluble in the liquid A, there will exist a
+  mixture of A and B which will have a lower vapour pressure than any
+  other mixture. The vapour pressure composition curve will be convex to
+  the axis of compositions, the maximum vapour pressures corresponding
+  to pure A and pure B, and the minimum to some mixture of A and B. On
+  distilling such a mixture under constant pressure, a mixture of the
+  two components (of variable composition) will come over until there
+  remains in the distilling flask the mixture of minimum vapour
+  pressure. This will then distil at a constant temperature. Thus nitric
+  acid, boiling-point 68 deg., forms a mixture with water, boiling point
+  100 deg., which boils at a constant temperature of 126 deg., and
+  contains 68% of acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a similar mixture which
+  boils at 110 deg. and contains 20.2% of acid. Another mixture of this
+  type is formic acid and water.
+
+  (ii.) If the vapours be sparingly soluble in the liquids there will
+  exist a mixture having a greater vapour pressure than that of any
+  other mixture. The vapour pressure-composition curve will now be
+  concave to the axis of composition, the minima corresponding to the
+  pure components. On distilling such a mixture, a mixture of constant
+  composition will distil first, leaving in the distilling flask one or
+  other of the components according to the composition of the mixture.
+  An example is propyl alcohol and water. At one time it was thought
+  that these mixtures of constant boiling-point (an extended list is
+  given in Young's _Fractional Distillation_) were definite compounds.
+  The above theory, coupled with such facts as the variation of the
+  composition of the constant boiling-point fraction with the pressure
+  under which the mixture is distilled, the proportionality of the
+  density of all mixtures to their composition, &c., shows this to be
+  erroneous.
+
+  (iii.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in liquid B, and the
+  vapour of B sparingly soluble in liquid A, and if the vapour pressure
+  of A be greater than that of B, then the vapour pressures of mixtures
+  of A and B will continually diminish as one passes from 100% A to 100%
+  B. The vapour tension may approximate to a linear function of the
+  composition, and the curve will then be practically a straight line.
+  On distilling such a mixture pure A will come over first, followed by
+  mixtures in which the quantity of B continually increases;
+  consequently by a sufficient number of distillations A and B can be
+  completely separated. Examples are water and methyl or ethyl alcohol.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+  Van't Hoff (_Theoretical and Physical Chemistry_, vol. i. p. 51)
+  illustrates the five cases on one diagram. In fig. 4 let AB be the
+  axis of composition, AP be the vapour pressure of pure A, BQ the
+  vapour pressure of pure B. For immiscible liquids the vapour pressure
+  curve is the horizontal line ab, described so that aP = QB and bQ =
+  AP. For partially miscible liquids the curve is Pa1b1Q. The horizontal
+  line a1b1 corresponds to the two layers of liquid, and the inclined
+  lines Pa1Qb1 to solutions of B in A and of A in B. The curves Pa4Q,
+  having a minimum at a4, Pa3Q, having a maximum at a3, and Pa5Q, with
+  neither a maximum nor minimum, correspond to the types i., ii., iii.
+  of completely miscible mixtures.
+
+  6. _Dry Distillation._--In this process the substance operated upon is
+  invariably a solid, the vapours being condensed and collected as in
+  the other methods. When the substance operated upon is of uncertain
+  composition, as, for example, coal, wood, coal-tar, &c., the term
+  destructive distillation is employed. A more general designation is
+  "pyrogenic processes," which also includes such operations as leading
+  vapours through red-hot tubes and condensing the products. We may also
+  consider here cases of sublimation wherein a solid vaporizes and the
+  vapour condenses without the occurrence of the liquid phase.
+
+  Dry distillation is extremely wasteful even when definite substances
+  or mixtures, such as calcium acetate which yields acetone, are dealt
+  with, valueless by-products being obtained and the condensate usually
+  requiring much purification. Prior to 1830, little was known of the
+  process other than that organic compounds generally yielded tarry and
+  solid matters, but the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas (of acetone
+  from acetates), of Mitscherlich (of benzene from benzoates) and of
+  Persoz (of methane from acetates and lime) brought the operation into
+  common laboratory practice. For efficiency the operation must be
+  conducted with small quantities; caking may be prevented by mixing the
+  substance with sand or powdered pumice, or, better, with iron filings,
+  which also renders the decomposition more regular by increasing the
+  conductivity of the mass. The most favourable retort is a shallow iron
+  pan heated in a sand bath, and provided with a screwed-down lid
+  bearing the delivery tube. Sidney Young has suggested conducting the
+  operation in a current of carbon dioxide which sweeps out the vapours
+  as they are evolved, and also heating in a vapour bath, e.g. of
+  sulphur.
+
+  One of the earliest red-hot tube syntheses of importance was the
+  formation of naphthalene from a mixture of alcohol and ether vapours.
+  Such condensations were especially studied by M. P. E. Berthelot, and
+  shown to be very fruitful in forming hydrocarbons. Sometimes reagents
+  are placed in the combustion tube, for example lead oxide (litharge),
+  which takes up bromine and sulphur. In its simplest form the apparatus
+  consists of a straight tube, made of glass, porcelain or iron
+  according to the temperature required and the nature of the reacting
+  substances, heated in an ordinary combustion furnace, the mixture
+  entering at one end and the vapours being condensed at the other.
+  Apparatus can also be constructed in which the unchanged vapours are
+  continually circulated through the tube. Operating in a current of
+  carbon dioxide facilitates the process by preventing overheating.
+
+  7. _Distillation in Chemical Technology._--In laboratory practice use
+  is made of a fairly constant type of apparatus, only trifling
+  modifications being generally necessary to adapt the apparatus for any
+  distillation or fractionation; in technology, on the other hand, many
+  questions have to be considered which generally demand the adoption of
+  special constructions for the economic distillation of different
+  substances. The modes of distillation enumerated above all occur in
+  manufacturing practice. Distillation in a vacuum is practised in two
+  forms:--if the pump draws off steam as well as air it is termed a
+  "wet" air-pump; if it only draws off air, it is a "dry" air-pump. In
+  the glycerin industry the lyes obtained by saponifying the fats are
+  first evaporated with "wet vacuum" and finally distilled with closed
+  and live steam and a "dry vacuum." Two forms of steam distillation may
+  be distinguished:--in one the still is simply heated by a steam coil
+  wound inside or outside the still--this is termed heating by dry
+  steam; in the other steam is injected into the mass within the
+  still--this is the distillation with live steam of laboratory
+  practice. The details of the plant--the material and fittings of the
+  still, the manner of heating, the form of the condensing plant,
+  receivers, &c.--have to be determined for each substance to be
+  distilled in order to work with the maximum economy.
+
+  For the distillation of liquids the retort is usually a cylindrical
+  pot placed vertically; cast iron is generally employed, in which case
+  the bottom is frequently incurved and thicker than the sides in order
+  to take up the additional wear and tear. Sometimes linings of
+  enamelled iron or other material are employed, which when worn can be
+  replaced at a far lower cost than that of a new still. Glass stills
+  heated by a sand bath are sometimes employed in the final distillation
+  of sulphuric acid; platinum, and an alloy of platinum and iridium with
+  a lining of gold rolled on (a discovery due to Heraeus), are used for
+  the same purpose. Cast iron stills are provided with a hemispherical
+  head or dome, generally attached to the body of the still by bolts,
+  and of sufficient size to allow for any frothing. It is invariably
+  provided with an opening to carry off the vapours produced. In its
+  more complete form a still has in addition the following
+  fittings:--The dome is provided with openings to admit (1) the axis of
+  the stirring gear (in some stills the stirring gear rotates on a
+  horizontal axis which traverses the side and not the head of the
+  still), (2) the inlet and outlet tubes of a closed steam coil, (3) a
+  tube reaching to nearly the bottom of the still to carry live steam,
+  (4) a tube to carry a thermometer, (5) one or more manholes for
+  charging purposes, (6) sight-holes through which the operation can be
+  watched, and (7) a safety valve. The body of the still is provided
+  with one or more openings at different heights to serve for the
+  discharge of the residue in the still, and sometimes with a glass
+  gauge to record the quantity of matter in the still. For dry
+  distillations the retorts are generally horizontal cylinders, the
+  bottom or lower surface being sometimes flattened. Iron and fireclay
+  are the materials commonly employed; wrought iron is used in the
+  manufacture of wood-spirit, fireclay for coal-gas (see GAS:
+  _Manufacture_), phosphorus, zinc, &c. The vertical type, however, is
+  employed in the manufacture of acetone and of iodine.
+
+  Several modes of heating are adopted. In some cases, especially in dry
+  distillations, the furnace flames play directly on the retorts, in
+  others, such as in the case of nitric acid, the whole still comes
+  under the action of the furnace gases to prevent condensation on the
+  upper part of the still, while in others the furnace gases do not play
+  directly on the base or upper portion of the still but are conducted
+  around it by a system of flues (see COAL-TAR). Steam heating, dry or
+  live, is employed alone and also as an auxiliary to direct firing.
+
+  The condensing plant varies with the volatility of the distillate. Air
+  cooling is adopted whenever possible. For example, in the less modern
+  methods for manufacturing nitric acid the vapours were conducted
+  directly into double-necked bottles (_bombonnes_) immersed in water. A
+  more efficient arrangement consists of a stack of vertical pipes
+  standing up from a main or collecting trough and connected at the top
+  in consecutive pairs by a cross tube. By an arrangement of diaphragms
+  in the lower trough the vapours are circulated through the system. As
+  an auxiliary to air cooling the stack may be cooled by a slow stream
+  of water trickling down the outside of the pipes, or, in certain
+  cases, cold water may be injected into the condenser in the form of a
+  spray, where it meets the ascending vapours. Horizontal air-cooling
+  arrangements are also employed. A common type of condenser consists of
+  a copper worm placed in a water bath; but more generally straight
+  tubes of copper or cast iron which cross and recross a rectangular
+  tank are employed, since this form is more readily repaired and
+  cleansed. Wood-spirit, petroleum and coal-tar distillates are
+  condensed in plant of the latter type. In cases where the condenser is
+  likely to become plugged there is a pipe by means of which live steam
+  can be injected into the condenser. The supply of water to the
+  condenser is regulated according to the volatility of the condensate.
+  When the vapours readily condense to a solid form the condensing plant
+  may take the form of large chambers; such conditions prevail in the
+  manufacture of arsenic, sulphur and lampblack: in the latter case
+  (which, however, is not properly one of distillation) the chamber is
+  hung with sheets on which the pigment collects. Large chambers are
+  also used in the condensation of mercury.
+
+  Dephlegmation of the vapours arising from such mixtures as coal-tar
+  fractions, petroleum and the "wash" of the spirit industry, is very
+  important, and many types of apparatus are employed in order to effect
+  a separation of the vapours. The earliest form, invented by C. B.
+  Mansfield to facilitate the fractionation of paraffin and coal-tar
+  distillates, consisted in having a pipe leading from the inclined
+  delivery tube of the still to the still again, so that any vapour
+  which condensed in the delivery tube was returned to the still. Of
+  really effective columns Coupier's was one of the earliest. The
+  vapours rising from the still traverse a tall vertical column, and are
+  then conveyed through a series of bulbs placed in a bath kept at the
+  boiling-point of the most volatile constituent. The more volatile
+  vapours pass over to the condensing plant, while the less volatile
+  ones condense in the bulbs and are returned to the column at varying
+  heights by means of connecting tubes. The French column is similar in
+  action. The Coffey still is one of the most effective and is employed
+  in the spirit, ammonia, coal-tar and other industries. It consists of
+  a vertical column divided into a number of sections by horizontal
+  plates, which are perforated so that the ascending vapours have to
+  traverse a layer of liquid. Above this "separator" is a reflux
+  condenser, termed the "cooler," maintained at the correct temperature
+  so that only the more volatile component passes to the receiver. The
+  success of the operation chiefly depends upon the proper management of
+  the cooler.
+
+  8. _Commercial Distillation of Water._--Distilled water, i.e. water
+  free from salts and to some extent of the dissolved gases which are
+  always present in natural waters, is of indispensable value in many
+  operations both of scientific and industrial chemistry. The apparatus
+  and process for distilling ordinary water are very simple. The body of
+  the still is made of copper, with a head and worm, or condensing
+  apparatus, either of copper or tin. The still is usually fed
+  continuously by the heated water from the condenser. The first portion
+  of the distillate brings over the gases dissolved in the water,
+  ammonia and other volatile impurities, and is consequently rejected;
+  scarcely two-fifths of the entire quantity of water can be safely used
+  as pure distilled water.
+
+  Apparatus for the economic production of a potable water from
+  sea-water is of vital importance in the equipment of ships. The simple
+  distillation of sea-water, and the production thereby of a certain
+  proportion of chemically fresh water, is a very simple problem; but it
+  is found that water which is merely evaporated and recondensed has a
+  very disagreeable flat taste, and it is only after long exposure to
+  pure atmospheric air, with continued agitation, or repeated pouring
+  from one vessel to another, that it becomes sufficiently aerated to
+  lose its unpleasant taste and smell and become drinkable. The water,
+  moreover, till it is saturated with gases, readily absorbs noxious
+  vapours to which it may be exposed. For the successful preparation of
+  potable water from sea-water, the following conditions are
+  essential:--1st, aeration of the distilled product so that it may be
+  immediately available for drinking purposes; 2nd, economy of coal to
+  obtain the maximum of water with the minimum expenditure of fuel; and
+  3rd, simplicity of working parts, to secure the apparatus from
+  breaking down, and enable unskilled attendants to work it with safety.
+  The problem is a comparatively old one, for we find that R. Fitzgerald
+  patented a process in 1683 having for its purpose the "sweetening of
+  sea-water." A history of early attempts is given in S. Hales's
+  _Philosophical Experiments_, published in 1739. Among the earlier of
+  the modern forms of apparatus which came into practical adoption are
+  the inventions of Dr Normandy and of Chaplin of Glasgow, the apparatus
+  of Rocher of Nantes, and that patented by Galle and Mazeline of Havre.
+  Normandy's apparatus, although economical and producing water of good
+  quality, is very complex in its structure, consisting of very numerous
+  working parts, with elaborate arrangements of pipes, cocks and other
+  fittings. It is consequently expensive and requires careful attention
+  for its working. It was extensively adopted in the British navy, the
+  Cunard line and many other important emigrant and mercantile lines.
+  Chaplin's apparatus, which was invented and patented later, has also
+  since 1865 been sanctioned for use on emigrant, troop and passenger
+  vessels. The apparatus possesses the great merit of simplicity and
+  compactness, in consequence of which it is comparatively cheap and not
+  liable to derangement. It was adopted by many important British and
+  continental shipping companies, among others by the Peninsular &
+  Oriental, the Inman, the North German Lloyd and the Hamburg American
+  companies.
+
+  The modern distilling plant consists of two main parts termed the
+  evaporator and condenser; in addition there must be a boiler
+  (sometimes steam is run off the main boilers, but this practice has
+  several disadvantages), pumps for circulating cold water in the
+  condenser and for supplying salt water to the evaporator, and a filter
+  through which the aerated water passes. The evaporator consists of a
+  cylindrical vessel having in its lower half a horizontal copper coil
+  connected to the steam supply. The cylindrical vessel is filled to a
+  certain level with salt water and the steam turned on. The water
+  vaporizes and is led from the dome of the evaporator to the head of
+  the condenser. The water level is maintained in the evaporator until
+  it contains a certain amount of salt. It is then run off, and replaced
+  by fresh sea-water. The condenser consists of a vertical cylinder
+  having manifolds at the head and foot and through which a number of
+  tubes pass. In some types, e.g. the Weir, the condensing water
+  circulates upwards through the tubes; in others, e.g. the Quiggins,
+  the water circulates around the tubes. Various forms of the tubes have
+  been adopted. In the Pape-Henneberg condenser, which has been adopted
+  in the German navy, they are oval in section and tend to become
+  circular under the pressure of the steam; this alteration in shape
+  makes the tubes self-scaling. In the Quiggins condenser, which has
+  been widely adopted, e.g. in the "Lusitania," the steam traverses
+  vertical copper coils tinned inside and outside; the coils are
+  crescent-shaped, a form which gives a greater condensing surface and
+  makes the coils self-scaling. The aeration of the water is effected by
+  blowing air into the steam before it is condensed; as an auxiliary,
+  the storage tanks have a false bottom perforated by fine holes so that
+  if air be injected below it, the water is efficiently aerated by the
+  air which traverses it in fine streams. After condensation the water
+  is filtered through charcoal. The filter is either a separate piece of
+  plant, or, as in the Quiggins form, it may be placed below the coils
+  in the same outer vessel. In this plant the aeration is conducted by
+  blowing in air at the base of the condenser. After filtration the
+  water is pumped to the storage tanks. Many types of distilling plant
+  are in use in addition to those mentioned above, for example the
+  Rayner, Kirkaldy, Merlees, Normand; the United States navy has adopted
+  a form designed by the Bureau of Engineering.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The general practice of laboratory distillation is
+  discussed in all treatises on practical organic chemistry; reference
+  may be made to Lassar-Cohn, _Manual of Organic Chemistry_ (1896), and
+  _Arbeitsmethoden fur organisch-chemische Laboratorien_ (1901); Hans
+  Meyer, _Analyse und Konstitutionermittlung organischer Verbindungen_
+  (1909). The theory of distillation finds a place in all treatises on
+  physical chemistry. Of especial importance is Sidney Young,
+  _Fractional Distillation_ (1903). The history of distillation is to be
+  studied in E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, _Die atherischen Ole_
+  (Berlin, 1899; Eng. tr. by E. Kremers, Milwaukee Press, 1900). The
+  technology of distillation is best studied in relation to the several
+  industries in which it is employed; reference should be made to the
+  articles COAL-TAR, GAS, PETROLEUM, SPIRITS, NITRIC ACID, &c.
+       (C. E.*)
+
+
+
+
+DISTRACTION (from Lat. _distrahere_, to pull asunder), a drawing away or
+apart; a word now used generally of a state of mind, to mean a diversion
+of attention, or a violent emotion amounting almost to madness.
+
+
+
+
+DISTRESS (from the O. Fr. _destrece_, _destresse_, from the past
+participle of the Lat. _distringere_, to pull apart, used in Late Lat.
+in the sense of to punish, hence to distrain), pressure, especially of
+sorrow, pain or ill-fortune. As a legal term, the action of distraining
+or distraint, the right which a landlord has of seizing the personal
+chattels of his tenant for non-payment of rent. Cattle _damage feasant_
+(doing damage or trespassing upon a neighbour's land) may also be
+_distrained_, i.e. may be detained until satisfaction be rendered for
+injury they have done. The cattle or other animals thus distrained are a
+mere pledge in the hands of the injured person, who has only power to
+retain them until the owner appear to make satisfaction for the mischief
+they have done. "Distress damage feasant" is also applicable to
+inanimate things on the land if doing damage thereto or to its produce;
+things in actual use, however, are exempt. Such distress must be made
+during the actual trespass, and by whoever is aggrieved by the damage.
+Distress for rent was also at one time regarded as a mere pledge or
+security; but the remedy, having been found to be speedy and
+efficacious, was rendered more perfect by enactments allowing the thing
+taken to be sold. Blackstone notes that the law of distresses in this
+respect "has been greatly altered within a few years last past." The
+legislature, in fact, converted an ancient right of personal redress
+into a powerful remedy for the exclusive benefit of a single class of
+creditors, viz. landlords. Now that the relation of landlord and tenant
+in England has come to be regarded as purely a matter of contract, the
+language of the law-books seems to be singularly inappropriate. The
+defaulting tenant is a "wrong-doer," the landlord is the "injured
+party,"; any attempt to defeat the landlord's remedy by carrying off
+distrainable goods is denounced as "fraudulent and knavish." The
+operation of the law has, as we shall point out, been mitigated in some
+important respects, but it still remains an almost unique specimen of
+one-sided legislation.
+
+At common law distress was said to be incident to _rent service_, and by
+particular reservation to rent charges; but by 4 Geo. II. c. 28 it was
+extended to _rent seck_, _rents of assize_ and chief rents (see RENT).
+It is therefore a general remedy for rent certain in arrear. All
+personal chattels are distrainable with the following exceptions:--(1)
+things in which there can be no property, as animals _ferae naturae_;
+(2) ledgers, daybooks, title-deeds, &c.; (3) things delivered to a
+person following a public trade, as a horse sent to be shod, &c.; (4)
+things already in the custody of the law; (5) things which cannot be
+restored in as good a plight as when distrained, that is, perishable
+articles; (6) fixtures; (7) beasts of the plough and instruments of
+husbandry while there is other sufficient distress to be found; (8)
+instruments of a man's trade or profession in actual use at the time the
+distress is made. If not in actual use they are only privileged in case
+there is other sufficient distress upon the premises. These exceptions,
+it will be seen, imply that the thing distrained is to be held as a
+pledge merely--not to be sold. They also imply that in general any
+chattels found on the land in question are to be available for the
+benefit of the landlord, whether they belong to the tenant or not. This
+principle worked with peculiar harshness in the case of lodgers, whose
+goods might be seized and sold for the payment of the rent due by their
+landlord to his superior landlord. By the Lodgers' Goods Protection Act
+1871, however, where a lodger's goods have been seized by the superior
+landlord the lodger may serve him with a notice stating that the
+intermediate landlord has no interest in the property seized, but that
+it is the property or in the lawful possession of the lodger, and
+setting forth the amount of the rent due by the lodger to his immediate
+landlord. On payment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed
+with the distress against the goods in question. By the Law of Distress
+Amendment Act 1908 this protection was extended to under tenants liable
+to pay rent by equal quarterly instalments, as well as to any person
+whatsoever who is not a tenant of the premises or any part thereof nor
+has any beneficial interest therein. The act, however, excludes certain
+goods, particularly goods belonging to the husband or wife of the tenant
+whose rent is in arrear, goods comprised in any bill of sale, hire
+purchase agreement or settlement made by the tenant, goods in the
+possession or disposition of a tenant by the consent and permission of
+the true owner under such circumstances as to make the tenant reputed
+owner, goods of the partner of an immediate tenant, and goods (not being
+goods of a lodger) upon premises where any trade or business is carried
+on in which both the immediate tenant and the under tenant have an
+interest. The act does not apply where an under tenancy has been created
+in breach of a covenant or agreement between the landlord and his
+immediate tenant. The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 also absolutely
+exempted from distress the tools and implements of trade and wearing
+apparel and bedding of a tenant and his family to the value of five
+pounds, and the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895 gave power to a court
+of summary jurisdiction to direct that such goods, when distrained upon,
+should be restored if not sold, or, if sold, to order their value to be
+paid by the persons who levied the distress or directed it to be levied.
+Originally the landlord could only seize things actually on the
+premises, so that the remedy might be defeated by the things being taken
+away. But by an act of 1710, and by the Distress for Rent Act 1737, he
+may follow things fraudulently or clandestinely removed off the premises
+within thirty days after their removal, unless they have been in the
+meantime bona fide sold for a valuable consideration. The sixth
+exception mentioned above was held to extend to sheaves of corn; but by
+an act of 1690 corn, when reaped, as well as hay, was made subject to
+distress. That act was modified by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851,
+under which growing crops seized by the sheriff and sold under an
+execution are liable to distress for rent which becomes due after the
+seizure and sale, if there is no other sufficient distress on the
+premises.
+
+Excessive or disproportionate distress exposes the distrainer to an
+action, and any irregularity formerly made the proceedings void _ab
+initio_, so that the remedy was attended with considerable risk. The
+Distress for Rent Act 1737, before alluded to, in the interests of
+landlords, protected distresses for _rent_ from the consequences of
+irregularity. In all cases of distress for rent, if the owner do not
+within five days (by the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, fifteen
+days, if the tenant make a request in writing to the person levying the
+distress and also give security for any additional cost that may be
+occasioned by such extension of time) replevy the same with sufficient
+security, the thing distrained may be sold towards satisfaction of the
+rent and charges, and the surplus, if any, must be returned to the
+owner. To "replevy" is when the person distrained upon applies to the
+proper authority (the registrar of the county court) to have the thing
+returned to his own possession, on giving security to try the right of
+taking it in an action of replevin.
+
+Duties and penalties imposed by act of parliament (e.g. payment of rates
+and taxes) are sometimes enforced by distress.
+
+
+
+
+DISTRIBUTION (Lat, _distribuere_, to deal out), a term used in various
+connexions with the general meaning of spreading out. In law, the word
+is used for the division of the personal estate of an intestate among
+the next-of-kin (see INTESTACY). The important scientific question as to
+the distribution of plants and animals on the earth is treated under
+PLANTS: _Distribution_, and ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. In economics the
+word is used generally for the transference of commodities from person
+to person or from place to place, or the dividing up of large quantities
+of commodities into smaller quantities; and in a more technical sense,
+for the division of the product of industry amongst the various members
+or classes of the community. The theory of economic distribution, i.e.
+the causes which determine rent, wages, profits and interest, forms an
+important subject-matter in all text-books. Among recent works, see E.
+Cannan's _History of Theories of Production and Distribution, 1776-1848_
+(1893), J. R. Common's _Distribution of Wealth_ (1893), and H. J.
+Davenport's _Value and Distribution_ (Chicago, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+DISTRICT, a word denoting in its more general sense, a tract or extent
+of a country, town, &c., marked off for administrative or other
+purposes, or having some special and distinguishing characteristics. The
+medieval Latin _districtus_ (from _distringere_, to distrain) is defined
+by Du Cange as _Territorium feudi, seu tractus, in quo Dominus vassallos
+et tenentes suos distringere potest_; and as _justitiae exercendae in eo
+tractu facultas_. It was also used of the territory over which the
+feudal lord exercised his jurisdiction generally. It may be noted that
+_distringere_ had a wider significance than "to distrain" in the English
+legal sense (see DISTRESS). It is defined by Du Cange as _compellere ad
+aliquid faciendum per mulctam, poenam, vel capto pignore_. In English
+usage, apart from its general application in such forms as postal
+district, registration district and the like, "district" has specific
+usages for ecclesiastical and local government purposes. It is thus
+applied to a division of a parish under the Church Building Acts,
+originally called a "perpetual curacy," and the church serving such a
+division is properly a "district chapel." Under the Local Government Act
+of 1894 counties are divided for the purposes of the act into urban and
+rural districts. In British India the word is used to represent the
+_zillah_, an administrative subdivision of a province or presidency. In
+the United States of America the word has many administrative, judicial
+and other applications. In South Carolina it was used instead of
+"county" for the chief division of the state other than in the coast
+region. In the Virginias, Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky and Maryland it
+answers to "township" or precinct, elsewhere the principal subdivision
+of a county. It is used for an electoral "division," each state being
+divided into Congressional and senatorial districts; and also for a
+political subdivision ranking between an unorganized and an organized
+Territory--e.g., the District of Columbia and Alaska.
+
+
+
+
+DISTYLE (from Gr. [Greek: di-], two, and [Greek: stylos], column), the
+architectural term given to a portico which has two columns between
+antae, known as _distyle-in-antis_ (see TEMPLE).
+
+
+
+
+DITHMARSCHEN, or DITMARSH (in the oldest form of the name
+_Thiatmaresgaho_, Dietmar's Gau), a territory between the Eider, the Elbe
+and the North Sea, forming the western part of the old duchy of Holstein,
+and now included in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It
+contains about 550 sq. m. with 90,000 inhabitants. The territory consists
+to the extent of one half of good pasture land, which is preserved from
+inroads of the sea by banks and dams, the other half being mostly waste.
+It was originally colonized mainly from Friesland and Saxony. The district
+was subjugated and Christianized by Charlemagne in 804, and ranked as a
+separate _Gau_, included perhaps in the countship of Stade, or _Comitalus
+utriusque ripae_. From the same century, according to one opinion, or from
+the year 1182, when the countship was incorporated with their see,
+according to another, the archbishops of Bremen claimed supremacy over the
+land; but the inhabitants, who had developed and consolidated a systematic
+organism for self-government, made obstinate resistance, and rather
+attached themselves to the bishop of Schleswig. Ditmarsken, to use the
+Scandinavian form of the name, continued part of the Danish dominions till
+the disastrous battle of Bornhoved in 1227, when its former independence
+was regained. The claims of the archbishop of Bremen were now so far
+recognized that he exercised the royal rights of _Heerbann_ and
+_Blutbann_,[1] enjoyed the consequent emoluments, and was represented
+first by a single _advocatus_, or _Vogt_, and afterwards by one for each
+of the five Doffts, or marks, into which the land was divided after the
+establishment of Meldorf. The community was governed by a _Landrath_ of
+forty-eight elective consuls, or twelve from each of the four marks; and
+even in the 14th century the power of the episcopal _advocati_ was so
+slight that a chronicler quoted by Conrad von Maurer says, _De Ditmarschen
+leven sunder Heren und Hovedt unde dohn wadt se willen_, "the Ditmarschen
+live without lord and head, and do what they will." In 1319 and in 1404
+they succeeded in defeating the invasions of the Holstein nobles; and
+though in 1474 the land was nominally incorporated with the duchy by the
+emperor Frederick III., the attempt of the Danish king Hans and the duke
+of Gottorp to enforce the decree in 1500 resulted only in their complete
+rout in the marshes of the Dussend-Duwels-Warf. During the early part of
+the century which began with such prestige for Ditmarsh, it was the scene
+of violent internal conflict in regard to the religious questions of the
+time; and, thus weakened, it was obliged in 1559 to submit to partition
+among its three conquerors--King Frederick II. of Denmark and Dukes John
+and Adolphus. A new division took place on Duke John's death in 1581, by
+which Frederick obtained South Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Meldorf,
+and Adolphus obtained North Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Heide; and
+this arrangement continued till 1773, when all the Gottorp possessions
+were incorporated with the Danish crown.
+
+  See Dahlmann's edition of Neocorus, _Chronik von Dithmarschen_ (Kiel,
+  1827), and _Geschichte Danemarks_ (1840-1844); Michelsen,
+  _Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Landes Dithmarschen_ (1834),
+  _Sammlung altdithmarscher Rechtsquellen_ (1842), and _Dithmarschen im
+  Verhaltniss zum bremischen Erzstift_; Kolster, _Geschichte
+  Dithmarschens, nach F. R. Dahlmanns Vorlesungen_ (1873).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] That is, the right of claiming military service, and the right of
+    bringing capital offenders to justice.
+
+
+
+
+DITHYRAMBIC POETRY, the description of poetry in which the character of
+the dithyramb is preserved. It remains quite uncertain what the
+derivation or even the primitive meaning of the Greek word [Greek:
+dithyrambos] is, although many conjectures have been attempted. It was,
+however, connected from earliest times with the choral worship of
+Dionysus. A dithyramb is defined by Grote as a round choric dance and
+song in honour of the wine-god. The earliest dithyrambic poetry was
+probably improvised by priests of Bacchus at solemn feasts, and
+expressed, in disordered numbers, the excitement and frenzy felt by the
+worshippers. This element of unrestrained and intoxicated vehemence is
+prominent in all poetry of this class. The dithyramb was traditionally
+first practised in Naxos; it spread to other islands, to Boeotia and
+finally to Athens. Arion is said to have introduced it at Corinth, and
+to have allied it to the worship of Pan. It was thus "merged," as
+Professor G. G. Murray says, "into the Satyr-choir of wild
+mountain-goats" out of which sprang the earliest form of tragedy. But
+when tragic drama had so far developed as to be quite independent, the
+dithyramb did not, on that account, disappear. It flourished in Athens
+until after the age of Aristotle. So far as we can distinguish the form
+of the ancient Greek dithyramb, it must have been a kind of irregular
+wild poetry, not divided into strophes or constructed with any evolution
+of the theme, but imitative of the enthusiasm created by the use of
+wine, by what passed as the Dionysiac delirium. It was accompanied on
+some occasions by flutes, on others by the lyre, but we do not know
+enough to conjecture the reasons of the choice of instrument. Pindar, in
+whose hands the ode took such magnificent completeness, is said to have
+been trained in the elements of dithyrambic poetry by a certain Lasus of
+Hermione. Ion, having carried off the prize in a dithyrambic contest,
+distributed to every Athenian citizen a cup of Chian wine. In the
+opinion of antiquity, pure dithyrambic poetry reached its climax in a
+lost poem. _The Cyclops_, by Philoxenus of Cythera, a poet of the 4th
+century B.C. After this time, the composition of dithyrambs, although
+not abandoned, rapidly declined in merit. It was essentially a Greek
+form, and was little cultivated, and always without success, by the
+Latins. The dithyramb had a spectacular character, combining verse with
+music. In modern literature, although the adjective "dithyrambic" is
+often used to describe an enthusiastic movement in lyric language, and
+particularly in the ode, pure dithyrambs have been extremely rare. There
+are, however, some very notable examples. The _Baccho in Toscana_ of
+Francesco Redi (1626-1698), which was translated from the Italian, with
+admirable skill, by Leigh Hunt, is a piece of genuine dithyrambic
+poetry. _Alexander's Feast_ (1698), by Dryden, is the best example in
+English. But perhaps more remarkable, and more genuinely dithyrambic
+than either, are the astonishing improvisations of Karl Mikael Bellman
+(1740-1795), whose Bacchic songs were collected in 1791 and form one of
+the most remarkable bodies of lyrical poetry in the literature of
+Sweden.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+DITTERSBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 3
+m. by rail S.E. from Waldenburg and 50 m. S. W. from Breslau. It has
+coal-mines, bleach-fields and match factories. Population (1905) 9371.
+
+
+
+
+DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON (1739-1799), Austrian composer and
+violinist, was born in Vienna on the 2nd of November 1739, his father's
+name being Ditters. Having shown as a child marked talent for the
+violin, he was allowed to play in the orchestras of St Stephen's and the
+_Schottenkirche_, where he attracted the attention of a notable patron
+of music, Prince Joseph Frederick of Hildburghausen (1702-1787), who is
+also remembered as a soldier for his disastrous leading of the forces of
+the Empire at Rossbach. The prince gave the boy, now eleven years old, a
+place in his private orchestra--the first of the kind established in
+Vienna,--and also saw to it that he received an excellent general
+education. The Seven Years' War proved disastrous to both music and
+morals; and young Ditters, who had fallen into evil ways, fled from
+Hildburghausen, whither he had gone with the prince, to avoid the
+payment of his gambling debts. His patron generously forgave and
+recalled him, but soon afterwards gave up his orchestra at Vienna.
+Ditters now obtained a place in the Vienna opera; but he was not
+satisfied, and in 1761 eagerly accepted an invitation to accompany
+Gluck, whose acquaintance, as well as that of Haydn, he had made while
+in the service of the prince, on a professional journey to Italy. His
+success as a violinist on this occasion was equal to that of Gluck as
+composer; and on his return to Vienna he was recognized as the superior
+of Antonio Lolli, who as virtuoso had hitherto held the palm. In 1764 he
+was again associated with Gluck in the musical part of the ceremonies at
+Frankfort, attending the coronation of the archduke Joseph as King of
+the Romans. His next appointment was that of conductor of the orchestra
+of the bishop of Grosswardein, a Hungarian magnate, at Pressburg. He set
+up a private stage in the episcopal palace, and wrote for it his first
+"opera buffa," _Amore in musica_. His first oratorio, _Isacco figura del
+Redentore_, was also written during this time; but the scandal of
+performances of light opera by the bishop's company, even on fast days
+and during Advent, outweighed this pious effort; the empress Maria
+Theresa sharply called the worldly prelate to order; and he, in a huff,
+dismissed his orchestra (1769). After a short interlude, Ditters was
+again in the service of an ecclesiastical patron, count von Schafgotsch,
+prince bishop of Breslau, at his estate of Johannesberg in Silesia. Here
+he displayed so much skill as a sportsman, that the bishop procured for
+him the office of forester (_Forstmeister_) of the principality of
+Neisse. He had already, by the same influence, been made knight of the
+Golden Spur (1770). At Johannesberg Ditters also produced a comic opera,
+_Il Viaggiatore americano_, and an oratorio, _Davide_. The title role of
+the latter was taken by a pretty Italian singer, Signora Nicolini, whom
+Ditters married. In 1773 he was ennobled as Karl von Dittersdorf, and at
+the same time was appointed administrator (_Amtshauptmann_) of
+Freyenwaldau, an office which he performed by deputy. In the same year
+his oratorio _Ester_ was produced in Vienna. During the War of Bavarian
+Succession the prince bishop's orchestra was dissolved, and Dittersdorf
+employed himself in his office at Freyenwaldau; but after the peace of
+Tetschen (1779) he again became conductor of the reconstituted
+orchestra. From this time forward his output was enormous. In 1780 ten
+months sufficed for the production of his _Giobbe_ (Job) and four
+operas, three of which were successful; and besides these he wrote a
+large number of "characterized symphonies," founded on the
+_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. He was now at the height of his fame, and spent
+the fortune which it brought him in much luxury. But after a time his
+patron fell on evil days, the famous orchestra had to be reduced, and
+when the bishop died in 1795 his successor dismissed the composer with a
+small money gift. Poor and broken in health, he accepted the asylum
+offered to him by Ignaz Freiherr von Stillfried, on his estate near
+Neuhaus in Bohemia, where he spent what strength was left him in a
+feverish effort to make money by the composition of operas, symphonies
+and pianoforte pieces. He died on the 1st of October 1799, praying
+"God's reward" for whoever should save his family from starvation. On
+his death-bed he dictated to his son his _Lebensbeschreibung_
+(autobiography).
+
+Dittersdorf's chief talent was for comic opera and instrumental music in
+the sonata forms. In both of these branches his work still shows signs
+of life, and it is of great historical interest, since he was not only
+an excellent musician and a friend of Haydn but also a thoroughly
+popular writer, with a lively enough musical wit and sense of effect to
+embody in an amusing and fairly artistic form exactly what the best
+popular intelligence of the times saw in the new artistic developments
+of Haydn. Thus, while in the amiable monotony and diffuseness of
+Boccherini we may trace Haydn as a force tending to disintegrate the
+polyphonic suite-forms of instrumental music, in Dittersdorf on the
+other hand we see the popular conception of the modern sonata and
+dramatic style. Yet, with all his popularity, the reality of his
+progressive outlook may be gauged from the fact that, though he was at
+least as famous a violinist as Boccherini was a violoncellist, there is
+in his string quartets no trace of that tendency to sacrifice the
+ensemble to an exhibition of his own playing which in Boccherini's
+chamber music puts the violoncello into the same position as the first
+violin in the chamber music of Spohr. In Dittersdorf's quartets (at
+least six of which are worthy of their survival at the present day) the
+first violin leads indeed, but not more than is inevitable in such
+unsophisticated music where the normal place for melody is at the top.
+The appearance of greater vitality in the texture of Boccherini's
+quintets is produced merely by the fact that, his special instrument
+being the violoncello, his displays of brilliance inevitably occur in
+the inner parts. Six of Dittersdorf's symphonies on the _Metamorphoses_
+of Ovid were republished in 1899, the centenary of his death. In them we
+have an amusing and sometimes charming illustration of the way in which
+at transitional periods music, as at the present day, is ready to make
+crutches of literature. The end of the representation of the conversion
+of the Lycian peasants into frogs is prophetically and ridiculously
+Wagnerian in its ingenious expansion of rhythm and eminently expert
+orchestration. Every external feature of Dittersdorf's style seems
+admirably apt for success in German comic opera on a small scale; and an
+occasional experimental performance at the present day of his _Doktor
+und Apotheker_ is not less his due than the survival of his best
+quartets.
+
+  See his _Lebensbeschreibung_, published at Leipzig, 1801 (English
+  translation by A. D. Coleridge, 1896); an article in the _Rivista
+  musicale_, vi. 727; and the article "Dittersdorf" in Grove's
+  _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_.
+
+
+
+
+DITTO (from the Lat. _dictum_, something said, Ital. _detto_,
+aforesaid), that which has been said before, the same thing. The word is
+frequently abbreviated into "do." In accounts, "ditto" is indicated by
+two dots or a dash under the word or figure that would otherwise be
+repeated. A "suit of dittos," a trade or slang phrase, is a suit in
+which coat, trousers and waistcoat are all of the same material.
+
+
+
+
+DITTON, HUMPHRY (1675-1715), English mathematician, was born at
+Salisbury on the 29th of May 1675. He studied theology, and was for some
+years a dissenting minister at Tonbridge, but on the death of his father
+he devoted himself to the congenial study of mathematics. Through the
+influence of Sir Isaac Newton he was elected mathematical master in
+Christ's hospital. He was author of the following memoirs and
+treatises:--"Of the Tangents of Curves, &c.," _Phil. Trans._ vol.
+xxiii.; "A Treatise on Spherical Catoptrics," published in the _Phil.
+Trans._ vol. xxiv., from which it was copied and reprinted in the _Acta
+Eruditorum_ (1707), and also in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences
+at Paris; _General Laws of Nature and Motion_ (1705), a work which is
+commended by Wolfius as illustrating and rendering easy the writings of
+Galileo and Huygens, and the _Principia_ of Newton; _An Institution of
+Fluxions, containing the First Principles, Operations, and Applications
+of that admirable Method, as invented by Sir Isaac Newton_ (1706). In
+1709 he published the _Synopsis Algebraica_ of John Alexander, with many
+additions and corrections. In his _Treatise on Perspective_ (1712) he
+explained the mathematical principles of that art; and anticipated the
+method afterwards elaborated by Brook Taylor. In 1714 Ditton published
+his _Discourse on the Resurrection of Jesus Christ;_ and _The New Law of
+Fluids, or a Discourse concerning the Ascent of Liquids in exact
+Geometrical Figures, between two nearly contiguous Surfaces_. To this
+was annexed a tract ("Matter not a Cogitative Substance") to demonstrate
+the impossibility of thinking or perception being the result of any
+combination of the parts of matter and motion. There was also added an
+advertisement from him and William Whiston concerning a method for
+discovering the longitude, which it seems they had published about half
+a year before. Although the method had been approved by Sir Isaac Newton
+before being presented to the Board of Longitude, and successfully
+practised in finding the longitude between Paris and Vienna, the board
+determined against it. This disappointment, aggravated as it was by
+certain lines written by Dean Swift, affected Ditton's health to such a
+degree that he died in the following year, on the 15th of October 1715.
+
+
+
+
+DIU, an island and town of India, belonging to Portugal, and situated at
+the southern extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area of district,
+20 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 14,614. The anchorage is fairly protected from the
+sea, but the depth of water is only 3 to 4 fathoms. The channel between
+the island on Diu and the mainland is navigable only by fishing boats
+and small craft. The town is well fortified on the old system, being
+surrounded by a wall with towers at regular intervals. Many of the
+inhabitants are the well-known Banyan merchants of the east coast of
+Africa and Arabia. Native spirits are distilled from the palm, salt is
+made and fish caught. The trade of the town, however, is decayed. There
+are remains of several fine ancient buildings. The cathedral or Se
+Matriz, dating from 1601, was formerly a Jesuit college. The mint, the
+arsenal and several convents (now ruined or converted to other uses) are
+also noteworthy. The Portuguese, under treaty with Bahadur Shah of
+Gujarat, built a fort here in 1535, but soon quarrelled with the natives
+and were besieged in 1538 and 1545. The second siege is one of the most
+famous in Indo-Portuguese history, and is the subject of an epic by
+Jeronymo Corte Real (q.v.).
+
+  See R. S. Whiteway, _Rise of the Portuguese Power in India_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+DIURETICS (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: ourein], pass
+urine), the name given to remedies which, under certain conditions,
+stimulate an increased flow of urine. Their mode of action is various.
+Some are absorbed into the blood, carried to the secretory organs (the
+kidneys), and stimulate them directly, causing an increased flow of
+blood; others act as stimulants through the nervous system. A second
+class act in congested conditions of the kidneys by diminishing the
+congestion. Another class, such as the saline diuretics, are effectual
+by virtue of their osmotic action. A fourth class are diuretic by
+increasing the blood pressure within the vessels in general, and the
+Malpighian tufts in particular,--some, as digitalis, by increasing the
+strength of the heart's contractions, and others, as water, by
+increasing the amount of fluid circulating in the vessels. Some
+remedies, as mercury, although not diuretic themselves, when prescribed
+along with those which have this action, increase their effect. The same
+remedy may act in more than one way, e.g. alcohol, besides stimulating
+the secretory organs directly, is a stimulant to the circulation, and
+thus increases the pressure within the vessels. Diuretics are prescribed
+when the quantity of urine is much diminished, or when, although the
+quantity may be normal, it is wished to relieve some other organ or set
+of organs of part of their ordinary work, or to aid in carrying off some
+morbid product circulating in the blood, or to hasten the removal of
+inflammatory serous exudations, or of dropsical collections of fluid.
+Caffeine, which is far the best true diuretic, acts in nearly every way
+mentioned above. Together with digitalis it is the most efficient remedy
+for cardiac dropsy. A famous diuretic pill, known as Guy's pill,
+consists of a grain each of mercurial pill, digitalis leaves and squill,
+made up with extract of henbane. Digitalis, producing its diuretic
+effect by its combined action on heart, vessels and kidneys, is much
+used in the oedema of mitral disease, but must be avoided in chronic
+Bright's disease, as it increases the tension of the pulse, already
+often dangerously high. Turpentine and cantharides are not now
+recommended as diuretics, as they are too irritating to the kidneys.
+
+
+
+
+DIURNAL MOTION, the relative motion of the earth and the heavens, which
+results from the rotation of our globe on its axis in a direction from
+west toward east. The actual motion consists in this rotation. But the
+term is commonly applied to the resultant apparent revolution of the
+heavens from east to west, the axis of which passes through the
+celestial poles, and is coincident in direction with the axis of the
+earth.
+
+
+
+
+DIVAN (Arabic _d[=i]w[=a]n_), a Persian word, derived probably from
+Aramaic, meaning a "counting-house, office, bureau, tribunal"; thence,
+on one side, the "account-books and registers" of such an office, and,
+on another, the "room where the office or tribunal sits"; thence, again,
+from "account-book, register," a "book containing the poems of an
+author," arranged in a definite order (alphabetical according to the
+rhyme-words), perhaps because of the saying, "Poetry is the register
+(_d[=i]w[=a]n_) of the Arabs," and from "bureau, tribunal," "a long
+seat, formed of a mattress laid against the side of the room, upon the
+floor or upon a raised structure or frame, with cushions to lean
+against" (Lane, _Lexicon_, 930 f.). All these meanings existed and
+exist, especially "bureau, tribunal," "book of poems" and "seat"[1]; but
+the order of derivation may have been slightly different. The word first
+appears under the caliphate of Omar (A.D. 634-644). Great wealth, gained
+from the Moslem conquests, was pouring into Medina, and a system of
+business management and administration became necessary. This was copied
+from the Persians and given the Persian name, "divan." Later, as the
+state became more complicated, the term was extended over all the
+government bureaus. The divan of the Sublime Porte was for long the
+council of the empire, presided over by the grand vizier.
+
+  See Von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte des Orients_, i. 64, 198.
+       (D. B. MA.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The divan in this sense has been known in Europe certainly since
+    about the middle of the 18th century. It was fashionable, roughly
+    speaking, from 1820 to 1850, wherever the romantic movement in
+    literature penetrated. All the boudoirs of that generation were
+    garnished with divans; they even spread to coffee-houses, which were
+    sometimes known as "divans" or "Turkish divans"; and a "cigar divan"
+    remains a familiar expression.
+
+
+
+
+DIVER, a name that when applied to a bird is commonly used in a sense
+even more vague than that of loom, several of the sea ducks or
+_Fuligulinae_ and mergansers being frequently so called, to say nothing
+of certain of the auks or _Alcidae_ and grebes; but in English
+ornithological works the term diver is generally restricted to the
+Family known as _Colymbidae_, a very well-marked group of aquatic birds,
+possessing great, though not exceptional, powers of submergence, and
+consisting of a single genus _Colymbus_ which is composed of three, or
+at most four, species, all confined to the northern hemisphere. This
+Family belongs to the _Cecomorphae_ of T. H. Huxley, and is usually
+supposed to occupy a place between the _Alcidae_ and _Podicipedidae_;
+but to which of these groups it is most closely related is undecided.
+Professor Brandt in 1837 (_Beitr. Naturgesch. Vogel_, pp. 124-132)
+pointed out the osteological differences of the grebes and the divers,
+urging the affinity of the latter to the auks; while, thirty years
+later, Professor Alph. Milne-Edwards (_Ois. foss. France_, i. pp.
+279-283) inclined to the opposite view, chiefly relying on the
+similarity of a peculiar formation of the tibia in the grebes and
+divers,[1] which indeed is very remarkable, and, in the latter group,
+attracted the attention of Willughby more than 230 years ago. On the
+other hand Professor Brandt, and Rudolph Wagner shortly after (Naumann's
+_Vogel Deutschlands_, ix. p. 683, xii. p. 395), had already shown that
+the structure of the knee-joint in the grebes and divers differs in that
+the former have a distinct and singularly formed _patella_ (which is
+undeveloped in the latter) in addition to the prolonged, pyramidally
+formed, procnemial process--which last may, from its exaggeration, be
+regarded as a character almost peculiar to these two groups.[2] The
+evidence furnished by oology and the newly-hatched young seems to favour
+Brandt's views. The abortion of the _rectrices_ in the gerbes, while
+these feathers are fairly developed in the divers, is another point that
+helps to separate the two Families.
+
+The commonest species of _Colymbus_ is _C. septentrionalis_, known as
+the red-throated diver from an elongated patch of dark bay which
+distinguishes the throat of the adult in summer dress. Immature birds
+want the bay patch, and have the back so much more spotted that they are
+commonly known as "speckled divers." Next in size is the black-throated
+diver, _C. arcticus_, having a light grey head and a gular patch of
+purplish-black, above which is a semicollar of white striped vertically
+with black. Still bigger is the great northern diver, _C. glacialis_ or
+_torquatus_, with a glossy black head and neck, two semicollars of white
+and black vertical stripes, and nearly the whole of the black back and
+upper surface of the wings beautifully marked with white spots, varying
+in size and arranged in belts.[3] Closely resembling this bird, so as to
+be most easily distinguished from it by its yellow bill, is _C. adamsi_.
+The divers live chiefly on fish, and are of eminently marine habit,
+though invariably resorting for the purpose of breeding to freshwater
+lakes, where they lay two dark brown eggs on the very brink; but they
+are not unfrequently found far from the sea, being either driven inland
+by stress of weather, or exhausted in their migrations. Like most birds
+of their build, they chiefly trust to swimming, whether submerged or on
+the surface, as a means of progress, but once on the wing their flight
+is strong and they can mount to a great height. In winter their range is
+too extensive and varied to be here defined, though it is believed never
+to pass, and in few directions to approach, the northern tropic; but the
+geographical distribution of the several forms in summer requires
+mention. While _C. septentrionalis_ inhabits the north temperate zone of
+both hemispheres, _C. arcticus_ breeds in suitable places from the
+Hebrides to Scandinavia, and across the Russian empire, it would seem,
+to Japan, reappearing in the north-west of North America,[4] though its
+eastern limit on that continent cannot be definitely laid down; but it
+is not found in Greenland, Iceland, Shetland or Orkney. _C. glacialis_,
+on the contrary, breeds throughout the north-eastern part of Canada, in
+Greenland and in Iceland. It has been said to do so in Scotland as well
+as in Norway, but the assertion seems to lack positive proof, and it may
+be doubted whether, with the exception of Iceland, it is indigenous to
+the Old World,[5] since the form observed in North-eastern Asia is
+evidently that which has been called _C. adamsi_, and is also found in
+North-western America; but it may be remarked that one example of this
+form has been taken in England (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1859, p. 206) and
+at least one in Norway (_Nyt Mag. for Naturvidenskaberne_, 1877, p.
+134).     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The remains of _Colymboides minutus_, from the Miocene of Langy,
+    described by this naturalist in the work just cited, seem to show it
+    to have been a generalized form. Unfortunately its tibia is unknown.
+
+  [2] A. H. Garrod, in his tentative and chiefly myological arrangement
+    of Birds (_Proc Zool. Society_, 1874, p. 117), placed the
+    _Colymbidae_ and _Podicipedidae_ in one order (_Anseriformes_) and
+    the _Alcidae_ in another (_Charadriiformes_); but the artificial
+    nature of this assignment may be realized by the fact of his
+    considering the other families of the former order to be _Anatidae_
+    and _Spheniscidae_.
+
+  [3] The osteology and myology of this species are described by Dr
+    Coues (_Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. History_, i. pp. 131-172, pl. 5).
+
+  [4] Lawrence's _C. pacificus_ seems hardly to deserve specific
+    recognition.
+
+  [5] In this connexion should be mentioned the remarkable occurrence
+    in Europe of two birds of this species which had been previously
+    wounded by a weapon presumably of transatlantic origin. One had "an
+    arrow headed with copper sticking through its neck," and was shot on
+    the Irish coast, as recorded by J. Vaughan Thompson (_Nat. Hist.
+    Ireland_, iii. p. 201); the other, says Herr H. C. Muller (_Vid.
+    Medd. nat. Forening_, 1862, p. 35), was found dead in Kalbaksfjord in
+    the Faeroes with an iron-tipped bone dart fast under its wing.
+
+
+
+
+DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS. To "dive" (Old Eng. _dufan_, _d['y]fan_;
+cf. "dip") is to plunge under water, and in the ordinary procedure of
+swimmers is distinguished from simple plunging in that it involves
+remaining under the water for an interval of more or less duration
+before coming to the surface. In the article SWIMMING the sport of
+diving in this sense is considered. Here we are only concerned with
+diving as the function of a "diver," whose business it is to go under
+water (in modern times, assisted by specially devised apparatus) in
+order to work.
+
+_Unassisted or Natural Diving._--The earliest reference to the practice
+of the art of diving for a purpose of utility occurs in the _Iliad_, 16,
+745-750, where Patroclus compares the fall of Hector's charioteer to the
+action of a diver diving for oysters. Thus it would seem that the art
+was known about 1000 years before the Christian era. Thucydides is the
+first to mention the employment of divers for mechanical work under
+water. He relates that divers were employed during the siege of Syracuse
+to saw down the barriers which had been constructed below the surface of
+the water with the object of obstructing and damaging any Grecian war
+vessels which might attempt to enter the harbour. At the siege of Tyre,
+divers were ordered by Alexander the Great to impede or destroy the
+submarine defences of the besieged as they were erected. The purpose of
+these obstructions was analogous to that of the submarine mine of
+to-day.
+
+The employment of divers for the salvage of sunken property is first
+mentioned by Livy, who records that in the reign of Perseus considerable
+treasure was recovered from the sea. By a law of the Rhodians, their
+divers were allowed a proportion of the value recovered, varying with
+the risk incurred, or the depth from which the treasure was salved. For
+instance, if the diver raised it from a depth of eight cubits (12 ft.)
+he received one-third for himself; if from sixteen cubits (24 ft.) one
+half; but upon goods lost near the shore, and recovered from a depth of
+two cubits (36 in.), his share was only one tenth.
+
+These are examples of unassisted diving as practised by the Ancients.
+Their primitive method, however, is still in vogue in some parts of the
+world--notably in the Ceylon pearl fisheries and in the Mediterranean
+sponge fisheries, and it may, therefore, be as well to mention the
+system adopted by the natural, or naked, diver of to-day.
+
+The volume and power of respiration of the lungs vary in different
+individuals, some persons being able to hold their breath longer than
+others, so that it naturally follows that one man may be able to stay
+longer under water than another. The longest time that a natural diver
+has been known to remain beneath the surface is about two minutes. Some
+pearl and sponge divers rub their bodies with oil, and put wool,
+saturated with oil, in their ears. Others hold in their mouth a piece of
+sponge soaked in oil, which they renew every time they descend. It is
+doubtful, however, whether these expedients are beneficial. The men who
+dive in this primitive fashion take with them a flat stone with a hole
+in the centre; to this is attached a rope, which is secured to the
+diving boat and serves to guide them to particular spots below. When the
+diver reaches the sea bottom he tears off as much sponge within reach as
+possible, or picks up pearl shells, as the case may be, and then pulls
+the rope to indicate to the man in the boat that he wishes to be hauled
+up. But so exhausting is the work, and so severe the strain on the
+system, that, after a number of dives in deep water, the men often
+become insensible, and blood sometimes bursts from nose, ears and mouth.
+
+_Early Diving Appliances._--The earliest mention of any appliance for
+assisting divers is by Aristotle, who says that divers are sometimes
+provided with instruments for respiration through which they can draw
+air from above the water and which thus enable them to remain a long
+time under the sea (_De Part. Anim._ 2, 16), and also that divers
+breathe by letting down a metallic vessel which does not get filled with
+water but retains the air within it (_Problem._ 32, 5). It is also
+recorded that Alexander the Great made a descent into the sea in a
+machine called a _colimpha_, which had the power of keeping a man dry,
+and at the same time of admitting light. Pliny also speaks of divers
+engaged in the strategy of ancient warfare, who drew air through a tube,
+one end of which they carried in their mouths, whilst the other end was
+made to float on the surface of the water. Roger Bacon in 1240, too, is
+supposed to have invented a contrivance for enabling men to work under
+water; and in Vegetius's _De Re Militari_ (editions of 1511 and 1532,
+the latter in the British Museum) is an engraving representing a diver
+wearing a tight-fitting helmet to which is attached a long leathern pipe
+leading to the surface, where its open end is kept afloat by means of a
+bladder. This method of obtaining air during subaqueous operations was
+probably suggested by the action of the elephant when swimming; the
+animal instinctively elevates its trunk so that the end is above the
+surface of the water, and thus is enabled to take in fresh air at every
+inspiration.
+
+A certain Repton invented "water armour" in the year 1617, but when
+tried it was found to be useless. G. A. Borelli in the year 1679
+invented an apparatus which enabled persons to go to a certain depth
+under water, and he is credited with being the first to introduce means
+of forcing air down to the diver. For this purpose he used a large pair
+of bellows. John Lethbridge, a Devonshire man, in the year 1715
+contrived "a watertight leather case for enclosing the person." This
+leather case held about half a hogshead of air, and was so adapted as to
+give free play to arms and legs, so that the wearer could walk on the
+sea bottom, examine a sunken vessel and salve her cargo, returning to
+the surface when his supply of air was getting exhausted. It is said
+that Lethbridge made a considerable fortune by his invention. The next
+contrivance worthy of mention, and most nearly resembling the modern
+diving-dress, was an apparatus invented by Kleingert, of Breslau, in
+1798. This consisted of an egg-ended metallic cylinder enveloping the
+head and the body to the hips. The diver was encased first of all in a
+leather jacket having tight-fitting arms, and in leather drawers with
+tight-fitting legs. To these the cylinder was fastened in such a way as
+to render the whole equipment airtight. The air supply was drawn through
+a pipe which was connected with the mouth of the diver by an ivory
+mouthpiece, the surface end being held above water after the manner
+mentioned in Vegetius, viz. by means of a floating bladder attached to
+it. The foul air escaped through another pipe held in a similar manner
+above the surface of the water, inhalation being performed by the mouth
+and exhalation by the nose, the act of inhalation causing the chest to
+expand and so to expel the vitiated air through the escape pipe. The
+diver was weighted when going under water, and when he wished to ascend
+he released one of his weights, and attached it to a rope which he held,
+and it was afterwards hauled up.
+
+_Modern Apparatus._--This, or equally cumbersome apparatus, was the
+only diving gear in use up till 1819, in which year Augustus Siebe (the
+founder of the firm of Siebe, Gorman & Co.), invented his "open" dress,
+worked in conjunction with an air force pump. This dress consisted of a
+metal helmet and shoulder-plate attached to a watertight jacket, under
+which, fitting more closely to the body, were worn trousers, or rather a
+combination suit reaching to the armpits. The helmet was fitted with an
+air inlet valve, to which one end of a flexible tube was attached, the
+other end being connected at the surface with a pump which supplied the
+diver with a constant stream of fresh air. The air, which kept the water
+well down, forced its way between the jacket and the under-garment, and
+escaped to the surface on exactly the same principle as that of the
+diving bell; hence the term "open" as applied to this dress.
+
+Although most excellent work was accomplished with this dress--work
+which could not be attempted before its introduction--it was still far
+from perfect. It was absolutely necessary for the diver to maintain an
+upright, or but very slightly stooping, position whilst under water; if
+he stumbled and fell, the water filled his dress, and, unless quickly
+brought to the surface, he was in danger of being drowned. To overcome
+this and other defects, Siebe carried out a large number of experiments
+extending over several years, which culminated, in the year 1830, in the
+introduction of his "close" dress in combination with a helmet fitted
+with air inlet and regulating outlet valves.
+
+Though, of course, vast improvements have been introduced since Siebe's
+death, in 1872, the fact remains that his principle is in universal use
+to this day. The submarine work which it has been instrumental in
+accomplishing is incalculable. But some idea of the importance of the
+invention may be gathered from the fact that diving apparatus on Siebe's
+principle is universally used to-day in harbour, dock, pier and
+breakwater construction, in the pearl and sponge fisheries, in
+recovering sunken ships, cargo and treasure, and that every ship in the
+British navy and in most foreign navies carries one set or more of
+diving apparatus.
+
+A modern set of diving apparatus consists essentially of six parts:--(1)
+an air pump, (2) a helmet with breastplate, (3) a diving dress, (4) a
+pair of heavily weighted boots, (5) a pair of back and chest weights,
+(6) a flexible non-collapsible air tube.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pump out of chest.
+
+  Two-cylinder, Double-action Air Pump for Two Divers.
+
+    A, Air-distributing arrangement, for one diver or two divers.
+    B, Water jacket.
+    C, Suction and discharge valves.
+    D, Cylinders.
+    E, Pressure gauges.
+    F, Nozzles to which divers' air pipes are attached.]
+
+  _Air Pumps._--The type of air pump varies with the depth of water to
+  which the diver has to descend; it will be readily understood that the
+  greater the depth the greater the quantity of air required by the
+  diver. The pattern most generally in favour amongst divers of all
+  classes is a three-cylinder single-acting pump, which is suitable for
+  almost every description of work which the diver may be called upon to
+  perform, either in deep or shallow water. Another most useful type is
+  a two-cylinder double-acting pump (figs. 1 and 2), which is designed
+  to supply two divers working simultaneously in moderate depths of
+  water, or one diver only in deep water. An air-distributing
+  arrangement is fitted, whereby, when it is desired to send two men
+  down together, each cylinder supplies air independently of the other;
+  and when it is required to send one diver into deep water, the two
+  cylinders are connected and the full volume of air from both is
+  delivered to the one man. The same duty is also performed by a
+  four-cylinder single-acting pump. Smaller pumps, having one
+  double-acting or two single-acting cylinders, are also used for
+  shallow water work.
+
+  In most cases these air pumps are worked by manual power; this method
+  of working is rendered necessary by the fact that the machines are
+  usually placed in small boats from which the divers work and on which
+  other motive power is not available. In cases, however, where steam or
+  electric power is available the pumps are sometimes worked by their
+  means--more particularly on harbour and dock works. In such instances
+  the air is not delivered direct from the pump to the diver, but is
+  delivered into an intermediate steel receiver to which the diver's air
+  pipe is connected, the object being to ensure a reserve supply of air
+  in case of a breakdown of the pump. Some of these combinations of
+  pumps and motors are so arranged that, in the event of an accident to
+  the motor, the pump can be thrown out of gear with it, and be
+  immediately worked by hand power. Each pump is fitted with a gauge (or
+  gauges), indicating not only the pressure of air which the pump is
+  supplying, but also the depth of water at which the diver is working.
+  The cylinders are water-jacketed to ensure the air delivered to the
+  diver being cool, the water being drawn in and circulated round the
+  cylinders by means of a small metal pump worked from an eccentric on
+  the main crank-shaft. Filters are sometimes attached to the suction
+  and delivery sides of the pumps to ensure the inlet of air being free
+  from dirt, and the discharge of air free from dirt and oil.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pump in chest, ready for work.]
+
+  _Helmet._--The helmet and breastplate (fig. 3) are made from highly
+  planished tinned copper, with gun-metal valves and other fittings. The
+  helmet is provided with a non-return air inlet valve to which the
+  diver's air pipe is connected; the air when it lifts the inlet valve
+  passes through three conduits--one having its outlet over the front
+  glass, the others their outlets over the side glasses. In this way the
+  diver gets the air fresh as it enters the helmet, and at the same time
+  it prevents condensation of his breath on the glasses and keeps them
+  clear. There is a regulating air outlet valve by which the diver
+  adjusts his supply of air according to his requirements in different
+  depths of water; the valve is usually made to be adjusted by hand, but
+  sometimes it is so constructed as to be operated by the diver knocking
+  his head against it, the spindle being extended through to the inside
+  of the helmet and fitted at its inner extremity with a button or disk.
+  By unscrewing the valve, the diver allows air to escape, and thus the
+  dress is deflated; by screwing it up the air is retained and the dress
+  inflated. Thus the diver can control his specific gravity and rise or
+  sink at will. In case by any chance the diver should inflate the dress
+  inadvertently, and wish to get rid of the superfluous air quickly, he
+  can do so by opening an emergency cock, which is fitted on the helmet.
+  Plate glasses in gun-metal frames are also fitted to the helmet, two,
+  one on each side, being permanently fixed, while one in front is made
+  either to screw in and out, or to work on a hinged joint like a ship's
+  scuttle; the side glasses are usually protected by metal cross-bars,
+  as is also sometimes the front glass. Some divers prefer unprotected
+  glasses at the side of the helmet, instead of protected oval ones.
+
+  The breastplate is fitted on its outer edge with metal screws and
+  bands. The disposition of the screws corresponds with that of the
+  holes in the india-rubber collar of the diving dress described below.
+  There are other methods of making a watertight joint between the
+  diver's breastplate and the diving dress, but, as these are only
+  mechanical differences, it will suffice to describe the Siebe-Gorman
+  apparatus, as exclusively adopted by the British government. Whatever
+  the shape or design of the helmet or dress, Siebe's principle is the
+  one in universal use to-day.
+
+  The metal tabs are for carrying the diver's lead weights, which are
+  fitted with suitable clips; the hooks--one on each side of the
+  helmet--are for keeping the ropes attached to the back weight in
+  position. The helmet and breastplate are fitted at their lower and
+  upper parts respectively with gun-metal segmental neck rings, which
+  make it possible to connect these two main parts together by
+  one-eighth of a turn, a catch at the back of the helmet preventing any
+  chance of unscrewing. The small eyes at the top of the helmet are for
+  securing the diver's air pipe and life line in position and preventing
+  them from swaying.
+
+  [Illustration:
+
+  Front view of Helmet.
+
+    A, Helmet.
+    B, Breastplate.
+    F, Emergency cock.
+    G, Glasses in frames.
+    H, Metal screws and bands.
+    I, Metal tabs.
+    J, Hooks for keeping weight ropes in position.
+    L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured.
+
+  Side sectional view of Helmet.
+
+    K, Segmental neck rings.
+    D, Air conduits.
+    M, Telephone receiver.
+    N, Transmitter.
+    O, Contact piece to ring bell.
+
+  Back view of Helmet.
+
+    Plan of Helmet.
+    C, Air inlet valve.
+    E, Regulating outlet valve.
+    G, Glasses in frames.
+    L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured.
+    P, Connexion for telephone cable.
+
+  FIG. 3.]
+
+  The _Diving Dress_ is a combination suit which envelops the whole body
+  from feet to neck. It is made of two layers of tanned twill with pure
+  rubber between, and is fitted at the neck with a vulcanized
+  india-rubber collar, or band, with holes punched in it corresponding
+  to the screws in the breastplate. This collar, when clamped tightly
+  between the bands and the breastplate by means of the nuts, ensures a
+  watertight joint. The sleeves of the dress are fitted with vulcanized
+  india-rubber cuffs, which, fitting tightly round the diver's wrists,
+  prevent the ingress of water at these parts also.
+
+  _Boots._--These are generally made with leather uppers, beechwood
+  inner soles and leaden outer soles, the latter being secured to the
+  others by copper rivets. Heavy leather straps with brass buckles
+  secure the boot to the foot. Each boot weighs about 16 lb. Sometimes
+  the main part of the boot-golosh, toe and heel, are in one brass
+  casting, with leather upper part, heavy straps and brass buckles.
+
+  _Lead Weights._--These weigh 40 lb. each, and the diver wears one on
+  his back, another on his chest. These weights and the heavy boots
+  ensure the diver's equilibrium when under water.
+
+  _Belt and Knife and Small Tools._--Every diver wears a heavy
+  waist-belt in which he carries a strong knife in metal case, and
+  sometimes other small tools.
+
+  _Air Pipe._--The diver's air pipe is of a flexible, non-collapsible
+  description, being made of alternate layers of strong canvas and
+  vulcanized india-rubber, with steel or hard drawn metal wire embedded.
+  At the ends are fitted gun-metal couplings, for connecting the pipe
+  with the diver's pump and helmet.
+
+  _Signal Line._--The diver's signal line (sometimes called life line)
+  consists of a length of reverse laid Manila rope. In cases where the
+  telephone apparatus is not used, the diver gives his signals by means
+  of a series of pulls on the signal line in accordance with a
+  prearranged code.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diver's Telephone Communication with the
+  Surface.
+
+    Q, Battery, with switch and bell in case.
+    R, Attendant's receiver and transmitter.]
+
+  _Telephonic Apparatus._--Without doubt one of the most useful adjuncts
+  to the modern diving apparatus is the loud-sounding telephone (fig.
+  4), introduced by Siebe, Gorman & Co., which enables the diver to
+  communicate viva voce with his attendant, and vice versa. In the
+  British navy the type of submarine telephonic apparatus used is the
+  Graham-Davis system. This is made on two plans, (1) a single set of
+  instruments, for communication between one diver and his attendant
+  direct, (2) an intercommunication set which is used where two divers
+  are employed. With this type the attendant can speak to No. 1 or No. 2
+  diver separately, or with both at the same time, and vice versa; and
+  No. 1 can be put in communication with No. 2 whilst they are under
+  water, the attendant at the surface being able to hear what the men
+  are saying. The advantages of such a system are obvious. It is more
+  particularly useful where two divers are working one either side of a
+  ship, or where the divers may be engaged upon the same piece of work,
+  but out of sight of one another, or out of touch. It would prove its
+  utility in a marked degree in cases where a diver got into
+  difficulties; a second diver sent down to his assistance could receive
+  and give verbal directions and thus greatly expedite the work of
+  rescue.
+
+  The telephone instruments in the helmet consist of one or more
+  loud-sounding receivers placed either in the crown of the helmet, or
+  one on each side in close proximity to the diver's ears. A transmitter
+  of a special watertight pattern is placed between the front glass and
+  one of the side glasses, and a contact piece, which, when the diver
+  presses his chin against it, rings a bell at the surface, is fitted
+  immediately below the front glass. A buzzer is sometimes fixed in the
+  helmet to call the diver's attention when the attendant wishes to
+  speak, but as a rule the voice is transmitted so loudly that this
+  device is unnecessary. A connexion, through which the insulated wires
+  connecting the instruments pass, terminates in contact pieces, and the
+  telephone cable, embedded in the diver's signal line, is connected
+  with it. The other end of the signal line is connected to a battery
+  box at the surface. This box contains, besides the cells, a receiver
+  and transmitter for the attendant, an electric bell, a terminal box,
+  and a special switch, by means of which various communications between
+  diver, or divers, and attendant are made. If, as is sometimes the
+  case, the diver happens to be somewhat deaf, he can, whilst he is
+  taking a message, stop the vibration of the outlet valve and the noise
+  made by the escaping air, by merely pressing his finger on a spindle
+  which passes through the disk of the valve, and thus momentarily
+  ensure absolute silence.
+
+  _Speaking Tube._--The rubber speaking tube which was the forerunner of
+  the telephonic apparatus is now practically obsolete, though it is
+  still used in isolated cases.
+
+  _Submarine Electric Lamps._--Various forms of submarine lamps are
+  used, from a powerful arc light to a self-contained hand lamp, the
+  former giving about 2000 or 3000 candle-power, and requiring a
+  steam-driven dynamo to supply the necessary current, the latter (fig.
+  5) giving a light of about 10 candle-power and having its own
+  batteries, so that the diver carries both the light and its source in
+  his hand. These submarine lamps are all constructed on the same
+  principle, having the incandescent lamps, or carbons as the case may
+  be, enclosed in a strong glass globe, the mechanism and connexions
+  being fitted in a metal case above the globe, which is flanged and
+  secured watertightly to the case.
+
+  _Self-contained Diving Dress._--The object of the self-contained diving
+  dress is to make the diver independent of air supply from the surface.
+  The dress, helmet, boots and weights are of the ordinary pattern
+  already described, but instead of obtaining his air supply by means of
+  pumps and pipes, the diver is equipped with a knapsack consisting of a
+  steel cylinder containing oxygen compressed to a pressure of 120
+  atmospheres (= about 1800 lb.) to the square inch, and chambers
+  containing caustic soda or caustic potash. The helmet is connected to
+  the chambers by tubes, and the oxygen cylinder is similarly connected
+  to the chambers. The breath exhaled by the diver passes through a
+  valve into the caustic soda, which absorbs the carbonic acid, and it
+  is then again inhaled through another valve. This process of
+  regeneration goes on automatically, the requisite amount of oxygen
+  being restored to the breathed air in its passage through the
+  chambers. This type of apparatus has been used for shallow water work,
+  but the great majority of divers prefer the apparatus using pumps as
+  the source of the air supply.
+
+  An emergency dress, using this self-contained system for breathing,
+  has been designed by Messrs Fleuss and Davis, of the firm of Siebe,
+  Gorman & Co., primarily as a life-saving apparatus, for enabling men
+  to escape from disabled submarine boats.
+
+  The helmet diver is indispensable in connexion with harbour and dock
+  construction, bridge-building, pearl and sponge fishing, wreck raising
+  and the recovery of sunken cargo and treasure. Every ship in the
+  British navy carries one set or more of diving apparatus, for use in
+  ease of emergency, for clearing fouled propellers, cleaning valves or
+  ship's hull below the water line, repairing hulls if necessary, and
+  recovering lost anchors, chains, torpedoes, &c.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without
+  Reflector.
+
+    A, Metal case containing electrical fittings.
+    B, Glass globe and incandescent lamp.
+    C, Stand, which also protects the globe.
+    D, Ring for suspending lamp.
+    E, Reflector.]
+
+_Greatest Depths attained._--The greatest depth at which useful work has
+been performed by a diver is 182 ft. From this depth a Spanish diver,
+Angel Erostarbe, recovered L9000 in silver bars from the wreck of the
+steamer "Skyro," sunk off Cape Finisterre; Alexander Lambert succeeded
+in salving L70,000 from the Spanish mail steamer "Alphonso XII," sunk in
+162 ft. of water off Las Palmas, Grand Canary; W. Ridyard recovered
+L50,000 in silver dollars from the "Hamilton Mitchell," sunk off
+Leuconna Reef, China, in 150 ft. There are individual cases where much
+larger sums have been recovered, but those mentioned are particularly
+notable by reason of the great depth involved and stand out as the
+greatest depths at which good work has been done. The sponge fishers of
+the Mediterranean work at a maximum depth of about 150 ft., and the
+pearl divers of Australia at 120 ft. But submarine operations on the
+great majority of the harbour and dock works of the world are conducted
+at a depth of from 30 to 60 ft.
+
+The weighted tools employed by divers differ very little from those used
+by the workmen on _terra firma_. Pneumatic tools, worked by compressed
+air conveyed from the surface through flexible tubes, are great aids,
+particularly in rock removal work. With the rock drill the diver bores a
+number of holes to a given depth, inserts in these the charges of
+dynamite or other explosive used, attaches one end of a wire to a
+detonator which is inserted in the charge, and then comes to the
+surface. The boat from which he works is then moved away from the scene
+of operations, paying out the wire attached to the detonators, and when
+at a safe distance the free end of the wire is connected to a magneto
+exploding machine, which is then set in motion.
+
+A complete set of diving apparatus costs from L75 to L200, varying with
+the depth of water for which it is required.
+
+The pay of a diver depends upon the nature of the work upon which he is
+engaged, and also upon the depth of the water. On harbour and dock work
+the average wage is 2s. to 2s. 6d. per hour; on wreck work from 3s. to
+5s. an hour, according to depth; on treasure and cargo recovery so much
+per day, with a percentage on the value recovered, generally about 5%.
+The pearl fishers of Australia get so much per ton of shell, and the
+sponge fishers are also paid by results.
+
+A problem which has been exercising the minds of those engaged in
+submarine work is the greatest depth at which it is possible to work,
+for, as is well known, many a fine vessel with valuable cargo and
+treasure is lying out of reach of the diver owing to the pressure which
+he would have to sustain were he to attempt to reach her. Mr Leonard
+Hill, and Drs Greenwood and J. J. R. Macleod conducted experiments in
+conjunction with Messrs Siebe, Gorman & Co., with a view to solving this
+problem, and their efforts have been attended with some considerable
+success. Dr J. S. Haldane has also carried out practical experiments for
+the British Admiralty, and under his supervision two naval officers have
+succeeded in reaching the unprecedented depth of 210 ft., at which depth
+the pressure is about 90 lb. to the square inch.
+
+_Diving Bells._--Every one is familiar with the experiment of placing an
+inverted tumbler in a bowl of water, and seeing the water excluded from
+the tumbler by the air inside it. Perhaps it was to some such experiment
+as this that the conception of the diving bell was due. As is well
+known, the pressure of water increases with the depth, and for all
+practical purposes this pressure can be taken at 4-1/4 lb. to every 10 ft.
+The following table shows the pressure at different depths below the
+surface of the water:--
+
+  Depth.                     Pressure.
+
+   20 ft.              8-1/2 lb to the sq. in.
+   40  "              17-1/4      "       "
+   80  "              34-3/4      "       "
+  120  "              52-1/2      "       "
+  160  "              69-3/4      "       "
+  200  "              87          "       "
+
+If a diving bell be sunk to a depth of, say, 33 ft., the air inside it
+will be compressed to about half its original volume, and the bell
+itself will be about half filled with water. But if a supply of air be
+maintained at a pressure equal to the depth of water at which the bell
+is submerged, not only will the water be kept down to the cutting edge,
+but the bell will be ventilated and it will be possible for its
+occupants to work for hours at a stretch.
+
+Tradition gives Roger Bacon, in 1250, the credit for being the
+originator of the diving bell, but actual records are lost in antiquity.
+Of the records preserved to us, probably one of the most trustworthy is
+an account given in Kaspar Schott's work, _Technica curiosa_, published
+in the year 1664, which quoted from one John Taisnier, who was in the
+service of Charles V. This account describes an experiment which took
+place at Toledo, Spain, in the year 1538, before the emperor and some
+thousands of spectators, when two Greeks descended into the water in a
+large "kettle," suspended by ropes, with its mouth downwards. The
+"kettle" was equipoised by lead fixed round its mouth. The men came up
+dry, and a lighted candle, which they had taken down with them, was
+still burning.
+
+Francis Bacon, in the _Novum Organum_, lib. ii., makes the following
+reference to a machine, or reservoir, of air to which labourers upon
+wrecks might resort whenever they required to take breath:--
+
+  "A hollow vessel, made of metal, was let down equally to the surface
+  of the water, and thus carried with it to the bottom of the sea the
+  whole of the air which it contained. It stood upon three feet--like a
+  tripod--which were in length something less than the height of a man,
+  so that the diver, when he was no longer able to contain his breath,
+  could put his head into the vessel, and having filled his lungs again,
+  return to his work."
+
+But it was to Dr Edmund Halley, secretary of the Royal Society, that
+undoubtedly the honour is due of having invented the first really
+practical diving bell. This is described in the _Philosophical
+Transactions_, 1717, in a paper on "The Art of Living Under Water by
+means of furnishing air at the bottom of the sea in any ordinary depth."
+Halley's bell was constructed of wood, and was covered with lead, which
+gave it the necessary sinking weight, and was so distributed as to
+ensure that it kept a perpendicular position when in the water. It was
+in the form of a truncated cone, 3 ft. in diameter at the top, 5 ft. at
+the bottom and 8 ft. high. In the roof a lens was introduced for
+admitting light, and also a tap to let out the vitiated air. Fresh air
+was supplied to the bell by means of two lead-lined barrels, each
+having a bung-hole in the top and bottom. To the hole in the top was
+fixed a leathern tube, weighted in such a manner that it always fell
+below the level of the bottom of the barrel so that no air could escape.
+When, however, the tube was turned up by the attendant in the bell, the
+pressure of the water rising through the hole in the bottom of the
+barrel, forced the air through the tube at the top and into the diving
+bell. These barrels were raised and lowered alternately, with such
+success that Halley says that he, with four others, remained at the
+bottom of the sea, at a depth of 9 to 10 fathoms, for an hour and a half
+at a time without inconvenience of any sort.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Ordinary Diving Bell.]
+
+This type of bell was used by John Smeaton in repairing the foundations
+of Hexham Bridge in 1778, but instead of weighted barrels, he introduced
+a force pump for supplying the necessary air. To Smeaton too we are
+indebted for the first diving bell plant in the form with which we are
+familiar to-day, that celebrated engineer having designed a square bell
+of iron, for use on the Ramsgate harbour works, in 1788. This bell,
+which measured 4-1/2 ft. in length, 3 ft. in width and 4-1/2 ft. in height,
+and weighed 2-1/2 tons, was made sufficiently heavy to sink by its own
+weight. It afforded room enough for two men to work, and was supplied
+with air by a force pump worked from a boat at the surface.
+
+Though the diving bell has been largely superseded by the modern diving
+apparatus, it is still used on certain classes of work the magnitude of
+which justifies the expense entailed, for it is not only a question of
+the cost of the bell, but of the powerful steam-driven crane which is
+needed to lower and raise it, and also of the gantry on which the crane
+travels. Sometimes a barge or other vessel is used for working the bell.
+
+At the present day, two types of diving bell are employed--the ordinary
+bell, and the air-lock bell, which, however, is not so largely used.
+
+  On the new national harbour works at Dover, four large diving bells of
+  the ordinary type (fig. 6) were employed. These bells, in each of
+  which from four to six men descended at a time, consisted of steel
+  chambers, open at the bottom, measuring 17 ft. long by 10-1/2 ft. wide by
+  7 ft. high, and each weighed 35 tons. The ballast, which at once gives
+  the necessary sinking weight to the bell and maintains its
+  equilibrium, consisted of slabs of cast iron bolted to the walls of
+  the bell, inside. Each bell was fitted with loud-sounding telephonic
+  apparatus, by means of which the occupants could communicate either
+  with the men attending the crane or the men looking after the air
+  compressors at the surface. Electric lamps, supplied with current by a
+  dynamo in the compressor room, gave the necessary light inside the
+  bell. Seats and foot rails were provided for the men, and there were
+  racks and hooks for the various tools. Suspended from the roof was an
+  iron skip into which the men threw the excavated material, which was
+  emptied out when the bell was brought to the surface. Air was supplied
+  to the bells by means of steam-driven compressors worked in a house
+  erected on the gantry. The air was delivered into a steel air
+  receiver, and thence it passed through a flexible tube connected to a
+  gun-metal inlet valve in the roof of the diving bell; the pressure of
+  air was regulated according to the depth at which the bell happened to
+  be working. The maximum depth on the Dover works was between 60 and 70
+  ft., = about 25-30 lb. to the square inch. A bell was lowered by
+  means of powerful steam-driven cranes, travelling on a gantry, to
+  within a few feet of the water, and the men entered it from a boat.
+  The bell then continued its descent to the bottom, where the men, with
+  pick and shovel, levelled the sea bed ready to receive the large
+  concrete blocks, weighing from 30 to 42 tons apiece. Having completed
+  one section, the bell was moved along to another. The concrete blocks
+  were then lowered and placed in position by helmet divers. The bell
+  divers, clad in thick woollen suits and watertight thigh boots, worked
+  in shifts of about three hours each, and were paid at the rate of from
+  1s. to 15d. per hour.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Air-lock Diving Bell.
+
+    A, Working chamber.
+    B, Air-lock.
+    C, Pulleys and wire ropes for lowering and raising bell.
+    D, Iron ladder.
+    E, Tackles suspended from roof for raising and lowering objects.
+    F, Air supply pipe.]
+
+  The cost of an ordinary diving bell, including air compressor,
+  telephonic apparatus and electric light, is from L600 to L1500,
+  according to size.
+
+  The _Air-lock Diving Bell_ (fig. 7) comprises an iron or steel working
+  chamber similar to the ordinary diving bell, but with the addition of
+  a shaft attached to its roof. At the upper end of the shaft is an
+  airtight door, and about 8 ft. below this is another similar door.
+  When the bell divers wish to enter the bell, they pass through the
+  first door and close it after them, and then open a cock or valve and
+  gradually let into the space between the two doors compressed air from
+  the working chamber in order to equalize the pressure; they then open
+  the second door and pass down into the working chamber, closing the
+  door after them. When returning to the surface they reverse the
+  operation. It can readily be imagined that, owing to its unwieldy
+  character, the employment of the air-lock bell is resorted to only in
+  those cases where the nature of the sea bed necessitates its remaining
+  on a given spot for some considerable time, as for instance in the
+  excavation of hard rock to a given depth.
+
+  An air-lock bell supplied to the British Admiralty, for use in
+  connexion with the laying of moorings at Gibraltar, has a working
+  chamber measuring 15 ft. long by 10-1/2 ft. wide, by 7-1/2 ft. high,
+  and a shaft 37-1/2 ft. high by 3 ft. in diameter. It is built of steel
+  plates, with cast-iron ballast, and its total weight is about 46 tons.
+  The bell is electrically lighted, and is fitted with telephonic
+  apparatus communicating with the air-compressor room and lifting-winch
+  room. It is worked through a well in the centre of a specially
+  constructed steel barge 85 ft. long by 40 ft. beam, having a draught
+  of 7 ft. 6 in. The wire ropes, for lowering and raising the bell, work
+  over pulleys which are carried on a superstructure erected over the
+  well. Two sets of air compressors are fitted on the barge--one set for
+  supplying air to the bell, the other set for working a pneumatic rock
+  drill inside the bell. The greatest depth at which this particular
+  bell will work is 40 ft. The cost of the whole plant, including barge,
+  was about L14,000.
+
+  The diving dress has, however, to a great extent supplanted the diving
+  bell. This is due not only to the heavier cost of the latter, but more
+  particularly to the greater mobility of the helmet diver. Bell divers
+  are naturally limited to the area which their bell for the time being
+  covers, whereas helmet divers can be distributed over different parts
+  of a contract and work entirely independently of one another. The use
+  of the diving bell is, therefore, practically limited to the work of
+  levelling the sea bed, and the removal of rock.
+
+  See also the article CAISSON DISEASE as regards the physiological
+  effects of compressed air.     (R. H. D.*)
+
+
+
+
+DIVES-SUR-MER, a small port and seaside resort of north-western France on
+the coast of the department of Calvados, on the Dives, 15 m. N.E. of
+Caen by road. Pop. (1906) 3286. Dives is celebrated as the harbour
+whence William the Conqueror sailed to England in 1066. In the porch of
+its church (14th and 15th centuries) a tablet records the names of some
+of his companions. The town has a picturesque inn, adapted from a
+building dating partly from the 16th century, and market buildings
+dating from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The coast in the vicinity of
+Dives is fringed with small watering-places, those of Cabourg (to the
+west) and of Beuzeval and Houlgate (to the east) being practically
+united with it. There are large metallurgical works with electric motive
+power close to the town.
+
+
+
+
+DIVIDE, a word used technically as a noun in America and the British
+colonies for any high ridge between two valleys, forming a
+water-parting; a dividing range. For special senses of the verb "to
+divide" (Lat. _di-videre_, the latter part of the word coming from a
+root seen in Lat. _vidua_, Eng. "widow"), meaning generally to split up
+in two or more parts, see DIVISION. In a parliamentary sense, to divide
+(involving a separation into two sides, Aye and No) is to take the sense
+of the House by voting on the subject before it.
+
+
+
+
+DIVIDEND (Lat. _dividendum_, a thing to be divided), the net profit
+periodically divisible among the proprietors of a joint-stock company in
+proportion to their respective holdings of its capital. Dividend is not
+interest, although the word dividend is frequently applied to payments
+of interest; and a failure to pay dividends to shareholders does not,
+like a failure to pay interest on borrowed money, lay a company open to
+being declared bankrupt. In bankruptcy a dividend is the proportionate
+share of the proceeds of the debtor's estate received by a creditor. In
+England, the Companies Act 1862 provided that no dividend should be
+payable except out of the profits arising from the business of the
+company, but, in the case of companies incorporated by special act of
+parliament for the construction of railways and other public works which
+cannot be completed for a considerable time, it is sometimes provided
+that interest may during construction be paid to the subscribers for
+shares out of capital. Dividends (excluding occasional distributions in
+the form of shares) are ordinarily payable in cash. Most companies
+divide their capital into at least two classes, called "preference"
+shares and "ordinary" shares, of which the former are entitled out of
+the profits of the company to a preferential dividend at a fixed rate,
+and the latter to whatever remains after payment of the preferential
+dividend and any fixed charges. Before, however, a dividend is paid, a
+part of the profits is often carried to a "reserve fund." The dividend
+on preference shares is either "cumulative" or contingent on the profits
+of each separate year or half year. When cumulative, if the profits of
+any one year are insufficient to pay it in full, the deficiency has to
+be made good out of subsequent profits. A cumulative preferential
+dividend is sometimes said to be "guaranteed," and preferential
+dividends payable by all English companies registered under the
+Companies Acts 1862 to 1908 are cumulative unless stipulated to be
+otherwise. Certain public companies are forbidden by parliament to pay
+dividends in excess of a prescribed maximum rate, but this restriction
+has been happily modified in some instances, notably in the case of gas
+companies, by the institution of a sliding scale, under which a gas
+company may so regulate the price of gas to be charged to consumers that
+any reduction of an authorized standard price entitles the company to
+make a proportionate increase of the authorized dividend, and any
+increase above the standard price involves a proportionate decrease of
+dividend. Dividends are usually declared yearly or half-yearly; and
+before any dividend can be paid it is, as a rule, necessary for the
+directors to submit to the shareholders, at a general meeting called for
+the purpose, the accounts of the company, with a report by the directors
+on its position and their recommendation as to the rate of the proposed
+dividend. The articles of association of a company usually provide that
+the shareholders may accept the director's recommendation as to dividend
+or may declare a lower one, but may not declare a higher one than the
+directors recommend. Directors frequently have power to pay on account
+of the dividend for the year, without consulting the shareholders, an
+"interim dividend," which on ordinary shares is generally at a much
+lower rate than the final or regular dividend. An exceptionally high
+dividend is often distributed in the shape of a dividend at the usual
+rate supplemented by an additional dividend or "bonus." Payment of
+dividends is made by means of cheques sent by post, called "dividend
+warrants." All dividends are subject to income-tax, and by most
+companies dividends are paid "less income-tax," in which case the tax is
+deducted from the amount of dividend payable to each proprietor. When
+paid without such deduction a dividend is said to be "free of
+income-tax." In the latter case, however, the company has to make
+provision for payment of the tax before declaring the dividend, and the
+amount of its divisible profits and the rate of dividend which it is
+able to declare are consequently to that extent reduced. In respect of
+consols and certain other securities, holders of amounts of less than
+L1000 may instruct the Bank of England or Bank of Ireland to receive and
+invest their dividends. With few exceptions, the prices of securities
+dealt in on the London Stock Exchange include any accruing dividend not
+paid up to the date of purchase. At a certain day, after the dividend is
+declared, the stock or share is dealt in on the Stock Exchange, as _ex
+dividend_ (or "x. d."), which means that the current dividend is paid
+not to the buyer but to the previous holder, and the price of the stock
+is lower to that extent. The expression "cum dividend" is used to
+signify that the price of the security dealt in includes a dividend
+which, in the absence of any stipulation, might be supposed to belong to
+the seller of the security. On the New York Stock Exchange the
+invariable practice is to sell stock with the "dividend on" until the
+company's books are closed, after which it is usually sold "ex
+dividend."     (S. D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+DIVIDIVI, the native and commercial name for the astringent pods of
+_Caesalpinia coriaria_, a leguminous shrub of the suborder
+_Caesalpinieae_, which grows in low marshy tracts in the West Indies and
+the north of South America. The plant is between 20 and 30 ft. in
+height, and bears white flowers. The pods are flattened, and curl up in
+drying; they are about 3/4 in. broad, from 2 to 3 in. long and of a rich
+brown colour. Dividivi was first brought to Europe from Caracas in 1768.
+It contains about 30% of ellagitannic acid, whence its value in leather
+manufacture.
+
+
+
+
+DIVINATION, the process of obtaining knowledge of secret or future
+things by means of oracles, omens or astrology. The root of the word,
+_deus_ (god) or _divus_, indicates the supposed source of the
+soothsayer's information, just as the equivalent Greek term, [Greek:
+mantike], indicates the spiritual source of the utterances of the seer,
+[Greek: mantis]. In classical times the view was, in fact, general, as
+may be seen by Cicero's _De divinatione_, that not only oracles but also
+omens were signs sent by the gods; even the astrologer held that he
+gained his information, in the last resort, from the same source. On the
+side of the Stoics it was argued that if divination was a real art,
+there must be gods who gave it to mankind; against this it was argued
+that signs of future events may be given without any god.
+
+Divination is practised in all grades of culture; its votaries range
+from the Australian black to the American medium. There is no general
+agreement as to the source of the information; commonly it is held that
+it comes from the gods directly or indirectly. In the Bornean cult of
+the hawk it seems that the divine bird itself was regarded as having a
+foreknowledge of the future. Later it is regarded as no more than a
+messenger. Among the Australian blacks, divination is largely employed
+to discover the cause of death, where it is assumed to be due to magic;
+in some cases the spirit of the dead man is held to give the
+information, in others the living magician is the source of the
+knowledge. We find moreover a semi-scientific conception of the basis of
+divination; the whole of nature is linked together; just as the
+variations in the height of a column of mercury serve to foretell the
+weather, so the flight of birds or behaviour of cattle may help to
+prognosticate its changes; for the uncultured it is merely a step to the
+assumption that animals know things which are hidden from man.
+Haruspication, or the inspection of entrails, was justified on similar
+grounds, and in the case of omens from birds or animals, no less than in
+astrology, it was held that the facts from which inferences were drawn
+were themselves in part the causes of the events which they foretold,
+thus fortifying the belief in the possibility of divination.
+
+From a psychological point of view divinatory methods may be classified
+under two main heads: (A) autoscopic, which depend simply on some change
+in the consciousness of the soothsayer; (B) heteroscopic, in which he
+looks outside himself for guidance and perhaps infers rather than
+divines in the proper sense.
+
+(A) Autoscopic methods depend on (i.) sensory or (ii.) motor
+automatisms, or (iii.) mental impressions, for their results. (i.)
+Crystal-gazing (q.v.) is a world-wide method of divining, which is
+analogous to dreams, save that the vision is voluntarily initiated,
+though little, if at all, under the control of the scryer. Corresponding
+to crystal-gazing we have _shell-hearing_ and similar methods, which
+are, however, less common; in these the information is gained by hearing
+a voice. (ii.) The divining rod (q.v.) is the best-known example of this
+class; divination depending on automatic movements of this sort is found
+at all stages of culture; in Australia it is used to detect the magician
+who has caused the death of a native; in medieval and modern times
+water-divining or _dowsing_ has been largely and successfully used.
+Similar in principle is _coscinomancy_, or divining by a sieve held
+suspended, which gives indications by turning; and the equally common
+divination by a suspended ring, both of which are found from Europe in
+the west to China and Japan in the east. The ordeal by the Bible and key
+is equally popular; the book is suspended by a key tied in with its
+wards between the leaves and supported on two persons' fingers, and the
+whole turns round when the name of the guilty person is mentioned.
+Confined to higher cultures on the other hand, for obvious reasons, is
+divination by automatic writing, which is practised in China more
+especially. The sand divination so widely spread in Africa seems to be
+of a different nature. _Trance speaking_, on the other hand, may be
+found in any stage of culture and there is no doubt that in many cases
+the procedure of the magician or shaman induces a state of
+auto-hypnotism; at a higher stage these utterances are termed oracles
+and are believed to be the result of inspiration (q.v.). (iii.) Another
+method of divination is by the aid of mental impressions; observation
+seems to show that by some process of this sort, akin to clairvoyance
+(q.v.), fortunes are told successfully by means of palmistry or by
+laying the cards; for the same "lie" of the cards may be diversely
+interpreted to meet different cases. In other cases the impression is
+involuntary or less consciously sought, as in dreams (q.v.), which,
+however, are sometimes induced, for purposes of divination, by the
+process known as incubation or temple sleep. Dreams are sometimes
+regarded as visits to or from gods or the souls of the dead, sometimes
+as signs to be interpreted symbolically by means of dream-books, which
+are found not only in Europe but in less cultured countries like Siam.
+
+(B) In heteroscopic divination the process is rather one of inference
+from external facts. The methods are very various. (i.) The casting of
+lots, _sortilege_, was common in classical antiquity; the Homeric heroes
+prayed to the gods when they cast lots in Agamemnon's leather cap, and
+Mopsus divined with sacred lots when the Argonauts embarked. Similarly
+dice are thrown for purposes of sortilege; the _astragali_ or
+knucklebones, used in children's games at the present day, were
+implements of divination in the first instance. In Polynesia the
+coco-nut is spun like a teetotum to discover a thief. Somewhat different
+are the omens drawn from books; in ancient times the poets were often
+consulted, more especially Virgil, whence the name _sortes virgilianae_,
+just as the Bible is used for drawing texts in our own day, especially
+in Germany. (ii.) In _haruspication_, or the inspection of entrails, in
+_scapulomancy_ or divination by the speal-bone or shoulder-blade, in
+divination by footprints in ashes, found in Australia, Peru and
+Scotland, the voluntary element is prominent, for the diviner must take
+active steps to secure the conditions necessary to divination. (iii.) In
+the case of _augury_ and _omens_, on the other hand, that is not
+necessary. The behaviour and cries of birds, and _angang_ or meeting
+with ominous animals, &c., may be voluntarily observed, and
+opportunities for observation made; but this is not necessary for
+success. (iv.) In _astrology_ we have a method which still finds
+believers among people of good education. The stars are held, not only
+to prognosticate the future but also to influence it; the child born
+when Mars is in the ascendant will be war-like; Venus has to do with
+love; the sign of the Lion presides over places where wild beasts are
+found. (v.) In other cases the tie that binds the subject of divination
+with the omen-giving object is sympathy. The name of the life-index is
+given to a tree, animal or other object believed to be so closely united
+by sympathetic ties to a human being that the fate of the latter is
+reflected in the condition of the former. The Polynesians set up sticks
+to see if the warriors they stood for were to fall in battle; on
+Hallowe'en in our own country the behaviour of nuts and other objects
+thrown into the fire is held to prognosticate the lot of the person to
+whom they have been assigned. Where, as in the last two cases, the
+sympathetic bond is less strong, we find symbolical interpretation
+playing an important part.
+
+Sympathy and symbolism, association of ideas and analogy, together with
+a certain amount of observation, are the explanation of the great mass
+of heteroscopic divinatory formulae. But where autoscopic phenomena play
+the chief part the question of the origin of divination is less simple.
+The investigations of the Society for Psychical Research show that
+premonitions, though rare in our own day, are not absolutely unknown.
+Pseudo-premonitions, due to hallucinatory memory, are not unknown; there
+is also some ground for holding that crystal-gazers are able to perceive
+incidents which are happening at a distance from them. Divination of
+this sort, therefore, may be due to observation and experiment of a rude
+sort, rather than to the unchecked play of fancy which resulted in
+heteroscopic divination.
+
+  See also the articles AUGURS, ORACLE, ASTROLOGY, OMEN, &c.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Bouche Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans
+  l'antiquite_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, passim; Maury, "La Magie et
+  l'astrologie," _Journ. Anth. Inst._ i. 163, v. 436; _Folklore_, iii.
+  193; Ellis, _Tshi-speaking Peoples_, p. 202; _Dictionnaire
+  encyclopedique des sciences medicales_, xxx. 24-96; _Journ. of
+  Philology_, xiii. 273, xiv. 113; Deubner, _De incubatione_; Lenormant,
+  _La Divination, et la science de presages chez les Chaldeens_; Skeat,
+  _Malay Magic_; J. Johnson, _Yoruba Heathenism_ (1899).     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+DIVINING-ROD. As indicated in the article MAGIC, _Rhabdomancy_, or the
+art of using a divining-rod for discovering something hidden, is
+apparently of immemorial antiquity, and the Roman _virgula divina_, as
+used in taking auguries by means of casting bits of stick, is described
+by Cicero and Tacitus (see also DIVINATION); but the special form of
+_virgula furcata_, or forked twig of hazel or willow (see also HAZEL),
+described by G. Agricola (_De re metallica_, 1546), and in Sebastian
+Munster's _Cosmography_ in the early part of the 16th century, used
+specially for discovering metallic lodes or water beneath the earth,
+must be distinguished from the general superstition. The "dowsing" or
+divining-rod, in this sense, has a modern interest, dating from its use
+by prospectors for minerals in the German (Harz Mountains) mining
+districts; the French chemist M.E. Chevreul[1] assigns its first mention
+to Basil Valentine, the alchemist of the late 15th century. On account
+of its supposed magical powers, it may be taken perhaps as an historical
+analogue to such fairy wands as the _caduceus_ of Mercury, the golden
+arrow of Herodotus's "Abaris the Hyperborean," or the medieval witch's
+broomstick. But the existence of the modern water-finder or dowser makes
+the divining-rod a matter of more than mythological or superstitious
+interest. The _Schlagruthe_ (striking-rod), or forked twig of the German
+miners, was brought to England by those engaged in the Cornish mines by
+the merchant venturers of Queen Elizabeth's day. Professor W. F.
+Barrett, F.R.S., the chief modern investigator of this subject, regards
+its employment, dating as it does from the revival of learning, as based
+on the medieval doctrine of "sympathy," the drooping of trees and
+character of the vegetation being considered to give indications of
+mineral lodes beneath the earth's surface, by means of a sort of
+attraction; and such critical works as Robert Boyle's (1663), or the
+_Mineralogia Cornubiensis_ of Pryce (1778), admitted its value in
+discovering metals. But as mining declined in Cornwall, the use of the
+dowser for searching for lodes almost disappeared, and was transferred
+to water-finding. The divining-rod has, however, also been used for
+searching for any buried objects. In the south of France, in the 17th
+century, it was employed in tracking criminals and heretics. Its abuse
+led to a decree of the Inquisition in 1701, forbidding its employment
+for purposes of justice.
+
+In modern times the professional dowser is a "water-finder," and there
+has been a good deal of investigation into the possibility of a
+scientific explanation of his claims to be able to locate underground
+water, where it is not known to exist, by the use of a forked hazel-twig
+which, twisting in his hands, leads him by its directing-power to the
+place where a boring should be made. Whether justified or not, a
+widespread faith exists, based no doubt on frequent success, in the
+dowser's power; and Professor Barrett (_The Times_, January 21, 1905)
+states that "making a liberal allowance for failures of which I have not
+heard, I have no hesitation in saying that where fissure water exists
+and the discovery of underground water sufficient for a domestic supply
+is a matter of the utmost difficulty, the chances of success with a good
+dowser far exceed mere lucky hits, or the success obtained by the most
+skilful observer, even with full knowledge of the local geology." Is
+this due to any special faculty in the dowser, or has the twig itself
+anything to do with it? Held in balanced equilibrium, the forked twig,
+in the dowser's hands, moves with a sudden and often violent motion, and
+the appearance of actual life in the twig itself, though regarded as
+mere stage-play by some, is popularly associated with the cause of the
+water-finder's success. The theory that there is any direct connexion
+("sympathy" or electrical influence) between the divining-rod and the
+water or metal, is however repudiated by modern science. Professor
+Barrett, who with Professor Janet and others is satisfied that the rod
+twists without any intention or voluntary deception on the part of the
+dowser, ascribes the phenomenon to "motor-automatism" on the part of the
+dowser (see AUTOMATISM), a reflex action excited by some stimulus upon
+his mind, which may be either a subconscious suggestion or an actual
+impression (obscure in its nature) from an external object or an
+external mind; both sorts of stimulus are possible, so that the dowser
+himself may make false inferences (and fail) by supposing that the
+stimulus is an external object (like water). The divining-rod being thus
+"an indicator of any sub-conscious suggestion or impression," its
+indications, no doubt, may be fallacious; but Professor Barrett, basing
+his conclusions upon observed successes and their greater proportion to
+failures than anything that chance could produce, advances the
+hypothesis that some persons (like the professional dowsers) possess "a
+genuine super-normal perceptive faculty," and that the mind of a good
+dowser, possessing the idiosyncrasy of motor-automatism, becomes a blank
+or _tabula rasa_, so that "the faintest impression made by the object
+searched for creates an involuntary or automatic motion of the
+indicator, whatever it may be." Like the "homing instinct" of certain
+birds and animals, the dowser's power lies beneath the level of any
+conscious perception; and the function of the forked twig is to act as
+an index of some material or other mental disturbance within him, which
+otherwise he could not interpret.
+
+It should be added that dowsers do not always use any rod. Some again
+use a willow rod, or withy, others a hazel-twig (the traditional
+material), others a beech or holly twig, or one from any other tree;
+others even a piece of wire or watch-spring. The best dowsers are said
+to have been generally more or less illiterate men, usually engaged in
+some humble vocation.
+
+Sir W. H. Preece (_The Times_, January 16, 1905), repudiating as an
+electrician the theory that any electric force is involved, has recorded
+his opinion that water-finding by a dowser is due to "mechanical
+vibration, set up by the friction of moving water, acting upon the
+sensitive ventral diaphragm of certain exceptionally delicately framed
+persons." Another theory is that water-finders are "exceptionally
+sensitive to hygrometric influences." In any case, modern science
+approaches the problem as one concerning which the facts have to be
+accepted, and explained by some natural, though obscure, cause.
+
+  See for further details Professor Barrett's longer discussion in parts
+  32 (1897) and 38 (1900) of the _Proceedings of the Society for
+  Psychical Research_.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _La Baguette divinatoire_ (Paris, 1845).
+
+
+
+
+DIVISION (from Lat. _dividere_, to break up into parts, separate), a
+general term for the action of breaking up a whole into parts. Thus, in
+political economy, the phrase "division of labour" implies the
+assignment to particular workmen of the various portions of a whole
+piece of work; in mathematics division is the process of finding how
+many times one number or quantity, the "divisor," is contained in
+another, the "dividend" (see ARITHMETIC and ALGEBRA); in the musical
+terminology of the 17th and 18th centuries, the term was used for rapid
+passages consisting of a few slow notes amplified into a florid passage,
+i.e. into a larger number of quick ones. The word is used also in
+concrete senses for the parts into which a thing is divided, e.g. a
+division of an army, an administrative or electoral division; similarly,
+a "division" is taken in a legislative body when votes are recorded for
+and against a proposed measure.
+
+In logic, division is a technical term for the process by which a
+_genus_ is broken up into its _species_. Thus the genus "animal" may be
+divided, according to the habitat of the various kinds, into animals
+which live on land, those which live in water, those which live in the
+air. Each of these may be subdivided according to whether their
+constituent members do or do not possess certain other qualities. The
+basis of each of these divisions is called the _fundamentum divisionis_.
+It is clear that there can be no division in respect of those qualities
+which make the genus what it is. The various species are all alike in
+the possession of the generic attributes, but differ in other respects;
+they are "variations on the same theme" (Joseph, _Introduction to
+Logic_, 1906); each one has the generic, and also certain peculiar,
+qualities (_differentiae_), which latter distinguish them from other
+species of the same genus. The process of division is thus the obverse
+of classification (q.v.); it proceeds from genus to species, whereas
+classification begins with the particulars and rises through species to
+genus. In the exact sciences, and indeed in all argument both practical
+and theoretical, accurate division is of great importance. It is
+governed by the following rules. (1) _Division must be exhaustive_; all
+the members of the genus must find a place in one or other of the
+species; a captain who selects for his team skilful batsmen and bowlers
+only is guilty of an incomplete division of the whole function of a
+cricket team by omitting to provide himself with good fielders.
+Rectilinear figures cannot be divided into triangles and quadrilaterals
+because there are rectilinear figures which have more than four sides.
+On the other hand, triangles can be divided into equilateral, isosceles
+and scalene, since no other kind of triangle can exist. (2) Division
+_must be exclusive_, that is, each species must be complete in itself
+and not contain members of another species. No member of a genus must be
+included in more than one of the species. (3) In every division _there
+must be but one principle (fundamentum divisionis)_. The members of a
+genus may differ from one another in many respects, e.g. books may be
+divided according to external form into quarto, octavo, &c., or
+according to binding into calf, cloth, paper-backed and so on. They
+cannot, however, be divided logically into quarto, paper-backed, novels
+and remainders. When more than one principle is used in a division it is
+called "cross division." (4) _Division must proceed gradually_ ("Divisio
+non facit saltum"), i.e. the genus must be resolved into the next
+highest ("proximate") species. To go straight from a _summum genus_ to
+very small species is of no scientific value.
+
+It is to be observed that logical division is concerned exclusively with
+universals or concepts; division is of genus and species, not of
+particulars. Two other kinds of division are recognized:--_metaphysical
+division_, the separation in thought of the various qualities possessed
+by an individual thing (a piece of lead has weight, colour, &c), and
+_physical division_ or _partition_, the breaking up of an object into
+its parts (a watch is thought of as being composed of case, dial, works,
+&c.). Logical division is closely allied with logical definition (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+DIVORCE (Lat. _divortium_, derived from dis-, apart, and vertere, to
+turn), the dissolution, in whole or in part, of the tie of marriage. It
+includes both the complete abrogation of the marriage relation known as
+a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_, which carries with it a power on the
+part of both parties to the marriage to remarry other persons or each
+other, and also that incomplete severance not involving powers to
+remarry, which was formerly known as divorce a _mensa et thoro_, and has
+in England been termed "judicial separation." Less strictly, divorce is
+commonly understood to include judicial declarations of nullity of
+marriage, which, while practically terminating the marriage relation,
+proceed in law on the basis of the marriage never having been legally
+established.
+
+The conditions under which, in different communities, divorce has at
+different times been permitted, vary with the aspects in which the
+relation of marriage (q.v.) has been regarded. When marriage has been
+deemed to be the acquisition by the husband of property in the wife, or
+when it has been regarded as a mere agreement between persons capable
+both to form and to dissolve that contract, we find that marriage has
+been dissoluble at the will of the husband, or by agreement of the
+husband and wife. Yet even in these cases the interest of the whole
+community in the purity of marriage relations, in the pecuniary bearings
+of this particular contract, and the condition of children, has led to
+the imposition of restrictions on, and the attachment of conditions to,
+the termination of the obligations consequent on a marriage legally
+contracted. But the main restrictions on liberty of divorce have arisen
+from the conception of marriage entertained by religions, and especially
+by one religion. Christianity has had no greater practical effect on the
+life of mankind than in its belief that marriage is no mere civil
+contract, but a vow in the sight of God binding the parties by
+obligations of conscience above and beyond those of civil law.
+Translating this conception into practice, Christianity not only
+profoundly modified the legal conditions of divorce as formulated in the
+Roman civil law, but in its own canon law defined its own rule of
+divorce, going so far as in the Western (at least in its unreformed
+condition), though not the Eastern, branch of Christendom to forbid all
+complete divorces, that is to say, all dissolutions of marriage carrying
+with them the right to remarry.
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+_The Roman Law of Divorce before Justinian._--The history of divorce,
+therefore, practically begins with the law of Rome. It took its earliest
+colour from that conception of the _patria potestas_, or the power of
+the head of the family over its members, which enters so deeply into the
+jurisprudence of ancient Rome. The wife was transferred at marriage to
+the authority of her husband, _in manus_, and consequently became so far
+subject to him that he could, at his will, renounce his rule over her,
+and terminate his companionship, subject at least to an adjustment of
+the pecuniary rights which were disturbed by such action. So clearly was
+the power of the husband derived from that of the father, that for a
+long period a father, in the exercise of his _potestas_, could take his
+daughter from her husband against the wishes of both. It may be presumed
+that this power, anomalous as it appears, was not unexercised, as we
+find that a constitution of Antoninus Pius prohibited a father from
+disturbing a harmonious union, and Marcus Aurelius afterwards limited
+this prohibition by allowing the interference of a father for strong and
+just cause--_magna et justa causa interveniente_. Except in so far as it
+was restrained by special legislation, the authority of a husband in the
+matter of divorce was absolute. As early indeed, however, as the time of
+Romulus, it is said that the state asserted its interest in the
+permanence of marriage by forbidding the repudiation of wives unless
+they were guilty of adultery or of drinking wine, on pain of forfeiture
+of the whole of an offender's property, one-half of which went to the
+wife, the other to Ceres. But the law of the XII. Tables, in turn,
+allowed freedom of divorce. It would appear, however, that the sense of
+the community was so far shocked by the inhumanity of treating a wife as
+mere property, or the risk of regarding marriage as a mere terminable
+contract, that, without crystallizing into positive enactment, it
+operated to prevent the exercise of so harsh and dangerous a power. It
+is said that for 500 years no husband took advantage of his power, and
+it was then only by an order of a censor, however obtained, that Spurius
+Carvilius Ruga repudiated his wife for barrenness. We may, however, be
+permitted to doubt the genuineness of this censorial order, or at least
+to conjecture the influence under which the censor was induced to
+intervene, when we find that in another instance, that of L. Antonius, a
+censor punished an unjust divorce by expulsion from the senate, and that
+the exercise of their power by husbands increased to a great and
+alarming extent. Probably few of the admirers of the greatest of Roman
+orators have not regretted his summary and wholly informal repudiation
+of Terentia. At last the _lex Julia de adulteriis_, while recognizing a
+power of divorce both in the husband and in the wife, imposed on it, in
+the public interest, serious restrictions and consequences. It required
+a written bill of divorce (_libellus repudii_) to be given in the
+presence of seven witnesses, who must be Roman citizens of age, and the
+divorce must be publicly registered. The act was, however, purely an act
+of the party performing it, and no idea of judicial interference or
+contract seems to have been entertained. It was not necessary for either
+husband or wife giving the bill to acquaint the other with it before its
+execution, though it was considered proper to deliver the bill, when
+made, to the other party. In this way a wife could divorce a lunatic
+husband, or the _paterfamilias_ of a lunatic wife could divorce her from
+her husband. But the _lex Julia_ was also the first of a series of
+enactments by which pecuniary consequences were imposed on divorce both
+by husbands and wives, whether the intention was to restrain divorce by
+penalties of this nature, or to readjust pecuniary relations settled on
+the basis of marriage and disturbed by its rupture. It was provided that
+if the wife was guilty of adultery, her husband in divorcing her could
+retain one-sixth of her _dos_, but if she had committed a less serious
+offence, one-eighth. If the husband was guilty of adultery, he had to
+make immediate restitution of her dowry, or if it consisted of land, the
+annual proceeds for three years; if he was guilty of a less serious
+offence, he had six months within which to restore the _dos_. If both
+parties were in fault, no penalty fell on either. The _lex Julia_ was
+followed by a series of acts of legislation extending and modifying its
+provisions. The legislation of Constantine, A.D. 331, specified certain
+causes for which alone a divorce could take place without the imposition
+of pecuniary penalties. There were three causes for which a wife could
+divorce her husband with impunity: (1) murder, (2) preparation of
+poisons, (3) violation of tombs; but if she divorced him for any other
+cause, such as drunkenness, or gambling or immoral society, she
+forfeited her dowry and incurred the further penalty of deportation.
+There were also three causes for which a husband could divorce his wife
+without incurring any penalty: (1) adultery, (2) preparation of poisons,
+(3) acting as a procuress. If he divorced her for any other cause, he
+forfeited all interest in her dowry; and if he married again, the first
+wife could take the dowry of the second.
+
+In A.D. 421 the emperors Honorius and Theodosius enacted a law of
+divorce which introduced limitations on the power of remarriage as an
+additional penalty in certain cases. As regards a wife: (1) if she
+divorced her husband for grave reasons or crime, she retained her dowry
+and could remarry after five years; (2) if she divorced him for criminal
+conduct or moderate faults, she forfeited her dowry, became incapable of
+remarriage, and liable to deportation, nor could the emperor's
+prerogative of pardon be exerted in her favour. As regards a husband: if
+he divorced his wife (1) for serious crime, he retained the dowry and
+could remarry immediately; (2) for criminal conduct, he did not retain
+the dowry, but could remarry; (3) for mere dislike, he forfeited the
+property brought into the marriage and could not remarry.
+
+In A.D. 449 the law of divorce was rendered simpler and certainly more
+facile by Theodosius and Valentinian. It was provided that a wife could
+divorce her husband without incurring any penalty if he was convicted of
+any one of twelve offences: (1) treason, (2) adultery, (3) homicide, (4)
+poisoning, (5) forgery, (6) violating tombs, (7) stealing from a church,
+(8) robbery, (9) cattle-stealing, (10) attempting his wife's life, (11)
+beating his wife, (12) introducing immoral women to his house. If the
+wife divorced her husband for any other cause, she forfeited her dowry,
+and could not marry again for five years. A husband could divorce his
+wife without incurring a penalty for any of these reasons except the
+last, and also for the following reasons: (1) going to dine with men
+other than her relations without the knowledge or against the wish of
+her husband; (2) going from home at night against his wish without
+reasonable cause; (3) frequenting the circus, theatre or amphitheatre
+after being forbidden by her husband. If a husband divorced his wife for
+any other reason, he forfeited all interest in his wife's dowry, and
+also any property he brought into the marriage.
+
+The above sketch of the legislation prior to the time of Justinian,
+while it indicates a desire to place the husband and wife on something
+like terms of equality as regards divorce, indicates also, by its
+forbidding remarriage and by its pecuniary provisions in certain cases,
+a sense in the community of the importance in the public interest of
+restraining the violation of the contract of marriage. But to the Roman
+marriage was primarily a contract, and therefore side by side with this
+legislation there always existed a power of divorce by mutual consent.
+We must now turn to those principles of the Christian religion which, in
+combination with the legislation above described, produced the law
+formulated by Justinian.
+
+_The Christian View of Divorce._--The Christian law of divorce as
+enunciated by its Founder was expressed in a few words, but these,
+unfortunately, by no means of agreed interpretation. To appreciate them
+it is necessary to consider the enactment of the Mosaic law, which also
+was expressed in few words, but of a meaning involved in much doubt. The
+phrase in Deut. xxiv. 1-4, which is translated in the Authorized Version
+"some uncleanness," but in the Revised Version, "some unseemly thing,"
+and which is the only cause stated to justify the giving of a "bill of
+divorcement," was limited by the school of Shanmai to moral delinquency,
+but was extended by the rival school of Hillel to causes of trifling
+importance or even to motives of caprice. The wider interpretation would
+seem to be supported by the words of Christ (Matt. v. 31), who, in
+indicating His own doctrine in contradistinction to the law of Moses,
+said, "Whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for the cause of
+fornication ([Greek: porneias]), causeth her to commit adultery; and
+whosoever shall marry her that is divorced committeth adultery." The
+meaning of these words of Christ Himself has been involved in
+controversy, which perhaps was nowhere carried on with greater acuteness
+or under more critical conditions than within the walls of the British
+parliament during the passage of the Divorce Act of 1857. That they
+justify divorce of a complete kind for moral delinquency of some nature
+is supported by the opinion probably of every competent scholar. But
+scholars of eminence have sought to restrict the meaning of the [Greek:
+logos porneias] to antenuptial incontinence concealed from the husband,
+and to exclude adultery. The effect of this view commends itself to the
+adherents of the Church of Rome, because it places the right to
+separation between husband and wife, not on a cause supervening after a
+marriage, which that Church seeks to regard as absolutely indissoluble,
+but on invalidity in the contract of marriage itself, and which may
+therefore render the marriage liable to be declared void without
+impugning its indissoluble character when rightly contracted. The
+narrower view of the meaning of [Greek: porneias] has been maintained
+by, among others, Dr Dollinger (_First Ages of the Church_, ii. 226);
+but those who will consider the arguments of Professor Conington in
+reply to Dr Dollinger (_Contemp. Review_, May 1869) will probably assign
+the palm to the English scholar. A more general view points in the same
+direction. It is quite true that under the Mosaic law antenuptial
+incontinence was, as was also adultery, punishable with death. But when
+we consider the effect of adultery not only as a moral fault, but as
+violating the solemn contract of marriage and vitiating its objects, it
+is inconceivable that Christ, in employing a term of general import,
+intended to limit it to one kind, and that the less serious, of
+incontinence.
+
+_Effect of Christianity on the Law of Rome._--The modification in the
+civil law of Rome effected by Justinian under the joint influence of the
+previous law of Rome and that of Christianity was remarkable. Gibbon has
+summed up the change effected in the law of Rome with characteristic
+accuracy: "The Christian princes were the first who specified the just
+causes of a private divorce; their institutions from Constantine to
+Justinian appear to fluctuate between the customs of the empire and the
+wishes of the Church; and the author of the Novels too frequently
+reforms the jurisprudence of the Code and Pandects." Divorce by mutual
+consent, hitherto, as we have seen, absolutely free, was prohibited
+(Nov. 117) except in three cases: (1) when the husband was impotent; (2)
+when either husband or wife desired to enter a monastery; and (3) when
+either of them was in captivity for a certain length of time. It is
+obvious that the two first of these exceptions might well commend
+themselves to the mind of the Church, the former as being rather a
+matter of nullity of marriage than of divorce, the latter as admitting
+the paramount claims of the Church on its adherents, and not
+inconsistent with the spirit of the words of St Paul himself, who
+clearly contemplated a separation between husband and wife as allowable
+in case either of them did not hold the Christian faith (1 Cor. vii.
+12). At a later period Justinian placed a further restriction or even
+prohibition on divorce by consent by enacting that spouses dissolving a
+marriage by mutual consent should forfeit all their property, and be
+confined for life in a monastery, which was to receive one-third of the
+forfeited property, the remaining two-thirds going to the children of
+the marriage. The cause stated for this remarkable alteration of the
+law, and the abandonment of the conception of marriage as a civil
+contract _ut non Dei judicium contemnatur_ (Nov. 134), indicates the
+influence of the Christian idea of marriage. That influence, however,
+did not long continue in its full force. The prohibitions of Justinian
+on divorce by consent were repealed by Justin (Nov. 140), his successor.
+"He yielded," says Gibbon, "to the prayers of his unhappy subjects, and
+restored the liberty of divorce by mutual consent; the civilians were
+unanimous, the theologians were divided, and the ambiguous word which
+contains the precept of Christ is flexible to any interpretation that
+the wisdom of a legislature can demand." It was difficult, the enactment
+stated, "to reconcile those who once came to hate each other, and who,
+if compelled to live together, frequently attempted each other's lives."
+
+Justinian further re-enacted, with some modifications, the power of
+divorce by a husband or wife against the will of the other. Divorce by a
+wife was allowed in five cases (Nov. 117): (1) the husband being party
+or privy to conspiracy against the state; (2) attempting his wife's
+life, or failing to disclose to her plots against it; (3) attempting to
+induce his wife to commit adultery; (4) accusing his wife falsely of
+adultery; (5) taking a woman to live in the house with his wife, or,
+after warning, frequenting a house in the same town with any woman other
+than his wife. If a wife divorced her husband for one of these reasons,
+she recovered her dowry and any property brought into the marriage by
+her husband for life with reversion to her children, or if there were no
+children, absolutely. But if she divorced him for any other reason, the
+provisions of the enactment of Theodosius and Valentinian were to apply.
+A husband was allowed to divorce his wife for any one of seven reasons:
+(1) failure to disclose to her husband plots against the state; (2)
+adultery; (3) attempting or failing to disclose plots against her
+husband's life; (4) frequenting dinners or balls with other men against
+her husband's wishes; (5) remaining from home against the wishes of her
+husband except with her parents; (6) going to the circus, theatre or
+amphitheatre without the knowledge or contrary to the prohibition of her
+husband; (7) procuring abortion. If the husband divorced his wife for
+any one of these reasons he retained the dowry absolutely, or if there
+were children, with reversion to them. If he divorced her for any other
+reason, the enactments of Theodosius and Valentinian applied. In any
+case of a divorce, if the father or mother of either spouse had advanced
+the dowry and it would be forfeited by an unreasonable divorce, the
+consent of the father or mother was necessary to render the divorce
+valid.
+
+_Effect of Divorce on Children in the Law of Rome._--The custody of the
+children of divorced parents was dealt with by the Roman law in a
+liberal manner. A constitution of Diocletian and Maximian left it to the
+judge to determine in his discretion to which of the parents the
+children should go. Justinian enacted that divorce should not impair the
+rights of children either as to inheritance or maintenance. If a wife
+divorced her husband for good cause, and she remained unmarried, the
+children were to be in her custody, but to be maintained by the father;
+but if the mother was in fault, the father obtained the custody. If he
+was unable, from want of means, to support them, but she was able to do
+so, she was obliged to take them and support them. It is interesting to
+compare these provisions as to children with the practice at present
+under English law, which in this respect reflects so closely the spirit
+of the law of Rome.
+
+_The Canon Law of Divorce._--The canon law of Rome was based on two main
+principles: (1) That there could be no divorce a _vinculo matrimonii_,
+but only _a mensa et thoro_. The rule was stated in the most absolute
+terms: _"Quamdiu vivit vir licet adulter sit, licet sodomita, licet
+flagitiis omnibus coopertus, et ab uxore propter haec scelera
+derelictus, maritus ejus reputatur, cui alterum vivum accipere non
+licet"_ (Caus. 32, Quaest. 7, c. 7). (2) That no divorce could be had at
+the will of the parties, but only by the sentence of a competent, that
+is to say, an ecclesiastical, court. In this negation of a right to
+divorce a _vinculo matrimonii_ lies the broad difference between the
+doctrines of the Eastern and Western Churches of Christendom. The Greek
+Church, understanding the words of Christ in the broader sense above
+mentioned, has always allowed complete divorce with a right to remarry
+for the cause of adultery. And it is said that the form at least of an
+anathema of the council of Trent was modified out of respect to
+difference on the part of the Greek Church (see Pothier 5. 6. 21). The
+papal canon law allowed a divorce a _mensa et thoro_ for six causes: (1)
+adultery or unnatural offences; (2) impotency; (3) cruelty; (4)
+infidelity; (5) entering into religion; (6) consanguinity. The Church,
+however, always assumed to itself the right to grant licences for an
+absolute divorce; and further, by claiming the power to declare
+marriages null and void, though professedly this could be done only in
+cases where the original contract could be said to be void, it was, and
+is to this day, undoubtedly extended in practice to cases in which it is
+impossible to suppose the original contract really void, but in which a
+complete divorce is on other grounds desirable.
+
+
+DIVORCE IN ENGLAND
+
+In England the law of divorce, originally based on the canon law of
+Rome, underwent some, though little, permanent change at the
+Reformation, but was profoundly modified by the exercise of the power of
+the state through legislation. From the canon law was derived the
+principle that divorce could legally take place only by sentence of the
+court, and never at the will of the parties. Complete divorce has never
+been governed by any other principle than this; and in so far as an
+incomplete divorce has become practicable at the will of the parties, it
+has been by the intervention of civil tribunals and contrary to the law
+of the ecclesiastical courts. Those courts adopted as ground for divorce
+_a mensa et thoro_ the main grounds allowed by Roman canon law, adultery
+and cruelty (Ayliffe, 22; Co. Lit. 102; 1 Salk. 162; Godolphin Abridg.
+495). The causes of heresy and of entering into religion, if ever they
+were recognized in England, ceased to exist at the Reformation.
+
+The principles upon which the English ecclesiastical courts proceeded in
+divorce _a mensa et thoro_ are those which are still in force, and which
+(with some modification by statutory enactment) have been administered
+by judicial tribunals down to the present day. The courts by which the
+ecclesiastical law, and therefore the law of divorce, was administered
+were, until 1857, the courts of the various dioceses, including that of
+the archbishop of Canterbury, known as the Court of Arches, and that of
+the archbishop of York, known as the Consistory Court of York; but by
+statute a suitor was prevented from taking proceedings in any court
+except that determined by the residence of the person against whom
+proceedings were taken (23 Hen. VIII. c. 9). From these courts an appeal
+lay to delegates appointed in each case by the crown, until the
+establishment of the judicial committee of the privy council in 1836,
+when the appeal was given to the crown as advised by that body.
+
+The proof of adultery (to which Isidore in his _Book of Etymologies_
+gives the fanciful derivation of "_ad alterius thorum_") was not by the
+canon law as received in England restricted by the operation of
+arbitrary rules. It was never, for example, required, as by the law of
+Mahomet, that the act should have been actually seen by competent
+witnesses, nor even that the case should be based on any particular kind
+of proof. It was recognized that the nature of the offence almost
+inevitably precluded direct evidence. One rule, however, appears to have
+commended itself to the framers of the canon law as too general in its
+application not to be regarded as a principle. The mere confession of
+the parties was not regarded as a safe ground of conviction; and this
+rule was formulated by a decretal epistle of Pope Celestine III., and,
+following it, by the 105th of the Canons of 1604. This rule has now been
+abrogated; and no doubt it is wiser not to fetter the discretion of the
+tribunal charged with the responsibility of deciding particular cases,
+but experience of divorce proceedings tends to confirm the belief that
+this rule of the canon law was founded on an accurate appreciation of
+human nature.
+
+Although, therefore, with the above exception, no strict rules of the
+evidence necessary to establish adultery have ever been established in
+the English courts, experience has indicated, and in former days judges
+of the ecclesiastical courts often expressed, the lines upon which such
+proof may be expected to proceed. It is necessary and sufficient, in
+general, to prove two things--first the guilty affection towards each
+other of the persons accused, and, secondly, an opportunity or
+opportunities of which, if so minded, their passion may have been
+gratified. It is obvious that any strong proof on either of these points
+renders strict proof on the other less needful; but when proof on both
+is afforded, the common sense of a tribunal, acting with a knowledge of
+human nature, may be trusted to draw the inevitable conclusion.
+
+The definition of cruelty accepted by the ecclesiastical courts as that
+of the canon law is the same as that which prevails at the present time;
+and the view of the law taken by the House of Lords in _Russell_ v.
+_Russell_ (1897 App. Cas. 395) was expressly based on the view of
+cruelty taken by the authorities of the ecclesiastical law. The best
+definition by older English writers is probably to be found in Clarke's
+_Praxis_ (p. 144): "Si maritus fuerit erga uxorem crudelis et ferax ac
+mortem comminatus et machinatus fuerit, vel eam inhumaniter verbis et
+verberibus tractaverit, et aliquando venenum loco potus paraverit vel
+aliquod simile commiserit, propter quod sine periculo vitae cum marito
+cohabitare aut obsequia conjugalia impendere non audeat ... consimili
+etiam causa competit viro contra mulierem." Lord Stowell, probably the
+greatest master of the civil and canon law who ever sat in an English
+court of justice, has in one of his most famous judgments (_Evans_ v.
+_Evans_, 1790, 1 Hagg. _Consist._ 35) echoed the above language in words
+often quoted, which have constituted the standard exposition of the law
+to the present day. "In the older cases," he said, "of this sort which I
+have had the opportunity of looking into, I have observed that the
+danger of life, limb or health is usually insisted as the ground upon
+which the court has proceeded to a separation. This doctrine has been
+repeatedly applied by the court in the cases which have been cited. The
+court has never been driven off this ground. It has always been jealous
+of the inconvenience of departing from it, and I have heard no one case
+cited in which the court has granted a divorce without proof given of a
+reasonable apprehension of bodily hurt. I say an apprehension, because
+assuredly the court is not to wait till the hurt is actually done; but
+the apprehension must be reasonable: it must not be an apprehension
+arising from an exquisite and diseased sensibility of mind. Petty
+vexations applied to such a constitution of mind may certainly in time
+wear out the animal machine, but still they are not cases of legal
+relief; people must relieve themselves as well as they can by prudent
+resistance, by calling in the succours of religion and the consolation
+of friends; but the aid of courts is not to be resorted to in such cases
+with any effect." The risk of personal danger in cohabitation
+constituted, therefore, the foundation of legal cruelty. But this does
+not exclude such conduct as a course of persistent ill-treatment, though
+not amounting to personal violence, especially if such ill-treatment has
+in fact caused injury to health. But the person complaining must not be
+the author of his or her own wrong. If, accordingly, one of the spouses
+by his or her conduct is really the cause of the conduct complained of,
+recourse to the court would be had in vain, the true remedy lying in a
+reformation of the real cause of the disagreement.
+
+In addition to a denial of the charge or charges, the canon law allowed
+three grounds of answer: (1) _Compensatio criminis_, a setoff of equal
+guilt or recrimination. This principle is no doubt derived from the
+Roman law and it had the effect of refusing to one guilty spouse the
+remedy of divorce against the other although equally guilty. It was
+always accepted in England, although not in other countries, such as
+France and Scotland, which also followed the canon or civil law. In
+strictness, recrimination applied to a similar offence having been
+committed by the party charging that offence. But a decision (1888) of
+the English courts shows that a wife who had committed adultery could
+not bring a suit against her husband for cruelty (_Otway_ v. _Otway_ 13
+P. D. 141). (2) _Condonation._ If the complaining spouse has, in fact,
+forgiven the offence complained of, that constitutes a conditional bar
+to any proceedings. The main and usual evidence of such forgiveness is
+constituted by a renewal of marital intercourse, and it is
+difficult-perhaps impossible-to imagine any case in which such
+intercourse would not be held to establish condonation. But condonation
+may be proved by other acts, or by words, having regard to the
+circumstances of each case. Condonation is, however, always presumed to
+be conditional on future good behaviour, and misconduct even of a
+different kind revives the former offence. (3) _Connivance_ constitutes
+a complete answer to any charge. Nor need the husband be the active
+agent of the misconduct of the wife. Indifference or neglect imputable
+to a corrupt intention are sufficient. It will be seen presently that
+modern statute law has gone further in this direction. It is to be added
+that the connivance need not be of the very act complained of, but may
+be of an act of a similar kind. A learned judge, recalling the classical
+anecdote of Maecenas and Galba, said, "A husband is not permitted to say
+_non omnibus dormio_." The ecclesiastical courts also considered
+themselves bound to refuse relief if there was shown to be _collusion_
+between the parties. In its primary and most general sense collusion was
+understood to be an agreement between the parties for the purpose of
+deceiving the court by false or fictitious evidence; for example, an
+agreement to commit, or appear to commit, an act of adultery. Collusion,
+however, is not limited to the imposing of other than genuine evidence
+on the court. It extends to an agreement to withhold any material
+evidence; and indeed is carried further, and held to extend to any
+agreement which may have the effect of concealing the real and complete
+truth from the court (see _Churchward_ v. _Churchward_, 1894, p. 161).
+This doctrine was of considerable importance even in the days when only
+divorces _a mensa et thoro_ were granted, because at that time the
+parties were not permitted to separate by consent. At the present day it
+has become, with regard to divorce a _vinculo matrimonii_, a rule of
+greater and of more far-reaching importance.
+
+The canon law as accepted in England, while allowing divorces of the
+nature and for the causes above mentioned, actively interfered to
+prevent separation between husband and wife in any other manner. A suit
+known as a suit for restitution of conjugal rights could be brought to
+compel cohabitation; and on evidence of the desertion of either spouse,
+the court ordered a return to the matrimonial home, though it carried no
+further its authority as to the matrimonial relations within the home.
+To this suit an agreement between the parties constituted no answer. But
+an answer was afforded by any conduct which would have supported a
+decree of divorce _a mensa et thoro_. It is a question whether, indeed,
+the ecclesiastical courts would not have gone further, and refused a
+decree of restitution of conjugal rights on grounds which might appear
+adequate to justify such refusal, though not sufficient on which to
+ground a decree of divorce. The view of the court of appeal and the
+House of Lords has given some colour to this opinion, and certainly the
+court of appeal has held, although perhaps somewhat hastily, that the
+effect of a modern statute has been to allow the court to refuse
+restitution of conjugal rights for causes falling short of what would
+constitute ground for divorce (_Russell_ v. _Russell_, 1895, p. 315).
+
+The ecclesiastical courts provided for the pecuniary rights of the wife
+by granting to her alimony during the progress of the suit, and a proper
+allowance after its termination in cases in which she was successful.
+Such payments were dependent on the pecuniary means, or _faculties_, as
+they were termed, of the husband, and were subject to subsequent
+increase or diminution in proper cases. But the ecclesiastical courts
+did not deal with the custody of the children of the marriage, it being
+probably considered that that matter could be determined by the common
+law rights of the father, or by the intervention of the court of
+chancery.
+
+The canon law fixed no period of limitation, either in respect of a suit
+for divorce or for restitution of conjugal rights; but, as regards at
+least suits for divorce, any substantial delay might lead to the
+imputation of acquiescence or even condonation. To that extent, at
+least, the maxim _vigilantibus non dormientibus jura subveniunt_
+applied.
+
+It is remarkable that desertion by either party to a marriage, except as
+giving rise to a suit for restitution, was not treated as an offence by
+canon law in England. It formed no ground for a suit for divorce, and
+constituted no answer to such a suit by way of recrimination. It might
+indeed deprive a husband of his remedy if it amounted to connivance, or
+perhaps even if it amounted only to culpable neglect.
+
+The canon law, as administered in England, has kept clear the logical
+distinction which exists between dissolving a marriage and declaring it
+null and void. The result has been that, in England at least, the two
+proceedings have never been allowed to pass into one another, and a
+complete divorce has not been granted on pretence of a cause really one
+for declaring the marriage void _ab initio_. But for certain causes the
+courts were prepared to declare a marriage null and void on the suit of
+either party. There is, indeed, a distinction to be drawn between a
+marriage void or only voidable, though in both cases it became the
+subject of a similar declaration. It was void in the cases of incapacity
+of the parties to contract it, arising from want of proper age, or
+consanguinity, or from a previous marriage, or from absence of consent,
+a state of things which would arise if the marriage were compelled by
+force or induced by fraud as to the nature of the contract entered into
+or the personality of the parties. It is to be remarked that, in England
+at least, the idea of fraud as connected with the solemnization of
+marriage has been kept within these narrow limits. Fraud of a different
+kind, such as deception as to the property or position of the husband or
+wife, or antecedent impurity of the wife, even if resulting in a
+concealed pregnancy, has not in England (though the last-mentioned cause
+has in other countries) been held a ground for the vitiation of a
+marriage contract. A marriage was voidable, and could be declared void,
+on the ground of physical incapacity of either spouse, the absence of
+intercourse between the parties after a sufficient period of opportunity
+being almost, if not quite, conclusive on this subject.
+
+With regard to one cause of nullity the legislation interfered from
+consideration, it is said, of a case of special hardship. Before the
+Marriage Act of 1835 marriages within the prohibited degrees of
+consanguinity and affinity were only voidable by a decree of the court,
+and remained valid unless challenged during the lifetime of both the
+parties. But this act, while providing that no previous marriage between
+persons within the prohibited degrees should be annulled by a decree of
+the ecclesiastical court pronounced in a suit depending at the time of
+the passing of the act, went on to render all such marriages thereafter
+contracted in England "absolutely null and void to all intents and
+purposes whatever."
+
+Another suit was allowed by the ecclesiastical courts which should be
+mentioned, although its bearing on divorce is indirect. This was the
+suit for _jactitation of marriage_, which in the case of any person
+falsely asserting his or her marriage to another, allowed such person to
+be put to perpetual silence by an order of the court. This suit, which
+has been of rare occurrence (though there was an instance, _Thompson_ v.
+_Rourke_, in 1892), does not appear to have been used for the purpose of
+determining the validity of a marriage. The legislature, has, however,
+in the Legitimacy Declaration Act of 1858, provided a ready means by
+which the validity of marriages and the legitimacy of children can be
+determined, and the procedure provided has repeatedly been utilised.
+
+It should be added, as a matter closely akin to the proceedings in the
+ecclesiastical courts, that the common law took cognizance of one phase
+of matrimonial relations by allowing an action by the husband against a
+paramour, known as an action for criminal conversation. In such an
+action a husband could recover damages estimated according to the loss
+he was supposed to have sustained by the seduction and loss of his wife,
+the punishment of the seducer not being altogether excluded from
+consideration. Although this action was not unfrequently (and indeed,
+for the purposes of a divorce, necessarily) brought, it was one which
+naturally was regarded with disfavour.
+
+_Effect of the Reformation._--Great as was the indirect effect of the
+Reformation upon the law of divorce in England, the direct effect was
+small. It might, indeed, have been supposed that the disappearance of
+the sacramental idea of marriage entertained by the Roman Church would
+have ushered in the greater freedom of divorce which had been associated
+with marriage regarded as a civil contract. And to some extent this was
+the case. It was for some time supposed that the sentences of divorce
+pronounced by the ecclesiastical courts acquired the effect of allowing
+remarriage, and such divorces were in some cases granted. In _Lord
+Northampton's_ case in the reign of Edward VI. the delegates pronounced
+in favour of a second marriage after a divorce _a mensa et thoro_. It
+was, however, finally decided in _Foljambe's_ case, in the 44th year of
+Elizabeth, that a marriage validly contracted could not be dissolved for
+any cause. But the growing sense of the right to a complete divorce for
+adequate cause, when no longer any religious law to the contrary could
+be validly asserted, in time compelled the discovery of a remedy. The
+commission appointed by Henry VIII. and Edward VI. to reform the
+ecclesiastical law drew up the elaborate report known as the
+_Reformatio Legum_, and in this they recommended that divorces _a mensa
+et thoro_ should be abolished, and in their place complete divorce
+allowed for the causes of adultery, desertion and cruelty. These
+proposals, however, never became law. In 1669 a private act of
+parliament was granted in the case of Lord de Roos, and this was
+followed by another in the case of the duke of Norfolk in 1692. Such
+acts were, however, rare until the accession of the House of Hanover,
+only five acts passing before that period. Afterwards their number
+considerably increased. Between 1715 and 1775 there were sixty such
+acts, in the next twenty-five years there were seventy-four, and between
+1800 and 1850 there were ninety. In 1829 alone there were seven, and in
+1830 nine.
+
+The jurisdiction thus assumed by parliament to grant absolute divorces
+was exercised with great care. The case was fully investigated before a
+committee of the House of Lords, and not only was the substance of
+justice so secured, but the House of Lords further required that
+application to parliament should be preceded by a successful suit in the
+ecclesiastical courts resulting in a decree of divorce _a mensa et
+thoro_, and in the case of a husband being the applicant, a successful
+action at common law and the recovery of damages against the paramour.
+In this way, and also, if needful, on its own initiative, the House of
+Lords provided that there should be no connivance or collusion. Care was
+also taken that a proper allowance was secured to the wife in cases in
+which she was not the offending party. This procedure is still pursued
+in the case of Irish divorces.
+
+It is obvious, however, that the necessity for costly proceedings before
+the Houses of Parliament imposed great hardship on the mass of the
+population, and there can be little doubt that this hardship was deeply
+felt. Repeated proposals were made to parliament with a view to reform
+of the law, and more than one commission reported on the subject. It is
+said that the final impetus was given by an address to a prisoner by Mr
+Justice Maule. The prisoner's wife had deserted him with her paramour,
+and he married again during her lifetime. He was indicted for bigamy,
+and convicted, and Mr Justice Maule sentenced him in the following
+words:--"Prisoner at the bar: You have been convicted of the offence of
+bigamy, that is to say, of marrying a woman while you had a wife still
+alive, though it is true she has deserted you and is living in adultery
+with another man. You have, therefore, committed a crime against the
+laws of your country, and you have also acted under a very serious
+misapprehension of the course which you ought to have pursued. You
+should have gone to the ecclesiastical court and there obtained against
+your wife a decree _a mensa et thoro_. You should then have brought an
+action in the courts of common law and recovered, as no doubt you would
+have recovered, damages against your wife's paramour. Armed with these
+decrees, you should have approached the legislature and obtained an act
+of parliament which would have rendered you free and legally competent
+to marry the person whom you have taken on yourself to marry with no
+such sanction. It is quite true that these proceedings would have cost
+you many hundreds of pounds, whereas you probably have not as many
+pence. But the law knows no distinction between rich and poor. The
+sentence of the court upon you, therefore, is that you be imprisoned for
+one day, which period has already been exceeded, as you have been in
+custody since the commencement of the assizes." The grave irony of the
+learned judge was felt to represent truly a state of things well-nigh
+intolerable, and a reform in the law of divorce was felt to be
+inevitable. The hour and the man came in 1857, the man in the person of
+Sir Richard Bethell (afterwards Lord Westbury), then attorney-general.
+
+_The Act of 1857._--Probably few measures have been conceived with such
+consummate skill and knowledge, and few conducted through parliament
+with such dexterity and determination. The leading opponent of the
+measure was Mr Gladstone, backed by the zeal of the High Church party
+and inspired by his own matchless subtlety and resource. But the contest
+proved to be unequal, and after debates in which every line, almost
+every word, of the measure was hotly contested, especially in the House
+of Commons, the measure emerged substantially as it had been
+introduced. Not the least part of the merit and success of the act of
+1857 is due to the skill which, while effecting a great social change,
+did so with the smallest possible amount of innovation. The act (which
+came into operation on the 1st of January 1858) embodied two main
+principles: 1. The constitution of a lay court for the administration of
+all matters connected with divorce. 2. The transfer to that court, with
+as little change as possible, of the powers exercised in matrimonial
+matters by (a) the House of Lords, (b) the ecclesiastical courts, (c)
+the courts of common law.
+
+_The Constitution of the Court._--The new court, termed "The Court for
+Divorce and Matrimonial Causes," was constituted by the lord chancellor,
+the chiefs and the senior puisne judges of the three courts of common
+law, and the judge of the court of probate (which was also established
+in 1857), but the functions of the court were practically entrusted to
+the judge of the court of probate, termed the "Judge Ordinary," who thus
+in matters of probate and divorce became the representative of the
+former ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The judge ordinary was empowered
+either to sit alone or with one or more of the other judges to
+constitute a full court. The parties to a suit obtained the right of
+trial by jury of all disputed questions of fact; and the rules of
+evidence of the common law courts were made to apply. An appeal to the
+full court was given in all matters, which the judge ordinary was
+enabled to hear sitting alone.
+
+1. To this court were transferred all the powers of the ecclesiastical
+courts with regard to suits for divorce _a mensa et thoro_, to which the
+name was given of suits for "judicial separation," nullity, restitution
+of conjugal rights, and jactitation of marriage, and in all such
+proceedings it was expressly enacted (sec. 22) that the court should act
+on principles and rules as nearly as possible conformable to the
+principles and rules of the ecclesiastical courts. Judicial separation
+could be obtained by either husband or wife for adultery, or cruelty, or
+desertion continued for two or more years.
+
+2. There were also transferred to the court powers equivalent to those
+exercised by the legislature in granting absolute divorce. The husband
+could obtain a divorce for adultery, the wife could obtain a divorce for
+adultery coupled with cruelty or desertion for two or more years, and
+also for incestuous or bigamous adultery, or rape, or unnatural
+offences. The same conditions as had been required by the legislature
+were insisted on. A petition for dissolution (sec. 30) was to be
+dismissed in case of connivance, condonation or collusion; and further,
+the court had power, though it was not compelled, to dismiss such
+petition if the petitioner had been guilty of adultery, or if there had
+been unreasonable delay in presenting or prosecuting the petition, or if
+the petitioner had been guilty of cruelty or desertion without
+reasonable excuse, or of wilful neglect or misconduct conducing to the
+adultery. The exercise of these discretionary powers of the court, just
+and valuable as they undoubtedly are, has been attended with some
+difficulty. But the view of the legislature has on the whole been
+understood to be that the adultery of a petitioner should not constitute
+a bar to his or her proceeding, if it has been caused by the misconduct
+of the respondent, and that cruelty should not constitute such a bar
+unless it has caused or contributed to the misconduct of the respondent.
+But the court, while regarding its powers as those of a judicial and not
+an arbitrary discretion, has declined to fetter itself by any fixed rule
+of interpretation or practice.
+
+It is to be observed that this act assigned a new force to desertion.
+The ecclesiastical law regarded it only as suggestive of connivance or
+culpable neglect. But the act of 1857 made it (1) a ground of judicial
+separation if continued for two years, (2) a ground in part of
+dissolution of marriage if continued for the same period, (3) a bar, in
+the discretion of the court, to a petition for dissolution, though it
+was not made in a similar way any bar to a suit for judicial separation.
+It is also to be observed that the act was confined to causes of divorce
+recognized by the ecclesiastical law as administered in England. It did
+not either extend the causes of a suit for nullity by adding such
+grounds as antenuptial incontinence, even if accompanied with
+pregnancy, nor did it borrow from the civil law of Rome either lunacy or
+crime as grounds for divorce.
+
+Much comment has been made on the different grounds on which divorce is
+allowed to a husband and to a wife,--it being necessary to prove
+infidelity in both cases, but a wife being compelled to show either an
+aggravation of that offence or an addition to it. Opinions probably will
+always differ whether the two sexes should be placed on an equality in
+this respect, abstract justice being invoked, and the idea of marriage
+as a mere contract pointing in one direction, and social considerations
+in the other. But the reason of the legislature for making the
+distinction is clear. It is that the wife is entitled to an absolute
+divorce only if her reconciliation with her husband is neither to be
+expected nor desired. This was no doubt the view taken by the House of
+Lords. In 1801 a Mrs Addison claimed an absolute divorce on the ground
+of her husband's incest with her sister. The matter was long debated,
+but Lord Thurlow, who appeared in the House of Lords for the last time
+in order to support the bill, turned the scale by arguing that it was
+improper that the wife should under such circumstances return to her
+husband (see Campbell, _Lives of the Chancellors_, vii. 145). "Why do
+you," he said, "grant to the husband a divorce for the adultery of the
+wife? Because he ought not to forgive her, and separation is inevitable.
+Where the wife cannot forgive, and separation is inevitable by reason of
+the crime of the husband, the wife is entitled to the like remedy."
+
+The act (sec. 32) provided, in case of dissolution, for maintenance of
+the wife by the husband on principles similar to those recognized by the
+ecclesiastical courts, and (sec. 45) for the settlement of the property
+of a guilty wife on her husband or children; but this enactment was
+imperfect, as provision was made only for a settlement and not for
+payment of an allowance, and none was made for altering settlements made
+in view or in consequence of a marriage. The act (sec. 35) provides also
+in all divorce proceedings, and also in those of nullity, for provision
+for the custody, maintenance and education of children by the court:
+provisions of great value, which were unfortunately for some time
+limited by an erroneous view of the court that the age of the children
+to which such provisions applied should be considered limited to
+sixteen. The act of 1857 also transferred to the new court the powers
+exercised by the common law courts in the action for criminal
+conversation. It was made obligatory to join an alleged adulterer in the
+suit, and damages (sec. 33) might be claimed against him, and he might
+be ordered to pay the cost of the proceedings (sec. 34), the extent
+depending upon the circumstances of each case.[1]
+
+The act of 1857 in one respect went beyond a transfer of the powers
+exercised by the ecclesiastical courts or the legislature. It provided
+(sec. 21) that a wife deserted by her husband might apply to a
+magistrate in petty sessions and obtain an order which had the effect of
+protecting her earnings and property, and during the currency of such
+order of protection a wife was to be in the same position as if she had
+obtained an order for judicial separation. The effect of this section
+appears to have been small; but the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women)
+Act 1895 has afforded a cheap and speedy remedy to all classes.
+
+The framers of the act of 1857 were careful to avoid offending the
+scruples of clergymen who disapproved of the complete dissolution of
+marriage by a lay court. It was provided (secs. 57 and 58) that no
+clergyman should be compelled to solemnize the marriage of any person
+whose former marriage had been dissolved on the ground of his or her
+adultery, but should permit any other clergyman to solemnize the
+marriage in any church or chapel in which the parties were entitled to
+be married. It is to be feared that this concession, ample as it
+appears, has not allayed conscientious objections, which are perhaps
+from their nature insuperable. The act made no provision as to the name
+to be borne by a wife after a divorce; and this omission led to
+litigation in the case of a peer's wife, in _Cowley_ v. _Cowley_, in
+which Lady Cowley was allowed to retain her status.
+
+_Modifications of the Act of 1857._--Subsequent legislation has made
+good many of the defects of the act of 1857. In 1859 power was given to
+the court, after a decree of dissolution or of nullity of marriage, to
+inquire into the existence of ante- and post-nuptial settlements, and to
+make orders with respect to the property settled either for the benefit
+of children of the marriage or their parents; and a subsequent act (41 &
+42 Vict. c. 19, s. 3) removed a doubt which was entertained whether
+these powers could be exercised if there were no children of the
+marriage. In 1860 a very important change was made, having for its
+object a practical mode of preventing divorces in cases of connivance
+and collusion or of misconduct of the petitioner. It was provided that a
+claim of dissolution (a provision afterwards extended to decrees of
+nullity) should in the first instance be a decree nisi, which should not
+be made absolute until the expiration of a period then fixed at not less
+than three, but by subsequent legislation enlarged to not less than six,
+months. During the interval which elapsed between the decree nisi and
+such decree being made absolute, power was given to any person to
+intervene in the suit and show cause why the decree should not be made
+absolute, by reason of the same having been obtained by collusion, or by
+reason of material facts not brought before the court; and it was also
+provided that, at any time before the decree was made absolute, the
+queen's proctor, if led to suspect that the parties were acting in
+collusion for the purpose of obtaining a divorce contrary to the justice
+of the case, might under the direction of the attorney-general intervene
+and allege such case of collusion. This enactment (extended in the year
+1873 to suits for nullity) was ill drawn and unskilfully conceived. The
+power given to any person whomsoever to intervene is no doubt too wide,
+and practically has had little or no useful effect as employed by
+friends or enemies of parties to a suit. The limitation in terms of the
+express power of the queen's proctor to intervene in cases of collusion
+was undoubtedly too narrow. But the queen's proctor, or the official by
+whom that officer was afterwards represented, has in practice availed
+himself of the general authority given to any person to show cause why a
+decree _nisi_ should not be made absolute, and has thus been enabled to
+render such important service to the administration of justice that it
+is difficult to imagine the due execution of the law of divorce by a
+court without such assistance. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1866 power
+was given to the court to order an allowance to be paid by a guilty
+husband to a wife on a dissolution of marriage. This act also can hardly
+be considered to have been drawn with sufficient care, inasmuch as while
+it provides that if the husband's means diminish, the allowance may be
+diminished or suspended, it makes no corresponding provision for
+increase of the allowance if the husband's means increase; nor,
+apparently, does it permit of an allowance in addition to, but only in
+substitution for, a settlement. The act makes no provision for allowance
+to a guilty wife, and it certainly is a serious defect that the power to
+grant an allowance does not extend to cases of nullity. In 1868 an
+appeal to the House of Lords was given in cases of decree for
+dissolution or nullity of marriage.
+
+The great changes effected by the Judicature Acts included the court for
+divorce and matrimonial causes. Under their operation a division of the
+high court of justice was constituted, under the designation of the
+probate division and admiralty division, to which was assigned that
+class of legal administration governed mainly by the principles and
+practice of the canon and civil law. The division consists of a
+president, and a justice of the high court, with registrars
+representing each branch of the jurisdiction. Appeals lie to the court
+of appeal, and thence to the House of Lords.
+
+In 1884 the legislature interfered to prevent imprisonment being the
+result of disobedience to an order for restitution of conjugal rights.
+That mode of enforcing the order of the court was abolished, and the
+matter was left to a proper adjustment of the pecuniary relations of the
+husband and wife; and a respondent disobeying such an order was held to
+be guilty of desertion without reasonable cause, such desertion having
+further given to it a similar effect to that assigned to desertion for
+two years or upwards. The effect of this provision has been that the
+suit for restitution of conjugal rights is most frequently brought for
+the purpose of shortening the time within which a wife can obtain a
+decree for dissolution of marriage.
+
+Proceedings in the divorce court have shown the improvement in the law
+of evidence which has been effected with regard to other legal
+proceedings. The act of 1857 made an inroad on the former law, which
+prohibited evidence being given by parties interested in the
+proceedings, by allowing a petitioner (sec. 43) to be called and
+examined by order of the court, absolving such petitioner, however, from
+the necessity of answering any question tending to show that he or she
+had been guilty of adultery. In the next year power was given to the
+court to dismiss any person, with whom a party to the suit was alleged
+to have committed adultery, from the suit if there should not appear to
+be sufficient evidence against him or her, the object being to allow
+such person to give evidence; and in 1859 it was provided that, on a
+petition by a wife for a divorce on the grounds of cruelty or desertion
+with adultery, the husband and wife could be competent and compellable
+witnesses as to the cruelty or desertion. A few years later, however, in
+1869, the subject was finally dealt with by repealing all previous rules
+which limited the powers to give evidence on questions of adultery with
+the safeguard that no witness in any proceeding can be asked or bound to
+answer any question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of
+adultery, unless in the same proceeding such witness shall have given
+evidence in disproof of his or her alleged adultery. It has been held
+that the principles of these enactments apply to interrogatories as well
+as to evidence given in court.
+
+It is a most remarkable omission in the act of 1857, especially when we
+remember the high legal authority from whom it proceeded, that the act
+nowhere defines the class of persons with regard to whom the
+jurisdiction of the court should be exercised. This omission has given
+rise to a misapprehension of the law which, though now set at rest,
+prevailed for a considerable period, and has undoubtedly led to the
+granting of divorce in several cases in which it could not legally be
+given. It was supposed that the court could grant a dissolution of
+marriage to all persons who had anything more than a casual and fleeting
+residence within the jurisdiction of the court; and this view, although
+its correctness was doubted by Lord Penzance, the judge of the divorce
+court, was upheld by a majority of the judges of the court of appeal in
+the case of _Niboyet_ v. _Niboyet_ (4 P. D. 1). It was supposed that
+such residence gave what was termed a matrimonial domicile. But this
+view was undoubtedly erroneous as regards dissolution of marriage,
+although probably correct as regards judicial separation, and the true
+view is no doubt that indicated with great learning and ability by Lord
+Watson in a judgment given by him in the privy council in the case of
+_Le Mesurier_ v. _Le Mesurier_ (1895, App. Cas. 517), that the only true
+test of jurisdiction for a decree of divorce altering the status of the
+parties to a marriage is to be found in the domicile of the
+spouses--that is to say, of the husband, as the domicile of a wife
+follows that of her husband--at the time of the divorce. Domicile means
+a person's permanent home, the place at which he resides with no
+intention of making his home elsewhere, and, if he leaves it, with the
+intention of returning to it.
+
+It is now also clearly recognized as the law of England that the English
+courts will not recognize a divorce purporting to be made by a foreign
+tribunal with regard to persons domiciled in England. For a considerable
+time doubt appears to have clouded the law on this subject. In a famous
+case known as _Lolley's_ case, decided in 1812, the judges of England
+(the point arose in connexion with a criminal charge) unanimously held
+"that no sentence or act of any foreign country or any state could
+dissolve an English marriage _a vinculo matrimonii_ for grounds on which
+it was not liable to be dissolved _a vinculo matrimonii_ in England."
+This case has been frequently understood as deciding that a marriage
+celebrated in England cannot be dissolved elsewhere, and on this point
+the courts of Scotland differ from the view supposed to be taken by the
+English judges. But the matter has been fully explained in one of the
+most masterly of Lord Hannen's judgments (_Harvey_ v. _Fairnie_, 5. P.
+D. 154), afterwards upheld by the House of Lords in 1882 (8 App. Cas.
+43); and it is now clear that while the parties are domiciled in this
+country no decree of any foreign court dissolving their marriage will be
+recognized here, unless it proceed on the grounds on which a divorce may
+be obtained in this country, and even the exception just mentioned
+appears to rest rather on reasoning and principle than on the authority
+of any decided case. This principle received the highest sanction in the
+prosecution of Earl Russell for bigamy before the House of Lords (1901),
+in which it was held that, where a divorce had been refused him in
+England, an American divorce would not relieve a man from the guilt of
+marrying again.
+
+_Summary Proceedings for Separation._--The legislature has sought to
+extend the relief afforded by the courts in matrimonial causes by a
+procedure fairly to be considered within the reach of all classes. In
+1895 an act was passed which re-enacted in an improved form the
+provisions of an act of 1878 of similar effect. By the act of 1895 power
+was given to a married woman whose husband (1) has been guilty of an
+aggravated assault upon her within the Offences against the Person Act
+1861, or (2) convicted on indictment of an assault on her and sentenced
+to pay a fine of more than L5 or to imprisonment for more than two
+months, or (3) shall have deserted her, or (4) been guilty of persistent
+cruelty to her or wilful neglect to maintain her or her infant children,
+and by such cruelty or neglect shall have caused her to leave and live
+apart from him, to apply to a court of summary jurisdiction and to
+obtain an order containing all or any of the following provisions:--(1)
+that the applicant be not forced to cohabit with her husband, (2) that
+the applicant have the custody of any children under sixteen years of
+age, (3) that the husband pay to her an allowance not exceeding L2 a
+week. The act provides that no married woman guilty of adultery should
+be granted relief, but with the very important proviso, altering as it
+does the rule of the common law, that the husband has not conduced or
+connived at, or by wilful neglect or misconduct conduced to, such
+adultery. The provisions of this act[2] have been largely put in force,
+and no doubt to the great advantage of the poorer classes of the
+community. It will be observed that the act is unilateral, and affords
+no relief to a husband against a wife; and the complaint is often heard
+that no misconduct of the wife, except adultery, relieves the husband
+from the necessity of maintaining her and allowing her to share his
+home, unless he can obtain access to the high court.[3]
+
+_Separation Deeds._--Although nothing in the development of the law of
+divorce has tended to give to married persons the right absolutely to
+dissolve their marriage by consent, and, on the contrary, any such
+agreement would be held to be strong evidence of collusion, the view of
+the Church expressed in the ecclesiastical law has been entirely
+departed from as regards agreements for separation. Such agreements were
+embodied in deeds, and usually contained mutual covenants not to sue in
+the ecclesiastical courts for restitution of conjugal rights. The
+ecclesiastical courts, however, wholly disregarded such agreements, and
+considered them as affording no answer to a suit for restitution of
+conjugal rights. For a considerable period the court of chancery refused
+to enforce the covenant in such deeds by restraining the parties from
+proceeding to the ecclesiastical courts. But at last a memorable
+judgment of Lord Westbury (1861) asserted the right (_Hunt_ v. _Hunt_, 4
+De G. F. & J. 221; see also _Marshall_ v. _Marshall_, 5 P. D. 19) of the
+court of chancery to maintain the claim of good faith in this as in
+other cases, and restrained a petitioner from suing in the
+ecclesiastical court contrary to his covenant. Thereafter these deeds
+became common, and no doubt often afford a solution of matrimonial
+difficulties of very great value. When the courts of the country became
+united under the Judicature Acts, it became practicable to set up in the
+divorce division a separation deed in answer to a suit for restitution
+of conjugal rights without the necessity of recourse to any other
+tribunal.
+
+  _Statistics._--The statistics of divorce in England have for some
+  years been regularly published in the volumes of judicial statistics
+  published annually by the Home Office.
+
+  The number of petitions for divorce (including in the term both
+  divorce _a mensa et thoro_ and divorce _a vinculo_) for the years from
+  1858 to 1905 inclusive are as follows:--
+
+    1858       326 | 1874       469 | 1890       644
+    1859       291 | 1875       451 | 1891       632
+    1860       272 | 1876       536 | 1892       629
+    1861       236 | 1877       551 | 1893       645
+    1862       248 | 1878       632 | 1894       652
+    1863       298 | 1879       555 | 1895       683
+    1864       297 | 1880       615 | 1896       772
+    1865       284 | 1881       589 | 1897       781
+    1866       279 | 1882       481 | 1898       750
+    1867       294 | 1883       561 | 1899       727
+    1868       303 | 1884       647 | 1900       698
+    1869       351 | 1885       541 | 1901       848
+    1870       351 | 1886       708 | 1902       987
+    1871       384 | 1887       662 | 1903       914
+    1872       374 | 1888       680 | 1904       822
+    1873       416 | 1889       654 | 1905       844
+
+  It is probably impossible to account for the variations which the
+  above table discloses. It was no doubt natural that the year
+  immediately succeeding the passing of the act which originated
+  facilities for divorces _a vinculo_ should exhibit a larger number of
+  divorces than its successors for a considerable period. But there does
+  not appear to be any adequate cause for the comparative increase which
+  seems to have prevailed in the decade between 1878 and 1888, unless it
+  be found in the increase of marriages which culminated in 1873 and
+  1883, falling after each of those years. The number of marriages again
+  rose high in 1891 and 1892, and this may account for the increased
+  number of divorces in 1896 and the following years. But it may
+  certainly be said with confidence that as compared with the growth of
+  population the number of divorces in England has shown no alarming
+  increase.
+
+  The total number of petitions in matrimonial causes presented by
+  husbands exceed those presented by wives, but in no marked degree.
+  This excess would seem to be due to the fact that the larger number of
+  petitions for dissolution presented by husbands, owing no doubt to the
+  difference in the law affecting the two sexes, is not entirely
+  counterbalanced by the much larger number of petitions for judicial
+  separation presented by wives. The following figures for various years
+  may be taken as typical:--
+
+    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |                                    | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1905 |
+    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    | Petitions for Dissolution--        |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+    |   Presented by husbands            |  353 |  393 |  414 |  401 |  383 |  429 |
+    |   Presented by wives               |  220 |  280 |  269 |  243 |  262 |  323 |
+    | Petitions for Judicial Separation--|      |      |      |      |      |      |
+    |   Presented by husbands            |    4 |    3 |    2 |    4 |    4 |    5 |
+    |   Presented by wives               |  106 |   96 |   96 |  102 |   78 |   87 |
+    | Totals--                           |      |      |      |      |      |      |
+    |   Presented by husbands            |  357 |  396 |  416 |  405 |  387 |  434 |
+    |   Presented by wives               |  326 |  376 |  365 |  345 |  340 |  410 |
+    +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  Speaking generally, it may be said that about 70% of the petitions
+  presented are successful and result in decrees. This percentage has a
+  tendency, however, to rise.
+
+  Attempts have been made to ascertain the classes which supply the
+  petitioners for divorce, but this cannot be done with such certainty
+  as to warrant any but the most general conclusions. It may, however,
+  safely be said that while all classes, professions and occupations are
+  represented, it is certainly not those highest in the scale that are
+  the largest contributors. The principles of the act of 1857 have
+  beyond question been justified by the relief required by and afforded
+  to the general community.
+
+
+OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
+
+We may now turn to the law of divorce as administered in the other
+countries of the modern world. On the main question whether marriage is
+to be considered indissoluble they will be found to range themselves on
+one side or the other according to the influence upon them of the Church
+of Rome and its canon law.
+
+In _Scotland_ it has long been the law that marriage can be dissolved at
+the instance of either party by judicial sentence on the grounds of
+adultery or of desertion, termed non-adherence, and the spouses could in
+such case remarry, except with the paramour,--at all events if the
+paramour was named in the decree (and the name is sometimes omitted for
+that reason). A divorce _a mensa et thoro_ could also be granted for
+cruelty. By the Court of Session Act 1830, the jurisdiction in divorce
+was transferred from a body of commissaries to the court of session.
+
+By the law of _Holland_ complete divorce could be granted by judicial
+sentence on the grounds of adultery or of wilful and malicious
+desertion, to which were added unnatural offences and imprisonment for
+life, and such divorce gave the power of remarriage, except with the
+person with whom adultery was proved to have been committed, but there
+would seem to be a doubt whether this power extended to the guilty party
+(Voet, _De divortiis_, lit. 24, tit. 2). Divorce _a mensa et thoro_
+could be granted on the grounds allowed by the canon law.
+
+The Code of _Prussia_ of 1794 contained elaborate provisions which gave
+great facility of divorce. A complete divorce could be obtained by
+judicial sentence for the following causes:--(1) Adultery or unnatural
+offences; and adultery by a husband formed no bar to his obtaining a
+divorce against his wife for adultery; and even an illicit intimacy,
+from which a presumption of adultery might arise, was held sufficient
+for a divorce. (2) Wilful desertion. (3) Obstinate refusal of the rights
+of marriage, which was considered as equivalent to desertion. (4)
+Incapacity to perform the duties of marriage, even if arising subsequent
+to the marriage; and the same effect was assigned to other incurable
+bodily defects that excited disgust and horror. (5) Lunacy, if after a
+year there was no reasonable hope of recovery. (6) An attempt on the
+life of one spouse by the other, or gross and unlawful attack on the
+honour or personal liberty. (7) Incompatibility of temper and
+quarrelsome disposition, if rising to the height of endangering life or
+health. (8) Opprobrious crime for which either spouse has suffered
+imprisonment, or a knowingly false accusation of such crime by one
+spouse of the other. (9) If either spouse by unlawful transactions
+endangers the life, honour, office or trade of the other, or commences
+an ignominious employment. (10) Change of religion. In addition to these
+causes, marriages, when there were no children, could be dissolved by
+mutual consent if there be no reason to suspect levity, precipitation or
+compulsion; and a judge had also power to dissolve a marriage in cases
+in which a strongly rooted dislike appeared to him to exist. In all
+cases of divorce, but sometimes subject to the necessity of obtaining a
+licence, remarriage was permissible (see Burge, _Commentaries on
+Colonial and Foreign Law_, vol. i. 649).
+
+Before 1876 only a divorce _a vinculo_ could be obtained in some of the
+German states, especially if the petitioner were a Roman Catholic. The
+only relief afforded was a "perpetual separation." By the Personal
+Status Act 1875 perpetual separation orders were abolished and divorce
+decrees allowed in cases where the petitioners would, under the former
+law, have been entitled to a perpetual separation order. However, two
+Drafting Commissions under the act declined to alter the new rule, but
+under pressure from the Roman Catholic party the Reichstag passed a law
+introducing a modified separation order, termed "dissolution of the
+conjugal community" (_Aufhebung der ehelichen Gemeinschaft_). This order
+can be converted into a dissolution of the marriage at the option of
+either party. Under the Civil Code of 1900 a petitioner can obtain a
+divorce or judicial separation on "absolute" or "relative" grounds. In
+the former case if the facts are established the petitioner is entitled
+to the relief prayed for; in the latter case, it is left to judicial
+discretion. The absolute grounds are adultery, bigamy, sodomy, an
+attempt against the petitioner's life or wilful desertion. The relative
+grounds are (a) such grave breach of marital duty or dishonourable or
+immoral conduct as would disturb the marital relation to such an extent
+that the marriage could not reasonably be expected to continue; (b)
+insanity, continued for more than three years during the marriage, and
+of so severe a nature that intellectual community between the parties
+has ceased and is not likely to be re-established. A divorced wife, if
+not exclusively the guilty party, may retain her husband's name; but if
+exclusively guilty, her former husband may compel her to resume her
+maiden name.
+
+By the law of _Denmark_, according to the Code of King Christian the
+Fifth, complete divorce could be obtained for incest; for leprosy,
+whether contracted before or after marriage; for transportation for
+crime or flight from justice, after three years, though not for crime
+itself; and for exile not arising from crime, after seven years.
+
+In _Sweden_ complete divorce is granted by judicial sentence for
+adultery, and in _Russia_ for that cause and also for incompatibility of
+temper (Ayliffe, Par. 49). On the other hand, in _Spain_ marriage is
+indissoluble, and the ecclesiastical courts have retained their
+exclusive cognizance of matrimonial causes. In _Italy_ certain articles
+of the Civil Code deal with separation, voluntary and judicial, but
+divorce is not allowed in any form.
+
+In _France_ the law of divorce has had a chequered history. Before the
+Revolution the Roman canon law prevailed, marriage was considered
+indissoluble, and only divorce _a mensa et thoro_, known as _la
+separation d'habitation_, was permitted; though it would appear that in
+the earliest age of the monarchy divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ was
+allowed. _La separation d'habitation_ was granted at the instance of a
+wife for cruelty by her husband or false accusation of a capital crime,
+or for habitual treatment with contempt before the inmates of the house;
+but a wife could not obtain a separation for adultery by her husband,
+although he had his remedy in case of adultery by his wife. In every
+case the sentence of a judicial tribunal, which took precautions against
+collusion, was necessary. But the Revolution may be said to have swept
+away marriage among the institutions which it overwhelmed, and by the
+law of the 20th of September 1792 so great facility was given for
+divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ as practically to terminate the
+obligations of marriage. A reaction came with the Code Napoleon, yet
+even under that system of law divorce remained comparatively easy.
+Mutual consent, expressed in the manner and continued for a period
+specified by the law, was cause for a divorce (the principle of the
+Roman law being adopted on this point), but such consent could not take
+place unless the husband was twenty-five years of age and the wife
+twenty-one, unless they had been married for two years, nor after twenty
+years of marriage, nor after the wife had completed her forty-fifth
+year; and further, the approval of the parents of both parties was
+required. In case of divorce by consent, the law required that a proper
+agreement should be made for the maintenance of the wife and the custody
+of the children. A husband could obtain a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_
+for adultery, but the wife had no such power unless the husband had
+brought his mistress to the home. Both husband and wife could claim
+divorce on the ground of outrage, or grievous bodily injury, or
+condemnation for an infamous crime. If the divorce was for adultery, the
+erring party could not marry the partner of his or her guilt. A divorce
+_a mensa et thoro_ could be obtained on the same grounds as a divorce _a
+vinculo_, but not by mutual consent; and if the divorce _a mensa et
+thoro_ continued in force for three years, the defendant party could
+claim a divorce _a vinculo_. On the restoration of royalty in 1816
+divorce _a vinculo_ was abolished, and pending suits for divorce _a
+vinculo_ were converted into suits for separation only.
+
+Divorce in France, after the repeal of the provisions respecting it in
+the Code Napoleon in 1816, was re-enacted by a law of the 27th of July
+1884, the provisions of which were simplified by laws of 1886 and 1907.
+But a wide departure was made by these laws from the terms of the Code
+Napoleon. Divorce by consent disappeared, and the following became the
+causes for which divorce was allowed: (1) Adultery by either party to
+the marriage at the suit of the other, without, in the case of adultery
+by the husband, the aggravation of introduction of the concubine into
+the home required by the Code; (2) violence (_exces_) or cruelty
+(_sevices_); (3) _injures graves_; and (4) _peine afflictive et
+infamante_. _Exces_ is defined by Locie as "a generic expression
+comprising all acts tending to compromise the safety of the person,
+without distinction as to their object or motive, premeditation as well
+as furious anger, attempts upon life as well as serious woundings."
+_Sevices_ are acts of ill-treatment less grave in character, which,
+while not endangering life, render existence in common intolerable
+(Kelly's _French Law of Marriage_, p. 122). _Injures graves_, as to
+which the courts have considered themselves entitled to exercise a wide
+discretion, have been defined as acts, writings or words which reflect
+upon the honour or the reputation of the party against whom they are
+directed. The courts have held that retraction at the trial does not
+relieve the party from the consequences of an _injure grave_, and that
+publicity is an aggravating but not a necessary element. A letter from
+one spouse to the other may constitute an _injure_ and the courts have
+further held themselves at liberty to consider letters written after
+divorce proceedings have been commenced. _Injures graves_ have also been
+considered to include material injuries, and among these have been
+classed habitual and groundless refusal of matrimonial rights,
+communication of disease and refusal to consent to a religious ceremony
+of marriage. Habitual but not occasional drunkenness has also been held
+to fall within the definition of an _injure grave_. _Peine afflictive et
+infamante_ signifies a legal punishment involving corporal confinement
+and moral degradation.[4]
+
+In addition to its recognition of full divorce, the French law
+recognizes separation of two kinds, one _separation de biens_ and the
+other _separation de corps_. The effect of _separation de biens_ is
+merely to put an end to the community of goods between the spouses. It
+necessarily follows, but may be decreed independently of _separation de
+corps_. The grounds of _separation de corps_ are the same as those for a
+divorce; and if a _separation de corps_ has existed for three years, it
+may be turned into a divorce upon the application of either party to the
+court.
+
+Until 1893 a wife _separee de corps_ obtained only the capacity
+attaching to a concomitant _separation de biens_; that is to say, she
+recovered the enjoyment and management of her separate property, but
+could not deal with real property, nor take legal proceedings, without
+the sanction of her husband or of the court. But by a law of the 6th of
+February 1893 a wife _separee de corps_ obtains "the full exercise of
+her civil capacity, so that she shall not need to resort to the
+authority of her husband or of the court." In case of reconciliation,
+the wife returns to the limited capacity of a wife _separee de biens_,
+and after the prescribed notification of such change of status it
+becomes binding on third persons.
+
+The provisions of French law with regard to the custody of the children
+of a dissolved marriage, and with regard to property, do not differ
+materially from those prescribed by the English acts. The custody of
+children is given to the party who has obtained the divorce, unless the
+court, on the application of the family, or the _ministere public_,
+consider it better, in the interests of the children, that custody
+should be given to the other party or a third person; but in every case
+the right of both father and mother to supervise the maintenance and
+education of the children, and their liability to contribute to their
+support, are continued.
+
+The law in France as to property on a divorce has been accurately stated
+as follows:--
+
+  "Divorce in France effects a dissolution of the matrimonial regime of
+  property as well as of the marriage itself. The decree appoints a
+  notary, who is charged with the settlement of the pecuniary interests
+  of the parties. By a stereotyped form of procedure the appointment is
+  made invariably for the purpose of liquidating _la communaute ayant
+  existe entre les epoux_, irrespective of whether the regime really was
+  that of community or another. In the case of aliens, therefore,
+  married under the rule of separate property, it is necessary carefully
+  to set this out in the notarial deed of liquidation, in order to
+  defeat the presumption which might be raised by the wording of the
+  decree that a community really did exist. The party against whom the
+  divorce has been pronounced loses the benefit of all settlements made
+  upon him or her by the other party, either by the marriage contract or
+  since the marriage. On the other hand, the party in whose favour the
+  divorce has been pronounced preserves the benefit of all settlements
+  made in his or her favour by the unsuccessful party. If no such
+  settlements were made, or if those made appear inadequate to ensure
+  the subsistence of the successful party, the court may grant him or
+  her permanent alimony out of the property of the other party, not to
+  exceed one-third of the income, and revocable in case it ceases to be
+  necessary" (Kelly, p. 130).
+
+On a divorce both parties are at liberty to remarry. The husband could
+remarry at once; but the wife (art. 296 of the Code) was only allowed to
+remarry after an interval of ten months. By the act of 1907, this
+article was abolished, and the wife allowed to remarry as soon as the
+judgment or decree granting the divorce has been entered, providing 300
+days have elapsed since the first judgment was pronounced. A divorced
+husband may remarry his divorced wife, but if he does so, he cannot be
+again divorced, except on the ground of a sentence to a _peine
+afflictive et infamante_ passed on one of them since their remarriage.
+There is, however, this limitation on the power of remarriage of
+divorced persons, that the party to the marriage against whom the decree
+has been pronounced is not allowed to marry the person with whom his or
+her guilt has been established. Such person, however, has no such rights
+as are recognized in him or her according to English law, and cannot
+take any part in the proceedings. But his or her name is referred to in
+the proceedings only by an initial; and French law goes even further in
+the avoidance of publicity, inasmuch as the publication of divorce
+proceedings in the press is forbidden, under heavy penalties.
+
+By a law of the 6th of February 1893 French jurisprudence, more complete
+at least, and perhaps wiser, than English, dealt with a matter
+previously in controversy, and decided that after a divorce the wife
+shall resume her maiden name, and may not continue to use the name of
+her divorced husband; nor may the husband, for business or other
+purposes, continue to use the name of his wife.
+
+By the law of 1886 the special procedure in divorce previously in force
+under the Code and under the law of 1884 was abolished, and it was
+provided that matrimonial causes should be tried according to the
+ordinary rules of procedure. The action therefore, when brought, follows
+the methods of procedure common to other civil proceedings. But there
+still remain certain necessary preliminaries to an action of divorce. A
+petition must be presented by a petitioner in person to the president of
+the court sitting in chambers, with the object of a reconciliation being
+effected. This is known as the _premiere comparation_. If the petitioner
+still determines to proceed, there follows the _seconde comparation_, on
+which occasion both parties appear before the president. If the
+president fails to effect a reconciliation, he makes an order permitting
+the petitioner to proceed, and deals with the matters necessary to be
+dealt with _pendente lite_, such matters being (1) separate residence,
+(2) alimony, (3) possession of personal effects, (4) custody of
+children. As regards residence, the wife is compelled to adhere during
+the proceedings to the residence assigned to her, but no similar
+restriction is placed on the husband. Alimony _pendente lite_ is in the
+discretion of the court, having regard to the means of the parties, and
+includes a proper provision for costs. As regards the custody of
+children, the Code and the law of 1884 gave it to the husband, unless
+the court otherwise orders, but the law of 1886 leaves the matter wholly
+in the discretion of the court.
+
+There are certain technical rules of evidence on the trial of a divorce
+action. It is a general principle of the French law of evidence that
+documentary evidence is the best evidence, and oral testimony only
+secondary. In divorce cases adultery _flagrante delicto_ can be proved
+by the official certificate of the commissary of police. Letters between
+the husband and wife are admissible in evidence. As to letters between
+the parties and third persons, the law, which has been doubtful, now
+appears to be that the wife may produce only such letters from third
+parties to her husband as have come into her possession accidentally,
+and without any ruse or artifice on her part; but the husband may put in
+evidence any letters written to or by his wife which he has obtained by
+any, short of criminal, means. If the documents put in evidence are not
+sufficient to satisfy the court, there follows an investigation by means
+of witnesses, termed an _enquete_. A schedule of allegations is drawn
+up, and a judge, termed a _juge-commissaire_, is specially appointed to
+conduct the inquiry. Relatives and servants, though not competent
+witnesses in ordinary civil actions, are so in divorce proceedings.
+Cross petitions may be entered; the substantiation of a cross petition,
+however, does not have the effect, in some cases given to it by English
+law, of barring a divorce, but a divorce may be, and often is, granted
+in favour of and against both parties _pour torts reciproques_. When a
+case comes on for trial, it is in the power of the court to order an
+adjournment for a period not exceeding six months, which is termed a
+_temps d'epreuve_, in order to afford an opportunity for reconciliation.
+It is said, however, that this power is seldom exercised. An appeal may
+be brought against a decree of divorce within two months; and a decree
+made on appeal is subject to revision by the court of cassation within
+two months. Both references to the court of appeal and the court of
+cassation operate as a stay of execution. A decree must, by the law of
+1886, be transcribed on the register of marriages within two months from
+its date, and failing this transcription, the decree is void. The
+transcription must be made at the place of celebration of the marriage,
+or, if the parties are married abroad, at the place where the parties
+were last domiciled in France. If the parties, after having married
+abroad, return to France, it has been provided, by a circular of the
+_Procureur de la Republique_ in 1887, that the transcription may be made
+at the place of their actual domicile at the time of action brought, a
+rule which has been held to apply to the divorce of aliens in France.
+The effect of transcription does not relate back to the date of the
+decree.
+
+  Opinions may differ as to the relative merits of the English and
+  French law relating to divorce. But it cannot be denied that the
+  French law presents a singularly complete and well-considered system,
+  and one which, obviously with the English system in view, has
+  endeavoured to graft on it provisions supplementing its omissions, and
+  modifying certain of its terms in accordance with the light afforded
+  by experience and the changed feelings of the modern world. The effect
+  of the laws of 1884 and 1886 in France has been great. The act of 1907
+  dealing with divorce, coupled with that of the 21st of July of the
+  same year dealing with marriage, may also be said to mark an epoch in
+  the laws relating to women. During the five years from 1884 to 1888
+  the courts granted divorces in 21,064 cases, rejecting applications
+  for divorce in 1524. In addition, there were 12,242 applications for
+  judicial separation, of which 10,739 were granted. A distinguished
+  French writer, the author of a work of singular completeness and
+  accuracy on the judicial system of Great Britain has compared these
+  figures with the corresponding result of the English act of 1857. His
+  conclusion is expressed in these words: "On voit qu'en cinq annees nos
+  tribunaux out prononce trois fois plus de divorces que la haute cour
+  d'Angleterre n'en a prononce en trente ans. Je n'insiste pas sur les
+  conclusions morales a tirer de ce rapprochement" (Comte de
+  Franqueville, _Le Systeme judiciaire de la Grande-Bretagne_, ii. p.
+  171). It is, however, practically impossible to compare the number of
+  divorces in France and in England with exact justice, because, as will
+  have been seen above, the causes of divorce in France materially
+  exceed those recognized by English law; and the absence in France of
+  any official performing the functions assigned to the king's proctor
+  in England cannot but have great influence on the number of
+  applications for divorce, as well as on their results.     (ST H.)
+
+
+UNITED STATES
+
+According to American practice, divorce is the termination by proper
+legal authority, sometimes legislatively but usually judicially, of a
+marriage which up to the time of the decree was legal and binding. It is
+to be distinguished from a decree of nullity of marriage, which is
+simply a legal determination that no legal marriage has ever existed
+between the two parties. It is also to be distinguished from a decree of
+separation, which permits or commands the parties to live apart, but
+does not completely and for all purposes sever the marriage tie. The
+matrimonial law of England, as at the time of the declaration of
+independence, forms part of the common law of the United States. But as
+no ecclesiastical courts have ever existed there, the law must be
+considered to have been inoperative. There is no Federal jurisdiction in
+divorce, and it is a question for the law of each separate state; and
+though it is competent to Congress to authorize divorces in the
+Territories, still it appears that this subject like others is usually
+left to the territorial legislature. In the different states, and in
+England, divorces were at first granted by the legislatures, whether
+directly or by granting special authority to the tribunals to deal with
+particular cases. This practice fell into general disrepute, and by the
+constitution of some states such divorces are expressly prohibited.
+
+Upon the subject of divorce in the United States, and, to some extent,
+in foreign countries, a careful investigation was made by the American
+Bureau of Labour, and its report covered the years 1867 to 1886; a
+further report for the period 1887 to 1906 has also been published by
+the Federal Census Bureau. The number of divorces was in 1886 over
+25,000, and in 1906 was over 72,000, about double the number reported
+for that year from all the rest of the Christian world. As divorce
+presupposes a legal marriage, the amount of divorce, or the
+divorce-rate, is best stated as the ratio between the number of divorces
+decreed during a year and the number of subsisting marriages or married
+couples. The usual basis is 100,000 married couples. In 1898-1902 the
+divorce-rate was 200 divorces (400 people) to 100,000 married couples.
+This is equivalent to more than one divorce annually to each 1400
+people. The several states differ in divorce-rate, from South Carolina,
+with no provision for legal divorce, to Montana and Washington, where
+the rate is two and a half times the average for the country. In general
+the rate is about the same in the North as in the South, but greater in
+the Central states than in the East, and in the Western than in the
+Central states; but to this rule the New England states, Louisiana, New
+Mexico and Arizona are exceptions. The New England states have a higher
+rate than their geographical position would lead one to expect, and the
+other three, owing doubtless, in part at least, to the influence of the
+Roman Catholic Church, have a lower rate than the states about them. The
+several state groups had in 1900 the following divorce-rates per
+100,000: South Atlantic, 196; North Atlantic, 200; South Central, 558;
+North Central, 510; Western, 712. The divorce-rate in the United States
+increased rapidly and steadily in forty years from 27 in 1867 to 86 in
+1906. But distinct tendencies are traceable in different regions. In the
+North Atlantic group the rate rose by 58%, in the North Central by 158%,
+in the Western by 223%, in the South Atlantic by 437%, and in the South
+Central by 685%. The great increase in the South was mainly due to the
+spread of divorce among the emancipated negroes. Each state determines
+for itself the causes for which divorce may be granted, and no general
+statement is therefore possible.
+
+The ground pleaded for a divorce is seldom an index to the motives which
+caused the suit to be brought. This is determined by the character of
+the law rather than by the state of mind of the parties; and so far as
+the individuals are concerned, the ground alleged is thus a cloak rather
+than a clue or revelation. Still those causes which have been enacted
+into law by the various state legislatures do indicate the pleas which
+have been endorsed by the social judgment of the respective communities.
+In the United States exclusive of Alaska and the recent insular
+accessions there are forty-nine different jurisdictions in the matter of
+divorce. Six out of every seven allow divorce for desertion, adultery or
+cruelty; and of the 945,625 divorces reported with their causes during
+the twenty years 1887-1906 nearly 78% were granted for some one of these
+three causes, viz. 39% for desertion, 22% for adultery, and 16% for
+cruelty. Probably nearly 9% more were for some combination of these
+causes. Three other grounds for divorce are admitted as legal in many or
+most American states, viz. imprisonment in 39, habitual drunkenness in
+38, and neglect to provide in 22. About 98% of American divorces are
+granted on some one or more of these six grounds. In general the
+legislation on the subject of the causes allowed for divorce is most
+restrictive in the states on the Atlantic coast, from New York to South
+Carolina inclusive, and is least so in the Western states. The slight
+expense of obtaining a divorce in many of the states, and the lack of
+publicity which is given to the suit, are also important reasons for the
+great number of decrees issued. The importance of the former
+consideration is reflected in the fact that the divorce-rate for the
+United States as a whole shows clearly, in its fluctuations, the
+influences of good and bad times. When times are good and the income of
+the working and industrial classes likely to be assured, the
+divorce-rate rises. In periods of industrial depression it falls,
+fluctuating thus in the same way and probably for the same reason that
+the marriage-rate in industrial communities fluctuates. In two-thirds of
+the divorce suits the wife is the plaintiff, and the proportion slightly
+increased in the forty years. In the Northern states the percentage
+issued to wives (1887-1906) was 71, while in the Southern states it was
+only 56. But where both parties desire a decree, and each has a legal
+ground to urge, a jury will usually listen more favourably to a woman's
+suit.
+
+Divorce is probably especially frequent among the native population of
+the United States, and among these probably more common in the city than
+in the country. This statement cannot be established absolutely, since
+statistics afford no means of distinguishing the native from the
+foreign-born applicants. It is, however, the most obvious reason for
+explaining the fact that, while in Europe the city divorce-rate is from
+three to five times as great as that of the surrounding country, the
+difference in the United States between the two regions is very much
+less. In other words, the great number of foreigners in American cities
+probably tends to obscure by a low divorce-rate the high rate of the
+native population. Divorce is certainly more common in the New England
+states than in any others on the Atlantic coast north of Florida, and it
+is not unlikely that wherever the New England families have gone divorce
+is more frequent than elsewhere. For example, it is much more common in
+the northern counties of Ohio settled largely from New England than in
+the southern counties settled largely from the Middle Atlantic states.
+
+There are two statements frequently made regarding divorce in the United
+States which do not find warrant in the statistics on the subject. The
+first is, that the real motive for divorce with one or both parties is
+the desire for marriage to a third person. The second is, that a very
+large proportion of divorces are granted to persons who move from one
+jurisdiction to another in order to avail themselves of lax divorce
+laws. On the first point the American statistics are practically silent,
+since, in issuing a marriage licence to parties one or both of whom have
+been previously divorced, no record is generally made of the fact. In
+Connecticut, however, for a number of years this information was
+required; and, if the statements were trustworthy, the number of persons
+remarrying each year was about one-third the total number of persons
+divorcing, which is probably a rate not widely different from that of
+widows and widowers of the same age. Foreign figures for Switzerland,
+Holland and Berlin indicate that in those regions the proportion of the
+divorced who remarry speedily is about the same as that of widows and
+widowers. What statistical evidence there is on the subject therefore
+tends to discredit this popular opinion. The evidence on the second
+point is more conclusive, and has gone far towards decreasing the demand
+for a constitutional amendment allowing a federal marriage and divorce
+law. About four-fifths of all the divorces granted in the United States
+were issued to parties who were married in the state in which the decree
+of divorce was later made; and when from the remaining one-fifth are
+deducted those in which the parties migrated for other reasons than a
+desire to obtain an easy divorce, the remainder would constitute a very
+small, almost a negligible, fraction of the total number.
+
+It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say how far the frequency of
+divorce in the United States has been or is a social injury; how far it
+has weakened or undermined the ideal of marriage as a lifelong union
+between man and woman. In this respect the question is very like that of
+illegitimacy; and as the most careful students of the latter subject
+agree that almost no trustworthy inference regarding the moral condition
+of a community can be derived from the proportion of illegitimate
+children born, so one may say regarding the prevalence of divorce that
+from this fact almost no inferences are warranted regarding the moral or
+social condition of the population. It is by no means impossible, for
+example, that the spread of divorce among the negro population in the
+South marks a step in advance from the condition of largely unregulated
+and illegal unions characteristic of the race immediately after the war.
+The prevalence of divorce in the United States among the native
+population, in urban communities, among the New England element, in the
+middle classes of society, and among those of the Protestant faith,
+indicates how closely this social phenomenon is interlaced with much
+that is characteristic and valuable in American civilization. In this
+respect, too, the United States perhaps represent the outcome of a
+tendency which has been at work in Europe at least since the
+Reformation. Certainly the divorce-rate is increasing in nearly every
+civilized country. Decrees of nullity of marriage and decrees of
+separation not absolutely terminating the marriage relation are
+relatively far less prevalent than they were in the medieval and early
+modern period, and many persons who under former conditions would have
+obtained relief from unsatisfactory unions through one or the other of
+these avenues now resort to divorce. The increasing proportion of the
+community who have an income sufficient to pay the requisite legal fees
+is also a factor of great importance. The belief in the family as an
+institution ordained of God, decreed to continue "till death us do
+part," and in its relations typifying and perpetuating many holy
+religious ideas, probably became weakened in the United States during
+the 19th century, along with a weakening of other religious conceptions;
+and it is yet to be determined whether a substitute for these ideas can
+be developed under the guidance of the motive of social utility or
+individual desire. In this respect the United States is, as Mr Gladstone
+once wrote, a _tribus praerogativa_, but one who knows anything of the
+family and home life of America will not readily despond of the outcome.
+
+  The great source of American statistical information is the
+  governmental report of over 1000 pages, _A Report on Marriage and
+  Divorce in the United States 1867 to 1886, including an Appendix
+  relating to Marriage and Divorce in Certain Countries of Europe_, by
+  Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labour; together with the further
+  report for 1887 to 1906. The statistics contained in the former volume
+  have been analysed and interpreted in W. F. Willcox's _The Divorce
+  Problem: A Study in Statistics_ (Columbia University, New York, 1891,
+  1897). Further interpretations are contained in an article in the
+  _Political Science Quarterly_ for March 1893, entitled "A Study in
+  Vital Statistics." The best legal treatise is probably Bishop on
+  _Marriage, Divorce, and Judicial Separation_. See also J. P.
+  Lichtenberger, _Divorce: A Study in Social Causation_ (New York,
+  1909).     (W. F. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] In _Constantinidi_ v. _Constantinidi and Lance_ (1903), in which
+    both parties were guilty of misconduct, it was held by Sir Francis
+    Jeune (Lord St Helier) that where a wife has by her misconduct broken
+    up the home (the husband's misconduct not having conduced to the
+    wife's adultery) the court would exercise its discretion in favour of
+    the husband petitioner, and, further, the wife being a rich woman, it
+    was justifiable to give her husband a portion of her income, in order
+    to preserve to him the position he would have occupied as her
+    husband, the broad principle being that a guilty respondent should
+    not be allowed to profit by divorce. But further litigation
+    concerning this case occurred as to the variation of the marriage
+    settlements in favour of the husband, and the decision of the court
+    of appeal in July 1905 considerably modified the decision of Sir
+    Francis Jeune.--Ed. _E. B._
+
+  [2] It is to be noted that by a decision of the court of appeal in
+    _Harriman_ v. _Harriman_ in 1909, where a wife has been deserted by
+    her husband and has obtained a separation order within two years from
+    the time when the desertion commenced, she loses her right to plead
+    desertion under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, and is therefore not
+    entitled to a divorce after two years' desertion, upon proof of
+    adultery. See also _Dodd_ v. _Dodd_, 1906, 22 T. L. R. 484.
+
+  [3] In 1909 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the law
+    of divorce, with special reference to the position of the poorer
+    classes.
+
+  [4] It is interesting to observe how, according to the latest
+    decisions of the House of Lords, cruelty, according to English law,
+    includes some but not others of the forms of injury for which, under
+    the term of _injures graves_, the French law affords a remedy. It may
+    well be doubted whether the view taken by the minority of the peers
+    in _Russell_ v. _Russell_, which would have included in the
+    definition of cruelty all, or nearly all, of that which the French
+    law deems either _sevices_ or _injures graves_, would not have better
+    satisfied both the principles of English jurisprudence and the
+    feelings of modern life.
+
+
+
+
+DIWANIEH, a small town in Turkish Asia, about 40 m. below Hillah, on
+both banks of the Euphrates (31 deg. 58' 47" N., 44 deg. 58' 18" E.),
+which is here spanned by a floating bridge. Formerly a military post for
+the control of the Affech territory, and a telegraph station, it was in
+1893 made the capital of the sanjak, instead of Hillah, on account of
+its more strategical position. This transfer of the seat of government
+represented a step in the development of Turkish control over the
+central regions of Irak.
+
+
+
+
+DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE (1802-1887), American philanthropist, was born at
+Hampden, Maine, on the 4th of April 1802. Her parents were poor and
+shiftless, and at an early age she was taken into the home in Boston of
+her grandmother, Dorothea Lynde, wife of Dr Elijah Dix. Here she was
+reared in a distinctly Puritanical atmosphere. About 1821 she opened a
+school in Boston, which was patronized by the well-to-do families; and
+soon afterwards she also began teaching poor and neglected children at
+home. But her health broke down, and from 1824 to 1830 she was chiefly
+occupied with the writing of books of devotion and stories for children.
+Her _Conversations on Common Things_ (1824) had reached its sixtieth
+edition by 1869. In 1831 she established in Boston a model school for
+girls, and conducted this successfully until 1836, when her health
+again failed. In 1841 she became interested in the condition of gaols
+and almshouses, and spent two years in visiting every such institution
+in Massachusetts, investigating especially the treatment of the pauper
+insane. Her memorial to the state legislature dealing with the abuses
+she discovered resulted in more adequate provision being made for the
+care and treatment of the insane, and she then extended her work into
+many other states. By 1847 she had travelled from Nova Scotia to the
+Gulf of Mexico, and had visited 18 state penitentiaries, 300 county
+gaols and houses of correction, and over 500 almshouses. Her labours
+resulted in the establishment of insane asylums in twenty states and in
+Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and in the founding of many additional
+gaols and almshouses conducted on a reformed plan. In 1853 she secured
+more adequate equipment for the life-saving service on Sable Island,
+then rightly called "the graveyard of ships." In 1854 she secured the
+passage by Congress of a bill granting to the states 12,250,000 acres of
+public lands, to be utilized for the benefit of the insane, deaf, dumb
+and blind; but the measure was vetoed by President Pierce. After this
+disappointment she went to England for rest, but at once became
+interested in the condition of the insane in Scotland, and her report to
+the home secretary opened the way for sweeping reforms. She extended her
+work into the Channel Islands, and then to France, Italy, Austria,
+Greece, Turkey, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and a
+part of Germany. Her influence over Arinori Mori, the Japanese _charge
+d'affaires_ at Washington, led eventually to the establishment of two
+asylums for the insane in Japan. At the outbreak of the Civil War she
+offered her services to the Federal government and was appointed
+superintendent of women nurses. In this capacity she served throughout
+the war, without a day's furlough; and her labours on behalf of
+defectives were continued after the war. After a lingering illness of
+six years she died at Trenton, New Jersey, on the 17th of July 1887.
+
+  See Francis Tiffany, _Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix_ (Boston, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+DIX, JOHN ADAMS (1798-1879), American soldier and political leader, was
+born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the 24th of July 1798. He studied at
+Phillips Exeter Academy in 1810-1811 and at the College of Montreal in
+1811-1812, and as a boy took part in the War of 1812, becoming a second
+lieutenant in March 1814. In July 1828, having attained the rank of
+captain, he resigned from the army, and for two years practised law at
+Cooperstown, New York. In 1830-1833 he was adjutant-general of New York.
+He soon became prominent as one of the leaders of the Democratic party
+in the state, and for many years was a member of the so-called "Albany
+Regency," a group of Democrats who between about 1820 and 1850 exercised
+a virtual control over their party in New York, dictating nominations
+and appointments and distributing patronage. From 1833 to 1839 he was
+secretary of state and superintendent of schools in New York, and in
+this capacity made valuable reports concerning the public schools of the
+state, and a report (1836) which led to the publication of the _Natural
+History of the State of New York_ (1842-1866). In 1842 he was a member
+of the New York assembly. In 1841-1843 he was editor of _The Northern
+Light_, a literary and scientific journal published in Albany. From 1845
+to 1849 he was a United States senator from New York; and as chairman of
+the committee on commerce was author of the warehouse bill passed by
+Congress in 1846 to relieve merchants from immediate payment of duties
+on imported goods. In 1848 he was nominated for governor of New York by
+the Free Soil party, but was defeated by Hamilton Fish. His acceptance
+of the nomination, however, earned him the enmity of the southern
+Democrats, who prevented his appointment by Pierce as secretary of state
+and as minister to France in 1853. In this year Dix was for a few weeks
+assistant U.S. treasurer in New York city. In May 1860 he became
+postmaster of New York city, and from January until March 1861 he was
+secretary of the treasury of the United States, in which capacity he
+issued (January 29, 1861) to a revenue officer at New Orleans a famous
+order containing the words, "if any one attempts to haul down the
+American flag, shoot him on the spot." He rendered important services
+in hurrying forward troops in 1861, was appointed major-general of
+volunteers in June 1861, and during the Civil War commanded successively
+the department of Maryland (July 1861-May 1862), Fortress Monroe (May
+1862-July 1863), and the department of the East (July 1863-July 1865).
+He was minister to France from 1866 to 1869, and in 1872 was elected by
+the Republicans governor of New York, but was defeated two years later.
+He had great energy and administrative ability, was for a time president
+of the Chicago & Rock Island and of the Mississippi & Missouri railways,
+first president of the Union Pacific in 1863-1868, and for a short time
+in 1872 president of the Erie. He died in New York city on the 21st of
+April 1879. Among his publications are _A Winter in Madeira and a Summer
+in Spain and Florence_ (1850), and _Speeches and Occasional Addresses_
+(1864). He wrote excellent English versions of the _Dies irae_ and the
+_Stabat mater_.
+
+His son, MORGAN DIX (1827-1908), graduated at Columbia in 1848 and at
+the General Theological Seminary in 1852, and was ordained deacon (1852)
+and priest (1853) in the Protestant Episcopalian church. In 1855-1859 he
+was assistant minister, and in 1859-1862 assistant rector, of Trinity
+Church, New York city, of which he was rector from 1862 until his death.
+He published sermons and lectures; _A History of the Parish of Trinity
+Church, New York City_ (4 vols., 1898-1905); and a biography of his
+father. _Memoirs of John Adams Dix_ (2 vols., New York, 1883).
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, GEORGE (1755?-1800), English navigator. He served under Captain
+Cook in his third expedition, during which he had an opportunity of
+learning the commercial capabilities of the north-west coast of North
+America. After his return from Cook's expedition he became a captain in
+the royal navy. In the autumn of 1785 he sailed in the "Queen
+Charlotte," in the service of the King George's Sound Company of London,
+to explore the shores of the present British Columbia, with the special
+object of developing the fur trade. His chief discoveries were those of
+Queen Charlotte's Islands and Sound (the latter only partial), Port
+Mulgrave, Norfolk Bay, and Dixon's Entrance and Archipelago. After
+visiting China, where he disposed of his cargo, he returned to England
+(1788), and published (1799) _A Voyage round the World, but more
+particularly to the North-West Coast of America_, the bulk of which
+consists of descriptive letters by William Beresford, his supercargo.
+His own contribution to the work included valuable charts and
+appendices. He is usually, though not with absolute certainty,
+identified with the George Dixon who was author of _The Navigator's
+Assistant_ (1791) and teacher of navigation at Gosport.
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, HENRY HALL (1822-1870), English sporting writer over the _nom de
+plume_ "The Druid," was born at Warwick Bridge, Cumberland, on the 16th
+of May 1822, and was educated at Rugby and at Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he graduated in 1846. He took up the profession of the
+law, but, though called to the bar in 1853, soon returned to sporting
+journalism, in which he had already made a name for himself, and began
+to write regularly for the _Sporting Magazine_, in the pages of which
+appeared three of his novels, _Post and Paddock_ (1856), _Silk and
+Scarlet_ (1859), and _Scott and Sebright_ (1862). He also published a
+legal compendium entitled _The Law of the Farm_ (1858), which ran
+through several editions. His other more important works were _Field and
+Fern_ (1865), giving an account of the herds and flocks of Scotland, and
+_Saddle and Sirloin_ (1870), treating in the same manner those of
+England. He died at Kensington on the 16th of March 1870.
+
+  See Hon. Francis Lawley, _Life and Times of "The Druid"_ (London,
+  1895).
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, RICHARD WATSON (1833-1900), English poet and divine, son of Dr
+James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister, was born on the 5th of May 1833. He
+was educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, and on proceeding to
+Pembroke College, Oxford, became one of the famous "Birmingham group"
+there who shared with William Morris and Burne-Jones in the
+Pre-Raphaelite movement. He took only a second class in moderations in
+1854, and a third in _Literae Humaniores_ in 1856; but in 1858 he won
+the Arnold prize for an historical essay, and in 1863 the English Sacred
+Poem prize. He was ordained in 1858, was second master of Carlisle high
+school, 1863-1868, and successively vicar of Hayton, Cumberland, and
+Warkworth, Northumberland. He became minor canon and honorary librarian
+of Carlisle in 1868, and honorary canon in 1874, he was proctor in
+convocation (1890-1894), and received the honorary degree of D.D. from
+Oxford in 1899. He died at Warkworth on the 23rd of January 1900. Canon
+Dixon's first two volumes of verse, _Christ's Company_ and _Historical
+Odes_, were published in 1861 and 1863 respectively; but it was not
+until 1883 that he attracted conspicuous notice with _Mano_, an
+historical poem in _terza rima_, which was enthusiastically praised by
+Mr Swinburne. This success he followed up by three privately printed
+volumes. _Odes and Eclogues_ (1884), _Lyrical Poems_ (1886), and _The
+Story of Eudocia_ (1888). Dixon's poems were during the last fifteen
+years of his life recognized as scholarly and refined exercises, touched
+with both dignity and a certain severe beauty, but he never attained any
+general popularity as a poet, the appeal of his poetry being directly to
+the scholar. A great student of history, his studies in that direction
+colour much of his poetry. The romantic atmosphere is remarkably
+preserved in _Mano_, a successful metrical exercise in the difficult
+_terza rima_. His typical poems have charm and melody, without
+introducing any new note or variety of rhythm. He is contemplative,
+sober and finished in literary workmanship, a typical example of the
+Oxford school. Pleasant as his poetry is, however, he will probably be
+longest remembered by the work to which he gave the best years of his
+life, his _History of the Church of England from the Abolition of the
+Roman Jurisdiction_ (1878-1902). At the time of his death he had
+completed six volumes, two of which were published posthumously. This
+fine work, covering the period from 1529 to 1570, is built upon
+elaborate research, and presents a trustworthy and unprejudiced survey
+of its subject.
+
+  Dixon's _Selected Poems_ were published in 1909 with a memoir of the
+  author by Robert Bridges.
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (1821-1879), English author and traveller, was
+born at Great Ancoats, Manchester, on the 30th of June 1821, a member of
+an old Lancashire family. Beginning life as a clerk at Manchester, he
+decided, in 1846, to take up literature as a career. After gaining some
+journalistic experience at Cheltenham he settled in London, on the
+recommendation of Douglas Jerrold, and contributed to the _Athenaeum_
+and _Daily News_. His series of papers--"The Literature of the Lower
+Orders"--in the last-named journal, and a further series, "London
+Prisons," were widely noticed. In 1849 appeared his _John Howard and the
+Prison World of Europe_, which proved a great popular success. These
+were followed by a _Life of William Penn_ (1851), in which he replied to
+Macaulay's attack on Penn; _Life of Blake_ (1852); and _Personal History
+of Lord Bacon_ (1861), supplemented by _The Story of Lord Bacon's Life_
+(1862). From 1853 to 1869 he was editor of the _Athenaeum_. In 1863 he
+visited the East, and on his return helped to found the Palestine
+Exploration Fund, and published (1865) _The Holy Land_. In 1866 he
+travelled through the United States, publishing, in 1867, _New America_,
+and, the following year, _Spiritual Wives_, two supplementary volumes.
+In the autumn of 1867 he journeyed through the Baltic Provinces,
+publishing an account of his trip in _Free Russia_ (1870). In 1871 he
+was in Switzerland, and in 1872 in Spain, where he wrote the greater
+part of his _History of Two Queens_. In 1874 he revisited the United
+States, giving the impressions of his tour in _The White Conquest_
+(1875). His other works, besides some fiction, were _British Cyprus_
+(1879) and _Royal Windsor_. He died on the 26th of December 1879. His
+daughter, Ella N. Hepworth Dixon, became known as a journalist and
+novelist.
+
+
+
+
+DIXON, a city and the county seat of Lee county, Illinois, U.S.A., on
+the Rock river, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 5161; (1900)
+7917 (879 foreign-born); (1910) 7216. It is served by the Chicago &
+North-Western and the Illinois Central railways, and is connected with
+Sterling by an electric line; freight is shipped over the Hennepin
+Canal. The city has two parks of 159 and 6 acres respectively, and
+there is a Chautauqua Park, where an annual Chautauqua Assembly is held.
+Dixon is the seat of the Northern Illinois normal school (incorporated
+in 1884), and of the Rock River military academy. The river furnishes
+water power for the street railways, electric lighting and a number of
+manufacturing establishments. Among the manufactures are condensed milk,
+boxes, wire screens and wire cloth, lawn mowers, gas engines, cement,
+agricultural implements, shoes and wagons. The place was laid out in
+1835 by John Dixon (1784-1876), the first white settler of Lee county. A
+bronze tablet in the Howells Building, at the intersection of First and
+Peoria Streets, marks the site of his cabin, and in the city cemetery a
+granite shaft has been erected to his memory. Dixon was chartered as a
+city in 1859.
+
+
+
+
+DIZFUL, or DIZ-PUL ("fort-bridge"), a town of Persia, in the province of
+Arabistan, 36 m. N.W. of Shushter, in 32 deg. 25' N., 48 deg. 28' E.
+Pop. about 25,000. It has post and telegraph offices. It is situated on
+the left bank of the Dizful river, a tributary of the Karun, crossed by
+a fine bridge of twenty-two arches, 430 yds. in length, constructed on
+ancient foundations. Dizful is the chief place of a small district of
+the same name and the residence of the governor of Arabistan during the
+winter months. The district has twelve villages and a population of
+about 35,000 (5000 Arabs of the Ali i Keth[=i]r tribe), and pays a
+yearly tribute of about L6000. The city was formerly known as Andamish,
+and in its vicinity are many remains of ancient canals and buildings
+which afford conclusive proof of former importance. 16 m. S.W. are the
+ruins of Susa, and east of them and half-way between Dizful and Shushter
+stood the old city of Junday Shapur.
+
+
+
+
+DJAKOVO (sometimes written _Djakovar_, Hungarian _Diakovar_), a city of
+Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; in the county of Virovitica, 100 m. E. by S.
+of Agram. Pop. (1900) 6824. Djakovo is a Roman Catholic episcopal see,
+whose occupant bears the title "Bishop of Bosnia, Slavonia and Sirmium."
+During the life of Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) it was one of the
+chief centres of religious and political activity among the Croats. The
+cathedral, a vast basilica built of brick and white stone, with a
+central dome and two lofty spires above the north entrance, was founded
+in 1866 and consecrated in 1882. Its style is Romanesque, chosen by
+Strossmayer as symbolical of the position of his country midway between
+east and west. The interior is magnificently decorated with mosaics,
+mural paintings and statuary, chiefly the work of local artists. Other
+noteworthy buildings are the nunnery, ecclesiastical seminary and
+episcopal palace. Djakovo has a thriving trade in agricultural produce.
+Many Roman remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood, but the
+earliest mention of the city is in 1244, when Bela IV. of Hungary
+confirmed the title-deeds of its owners, the bishops of Bosnia.
+
+  For a full description of the cathedral, in Serbo-Croatian and French,
+  see the finely illustrated folio _Stolna Crkva u Djakovu_, published
+  by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+DLUGOSZ, JAN [JOHANNES LONGINUS] (1415-1480), Polish statesman and
+historian, was the son of Jan Dlugosz, burgrave of Bozeznica. Born in
+1415, he graduated at the university of Cracow and in 1431 entered the
+service of Bishop Zbygniew Olesnicki (1389-1455), the statesman and
+diplomatist. He speedily won the favour of his master, who induced him
+to take orders and made him his secretary. His preferment was rapid. In
+1436 we find him one of the canons of Cracow and the administrator of
+Olesnicki's vast estates. In 1440, on returning from Hungary, whither
+his master had escorted King Wladislaus II., Dlugosz saved the life of
+Olesnicki from robbers. The prelate now employed Dlugosz on the most
+delicate and important political missions. Dlugosz brought Olesnicki the
+red hat from Rome in 1449, and shortly afterwards was despatched to
+Hungary to mediate between Hunyadi and the Bohemian condottiere Giszkra,
+a difficult mission which he most successfully accomplished. Both these
+embassies were undertaken contrary to the wishes of King Casimir IV.,
+who was altogether opposed to Olesnicki's ecclesiastical policy. But
+though he thus sacrificed his own prospects to the cardinal's good
+pleasure, Dlugosz was far too sagacious to approve of the provocative
+attitude of Olesnicki, and frequently and fearlessly remonstrated with
+him on his conduct. In his account, however, of the quarrel between
+Casimir and Olesnicki concerning the question of priority between the
+cardinal and the primate of Poland he warmly embraced the cause of the
+former, and even pronounced Casimir worthy of dethronement. Such
+outbursts against Casimir IV. are not infrequent in Dlugosz's _Historia
+Polonica_, and his strong personal bias must certainly be taken into
+consideration in any critical estimate of that famous work. Yet as a
+high-minded patriot Dlugosz had no sympathy whatever with Olesnicki's
+opposition to Casimir's Prussian policy, and steadily supported the king
+during the whole course of the war with the Teutonic knights. When
+Olesnicki died in 1455 he left Dlugosz his principal executor. The
+office of administering the cardinal's estate was a very ungrateful one,
+for the family resented the liberal benefactions of their kinsman to the
+Church and the university, and accused Dlugosz of exercising undue
+influence, from which charge he triumphantly vindicated himself. It was
+in the year of his patron's death that he began to write his _Historia
+Polonica_. This great book, the first and still one of the best
+historical works on Poland in the modern sense of the word, was only
+undertaken after mature consideration and an exhaustive study of all the
+original sources then available, some of which are now lost. The
+principal archives of Poland and Hungary were ransacked for the purpose,
+and in his account of his own times Dlugosz's intimate acquaintance with
+the leading scholars and statesmen of his day stood him in good stead.
+The style is modelled on that of Livy, of whom Dlugosz was a warm
+admirer. As a proof of the thoroughness and conscientiousness of Dlugosz
+it may be mentioned that he learned the Cyrillic alphabet and took up
+the study of Ruthenian, "in order that this our history may be as plain
+and perfect as possible." The first of the numerous imprints of the
+_Historia Polonica_ appeared in 1614, the first complete edition in
+1711.
+
+Dlugosz's literary labours did not interfere with his political
+activity. In 1467 the generous and discerning Casimir IV. entrusted
+Dlugosz with the education of his sons, the eldest of whom, Wladislaus,
+at the urgent request of the king, he accompanied to Prague when in 1471
+the young prince was elected king of Bohemia. Dlugosz refused the
+archbishopric of Prague because of his strong dislike of the land of the
+Hussites; but seven years later he accepted the archbishopric of
+Lemberg. His last years were devoted to his history, which he completed
+in 1479. He died on the 19th of May 1480, at Piatek.
+
+  See Aleksander Semkowicz, _Critical Considerations of the Polish Works
+  of Dlugosz_ (Pol.; Cracow, 1874); Michael Bobrzynski and Stanislaw
+  Smolka, _Life of Dlugosz and his Position in Literature_ (Pol.;
+  Cracow, 1893).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH (1760-1837), Russian statesman and poet, was
+born at his father's estate in the government of Simbirsk. In
+consequence of the revolt of Pugachev the family had to flee to St
+Petersburg, and there Ivan was entered at the school of the Semenov
+Guards, and afterwards obtained a post in the military service. On the
+accession of Paul to the imperial throne he quitted the army with the
+title of colonel; and his appointment as procurator for the senate was
+soon after renounced for the position of privy councillor. During the
+four years from 1810 to 1814 he served as minister of justice under the
+emperor Alexander; but at the close of this period he retired into
+private life, and though he lived more than twenty years, he never again
+took office, but occupied himself with his literary labours and the
+collection of books and works of art. In the matter of language he sided
+with Karamsin, and did good service by his own pen against the Old
+Slavonic party. His poems include songs, odes, satires, tales, epistles,
+&c., as well as the fables--partly original and partly translated from
+Fontaine, Florian and Arnault--on which his fame chiefly rests. Several
+of his lyrics have become thoroughly popular from the readiness with
+which they can be sung; and a short dramatico-epic poem on Yermak, the
+Cossack conqueror of Siberia, is well known.
+
+  His writings occupy three volumes in the first five editions; in the
+  6th (St Petersburg, 1823) there are only two. His memoirs, to which he
+  devoted the last years of his life, were published at Moscow in 1866.
+
+
+
+
+DNIEPER, one of the most important rivers of Europe (the _Borysthenes_
+of the Greeks, _Danapris_ of the Romans, _Uzi_ or _Uzu_ of the Turks,
+Eksi of the Tatars, _Elice_ of Visconti's map (1381), _Lerene_ of
+Contarini (1437), _Luosen_ of Baptista of Genoa (1514), and _Lussem_ in
+the same century). It belongs entirely to Russia, and rises in the
+government of Smolensk, in a swampy district (alt. 930 ft.) at the foot
+of the Valdai Hills, not far from the sources of the Volga and the
+Dvina, in 55 deg. 52' N. and 33 deg. 41' E. Its length is about 1410 m.
+and it drains an area of 202,140 sq. m. In the first part of its course,
+which may be said to end at Dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating
+country of Carboniferous formation; in the second it passes west to
+Orsha, south through the fertile plain of Chernigov and Kiev, and then
+south-east across the rocky steppe of the Ukraine to Ekaterinoslav.
+About 45 m. S. of this town it has to force its way across the same
+granitic offshoot of the Carpathian mountains which interrupts the
+course of the Dniester and the Bug, and for a distance of about 25 m.
+rapid succeeds rapid. The fall of the river in that distance is 155 ft.
+The Dnieper, having got clear of the rocks, continues south-west through
+the grassy plains of Kherson and Taurida, and enters the Black Sea, or
+rather a _liman_ or bay of the Black Sea, by a considerable estuary in
+46 deg. 30' N. and 32 deg. 20' E. On this ramifying _liman_, into which
+the Bug also pours its waters, stand Nikolaiev and the fortified town of
+Ochakov. Navigation extends as far up as Dorogobuzh, where the depth is
+about 12 ft., and rafts are floated down from the higher reaches. The
+banks are generally high, more particularly the left bank. About the
+town of Smolensk the breadth is 455 ft., at the confluence of the Pripet
+1400, and in some parts of the Ekaterinoslav district more than 1-1/4 m.
+In the course above the rapids the channel varies very greatly in nature
+and depth, and it is not infrequently interrupted by shallows. The
+rapids, or _porogs_, form a serious obstacle to navigation; it is only
+for a few weeks when the river is in flood that they are passable, and
+even then the venture is not without risk and can only be undertaken
+with the assistance of special pilots. It is from these falls that the
+Cossacks of the Ukraine came to be known as Zaporogian Cossacks. As
+early as 1732 an attempt was made to improve the channel. A canal, which
+ultimately proved too small for use, was constructed at Nenasitets in
+1780 at private expense; blastings were carried out in 1798 and 1799 at
+various parts; in 1805 a canal was formed at Kaindatski, and the channel
+straightened at Sursk; by 1807 a new canal was completed at Nenasitets;
+in 1833 a passage was cleared through the Staro-kaindatski porog; and in
+the period 1843 to 1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. The result
+has been not only to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural
+channel, but also to furnish a series of artificial canals by which
+vessels can make their way when the river is low. Of the tributaries of
+the Dnieper the following are navigable,--the Berezina and the Pripet
+from the right, and the Sozh and the Desna from the left. By means of
+the Dnieper-Bug (King's) canal, and the Berezina and Oginski canals,
+this river has a sort of water connexion with the Baltic Sea. In the
+estuary the fisheries give employment to large numbers of people. At
+Kiev the river is free from ice on an average of 234 days in the year,
+at Ekaterinoslav 270 and at Kherson 277.     (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
+
+
+
+
+DNIESTER (_Tyras_ and _Danaster_ or _Danastris_ of classical authors,
+_Nistrul_ of the Rumanians, and _Turla_ of the Turks), a river of
+south-eastern Europe belonging to the basin of the Black Sea. It rises
+on the northern slope of the Carpathian mountains in Austrian Galicia,
+and belongs for the first 350 m. of its course to Austrian, for the
+remaining 515 m. to Russian, territory. It drains an area of 29,670 sq.
+m., of which 16,500 sq. m. belong to Russia. It is excessively
+meandering, and the current in most parts even during low water is
+decidedly rapid as compared with Russian rivers generally, the mean rate
+being calculated at 1-7/11 m. per hour. The average width of the channel
+is from 500 to 750 ft., but in some places it attains as much as 1400
+ft.; the depth is various and changeable. The principal interruption in
+the navigable portion of the river, besides a sprinkling of rocks in the
+bed and the somewhat extensive shallows, is occasioned by a granitic
+spur from the Carpathians, which gives rise to the Yampol Rapids. For
+ordinary river craft the passage of these rapids is rendered possible,
+but not free from danger, by a natural channel on the left side, and by
+a larger and deeper artificial channel on the right; for steamboats they
+form an insuperable barrier. The river falls into the sea by several
+arms, passing through a shallow _liman_ or lagoon, a few miles S.W. of
+Odessa. There are two periodical floods,--the earlier and larger caused
+by the breaking up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of
+February or in March; and the later due to the melting of the snows in
+the Carpathians, and taking place about June. The spring flood raises
+the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of the river
+submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent country. In some
+years the general state of the water is so low that navigation is
+possible only for three or four weeks, while in other years it is so
+high that navigation continues without interruption; but in recent years
+considerable improvements have been effected at government expense. In
+consequence the traffic has increased, the Dniester tapping regions of
+great productiveness, especially in cereals and timber, namely, Galicia,
+Podolia and Bessarabia. Steamboat traffic was introduced in the lower
+reaches in 1840. The fisheries of the lower course and of the estuary
+are of considerable importance; and these, together with those of the
+lakes which are formed by the inundations, furnish a valuable addition
+to the diet of the people in the shape of carp, pike, tench, salmon,
+sturgeon and eels. Its tributaries are numerous, but not of individual
+importance, except perhaps the Sereth in Galicia.
+     (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
+
+
+
+
+DOAB, DUAB or DOOAB, a name, like the Greek Mesopotamia, applied in
+India, according to its derivation (_do_, two, and _ab_, river), to the
+stretch of country lying between any two rivers, as the Bari Doab
+between the Sutlej and the Ravi, the Rechna Doab between the Ravi and
+the Chenab, the Jech Doab between the Chenab and Jhelum, and the Sind
+Sagar Doab between the Jhelum and the Indus, but frequently employed,
+without any distinctive adjunct, as the proper name for the region
+between the Ganges and its great tributary the Jumna. In like manner the
+designation of Doab canal is given to the artificial channel which
+breaks off from the Jumna near Fyzabad, and flows almost parallel with
+the river till it reunites with it at Delhi.
+
+
+
+
+DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1799-1859), American churchman, Protestant
+Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, was born in Trenton, New Jersey, on the
+27th of May 1799. He graduated at Union College, Schenectady, New York,
+in 1818, studied theology and, in 1821, was ordained deacon and in 1823
+priest by Bishop Hobart, whom he assisted in Trinity church, New York.
+With George Upfold (1796-1872), bishop of Indiana from 1849 to 1872,
+Doane founded St Luke's in New York City. In 1824-1828 he was professor
+of belles-lettres in Washington (now Trinity) College, Hartford,
+Connecticut, and at this time he was one of the editors of the
+_Episcopal Watchman_. He was assistant in 1828-1830 and rector in
+1830-1832 of Christ church, Boston, and was bishop of New Jersey from
+October 1832 to his death at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 27th of
+April 1859. The diocese of New Jersey was an unpromising field, but he
+took up his work there with characteristic vigour, especially in the
+foundation of St Mary's Hall (1837, for girls) and Burlington College
+(1846) as demonstrations of his theory of education under church
+control. His business management of these schools got him heavily into
+debt, and in the autumn of 1852 a charge of lax administration came
+before a court of bishops, who dismissed it. The schools showed him an
+able and wise disciplinarian, and his patriotic orations and sermons
+prove him a speaker of great power. He belonged to the High Church party
+and was a brilliant controversialist. He published _Songs by the Way_
+(1824), a volume of poems; and his hymns beginning "Softly now the light
+of day" and "Thou art the Way" are well known.
+
+  See _Life and Writings of George Washington Doane_ (4 vols., New York,
+  1860-1861), edited by his son, William Croswell Doane (b. 1832), first
+  bishop of Albany.
+
+
+
+
+DOBBS FERRY, a village of Westchester county, New York, on the E. bank
+of the Hudson river 2 m. N. of Yonkers. Pop. (1890) 2083; (1900) 2888;
+(1910 U. S. census) 3455. Dobbs Ferry is served by the Hudson River
+division of the New York Central railway. There are many fine country
+places, two private schools--the Mackenzie school for boys and the
+Misses Masters' school for girls--and the children's village (with about
+thirty cottages) of the New York juvenile asylum. The name of the
+village was derived from a Swede, Jeremiah Dobbs, whose family probably
+moved hither from Delaware, and who at the beginning of the last quarter
+of the 18th century had a skiff ferry, which was kept up by his family
+for a century afterwards. Because Dobbs Ferry had been a part of
+Philipse Manor all lands in it were declared forfeit at the time of the
+War of American Independence (see YONKERS), and new titles were derived
+from the commissioners of forfeitures. The position of the village
+opposite the northernmost end of the Palisades gave it importance during
+the war. The region was repeatedly raided by camp followers of each
+army; earthworks and a fort, commanding the Hudson ferry and the ferry
+to Paramus, New Jersey, were built; the British army made Dobbs Ferry a
+rendezvous, after the battle of White Plains, in November 1776, and the
+continental division under General Benjamin Lincoln was here at the end
+of January 1777. The American army under Washington encamped near Dobbs
+Ferry on the 4th of July 1781, and started thence for Yorktown in the
+following month. In the Van Brugh Livingston house on the 6th of May
+1783, Washington and Governor George Clinton met General Sir Guy
+Carleton, afterwards Lord Dorchester, to negotiate for the evacuation by
+the British troops of the posts they still held in the United States. In
+1873 the village was incorporated as Greenburgh, from the township of
+the same name which in 1788 had been set apart from the manor of
+Phillipsburgh; but the name Dobbs Ferry was soon resumed.
+
+
+
+
+DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON (1824-1874), English poet and critic, was born
+on the 5th of April 1824 at Cranbrook, Kent. His father was a wine
+merchant, his mother a daughter of Samuel Thompson (1766-1837), a London
+political reformer. The family moved to Cheltenham when Dobell was
+twelve years old. He was educated privately, and never attended either
+school or university. He refers to this in some lines on Cheltenham
+College in imitation of Chaucer, written in his eighteenth year. After a
+five years' engagement he married, in 1844, Emily Fordham, a lady of
+good family. An acquaintance with Mr (subsequently Sir James) Stansfeld
+and with the Birmingham preacher-politician, George Dawson (1821-1876),
+which afterwards led to the foundation of the Society of the Friends of
+Italy, fed the young enthusiast's ardour for the liberalism of the day.
+Meanwhile, Dobell wrote a number of minor poems, instinct with a
+passionate desire for political reform. _The Roman_ appeared in 1850,
+under the _nom de plume_ of "Sydney Yendys." Next year he travelled
+through Switzerland with his wife; and after his return he formed
+friendships with Robert Browning, Philip Bailey, George MacDonald,
+Emanuel Deutsch, Lord Houghton, Ruskin, Holman Hunt, Mazzini, Tennyson
+and Carlyle. His second long poem, _Balder_, appeared in 1854. The three
+following years were spent in Scotland. Perhaps his closest friend at
+this time was Alexander Smith, in company with whom he published, in
+1855, a number of sonnets on the Crimean War, which were followed by a
+volume on _England in Time of War_. Although by no means a rich man he
+was always ready to help needy men of letters, and it was through his
+exertions that David Gray's poems were published. In 1869 a horse, which
+he was riding, fell and rolled over with him. His health, which had for
+several years necessitated his wintering abroad, was seriously affected
+by this accident, and he was from this time more or less of an invalid,
+until his death on the 22nd of August 1874.
+
+As a poet Dobell belongs to the "spasmodic school," as it was named by
+Professor Aytoun, who parodied its style in _Firmilian_. The epithet,
+however, was first applied by Carlyle to Byron. The school includes
+George Gilfillan, Philip James Bailey, John Stanyan Bigg (1826-1865),
+Dobell, Alexander Smith, and, according to some critics, Gerald Massey.
+It was characterized by an under-current of discontent with the mystery
+of existence, by vain effort, unrewarded struggle, sceptical unrest, and
+an uneasy straining after the unattainable. It thus faithfully
+reflected a certain phase of 19th century thought. The productions of
+the school are marked by an excess of metaphor and a general
+extravagance of language. On the other hand, they exhibit freshness and
+originality often lacking in more conventional writings. Dobell's poem,
+_The Roman_, dedicated to the interests of political liberty in Italy,
+is marked by pathos, energy and passionate love of freedom, but it is
+overlaid with monologue, which is carried to a dreary excess in
+_Balder_, relieved though the latter is by fine descriptive passages,
+and by some touching songs. Dobell's suggestive, but too ornate prose
+writings were collected and edited with an introductory note by
+Professor J. Nichol (_Thoughts on Art, Philosophy and Religion_) in
+1876. In his religious views Dobell was a Christian of the Broad Church
+type; and socially he was one of the most amiable and true-hearted of
+men. His early interest in the cause of oppressed nationalities, shown
+in his friendship with Kossuth, Emanuel Deutsch and others, never
+lessened, although his views of home politics underwent some change from
+the radical opinions of his youth. In Gloucestershire Dobell was well
+known as an advocate of social reform, and he was a pioneer in the
+application of the co-operative system to private enterprise.
+
+  The standard edition of his poems (1875) by Professor Nichol includes
+  a memoir.
+
+
+
+
+DOBELN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the (Freiberg)
+Mulde, two arms of which embrace the town as an island, 35 m. S.E. from
+Leipzig by rail, and at the junction of lines to Dresden, Chemnitz,
+Riesa and Oschatz. Pop. (1905) including the garrison, 18,907. It has
+two Evangelical churches, of which the Nikolai-kirche, dating in its
+present form from 1485, is a handsome edifice; a medieval town hall, a
+former Benedictine nunnery and a monument to Luther. There are an
+agricultural and a commercial school. The industries include
+wool-spinning, iron-founding, carriage, agricultural implement, and
+metal-printing and stamping works.
+
+
+
+
+DOBERAN, or DOBBERAN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of
+Mecklenburg-Schwerin, about 2 m. from the shores of the Baltic and 7 W.
+of Rostock by rail. Pop. 5000. Besides the ruins of a Cistercian abbey
+founded by Pribislaus, prince of Mecklenburg, in 1173, and secularized
+in 1552, it possesses an Evangelical Gothic church of the 14th century,
+one of the finest in north Germany, a grand-ducal palace, a theatre, an
+exchange and a concert hall. Owing to its delightful situation amid
+beech forests and to its chalybeate waters, Doberan has become a
+favourite summer resort. Numerous villa residences have been erected and
+promenades and groves laid out. In 1793 Duke Frederick Francis caused
+the first seaside watering-place in Germany to be established on the
+neighbouring coast, 4 m. distant, at the spot where the Heiligen-Damm, a
+great bank of rocks about 1000 ft. broad and 15 ft. high, stretches out
+into the sea and forms an excellent bathing ground. Though no longer so
+popular as in the early part of the 19th century, it is still
+frequented, and is connected with Doberan by a tramway.
+
+
+
+
+DOBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG (1780-1849), German chemist, was born near
+Hof in Bavaria on the 15th of December 1780. After studying pharmacy at
+Munchberg, he started a chemical manufactory in 1803, and in 1810 was
+appointed professor of chemistry, pharmacy and technology at Jena, where
+he died on the 24th of March 1849. The Royal Society's _Catalogue_
+enumerates 171 papers by him on various chemical topics, but his name is
+best known for his experiments on platinum in a minute state of division
+and on the oxidation products of alcohol. In 1822 he showed that when a
+mass of platinum black, supplied with alcohol by a wick is enclosed in a
+jar to which the air has limited access, acetic acid and water are
+produced; this experiment formed the basis of the Schutzenbach Quick
+Vinegar Process. A year later he noticed that spongy platinum in
+presence of oxygen can bring about the ignition of hydrogen, and
+utilized this fact to construct his "hydrogen lamp," the prototype of
+numerous devices for the self-ignition of coal-gas burners. He studied
+the formation of aldehyde from alcohol by various methods, also
+obtaining its crystalline compound with ammonia, and he was the
+discoverer of furfurol. An early observation of the diffusion of gases
+was recorded by him in 1823 when he noticed the escape of hydrogen from
+a cracked jar, attributing it to the capillary action of fissures. His
+works included treatises on pneumatic chemistry (1821-1825) and the
+chemistry of fermentation (1822).
+
+  A correspondence which he carried on with Goethe and Charles August,
+  grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, was collected and published at Weimar by
+  Schade in 1856.
+
+
+
+
+DOBREE, PETER PAUL (1782-1825), English classical scholar and critic,
+was born in Guernsey. He was educated at Reading school under Richard
+Valpy and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected fellow. He
+was appointed regius professor of Greek in 1823, and died in Cambridge
+on the 24th of September 1825. He was an intimate friend of Porson, whom
+he took as his model in textual criticism, although he showed less
+caution in conjectural emendation. After Porson's death (1808) Dobree
+was commissioned with Monk and Blomfield to edit his literary remains,
+which had been bequeathed to Trinity College. Illness and a subsequent
+journey to Spain delayed the work until 1820, when Dobree brought out
+the _Plutus_ of Aristophanes (with his own and Porson's notes) and all
+Porson's _Aristophanica_. Two years later he published the _Lexicon_ of
+Photius from Porson's transcript of the Gale MS. in Trinity College
+library, to which he appended a _Lexicon rhetoricum_ from the margin of
+a Cambridge MS. of Harpocration. James Scholefield, his successor in the
+Greek professorship, brought out selections from his notes
+(_Adversaria_, 1831-1833) on Greek and Latin authors (especially the
+orators), and a reprint of the _Lexicon rhetoricum_, together with notes
+on inscriptions (1834-1835). The latest edition of the _Adversaria_ is
+by William Wagner (in Bohn's _Collegiate Series_, 1883).
+
+  An appreciative estimate of Dobree as a scholar will be found in J.
+  Bake's _Scholica hypomnemata_, ii. (1839) and in the _Philological
+  Museum_, i. (1832) by J. C. Hare.
+
+
+
+
+DOBRENTEI, GABOR [GABRIEL] (1786-1851), Hungarian philologist and
+antiquary, was born at Nagyszollos in 1786. He completed his studies at
+the universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig, and was afterwards engaged
+as a tutor in Transylvania. At this period he originated and edited the
+_Erdelyi Muzeum_, which, notwithstanding its important influence on the
+development of the Magyar language and literature, soon failed for want
+of support. In 1820 Dobrentei settled at Pest, and there he spent the
+rest of his life. He held various official posts, but continued
+zealously to pursue the studies for which he had early shown a strong
+preference. His great work is the _Ancient Monuments of the Magyar
+Language_ (_Regi Magyar Nyelvemlekek_), the editing of which was
+entrusted to him by the Hungarian Academy. The first volume was
+published in 1838 and the fifth was in course of preparation at the time
+of his death. Dobrentei was one of the twenty-two scholars appointed in
+1825 to plan and organize, under the presidency of Count Teleki, the
+Hungarian Academy. In addition to his great work he wrote many valuable
+papers on historical and philological subjects, and many biographical
+notices of eminent Hungarians. These appeared in the Hungarian
+translation of Brockhaus's _Conversations-Lexikon_. He translated into
+Hungarian _Macbeth_ and other plays of Shakespeare, Sterne's letters
+from Yorick to Eliza (1828), several of Schiller's tragedies, and
+Moliere's _Avare_, and wrote several original poems. Dobrentei does not
+appear to have taken any part in the revolutionary movement of 1848. He
+died at his country house, near Pest, on the 28th of March 1851.
+
+
+
+
+DOBRITCH, or HAJIOLUPAZARJIK, the principal town in the Bulgarian
+Dobrudja. Pop. (1901) 13,436. The town is noted for its _panair_ or
+great fair, chiefly for horses and cattle, held annually in the summer,
+which formerly attracted a large concourse from all parts of eastern
+Europe, but has declined in importance.
+
+
+
+
+DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN (1717-1791), Austrian Roman Catholic missionary,
+was born at Gratz, in Styria. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1736,
+and in 1749 proceeded to Paraguay, where for eighteen years he worked
+devotedly first among the Guaranis, and then among the Abipones.
+Returning to Europe on the expulsion of the Jesuits from South America,
+he settled at Vienna, obtained the friendship of Maria Theresa, survived
+the extinction of his order, composed the history of his mission, and
+died on the 17th of July 1791. The lively if rather garrulous book on
+which his title to remembrance rests, appeared at Vienna in 1784, in the
+author's own Latin, and in a German translation by Professor Krail of
+the university of Pest. Of its contents some idea may be obtained from
+its extended title:--_Historia de Abiponibus, Equestri Bellicosaque
+Paraguariae Natione, locupletata Copiosis Barbararum Gentium, Urbium,
+Fluminum, Ferarum, Amphibiorum, Insectorum, Serpentium praecipuorum,
+Piscium, Avium, Arborum, Plantarum aliarumque ejusdem Provinciae
+Proprietatum Observationibus_. In 1822 there appeared in London an
+anonymous translation sometimes ascribed to Southey, but really the work
+of Sara Coleridge, who had undertaken the task to defray the college
+expenses of one of her brothers. A delicate compliment was paid to the
+translator by Southey in the third canto of his _Tale of Paraguay_, the
+story of which was derived from the pages of Dobrizhoffer's narrative:--
+
+  "And if he could in Merlin's glass have seen
+   By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught,
+   The old man would have felt as pleased, I ween,
+   As when he won the ear of that great Empress Queen."
+
+
+
+
+DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH (1753-1829), Hungarian philologist, was born of
+Bohemian parentage at Gjermet, near Raab, in Hungary. He received his
+first education in the German school at Bischofteinitz, made his first
+acquaintance with Bohemian at the Deutschbrod gymnasium, studied for
+some time under the Jesuits at Klattau, and then proceeded to the
+university of Prague. In 1772 he was admitted among the Jesuits at
+Brunn; but on the dissolution of the order in 1773 he returned to Prague
+to study theology. After holding for some time the office of tutor in
+the family of Count Nostitz, he obtained an appointment first as
+vice-rector, and then as rector, in the general seminary at Hradisch;
+but in 1790 he lost his post through the abolition of the seminaries
+throughout Austria, and returned as a guest to the house of the count.
+In 1792 he was commissioned by the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit
+Stockholm, Abo, Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which
+had been scattered by the Thirty Years' War; and on his return he
+accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy. His reason began to
+give way in 1795, and in 1801 he had to be confined in a lunatic asylum;
+but by 1803 he had completely recovered. The rest of his life was mainly
+spent either in Prague or at the country seats of his friends Counts
+Nostitz and Czernin; but his death took place at Brunn, whither he had
+gone in 1828 to make investigations in the library. While his fame rests
+chiefly on his labours in Slavonic philology his botanical studies are
+not without value in the history of the science.
+
+  The following is a list of his more important works, _Fragmentum
+  Pragense evangelii S. Marci, vulgo autographi_ (1778); a periodical
+  for Bohemian and Moravian Literature (1780-1787); _Scriptores rerum
+  Bohemicarum_ (2 vols., 1783); _Geschichte der bohm. Sprache und altern
+  Literatur_ (1792); _Die Bildsamkeit der slaw. Sprache_ (1799); a
+  _Deutsch-bohm. Worterbuch_ compiled in collaboration with
+  Leschka-Puchmayer and Hanka (1802-1821); _Entwurf eines
+  Pflanzensystems nach Zahlen und Verhaltnissen_ (1802); _Glagolitica_
+  (1807); _Lehrgebaude der bohm. Sprache_ (1809); _Institutiones linguae
+  slavicae dialecti veteris_ (1822); _Entwurf zu einem allgemeinen
+  Etymologikon der slaw. Sprachen_ (1813); _Slowanka zur Kenntniss der
+  slaw. Literatur_ (1814); and a critical edition of Jordanes, _De rebus
+  Geticis_, for Pertz's _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. See Palacky,
+  _J. Dobrowskys Leben und gelehrtes Wirken_ (1833).
+
+
+
+
+DOBRUDJA (Bulgarian _Dobritch_, Rumanian _Dobrogea_), also written
+DOBRUDSCHA, and DOBRUJA, a region of south-eastern Europe, bounded on
+the north and west by the Danube, on the east by the Black Sea, and on
+the south by Bulgaria. Pop. (1900) 267,808; area, 6000 sq. m. The
+strategic importance of this territory was recognized by the Romans, who
+defended it on the south by "Trajan's Wall," a double rampart, drawn
+from Constantza, on the Black Sea, to the Danube. In later times it was
+utilized by Russians and Turks, as in the wars of 1828, 1854 and 1878,
+when it was finally wrested from Turkey. By the treaty of Berlin, in
+1878, the Russians rewarded their Rumanian allies with this land of
+mountains, fens and barren steppes, peopled by Turks, Bulgarians,
+Tatars, Jews and other aliens; while, to add to the indignation of
+Rumania, they annexed instead the fertile country of Bessarabia, largely
+inhabited by Rumans. After 1880, however, the steady decrease of aliens,
+and the development of the Black Sea ports, rendered the Dobrudja a
+source of prosperity to Rumania.
+
+
+
+
+DOBSINA (Ger. _Dobschau_), a town of Hungary, 165 m. N.E. of Budapest by
+rail. Pop. (1900) 5109. It is situated in the county of Gomor, at the
+foot of the Radzim (3200 ft. high) in the central Carpathians, and lies
+to the south of the beautiful Straczena valley, watered by the river
+Gollnitz, and enclosed on all sides by mountains. In the vicinity are
+mines of iron, cobalt, copper and mercury, some of them being very
+ancient. But the most remarkable feature is a large cavern some 3-3/4 m.
+N.W., in which is an icefield nearly 2 acres in extent, containing
+formations which are at once most curious and strikingly beautiful. This
+cavern, which lies in the above-mentioned Straczena valley, was
+discovered in 1870. The place was founded in the first half of the 14th
+century by German miners.
+
+
+
+
+DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN (1840-   ), English poet and man of letters, was
+born at Plymouth on the 18th of January 1840, being the eldest son of
+George Clarisse Dobson, a civil engineer, and on his grandmother's side
+of French descent. When he was about eight years old the family moved to
+Holyhead, and his first school was at Beaumaris, in the Isle of
+Anglesea. He was afterwards educated at Coventry, and the Gymnase,
+Strassburg, whence he returned at the age of sixteen with the intention
+of becoming a civil engineer. He had a taste for art, and in his earlier
+years at the office continued to study it at South Kensington, at his
+leisure, but without definite ambition. In December 1856 he entered the
+Board of Trade, gradually rising to a principalship in the harbour
+department, from which he withdrew in the autumn of 1901. He married in
+1868 Frances Mary, daughter of Nathaniel Beardmore of Broxbourne, Herts,
+and settled at Ealing. His official career was industrious though
+uneventful, but as poet and biographer he stands among the most
+distinguished of his time. The student of Mr Austin Dobson's work will
+be struck at once by the fact that it contains nothing immature: there
+are no _juvenilia_ to criticize or excuse. It was about 1864 that Mr
+Dobson first turned his attention to composition in prose and verse, and
+some of his earliest known pieces remain among his best. It was not
+until 1868 that the appearance of _St Paul's_, a magazine edited by
+Anthony Trollope, afforded Mr Dobson an opportunity and an audience; and
+during the next six years he contributed to its pages some of his
+favourite poems, including "Tu Quoque," "A Gentleman of the Old School,"
+"A Dialogue from Plato," and "Une Marquise." Many of his poems in their
+original form were illustrated--some, indeed, actually written to
+support illustrations. By the autumn of 1873 Mr Dobson had produced
+sufficient verse for a volume, and put forth his _Vignettes in Rhyme_,
+which quickly passed through three editions. During the period of their
+appearance in the magazine the poems had received unusual attention,
+George Eliot, among others, extending generous encouragement to the
+anonymous author. The little book at once introduced him to a larger
+public. The period was an interesting one for a first appearance, since
+the air was full of metrical experiment. Swinburne's bold and
+dithyrambic excursions into classical metre had given the clue for an
+enlargement of the borders of English prosody; and, since it was
+hopeless to follow him in his own line without necessary loss of vigour,
+the poets of the day were looking about for fresh forms and variations.
+It was early in 1876 that a small body of English poets lit upon the
+French forms of Theodore de Banville, Marot and Villon, and determined
+to introduce them into English verse. Mr Austin Dobson, who had already
+made successful use of the triolet, was at the head of this movement,
+and in May 1876 he published in _The Prodigals_ the first original
+ballade written in English. This he followed by English versions of the
+rondel, rondeau and villanelle. An article in the _Cornhill Magazine_ by
+Mr Edmund Gosse, "A Plea for Certain Exotic Forms of Verse," appearing
+in July 1877, simultaneously with Mr Dobson's second volume, _Proverbs
+in Porcelain_, drew the general eye to the possibilities and
+achievements of the movement. The experiment was extremely fortunate in
+its introduction. Mr Dobson is above all things natural, spontaneous and
+unaffected in poetic method; and in his hands a sheaf of metrical forms,
+essentially artificial and laborious, was made to assume the colour and
+bright profusion of a natural product. An air of pensive charm, of
+delicate sensibility, pervades the whole of these fresh revivals; and it
+is perhaps this personal touch of humanity which has given something
+like stability to one side of a movement otherwise transitory in
+influence. The fashion has faded, but the flowers of Mr Dobson's French
+garden remain bright and scented.
+
+In 1883 Mr Dobson published _Old-World Idylls_, a volume which contains
+some of his most characteristic work. By this time his taste was
+gradually settling upon the period with which it has since become almost
+exclusively associated; and the spirit of the 18th century is revived in
+"The Ballad of Beau Brocade" and in "The Story of Rosina," as nowhere
+else in modern English poetry. In "Beau Brocade," indeed, the pictorial
+quality of his work, the dainty economy of eloquent touches, is at its
+very best: every couplet has its picture, and every picture is true and
+vivacious. The touch has often been likened to that of Randolph
+Caldecott, with which it has much in common; but Mr Dobson's humour is
+not so "rollicking," his portraiture not so broad, as that of the
+illustrator of "John Gilpin." The appeal is rather to the intellect, and
+the touches of subdued pathos in the "Gentleman" and "Gentlewoman of the
+Old School" are addressed directly to the heart. We are in the 18th
+century, but see it through the glasses of to-day; and the soft
+intercepting sense of change which hangs like a haze between ourselves
+and the subject is altogether due to the poet's sympathy and
+sensibility. _At the Sign of the Lyre_ (1885) was the next of Mr
+Dobson's separate volumes of verse, although he has added to the body of
+his work in a volume of _Collected Poems_ (1897). _At the Sign of the
+Lyre_ contains examples of all his various moods. The admirably fresh
+and breezy "Ladies of St James's" has precisely the qualities we have
+traced in his other 18th-century poems; there are ballades and rondeaus,
+with all the earlier charm; and in "A Revolutionary Relic," as in "The
+Child Musician" of the _Old-World Idylls_, the poet reaches a depth of
+true pathos which he does not often attempt, but in which, when he seeks
+it, he never fails. At the pole opposite to these are the light
+occasional verses, not untouched by the influence of Praed, but also
+quite individual, buoyant and happy. But the chief novelty in _At the
+Sign of the Lyre_ was the series of "Fables of Literature and Art,"
+founded in manner upon Gay, and exquisitely finished in scholarship,
+taste and criticism. It is in these perhaps, more than in any other of
+his poems, that we see how with much felicity Mr Dobson interpenetrates
+the literature of fancy with the literature of judgment. After 1885 Mr
+Dobson was engaged principally upon critical and biographical prose, by
+which he has added very greatly to the general knowledge of his
+favourite 18th century. His biographies of _Fielding_ (1883), _Bewick_
+(1884), _Steele_ (1886), _Goldsmith_ (1888), _Walpole_ (1890) and
+_Hogarth_ (1879-1898) are studies marked alike by assiduous research,
+sympathetic presentation and sound criticism. It is particularly
+noticeable that Mr Dobson in his prose has always added something, and
+often a great deal, to our positive knowledge of the subject in
+question, his work as a critic never being solely aesthetic. In _Four
+Frenchwomen_ (1890), in the three series of _Eighteenth-Century
+Vignettes_ (1892-1894-1896), and in _The Paladin of Philanthropy_
+(1899), which contain unquestionably his most delicate prose work, the
+accurate detail of each study is relieved by a charm of expression which
+could only be attained by a poet. In 1901 he collected his hitherto
+unpublished poems in a volume entitled _Carmina Votiva_. Possessing an
+exquisite talent of defined range, Mr Austin Dobson may be said in his
+own words to have "held his pen in trust for Art" with a service sincere
+and distinguished.
+
+
+
+
+DOBSON, WILLIAM (1610-1646), English portrait and historical painter,
+was born in London. His father was master of the alienation office, but
+by improvidence had fallen into reduced circumstances. The son was
+accordingly bound an apprentice to a stationer and picture dealer in
+Holborn Bridge; and while in his employment he began to copy the
+pictures of Titian and Van Dyck. He also took portraits from life under
+the advice and instruction of Francis Cleyn, a German artist of
+considerable repute. Van Dyck, happening to pass a shop in Snow Hill
+where one of Dobson's pictures was exposed, sought out the artist, and
+presented him to Charles I., who took Dobson under his protection, and
+not only sat to him several times for his own portrait, but caused the
+prince of Wales, Prince Rupert and many others to do the same. The king
+had a high opinion of his artistic ability, styled him the English
+Tintoretto, and appointed him serjeant-painter on the death of Van Dyck.
+After the fall of Charles, Dobson was reduced to great poverty, and fell
+into dissolute habits. He died at the early age of thirty-six. Excellent
+examples of Dobson's portraits are to be seen at Blenheim, Chatsworth
+and several other country seats throughout England. The head in the
+"Decollation of St John the Baptist" at Wilton is said to be a portrait
+of Prince Rupert.
+
+
+
+
+DOCETAE, a name applied to those thinkers in the early Christian Church
+who held that Christ, during his life, had not a real or natural, but
+only an apparent ([Greek: dokein], to appear) or phantom body. Other
+explanations of the [Greek: dokesis] or appearance have, however, been
+suggested, and, in the absence of any statement by those who first used
+the word of the grounds on which they did so, it is impossible to
+determine between them with certainty. The name Docetae is first used by
+Theodoret (_Ep._ 82) as a general description, and by Clement of
+Alexandria as the designation of a distinct sect,[1] of which he says
+that Julius Cassianus was the founder. Docetism, however, undoubtedly
+existed before the time of Cassianus. The origin of the heresy is to be
+sought in the Greek, Alexandrine and Oriental philosophizing about the
+imperfection or rather the essential impurity of matter. Traces of a
+Jewish Docetism are to be found in Philo; and in the Christian form it
+is generally supposed to be combated in the writings of John,[2] and
+more formally in the epistles of Ignatius.[3] It differed much in its
+complexion according to the points of view adopted by the different
+authors. Among the Gnostics and Manichaeans it existed in its most
+developed type, and in a milder form it is to be found even in the
+writings of the orthodox teachers. The more thoroughgoing Docetae
+assumed the position that Christ was born without any participation of
+matter; and that all the acts and sufferings of his human life,
+including the crucifixion, were only apparent. They denied accordingly,
+the resurrection and the ascent into heaven. To this class belonged
+Dositheus, Saturninus, Cerdo, Marcion and their followers, the Ophites,
+Manichaeans and others. Marcion, for example, regarded the body of
+Christ merely as an "umbra," a "phantasma." His denial (due to his
+abhorrence of the world) that Jesus was born or subjected to human
+development, is in striking contrast to the value which he sets on
+Christ's death on the cross. The other, or milder school of Docetae,
+attributed to Christ an ethereal and heavenly instead of a truly human
+body. Amongst these were Valentinus, Bardesanes, Basilides, Tatian and
+their followers. They varied considerably in their estimation of the
+share which this body had in the real actions and sufferings of Christ.
+Clement and Origen, at the head of the Alexandrian school, took a
+somewhat subtle view of the Incarnation, and Docetism pervades their
+controversies with the Monarchians. Hilary especially illustrates the
+prevalence of naive Docetic views as regards the details of the
+Incarnation. Docetic tendencies have also been developed in later
+periods of ecclesiastical history, as for example by the Priscillianists
+and the Bogomils, and also since the Reformation by Jacob Boehme, Menno
+Simons and a small fraction of the Anabaptists. Docetism springs from
+the same roots as Gnosticism, and the Gnostics generally held Docetic
+views (see GNOSTICISM).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Not a distinct sect, but a continuous type of Christology.
+    Hippolytus, however (_Philosophumena_, viii. 8-11), speaks of a
+    definite party who called themselves Docetae.
+
+  [2] 1 _Ep._ iv. 2, ii. 22, v. 6, 20; 2 _Ep._ 7, cf. Jerome (_Dial.
+    adv. Lucifer_. S 23 "Apostolis adhuc in saeculo superstitibus, adhuc
+    apud Judaeam Christi sanguine recenti, phantasma Domini corpus
+    asserebatur").
+
+  [3] _Ad Trall._ 9 f., _Ad Smyrn._ 2, 4, _Ad Ephes._ 7. Cf. Polycarp,
+    _Ad Phil._ 7.
+
+
+
+
+DOCHMIAC (from Gr. [Greek: dochme], a hand's breadth), a form of verse,
+consisting of _dochmii_ or pentasyllabic feet (usually o _ _ o -).
+
+
+
+
+DOCK, a word applied to (1) a plant (see below), (2) an artificial basin
+for ships (see below), (3) the fleshy solid part of an animal's tail,
+and (4) the railed-in enclosure in which a prisoner is placed in court
+at his trial. Dock (1) in O.E. is _docce_, represented by Ger.
+_Dockea-blatter_, O.Fr. _docque_, Gael. _dogha_; Skeat compares Gr.
+[Greek: daukos], a kind of parsnip. Dock (2) appears in Dutch (_dok_)
+and English in the 16th century; thence it was adopted into other
+languages. It has been connected with Med. Lat. _doga_, cap, Gr. [Greek:
+doche], receptacle, from [Greek: dechesthai], to receive. Dock (3),
+especially used of a horse or dog, appears in English in the 14th
+century; a parallel is found in Icel. _docke_, stumpy tail, and Ger.
+_Docke_, bundle, skein, is also connected with it. This word has given
+the verb "to dock," to cut short, curtail, especially used of the
+shortening of an animal's tail by severing one or more of the vertebrae.
+The English Kennel Club (Rules, 1905, revised 1907) disqualifies from
+prize-winning dogs whose tails have been docked; several breeds are,
+however, excepted, e.g. varieties of terriers and spaniels, poodles,
+&c., and such foreign dogs as may from time to time be determined by the
+club. The prisoners' dock (4) is apparently to be referred to Flem.
+_dok_, pen or hutch. It was probably first used in thieves' slang;
+according to the _New English Dictionary_ it was known after 1610 in
+"bail-dock," a room at the corner of the Old Bailey left open at the
+top, "in which during the trials are put some of the malefactors"
+(_Scots. Mag._, 1753).
+
+
+
+
+DOCK, in botany, the name applied to the plants constituting the section
+_Lapathum_ of the genus _Rumex_, natural order Polygonaceae. They are
+biennial or perennial herbs with a stout root-stock, and glabrous
+linear-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaves with a rounded, obtuse or
+hollowed base and a more or less wavy or crisped margin. The flowers are
+arranged in more or less crowded whorls, the whole forming a denser or
+looser panicle; they are generally perfect, with six sepals, six stamens
+and a three-sided ovary bearing three styles with much-divided stigmas.
+The fruit is a triangular nut enveloped in the three enlarged leathery
+inner sepals, one or all of which bear a tubercle. In the common or
+broad-leaved dock, _Rumex obtusifolius_, the flower-stem is erect,
+branching, and 18 in. to 3 ft. high, with large radical leaves,
+heart-shaped at the base, and more or less blunt; the other leaves are
+more pointed, and have shorter stalks. The whorls are many-flowered,
+close to the stem and mostly leafless. The root is many-headed, black
+externally and yellow within. The flowers appear from June to August. In
+autumn the whole plant may become of a bright red colour. It is a
+troublesome weed, common by roadsides and in fields, pastures and waste
+places throughout Europe. The great water dock, _R. hydrolapathum_,
+believed to be the _herba britannica_ of Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxv. 6), is
+a tall-growing species; its root is used as an antiscorbutic. Other
+British species are _R. crispus_; _R. conglomeratus_, the root of which
+has been employed in dyeing; _R. sanguineus_ (bloody dock, or
+bloodwort); _R. palustris_; _R. pulcher_ (fiddle dock), with
+fiddle-shaped leaves; _R. maritimus_; _R. aquaticus_; _R. pratensis_.
+The naturalized species, _R. alpinus_, or "monk's rhubarb," was early
+cultivated in Great Britain, and was accounted an excellent remedy for
+ague, but, like many other such drugs, is now discarded.
+
+
+
+
+DOCK, in marine and river engineering. Vessels require to lie afloat
+alongside quays provided with suitable appliances in sheltered sites in
+order to discharge and take in cargoes conveniently and expeditiously;
+and a basin constructed for this purpose, surrounded by quay walls, is
+known as a dock. The term is specially applied to basins adjoining tidal
+rivers, or close to the sea-coast, in which the water is maintained at a
+fairly uniform level by gates, which are closed when the tide begins to
+fall, as exemplified by the Liverpool and Havre docks (figs. 1 and 2).
+Sometimes, however, at ports situated on tidal rivers near their tidal
+limit, as at Glasgow (fig. 3), Hamburg and Rouen, and at some ports near
+the sea-coast, such as Southampton (fig. 4) and New York, the tidal
+range is sufficiently moderate for dock gates to be dispensed with, and
+for open basins and river quays to serve for the accommodation of
+vessels. For ports established on the sea-coast of tideless seas, such
+as the Mediterranean, on account of the rivers being barred by deltas at
+their outlets, like the Rhone and the Tiber, and thus rendered
+inaccessible, open basins, provided with quays and protected by
+breakwaters, furnish the necessary commercial requirements for sea-going
+vessels, as for example at Marseilles (fig. 5), Genoa, Naples and
+Trieste. These open basins, however, are precisely the same as closed
+docks, except for the absence of dock gates, and the accommodation for
+shipping at the quays round basins in river ports is so frequently
+supplemented by river quays, that closed docks, open basins and river
+quays are all naturally included in the general consideration of dock
+works.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Liverpool Docks, North End]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Havre Docks and Outer Harbour.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Glasgow Docks.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Southampton Docks and River Quays.]
+
+
+  Sites for Docks.
+
+Low-lying land adjoining a tidal river or estuary frequently provides
+suitable sites for docks; for the position, being more or less inland,
+is sheltered; the low level reduces the excavation required for forming
+the docks, and enables the excavated materials to be utilized in raising
+the ground at the sides for quays, and the river furnishes a sheltered
+approach channel. Notable instances of these are the docks of the ports
+of London, Liverpool, South Wales, Southampton, Hull, Belfast, St
+Nazaire, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Hamburg. Sometimes docks are partially
+formed on foreshores reclaimed from estuaries, as at Hull, Grimsby,
+Cardiff, Liverpool, Leith and Havre; whilst at Bristol, a curved portion
+of the river Avon was appropriated for a dock, and a straight cut made
+for the river. By carrying docks across sharp bends of tidal rivers,
+upper and lower entrances can be provided, thereby conveniently
+separating the inland and sea-going traffic; and of this the London,
+Surrey Commercial, West India, and Victoria and Albert docks are
+examples on the Thames and Chatham dockyard on the Medway. Occasionally,
+when a small tidal river has a shallow entrance, or an estuary exhibits
+signs of silting up, docks alongside, formed on foreshores adjoining the
+sea-coast, are provided with a sheltered entrance direct from the sea,
+as exemplified by the Sunderland docks adjacent to the mouth of the
+river Wear, and the Havre docks at the outlet of the Seine estuary (fig.
+2). Some old ports, originally established on sandy coasts where a
+creek, maintained by the influx and efflux of the tide from low-lying
+spaces near the shore, afforded some shelter and an outlet to the sea
+across the beach, have had their access improved by parallel jetties and
+dredging; and docks have been readily formed in the low-lying land only
+separated by sand dunes from the sea, as at Calais, Dunkirk (fig. 6) and
+Ostend (see HARBOUR). In sheltered places on the sea-coast, docks have
+sometimes been constructed on low-lying land bordering the shore, with
+direct access to the sea, as at Barrow and Hartlepool; whilst at
+Mediterranean ports open basins have been formed in the sea, by
+establishing quays along the foreshore, from which wide, solid jetties,
+lined with quay walls, are carried into the sea at intervals at right
+angles to the shore, being sheltered by an outlying breakwater parallel
+to the coast, and reached at each end through the openings left between
+the projecting jetties and the breakwater, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and
+Trieste, and at the extensions at Genoa (see HARBOUR) and Naples. Where,
+however, the basins are formed within the partial protection of a bay,
+as in the old ports of Genoa and Naples, the requisite additional
+shelter has been provided by converging breakwaters across the opening
+of the bay; and an entrance to the port is left between the breakwaters.
+The two deep arms of the sea at New York, known as the Hudson and East
+rivers, are so protected by Staten Island and Long Island that it has
+been only necessary to form open basins by projecting wide jetties or
+quays into them from the west and east shores of Manhattan Island, and
+from the New Jersey and Brooklyn shores, at intervals, to provide
+adequate accommodation for Atlantic liners and the sea-going trade of
+New York.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Port of Marseilles. Basins and Extensions.]
+
+
+  Approach channels.
+
+The accessibility of a port depends upon the depth of its approach
+channel, which also determines the depth of the docks or basins to which
+it leads; for it is useless to give a depth to a dock much in excess of
+the depth down to which there is a prospect of carrying the channel by
+which it is reached. The great augmentation, however, in the power and
+capacity for work of modern dredgers, and especially of suction dredgers
+in sand (see DREDGE), together with the increasing draught of vessels,
+has resulted in a considerable increase being made in the available
+depth of rivers and channels leading to docks, and has necessitated the
+making of due allowance for the possibility of a reasonable improvement
+in determining the depth to be given to a new dock. On the other hand,
+there is a limit to the deepening of an approach channel, depending upon
+its length, the local conditions as regards silting, and the resources
+and prospects of trade of the port, for every addition to the depth
+generally involves a corresponding increase in the cost of maintenance.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Dunkirk Docks and Jetty Channel.]
+
+At tidal ports the available depth for vessels should be reckoned from
+high water of the lowest neap tides, as the standard which is certain to
+be reached at high tide; and the period during which docks can be
+entered at each tide depends upon the nature of the approach channel,
+the extent of the tidal range and the manner in which the entrance to
+the docks is effected. Thus where the tidal range is very large, as in
+the Severn estuary, the approach channels to some of the South Wales
+ports are nearly dry at low water of spring tides, and it would be
+impossible to make these ports accessible near low tide; whereas at high
+water, even of neap tides, vessels of large draught can enter their
+docks. At Liverpool, with a rise of 31 ft. at equinoctial spring tides,
+owing to the deep channel between Liverpool and Birkenhead and into the
+outer estuary of the Mersey in Liverpool Bay, maintained by the
+powerful tidal scour resulting from the filling and emptying of the
+large inner estuary, access to the river by the largest vessels has been
+rendered possible, at any state of the tide, by dredging a channel
+through the Mersey bar; but the docks cannot be entered till the water
+has risen above half-tide level, and the gates are closed directly after
+high water. A large floating landing-stage, however, about half a mile
+in length, in front of the centre of the docks, connected with the shore
+by several hinged bridges and rising and falling with the tide, enables
+Atlantic liners to come alongside and take on board or disembark their
+passengers at any time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Tilbury Docks.]
+
+Comparatively small tidal rivers offer the best opportunity of a
+considerable improvement in the approach channel to a port; for they can
+be converted into artificially deep channels by dredging, and their
+necessary maintenance is somewhat aided by the increased influx and
+efflux of tidal water due to the lowering of the low-water line by the
+outflow of the ebb tide being facilitated by the deepening. Thus
+systematic, continuous dredging in the Tyne and the Clyde has raised the
+Tyne ports and Glasgow into first-class ports. In large tidal rivers and
+estuaries, docks should be placed alongside a concave bank which the
+deep navigable channel hugs, as effected at Hull and Antwerp, or close
+to a permanently deep channel in an estuary, such as chosen for Garston
+and the entrance to the Manchester ship canal at Eastham in the inner
+Mersey estuary, and for Grimsby and the authorized Illingham dock in the
+Humber estuary; for a channel carried across an estuary to deep water
+requires constant dredging to maintain its depth. Occasionally,
+extensive draining works and dredging have to be executed to form an
+adequately deep channel through a shifting estuary and shallow river to
+a port, as for instance on the Weser to Bremerhaven and Bremen, on the
+Seine to Honfleur and Rouen, on the Tees to Middlesborough and Stockton,
+on the Ribble to Preston, on the Maas to Rotterdam and on the Nervion to
+Bilbao (see RIVER ENGINEERING). Southampton possesses the very rare
+combination of advantages of a well-sheltered and fairly deep estuary, a
+rise of only 12 ft. at spring tides, and a position at the head of
+Southampton Water at the confluence of two rivers (fig. 4), so that,
+with a moderate amount of dredging and the construction of quays along
+the lower ends of the river with a depth of 35 ft. in front of them at
+low water, it is possible for vessels of the largest draught to come
+alongside or leave the quays at any state of the tide. This circumstance
+has enabled Southampton to attract some of the Atlantic steamers
+formerly running to Liverpool.
+
+Ports on tideless seas have to be placed where deep water approaches the
+shore, and where there is an absence of littoral drift. The basins of
+such ports are always accessible for vessels of the draught they provide
+for; but they require most efficient protection, and, unlike tidal
+ports, they are not able on exceptional occasions to admit a vessel of
+larger draught than the basins have been formed to accommodate.
+Occasionally, an old port whose approach channel has become inadequate
+for modern vessels, or from which the sea has receded, has been provided
+with deep access from the sea by a ship canal, as exemplified by
+Amsterdam and Bruges; whilst Manchester has become a seaport by similar
+works (see MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL). In such cases, however, perfectly
+sheltered open basins are formed inland at the head of the ship canal,
+in the most convenient available site; and the size of vessels that can
+use the port depends wholly on the dimensions and facility of access of
+the ship canal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Barry Docks.]
+
+
+    Design of Docks.
+
+  Docks require to be so designed that they may provide the maximum
+  length of quays in proportion to the water area consistent with easy
+  access for vessels to the quays; but often the space available does
+  not admit of the adoption of the best forms, and the design has to be
+  made as suitable as practicable under the existing conditions. On this
+  account, and owing to the small size of vessels in former times, the
+  docks of old ports present a great variety in size and arrangement,
+  being for the most part narrow and small, forming a sort of string of
+  docks communicating with one another, and provided with locks or
+  entrances at suitable points for their common use, as noticeable in
+  the older London and Liverpool docks. Though narrow timber jetties
+  were introduced in some of the wider London docks for increasing the
+  length of quays by placing vessels alongside them, no definite
+  arrangement of docks was adopted in carrying out the large Victoria
+  and Albert docks between 1850 and 1880; whilst the Victoria dock was
+  made wide with solid quays, provided with warehouses, projecting from
+  the northern quay wall, thereby affording a large accommodation for
+  vessels lying end on to the north quay, the Albert dock subsequently
+  constructed was given about half the width of the earlier dock, but
+  made much longer, so that vessels lie alongside the north and south
+  quays in a long line. This change of form, however, was probably
+  dictated by the advantage of stretching across the remainder of the
+  wide bend, in order to obtain a second entrance in a lower reach of
+  the river. The Tilbury docks, the latest and lowest docks on the
+  Thames, were constructed on the most approved modern system,
+  consisting of a series of branch docks separated by wide,
+  well-equipped solid quays, and opening straight into a main dock or
+  basin communicating with the entrance lock, in which vessels can turn
+  on entering or leaving the docks (fig. 7). The most recently
+  constructed Liverpool docks, also, at the northern end have been given
+  this form; and the older docks adjoining them to the south have been
+  transformed by reconstruction into a similar series of branch docks
+  opening into a dock alongside the river wall, leading to a half-tide
+  basin or river entrances (fig. 1). The Manchester and Salford docks
+  were laid out on a precisely similar system, which was also adopted
+  for the most recent docks at Dunkirk (fig. 6) and Prince's dock at
+  Glasgow (fig. 3), and at some of the principal Rhine ports; whilst the
+  Alexandra dock at Hull resembles it in principle. The basins in
+  tideless seas have naturally been long formed in accordance with this
+  system (fig. 5). The Barry docks furnish an example of the special
+  arrangements for a coal-shipping port, with numerous coal-tips served
+  by sidings (fig. 8).
+
+
+    Tidal and half-tide basins.
+
+  Tidal basins, as they are termed, are generally interposed in the
+  docks of London between the entrance locks and the docks, with the
+  object of facilitating the passage of vessels out of and into the
+  docks before and after high water, by lowering the water in the basin
+  as soon as the tide has risen sufficiently, and opening the lock gates
+  directly a level has been formed with the tide in the river. Then the
+  vessels which have collected in the basin, when level with the dock,
+  are readily passed successively into the river. The incoming vessels
+  are next brought into the basin, and the gates are closed; and the
+  water in the basin having been raised to the level in the dock, the
+  gates shutting off the basin from the dock when the water was lowered
+  are opened, and the vessels are admitted to the dock. In this manner,
+  by means of an inner pair of gates, the basin can be used as a large
+  lock without unduly altering the water-level in the dock, and saves
+  the delay of locking most of the vessels out and in, the lock being
+  only used for the smaller vessels leaving early or coming in late on
+  the tide. Similar tidal basins have also been provided at Cardiff,
+  Penarth, Barry (fig. 8), Sunderland, Antwerp and other docks.
+
+  The large half-tide docks introduced at the most modern Liverpool
+  docks (fig. 1) serve a similar purpose as tidal basins; but being much
+  larger, and approached by entrances instead of locks, the exit and
+  entrance of vessels are effected by lowering their water-level on a
+  rising tide, and opening the gates, which are then closed at high
+  water to prevent the lowering of the water-level in the dock, and to
+  avoid closing the gates against a strong issuing current.
+
+  The tidal basins outside the locks at Tilbury and Barry are quite open
+  to the tide, and have been carried down to 24 ft. and 16 ft.
+  respectively below low water of spring tides, in order to afford
+  vessels a deep sheltered approach to the lock in each case, available
+  at or near low water (figs. 7 and 8). Such basins, however, open to a
+  considerable tidal range where the water is densely charged with silt,
+  are exposed to a large deposit in the fairly still water, and their
+  depth has to be constantly maintained by sluicing or dredging.
+
+
+    River quays.
+
+  Where the range of tide is moderate, or on large inland rivers, docks
+  or basins are usefully supplemented by river quays, which though
+  subject to changes in the water-level, and exposed to currents in the
+  river, are very convenient for access, and are sometimes very
+  advantageously employed in regulating a river and keeping up its banks
+  when deepened by dredging. Generally 10 to 12 ft. is the limit of the
+  tidal range convenient for the adoption of open basins and river
+  quays; but the banks of the Tyne have been utilized for quays, jetties
+  and coal-staiths, with a somewhat larger maximum tidal range; and a
+  long line of quays stretching along the right bank of the Scheldt in
+  front of Antwerp, constructed so as to regulate this reach of the
+  river, accommodates a large sea-going traffic, with a rise at spring
+  tides of 15 ft.
+
+
+    Excavations for docks.
+
+  When a dock has to be formed on land, the excavation is effected by
+  men with barrows and powerful steam navvies, loading into wagons drawn
+  in trains by locomotives to the place of deposit, usually to raise the
+  land at the sides for forming quays. Directly the underground
+  water-level is reached, the water has to be removed from the
+  excavations by pumps raising the inflowing water from sumps, lined
+  with timber, sunk down below the lowest foundations at suitable
+  positions, so that the lower portions of the dock walls and sills of
+  the lock or entrance may be built out of water. A cofferdam has to be
+  constructed extending out from the bank of the river or approach
+  channel in front of the site of the proposed entrance or lock, so that
+  the excavations for the entrance to the dock may be pushed forwards,
+  and the lock or entrance built under its protection. Sometimes the
+  lowest portion of the excavation for the dock can be accomplished
+  economically by dredging, after the dock walls and lock have been
+  completed and the water admitted.
+
+  Where a dock is partially or wholly constructed on reclaimed land, the
+  reclamation bank for enclosing the site and excluding the tide has to
+  be undertaken first by tipping an embankment from each end with
+  wagons, protected and consolidated along its outer toe by rubble stone
+  or chalk. When the ends of the embankments are approaching one
+  another, it is essential to connect them by a long low bank of
+  selected materials brought up gradually in successive layers, and
+  retaining the water in the enclosure to the level of this bank, so
+  that the influx and efflux of the tide, filling and emptying the
+  reclaimed area, may take place over a long length, and in smaller
+  volume as the low bank is raised. In this way a reduction is effected
+  of the tidal current in and out, which in the case of a large
+  enclosure and a considerable tidal range, would create such a scour in
+  the narrowing gap between two high embankments as to wash away their
+  ends and prevent the closing of the gap. Occasionally the final
+  closure is effected by lowering timber panels in grooves between a
+  series of piles driven down at intervals across the gap. On the
+  closing of the reclamation bank the water is pumped out; and the
+  excavation is carried on in the ordinary manner. It is very important
+  that such an embankment should be carried well above the level of the
+  highest tide which might be raised by a high wind; and in exposed
+  sites, the outer slope of the bank should be protected by pitching
+  from the action of waves, for any overtopping or erosion of the bank
+  might result in a large breach through it, and the flooding of the
+  works inside.
+
+
+    Foundations for dock walls.
+
+  Docks are generally surrounded by walls retaining the quays, alongside
+  which vessels lie for discharging and taking in cargoes. In order to
+  ascertain the nature of the strata upon which these walls have to be
+  founded, borings are taken at the outset to the requisite depth at
+  intervals near the line of the walls, but inside the dock area if the
+  piercing of quicksand is anticipated, as in excavating for the
+  foundations, these holes might give rise to the outflow, under
+  pressure, of underlying quicksand into the foundations. As docks are
+  generally formed near rivers or estuaries, these strata are commonly
+  alluvial; but being situated at some depth below the surface, they are
+  usually fairly hard. When they consist of gravel, clay or firm sand,
+  the walls can be founded on the natural bottom excavated a few feet
+  below the bottom of the dock, their weight being somewhat distributed
+  by making them rest on a broad bed of concrete filling up the
+  excavation at the bottom. When, however, fine sand or silt charged
+  with water, or quicksand is met with at the required depth, the
+  necessary pumping and excavation for the foundations might occasion
+  the influx of sand or silt with the water into the excavations,
+  leading to settlement and slips; or the soft stratum might be too
+  thick to remove. The wall may then be founded on bearing piles driven
+  down to a solid stratum, and having their tops joined together by
+  walings and planking, or by a layer of concrete, upon which the wall
+  is built. Or the soft stratum can be enclosed with a double row of
+  sheet piling along the front and back of the line of wall, by which it
+  sometimes becomes sufficiently confined and consolidated to sustain
+  the weight of the wall on a broad foundation of concrete; or it can be
+  excavated without any danger of sand or silt running in from outside;
+  whilst the sheet piling at the back relieves the wall to some extent
+  from the pressure of the earth behind it, and in front retains the
+  wall from sliding forwards. Firmer foundations have been obtained by
+  sinking brick, concrete or masonry wells through soft ground to a
+  solid stratum, upon which the dock wall is built. Clusters of small
+  concrete cylinders, in sets of three in front, and a line of double
+  cylinders at the back, were used for the foundations of the walls of
+  Prince's dock at Glasgow. Wells of rubble masonry were sunk in the
+  silty foreshore of the Seine estuary for the walls of the Bellot docks
+  at Havre; and they served as piers, connected by arches, for the
+  foundations of a continuous dock wall above, being carried down to a
+  considerable depth through alluvium at the St Nazaire, Bordeaux and
+  Rochefort docks. These well foundations, derived from the old Indian
+  system, are built up upon a curb, sometimes furnished with a cutting
+  edge underneath, and gradually sunk by excavating inside; and
+  eventually the central hollow is filled up solid with concrete or
+  masonry.
+
+
+    Dock walls.
+
+  The walls round a dock serve as retaining walls to keep up the quays;
+  and though they have the support of the water in front of them when
+  the docks are in use, they have to sustain the full pressure of the
+  filling at the back on the completion of the dock before the water is
+  admitted. They have, accordingly, to be increased in thickness
+  downwards to support the pressure increasing with the depth. This
+  pressure, with perfectly dry material, would be represented by the
+  weight of half the prism of filling between the natural slope of the
+  material behind and the back of the wall; but the pressure is often
+  increased by the accumulation of water at the back, which, with fine
+  silty backing, is liable to exert a sort of fluid pressure against the
+  wall proportionate to the density of the mixture of silt and water.
+  The increase of thickness towards the base used formerly to be
+  effected by a batter on the face, as well as by steps out at the back;
+  but the vertical form now given to the sides of large vessels
+  necessitates a corresponding fairly vertical face for the wall, to
+  prevent the upper part of the vessel being kept unduly away from the
+  quay. Examples of the most modern types of dock walls are given in
+  figs. 9 to 12.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Havre Bellot Dock Wall.]
+
+  The height of a dock wall depends upon the depth of water always
+  available for vessels, at tideless sea-ports and at ports removed from
+  tidal influences, such as Manchester, Bruges and the ports on the
+  Rhine; this depth should not be less than 28 to 30 ft. for large
+  sea-going vessels, together with a margin of 5 to 8 ft. above the
+  normal water-level for the quays, and the foundations below. At tidal
+  ports, however, an addition has to be made equal to the difference in
+  height between the high-water levels of spring and neap tides; so that
+  at ports with a large tidal range, such as the South Wales ports on
+  the Severn estuary and Liverpool, specially high dock walls are
+  necessary. Under normal conditions, a dock wall should be given a
+  width at a height half-way between dock-bottom and quay-level, equal
+  to one-third of its height above dock-bottom, and a width of half this
+  height at dock-bottom.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Liverpool Dock Wall.]
+
+  Dock walls are constructed of masonry, brickwork or concrete, or of
+  concrete with a facing of masonry or brickwork. Masonry is adopted
+  where large stone quarries are readily accessible, in the form of
+  rubble masonry with dressed stone on the face, as for instance at the
+  Hull and Barry docks, and forms a very durable wall; but strong
+  overhead staging carrying powerful gantries is necessary for laying
+  large blocks. Brickwork has been often used where bricks are the
+  ordinary building material of the district or can be made on the
+  works, and requires only ordinary scaffolding; and harder or pressed
+  bricks are employed for the facework. Concrete is very commonly
+  resorted to now where sand and stones are readily procured; and where
+  clean, sharp sand and gravel are found in thick layers in the
+  excavations for a dock, as in the alluvial strata bordering the
+  Thames, dock walls can be constructed cheaply and economically with
+  concrete deposited within timber framing, dispensing with regular
+  scaffolding and skilled labour. Such walls require to be given a
+  facing of stronger concrete, or of blue bricks, as at Tilbury, to
+  guard against abrasion by vessels, chains and ropes; and dock walls
+  are commonly provided at the top with granite or other hard stone
+  coping where the wear is greatest. The foundations for dock walls are
+  excavated in a trench below dock-bottom, only lined with timbering
+  where the faces of the trench cannot stand for a short time without
+  support, and with sheet piling through very unstable silt or sand; and
+  the trench is conveniently filled up solid with concrete, carried out
+  in short lengths in untrustworthy ground. To reduce the amount of
+  filling behind the wall, the excavation at the back above dock-bottom,
+  preparatory for the trench, is given as steep a slope as practicable,
+  supported sometimes towards the base by timbering and struts; but
+  occasionally the wall is built within a timbered trench carried down
+  to the required depth, before the excavation for the dock in front of
+  it has been executed, as effected at Tilbury. The filling at the back
+  is thus reduced to a minimum, and the lower portion of the excavation
+  can be accomplished by dredging, if expedient, after the admission of
+  the water, the dock wall in this way being exposed to the least
+  possible pressure behind.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Tilbury Basin Wall.]
+
+  The walls of open basins are often constructed out of water precisely
+  like dock walls, as in the case of the basins forming the Manchester,
+  Bruges and Glasgow docks; and basin walls open to the tide, as at
+  Glasgow and in the tidal basin outside Tilbury docks (fig. 7), differ
+  only from dock walls in being exposed to variations in the pressure at
+  the back resulting from the lowering of the water-level in front,
+  which is, indeed, shared to some extent by the walls round closed
+  docks where the difference in the high-water levels of springs and
+  neaps is considerable. The walls, however, round basins in tideless
+  seas, such as Marseilles, occasionally those inside harbours, and
+  especially quay walls along rivers and round open basins alongside
+  rivers, have to be constructed under water.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Barry Dock Wall.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Marseilles Quay Wall.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Antwerp Quay Wall, founded by compressed
+  air.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Caracciolo Jetty Quay Wall, Genoa.]
+
+
+    Open basin and river quay walls founded under water.
+
+  At Marseilles, the simple expedient was long ago adopted of
+  constructing the quay walls lining the basins formed in the sea, by
+  depositing tiers of large concrete blocks on a rubble foundation, one
+  on top of the other, till they reached sea-level, and then building a
+  solid masonry quay wall out of water on the top up to quay-level,
+  faced with ashlar (fig. 13), the wall being backed by rubble for some
+  distance behind up to the water-level. The same system was employed
+  for the quay walls at Trieste, and at Genoa and other Italian ports. A
+  quay wall inside Marmagao harbour, on the west coast of India, was
+  erected on a foundation layer of rubble by the sloping-block system,
+  to provide against unequal settlement on the soft bottom (see
+  BREAKWATER). The quay walls alongside the river Liffey, and round the
+  adjacent basins below Dublin, were erected under water by building
+  rubble-concrete blocks of 360 tons on staging carried out into the
+  water, from which they were lifted one by one by a powerful floating
+  derrick, which conveyed the block to the site, and deposited it on a
+  levelled bottom at low tide in a depth of 28 ft., raising the wall a
+  little above low water. After a row of these blocks had been laid, and
+  connected together by filling the grooves formed at the sides and the
+  interstices between the blocks with concrete, a continuous masonry
+  wall faced with ashlar was built on the top out of water. A quay wall
+  was built up to a little above low water on a similar principle at
+  Cork, with three smaller blocks as a foundation, in lengths of 8 ft.
+  Cylindrical well foundations have been extensively used for the
+  foundations of the quay walls along the Clyde, formerly made of brick,
+  but subsequently of concrete, sunk through a considerable variety of
+  alluvial strata, but mostly sand and gravel fully charged with water.
+  Compressed air in bottomless caissons has been increasingly employed
+  in recent years for carrying down the subaqueous foundations of river
+  quay walls, through alluvial deposits, to a solid stratum. About 1880,
+  a long line of river quays was commenced in front of Antwerp,
+  extending in the central portion a considerable distance out into the
+  Scheldt, with the object of regulating the width of the river
+  simultaneously with the provision of deep quays for sea-going vessels;
+  and the quay wall was erected, out of water, on the flat tops of a
+  series of wrought-iron caissons, 82 ft. long and 29-1/2 ft. wide,
+  constructed on shore, floated out one by one to their site in the
+  river between two barges, and gradually lowered as the wall was built
+  up inside a plate-iron enclosure round the roof of the caisson, which
+  was eventually sunk by aid of compressed air through the bed of the
+  river to a compact stratum (fig. 14). The weight of the wall
+  counteracted the tendency of the caisson and the enclosure above it to
+  float; and the caisson, furnished with seven circular wrought-iron
+  shafts, provided with air-locks at the top for the admission of men
+  and materials and for the removal of the excavations, was gradually
+  carried down by excavating inside the working chamber at the bottom,
+  6-1/4 ft. high, till a good foundation was reached. The working chamber
+  was then filled with concrete through some of the shafts, the
+  plate-iron sides of the upper enclosure were removed to be used for
+  another length of wall, the shafts were drawn out and the hollows left
+  by them filled with concrete, the apertures between adjacent lengths
+  were closed at each face with wooden panels and filled with concrete,
+  and a continuous quay wall was completed above. The most recent quay
+  walls constructed in the old harbour at Genoa were founded under
+  water on a rubble mound in a similar manner by the aid of compressed
+  air (fig. 15). Quay walls also on the Clyde have been founded on
+  caissons, consisting of a bottomless steel structure, surmounted by a
+  brick superstructure having hollows filled with concrete, in lengths
+  of 80 ft. and 27 ft., and widths of 18 ft. and 21 ft. respectively,
+  carried down by means of compressed air from 54 to 70 ft. below
+  quay-level, on the top of which a continuous wall of concrete, faced
+  with brickwork, and having a granite coping, was built up from near
+  low-water level (fig. 16). In many cases where soft strata extend to
+  considerable depths, river quays and basin walls have been constructed
+  by building a light quay wall upon a series of bearing and raking
+  piles driven into, and if possible through, the soft alluvium. Thus
+  the walls along the Seine, and round the basins at Rouen, were built
+  upon bearing piles carried down through the alluvial bed of the river
+  to the chalk. The lower portion of the quay wall was constructed of
+  concrete faced with brickwork within water-tight timber caissons,
+  resting upon the piles at a depth of 9-3/4 ft. below low water; and upon
+  this a rubble wall faced with bricks was erected from low water to
+  quay-level, backed by rubble stone laid on a timber flooring supported
+  by piles, together with chalk, to form a quay right back to the top of
+  the slope of the bank of the deepened river (fig. 17). The quay walls
+  of the open basins bordering the Hudson river at New York have had, in
+  certain parts, to be founded on bearing piles combined with raking
+  piles, driven into a thick bed of soft silt where no firm stratum
+  could be reached, and where, therefore, the weight could only be borne
+  by the adherence of the long piles in the silt. Before driving the
+  piles, however, the silt round the upper part of the piles and under
+  the quay wall was consolidated by depositing small stones in a trench
+  dredged to a depth of 30 ft. below low water; the piles were driven
+  through these stones, and were further kept in place by a long toe of
+  rubble stone in front and a backing of rubble stone behind carried
+  nearly up to quay-level, behind which a light filling of ashes and
+  earth was raised to quay-level. The slight quay wall resting upon the
+  front rows of bearing piles was carried up under water by 70-ton
+  concrete blocks deposited by means of a floating derrick; and the
+  upper part of the wall was built of concrete faced with ashlar masonry
+  (fig. 18). The basin and quay walls at Bremen, Bremerhaven and Hamburg
+  were built on a series of bearing and raking piles driven down to a
+  firm stratum, the wall being begun a few feet below low water. At
+  Southampton, ferro-concrete piles were employed in constructing the
+  deep quays; and a wharfing of timber pilework has been frequently used
+  for river quays.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Glasgow River Quay Wall.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Rouen Quay Wall.]
+
+  Where the increase of trade is moderate and the conditions of the
+  traffic permit, and also at coal-shipping ports, economy in
+  construction is obtained by giving sloping sides to a portion of a
+  dock in place of dock walls, the slope being pitched where necessary
+  with stone; and the length of the slope projecting into a dock is
+  sometimes reduced by substituting sheet piling for the slope at the
+  toe up to a certain height. By this arrangement jetties can be carried
+  out across the slope as required, enabling vessels to lie against
+  their ends; and coal-tips are very conveniently extended out across
+  the slope at suitable intervals (fig. 8).
+
+
+    Failures of dock walls.
+
+  As dock walls, especially before the admission of water into the dock,
+  constitute high retaining walls, not infrequently founded upon soft or
+  slippery strata, and backed up with the excavated materials from
+  alluvial beds, into which water is liable to percolate, they are
+  naturally exposed under unfavourable conditions to the danger of
+  failure. A dock wall erected on unsatisfactory foundations is liable,
+  where the bottom is soft, to settle down at its toe, owing to the
+  pressure at the back, and to fall forwards into the dock, as occurred
+  at Belfast; or where the silty bottom slips forward under the weight
+  of the backing, the wall may follow the slip at the bottom and settle
+  down at the back, falling to some extent backwards, as exemplified by
+  the failure of the Empress basin wall at Southampton. The most common
+  form, however, of failure is the sliding forwards of a dock wall, with
+  little or no subsidence, on a silty or slippery stratum under the
+  pressure imposed by the backing. Thus the Kidderpur dock walls furnish
+  an instance of sliding forwards on muddy silt, and part of the South
+  West India dock walls on two underlying, detached, slippery seams of
+  London clay.
+
+  To avoid these failures with untrustworthy foundations, great care has
+  to be exercised in selecting the best hard material available,
+  unaffected by water, for the backing, which should be brought up in
+  thin, horizontal layers carefully consolidated; and where there is a
+  possibility of water accumulating at the back, pipes should be
+  introduced at intervals near the bottom right through the wall in
+  building it, and rubble stone deposited close to the back of the wall,
+  so as to carry off any water from behind, these pipes being stopped up
+  just before the water is let into the dock. These precautions,
+  moreover, are assisted by reducing the amount of backing to a minimum
+  in the construction of the wall, best effected by building the wall
+  inside a timbered trench. The liability to slide forwards can be
+  obviated by carrying down the foundations of the wall sufficiently
+  below dock-bottom to provide an efficient buttress of earth in front
+  of the wall, and also by making the base of the wall slope down
+  towards the back, thereby forcing the wall in sliding forwards to
+  mount the slope, or to push forward a larger mass of earth; whilst a
+  row of sheet piling in front of the foundations offers a very
+  effectual impediment to a forward movement, and, in combination with
+  bearing piles, prevents settlement at the toe in soft ground. In very
+  treacherous foundations it may be advisable to defer the completion of
+  the backing till after the admission of the water; but the additional
+  stability given to a retaining wall or reservoir dam by an ample
+  batter in front, is precluded in dock walls by the modern requirements
+  of vessels.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--New York Quay Wall, Hudson river.]
+
+
+    Maintenance of depth.
+
+  Silt accumulates in docks where the lowering of the water-level by
+  locking, the drawing down of half-tide basins, and the raising of the
+  water at spring tides, involve the admission of considerable volumes
+  of tidal water heavily charged with silt, which is deposited in still
+  water and has to be periodically removed by dredging. To avoid this,
+  the water is sometimes replenished from some clear inland source, an
+  arrangement adopted at some of the South Wales ports opening into the
+  muddy Severn estuary, and at the Alexandra dock, Hull, to exclude the
+  silty waters of the Humber. At the Kidderpur docks on the Hugli, the
+  water from the river for replenishing the docks is conducted by a
+  circuitous canal, in which it deposits its burden of silt before it is
+  pumped into the docks.
+
+
+  Equipment on quays.
+
+In order to deal expeditiously with the cargoes and goods brought into
+and despatched from docks, numerous sidings communicating with the
+railways of the district are arranged along the quays, which are also
+provided with steam, hydraulic or electric travelling cranes at
+intervals alongside the docks, basins or river, for discharging or
+loading vessels, and with sheds and warehouses for the storage of
+merchandise, &c., the arrangements depending largely upon the special
+trade of the port. Though different sources of power are sometimes made
+use of at different parts of the same port, as for example at Hamburg,
+where the numerous cranes are worked by steam, hydraulic power or most
+recently by electricity, and a few by gas engines, it is generally most
+convenient to work the various installations by one form of power from a
+central station. Water-pressure has been very commonly used as the
+motive power at docks, being generated by a steam-engine and stored up
+by one or more accumulators, from which the water is transmitted under
+pressure through strong cast-iron pipes to the hydraulic engines which
+actuate the cranes, lifts, coal-tips, capstans, swing-bridges and gate
+machinery throughout the docks (see POWER TRANSMISSION: _Hydraulic_).
+The intermittent working of the machinery in docks results in a
+considerable variation in the power needed at different times; but
+economical working is secured by arranging that when the accumulators
+are full, steam is automatically shut off from the pumping engines, but
+is supplied again as soon as water is drawn off. Electricity affords
+another means for the economical transmission of power to a distance
+suited for intermittent working; as far back as 1902 it was being
+adopted at Hamburg as the source of power for the machinery of the
+extensive additional basins then recently opened for traffic.
+
+
+  Coal-tips.
+
+At ports where the principal trade is the export of coal from
+neighbouring collieries, special provision has to be made for its rapid
+shipment. Coal-tips, accordingly, are erected at the sides of the dock
+in these ports, with sidings on the quays at the back for receiving the
+trains of coal trucks, from which two lines of way diverge to each
+coal-tip, one serving for the conveyance of the full wagons one by one
+to the tip, after passing over a weigh-bridge, and the other for the
+return of the empty wagons to the siding where the empty train is made
+up for returning to the colliery (fig. 8). Each full wagon is either run
+at a low level upon a cradle at the tip, then raised on the cradle
+within a wrought-iron lattice tower to a suitable height, and lastly,
+tipped up at the back for discharging the coal; or it is brought along a
+high-level road on to a cradle raised to this level on the tower, and
+tipped up at this or some slightly modified level. The coal is
+discharged down an adjustable iron shoot, gradually narrowed so as to
+check the fall; and on first discharging into the hold of a vessel, an
+anti-breakage box is suspended below the mouth of the shoot. When full,
+this is lowered to the bottom of the hold and emptied, thereby gradually
+forming a cone of coal upon which the coal can be discharged directly
+from the shoot without danger of breakage. Other contrivances are also
+adopted with the same object.
+
+
+    Dock extensions.
+
+  In designing dock works, it is expedient to make provision, as far as
+  possible, for future extensions as the trade of the port increases.
+  Generally this can be effected alongside tidal rivers and estuaries by
+  utilizing sites lower down the river, as carried out on the Thames for
+  the port of London, or reclaiming unoccupied foreshores of an estuary,
+  as adopted for extensions of the ports of Liverpool, Hull and Havre.
+  At ports on the sea-coast of tideless seas, it is only necessary to
+  extend the outlying breakwater parallel to the shore line, and form
+  additional basins under its shelter, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and
+  Genoa (see HARBOUR). Quays also along rivers furnish very valuable
+  opportunities of readily extending the accommodation of ports. Ports,
+  however, established inland like Manchester, though extremely
+  serviceable in converting an inland city into a seaport, are at the
+  disadvantage of having to acquire very valuable land for any
+  extensions that may be required; but, nevertheless, some compensation
+  is afforded by the complete shelter in which the extensions can be
+  carried out, when compared with Liverpool, where the additions to the
+  docks can only be effected by troublesome reclamation works along the
+  foreshore to the north, in increasingly exposed situations.
+
+_Dock Entrances and Locks._--The size of vessels which a port can admit
+depends upon the depth and width of the entrance to the docks; for,
+though the access of vessels is also governed by the depth of the
+approach channel, this channel is often capable of being further
+deepened to some extent by dredging; whereas the entrance, formed of
+solid masonry or concrete, cannot be adapted, except by troublesome and
+costly works sometimes amounting to reconstruction, to the increasing
+dimensions of vessels. Accordingly, in designing new dock works with
+entrances and locks, it is essential to look forward to the possible
+future requirements of vessels. The necessity for such forethought is
+illustrated by the rapid increase which has taken place in the size of
+the largest ocean liners. Thus the "City of Rome," launched in 1881, is
+560 ft. long, and 52-1/4 ft. beam, and has a maximum recorded draught of
+27-1/2 ft.; the "Campania" and "Lucania," in 1893, measure 600 ft. by 65
+ft.; the "Oceanic," in 1899, 685-1/2 ft. by 68-1/4 ft., with a maximum
+draught of 31-1/3 ft.; the "Baltic," in 1903, 709 ft. by 75 ft., with a
+maximum draught of 31-3/4 ft.; and the "Lusitania" and "Mauretania,"
+launched in 1906, 787-1/2 ft. by 88 ft.
+
+
+  Dimensions of entrances and locks.
+
+The width and depth of access to docks are of more importance than the
+length of locks; for docks which are reached through entrances with a
+single pair of gates have to admit vessels towards high water when the
+water-level in the dock is the same as in the approach channel, or
+through a half-tide basin drawn down to the level of the water outside,
+and are therefore accessible to vessels of any length, provided the
+width of the entrance and depth over the sill are adequate; whilst at
+docks which are entered through locks, vessels which are longer than the
+available length of the lock can get in at high water when both pairs of
+gates of the lock are open. Open basins are generally given an ample
+width of entrance, and river quays also are always accessible to the
+longest and broadest vessels; but in a tidal river the available depth
+has to be reckoned from the lowest low water of spring tides, instead of
+from the lowest high water of neap tides, if the vessels in the open
+basins and alongside the river quays have to be always afloat.
+
+Many years ago the Canada lock at Liverpool, the outer North lock at
+Birkenhead, the Ramsden lock and entrance at Barrow-in-Furness, and the
+Eure entrance at Havre, were given a width of 100 ft. Probably this was
+done with the view of admitting paddle steamers, since subsequent
+entrances at Liverpool were given widths of 80 and 65 ft.; whereas none
+of the locks in the port of London has been made wider than 80 ft.,
+which has been the standard maximum width since the completion of the
+Victoria dock in 1866. The widest locks at Cardiff are 80 ft., and the
+entrance to the Barry docks is the same; but the lock of the Alexandra
+dock, Hull, opened in 1885, was made 85 ft. wide. At Liverpool, where
+the access to the docks is mainly through entrances, on account of the
+small width between the river and the high ground rising at the back,
+and where ample provision has to be made for the largest Atlantic
+liners, though the entrances to the Langton dock, completed in 1881,
+leading to the latest docks at the northern end were made 65 ft. wide,
+with their sills 3 ft. below low water of spring tides and 20-1/2 ft.
+below high water of the lowest neap tides, the two new entrances to the
+deepened Brunswick dock near the southern end, giving access to the
+adjacent reconstructed docks, completed in 1906, were made 80 and 100
+ft. wide, with sills 28 ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides.
+Moreover, the three new entrances to the new Sandon half-tide dock,
+completed in 1906, communicating with the reconstructed line of docks to
+the south of the Canada basin, and with the latest northern extensions
+of the Liverpool docks, were made 40 ft. wide with a depth over the sill
+of 24-1/2 ft., and 80 and 100 ft. wide on each end of the central
+entrance, with sills 29 ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides,
+each entrance being provided with two pairs of gates, in case of any
+accident occurring to one pair, according to the regular custom at
+Liverpool. Powers were also obtained in 1906 for the construction of a
+half-tide dock and two branch docks to the north of the Hornby dock,
+which are to be reached from the river by two entrances designed to be
+130 ft. wide, with sills 38-1/2 ft. below high water of the lowest neap
+tides, so as to meet fully the assumed future increase in the beam and
+draught of the largest vessels; whilst the authorized extension of the
+river wall northwards will enable additional docks to be constructed in
+communication with these entrances when required.
+
+Though, with the exception of Southampton and Dover, other British ports
+do not aim, like Liverpool, at accommodating the largest Atlantic liners
+at all times, the depths of the sills at the principal ports have been
+increased in the most recent extensions. Thus at the port of London the
+sills of the first lock of the Albert dock were 26-1/2 ft. below high water
+of neap tides, and of the second lock adjoining, 32-1/2 ft. deep; whilst
+the sills of the lock of the Tilbury docks are 40-1/2 ft. below high water
+of neap tides. Moreover, in spite of the great range of tide at the
+South Wales ports on the Severn estuary, the available depth at high
+water of neap tides of 25 ft. at the Roath lock, Cardiff, was increased
+in the lock of the new dock to 31-1/2 ft.; the depth at the entrance to
+the Barry docks, opened in 1889, was 29-1/2 ft., but at the lock opened in
+1896 was made 41-1/3 ft.; whilst a depth of 34 ft. has been proposed for
+the new lock of the Alexandra dock extension at Newport, nearly 10 ft.
+deeper than the existing lock sills there. Similar improvements in depth
+have also been made or designed at other ports to provide for the
+increasing draught of vessels.
+
+The length of locks has also been increased, from 550 ft. at the Albert
+dock, to 700 ft. at Tilbury in the port of London, from 300 ft. to 550
+ft. at Hull, and from 350 ft. to 660 ft. at Cardiff. The lock at the
+Barry docks is 647 ft. long, though only 65 ft. wide. A lock constructed
+in connexion with the improvement works at Havre, carried out in
+1896-1907, was given an available length of 805 ft. and a width of
+98-1/2 ft., with a depth over the sills of 34-3/4 ft. at high water of
+neap tides.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Barry Docks, Entrance.]
+
+
+    Entrances to docks.
+
+  Entrances with a single pair of gates, closing against a raised sill
+  at the bottom and meeting in the centre, have to be made long enough
+  to provide a recess in each side wall at the back to receive the gates
+  when they are opened, and to form a buttress in front on each side to
+  bear the thrust of the gates when closed against a head of water
+  inside. A masonry floor is laid on the bottom in continuation of the
+  sill, serving as an apron against erosion by water leaking between or
+  under the gates, and by the current through the sluiceways in the
+  gates, when opened for scouring the entrance channel or to assist in
+  lowering the water in a half-tide dock for opening the gates (fig.
+  19). A sluiceway in each side wall, closed by a vertical sluice-gate,
+  generally provided in duplicate in case of accidents and worked by a
+  machine actuated by hydraulic pressure, enables the half-tide basin to
+  be brought down to the level of the approach channel outside with a
+  rising tide, so that vessels may be brought into or passed out of the
+  basin towards high water. The advantages of these entrances are, that
+  they occupy comparatively little room where the space is limited, and
+  are much less costly than locks; whilst in conjunction with a
+  half-tide basin they serve the same purpose as a lock with a rising
+  tide. Vessels also pass more readily through the short entrances than
+  through locks; and as entrances are only used towards high water,
+  their sills need not be placed so low as the outer sills of locks to
+  accommodate vessels of large draught. On the other hand, they are
+  accessible for a more limited period at each tide than locks; and they
+  do not allow of the exclusion of silt-bearing tidal water, and
+  therefore necessitate a greater amount of dredging in the docks, and
+  especially in half-tide basins, for maintenance. Entrances, however,
+  at large ports are frequently supplemented by the addition of a lock
+  at some convenient site, rendering the ports accessible for the
+  smaller class of vessels for some time before and after high water, as
+  for instance at Liverpool, Barry, Havre and St Nazaire. A small basin
+  with an entrance at each end--an arrangement often adopted--is in
+  reality, for all practical purposes, a lock with a very large
+  lock-chamber. An entrance or passage with gates has also to be
+  provided at the inner end of a large half-tide basin like the basins
+  adopted at Liverpool, to shut off the half-tide basin from the docks
+  to which it gives access, and maintain their water-level when the
+  water is drawn down in the basin to admit vessels before high tide.
+
+  Reverse gates pointing outwards are sometimes added in passages to
+  docks and at entrances, to render the water-level in one set of docks
+  independent of adjacent docks, to exclude silty tidal water and very
+  high tides, and also to protect the gates of outer entrances in
+  exposed situations from swell, which might force them open slightly
+  and lead to a damaging shock on their closing again.
+
+
+    Locks at docks.
+
+  Locks differ from entrances in having a pair of gates with
+  arrangements similar to an entrance at each end, separated from one
+  another by a lock-chamber, which should be large enough to receive the
+  longest and broadest vessel coming regularly to the port. These dock
+  locks are similar in principle to locks on canals and canalized
+  rivers, but are on a much larger scale. The lock-chamber has its water
+  raised or lowered in proportion to the difference in level between the
+  water-level in the dock and the water in the entrance channel, by
+  passing water, when the gates are closed at both ends, from the dock
+  into the lock-chamber or from the lock-chamber into the entrance
+  channel, through large sluiceways in the side walls, controlled, as at
+  entrances, by vertical sluice-gates. In this way the vessel is raised
+  or lowered in the chamber, till, when a level has been reached, the
+  intervening pair of gates is opened and the vessel is passed into the
+  dock or out to the channel. Generally the upper and lower sills of a
+  lock are at the same level, a foot or two higher than dock-bottom; and
+  the depth at which they are laid is governed by the same
+  considerations as the sill of an entrance. Vessels longer than the
+  available length between the two pairs of gates can be admitted close
+  to high water, when the water in the dock and outside is at the same
+  level, and both pairs of gates can be opened. When the range of tide
+  at a port is large, and the depth in the approach channel is
+  sufficient to allow vessels to come up or go out some time before and
+  after high water, and also where the water in the dock is kept up to a
+  high level from an inland source to exclude very silty tidal water, it
+  is expedient to reduce the cost of construction by limiting the depth
+  of the excavations for the dock, and consequently also the height of
+  the dock walls, to what is necessary to provide a sufficient depth of
+  water below high water of the lowest neap tides, or below the
+  water-level to which the water in the dock is always maintained, for
+  the vessels of largest draught frequenting the port, or those which
+  may be reasonably expected in the near future. The upper sill of the
+  lock is then determined by the level of dock-bottom; but the lower
+  sill is taken down approximately to the depth of the bottom of the
+  approach channel, or to the depth to which it can be carried by
+  dredging, so as to enable the lock to admit or let out at any time all
+  vessels which can navigate the approach channel. Thus, for instance,
+  the outer and intermediate sills of the lock at the Barry docks are 9
+  ft. lower then the upper sill.
+
+  The foundations for the sill and side walls at each end of a lock, and
+  also for the side walls and invert commonly enclosing the lock-chamber
+  at the sides and bottom, are generally constructed simultaneously with
+  the dock works, under shelter of a cofferdam across the entrance
+  channel, and in the excavations kept dry by means of pumps. The
+  foundations under the sills and adjacent side walls are carried down
+  to a lower level than the rest, and if possible to a water-tight
+  stratum, to prevent infiltration of water under them owing to the
+  water-pressure on the upper side of the gates; or sometimes one or two
+  rows of sheet piling have been driven across the lock under the sills
+  to an impermeable stratum, to stop any flow. The foundations for the
+  sills consist usually of concrete deposited in a trench extended out
+  under the adjoining side walls. The sill, projecting generally about 2
+  ft. above the adjacent gate floor over which the gates turn, is built
+  of granite; and the same material is also used for the hollow quoins
+  in which the heelpost, or pivot, of the dock gates turns, and which,
+  together with the sills, are exposed to considerable wear. The side
+  walls of the lock-chamber are very similar in construction to the dock
+  walls; but they are strengthened against the loss of water-pressure in
+  front of them when the water is lowered in the chamber by an inverted
+  arch of masonry, brickwork or concrete, termed an "invert," laid
+  across the bottom of the chamber along its whole length, against which
+  the toe of each side wall abuts and effectually prevents any forward
+  movement. The side walls also, alongside the gates at each end, abut
+  against a thick level gate floor and apron, and, moreover, are
+  considerably widened to provide space for the sluiceways and gate
+  machinery.
+
+  The new Florida lock (fig. 20), forming the main entrance through the
+  new approach harbour and tidal harbour to the Eure dock and other
+  docks of the port of Havre, is the largest lock hitherto constructed.
+  It has an available length of chamber between the gates of 805 ft., a
+  width of 98-1/2 ft., and depths over the sills of 15-3/4 ft. at the
+  lowest low water of spring tides, 23-1/2 ft. at low water of neap
+  tides, 35 ft. at high water of neap tides, and 40-1/2 ft. at high
+  water of spring tides. Owing to the alluvial stratum at the site of
+  the lock close to the Seine estuary, of which it doubtless at one time
+  formed part, the foundations for the sill and side walls or heads at
+  each end of the lock were executed by aid of compressed air. The
+  foundations for these heads were carried down to an impermeable
+  stratum by means of two bottomless caissons, filled eventually with
+  concrete, 213-1/2 ft. long across the lock and 105 ft. wide in the
+  line of the lock at the upper end, and 206-3/4 ft. long and 116-1/2
+  ft. wide at the lower end, to a depth of 18 ft. below the sill at the
+  upper end, and 41 ft. at the lower end, owing to the dip down seawards
+  and southward of the water-tight stratum. These caissons were provided
+  for their sinkage with temporary dams of masonry closing the opening
+  of the lock at the extremities of each caisson, enabling the gates to
+  be subsequently erected under their shelter. The junctions between the
+  foundations of the heads and the adjacent foundations were effected by
+  small movable caissons carried down in recesses provided in the buried
+  caissons. The connexions with the adjacent quay walls were
+  accomplished by two supplementary side caissons at the end of each
+  head; and the north side wall of the lock was founded by means of
+  seven bottomless caissons sunk by aid of compressed air, on account of
+  the proximity of the tidal harbour on that side. The south side wall
+  was founded for a length of about 200 ft. at its western end in an
+  excavated trench kept dry by pumping; but the greater portion was
+  founded in a dredged trench in which bearing piles were driven under
+  water, on which the masonry was built in successive layers, about
+  3-1/4 ft. thick, in a movable caisson 93-1/2 ft. long and 37-3/4 ft.
+  wide; whilst a bottomless caisson, left in the work, was employed for
+  founding about 100 ft. of wall at the eastern end. The bed of concrete
+  also, 10 ft. thick, forming the floor of the chamber, was carried out
+  for 82 ft. at the western end in the open air, and the remainder in
+  the same movable caisson as used for the south wall. Two sluiceways on
+  each side running the whole length of the lock, differing 6-1/2 ft. in
+  level, communicate with the lock-chamber through openings in the side
+  walls, 67-1/4 ft. apart, and provide for the filling and emptying of
+  the chamber.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Florida Lock, Havre Docks, Sections and
+  Plan.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Wooden Dock Gate.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Iron Segmental Dock Gate.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Straight Iron Dock Gate.]
+
+
+    Dock gates.
+
+  The gates closing the entrances and locks at docks are made of wood or
+  of iron. In iron gates, the heelpost, or a vertical closing strip
+  attached to the outer side of the gate close to the heelpost, the
+  meeting-post at the end of each gate closing against each other when
+  the gates are shut, and the sill piece fitting against the sill are
+  generally made of wood. Wooden gates consist of a series of horizontal
+  framed beams, made thicker and put closer together towards the bottom
+  to resist the water-pressure increasing with the depth, fastened to
+  the heelpost and meeting-post at the two ends and to intermediate
+  uprights, and supporting water-tight planking on the inner face (fig.
+  21). Iron gates have generally an outer as well as an inner skin of
+  iron plates braced vertically and horizontally by plate-iron ribs, the
+  horizontal ribs being placed nearer together and the plates made
+  thicker towards the bottom (figs. 22 and 23). Greenheart is the wood
+  used for gates exposed to salt water, as it resists the attack of the
+  teredo in temperate climates. As cellular iron gates are made
+  water-tight, and have to be ballasted with enough water to prevent
+  their flotation, or are provided with air chambers below and are left
+  open to the rising tide on the outer side above, the gates are light
+  in the water and are easily moved; whereas greenheart gates with their
+  fastenings are considerably heavier than water, so that a considerable
+  weight has to be moved when the water is somewhat low in the dock and
+  the gates therefore only partially immersed. On the other hand, wooden
+  gates are less liable than iron gates to be seriously damaged if run
+  into by a vessel.
+
+  Dock gates are sometimes made straight, closing against a straight
+  sill (figs. 20 and 23); and occasionally they are made segmental with
+  the inner faces forming a continuous circular arc and closing against
+  a sill corresponding to the outer curves of the gates (fig. 22), or by
+  means of a projecting sill piece against a straight sill (fig. 21).
+  More frequently the gates, curved on both faces, meet at an angle
+  forming a Gothic arch in plan, and close by aid of a projecting piece
+  against a straight sill, which in the Barry entrance gates is modified
+  by making the outer faces nearly straight (fig. 19), giving an unusual
+  width to the centre of the gates. The pressures produced by a head of
+  water against these gates when closed depends not only on the form of
+  the gates, but also upon the projection given to the angle of the sill
+  in proportion to the width of the lock, which is known as the rise,
+  and is generally placed at a distance along the centre line of the
+  lock, from a line joining the centres of the heel-posts, of about
+  one-fourth the width. With straight gates, the stresses consist, first
+  of a transverse stress due to the water-pressure against the gate,
+  which increases with the head of water and length of the gate; and
+  secondly, of a compressive stress along the gate, resulting from the
+  pressure of the other gate against its meeting-post, which is equal to
+  half the water-pressure on the gate multiplied by the tangent of half
+  the angle between the closed gates, varying inversely with the rise.
+  Though an increase in the rise reduces this stress, it increases the
+  length of the gate and the transverse stress, and also the length of
+  the lock. By curving the gates suitably, the transverse stress is
+  reduced and the longitudinal compressive stress is augmented, till at
+  last, when the gates form a horizontal segmental arch, the stresses
+  become wholly compressive and uniform in each horizontal section,
+  increasing with the depth; and the total stress is equal to the
+  pressure on a unit of surface multiplied by the radius of curvature.
+  Though the water-pressure is most uniformly and economically borne by
+  cylindrical gates, they are longer, and encroach more upon the lines
+  of quay with their curved recesses than straighter gates; and,
+  consequently, Gothic-arched gates are often preferred. Straight gates
+  afford the greatest simplicity in construction.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Sliding Caisson.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Ship Caisson.]
+
+  Gates in wide entrances or locks are generally supported towards their
+  outer end by a roller running along a castiron roller-path on the gate
+  floor (figs. 19, 21 and 22), as well as by the heelpost, fitted over a
+  steel pivot at the bottom, and tied back against the hollow quoins at
+  the top by anchor straps and bolts, on which the gate turns. In some
+  cases, by placing the water ballast in iron gates close to the
+  heelpost, a roller has been dispensed with, even, for instance, at the
+  wide entrance at Havre (fig. 23). The gates are opened and closed,
+  either by an opening and a closing chain for each gate, fastened on
+  either side and worked from opposite side walls by hydraulic power, or
+  by a single hydraulic piston or bar hinged to the inner side of each
+  gate (figs. 19 and 20). The latter system has the advantages of being
+  simpler and occupying less space in the side walls, of avoiding the
+  slight loss of available depth over the sill due to the two closing
+  chains crossing on the sill when the gates are open, and especially of
+  keeping the gates closed against a swell in exposed sites.
+
+
+    Caissons for docks.
+
+  A sliding or rolling caisson is occasionally placed across each end of
+  a lock in place of a pair of dock gates, being Caissons drawn back
+  into a recess at the side for opening docks. the lock. As a caisson
+  chamber has to be covered for over to provide a continuous quay or
+  roadway on the top, a lowering platform is supplied to enable the
+  caisson to pass under the small girders spanning the top of the
+  chamber, or the caisson is sunk down sufficiently (fig. 24). The
+  caisson is furnished with an air chamber to give it flotation, which
+  is adjusted by ballast according to the depth of water. The advantages
+  of a caisson, as compared with a pair of gates, are that the gate
+  recesses, gate floor, hollow quoins and arrangements for working in
+  the side walls are dispensed with, so that the lock can be made
+  shorter, and the work at each head is rendered less complicated. The
+  caisson itself also serves as a very strong movable bridge, and
+  therefore is often preferred at dockyards to dock gates. By
+  improvements in the hauling machinery, a caisson can open or close a
+  lock as quickly as dock gates; the caissons at Zeebrugge lock, at the
+  entrance to the Bruges ship canal, are drawn across the lock or into
+  their chamber by electricity in two minutes. A caisson is specially
+  useful in cases where there may be a head of water on either side, as
+  then it takes the place of two pairs of gates pointing in opposite
+  directions, or for closing an entrance against a current. A caisson,
+  however, requires a much larger amount of material than a pair of dock
+  gates, and a considerable width on one side for its chamber, so that
+  under ordinary conditions gates are generally used at docks.
+
+  A ship caisson, so called from its presenting some resemblance in
+  section to the hull of a vessel, occupies too much time in being
+  towed, floated into position, and sunk into grooves at the bottom and
+  sides of an entrance for closing it, and then refloated and towed away
+  for opening the entrance again, to be used at entrances and locks to
+  docks (fig. 25). Being, however, simple in construction, taking up
+  little space, and requiring no chamber or machinery for moving it,
+  this form of caisson is generally used for closing the entrance to a
+  graving dock, where it remains for several days in place during the
+  execution of repairs to a vessel in the dock. A ship caisson only
+  requires the admission of sufficient water to sink it when in position
+  across the entrance to a graving dock; and this water has to be pumped
+  out before it can be floated, and removed to some vacant position in
+  the neighbouring dock till it is again required. Like a sliding or
+  rolling caisson, it provides a bridge for crossing over the entrance
+  of the graving dock when in position.
+
+_Graving Docks._ - Provision has to be made at ports for the repairs of
+vessels frequenting them. The simplest arrangement is a timber gridiron,
+on which a vessel settles with a falling tide, and can then be inspected
+and slightly cleaned and repaired till the tide floats it again.
+Inclined slipways are sometimes provided, up which a vessel resting in a
+cradle on wheels can be drawn out of the water; and they are also used
+for shipbuilding, the vessel when ready for launching being allowed to
+slide down them into the water. Graving or dry docks, however, opening
+out of a dock, are the usual means provided for enabling the cleaning
+and repairs of vessels to be carried out.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Plan of Southampton Graving Dock.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Cross Section of Southampton Graving Dock.]
+
+  A graving dock consists of an enclosure, surrounded by side walls
+  stepped on the face, and paved at the bottom with a thick floor
+  sloping slightly down from the centre to drains along the sides, long
+  enough to receive the longest vessel likely to come to the port. Its
+  entrance, at the end adjoining the dock, is just wide enough to admit
+  the vessel of greatest beam, and deep enough over the sill to receive
+  the vessel of greatest draught, when light, at the lowest water-level
+  of the dock (figs. 26 and 27). Graving docks are constructed of
+  masonry, brickwork or concrete, or formerly in America of timber; they
+  should be founded on a solid impervious stratum, or, where that is
+  impracticable, they should be built upon bearing piles and enclosed
+  within sheet piling, to prevent settlement and the infiltration of
+  water under pressure below the dock. Keel blocks are laid along the
+  centre line of the dock, for the keel of the vessel to rest on when
+  the water is pumped out; and the vessel is further supported on each
+  side by timber shores supported on the steps or "altars" of the side
+  walls, which are lined with granite or other hard stone, or blue
+  bricks, or, when constructed of concrete, with a facing of stronger
+  concrete, to enable these altars to withstand the wear and shocks to
+  which they are subjected. Steps and slides are provided at convenient
+  places at the sides to give access for men and materials to the bottom
+  of the dock; and culverts and drains lead the water to pumps for
+  removing the water from the dock when the entrance has been closed,
+  and to keep it dry whilst a vessel is under repair. Culverts in the
+  side walls of the entrance enable water to be admitted for filling the
+  dock to let the vessel out. Graving docks are generally closed by ship
+  caissons; but where they open direct on to a tidal river, and there is
+  some exposure, gates are adopted, or sometimes sliding caissons.
+
+  The dimensions of graving docks vary considerably with the nature of
+  the trade and the date of construction; and sometimes an intermediate
+  entrance is provided to accommodate two smaller vessels. The sizes of
+  some of the largest graving docks are as follows: Liverpool, Canada
+  dock, 925-1/2 ft. long, 94 ft. width of entrance, and 29 ft. depth at
+  the ordinary water-level in the dock; Southampton, 851-3/4 ft. by 90
+  ft., and 29-1/2 ft. depth at high-water neaps (figs. 26 and 27);
+  Tilbury, 875 ft. by 70 ft. by 31-1/2 ft.; and Glasgow, 880 ft. by 80
+  ft. by 26-1/2 ft.
+
+  _Floating Dry Docks._--Where there is no site available for a graving
+  dock, or the ground is very treacherous, floating dry docks, built
+  originally of wood, but more recently of iron or steel, have
+  occasionally been resorted to. The first Bermuda dock towed across the
+  Atlantic in 1869, and the new dock launched in 1902, 545 ft. by 100
+  ft., are notable examples. Water is admitted into the pontoon at the
+  bottom to sink the dock sufficiently to admit a vessel at its open
+  end; and then the water is pumped out of compartments in the pontoon
+  till the vessel is raised out of water. It is only necessary to find a
+  sheltered site, with a sufficient depth of water, for conducting the
+  operations.     (L. F. V.-H.)
+
+
+
+
+DOCKET (perhaps from "dock," to curtail or cut short, with the
+diminutive suffix _et_, but the origin of the word is obscure; it has
+come into use since the 15th century), in law, a brief summary or digest
+of a case, or a memorandum of legal decisions; also the alphabetical
+list of cases down for trial, or of suits pending. Such cases are said
+to be "on the docket." In commercial use, a docket is a warrant from the
+custom-house, stating that the duty on goods entered has been paid, or
+the label fastened to goods, showing their destination, value, contents,
+&c., and, generally, any indorsement on the back of a document, briefly
+setting out its contents.
+
+
+
+
+DOCK WARRANT, in law, a document by which the owner of a marine or river
+dock certifies that the holder is entitled to goods imported and
+warehoused in the docks. In the Factors Act 1889 it is included in the
+phrase "document of title" and is defined as any document or writing,
+being evidence of the title of any person therein named ... to the
+property in any goods or merchandise lying in any warehouse or wharf and
+signed or certified by the person having the custody of the goods. It
+passes by indorsement and delivery and transfers the absolute right to
+the goods described in it. A dock warrant is liable to a stamp duty of
+threepence, which may be denoted by an adhesive stamp, to be cancelled
+by the person by whom the instrument is executed or issued.
+
+
+
+
+DOCKYARDS. In the fullest meaning of the word, a "dock-yard" (or "navy
+yard" in America) is a government establishment where warships of every
+kind are built and repaired, and supplied with the men and stores
+required to maintain them in a state of efficiency for war. Thus a
+dockyard in this extended sense would include slips for building ships,
+workshops for manufacturing their machinery, dry docks for repairing
+them, stores of arms, ammunition, coal, provisions, &c., with basins in
+which they may lie while being supplied with such things, and an
+establishment for providing the _personnel_ necessary for manning them.
+But in practice few, if any, existing dockyards are of so complete a
+nature; many of them, for instance, do not undertake the building of
+ships at all, while others are little more than harbours where a ship
+may replenish her stores of coal, water and provisions and carry out
+minor repairs. Private firms are relied upon for the construction of
+many ships down to an advanced stage, the government dockyards
+completing and equipping them for commission.
+
+_Great Britain._--Previous to the reign of Henry VIII., the kings of
+England had neither naval arsenals nor dockyards, nor any regular
+establishment of civil or naval officers to provide ships of war, or to
+man them. There are, however, strong evidences of the existence of
+dockyards, or of something answering thereto, at very early dates, at
+Rye, Shoreham and Winchelsea. In November 1243 the sheriff of Sussex was
+ordered to enlarge the house at Rye in which the king's galleys were
+kept, so that it might contain seven galleys. In 1238 the keepers of
+some of the king's galleys were directed to cause those vessels to be
+breamed, and a house to be built at Winchelsea for their safe custody.
+In 1254 the bailiffs of Winchelsea and Rye were ordered to repair the
+buildings in which the king's galleys were kept at Rye. At Portsmouth
+and at Southampton there seem to have been at all times depots for both
+ships and stores, though there was no regular dockyard at Portsmouth
+till the middle of the 16th century. It would appear, from a curious
+poem in Hakluyt's _Collection_ called "The Policie of Keeping the Sea,"
+that Littlehampton, unfit as it now is, was the port at which Henry
+VIII. built
+
+                      "his great _Dromions_
+  Which passed other great shippes of the commons."
+
+The "dromion," "dromon," or "dromedary" was a large warship, the
+prototype of which was furnished by the Saracens. Roger de Hoveden,
+Richard of Devizes and Peter de Longtoft celebrate the struggle which
+Richard I., in the "Trench the Mer," on his way to Palestine, had with a
+huge dromon,--"a marvellous ship! a ship than which, except Noah's ship,
+none greater was ever read of." This vessel had three masts, was very
+high out of the water, and is said to have had 1500 men on board. It
+required the united force of the king's galleys, and an obstinate fight,
+to capture the dromon.
+
+The foundation of a regular British navy, by the establishment of
+dockyards, and the formation of a board, consisting of certain
+commissioners for the management of its affairs, was first laid by Henry
+VIII., and the first dockyard erected during his reign was that of
+Woolwich. Those of Portsmouth, Deptford, Chatham and Sheerness followed
+in succession. Plymouth was founded by William III. Pembroke was
+established in 1814, a small yard having previously existed at Milford.
+
+The most important additions yet made at any one period to the dockyard
+and harbour works required to meet the necessities of the British fleet
+were those sanctioned by the Naval Works Acts of 1895 and subsequent
+years, the total estimated cost, as stated in the act of 1899, being
+over 23-1/2 millions sterling. The works proposed under these acts were
+classified under three heads, viz. (a) the enclosure and defence of
+harbours against torpedo attacks; (b) adapting naval ports to the
+present needs of the fleet; (c) naval barracks and hospitals. Under the
+first heading were included the defensive harbours at Portland, Dover
+and Gibraltar. Under heading (b) were included the deepening of harbours
+and approaches, the dockyard extensions at Gibraltar, Keyham
+(Devonport), Simons Bay, and Hong-Kong, with sundry other items. Under
+heading (c) were included the naval barracks at Chatham, Portsmouth and
+Keyham; the naval hospitals at Chatham, Haslar and Haulbowline; the
+colleges at Keyham and Dartmouth; and other items.
+
+Great Britain possesses dockyards at Portsmouth, Devonport, Chatham,
+Malta and Gibraltar, each in charge of an admiral-superintendent, and at
+Sheerness and Pembroke in charge of a captain-superintendent, together
+with establishments at Ascension, Bermuda, Simons Town (Cape of Good
+Hope), Queenstown (Haulbowline); Hong-Kong, Portland, Sydney and
+Weihaiwei. The Indian Government has dockyards at Bombay and Calcutta.
+The medical establishments include Ascension, Bermuda, Cape of Good
+Hope, Chatham, Dartmouth, Deal, Gibraltar, Haslar, Haulbowline,
+Hong-Kong, Malta, Osborne, Plymouth, Portland, Portsmouth, Sheerness,
+Sydney, Yarmouth, Yokohama and Weihaiwei.
+
+The arrangements for the administrative control of the dockyards have
+varied with those adopted for the regulation of the navy as a whole.
+(See ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION; and NAVY: _History_.) At the present
+time, whether at home or abroad, they lie within the province of the
+controller of the navy (the third lord of the board of admiralty); and
+the director of dockyards, whose office, replacing that of surveyor of
+dockyards was created in December 1885, is responsible to the
+controller for the building of ships, boats, &c., in dockyards, and for
+the maintenance and repair of ships and boats, and of all steam
+machinery in ships, boats, dockyards and factories. The director of
+naval construction, who is also deputy-controller, is responsible, not
+only for the design of ships, but for their construction, in the sense
+that he approves great numbers of working drawings of structural parts
+prepared at the dockyards. But the director of dockyards is the
+admiralty official under whose instructions the work goes on, involving
+the employment and supervision of an army of artisans and labourers.
+Instructions, therefore, emanate from the admiralty, but the details lie
+with the dockyard officials, and in practice there is a considerable
+decentralization of duties.
+
+The chief function of a dockyard is the building and maintaining of
+ships in efficiency. The constructive work is carried out under the care
+of the chief constructor of the yard, in accordance with plans sent down
+from the admiralty. The calculations for displacement, involving the
+draught of water forward and aft, have already been made, and, in order
+to ensure accuracy in the carrying out of the design, an admirable
+system has been devised for weighing everything that is built into the
+new ships or that goes on board; and it is astonishing how very closely
+the actual displacement approximates to that which was intended,
+particularly when the tendency of weights to increase, in perfecting a
+ship for commission, is considered.
+
+The ship having been built to her launching weight, the duty of putting
+her into the water devolves upon the chief constructor of the yard, and
+failures in this matter are so extremely rare that it may almost be said
+they do not occur. As soon as the ship is water-borne the responsibility
+falls upon the king's harbour master, who has charge of her afloat and
+of moving her into the fitting basins. When the ship has been brought
+alongside the wharf, the responsibility of the chief constructor of the
+yard is resumed, and the ship is carried forward to completion by the
+affixing of armour plating (if that has not been done before launching),
+the mounting of guns, the instalment of engines, boilers, and electrical
+and hydraulic gear, and the fitting of cabins for officers, mess places
+for men, and storerooms, and a vast volume of other work unnecessary to
+be specified. In regard to the complicated details of guns and
+torpedoes, the captains of the gunnery and torpedo schools have a
+function of supervision. The captain of the fleet reserve also closely
+watches the work, because, when the heads of all departments have
+reported the ship to be ready, she has to be inspected by the
+commander-in-chief at the port, and then passed into the fleet reserve
+as ready for sea, and there the captain of the fleet reserve is
+responsible for her efficiency. Other important officers of a dockyard
+are the chief engineer; the superintendent civil engineer, who has
+charge of the work involved in keeping all buildings, docks, basins,
+caissons, roads, &c., in repair; the naval store officer, who has charge
+of most of the stores in the dockyard; and the cashier of the yard,
+whose name sufficiently expresses his duties.
+
+The system of conducting business at the dockyards is analogous to that
+which prevails at the admiralty. There is personal communication between
+the officers responsible for the work, and facilities are afforded for
+coming to rapid decisions upon matters that are in hand, and the
+operations are conducted with an ease which contributes much to
+efficiency. In 1844 the custom was introduced of all the principal
+officers of the dockyard meeting at the superintendent's office at 9.30
+A.M. every day, to hear the orders from the admiralty and discuss the
+work of the day. But this system of "readings" was abolished at the
+beginning of 1906, the naval establishments inquiry committee
+considering that the assembling of the officials was unnecessary since
+the communications after reception are copied and sent to the
+departments concerned.
+
+The police force necessary in a dockyard is in some cases supplied from
+the London metropolitan police, and is under the orders of the
+superintendent of the yard for duties connected with it, and under the
+commissioner of police for the discipline and disposition of the force.
+The charges are, of course, paid by the admiralty, and the system
+answers well.
+
+_United States._--The shore stations under control of the Navy
+Department (see also ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION), and collectively known
+as naval stations, are under different names according to their nature.
+Of those called _Navy Yards_, and intended for the general purpose of
+sources of supply and for repairs of ships, there are within the United
+States eight in number. Two of them are on the Pacific coast, situated
+on Puget Sound, at Bremerton, Washington; and at Mare Island, near San
+Francisco. The other six are on the Atlantic coast, and are situated at
+Portsmouth, N.H.; Boston, Mass.; Brooklyn, N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.;
+Washington, D.C.; and Norfolk, Va. There are also naval stations at Port
+Royal and Charleston, S.C.; Key West and Pensacola, Fla.; New Orleans,
+La.; Guantanamo, Cuba; Culebra and San Juan, Porto Rico; Honolulu, H.I.;
+Cavite, P.I.; Tutuila, Samoa; and Island of Guam, in the Ladrones
+Islands. The floating dock Dewey, having a lifting capacity of 18,500
+gross tons with a free-board of 2 ft., was stationed in the Philippine
+Islands in 1906.
+
+Besides these, there are important naval stations established for
+special purposes, which in some cases are also available for ports of
+supply and for repairs. These are: the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis,
+Md., for the instruction of naval cadets; the training stations at
+Newport, R.I., and Yerba Buena Island, Cal., for the instruction of
+apprentices; the proving ground at Indian Head, Md., on the Potomac
+river, where all government-built ordnance is tested; the War College at
+Newport, R.I., for the instruction of officers; the torpedo station at
+Newport, for the instruction of officers and men in torpedoes,
+electricity and submarine diving; the naval observatory at Washington;
+and the marine post at Sitka, Alaska. Coaling depots have been
+established at Honolulu, Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, and at Manila, P.I.
+Naval hospitals are located at the Portsmouth, Boston, New York,
+Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk and Mare Island yards; at Las Animas,
+Colo.; at Newport, R.I.; Canacao, P.I.; Sitka, Alaska; and Yokohama,
+Japan.
+
+The commandant of a navy yard and station, who is usually a
+rear-admiral, is its commander-in-chief. His official assistants are
+called heads of departments. The captain of the yard, who is next in
+succession to command, has general charge of the water front and the
+ships moored there, and of the police of the navy yard; it is his duty
+to keep the commandant informed as to the nature and efficiency of all
+work in progress. The equipment officer has charge of anchors, chains,
+rigging, sails and the electric generating plant. The other heads of
+departments are the ordnance officer, the naval constructor, the
+engineering officer, the general storekeeper, the paymaster of the yard,
+the surgeon and the civil engineer. The clerks and draughtsmen employed
+by these officers are appointed under civil service rules, and their
+employment is continuous so long as funds are available. The foremen are
+selected by competitive examination, and their number is fixed. In the
+employment of mechanics and labourers, veterans are given preference,
+after which follow persons previously employed who have displayed
+especial efficiency and good conduct. The rates of wages are determined
+semi-annually by a board of officers, who ascertain the wages paid by
+private establishments in the vicinity of the navy yard. Eight hours
+constitute the legal work day. When emergencies necessitate longer hours
+the workmen are paid at the ordinary rate plus 50%.
+
+The nature and extent of work to be performed upon naval vessels is
+determined by the secretary of the navy; the commandant then issues the
+necessary orders. The material required is obtained by a system of
+requisitions, which provide for the purchase from the lowest bidder
+after open competition. Heads of departments initiate the purchase of
+materials which are peculiar to their own work; ordinary commercial
+articles, however, are usually carried in a special stock called the
+"Naval Supply Fund," which may be drawn upon by any head of department.
+All materials are inspected, both as to quantity and quality, by a board
+of inspectors consisting of three officers.
+
+  _France._--The French coast is divided into five naval
+  arrondissements, which have their headquarters at the five naval ports
+  of which Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon are the most important, Lorient
+  and Rochefort being of lesser degree. All are building and fitting-out
+  yards. Corsica, which has naval stations at Ajaccio, Porto Vecchio,
+  Bonifacio and other places, is a dependency of the arsenal at Toulon.
+  On the African coast there are docking facilities in Algeria. Bizerta,
+  the Tunisian port, has been made a naval base by the deepening and
+  fortifying of the canal which is the approach to the inner lake. There
+  are arsenals also at Saigon and Hai-phong, and an establishment at
+  Diego Suarez.
+
+  The subsidiary establishments in France are the gun foundry at Ruelle;
+  the steel and iron works at Guerigny, where anchors, chains and
+  armour-plate are made; and the works at Indret, on an island in the
+  lower Loire, where machinery is constructed. There are many private
+  shipbuilding establishments in the country, the most important being
+  the Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee at La Seyne, on the lesser
+  roadstead at Toulon where many French and foreign warships of the
+  largest classes have been built. The same company has a building yard
+  at Havre. Other establishments are the Ateliers et Chantiers de la
+  Loire, at Saint Nazaire; the Normand Yard, at Havre; and the Chantiers
+  de la Gironde, near Bordeaux.
+
+  Each of the arrondissements above mentioned is divided into
+  sous-arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial
+  ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the men of
+  the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with the dockyards as
+  naval arsenals. In each arrondissement the vice-admiral, who is naval
+  prefect, is the immediate representative of the minister of marine,
+  and has full direction and command of the arsenal, which is his
+  headquarters. He is thus commander-in-chief, as also
+  governor-designate for time of war, but his authority does not extend
+  to ships belonging to organized squadrons or divisions. The naval
+  prefect is assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff (except at
+  Lorient and Rochefort, where the office is filled by a captain), and a
+  certain number of officers, the special functions of the chief of the
+  staff having relation principally to the efficiency and _personnel_ of
+  the fleet, while the "major-general," who is usually a rear-admiral,
+  is concerned chiefly with the _materiel_. There are also directors of
+  stores, of naval construction, of the medical service and of the
+  submarine defences (which are concerned with torpedoes, mines and
+  torpedo-boats), as well as of naval ordnance and works. The prefect
+  directs the operations of the arsenal, and is responsible for its
+  efficiency and for that of the ships which are there in reserve. In
+  regard to the constitution and maintenance of the naval forces, the
+  administration of the arsenals is divided into three principal
+  departments, the first concerned with naval construction, the second
+  with ordnance, including gun-mountings and small-arms, and the third
+  with the so-called submarine defences, dealing with all torpedo
+  _materiel_.
+
+  _Germany._--With the expansion of the German navy considerable
+  additions have been made to the two principal dockyards. These are
+  Wilhelmshaven, the naval headquarters on the North Sea, and Kiel, the
+  headquarters on the Baltic, Danzig being an establishment of lesser
+  importance, and Kiao-chau an undeveloped base in the Shantung
+  peninsula, China. The chief official at each home dockyard is the
+  superintendent (_Oberwerftdirektor_), who is a rear-admiral or senior
+  captain directly responsible to the naval secretary of state. Under
+  the superintendent's orders are the chief of the Ausrustung
+  department, or captain of the fleet reserve, the directors of
+  ordnance, torpedoes, navigation, naval construction, engineering and
+  harbour works, with some other officers. The chiefs of the
+  constructive and engineering departments are responsible for the
+  building of ships and machinery, and for the maintenance of the hulls
+  and machinery of existing vessels; while the works department has
+  charge of all work on the quays, docks, &c., in the dockyard and port.
+  A great advance has been made in increasing the efficiency and
+  capabilities of the imperial dockyards by introducing a system of
+  continuous work in the building of new ships and effecting alterations
+  in others, and German material is exclusively used. The Schichau Works
+  at Elbing and Danzig, the Vulkan Yard at Bredow, near Stettin, the
+  Weser Company at Bremen, and the establishment of Blohm and Voss at
+  Hamburg, are important establishments which have built many vessels
+  for the German navy, as well as for foreign states.
+
+  _Italy._--The principal Italian state dockyards are Spezia, Naples and
+  Venice, the first named being by far the most important. It covers an
+  area, including the water spaces, of 629 acres, and there are five dry
+  docks, three being 433 ft. long and 105 ft. wide, and two 361 ft. long
+  and 98 ft. 6 in. wide. The dockyard is very completely equipped with
+  machinery of the best British, German and Italian makes, and it has
+  built several of the finest Italian ships. The number of hands
+  employed in the yard averages 4000. There are two building slips, and
+  for smaller vessels there are two in the neighbouring establishment of
+  San Bartolommeo (which is the headquarters for submarine mining), and
+  one at San Vito, where is a Government gun factory. Castellammare di
+  Stabia is subsidiary to Naples. A large dry dock has been built at
+  Taranto. There is a small naval establishment at Maddalena Island on
+  the Strait of Bonifacio. The Italian Government has no gun or torpedo
+  factories, nearly all the ordnance coming from the Armstrong factory
+  at Pozzuoli near Naples, and the torpedoes from the Schwarzkopf
+  factory at Venice, while armour-plates are produced at the important
+  works at Terni. Machinery is supplied by the firms of Ansaldo, Odero,
+  Orlando, Guppy & Hawthorn and Pattison. The three establishments
+  first named have important shipbuilding yards, and have constructed
+  vessels for the Italian and foreign navies. The Orlando Yard at
+  Leghorn is Government property, but is leased by the firm, and
+  possesses five building slips.
+
+  _Austria-Hungary._--The naval arsenal is on the well-protected harbour
+  of Pola, in Istria, which is the headquarters of the national navy,
+  and includes establishments of all kinds for the maintenance of the
+  fleet. There are large building and docking facilities, and a number
+  of warships have been built there. There is a construction yard also
+  at Trieste. A new coaling and torpedo station is at Teodo, large
+  magazines and stores are at Vallelunga, and the mining establishment
+  is at Ficella. The shipbuilding branch of the navy is under the
+  direction of a chief constructor (_Oberster-Ingenieur_), assisted by
+  seven constructors, of whom two are of the first class. The
+  engineering and ordnance branches are similarly organized.
+
+  _Spain._--The Spanish dockyards are of considerable antiquity, but of
+  diminishing importance. There is an establishment at Ferrol, another
+  at Cartagena, and a third at Cadiz. They are well equipped in all
+  necessary respects, but are not provided with continuous work. A
+  recent arrangement is the specialization of the yards, Ferrol being
+  designed for larger, and Carthagena for smaller, building work. The
+  ordnance establishment is at Carraca.
+
+  _Russia._--In Russia the naval ports are of two classes. The most
+  important are Kronstadt, St Petersburg and Nikolayev. Of lesser
+  importance are Reval, Sveaborg, Sevastopol, Batum, Baku and
+  Vladivostok. The administration of the larger ports, except St
+  Petersburg, which is under special regulations, is in the hands of
+  vice-admirals, who are commanders-in-chief, while the smaller ports
+  are under the direction of rear-admirals. All are directly under the
+  minister of marine, except that the Black Sea ports and Astrabad, on
+  the Caspian, are subordinate to the commander-in-chief at Nikolayev.
+  Sevastopol has grown in importance, and become mainly a naval harbour,
+  the commercial harbour being removed to Theodosia. The Russian
+  government has also proposed to remodel the harbour works at St
+  Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Emperor Alexander III. Port at Libau, on
+  the Baltic, is in a region less liable to be icebound in the winter.
+  There are no strictly private yards for the building of large vessels
+  in Russia, except that of the Black Sea Company at Nikolayev. Messrs
+  Creighton build torpedo-boats at Abo in Finland, and the admiralty has
+  steel works at Ijora, where some torpedo-boats have been built. Other
+  ordnance and steel works are at Obukhov and Putilov.
+
+  _Japan._--The principal Japanese dockyard, which was established by
+  the Shogunate in 1866, is Yokosuka. French naval constructors and
+  engineers were employed, and several wooden ships were built. The
+  Japanese took the administration into their own hands in 1875, and
+  built a number of vessels of small displacement in the yard. The limit
+  of size was about 5000 tons, but the establishment has been enlarged
+  so that vessels of the first class may be built there. There is a
+  first-class modern dry dock which will take the largest battleship.
+  Shipbuilding would be undertaken to a larger extent but for the fact
+  that nearly all material has to come from abroad. Down to 1905 all the
+  important vessels of the Japanese navy were built in Great Britain,
+  France, Germany and the United States, but at the end of that year a
+  first-class cruiser of 13,500 tons (the "Tsukuba") was launched from
+  the important yard at Kure. There are other yards at Sassebo and
+  Maisuru.
+
+
+
+
+DOCTOR (Lat. for "teacher"), the title conferred by the highest
+university degree. Originally there were only two degrees, those of
+bachelor and master, and the title doctor was given to certain masters
+as a merely honorary appellation. The process by which it became
+established as a degree superior to that of master cannot be clearly
+traced. At Bologna it seems to have been conferred in the faculty of law
+as early as the 12th century. Paris conferred the degree in the faculty
+of divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150. In England
+it was introduced in the 13th century; and both in England and on the
+continent it was long confined to the faculties of law and divinity.
+Though the word is so commonly used as synonymous with "physician," it
+was not until the 14th century that the doctor's degree began to be
+conferred in medicine. The tendency since has been to extend it to all
+faculties; thus in Germany, in the faculty of arts, it has replaced the
+old title of _magister_. The doctorate of music was first conferred at
+Oxford and Cambridge.
+
+_Doctors of the Church_ are certain saints whose doctrinal writings have
+obtained, by the universal consent of the Church or by papal decree, a
+special authority. In the case of the great schoolmen a characteristic
+qualification was added to the title doctor, e.g. "angelicus" (Aquinas),
+"mellifluus" (Bernard). The doctors of the Church are: for the East, SS.
+Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom; for
+the West, SS. Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the Great,
+Anselm, Bernard, Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas. To these St Alphonso
+dei Liguori was added by Pope Pius IX.
+
+
+
+
+DOCTORS' COMMONS, the name formerly applied to a society of
+ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct profession for the
+practice of the civil and canon laws. Some members of the profession
+purchased in 1567 a site near St Paul's, on which at their own expense
+they erected houses (destroyed in the great fire, but rebuilt in 1672)
+for the residence of the judges and advocates, and proper buildings for
+holding the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts. In 1768 a royal charter
+was obtained by virtue of which the then members of the society and
+their successors were incorporated under the name and title of "The
+College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty
+Courts." The college consisted of a president (the dean of Arches for
+the time being) and of those doctors of law who, having regularly taken
+that degree in either of the universities of Oxford or Cambridge, and
+having been admitted advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the
+archbishop of Canterbury, were elected fellows in the manner prescribed
+by the charter. There were also attached to the college thirty-four
+proctors, whose duties were analogous to those of solicitors. The judges
+of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected from this college. By
+the Court of Probate Act 1857 the college was empowered to sell its real
+and personal estate and to surrender its charter, and it was enacted
+that on such surrender the college should be dissolved and the property
+thereof belong to the then existing members as tenants in common for
+their own use and benefit. The college was accordingly dissolved, and
+the various ecclesiastical courts which sat at Doctors' Commons (the
+Court of Arches, the Prerogative Court, the Faculty Court and the Court
+of Delegates) are now open to the whole bar.
+
+
+
+
+DOCTRINAIRES, the name given to the leaders of the moderate and
+constitutional Royalists in France after the second restoration of Louis
+XVIII. in 1815. The name, as has often been the case with party
+designations, was at first given in derision, and by an enemy. In 1816
+the _Nain jaune refugie_, a French paper published at Brussels by
+Bonapartist and Liberal exiles, began to speak of M. Royer-Collard as
+the "doctrinaire" and also as _le pere Royer-Collard de la doctrine
+chretienne_. The _peres de la doctrine chretienne_, popularly known as
+the "doctrinaires," were a French religious order founded in 1592 by
+Cesar de Bus. The choice of a nickname for M. Royer-Collard does credit
+to the journalistic insight of the contributors to the _Nain jaune
+refugie_, for he was emphatically a man who made it his business to
+preach a doctrine and an orthodoxy. The popularity of the name and its
+rapid extension to M. Royer-Collard's colleagues is the sufficient proof
+that it was well chosen and had more than a personal application. These
+colleagues came, it is true, from various quarters. The duc de Richelieu
+and M. de Serre had been Royalist _emigres_ during the revolutionary and
+imperial epoch. MM. Royer-Collard himself, Laine, and Maine de Biran had
+sat in the revolutionary Assemblies. MM. Pasquier, Beugnot, de Barante,
+Cuvier, Mounier, Guizot and Decazes had been imperial officials. But
+they were closely united by political principle, and also by a certain
+similarity of method. Some of them, notably Guizot and Maine de Biran,
+were theorists and commentators on the principles of government. M. de
+Barante was an eminent man of letters. All were noted for the doctrinal
+coherence of their principles and the dialectical rigidity of their
+arguments. The object of the party as defined by M. (afterwards the duc)
+Decazes was to "nationalize the monarchy and to royalize France." The
+means by which they hoped to attain this end were a loyal application of
+the charter granted by Louis XVIII., and the steady co-operation of the
+king with the moderate Royalists to defeat the extreme party known as
+the Ultras, who aimed at the complete undoing of the political and
+social work of the Revolution. The Doctrinaires were ready to allow the
+king a large discretion in the choice of his ministers and the direction
+of national policy. They refused to allow that ministers should be
+removed in obedience to a hostile vote in the chamber. Their ideal in
+fact was a combination of a king who frankly accepted the results of
+the Revolution, and who governed in a liberal spirit, with the advice of
+a chamber elected by a very limited constituency, in which men of
+property and education formed, if not the whole, at least the very great
+majority of the voters. Their views were set forth by Guizot in 1816 in
+his treatise _Du gouvernement representatif et de l'etat actuel de la
+France._ The chief organs of the party in the press were the
+_Independent_, renamed the _Constitutionnel_ in 1817, and the _Journal
+des debats_. The supporters of the Doctrinaires in the country were
+chiefly ex-officials of the empire,--who believed in the necessity for
+monarchical government but had a lively memory of Napoleon's tyranny and
+a no less lively hatred of the _ancien regime_--merchants, manufacturers
+and members of the liberal professions, particularly the lawyers. The
+history of the Doctrinaires as a separate political party began in 1816
+and ended in 1830. In 1816 they obtained the co-operation of Louis
+XVIII., who had been frightened by the violence of the Ultras in the
+_Chambre introuvable_ of 1815. In 1830 they were destroyed by Charles X.
+when he took the Ultra prince de Polignac as his minister and entered on
+the conflict with Liberalism in France which ended in his overthrow.
+During the revolution of 1830 the Doctrinaires became absorbed in the
+Orleanists, from whom they had never been separated on any ground of
+principle (see FRANCE: _History_).
+
+The word "doctrinaire" has become naturalized in English terminology, as
+applied, in a slightly contemptuous sense, to a theorist, as
+distinguished from a practical man of affairs.
+
+  See Duvergier de Hauranne, _Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire en
+  France_ (Paris, 1857-1871), vol. iii.
+
+
+
+
+DOCUMENT, strictly, in law, that which can serve as evidence or proof,
+and is written or printed, or has an inscription or any significance
+that can be "read"; thus a picture, authenticated photograph, seal or
+the like would furnish "documentary evidence." More generally the word
+is used for written or printed papers that provide information or
+evidence on a subject. The Latin _documentum_, from which the word is
+derived, meant, in classical times, a lesson, example or proof
+(_docere_, to teach), and only in medieval Latin came to be applied to
+an _instrumentum_, or record in writing. The classical Latin use is
+found in English; thus Jeremy Taylor (Works, ed. 1835, i. 815) speaks of
+punishment being a "single and sudden document if instantly inflicted"
+(see DIPLOMATIC; and EVIDENCE).
+
+
+
+
+DODD, WILLIAM (1729-1777), English divine, was born at Bourne in
+Lincolnshire in May 1729. He was admitted a sizar of Clare Hall,
+Cambridge, in 1745, and took the degree of B.A. in 1750, being fifteenth
+wrangler. On leaving the university he married a young woman of a more
+than questionable reputation, whose extravagant habits helped to ruin
+him. In 1751 he was ordained deacon, and in 1753 priest, and he soon
+became a popular and celebrated preacher. His first preferment was the
+lectureship of West-Ham and Bow. In 1754 he was also chosen lecturer of
+St Olave's, Hart Street; and in 1757 he took the degree of M.A. at
+Cambridge, subsequently becoming LL.D. He was a strenuous supporter of
+the Magdalen hospital, founded in 1758, and soon afterwards became
+preacher at the chapel of that charity. In 1763 he obtained a prebend at
+Brecon, and in the same year he was appointed one of the king's
+chaplains,--soon after which the education of Philip Stanhope,
+afterwards earl of Chesterfield, was committed to his care. In 1768 he
+had a fashionable congregation and was held in high esteem, but
+indiscreet ambition led to his ruin. On the living of St George's,
+Hanover Square, becoming vacant in 1774, Mrs Dodd wrote an anonymous
+letter to the wife of the lord chancellor, offering three thousand
+guineas if, by her assistance, Dodd were promoted to the benefice. This
+letter having been traced, a complaint was immediately made to the king,
+and Dodd was dismissed from his office as chaplain. After residing for
+some time at Geneva and Paris, he returned to England in 1776. He still
+continued to exercise his clerical functions, but his extravagant habits
+soon involved him in difficulties. To meet his creditors he forged a
+bond on his former pupil Lord Chesterfield for L4200, and actually
+received the money. He was detected, committed to prison, tried at the
+Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to death; and, in spite of
+numerous applications for mercy, he was executed at Tyburn on the 27th
+of June 1777. Samuel Johnson was very zealous in pleading for a pardon,
+and a petition from the city of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr
+Dodd was a voluminous writer and possessed considerable abilities, with
+but little judgment and much vanity. He wrote one or two comedies, and
+his _Beauties of Shakespeare_, published in 1752, was long a well-known
+work; while his _Thoughts in Prison_, a poem in blank verse, written
+between his conviction and execution, naturally attracted much
+attention. He published a large number of sermons and other theological
+works, including a _Commentary on the Bible_ (1765-1770). A list of his
+fifty-five writings and an account of the writer is included in the
+_Thoughts in Prison_.
+
+  See also P. Fitzgerald, _A Famous Forgery_ (1865).
+
+
+
+
+DODDER (Frisian _dodd_, a bunch; Dutch _dot_, ravelled thread), the
+popular name of the annual, leafless, twining, parasitic plants forming
+the genus _Cuscuta_, formerly regarded as representing a distinct
+natural order Cuscutaceae, but now generally ranked as a tribe of the
+natural order Convolvulaceae. The genus contains nearly 100 species and
+is widely distributed in the temperate and warmer parts of the earth.
+The slender thread-like stem is white, yellow, or red in colour, bears
+no leaves, and attaches itself by suckers to the stem or leaves of some
+other plant round which it twines and from which it derives its
+nourishment. It bears clusters of small flowers with a four- or
+five-toothed calyx, a cup-shaped corolla with four or five stamens
+inserted on its tube, and sometimes a ring of scales below the stamens;
+the two-celled ovary becomes when ripe a capsule splitting by a ring
+just above the base. The seeds are angular and contain a thread-like
+spirally coiled embryo which bears no cotyledons. On coming in contact
+with the living stem of some other plant the seedling dodder throws out
+a sucker, by which it attaches itself and begins to absorb the sap of
+its foster-parent; it then soon ceases to have any connexion with the
+ground. As it grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself
+firmly on the host-plant (fig. 2). After making a few turns round one
+stem the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining
+and branching till it resembles "fine, closely-tangled, wet catgut." The
+injury done to flax, clover, hop and bean crops by species of dodder is
+often very great. _C. europaea_, the greater dodder (fig. 1) is found
+parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches and the hop; _C. Epilinum_, on
+flax; _C. Epithymum_, on furze, ling and thyme. _C. Trifolii_, the
+Clover Dodder, is perhaps a subspecies of the last mentioned.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Cuscuta europaea_, Dodder.
+
+  1. Flower removed from 2, Calyx.
+  3. Ovary cut across.
+  4. Fruit enveloped by a persistent corolla.
+  5. Seed.
+  6. Embryo.
+
+  1-6 enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cuscuta glomerata_. Section through union
+between parasite and host.
+
+  c, stem of host.
+  d, stem of _Cuscuta_.
+  h, haustoria.
+
+  (After Dodel-Port.)]
+
+
+
+
+DODDRIDGE, PHILIP (1702-1751), English Nonconformist divine, was born in
+London on the 26th of June 1702. His father, Daniel Doddridge, was a
+London merchant, and his mother the orphan daughter of the Rev. John
+Bauman, a Lutheran clergyman who had fled from Prague to escape
+religious persecution, and had held for some time the mastership of the
+grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. Before he could read, his mother
+taught him the history of the Old and New Testament by the assistance of
+some blue Dutch chimney-tiles. He afterwards went to a private school in
+London, and in 1712 to the grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. About
+1715 he was removed to a private school at St Albans, where he was much
+influenced by the Presbyterian minister, Samuel Clarke. He declined
+offers which would have led him into the Anglican ministry or the bar,
+and in 1719 entered the very liberal academy for dissenters at Kibworth
+in Leicestershire, taught at that time by the Rev. John Jennings, whom
+Doddridge succeeded in the ministry at that place in 1723, declining
+overtures from Coventry, Pershore and London (Haberdashers' Hall). In
+1729, at a general meeting of Nonconformist ministers, he was chosen to
+conduct the academy established in that year at Market Harborough. In
+the same year he received an invitation from the independent
+congregation at Northampton, which he accepted. Here he continued his
+multifarious labours; but the church seems to have decreased, and his
+many engagements and bulky correspondence interfered seriously with his
+pulpit work, and with the discipline of his academy, where he had some
+200 students to whom he lectured on philosophy and theology in the
+mathematical or Spinozistic style. In 1751 his health, which had never
+been good, broke down, and he sailed for Lisbon on the 30th of September
+of that year; but the change was unavailing, and he died there on the
+26th of October. His popularity as a preacher is said to have been
+chiefly due to his "high susceptibility, joined with physical advantages
+and perfect sincerity." His sermons were mostly practical in character,
+and his great aim was to cultivate in his hearers a spiritual and
+devotional frame of mind. He laboured for the attainment of a united
+Nonconformist body, which should retain the cultured element without
+alienating the uneducated. His principal works are, _The Rise and
+Progress of Religion in the Soul_ (1745), which best illustrates his
+religious genius, and has been widely translated; _The Family Expositor_
+(6 vols., 1739-1756), _Life of Colonel Gardiner_ (1747); and a _Course
+of Lectures on Pneumatology, Ethics and Divinity_ (1763). He also
+published several courses of sermons on particular topics, and is the
+author of many well-known and justly admired hymns, e.g. "O God of
+Bethel, by whose hand." In 1736 both the universities at Aberdeen gave
+him the degree of D.D.
+
+  See _Memoirs_, by Rev. Job Orton (1766); _Letters to and from Dr
+  Doddridge_, by Rev. Thomas Stedman (1790); and _Correspondence and
+  Diary_, in 5 vols., by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys (1829).
+  The best life is Stanford's _Philip Doddridge_ (1880). Doddridge's
+  academy is now represented by New College, Hampstead, in the library
+  of which there is a large collection of his manuscripts.
+
+
+
+
+DODDS, ALFRED AMEDEE (1842-   ), French general, was born at St Louis,
+Senegal, on the 6th of February 1842; his father's family was of
+Anglo-French origin. He was educated at Carcassonne and at St Cyr, and
+in 1864 joined the marine infantry as a sub-lieutenant. He was promoted
+captain for his services during the disturbances in Reunion in 1868-69,
+in the course of which he was wounded. He served as a company commander
+in the Franco-German War, was taken prisoner at Sedan but escaped, and
+took part in the campaigns of the Loire and of the East. In 1872 he was
+sent to West Africa, and, except when on active service in Cochin China
+(1878) and Tong-King (1883), he remained on duty in Senegal for the next
+twenty years, taking a prominent part in the operations which brought
+the countries of the Upper Senegal and Upper Niger under French rule. He
+led the expeditions against the Boal and Kayor (1889), the Serreres
+(1890) and the Futa (1891), and from 1888 to 1891 was colonel commanding
+the troops in Senegal. At the close of 1891 he returned to France to
+command the eighth marine infantry at Toulon. In April 1892 Dodds was
+selected to command the expeditionary force in Dahomey; he occupied
+Abomey, the hostile capital, in November, and in a second campaign
+(1894) he completed the subjugation of the country. He was then
+appointed inspector-general of the marine infantry, and after a tour of
+the French colonies was given the command of the XX. (Colonial) Army
+Corps, subsequently becoming inspector-general of colonial troops and a
+member of the _Conseil superieur de guerre_.
+
+
+
+
+DODECAHEDRON (Gr. [Greek: dodeka], twelve, and [Greek: hedra], a face or
+base), in geometry, a solid enclosed by twelve plane faces. The
+"ordinary dodecahedron" is one of the Platonic solids (see POLYHEDRON).
+The Greeks discovered that if a line be divided in extreme and mean
+proportion, then the whole line and the greater segment are the lengths
+of the edge of a cube and dodecahedron inscriptible in the same sphere.
+The "small stellated dodecahedron," the "great dodecahedron" and the
+"great stellated dodecahedron" are Kepler-Poinsot solids; and the
+"truncated" and "snub dodecahedra" are Archimedean solids (see
+POLYHEDRON). In crystallography, the regular or ordinary dodecahedron is
+an impossible form since the faces cut the axes in irrational ratios;
+the "pentagonal dodecahedron" of crystallographers has irregular
+pentagons for faces, while the geometrical solid, on the other hand, has
+regular ones. The "rhombic dodecahedron," one of the geometrical
+semiregular solids, is an important crystal form. Many other dodecahedra
+exist as crystal forms, for which see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
+
+
+
+
+DODECASTYLE (Gr. [Greek: dodeka], twelve, and [Greek: stylos], column),
+the architectural term given to a temple where the portico has twelve
+columns in front, as in the portico added to the temple of Demeter at
+Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the arsenal at the
+Peiraeus.
+
+
+
+
+DODERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG (1791-1863), German
+philologist, was born at Jena on the 19th of December 1791. His father,
+Johann Christoph Doderlein, professor of theology at Jena, was
+celebrated for his varied learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and
+for the important influence he exerted in guiding the transition
+movement from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Doderlein,
+after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and Schulpforta
+(Pforta), studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen and Berlin. He devoted
+his chief attention to philology under the instruction of such men as F.
+Thiersch, G. F. Creuzer, J. H. Voss, F. A. Wolf, August Bockh and P. K.
+Buttmann. In 1815, soon after completing his studies at Berlin, he
+accepted the appointment of ordinary professor of philology in the
+academy of Bern. In 1819 he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became
+second professor of philology in the university and rector of the
+gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and rhetoric
+and director of the philological seminary. He died on the 9th of
+November 1863. Doderlein's most elaborate work as a philologist was
+marred by over-subtlety, and lacked method and clearness. He is best
+known by his _Lateinische Synonymen und Etymologien_ (1826-1838), and
+his _Homerisches Glossarium_ (1850-1858). To the same class belong his
+_Lateinische Wortbildung_ (1838), _Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik_
+(1839), and the _Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologie_ (1841), besides
+various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use of schools
+and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been translated into English.
+To critical philology Doderlein contributed valuable editions of Tacitus
+(_Opera_, 1847; _Germania_, with a German translation) and Horace
+(_Epistolae_, with a German translation, 1856-1858; _Satirae_, 1860).
+His _Reden und Aufsatze_ (Erlangen, 1843-1847) and _Offentliche Reden_
+(1860) consist chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various
+subjects in paedagogy and philology.
+
+
+
+
+DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT (1842-1909), American soldier and military
+writer, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of May 1842.
+He received a military education in Germany and subsequently studied at
+Heidelberg and London University, returning to the United States in
+1861. At the outbreak of the Civil War he at once enlisted in the
+federal army, and he soon rose to commissioned rank. He served in the
+Army of the Potomac until Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. Incapacitated
+for further active service, he continued to be employed in
+administrative posts to the end of the war, and for several years
+thereafter he served at army headquarters, becoming captain in 1866 and
+brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He retired in 1870. His works include
+_The Campaign of Chancellorsville_ (1881), _A Bird's Eye View of our
+Civil War_ (1882, later edition 1897), a complete, accurate and
+remarkably concise account of the whole war, _Patroclus and Penelope, a
+Chat in the Saddle_ (1883), _Great Captains_ (1886), a series of
+lectures, _Riders of Many Lands_ (1893), and a series of large
+illustrated volumes entitled _A History of the Art of War_, being lives
+of "Great Captains," including _Alexander_ (2 vols., 1888), _Hannibal_
+(2 vols., 1889), _Caesar_ (2 vols., 1892), _Gustavus Adolphus_ (2 vols.,
+1896) and _Napoleon_ (4 vols., 1904-1907). He died in France, at
+Versailles, on the 26th of October 1909.
+
+
+
+
+DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE ["LEWIS CARROLL"] (1832-1898), English
+mathematician and author, son of the Rev. Charles Dodgson, vicar of
+Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that village on the 27th of January
+1832. The literary life of "Lewis Carroll" became familiar to a wide
+circle of readers, but the private life of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was
+retired and practically uneventful. After four years' schooling at
+Rugby, Dodgson matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850; and
+from 1852 till 1870 held a studentship there. He took a first class in
+the final mathematical school in 1854, and the following year was
+appointed mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he continued to
+fill till 1881. In 1861 he was ordained deacon, but he never took
+priest's orders, possibly because of a stammer which prevented reading
+aloud. His earliest publications, beginning with _A Syllabus of Plane
+Algebraical Geometry_ (1860) and _The Formulae of Plane Trigonometry_
+(1861), were exclusively mathematical; but late in the year 1865 he
+published, under the pseudonym of "Lewis Carroll," _Alice's Adventures
+in Wonderland_, a work that was the outcome of his keen sympathy with
+the imagination of children and their sense of fun. Its success was
+immediate, and the name of "Lewis Carroll" has ever since been a
+household word. A dramatic version of the "Alice" books by Mr Savile
+Clarke was produced at Christmas, 1886, and has since enjoyed many
+revivals. Mr Dodgson was always very fond of children, and it was an
+open secret that the original of "Alice" was a daughter of Dean Liddell.
+_Alice_ was followed (in the "Lewis Carroll" series) by
+_Phantasmagoria_, in 1869; _Through the Looking-Glass_, in 1871; _The
+Hunting of the Snark_ (1876); _Rhyme and Reason_ (1883); _A Tangled
+Tale_ (1885); and _Sylvie and Bruno_ (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He
+wrote skits on Oxford subjects from time to time. _The Dynamics of a
+Particle_ was written on the occasion of the contest between Gladstone
+and Mr Gathorne Hardy (afterwards earl of Cranbrook); and _The New
+Belfry_ in ridicule of the erection put up at Christ Church for the
+bells that were removed from the Cathedral tower. While "Lewis Carroll"
+was delighting children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson periodically
+published mathematical works--_An Elementary Treatise on Determinants_
+(1867); _Euclid, Book V., proved Algebraically_ (1874); _Euclid and his
+Modern Rivals_ (1879), the work on which his reputation as a
+mathematician largely rests; and _Curiosa Mathematica_ (1888).
+Throughout this dual existence Mr Dodgson pertinaciously refused to
+acquiesce in being publicly identified with "Lewis Carroll." Though the
+fact of his authorship of the "Alice" books was well known, he
+invariably stated, when occasion called for such a pronouncement, that
+"Mr Dodgson neither claimed nor acknowledged any connexion with the
+books not published under his name." He died at Guildford, on the 14th
+of January 1898. His memory is appropriately kept green by a cot in the
+Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London, which was endowed
+perpetually by a public subscription.
+
+  See S. D. Collingwood, _Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+DODO (from the Portuguese _Doudo_, a simpleton), a large bird formerly
+inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct--the _Didus ineptus_
+of Linnaeus. When, in 1507, the Portuguese discovered the island which
+we now know as Mauritius they named it _Ilha do Cerne_, from a notion
+that it must be the island of that name mentioned by Pliny; but most
+authors have insisted that it was known to the seamen of that nation as
+_Ilha do Cisne_--perhaps but a corruption of Cerne, and brought about by
+their finding it stocked with large fowls, which, though not aquatic,
+they likened to swans, the most familiar to them of bulky birds. In 1598
+the Dutch, under Van Neck, took possession of the island and renamed it
+Mauritius. A narrative of this voyage was published, in 1601, if not
+earlier, and has been often reprinted. Here we have birds spoken of as
+big as swans or bigger, with large heads, no wings, and a tail
+consisting of a few curly feathers. The Dutch called them _Walgvogels_
+(the word is variously spelled), i.e. nauseous birds, either because no
+cooking made them palatable, or because this island-paradise afforded an
+abundance of fare so much superior. De Bry gives two admirably quaint
+prints of the doings of the Hollanders, and in one of them the
+_Walgvogel_ appears, being the earliest published representation of its
+unwieldy form, with a footnote stating that the voyagers brought an
+example alive to Holland. Among the company there was a draughtsman, and
+from a sketch of his, Clusius, a few years after, gave a figure of the
+bird, which he vaguely called "_Gallinaceus Gallus peregrinus_," but
+described rather fully. Meanwhile two other Dutch fleets had visited
+Mauritius. One of them had rather an accomplished artist on board, and
+his drawings fortunately still exist (see article BIRD). Of the other a
+journal kept by one of the skippers was subsequently published. This in
+the main corroborates what has been before said of the birds, but adds
+the curious fact that they were now called by some _Dodaarsen_ and by
+others _Dronten_.[1]
+
+Henceforth Dutch narrators, though several times mentioning the bird,
+fail to supply any important fact in its history. Their navigators,
+however, were not idle, and found work for their naturalists and
+painters. Clusius says that in 1605 he saw at Pauw's House in Leyden a
+dodo's foot,[2] which he minutely describes. In a copy of Clusius's work
+in the high school of Utrecht is pasted an original drawing by Van de
+Venne superscribed "Vera effigies huius avis _Walghvogel_ (quae & a
+nautis _Dodaers_ propter foedam posterioris partis crassitiem
+nuncupatur), qualis viua Amsterodamum perlata est ex insula Mauritii.
+Anno M.DC.XXVI." Now a good many paintings of the dodo drawn from life
+by Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) exist; and the paintings by him at Berlin
+and Vienna--dated 1626 and 1628--as well as the picture by Goiemare,
+belonging to the duke of Northumberland, dated 1627, may be with greater
+plausibility than ever considered portraits of a captive bird. It is
+even probable that this was not the first example painted in Europe. In
+the private library of the emperor Francis I. of Austria was a series of
+pictures of various animals, supposed to be by the Dutch artist
+Hoefnagel, who was born about 1545. One of these represents a dodo, and,
+if there be no mistake in Von Frauenfeld's ascription, it must almost
+certainly have been painted before 1626, while there is reason to think
+that the original may have been kept in the _vivarium_ of the emperor
+Rudolf II., and that the portion of a dodo's head, which was found in
+the museum at Prague about 1850, belonged to this example. The other
+pictures by Roelandt Savery, like those in the possession of the
+Zoological Society of London and others, are undated, but were probably
+all painted about the same time--1626-1628. The large picture in the
+British Museum, once belonging to Sir Hans Sloane, by an unknown artist,
+but supposed to be by Roelandt Savery, is also undated; while the still
+larger one at Oxford (considered to be by the younger Savery) bears a
+much later date, 1651. Undated also is a picture in Holland said to be
+by Pieter Holsteyn.
+
+In 1628 we have the evidence of the first English observer of the
+bird--one Emanuel Altham, who mentions it in two letters written on the
+same day from Mauritius to his brother at home (_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1874,
+pp. 447-449). In one he says: "You shall receue ... a strange fowle:
+which I had at the Iland Mauritius called by ye portingalls a Do Do:
+which for the rareness thereof I hope wilbe welcome to you." The passage
+in the other letter is to the same effect, with the addition of the
+words "if it liue." In the same fleet with Altham sailed Sir Thomas
+Herbert, whose _Travels_ ran through several editions. It is plain that
+he could not have reached Mauritius till 1629, though 1627 has been
+usually assigned as the date of his visit. The fullest account he gives
+of the bird is in his edition of 1638: "The Dodo comes first to a
+description: here, and in _Dygarrois_[3] (and no where else, that ever I
+could see or heare of) is generated the Dodo (a Portuguize name it is,
+and has reference to her simpleness,) a Bird which for shape and
+rareness might be call'd a Phoenix (wer't in Arabia:)" &c. Herbert was
+weak as an etymologist, but his positive statement, corroborated as it
+is by Altham, cannot be set aside, and hence we do not hesitate to
+assign a Portuguese derivation for the word.[4] Herbert also gave a
+figure of the bird.
+
+Proceeding chronologically we next come upon a curious bit of evidence.
+This is contained in a MS. diary kept between 1626 and 1640, by Thomas
+Crossfield of Queen's College, Oxford, where, under the year 1634,
+mention is casually made of one Mr Gosling "who bestowed the Dodar (a
+blacke Indian bird) vpon ye Anatomy school." Nothing more is known of
+it. About 1638, Sir Hamon Lestrange tells us, as he walked London
+streets he saw the picture of a strange fowl hung out on a cloth canvas,
+and going in to see it found a great bird kept in a chamber "somewhat
+bigger than the largest Turky cock, and so legged and footed, but
+shorter and thicker." The keeper called it a dodo and showed the
+visitors how his captive would swallow "large peble stones ... as bigge
+as nutmegs."
+
+In 1651 Morisot published an account of a voyage made by Francois
+Cauche, who professed to have passed fifteen days in Mauritius, or
+"l'isle de Saincte Apollonie," as he called it, in 1638. According to De
+Flacourt the narrative is not very trustworthy, and indeed certain
+statements are obviously inaccurate. Cauche says he saw there birds
+bigger than swans, which he describes so as to leave no doubt of his
+meaning dodos; but perhaps the most important facts (if they be facts)
+that he relates are that they had a cry like a gosling ("il a un cry
+comme l'oison"), and that they laid a single white egg ("gros comme un
+pain d'un sol") on a mass of grass in the forests. He calls them
+"oiseaux de Nazaret," perhaps, as a marginal note informs us, from an
+island of that name which was then supposed to lie more to the
+northward, but is now known to have no existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Skeleton of a Dodo, _Didus ineptus_, Museum of
+Zoology, Cambridge, and cast of a Head in Oxford.]
+
+In the catalogue of Tradescant's _Collection of Rarities, preserved at
+South Lambeth_, published in 1656, we have entered among the "Whole
+Birds," a "Dodar from the island _Mauritius_; it is not able to flie
+being so big." This specimen may well have been the skin of the bird
+seen by Lestrange some eighteen years before, but anyhow we are able to
+trace the specimen through Willughby, Edward Llwyd and Thomas Hyde, till
+it passed in or before 1684 to the Ashmolean collection at Oxford. In
+1755 it was ordered to be destroyed, but, in accordance with the
+original orders of Ashmole, its head and right foot were preserved, and
+still ornament the museum of that university. In the second edition of a
+_Catalogue of many Natural Rarities_, &c., "to be seen at the place
+formerly called the Music House, near the West End of St Paul's Church,"
+collected by one Hubert _alias_ Forbes, and published in 1665, mention
+is made of a "legge of a Dodo, a great heavy bird that cannot fly; it is
+a Bird of the Mauricius Island." This is supposed to have subsequently
+passed into the possession of the Royal Society. At all events such a
+specimen is included in Grew's list of their treasures which was
+published in 1681. This was afterwards transferred to the British
+Museum. It is a left foot, without the integuments, but it differs
+sufficiently in size from the Oxford specimen to forbid its having been
+part of the same individual. In 1666 Olearius brought out the
+_Gottorffische Kunst Kammer_, wherein he describes the head of a
+_Walghvogel_ which some sixty years later was removed to the museum at
+Copenhagen, and is now preserved there, having been the means of first
+leading zoologists, under the guidance of Prof. J. Th. Reinhardt, to
+recognize the true affinities of the bird.
+
+We have passed over all but the principal narratives of voyagers or
+other notices of the bird. A compendious bibliography, up to the year
+1848, will be found in Strickland's classical work,[5] and the list was
+continued by Von Frauenfeld[6] for twenty years later. The last
+evidence we have of the dodo's existence is furnished by a journal kept
+by Benj. Harry, and now in the British Museum (_MSS. Addit. 3668._ II.
+D). This shows its survival till 1681, but the writer's sole remark upon
+it is that its "fflesh is very hard." The successive occupation of the
+island by different masters seems to have destroyed every tradition
+relating to the bird, and doubts began to arise whether such a creature
+had ever existed. Dr Henry Duncan, Scottish minister and journalist, in
+1828, showed how ill-founded these doubts were, and some ten years later
+William John Broderip with much diligence collected all the available
+evidence into an admirable essay, which in its turn was succeeded by
+Strickland's monograph just mentioned. But in the meanwhile little was
+done towards obtaining any material advance in our knowledge, Prof.
+Reinhardt's determination of its affinity to the pigeons (_Columbae_)
+excepted; and it was hardly until George Clark's discovery in 1865 of a
+large number of dodos' remains in the mud of a pool (the Mare aux
+Songes) that zoologists generally were prepared to accept that affinity
+without question. The examination of bone after bone by Sir R. Owen
+(_Trans. Zool. Soc._ vi. p. 49) confirmed the judgment of the Danish
+naturalist.
+
+In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the government of Mauritius, sent a
+great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward Newton.[7] From
+these the first correctly restored and properly mounted skeleton was
+prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded to the museum of Mauritius.
+Good specimens are in the British Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge,
+England.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Solitaire of Rodriguez (_Pezophaps
+solitarius_). From Leguat's figure.]
+
+The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny hook;
+the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow. The plumage
+was dark ash-coloured, with whitish breast and tail, yellowish white
+wings (incapable of flight). The short tail formed a curly tuft.
+
+The dodo is said to have inhabited forests and to have laid one large
+white egg on a mass of grass. Besides man, hogs and other imported
+animals seem to have exterminated it. But the dodo is not the only
+member of its family that has vanished. The little island which has
+successively borne the name of Mascaregnas, England's Forest, Bourbon
+and Reunion, and lies to the southward of Mauritius, had also an allied
+bird, now dead and gone. Of this not a relic has been handled by any
+naturalist. The latest description of it, by Du Bois in 1674, is very
+meagre, while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure, apparently intended to
+represent it. It was originally called the "solitaire," but this name
+was also applied to _Pezophaps solitarius_ of Rodriguez by the Huguenot
+exile Leguat, who described and figured it about 1691.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Skeleton of a male Solitaire, _Pezophaps
+solitarius_, Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.]
+
+The solitaire, Didus solitarius of Gmelin, referred by Strickland to a
+district genus Pezophaps, is supposed to have lingered in the island of
+Rodriguez until about 1761. Leguat[8] has given a delightful description
+of its quaint habits. The male stood about 2 ft. 9 in. high; its colour
+was brownish grey, that of its mate more inclined to brown, with a
+whitish breast. The wings were rudimentary, the tail very small, almost
+hidden, and the thigh feathers were thick and curled "like shells." A
+round mass of bone, "as big as a musket ball," was developed on the
+wings of the males, and they used it as a weapon of offence while they
+whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five minutes,
+making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The mien was fierce and
+the walk stately, the birds living singly or in pairs. The nest was a
+heap of palm leaves a foot high, and contained a single large egg which
+was incubated by both parents. The food consisted of seeds and leaves,
+and the birds aided digestion by swallowing large stones; these were
+used by the Dutch sailors to sharpen their knives with. One of these
+stones, nearly an inch and a half in length, of extremely hard volcanic
+rock, is in the Cambridge museum. The fighting knobs mentioned above,
+are very interesting, large exostoses on one of the wrist-bones of
+either wing; they were undoubtedly covered with a thick, callous skin.
+Thousands of bones of this curious flightless pigeon were collected
+through Sir E. Newton's[9] exertions, and by H. H. Sclater on behalf of
+the Royal Society of London. The results are several almost complete
+skeletons of both sexes, composed however out of the enormous mass of
+the dissociated bones.     (A. N.; H. F. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The etymology of these names has been much discussed. That of the
+    latter, which has generally been adopted by German and French
+    authorities, seems to defy investigation, but the former has been
+    shown by Prof. Schlegel (_Versl. en Mededeel. K. Akad. Wetensch._ ii.
+    pp. 255 et seq.) to be the homely name of the dabchick or little
+    grebe (_Podiceps minor_), of which the Dutchmen were reminded by the
+    round stern and tail diminished to a tuft that characterized the
+    dodo. The same learned authority suggests that dodo is a corruption
+    of _Dodaars_, but, as will presently be seen, we herein think him
+    mistaken.
+
+  [2] What has become of the specimen (which may have been a relic of
+    the bird brought home by Van Neck's squadron) is not known. Broderip
+    and Dr Gray have suggested its identity with that now in the British
+    Museum, but on what grounds is not apparent.
+
+  [3] i.e. Rodriguez; an error.
+
+  [4] Hence we venture to dispute Prof. Schlegel's supposed origin of
+    "Dodo." The Portuguese must have been the prior nomenclators, and if,
+    as is most likely, some of their nation, or men acquainted with their
+    language, were employed to pilot the Hollanders, we see at once how
+    the first Dutch name _Walghvogel_ would give way. The meaning of
+    _Doudo_ not being plain to the Dutch, they would, as is the habit of
+    sailors, convert it into something they did understand. Then
+    _Dodaers_ would easily suggest itself.
+
+  [5] _The Dodo and its Kindred_, by H. E. Strickland and A. G.
+    Melville (London, 1848, 4to).
+
+  [6] _Neu aufgefundene Abbildung des Dronte_, by Georg Ritter von
+    Frauenfeld (Wien, 1868, fol.).
+
+  [7] E. Newton and H. Gadow, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xiii. (1893) pp.
+    281-302, pls.
+
+  [8] _Voyage et aventures de Francois Leguat_, &c. (2 vols., London,
+    1708). An English translation, edited with many additional
+    illustrations by Captain Oliver, has been published by the Hakluyt
+    Society (2 vols., 1891).
+
+  [9] E. Newton and J. W. Clark, _Phil. Trans._ clix. (1869), pp.
+    327-362; clxviii. (1879), pp. 448-451.
+
+
+
+
+DODONA, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and venerable of all
+Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near Tsacharovista. In
+later times the Greeks of the south looked on the inhabitants of Epirus
+as barbarians; nevertheless for Dodona they always preserved a certain
+reverence, and the temple there was the object of frequent missions from
+them. This temple was dedicated to Zeus, and connected with the temple
+was an oracle which enjoyed more reputation in Greece than any other
+save that at Delphi, and which would seem to date from earlier times
+than the worship of Zeus; for the normal method of gathering the
+responses of the oracle was by listening to the rustling of an old oak
+tree, which was supposed to be the seat of the deity. We seem here to
+have a remnant of the very ancient and widely diffused tree-worship.
+Sometimes, however, auguries were taken in other manners, being drawn
+from the moaning of doves in the branches, the murmur of a fountain
+which rose close by, or the resounding of the wind in the brazen
+caldrons which formed a circle all round the temple. Croesus proposed to
+the oracle his well-known question; Lysander sought to obtain from it a
+sanction for his ambitious views; the Athenians frequently appealed to
+its authority during the Peloponnesian War. But the most frequent
+votaries were the neighbouring tribes of the Acarnanians and Aetolians,
+together with the Boeotians, who claimed a special connexion with the
+district.
+
+Dodona is not unfrequently mentioned by ancient writers. It is spoken of
+in the _Iliad_ as the stormy abode of Selli who sleep on the ground and
+wash not their feet, and in the _Odyssey_ an imaginary visit of Odysseus
+to the oracle is referred to. A Hesiodic fragment gives a complete
+description of the Dodonaea or Hellopia, which is called a district full
+of corn-fields, of herds and flocks and of shepherds, where is built on
+an extremity ([Greek: ep eschatie]) Dodona, where Zeus dwells in the
+stem of an oak ([Greek: phegos]). The priestesses were called doves
+([Greek: peleiai]) and Herodotus tells a story which he learned at
+Egyptian Thebes, that the oracle of Dodona was founded by an Egyptian
+priestess who was carried away by the Phoenicians, but says that the
+local legend substitutes for this priestess a black dove, a substitution
+in which he tries to find a rational meaning. From inscriptions and
+later writers we learn that in historical times there was worshipped,
+together with Zeus, a consort named Dione (see further ZEUS; ORACLE;
+DIONE).
+
+The ruins, consisting of a theatre, the walls of a town, and some other
+buildings, had been conjectured to be those of Dodona by Wordsworth in
+1832, but the conjecture was changed into ascertained fact by the
+excavations of Constantin Carapanos. In 1875 he made some preliminary
+investigations; soon after, an extensive discovery of antiquities was
+made by peasants, digging without authority; and after this M. Carapanos
+made a systematic excavation of the whole site to a considerable depth.
+The topographical and architectural results are disappointing, and show
+either that the site always retained its primitive simplicity, or else
+that whatever buildings once existed have been very completely
+destroyed.
+
+To the south of the hill, on which are the walls of the town, and to the
+east of the theatre, is a plateau about 200 yds. long and 50 yds. wide.
+Towards the eastern end of this terrace are the scanty remains of a
+building which can hardly be anything but the temple of Zeus; it appears
+to have consisted of pronaos, naos or cella, and opisthodomus, and some
+of the lower drums of the internal columns of the cella were still
+resting on their foundations. No trace of any external colonnade was
+found. The temple was about 130 ft. by 80 ft. It had been converted into
+a Christian church, and hardly anything of its architecture seems to
+have survived. In it and around it were found the most interesting
+products of excavation--statuettes and decorative bronzes, many of them
+bearing dedications to Zeus Naius and Dione, and inscriptions, including
+many small tablets of lead which contained the questions put to the
+oracle. Farther to the west, on the same terrace, were two rectangular
+buildings, which M. Carapanos conjectures to have been connected with
+the oracle, but which show no distinguishing features.
+
+Below the terrace was a precinct, surrounded by walls and flanked with
+porticoes and other buildings; it is over 100 yds. in length and
+breadth, and of irregular shape. One of the buildings on the
+south-western side contained a pedestal or altar, and is identified by
+M. Carapanos as a temple of Aphrodite, on the insufficient evidence of a
+single dedicated object; it does not seem to have any of the
+characteristics of a temple. In front of the porticoes are rows of
+pedestals, which once bore statues and other dedications. At the
+southern corner of the precinct is a kind of gate or propylaeum, flanked
+with two towers, between which are placed two coarse limestone drums. If
+these are _in situ_ and belong to the original gateway, it must have
+been of a very rough character; it does not seem probable that they
+carried, as M. Carapanos suggests, the statuette and bronze bowl by
+which divinations were carried on.
+
+The chief interest of the excavation centres in the smaller antiquities
+discovered, which have now been transferred from M. Carapanos's
+collection to the National Museum in Athens. Among the dedications, the
+most interesting historically are a set of weapons dedicated by King
+Pyrrhus from the spoils of the Romans, including characteristic
+specimens of the pilum. The leaden tablets of the oracle contain no
+certain example of a response, though there are many questions, varying
+from matters of public policy or private enterprise to inquiries after
+stolen goods.
+
+The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the Aetolians in 219 B.C., but the
+oracle survived to the times of Pausanias and even of the emperor
+Julian.
+
+  See C. Wordsworth, _Greece_ (1839), p. 247; Constantin Carapanos,
+  _Dodone et ses ruines_ (Paris, 1878). For the oracle inscriptions, see
+  E. S. Roberts in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, vol. i. p. 228. (E.
+  GR.)
+
+
+
+
+DODS, MARCUS (1834-1909), Scottish divine and biblical scholar, was born
+at Belford, Northumberland, the youngest son of Rev. Marcus Dods,
+minister of the Scottish church of that town. He was trained at
+Edinburgh Academy and Edinburgh University, graduating in 1854. Having
+studied theology for five years he was licensed in 1858, and in 1864
+became minister of Renfield Free Church, Glasgow, where he worked for
+twenty-five years. In 1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament
+Exegesis in the New College, Edinburgh, of which he became principal on
+the death of Dr Rainy in 1907. He died in Edinburgh on the 26th of April
+1909. Throughout his life, both ministerial and professorial, he devoted
+much time to the publication of theological books. Several of his
+writings, especially a sermon on Inspiration delivered in 1878, incurred
+the charge of unorthodoxy, and shortly before his election to the
+Edinburgh professorship he was summoned before the General Assembly, but
+the charge was dropped by a large majority, and in 1891 he received the
+honorary degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University. He edited Lange's
+_Life of Christ_ in English (Edinburgh, 1864, 6 vols.), Augustine's
+works (1872-1876), and, with Dr Alexander Whyte, Clark's "Handbooks for
+Bible Classes" series. In the Expositor's Bible series he edited Genesis
+and 1 Corinthians, and he was also a contributor to the 9th edition of
+the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_.
+Among other important works are: _The Epistle to the Seven Churches_
+(1865); _Israel's Iron Age_ (1874); _Mohammed, Buddha and Christ_
+(1877); _Handbook on Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi_ (1879); _The Gospel
+according to St John_ (1897), in the Expositor's Greek Testament; _The
+Bible, its Origin and Nature_ (1904), the Bross Lectures, in which he
+gave an able sketch of the use of Old Testament criticism, and finally
+set forth his Theory of Inspiration. Apart from his great services to
+Biblical scholarship he takes high rank among those who have sought to
+bring the results of technical criticism within the reach of the
+ordinary reader.
+
+
+
+
+DODSLEY, ROBERT (1703-1764), English bookseller and miscellaneous
+writer, was born in 1703 near Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, where his
+father was master of the free school. He is said to have been
+apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in Mansfield, from whom he ran away,
+taking service as a footman. In 1729 Dodsley published his first work,
+_Servitude; a Poem ... written by a Footman_, with a preface and
+postscript ascribed to Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, _A
+Muse in Livery, or the Footman's Miscellany_, was published by
+subscription in 1732, Dodsley's patrons comprising many persons of high
+rank. This was followed by a satirical farce called _The Toyshop_
+(Covent Garden, 1735), in which the toyman indulges in moral
+observations on his wares, a hint which was probably taken from Thomas
+Randolph's _Conceited Pedlar_. The profits accruing from the sale of his
+works enabled Dodsley to establish himself with the help of his
+friends--Pope lent him L100--as a bookseller at the "Tully's Head" in
+Pall Mall in 1735. His enterprise soon made him one of the foremost
+publishers of the day. One of his first publications was Dr Johnson's
+_London_, for which he gave ten guineas in 1738. He published many of
+Johnson's works, and he suggested and helped to finance the _English
+Dictionary_. Pope also made over to Dodsley his interest in his letters.
+In 1738 the publication of Paul Whitehead's _Manners_, voted scandalous
+by the Lords, led to a short imprisonment. Dodsley published for Edward
+Young and Mark Akenside, and in 1751 brought out Thomas Gray's _Elegy_.
+He also founded several literary periodicals: _The Museum_ (1746-1767, 3
+vols.); _The Preceptor containing a general course of education_ (1748,
+2 vols.), with an introduction by Dr Johnson; _The World_ (1753-1756, 4
+vols.); and _The Annual Register_, founded in 1758 with Edmund Burke as
+editor. To these various works, Horace Walpole, Akenside, Soame Jenyns,
+Lord Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield, Burke and others were contributors.
+Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor of two collections:
+_Select Collection of Old Plays_ (12 vols., 1744; 2nd edition with notes
+by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition, by W. C. Hazlitt, 1874-1876,
+15 vols.); and _A collection of Poems by Several Hands_ (1748, 3 vols.),
+which passed through many editions. In 1737 his _King and the Miller of
+Mansfield_, a "dramatic tale" of King Henry II., was produced at Drury
+Lane, and received with much applause; the sequel, _Sir John Cockle at
+Court_, a farce, appeared in 1738. In 1745 he published a collection of
+his dramatic works, and some poems which had been issued separately, in
+one volume under the modest title of _Trifles_. This was followed by
+_The Triumph of Peace, a Masque occasioned by the Treaty of
+Aix-la-Chapelle_ (1749); a fragment, entitled _Agriculture_, of a long
+tedious poem in blank verse on _Public Virtue_ (1753); _The Blind Beggar
+of Bethnal Green_ (acted at Drury Lane 1739, printed 1741); and an ode,
+_Melpomene_ (1757). His tragedy of _Cleone_ (1758) had a long run at
+Covent Garden, 2000 copies being sold on the day of publication, and it
+passed through four editions within the year. Lord Chesterfield is,
+however, almost certainly the author of the series of mock chronicles of
+which _The Chronicle of the Kings of England_ by "Nathan ben Saddi"
+(1740) is the first, although they were included in the _Trifles_ and
+"ben Saddi" was received as Dodsley's pseudonym. _The Economy of Human
+Life_ (1750), a collection of moral precepts frequently reprinted, is
+also by Lord Chesterfield. In 1759 Dodsley retired, leaving the conduct
+of the business to his brother James (1724-1797), with whom he had been
+many years in partnership. He published two more works, _The Select
+Fables of Aesop translated by R. D._ (1764) and the _Works of William
+Shenstone_ (3 vols., 1764-1769). He died at Durham while on a visit to
+his friend the Rev. Joseph Spence, on the 23rd of September 1764.
+
+  See also _Shadows of the Old Booksellers_, by Charles Knight (1865),
+  pp. 189-216; "At Tully's Head" in _Eighteenth Century Vignettes_, 2nd
+  series, by Austin Dobson (1894); E. Solly in _The Bibliographer_, v.
+  (1884) pp. 57-61. Dodsley's poems are reprinted with a memoir in A.
+  Chalmers's _Works of English Poets_, vol. xv. (1810).
+
+
+
+
+DODSWORTH, ROGER (1585-1654), English antiquary, was born near
+Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire. He devoted himself early to antiquarian research,
+in which he was greatly assisted by the fact that his father, Matthew
+Dodsworth, was registrar of York cathedral, and could give him access to
+the records preserved there. He married the widow of Laurence Rawsthorne
+of Hutton Grange, where he subsequently resided till his death in August
+1654. At various times in his life he was enabled to study the records
+in the library of Sir Robert Cotton, in Skipton Castle, and in the Tower
+of London. He collected a vast store of materials for a history of
+Yorkshire, a _Monasticon Anglicanum_, and an English baronage. The
+second of these was published with considerable additions by Sir William
+Dugdale (2 vols., 1655 and 1661). The MSS. were left to Thomas, third
+Lord Fairfax, who by his will bequeathed them (160 volumes in all) to
+the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Portions have been printed by the
+Yorkshire Archaeological Society (_Dodsworth's Yorkshire Notes_, 1884)
+and the Chetham Society (copies of Lancashire postmortem inquisitions,
+1875-1876).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 5 ***
+
+***** This file should be named 32689.txt or 32689.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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