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diff --git a/32689.txt b/32689.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9fade9 --- /dev/null +++ b/32689.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15024 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 8, Slice 5, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5 + "Dinard" to "Dodsworth" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: June 4, 2010 [EBook #32689] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8 SL 5 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x]. + +(5) Letters with a dot below are represented as [x.]. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Article DIPLOMATIC: "Of later date was the Ars dictaminis of + Bernard of Chartres of the 12th century." Omitted a superfluous '('. + + Article DIPTERA: "they are simply Cyclorrhapha much modified owing + to parasitism, and in view of the closely similar mode of + reproduction in the tsetse-flies the special designation Pupipara + should be abandoned." 'similar' amended from 'similiar'. + + Article DIPTERA: "The famous Tertiary beds at Florissant, Colorado, + have yielded a considerable number of remarkably well-preserved + Tipulidae." 'of' amended from 'or'. + + Article DIRECTORS: "They have to carry on the company's business, + to extend and consolidate it, and to do this they must have a free + hand and a large discretion to deal with the exigencies of the + commercial situation." 'commercial' amended from 'commerical'. + + Article DIVERS: "But so exhausting is the work, and so severe the + strain on the system, that, after a number of dives in deep water, + the men often become insensible, and blood sometimes bursts from + nose, ears and mouth." 'sometimes' amended from 'sometime'. + + Article DIVORCE: "It is interesting to compare these provisions as + to children with the practice at present under English law, which + in this respect reflects so closely the spirit of the law of Rome." + 'children' amended from 'childern'. + + Article DLUGOSZ, JAN: "The office of administering the cardinal's + estate was a very ungrateful one, for the family resented the + liberal benefactions of their kinsman to the Church and the + university, and accused Dlugosz of exercising undue influence". + 'university' amended from 'univesity'. + + Article DOCK: "The basins of such ports are always accessible for + vessels of the draught they provide for; but they require most + efficient protection, and, unlike tidal ports, they are not able on + exceptional occasions to admit a vessel of larger draught than the + basins have been formed to accommodate." 'on' amended from 'to'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VIII, SLICE V + + Dinard to Dodsworth + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + DINARD DISSECTION + DINDIGUL DISSENTER + KARL WILHELM DINDORF DISSOCIATION + D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-VINCENT DISSOLUTION + DINEIR DISTAFF + DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON DISTILLATION + DINGHY DISTRACTION + DINGLE DISTRESS + DINGO DISTRIBUTION + DINGWALL DISTRICT + DINKA DISTYLE + DINKELSBUHL DITHMARSCHEN + DINNER DITHYRAMBIC POETRY + DINOCRATES DITTERSBACH + DINOFLAGELLATA DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON + DINOTHERIUM DITTO + DINWIDDIE, ROBERT DITTON, HUMPHRY + DIO CASSIUS DIU + DIOCESE DIURETICS + DIO CHRYSOSTOM DIURNAL MOTION + DIOCLETIAN DIVAN + DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF DIVER + DIODATI, GIOVANNI DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS + DIODORUS CRONUS DIVES-SUR-MER + DIODORUS SICULUS DIVIDE + DIODOTUS DIVIDEND + DIOGENES DIVIDIVI + DIOGENES APOLLONIATES DIVINATION + DIOGENES LAERTIUS DIVINING-ROD + DIOGENIANUS DIVISION + DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO DIVORCE + DIOMEDES (Greek legend) DIWANIEH + DIOMEDES (Latin grammarian) DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE + DION DIX, JOHN ADAMS + DIONE DIXON, GEORGE + DIONYSIA DIXON, HENRY HALL + DIONYSIUS (pope) DIXON, RICHARD WATSON + DIONYSIUS (tyrant of Syracuse) DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH + DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS DIXON + DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS DIZFUL + DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS DJAKOVO + DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES DLUGOSZ, JAN + DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH + DIONYSIUS THRAX DNIEPER + DIONYSUS DNIESTER + DIOPHANTUS DOAB + DIOPSIDE DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON + DIOPTASE DOBBS FERRY + DIORITE DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON + DIP DOBELN + DIPHENYL DOBERAN + DIPHILUS DOBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG + DIPHTHERIA DOBREE, PETER PAUL + DIPLODOCUS DOBRENTEI, GABOR + DIPLOMACY DOBRITCH + DIPLOMATIC DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN + DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH + DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD DOBRUDJA + DIPSOMANIA DOBSINA + DIPTERA DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN + DIPTERAL DOBSON, WILLIAM + DIPTYCH DOCETAE + DIR DOCHMIAC + DIRCE DOCK + DIRECT MOTION DOCK (botany) + DIRECTORS DOCK (marine and river engineering) + DIRECTORY DOCKET + DIRGE DOCK WARRANT + DIRK DOCKYARDS + DIRSCHAU DOCTOR + DISABILITY DOCTORS' COMMONS + DISCHARGE DOCTRINAIRES + DISCHARGING ARCH DOCUMENT + DISCIPLE DODD, WILLIAM + DISCIPLES OF CHRIST DODDER + DISCLAIMER DODDRIDGE, PHILIP + DISCOUNT DODDS, ALFRED AMEDEE + DISCOVERY DODECAHEDRON + DISCUS DODECASTYLE + DISINFECTANTS DODERLEIN, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG + DISMAL DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT + DISORDERLY HOUSE DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE + DISPATCH DODO + DISPENSATION DODONA + DISPERSION DODS, MARCUS + D'ISRAELI, ISAAC DODSLEY, ROBERT + DISS DODSWORTH, ROGER + + + + +DINARD, a seaside town of north-western France, in the department of +Ille-et-Vilaine. The town, which is the chief watering-place of +Brittany, is situated on a rocky promontory at the mouth of the Rance +opposite St Malo, which is about 1 m. distant. It is a favourite resort +of English and Americans as well as of the French, its attractions being +the beauty of its situation, the mildness of the climate and the good +bathing. It has two casinos and numerous luxurious hotels and elegant +villas. Together with the adjoining watering-place of St Enogat, Dinard +has a population of 4882 (1906). + + + + +DINDIGUL, a town of British India, in the Madura district of Madras, 880 +ft. above the sea, 40 m. from Madura by rail. Pop. (1901) 25,182. +Dindigul has risen into importance as the centre of a trade in tobacco +and manufacture of cigars, which are exported to England. There are two +large European cigar factories here. The town has manufactures of silk, +muslin and blankets, and an export trade in hides and cardamoms; and +there is a large native Christian population, with two churches. The +ancient fort, well preserved, stands on a rock rising 350 ft. above the +town; this was formerly a position of great strategic importance, +commanding passes into Madura from Coimbatore, and figured prominently +in the military operations of the Mahrattas in the 17th and 18th +centuries, and of Hyder Ali in 1755 seq., being thrice captured by the +British (1767, 1783, 1790). After the two first captures it was restored +to Hyder Ali under treaty; after the third it was ceded to the East +India Company. + + + + +KARL WILHELM DINDORF (1802-1883), German classical scholar, was born at +Leipzig on the 2nd of January 1802. From his earliest years he showed a +strong taste for classical studies, and after completing F. Invernizi's +edition of Aristophanes at an early age, and editing several grammarians +and rhetoricians, was in 1828 appointed extraordinary professor of +literary history in his native city. Disappointed at not obtaining the +ordinary professorship when it became vacant in 1833, he resigned his +post in the same year, and devoted himself entirely to study and +literary work. His attention had at first been chiefly given to +Athenaeus, whom he edited in 1827, and to the Greek dramatists, all of +whom he edited separately and combined in his _Poetae scenici Graeci_ +(1830 and later editions). He also wrote a work on the metres of the +Greek dramatic poets, and compiled special lexicons to Aeschylus and +Sophocles. He edited Procopius for Niebuhr's _Corpus_ of the Byzantine +writers, and between 1846 and 1851 brought out at Oxford an important +edition of Demosthenes; he also edited Lucian and Josephus for the Didot +classics. His last important editorial labour was his _Eusebius of +Caesarea_ (1867-1871). Much of his attention was occupied by the +republication of Stephanus's _Thesaurus_ (Paris, 1831-1865), chiefly +executed by him and his brother Ludwig, a work of prodigious labour and +utility. His reputation suffered somewhat through the imposture +practised upon him by the Greek Constantine Simonides, who succeeded in +deceiving him by a fabricated fragment of the Greek historian Uranius. +The book was printed, and a few copies had been circulated, when the +forgery was discovered, just in time to prevent its being given to the +world under the auspices of the university of Oxford. Shortly after the +death of his brother, he lost all his property and his library by rash +speculations. He died on the 1st of August 1883. + +His brother LUDWIG (1805-1871) was born at Leipzig on the 3rd of January +1805, and died there on the 6th of September 1871. He never held any +academical position, and led so secluded a life that many doubted his +existence, and declared that he was a mere pseudonym. The important +share which he took in the edition of the _Thesaurus_ is nevertheless +authenticated by his own signature to his contributions. He also +published valuable editions of Polybius, Dio Cassius and other Greek +historians. + + + + +D'INDY, PAUL-MARIE-THEODORE-VINCENT (1851- ), French musical composer, +was born in Paris, on the 27th of March 1851. He studied composition and +the organ at the Paris Conservatoire under Cesar Franck, and obtained +the grand prize offered by the city of Paris in 1885 with _Le Chant de +la Cloche_, a dramatic legend after Schiller. His principal works, +beside the above, are the symphonic trilogy _Wallenstein_, the symphonic +works entitled _Saugefleurie_, _La Foret enchantee_, _Istar_, _Symphonie +sur un air montagnard francais_; overture to _Anthony and Cleopatra_; +_Ste Marie Magdeleine_, a cantata; _Attendez-moi sous l'orme_, a one-act +opera; _Fervaal_, a musical drama in three acts. Vincent d'Indy is +perhaps the most prominent among the disciples of Cesar Franck. Imbued +with very high aims, he was always guided by a lofty ideal, and few +musicians have attained so complete a mastery over the art of +instrumentation. His music, however, lacks simplicity, and can never +become popular in the widest sense. His opera _Fervaal_, which is styled +"action musicale", is constructed upon the system of _Leit-motifs_. Its +legendary subject recalls both _Parsifal_ and _Tristan_, and the music +is also suggestive of Wagnerian influence. D'Indy can scarcely be +considered so typical a representative of modern French music as his +juniors Alfred Bruneau, the composer of _Le Reve_, _L'Attaque du +moulin_, _Messidor_, or Gustave Charpentier, the author of _Louise_, who +chose subjects of modern life for their operatic works. + + + + +DINEIR, a small town in Asia Minor, built amidst the ruins of +Celaenae-Apamea, near the sources of the Maeander (Menderes). It is the +terminus of the Smyrna-Aidin-Dineir railway. Pop. 1400. (See APAMEA.) + + + + +DINGELSTEDT, FRANZ VON (1814-1881), German poet and dramatist, was born +at Halsdorf, in Hesse Cassel, on the 30th of June 1814. Having studied +at the university of Marburg, he became in 1836 a master at the Lyceum +in Cassel, from which he was transferred to Fulda in 1838. In 1839 he +produced a novel, _Unter der Erde_, which obtained considerable success, +and in 1841 published the book by which he is best remembered, the +_Lieder eines kosmopolitischen Nachtwachters_. These poems, animated as +they are by a spirit of bitter opposition to everything that savours of +despotism, were an effective contribution to the political poetry of the +day. The popularity of this book determined Dingelstedt to take up a +literary career, and in 1841 he obtained an appointment on the staff of +the _Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung_. In 1843, however, the satirist of +German princes accepted, to the general surprise, the appointment of +private librarian to the king of Wurttemberg, and in the same year he +married the celebrated Bohemian opera singer, Jenny Lutzer. In 1845 he +published a volume of poems, some of which, treating of modern life, +possessed great literary rather than strictly poetical merit. A +subsequent collection, published in 1852, attracted little attention. +The success of his tragedy _Das Haus der Barneveldt_ (1850) obtained for +him the position of intendant at the court theatre at Munich, where he +soon became the centre of literary society. He incurred, however, the +animosity of the Jesuit clique at the court, and in 1856 was suddenly +dismissed on the most frivolous charges. A similar position was offered +to him at Weimar through the influence of Liszt, and he remained there +until 1867. His administration was most successful, and he especially +distinguished himself by presenting all Shakespeare's historical plays +upon the stage in an unbroken cycle. In 1867 he became director of the +court opera house in Vienna, and in 1872 of the Hofburgtheater, a +position he held until his death on the 15th of May 1881. Among his +other works may be noticed an autobiographical sketch of his Munich +career, entitled _Munchener Bilderbogen_ (1879), _Die Amazone_, an art +novel of considerable merit (1869), translations of several of +Shakespeare's comedies, and several writings dealing with questions of +practical dramaturgy. He was ennobled in 1867 by the king of Bavaria and +in 1876 was created _Freiherr_ by the emperor of Austria. + + Dingelstedt's _Samtliche Werke_ appeared in 12 vols. (1877-1878), but + this edition is far from complete. On his life see, besides the + autobiography mentioned above, J. Rodenberg, _Heimaterinnerungen an F. + Dingelstedt_ (Berlin, 1882), and by the same author, _F. Dingelstedt, + Blatter aus seinem Nachlass_ (2 vols., 1891). Also an essay by A. + Stern in _Zur Literatur der Gegenwart_ (Leipzig, 1880). + + + + +DINGHY, or DINGEY (from the Hindu _d[=e]ng[=i]_ a small boat, the +diminutive of _denga_, a sloop or coasting vessel), a boat of greatly +varying size and shape, used on the rivers of India; the term is applied +also, in certain districts, to a larger boat used for coasting purposes. +The name was adopted by the merchantmen trading with India, and is now +generally used to designate the small extra boat kept for general +purposes on a man-of-war or merchant vessel, and also, on the Thames, +for small pleasure boats built for one or two pairs of sculls. + + + + +DINGLE, a seaport and market town of county Kerry, Ireland, in the west +parliamentary division, the terminus of the Tralee and Dingle railway. +Pop. (1901) 1786. This may be considered the most westerly town in the +United Kingdom unless Knightstown at Valencia Island be excepted; it +lies on the south side of the northernmost of the great promontories +which protrude into the Atlantic on the south-western coast of Ireland, +on the fine natural harbour of Dingle Bay, in a wild hilly district +abundant in relics of antiquity. The town, which is the centre of a +considerable fishing industry, especially in mackerel, was in the 16th +century of no little importance as a seaport; it had also a noted +manufacture of linen. It was incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, and +returned two members to the Irish parliament until the Union. + + + + +DINGO, a name applied apparently by Europeans to the warrigal, or native +Australian dog, the Canis dingo of J. F. Blumenbach. The dingo is a +stoutly-built, rather short-legged, sandy-coloured dog, intermediate in +size between a jackal and a wolf, and measuring about 51 in. in total +length, of which the tail takes up about eleven. In general appearance +it is very like some of the pariah dogs of India and Egypt; and, except +on distributional grounds, there is no reason for regarding it as +specifically distinct from such breeds. Dingos, which are found both +wild and tame, interbreed freely with European dogs introduced into the +country, and it may be that the large amount of black on the back of +many specimens may be the result of crossing of this nature. + +The main point of interest connected with the dingo relates to its +origin; that is to say, whether it is a member of the indigenous +Australian fauna (among which it is the only large placental mammal), or +whether it has been introduced into the country by man. There seems to +be no doubt that fossilized remains of the dingo occur intermingled with +those of the extinct Australian mammals, such as giant kangaroos, giant +wombats and the still more gigantic _Diprotodon_. And since remains of +man have apparently not yet been detected in these deposits, it has been +thought by some naturalists that the dingo must be an indigenous +species. This was the opinion of Sir Frederick McCoy, by whom the +deposits in question were regarded as probably of Pliocene age. A +similar view is adopted by D. Ogilvy in a _Catalogue of Australian +Mammals_, published at Sydney in 1892; the writer going however one step +further and expressing the belief that the dingo is the ancestor of all +domesticated dogs. The latter contention cannot for a moment be +sustained; and there are also strong arguments against the indigenous +origin of the dingo. That the animal now occurs in a wild state is no +argument whatever as to its being indigenous, seeing that a domesticated +breed introduced by man into a new country abounding in game would +almost certainly revert to the wild state. The apparent absence of human +remains in the beds yielding dingo teeth and bones (which are almost +certainly not older than the Pleistocene) is of only negative value, and +liable to be upset by new discoveries. Then, again (as has been pointed +out by R. I. Pocock in the first part of the _Kennel Encyclopaedia_, +1907), the absence of any really wild species of the typical group of +the genus _Canis_ between Burma and Siam on the one hand and Australia +on the other is a very strong argument against the dingo being +indigenous, seeing that, whether brought by man or having travelled +thither of its own accord, the dingo must have reached its present +habitat by way of the Austro-Malay archipelago. If it had followed that +route in the course of nature, it is inconceivable that it would not +still be found on some portions of the route. On the supposition that +the dingo was introduced by man, we have now fairly decisive evidence +that the native Australian, in place of being (as formerly supposed) a +member of the negro stock, is a low type of Caucasian allied to the +Veddahs of Ceylon and the Toalas of Celebes. Consequently the Australian +natives must be presumed to have reached the island-continent by way of +Malaya; and if this be admitted, nothing is more likely than that they +should have been accompanied by pariah dogs of the Indian type. +Confirmation of this is afforded by the occurrence in the mountains of +Java of a pariah-like dog which has reverted to an almost completely +wild condition; and likewise by the fact that the old voyagers met with +dogs more or less similar to the dingo in New Guinea, New Zealand and +the Solomon and certain other of the smaller Pacific islands. On the +whole, then, the most probable explanation of the case is that the dingo +is an introduced species closely allied to the Indian pariah dog. +Whether the latter represents a truly wild type now extinct, cannot be +determined. If so, all pariahs should be classed with the Australian +warrigal under the name of _Canis dingo_. If, on the other hand, +pariahs, and consequently the dingo, cannot be separated specifically +from the domesticated dogs of western Europe, then the dingo should be +designated _Canis familiaris dingo_. (R. L.*) + + + + +DINGWALL, a royal and police burgh and county town of the shire of Ross +and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2519. It is situated near the head +of Cromarty Firth where the valley of the Peffery unites with the +alluvial lands at the mouth of the Conon, 18-1/2 m. N.W. of Inverness by +the Highland railway. Its name, derived from the Scandinavian +_Thingvollr_, "field or meeting-place of the _thing_," or local +assembly, preserves the Norse origin of the town; its Gaelic designation +is Inverpefferon, "the mouth of the Peffery." The 18th-century town +house, and some remains of the ancient mansion of the once powerful +earls of Ross still exist. There is also a public park. An obelisk, 57 +ft. high, was erected over the grave of the 1st earl of Cromarty. The +town belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs. It is a +flourishing distributing centre and has an important corn market and +auction marts. Some shipping is carried on at the harbour at the mouth +of the Peffery, about a mile below the burgh. Branch lines of the +Highland railway run to Strathpeffer and to Strome Ferry and Kyle of +Lochalsh (for Skye). Alexander II. created Dingwall a royal borough in +1226, and its charter was renewed by James IV. On the top of Knockfarrel +(Gaelic, _cnoc_, hill; _faire_, watch, or guard), a hill about 3 m. to +the west, is a large and very complete vitrified fort with ramparts. + + + + +DINKA (called by the Arabs _Jange_), a widely spread negro people +dwelling on the right bank of the White Nile to about 12 deg. N., around +the mouth of the Babr-el-Ghazal, along the right bank of that river and +on the banks of the lower Sobat. Like the Shilluk, they were greatly +harried from the north by Nuba-Arabic tribes, but remained comparatively +free owing to the vast extent of their country, estimated to cover +40,000 sq. m., and their energy in defending themselves. They are a tall +race with skins of almost blue black. The men wear practically no +clothes, married women having a short apron, and unmarried girls a +fringe of iron cones round the waist. They tattoo themselves with tribal +marks, and extract the lower incisors; they also pierce the ears and lip +for the attachment of ornaments, and wear a variety of feather, iron, +ivory and brass ornaments. Nearly all shave the head, but some give the +hair a reddish colour by moistening it with animal matter. Polygamy is +general; some headmen have as many as thirty or more wives; but six is +the average number. They are great cattle and sheep breeders; the men +tend their beasts with great devotion, despising agriculture, which is +left to the women; the cattle are called by means of drums. Save under +stress of famine cattle are never killed for food, the people subsisting +largely on durra. The Dinkas reverence the cow, and snakes, which they +call "brothers." Their folklore recognizes a good and evil deity; one of +the two wives of the good deity created man, and the dead go to live +with him in a great park filled with animals of enormous size. The evil +deity created cripples. The Dinka came, in 1899, under the control of +the Sudan government, justice being administered as far as possible in +accord with tribal custom. A compendium of Dinka laws was compiled by +Captain H. D. E. O'Sullivan. + + See G. A. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_ (1874); W. Junker, + _Travels in Africa_, Eng. edit. (London, 1890-1892); _The + Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905). + + + + +DINKELSBUHL, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the +Wornitz, 16 m. N. from Nordlingen, on the railway to Dombuhl. Pop. 5000. +It is an interesting medieval town, still surrounded by old walls and +towers, and has an Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches. Notable +is the so-called _Deutsches Haus_, the ancestral home of the counts of +Drechsel-Deufstetten, a fine specimen of the German renaissance style of +wooden architecture. There are a Latin and industrial school, several +benevolent institutions, and a monument to Christoph von Schmid +(1768-1854), a writer of stories for the young. The inhabitants carry on +the manufacture of brushes, gloves, stockings and gingerbread, and deal +largely in cattle. + +Fortified by the emperor Henry I., Dinkelsbuhl received in 1305 the same +municipal rights as Ulm, and obtained in 1351 the position of a free +imperial city, which it retained till 1802, when it passed to Bavaria. +Its municipal code, the _Dinkelsbuhler Recht_, published in 1536, and +revised in 1738, contained a very extensive collection of public and +private laws. + + + + +DINNER, the chief meal of the day, eaten either in the middle of the +day, as was formerly the universal custom, or in the evening. The word +"dine" comes through Fr. from Med. Lat. _disnare_, for _disjejunare_, to +break one's fast (_jejunium_); it is, therefore, the same word as Fr. +_dejeuner_, to breakfast, in modern France, to take the midday meal, +_diner_ being used for the later repast. The term "dinner-wagon," +originally a movable table to hold dishes, is now used of a two-tier +sideboard. + + + + +DINOCRATES, a great and original Greek architect, of the age of +Alexander the Great. He tried to captivate the ambitious fancy of that +king with a design for carving Mount Athos into a gigantic seated +statue. This plan was not carried out, but Dinocrates designed for +Alexander the plan of the new city of Alexandria, and constructed the +vast funeral pyre of Hephaestion. Alexandria was, like Peiraeus and +Rhodes (see HIPPODAMUS), built on a regular plan; the streets of most +earlier towns being narrow and confused. + + + + +DINOFLAGELLATA, so called by O. Butschli (= the CILIOFLAGELLATA of E. +Claparide and H. Lachmann), a group of Protozoa, characterized as +Mastigophora, provided with two flagella, the one anterior extended in +locomotion, the other coiled round its base, or lying in a transverse +groove. The body is bounded by a firm pellicle, often supplemented by an +armour ("lorica") of cuticular cellulose plates, with usually a marked +longitudinal groove from which the anterior flagellum springs, and an +oblique or spiral transverse groove for the second flagellum. In +_Polykrikos_ (fig. 2, 9) there are eight transverse grooves each with +its flagellum. The armour-plates are often exquisitely sculptured, and +may be produced into spines or perpendicular plates to give greater +surface extension, as we find in other plankton organisms. The cortical +plasma may protrude pseudopodia in the longitudinal groove; it contains +trichocysts in several species, true nematocysts in _Polykrikos_. It +contains chromatophores in many species, coloured by a mixed lipochrome +pigment which appears to be distinct from diatomin. The endoplasm is +ramified between alveoli; it contains a large nucleus (in _Polykrikos_ +there are eight nuclei, accompanied by smaller, more numerous bodies +regarded by O. Butschli as micro-nuclei). Besides the other spaces are +definite rounded or oval vacuoles with a permanent pellicular wall +termed by Schutt "pusules"; these open by a duct or ducts into the +longitudinal groove. They enlarge and diminish, and are possibly +excretory like the "contractile vacuoles" of other Protista; though it +has been suggested that by their communication with the medium they +subserve nutrition. Nutrition is of course holozoic or saprophytic in +the colourless forms, holophytic in the coloured; but these divergent +methods are exhibited by different species of the same genus, or even by +individuals of one and the same species under different conditions. +Binary fission has been widely observed, both in the active condition or +after loss of the flagella: it differs from that of true Flagellates in +not being longitudinal, but transverse or oblique (fig, 2, 2). Repeated +fission (brood-formation) within a cyst has also been observed, as in +_Pyrocystis_ and _Ceratium_; and possibly the chains of _Ceratium_ and +other (fig. 2, 5 and 6) genera are due to the non-separation of the +brood-cells. Conjugation of adults has been observed in several species, +the most complete account being that of Zederbauer on _Ceratium +hirundinella_ (marine): either mate puts forth a tube which meets and +opens into that of the other (as in some species of _Chlamydomonas_ and +Desmids); the two cell-bodies fuse in this tube, and encyst to form a +resting zygospore. The Dinoflagellates are relatively large for +Mastigophora, many attaining 50 [mu] (1/500") in length. The majority are +marine; but some genera (_Ceratium_, _Peridinium_) include fresh-water +species. Many are highly phosphorescent and some by their abundance +colour the water of the sea or pool which they dwell in. Like so many +coloured Protista, they frequently possess a pigmented "eye-spot" in +which may be sunk a spheroidal refractive body ("lens"). + +[Illustration: After F. Schutt in Engler and Prantl's +_Pflanzenfamilien_, by permission of Wm Engelmann. + +FIG. 1.--_Peridinium divergens_ showing longitudinal and transverse +grooves in which lie the respective flagella l.f., t.f.; s.p., large +"sack pusule" discharging through a tube by pore o'; c.p., "collective +pusule discharging at o, and surrounded by a ring of formative" or +"daughter pusules"; n, nucleus.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. + +From Delage and Herouard's _Traite de zoologie concrete_, by permission +of Schleicher Freres. + + 1. Modified from Schutt, _Ornithoceras_. + 2. Diagram of transverse fission of a Dinoflagellate. + 3. After Schutt, _Exuviaeella_. + 4. After Stein, _Prorocentrum_. + 5, 6. _Ceratium_, single and series. + 7. _Pouchetia fusus_ (Schutt). + 8. _Citharistes_. + 9. After Butschli, _Polykrikos_.] + +The affinities of the Dinoflagellata are certainly with those +Cryptomonadine Flagellates which possess two unequal flagella; the +zoospores or young of the Cystoflagellates are practically colourless +Dinoflagellates. + + 1. _Gymnodiniaceae_: body naked, or with a simple cellulose or + gelatinous envelope; both grooves present. _Pyrocystis_ (Murray), + often encysted, spherical or crescentic, becoming free within cyst + wall, and escaping whole or after brood-divisions as a form like + _Gymnodinium_; _Gymnodinium_ (Stein); _Hemidinium_ (Stein); + _Pouchetia_ (Schutt) (fig. 2, 7) with complex eye-spot; to this group + we may refer _Polykrikos_ (Butschli) (fig. 2, 9), with its metameric + transverse grooves and flagella. + + 2. _Prorocentraceae_ (Schutt) ( = the Adinida of Bergh); body + surrounded by a firm shell of two valves without a girdle band; + transverse groove absent; transverse flagellum coiled round base of + longitudinal. _Exuviaeella_ (Cienk.) (fig. 2, 3); _Prorocentrum_ + (Ehrb.) (fig. 2, 4). + + 3. _Peridiniaceae_ (Schutt); body with a shell of plates, a girdle + band along the transverse groove, in which the transverse flagellum + lies. Genera, _Peridinium_ (Ehrb.) (fig. 1), fresh-water and marine; + _Ceratium_ (Schrank) (fig. 2, 5, 6), fresh-water and marine; + _Citharistes_ (Stein); _Ornithoceras_ (Claparede and Lachmann) (fig. + 2, 1). + + LITERATURE.--R. S. Bergh, "Der Organismusder Cilioflagellaten," + _Morphol. Jahrbuch_, vii. (1881); F. von Stein, _Organismus der + Infusionsthiere_, Abth. 3, 2. Halfte; _Die Naturgeschichte der + arthrodelen Flagellaten_ (1883); Butschli, "Mastigophora" (in Bronn's + _Thierreich_, i. Abth. 2), 1881-1887; G. Pouchet, various observations + on Dinoflagellates, _Journal de l'anatomie et de la physiologie_ + (1885, 1887, 1891); F. Schutt, "Die Peridineen der Plankton + Expedition" (_Ergebnisse d. Pl. Exed._ i. Th. vol. iv. 1895); and + "Peridiniales" in Engler and Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_, vol. i. Abt. + 2 b. (1896); Zederbauer, _Berichte d. deutschen botanischen + Gesellschaft_, vol. xx. (1900); Delage and Herouard, _Traite de + zoologie concrete_, vol. i. _La Cellule et les protozoaires_ (1896). + (M. HA.) + + + + +DINOTHERIUM, an extinct mammal, fossil remains of which occur in the +Miocene beds of France, Germany, Greece and Northern India. These +consist chiefly of teeth and the bones of the head. An entire skull, +obtained from the Lower Pliocene beds of Eppelsheim, Hesse-Darmstadt, in +1836, measured 4-1/2 ft. in length and 3 ft. in breadth, and indicates an +animal exceeding the elephant in size. The upper jaw is apparently +destitute of incisor and canine teeth, but possesses five molars on each +side, with a corresponding number in the jaw beneath. The most +remarkable feature, however, consists in the front part of the lower jaw +being bent downwards and bearing two tusk-like incisors also directed +downwards and backwards. _Dinotherium_ is a member of the group +Proboscidea, of the line of descent of the elephants. + + + + +DINWIDDIE, ROBERT (1693-1770), English colonial governor of Virginia, +was born near Glasgow, Scotland, in 1693. From the position of customs +clerk in Bermuda, which he held in 1727-1738, he was promoted to be +surveyor-general of the customs "of the southern ports of the continent +of America," as a reward for having exposed the corruption in the West +Indian customs service. In 1743 he was commissioned to examine into the +customs service in the Barbadoes and exposed similar corruption there. +In 1751-1758 he was lieutenant-governor of Virginia, first as the deputy +of Lord Albemarle and then, from July 1756 to January 1758, as deputy +for Lord Loudon. He was energetic in the discharge of his duties, but +aroused much animosity among the colonists by his zeal in looking after +the royal quit-rents, and by exacting heavy fees for the issue of +land-patents. It was his chief concern to prevent the French from +building in the Ohio Valley a chain of forts connecting their +settlements in the north with those on the Gulf of Mexico; and in the +autumn of 1753 he sent George Washington to Fort Le Boeuf, a newly +established French post at what is now Waterford, Pennsylvania, with a +message demanding the withdrawal of the French from English territory. +As the French refused to comply, Dinwiddie secured from the reluctant +Virginia assembly a grant of L10,000 and in the spring of 1754 he sent +Washington with an armed force toward the forks of the Ohio river "to +prevent the intentions of the French in settling those lands." In the +latter part of May Washington encountered a French force at a spot +called Great Meadows, near the Youghiogheny river, in what is now +south-western Pennsylvania, and a skirmish followed which precipitated +the French and Indian War. Dinwiddie was especially active at this time +in urging the co-operation of the colonies against the French in the +Ohio Valley; but none of the other governors, except William Shirley of +Massachusetts, was then much concerned about the western frontier, and +he could accomplish very little. His appeals to the home government, +however, resulted in the sending of General Edward Braddock to Virginia +with two regiments of regular troops; and at Braddock's call Dinwiddie +and the governors of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland +met at Alexandria, Virginia, in April 1755, and planned the initial +operations of the war. Dinwiddie's administration was marked by a +constant wrangle with the assembly over money matters; and its obstinate +resistance to military appropriations caused him in 1754 and 1755 to +urge the home government to secure an act of parliament compelling the +colonies to raise money for their protection. In January 1758 he left +Virginia and lived in England until his death on the 27th of July 1770 +at Clifton, Bristol. + + _The Official Records of Robert Dinwiddie, Lieutenant-Governor of + Virginia_ (1751-1758), published in two volumes, at Richmond, Va., in + 1883-1884, by the Virginia Historical Society, and edited by R. A. + Brock, are of great value for the political history of the colonies in + this period. + + + + +DIO CASSIUS (more correctly CASSIUS DIO), COCCEIANUS (c. A.D. 150-235), +Roman historian, was born at Nicaea in Bithynia. His father was Cassius +Apronianus, governor of Dalmatia and Cilicia under Marcus Aurelius, and +on his mother's side he was the grandson of Dio Chrysostom, who had +assumed the surname of Cocceianus in honour of his patron the emperor +Cocceius Nerva. After his father's death, Dio Cassius left Cilicia for +Rome (180) and became a member of the senate. During the reign of +Commodus, Dio practised as an advocate at the Roman bar, and held the +offices of aedile and quaestor. He was raised to the praetorship by +Pertinax (193), but did not assume office till the reign of Septimius +Severus, with whom he was for a long time on the most intimate footing. +By Macrinus he was entrusted with the administration of Pergamum and +Smyrna; and on his return to Rome he was raised to the consulship about +220. After this he obtained the proconsulship of Africa, and again on +his return was sent as legate successively to Dalmatia and Pannonia. He +was raised a second time to the consulship by Alexander Severus, in 229; +but on the plea of ill health soon afterwards retired to Nicaea, where +he died. Before writing his history of Rome ([Greek: Rhomaika] or +[Greek: Rhomaike Historia]), Dio Cassius had dedicated to the emperor +Severus an account of various dreams and prodigies which had presaged +his elevation to the throne (perhaps the [Greek: Enodia] attributed to +Dio by Suidas), and had also written a biography of his +fellow-countryman Arrian. The history of Rome, which consisted of +eighty books,--and, after the example of Livy, was divided into +decades,--began with the landing of Aeneas in Italy, and was continued +as far as the reign of Alexander Severus (222-235). Of this great work +we possess books 36-60, containing the history of events from 68 +B.C.-A.D. 47; books 36 and 55-60 are imperfect. We also have part of 35 +and 36-80 in the epitome of John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century Byzantine +monk. For the earlier period the loss of Dio's work is partly supplied +by the history of Zonaras, who followed him closely. Numerous fragments +are also contained in the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. Dio's +work is a most important authority for the history of the last years of +the republic and the early empire. His industry was great and the +various important offices he held afforded him ample opportunities for +historical investigation. His style, though marred by Latinisms, is +clearer than that of his model Thucydides, and his narrative shows the +hand of the practised soldier and politician; the language is correct +and free from affectation. But he displays a superstitious regard for +miracles and prophecies; he has nothing to say against the arbitrary +acts of the emperors, which he seems to take as a matter of course; and +his work, although far more than a mere compilation, is not remarkable +for impartiality, vigour of judgment or critical historical faculty. + + The best edition with notes is that of H. S. Reimar (1750-1752), new + ed. by F. G. Sturz (1824-1836); text by I. Melber (1890 foll.), with + account of previous editions, and U. P. Boissevain (1895-1901); + translation by H. B. Foster (Troy, New York, 1905 foll.), with full + bibliography; see also W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen + Litteratur_ (1898), p. 675; E. Schwartz in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Realencyclopadie_, iii. pt. 2 (1899); C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in + das Studium der alten Geschichte_ (1895). + + + + +DIOCESE (formed on Fr. _diocese_, in place of the Eng. form +_diocess_--current until the 19th century--from Lat. _dioecesis_, med. +Lat. variant _diocesis_, from Gr. [Greek: dioikesis], "housekeeping," +"administration," [Greek: dioikein], "to keep house," "to govern"), the +sphere of a bishop's jurisdiction. In this, its sole modern sense, the +word diocese (_dioecesis_) has only been regularly used since the 9th +century, though isolated instances of such use occur so early as the +3rd, what is now known as a diocese having been till then usually called +a _parochia_ (parish). The Greek word [Greek: dioikesis], from meaning +"administration," came to be applied to the territorial circumscription +in which administration was exercised. It was thus first applied e.g. to +the three districts of Cibyra, Apamea and Synnada, which were added to +Cilicia in Cicero's time (between 56 and 50 B.C.). The word is here +equivalent to "assize-districts" (Tyrrell and Purser's edition of Cicero +_Epist. ad fam._ iii. 8. 4; xiii. 67; cf. Strabo xiii. 628-629). But in +the reorganization of the empire, begun by Diocletian and completed by +Constantine, the word "diocese" acquired a more important meaning, the +empire being divided into twelve dioceses, of which the +largest--Oriens--embraced sixteen provinces, and the +smallest--Britain--four (see ROME: _Ancient History_; and W. T. Arnold, +_Roman Provincial Administration_, pp. 187, 194-196, which gives a list +of the dioceses and their subdivisions). The organization of the +Christian church in the Roman empire following very closely the lines of +the civil administration (see CHURCH HISTORY), the word diocese, in its +ecclesiastical sense, was at first applied to the sphere of +jurisdiction, not of a bishop, but of a metropolitan.[1] Thus Anastasius +Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886), in his life of Pope Dionysius, says that he +assigned churches to the presbyters, and established dioceses +(_parochiae_) and provinces (_dioeceses_). The word, however, survived +in its general sense of "office" or "administration," and it was even +used during the middle ages for "parish" (see Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s. +"Dioecesis" 2). + +The practice, under the Roman empire, of making the areas of +ecclesiastical administration very exactly coincide with those of the +civil administration, was continued in the organization of the church +beyond the borders of the empire, and many dioceses to this day preserve +the limits of long vanished political divisions. The process is well +illustrated in the case of English bishoprics. But this practice was +based on convenience, not principle; and the limits of the dioceses, +once fixed, did not usually change with the changing political +boundaries. Thus Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, complains that not only +his metropolitanate (_dioecesis_) but his bishopric (_parochia_) is +divided between two realms under two kings; and this inconvenient +overlapping of jurisdictions remained, in fact, very common in Europe +until the readjustments of national boundaries by the territorial +settlements of the 19th century. In principle, however, the subdivision +of a diocese, in the event of the work becoming too heavy for one +bishop, was very early admitted, e.g. by the first council at Lugo in +Spain (569), which erected Lugo into a metropolitanate, the consequent +division of diocese being confirmed by the king of the second council, +held in 572. Another reason for dividing a diocese, and establishing a +new see, has been recognized by the church as duly existing "if the +sovereign should think fit to endow some principal village or town with +the rank and privileges of a city" (Bingham, lib. xvii. c. 5). But there +are canons for the punishment of such as might induce the sovereign so +to erect any town into a city, solely with the view of becoming bishop +thereof. Nor could any diocese be divided without the consent of the +primate. + +In England an act of parliament is necessary for the creation of new +dioceses. In the reign of Henry VIII. six new dioceses were thus created +(under an act of 1539); but from that time onward until the 19th century +they remained practically unchanged. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners +Act 1836, which created two new dioceses (Ripon and Manchester), +remodelled the state of the old dioceses by an entirely new adjustment +of the revenues and patronage of each see, and also extended or +curtailed the parishes and counties in the various jurisdictions. + +By the ancient custom of the church the bishop takes his title, not from +his diocese, but from his see, i.e. the place where his cathedral is +established. Thus the old episcopal titles are all derived from cities. +This tradition has been broken, however, by the modern practice of +bishops in the United States and the British colonies, e.g. archbishop +of the West Indies, bishop of Pennsylvania, Wyoming, &c. (see BISHOP). + + See Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, ii. 38, &c.; Joseph Bingham, _Origines + ecclesiasticae_, 9 vols. (1840); Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s. + "Dioecesis"; _New English Dictionary_ (Oxford, 1897), s. "Diocese." + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For exceptions see Hinschius ii. p. 39, note 1. + + + + +DIO CHRYSOSTOM (c. A.D. 40-115), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born +at Piusa (mod. _Brusa_), a town at the foot of Mount Olympus in +Bithynia. He was called Chrysostom ("golden-mouthed") from his +eloquence, and also to distinguish him from his grandson, the historian +Dio Cassius; his surname Cocceianus was derived from his patron, the +emperor Cocceius Nerva. Although he did much to promote the welfare of +his native place, he became so unpopular there that he migrated to Rome, +but, having incurred the suspicion of Domitian, he was banished from +Italy. With nothing in his pocket but Plato's _Phaedo_ and Demosthenes' +_De falsa legatione_, he wandered about in Thrace, Mysia, Scythia and +the land of the Getae. He returned to Rome on the accession of Nerva, +with whom and his successor Trajan he was on intimate terms. During this +period he paid a visit to Prusa, but, disgusted at his reception, he +went back to Rome. The place and date of his death are unknown; it is +certain, however, that he was alive in 112, when the younger Pliny was +governor of Bithynia. + +Eighty orations, or rather essays on political, moral and philosophical +subjects, have come down to us under his name; the _Corinthiaca_, +however, is generally regarded as spurious, and is probably the work of +Favorinus of Arelate. Of the extant orations the following are the most +important:--_Borysthenitica_ (xxxvi.), on the advantages of monarchy, +addressed to the inhabitants of Olbia, and containing interesting +information on the history of the Greek colonies on the shores of the +Black Sea; _Olympica_ (xii.), in which Pheidias is represented as +setting forth the principles which he had followed in his statue of +Zeus, one passage being supposed by some to have suggested Lessing's +_Laocoon_; _Rhodiaca_ (xxxi.), an attack on the Rhodians for altering +the names on their statues, and thus converting them into memorials of +famous men of the day (an imitation of Demosthenes' _Leptines_); _De +regno_ (i.-iv.), addressed to Trajan, a eulogy of the monarchical form +of government, under which the emperor is the representative of Zeus +upon earth; _De Aeschylo et Sophocle et Euripide_ (lii.), a comparison +of the treatment of the story of Philoctetes by the three great Greek +tragedians; and _Philoctetes_ (lix.), a summary of the prologue to the +lost play by Euripides. In his later life, Dio, who had originally +attacked the philosophers, himself became a convert to Stoicism. To this +period belong the essays on moral subjects, such as the denunciation of +various cities (Tarsus, Alexandria) for their immorality. Most pleasing +of all is the _Euboica_ (vii.), a description of the simple life of the +herdsmen and huntsmen of Euboea as contrasted with that of the +inhabitants of the towns. _Troica_ (xi.), an attempt to prove to the +inhabitants of Ilium that Homer was a liar and that Troy was never +taken, is a good example of a sophistical rhetorical exercise. Amongst +his lost works were attacks on philosophers and Domitian, and _Getica_ +(wrongly attributed to Dio Cassius by Suidas), an account of the manners +and customs of the Getae, for which he had collected material on the +spot during his banishment. The style of Dio, who took Plato and +Xenophon especially as his models, is pure and refined, and on the whole +free from rhetorical exaggeration. With Plutarch he played an important +part in the revival of Greek literature at the end of the 1st century of +the Christian era. + + Editions: J. J. Reiske (Leipzig, 1784); A. Emperius (Brunswick, 1844); + L. Dindorf (Leipzig, 1857), H. von Arnim (Berlin, 1893-1896). The + ancient authorities for his life are Philostratus, _Vit. Soph._ i. 7; + Photius, _Bibliotheca_, cod. 209; Suidas, s.v.; Synesius, [Greek: + Dion]. On Dio generally see H. von Arnim, _Leben und Werke des Dion + von Prusa_ (Berlin, 1898); C. Martha, _Les Moralistes sous l'empire + romain_ (1865); W. Christ, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur_ + (1898), S 520; J. E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (2nd + ed., 1906); W. Schmid in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, v. pt. 1 + (1905). The _Euboica_ has been abridged by J. P. Mahaffy in _The Greek + World under Roman Sway_ (1890), and there is a translation of _Select + Essays_ by Gilbert Wakefield (1800). + + + + +DIOCLETIAN (GAIUS AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245-313), Roman +emperor 284-305, is said to have been born at Dioclea, near Salona, in +Dalmatia. His original name was Diocles. Of humble origin, he served +with high distinction and held important military commands under the +emperors Probus and Aurelian, and accompanied Carus to the Persian War. +After the death of Numerianus he was chosen emperor by the troops at +Chalcedon, on the 17th of September 284, and slew with his own hands +Arrius Aper, the praefect of the praetorians. He thus fulfilled the +prediction of a druidess of Gaul, that he would mount a throne as soon +as he had slain a wild boar (_aper_). Having been installed at +Nicomedia, he received general acknowledgment after the murder of +Carinus. In consequence of the rising of the Bagaudae in Gaul, and the +threatening attitude of the German peoples on the Rhine, he appointed +Maximian Augustus in 286; and, in view of further dangers and +disturbances in the empire, proclaimed Constantius Chlorus and Galerius +Caesars in 293. Each of the four rulers was placed at a separate +capital--Nicomedia, Mediolanum (Milan), Augusta Trevirorum (Trier), +Sirmium. This amounted to an entirely new organization of the empire, on +a plan commensurate with the work of government which it now had to +carry on. At the age of fifty-nine, exhausted with labour, Diocletian +abdicated his sovereignty on the 1st of May 305, and retired to Salona, +where he died eight years afterwards (others give 316 as the year of his +death). The end of his reign was memorable for the persecution of the +Christians. In defence of this it may be urged that he hoped to +strengthen the empire by reviving the old religion, and that the church +as an independent state over whose inner life at least he possessed no +influence, appeared to be a standing menace to his authority. Under +Diocletian the senate became a political nonentity, the last traces of +republican institutions disappeared, and were replaced by an absolute +monarchy approaching to despotism. He wore the royal diadem, assumed the +title of lord, and introduced a complicated system of ceremonial and +etiquette, borrowed from the East, in order to surround the monarchy and +its representative with mysterious sanctity. But at the same time he +devoted his energies to the improvement of the administration of the +empire; he reformed the standard of coinage, fixed the price of +provisions and other necessaries of daily life, remitted the tax upon +inheritances and manumissions, abolished various monopolies, repressed +corruption and encouraged trade. In addition, he adorned the city with +numerous buildings, such as the thermae, of which extensive remains are +still standing (Aurelius Victor, _De Caesaribus_, 39; Eutropius ix. 13; +Zonaras xii. 31). + + See A. Vogel, _Der Kaiser Diocletian_ (Gotha, 1857), a short sketch, + with notes on the authorities; T. Preuss, _Kaiser Diocletian und seine + Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1869); V. Casagrandi, _Diocleziano_ (Faenza, 1876); H. + Schiller, _Gesch. der romischen Kaiserzeit_, ii. (1887); T. Bernhardt, + _Geschichte Roms von Valerian bis zu Diocletians Tod_ (1867); A. J. + Mason, _The Persecution of Diocletian_ (1876); P. Allard, _La + Persecution de Diocletien_ (1890); V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck's + _Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie_, iv. (1898); Gibbon. + _Decline and Fall_, chaps. 13 and 16; A. W. Hunzinger, _Die + Diocletianische Staatsreform_ (1899); O. Seeck, "Die Schatzungsordnung + Diocletians" in _Zeitschrift fur Social- und Wirthschaftsgeschichte_ + (1896), a valuable paper with notes containing references to sources; + and O. Seeck, _Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt_, vol. i. + cap. 1. On his military reforms see T. Mommsen in _Hermes_, xxiv., and + on his tariff system, Diocletian, Edict of. + + + + +DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (_De pretiis rerum venalium_), an imperial edict +promulgated in A.D. 301, fixing a maximum price for provisions and other +articles of commerce, and a maximum rate of wages. Incomplete copies of +it have been discovered at various times in various places, the first +(in Greek and Latin) in 1709, at Stratonicea in Caria, by W. Sherard, +British consul at Smyrna, containing the preamble and the beginning of +the tables down to No. 403. This partial copy was completed by W. Bankes +in 1817. A second fragment (now in the museum at Aix in Provence) was +brought from Egypt in 1809; it supplements the preamble by specifying +the titles of the emperors and Caesars and the number of times they had +held them, whereby the date of publication can be accurately determined. +For other fragments and their localities see _Corpus Inscriptionum +Latinarum_ (iii., 1873, pp. 801 and 1055; and supplement i, 1893, p. +1909); special mention may be made of those of Elatea, Plataea and +Megalopolis. Latin being the official language all over the empire, +there was no official Greek translation (except for Greece proper), as +is shown by the variations in those portions of the text of which more +than one Greek version is extant. Further, all the fragments come from +the provinces which were under the jurisdiction of Diocletian, from +which it is argued that the edict was only published in the eastern +portion of the empire; certainly the phrase _universo orbi_ in the +preamble is against this, but the words may merely be an exaggerated +description of Diocletian's special provinces, and if it had been +published in the western portion as well, it is curious that no traces +have been found of it. The articles mentioned in the edict, which is +chiefly interesting as giving their relative values at the time, include +cereals, wine, oil, meat, vegetables, fruits, skins, leather, furs, +foot-gear, timber, carpets, articles of dress, and the wages range from +the ordinary labourer to the professional advocate. The unit of money +was the denarius, not the silver, but a copper coin introduced by +Diocletian, of which the value has been fixed approximately at 1/5th of +a penny. The punishment for exceeding the prices fixed was death or +deportation. The edict was a well-intended but abortive attempt, in +great measure in the interests of the soldiers, to meet the distress +caused by several bad harvests and commercial speculation. The actual +effect was disastrous: the restrictions thus placed upon commercial +freedom brought about a disturbance of the food supply in non-productive +countries, many traders were ruined, and the edict soon fell into +abeyance. + + See Lactantius, _De mortibus persecutorum_, vii., a contemporary who, + as a Christian, writes with natural bias against Diocletian; T. + Mommsen, _Das Edict Diocletians_ (1851); W. M. Leake, _An Edict of + Diocletian_ (1826); W. H. Waddington, _L'Edit de Diocletien_ (1864), + and E. Lepaulle, _L'Edit de maximum_ (1886), both containing + introductions and ample notes; J. C. Rolfe and F. B. Tarbell in + _Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens_, v. + (1892) (Plataea); W. Loring in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xi. + (1890) (Megalopolis); P. Paris in _Bulletin de correspondance + hellenique_, ix. (1885) (Elatea). There is an edition of the whole by + Mommsen, with notes by H. Blumner (1893). + + + + +DIODATI, GIOVANNI (1576-1649), Swiss Protestant divine, was born at +Geneva on the 6th of June 1576, of a noble family originally belonging +to Lucca, which had been expatriated on account of its Protestantism. At +the age of twenty-one he was nominated professor of Hebrew at Geneva on +the recommendation of Theodor Beza. In 1606 he became professor of +theology, in 1608 pastor, or parish minister, at Geneva, and in the +following year he succeeded Beza as professor of theology. As a preacher +he was eloquent, bold and fearless. He held a high place among the +reformers of Geneva, by whom he was sent on a mission to France in 1614. +He had previously visited Italy, and made the acquaintance of Paolo +Sarpi, whom he endeavoured unsuccessfully to engage in a reformation +movement. In 1618-1619 he attended the synod of Dort, and took a +prominent part in its deliberations, being one of the six divines +appointed to draw up the account of its proceedings. He was a thorough +Calvinist, and entirely sympathized with the condemnation of the +Arminians. In 1645 he resigned his professorship, and died at Geneva on +the 3rd of October 1649. Diodati is chiefly famous as the author of the +translation of the Bible into Italian (1603, edited with notes, 1607). +He also undertook a translation of the Bible into French, which appeared +with notes in 1644. Among his other works are his _Annotationes in +Biblia_ (1607), of which an English translation (_Pious and Learned +Annotations upon the Holy Bible_) was published in London in 1648, and +various polemical treatises, such as _De fictitio Pontificiorum +Purgatorio_ (1619); _De justa secessione Reformatorum ab Ecclesia +Romana_ (1628); _De Antichristo_, &c. He also published French +translations of Sarpi's _History of the Council of Trent_, and of Edwin +Sandys's _Account of the State of Religion in the West_. + + + + +DIODORUS CRONUS (4th century B.C.), Greek philosopher of the Megarian +school. Practically nothing is known of his life. Diogenes Laertius (ii. +111) tells a story that, while staying at the court of Ptolemy Soter, +Diodorus was asked to solve a dialectical subtlety by Stilpo. Not being +able to answer on the spur of the moment, he was nicknamed [Greek: ho +Kronos] (the God, equivalent to "slowcoach") by Ptolemy. The story goes +that he died of shame at his failure. Strabo, however, says (xiv. 658; +xvii. 838) that he took the name from Apollonius, his master. Like the +rest of the Megarian school he revelled in verbal quibbles, proving that +motion and existence are impossible. His was the famous sophism known as +the [Greek: Kyrieyon]. The impossible cannot result from the possible; a +past event cannot become other than it is; but if an event, at a given +moment, had been possible, from this possible would result something +impossible; therefore the original event was impossible. This problem +was taken up by Chrysippus, who admitted that he could not solve it. +Apart from these verbal gymnastics, Diodorus did not differ from the +Megarian school. From his great dialectical skill he earned the title +[Greek: ho dialektikos], or [Greek: dialektikotatos], a title which was +borne by his five daughters, who inherited his ability. + + See Cicero, _De Fato_, 6, 7, 9; Aristotle, _Metaphysica_, [theta] 3; + Sext. Empiric., _adv. Math._ x. 85; Ritter and Preller, _Hist. philos. + Gr. et Rom._ chap. v. SS 234-236 (ed. 1869); and bibliography appended + to article MEGARIAN SCHOOL. + + + + +DIODORUS SICULUS, Greek historian, born at Agyrium in Sicily, lived in +the times of Julius Caesar and Augustus. From his own statements we +learn that he travelled in Egypt between 60-57 B.C. and that he spent +several years in Rome. The latest event mentioned by him belongs to the +year 21 B.C. He asserts that he devoted thirty years to the composition +of his history, and that he undertook frequent and dangerous journeys in +prosecution of his historical researches. These assertions, however, +find little credit with recent critics. The history, to which Diodorus +gave the name [Greek: bibliotheke historike] (_Bibliotheca historica_, +"Historical Library"), consisted of forty books, and was divided into +three parts. The first treats of the mythic history of the non-Hellenic, +and afterwards of the Hellenic tribes, to the destruction of Troy; the +second section ends with Alexander's death; and the third continues the +history as far as the beginning of Caesar's Gallic War. Of this +extensive work there are still extant only the first five books, +treating of the mythic history of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Ethiopians +and Greeks; and also the 11th to the 20th books inclusive, beginning +with the second Persian War, and ending with the history of the +successors of Alexander, previous to the partition of the Macedonian +empire (302). The rest exists only in fragments preserved in Photius and +the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. The faults of Diodorus +arise partly from the nature of the undertaking, and the awkward form of +annals into which he has thrown the historical portion of his narrative. +He shows none of the critical faculties of the historian, merely setting +down a number of unconnected details. His narrative contains frequent +repetitions and contradictions, is without colouring, and monotonous; +and his simple diction, which stands intermediate between pure Attic and +the colloquial Greek of his time, enables us to detect in the narrative +the undigested fragments of the materials which he employed. In spite of +its defects, however, the _Bibliotheca_ is of considerable value as to +some extent supplying the loss of the works of older authors, from which +it is compiled. Unfortunately, Diodorus does not always quote his +authorities, but his general sources of information were--in history and +chronology, Castor, Ephorus and Apollodorus; in geography, Agatharchides +and Artemidorus. In special sections he followed special +authorities--e.g. in the history of his native Sicily, Philistus and +Timaeus. + + _Editio princeps_, by H. Stephanus (1559); of other editions the best + are: P. Wesseling (1746), not yet superseded; L. Dindorf (1828-1831); + (text) L. Dindorf (1866-1868, revised by F. Vogel, 1888-1893 and C. T. + Fischer, 1905-1906). The standard works on the sources of Diodorus are + C. G. Heyne, _De fontibus et auctoribus historiarum Diodori_, printed + in Dindorf's edition, and C. A. Volquardsen, _Die Quellen der + griechischen und sicilischen Geschichten bei Diodor_ (1868); A. von + Mess, _Rheinisches Museum_ (1906); see also L. O. Brocker, + _Untersuchungen uber Diodor_ (1879), short, but containing much + information; O. Maass, _Kleitarch und Diodor_ (1894- ); G. J. + Schneider, _De Diodori fontibus_, i.-iv. (1880); C. Wachsmuth, + _Einleitung in das Studium der alten Geschichte_ (1895); GREECE; + _Ancient History_, "Authorities." + + + + +DIODOTUS, Seleucid satrap of Bactria, who rebelled against Antiochus II. +(about 255) and became the founder of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom +(Trogus, _Prol._ 41; Justin xli. 4, 5, where he is wrongly called +Theodotus; Strabo xi. 515). His power seems to have extended over the +neighbouring provinces. Arsaces, the chieftain of the nomadic (Dahan) +tribe of the Parni, fled before him into Parthia and here became the +founder of the Parthian kingdom (Strabo l.c.). When Seleucus II. in 239 +attempted to subjugate the rebels in the east he seems to have united +with him against the Parthians (Justin xli. 4, 9). Soon afterwards he +died and was succeeded by his son Diodotus II., who concluded a peace +with the Parthians (Justin l.c.). Diodotus II. was killed by another +usurper, Euthydemus (Polyb. xi. 34, 2). Of Diodotus I. we possess gold +and silver coins, which imitate the coins of Antiochus II.; on these he +sometimes calls himself Soter, "the saviour." As the power of the +Seleucids was weak and continually attacked by Ptolemy II., the eastern +provinces and their Greek cities were exposed to the invasion of the +nomadic barbarians and threatened with destruction (Polyb. xi. 34, 5); +thus the erection of an independent kingdom may have been a necessity +and indeed an advantage to the Greeks, and this epithet well deserved. +Diodotus Soter appears also on coins struck in his memory by the later +Graeco-Bactrian kings Agathocles and Antimachus. Cf. A. v. Sallet, _Die +Nachfolger Alexanders d. Gr. in Baktrien und Indien_; Percy Gardner, +_Catal. of the Coins of the Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and +India_ (Brit. Mus.); see also BACTRIA. (ED. M.) + + + + +DIOGENES, "the Cynic," Greek philosopher, was born at Sinope about 412 +B.C., and died in 323 at Corinth, according to Diogenes Laertius, on the +day on which Alexander the Great died at Babylon. His father, Icesias, a +money-changer, was imprisoned or exiled on the charge of adulterating +the coinage. Diogenes was included in the charge, and went to Athens +with one attendant, whom he dismissed, saying, "If Manes can live +without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?" Attracted by the +ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, he became his pupil, despite the +brutality with which he was received, and rapidly excelled his master +both in reputation and in the austerity of his life. The stories which +are told of him are probably true; in any case, they serve to +illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured himself +to the vicissitudes of weather by living in a tub belonging to the +temple of Cybele. The single wooden bowl he possessed he destroyed on +seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his hands. On a voyage to +Aegina he was captured by pirates and sold as a slave in Crete to a +Corinthian named Xeniades. Being asked his trade, he replied that he +knew no trade but that of governing men, and that he wished to be sold +to a man who needed a master. As tutor to the two sons of Xeniades, he +lived in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted entirely to +preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. At the Isthmian games +he lectured to large audiences who turned to him from Antisthenes. It +was, probably, at one of these festivals that he craved from Alexander +the single boon that he would not stand between him and the sun, to +which Alexander replied "If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." +On his death, about which there exist several accounts, the Corinthians +erected to his memory a pillar on which there rested a dog of Parian +marble. His ethical teaching will be found in the article CYNICS (q.v.). +It may suffice to say here that virtue, for him, consisted in the +avoidance of all physical pleasure; that pain and hunger were positively +helpful in the pursuit of goodness; that all the artificial growths of +society appeared to him incompatible with truth and goodness; that +moralization implies a return to nature and simplicity. He has been +credited with going to extremes of impropriety in pursuance of these +ideas; probably, however, his reputation has suffered from the undoubted +immorality of some of his successors. Both in ancient and in modern +times, his personality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to +painters. Ancient busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre +and the Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is +represented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani. +Rubens, Jordaens, Steen, Van der Werff, Jeaurat, Salvator Rosa and Karel +Dujardin have painted various episodes in his life. + + The chief ancient authority for his life is Diogenes Laertius vi. 20; + see also Mayor's notes on Juvenal, _Satires_, xiv. 305-314; and + article CYNICS. + + + + +DIOGENES APOLLONIATES (c. 460 B.C.), Greek natural philosopher, was a +native of Apollonia in Crete. Although of Dorian stock, he wrote in the +Ionic dialect, like all the _physiologi_ (physical philosophers). There +seems no doubt that he lived some time at Athens, where it is said that +he became so unpopular (probably owing to his supposed atheistical +opinions) that his life was in danger. The views of Diogenes are +transferred in the _Clouds_ (264 ff.) of Aristophanes to Socrates. Like +Anaximenes, he believed air to be the one source of all being, and all +other substances to be derived from it by condensation and rarefaction. +His chief advance upon the doctrines of Anaximenes is that he asserted +air, the primal force, to be possessed of intelligence--"the air which +stirred within him not only prompted, but instructed. The air as the +origin of all things is necessarily an eternal, imperishable substance, +but as soul it is also necessarily endowed with consciousness." In fact, +he belonged to the old Ionian school, whose doctrines he modified by the +theories of his contemporary Anaxagoras, although he avoided his +dualism. His most important work was [Greek: Peri physeos] (_De +natura_), of which considerable fragments are extant (chiefly in +Simplicius); it is possible that he wrote also Against the Sophists and +_On the Nature of Man_, to which the well-known fragment about the veins +would belong; possibly these discussions were subdivisions of his great +work. + + Fragments in F. Mullach, _Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum_, i. + (1860); F. Panzerbieter, _Diogenes Apolloniates_ (1830), with + philosophical dissertation; J. Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophy_ + (1892); H. Ritter and L. Preller, _Historia philosophiae_ (4th ed., + 1869), SS 59-68; E. Krause, _Diogenes von Apollonia_ (1909). See + IONIAN SCHOOL. + + + + +DIOGENES LAERTIUS (or LAERTIUS DIOGENES), the biographer of the Greek +philosophers, is supposed by some to have received his surname from the +town of Laerte in Cilicia, and by others from the Roman family of the +Laertii. Of the circumstances of his life we know nothing. He must have +lived after Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), whom he mentions, and +before Stephanus of Byzantium (c. A.D. 500), who quotes him. It is +probable that he flourished during the reign of Alexander Severus (A.D. +222-235) and his successors. His own opinions are equally uncertain. By +some he was regarded as a Christian; but it seems more probable that he +was an Epicurean. The work by which he is known professes to give an +account of the lives and sayings of the Greek philosophers. Although it +is at best an uncritical and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as +giving us an insight into the private life of the Greek sages, justly +led Montaigne to exclaim that he wished that instead of one Laertius +there had been a dozen. He treats his subject in two divisions which he +describes as the Ionian and the Italian schools; the division is quite +unscientific. The biographies of the former begin with Anaximander, and +end with Clitomachus, Theophrastus and Chrysippus; the latter begins +with Pythagoras, and ends with Epicurus. The Socratic school, with its +various branches, is classed with the Ionic; while the Eleatics and +sceptics are treated under the Italic. The whole of the last book is +devoted to Epicurus, and contains three most interesting letters +addressed to Herodotus, Pythocles and Menoeceus. His chief authorities +were Diocles of Magnesia's _Cursory Notice_ ([Greek: Epidrome]) _of +Philosophers_ and Favorinus's _Miscellaneous History_ and _Memoirs_. +From the statements of Burlaeus (Walter Burley, a 14th-century monk) in +his _De vita et moribus philosophorum_ the text of Diogenes seems to +have been much fuller than that which we now possess. In addition to the +_Lives_, Diogenes was the author of a work in verse on famous men, in +various metres. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Editio princeps_ (1533); H. Hubner and C. Jacobitz + with commentary (1828-1833); C. G. Cobet (1850), text only. See F. + Nietzsche, "De Diogenis Laertii fontibus" in _Rheinisches Museum_, + xxiii., xxiv. (1868-1869); J. Freudenthal, "Zu Quellenkunde Diog. + Laert.," in _Hellenistische Studien_, iii. (1879); O. Maass, _De + biographis Graecis_ (1880); V. Egger, _De fontibus Diog. Laert._ + (1881). There is an English translation by C. D. Yonge in Bohn's + Classical Library. + + + + +DIOGENIANUS, of Heraclea on the Pontus (or in Caria), Greek grammarian, +flourished during the reign of Hadrian. He was the author of an +alphabetical lexicon, chiefly of poetical words, abridged from the great +lexicon ([Greek: Peri glosson]) of Pamphilus of Alexandria (fl. A.D. 50) +and other similar works. It was also known by the title [Greek: +Periergopenetes] (for the use of "industrious poor students"). It formed +the basis of the lexicon, or rather glossary, of Hesychius of +Alexandria, which is described in the preface as a new edition of the +work of Diogenianus. We still possess a collection of proverbs under his +name, probably an abridgment of the collection made by himself from his +lexicon (ed. by E. Leutsch and F. W. Schneidewin in _Paroemiographi +Graeci_, i. 1839). Diogenianus was also the author of an Anthology of +epigrams, of treatises on rivers, lakes, fountains and promontories; and +of a list (with map) of all the towns in the world. + + + + +DIOGNETUS, EPISTLE TO, one of the early Christian apologies. Diognetus, +of whom nothing is really known, has expressed a desire to know what +Christianity really means--"What is this new race" of men who are +neither pagans nor Jews? "What is this new interest which has entered +into men's lives now and not before?" The anonymous answer begins with a +refutation of the folly of worshipping idols, fashioned by human hands +and needing to be guarded if of precious material. The repulsive smell +of animal sacrifices is enough to show their monstrous absurdity. Next +Judaism is attacked. Jews abstain from idolatry and worship one God, but +they fall into the same error of repulsive sacrifice, and have absurd +superstitions about meats and sabbaths, circumcision and new moons. So +far the task is easy; but the mystery of the Christian religion "think +not to learn from man." A passage of great eloquence follows, showing +that Christians have no obvious peculiarities that mark them off as a +separate race. In spite of blameless lives they are hated. Their home is +in heaven, while they live on earth. "In a word, what the soul is in a +body, this the Christians are in the world.... The soul is enclosed in +the body, and yet itself holdeth the body together: so Christians are +kept in the world as in a prison-house, and yet they themselves hold the +world together." This strange life is inspired in them by the almighty +and invisible God, who sent no angel or subordinate messenger to teach +them, but His own Son by whom He created the universe. No man could have +known God, had He not thus declared Himself. "If thou too wouldst have +this faith, learn first the knowledge of the Father. For God loved men, +for whose sake He made the world.... Knowing Him, thou wilt love Him and +imitate His goodness; and marvel not if a man can imitate God; he can, +if God will." By kindness to the needy, by giving them what God has +given to him, a man can become "a god of them that receive, an imitator +of God." "Then shalt thou on earth behold God's life in heaven; then +shalt thou begin to speak the mysteries of God." A few lines after this +the letter suddenly breaks off. + +Even this rapid summary may show that the writer was a man of no +ordinary power, and there is no other early Christian writing outside +the New Testament which appeals so strongly to modern readers. The +letter has been often classed with the writings of the Apostolic +Fathers, and in some ways it seems to mark the transition from the +sub-apostolic age to that of the Apologists. Bishop Lightfoot, who +speaks of the letter as "one of the noblest and most impressive of early +Christian apologies," places it c. A.D. 150, and inclines to identify +Diognetus with the tutor of Marcus Aurelius. Harnack and others would +place it later, perhaps in the 3rd century. There are some striking +parallels in method and language to the Apology of Aristides (q.v.), and +also to the early "Preaching of Peter." + +The one manuscript which contained this letter perished by fire at +Strassburg in 1870, but happily it had been accurately collated by Reuss +nine years before. It formed part of a collection of works supposed to +be by Justin Martyr, and to this mistaken attribution its preservation +is no doubt due. Both thought and language mark the author off entirely +from Justin. The end of the letter is lost, but there followed in the +codex the end of a homily,[1] which was attached without a break to the +epistle: this points to the loss in some earlier codex of pages +containing the end of the letter and the beginning of the homily. + + The Epistle may be read in J. B. Lightfoot's _Apostolic Fathers_ (ed. + min.), where there is also a translation into English. (J. A. R.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Chapters xi. and xii., which Lightfoot suggested might be the work + of Pantaenus. + + + + +DIOMEDES, in Greek legend, son of Tydeus, one of the bravest of the +heroes of the Trojan War. In the _Iliad_ he is the favourite of Athena, +by whose aid he not only overcomes all mortals who venture to oppose +him, but is even enabled to attack the gods. In the post-Homeric story, +he made his way with Odysseus by an underground passage into the citadel +of Troy and carried off the Palladium, the presence of which within the +walls secured Troy against capture (Virgil, _Aeneid_, ii. 164). On his +return to Argos, finding that his wife had been unfaithful, he removed +to Aetolia, and thence to Daunia (Apulia), where he married the daughter +of King Daunus. He was buried or mysteriously disappeared on one of the +islands in the Adriatic called after him Diomedeae, his sorrowing +companions being changed into birds by the gods out of compassion (Ovid, +_Metam._ xiv. 457 ff.). He was the reputed founder of Argyrippa (Arpi) +and other Italian cities (_Aeneid_, xi. 243 ff.). He was worshipped as a +hero not only in Greece, but on the coast of the Adriatic, as at Thurii +and Metapontum. At Argos, his native place, during the festival of +Athena, his shield was carried through the streets as a relic, together +with the Palladium, and his statue was washed in the river Inachus. + + + + +DIOMEDES, Latin grammarian, flourished at the end of the 4th century +A.D. He was the author of an extant _Ars grammatica_ in three books, +dedicated to a certain Athanasius. The third book is the most important, +as containing extracts from Suetonius's _De poetis_. Diomedes wrote +about the same time as Charisius (q.v.) and used the same sources +independently. The works of both grammarians are valuable, but whereas +much of Charisius has been lost, the Ars of Diomedes has come down to us +complete. In book i. he treats of the eight parts of speech; in ii. of +the elementary ideas of grammar and of style; in iii. of quantity and +metres. + + The best edition is in H. Keil's _Grammatici Latini_, i.; see also C. + von Paucker, _Kleinere Studien_, i. (1883), on the Latinity of + Diomedes. + + + + +DION, tyrant of Syracuse (408-353 B.C.), the son of Hipparinus, and +brother-in-law of Dionysius the Elder. In his youth he was an admirer +and pupil of Plato, whom Dionysius had invited to Syracuse; and he used +every effort to inculcate the maxims of his master in the mind of the +tyrant. The stern morality of Dion was distasteful to the younger +Dionysius, and the historian Philistus, a faithful supporter of despotic +power, succeeded in procuring his banishment on account of alleged +intrigues with the Carthaginians. The exiled philosopher retired to +Athens, where he was at first permitted to enjoy his revenues in peace; +but the intercession of Plato (who had again visited Syracuse to procure +Dion's recall) only served to exasperate the tyrant, and at length +provoked him to confiscate the property of Dion, and give his wife to +another. This last outrage roused Dion. Assembling a small force at +Zacynthus, he sailed to Sicily (357) and was received with +demonstrations of joy. Dionysius, who was in Italy, returned to Sicily, +but was defeated and obliged to flee. Dion himself was soon after +supplanted by the intrigues of Heracleides, and again banished. The +incompetency of the new leader and the cruelties of Apollocrates, the +son of Dionysius, soon led to his recall. He had, however, scarcely made +himself master of Sicily when the people began to express their +discontent with his tyrannical conduct, and he was assassinated by +Callippus, an Athenian who had accompanied him in his expedition. + + See _Lives_ by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos (cf. Diod. Sic. xvi. 6-20) + and in modern times by T. Lau (1860); see also SYRACUSE and SICILY: + _History_. + + + + +DIONE, in the earliest Greek mythology, the wife of Zeus. As such she is +associated with Zeus Naius (the god of fertilizing moisture) at Dodona +(Strabo vii. p. 329), by whose side she sits, adorned with a bridal veil +and garland and holding a sceptre. As the oracle declined in importance, +her place as the wife of Zeus was taken by Hera. It is probable that in +very early times the cult of Dione existed in Athens, where she had an +altar before the Erechtheum. After her admission to the general +religious system of the Greeks, Dione was variously described. In the +_Iliad_ (v. 370) she is the mother by Zeus of Aphrodite, who is herself +in later times called Dione (the epithet Dionaeus was given to Julius +Caesar as claiming descent from Venus). In Hesiod (_Theog._ 353) she is +one of the daughters of Oceanus; in Pherecydes (ap. schol. _Iliad_, +xviii. 486), one of the nymphs of Dodona, the nurses of Dionysus; in +Euripides (frag. 177), the mother of Dionysus; in Hyginus (fab. 9. 82), +the daughter of Atlas, wife of Tantalus and mother of Pelops and Niobe. +Others make her a Titanid, the daughter of Uranus and Gaea (Apollodorus +i. 1). Speaking generally, Dione may be regarded as the female +embodiment of the attributes of Zeus, to whose name her own is related +as Juno (= Jovino) to Jupiter. + + + + +DIONYSIA, festivals in honour of the god Dionysus generally, but in +particular the festivals celebrated in Attica and by the branches of the +Attic-Ionic race in the islands and in Asia Minor. In Attica there were +two festivals annually. (1) The lesser Dionysia, or [Greek: ta kat +agrous], was held in the country places for four days (about the 19th to +the 22nd of December) at the first tasting of the new wine. It was +accompanied by songs, dance, phallic processions and the impromptu +performances of itinerant players, who with others from the city +thronged to take part in the excitement of the rustic sports. A +favourite amusement was the Ascoliasmus, or dancing on one leg upon a +leathern bag ([Greek: askos]), which had been smeared with oil. (2) The +_greater_ Dionysia, or [Greek: ta en astei], was held in the city of +Athens for six days (about the 28th of March to the 2nd of April). This +was a festival of joy at the departure of winter and the promise of +summer, Dionysus being regarded as having delivered the people from the +wants and troubles of winter. The religious act of the festival was the +conveying of the ancient image of the god, which had been brought from +Eleutherae to Athens, from the ancient sanctuary of the Lenaeum to a +small temple near the Acropolis and back again, with a chorus of boys +and a procession carrying masks and singing the dithyrambus. The +festival culminated in the production of tragedies, comedies and satyric +dramas in the great theatre of Dionysus. Other festivals in honour of +Dionysus were the Anthesteria (q.v.); the Lenaea (about the 28th to the +31st of January), or festival of vats, at which, after a great public +banquet, the citizens went through the city in procession to attend the +dramatic representations; the Oschophoria (October-November), a vintage +festival, so called from the branches of vine with grapes carried by +twenty youths from the ephebi, two from each tribe, in a race from the +temple of Dionysus in Athens to the temple of Athena Sciras in Phalerum. + + See A. Mommsen, _Feste der Stadt Athen_ (1898); L. Preller, + _Griechische Mythologie_; L. C. Purser in Smith's _Dictionary of + Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1890); article DIONYSOS in W. H. Roscher's + _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and the exhaustive account with bibliography + by J. Girard in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. + + + + +DIONYSIUS, pope from 259 to 268. To Dionysius, who was elected pope in +259 after the persecution of Valerian, fell the task of reorganizing the +Roman church, which had fallen into great disorder. At the protest of +some of the faithful at Alexandria, he demanded from the bishop of +Alexandria, also called Dionysius, explanations touching his doctrine. +He died on the 26th of December 268. + + + + +DIONYSIUS (c. 432-367 B.C.), tyrant of Syracuse, began life as a clerk +in a public office, but by courage and diplomacy succeeded in making +himself supreme (see SYRACUSE). He carried on war with Carthage with +varying success; his attempts to drive the Carthaginians entirely out of +the island failed, and at his death they were masters of at least a +third of it. He also carried on an expedition against Rhegium and its +allied cities in Magna Graecia. In one campaign, in which he was joined +by the Lucanians, he devastated the territories of Thurii, Croton and +Locri. After a protracted siege he took Rhegium (386), and sold the +inhabitants as slaves. He joined the Illyrians in an attempt to plunder +the temple of Delphi, pillaged the temple of Caere on the Etruscan +coast, and founded several military colonies on the Adriatic. In the +Peloponnesian War he espoused the side of the Spartans, and assisted +them with mercenaries. He also posed as an author and patron of +literature; his poems, severely criticized by Philoxenus, were hissed at +the Olympic games; but having gained a prize for a tragedy on the +_Ransom of Hector_ at the Lenaea at Athens, he was so elated that he +engaged in a debauch which proved fatal. According to others, he was +poisoned by his physicians at the instigation of his son. His life was +written by Philistus, but the work is not extant. Dionysius was regarded +by the ancients as a type of the worst kind of despot--cruel, suspicious +and vindictive. Like Peisistratus, he was fond of having distinguished +literary men about him, such as the historian Philistus, the poet +Philoxenus, and the philosopher Plato, but treated them in a most +arbitrary manner. + + See Diod. Sic. xiii., xiv., xv.; J. Bass, _Dionysius I. von Syrakus_ + (Vienna, 1881), with full references to authorities in footnotes; + articles SICILY and SYRACUSE. + +His son DIONYSIUS, known as "the Younger," succeeded in 367 B.C. He was +driven from the kingdom by Dion (356) and fled to Locri; but during the +commotions which followed Dion's assassination, he managed to make +himself master of Syracuse. On the arrival of Timoleon he was compelled +to surrender and retire to Corinth (343), where he spent the rest of his +days in poverty (Diodorus Siculus xvi.; Plutarch, _Timoleon_). + + See SYRACUSE and TIMOLEON; and, on both the Dionysii, articles by B. + Niese in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, v. pt. 1 (1905). + + + + +DIONYSIUS AREOPAGITICUS (or "the Areopagite"), named in Acts xvii. 34 as +one of those Athenians who believed when they had heard Paul preach on +Mars Hill. Beyond this mention our only knowledge of him is the +statement of Dionysius, bishop of Corinth (fl. A.D. 171), recorded by +Eusebius (_Church Hist._ iii. 4; iv. 23), that this same Dionysius the +Areopagite was the first "bishop" of Athens. Some hundreds of years +after the Areopagite's death, his name was attached by the +Pseudo-Areopagite to certain theological writings composed by the +latter. These were destined to exert enormous influence upon medieval +thought, and their fame led to the extension of the personal legend of +the real Dionysius. Hilduin, abbot of St Denys (814-840), identified him +with St Denys, martyr and patron-saint of France. In Hilduin's +_Areopagitica_, the Life and Passion of the most holy Dionysius (Migne, +_ Patrol. Lat._ tome 106), the Areopagite is sent to France by Clement +of Rome, and suffers martyrdom upon the hill where the monastery called +St Denys was to rise in his honour. There is no earlier trace of this +identification, and Gregory of Tours (d. 594) says (_Hist. Francorum_, +i. 18) that St Denys came to France in the reign of Decius (A.D. 250), +which falls about midway between the presumptive death of the real +Areopagite and the probable date of the writings to which he owed his +adventitious fame. + +Traces of the influence of these writings appear in the works of Eastern +theologians in the early part of the 6th century. They also were cited +at the council held in Constantinople in 533, which is the first certain +dated reference to them. In the West, Gregory the Great (d. 604) refers +to them in his thirty-fourth sermon on the gospels (Migne, _Pat. Lat._ +tome 76, col. 1254). They did not, however, become generally known in +the Western church till after the year 827, when the Byzantine emperor +Michael the Stammerer sent a copy to Louis the Pious. It was given over +to the care of the above-mentioned abbot Hilduin. In the next generation +the scholar and philosopher Joannes Scotus Erigena (q.v.) translated the +Dionysian writings into Latin. This appears to have been the only Latin +translation until the 12th century when another was made, followed by +several others. + +Thus, the author, date and place of composition of these writings are +unknown. External evidence precludes a date later than the year 500, and +the internal evidence from the writings themselves precludes any date +prior to 4th-century phases of Neo-platonism. The extant writings of the +Pseudo-Areopagite are: (a) [Greek: Peri tes ouranias hierarchias], +_Concerning the Celestial Hierarchy_, in fifteen chapters. (b) [Greek: +Peri tes ekklesiastikes hierarchias], _Concerning the Ecclesiastical +Hierarchy_, in seven chapters. (c) [Greek: Peri theion onomaton], +_Concerning Divine Names_, in thirteen chapters. (d) [Greek: Peri +mystikes theologias], _Concerning Mystic Theology_, in five chapters. +(e) Ten letters addressed to various worthies of the apostolic period. + +Although these writings seem complete, they contain references to others +of the same author. But of the latter nothing is known, and they may +never have existed. + +The writings of the Pseudo-Areopagite are of great interest, first as a +striking presentation of the heterogeneous elements that might unite in +the mind of a gifted man in the 5th century, and secondly, because of +their enormous influence upon subsequent Christian theology and art. +Their ingredients--Christian, Greek, Oriental and Jewish--are not +crudely mingled, but are united into an organic system. Perhaps +theological philosophic fantasy has never constructed anything more +remarkable. The system of Dionysius was a proper product of its +time,--lofty, apparently complete, comparable to the _Enneads_ of +Plotinus which formed part of its materials. But its materials abounded +everywhere, and offered themselves temptingly to the hand strong enough +to build with them. There was what had entered into Neo-platonism, both +in its dialectic form as established by Plotinus, and in its +magic-mystic modes devised by Iamblichus (d. c. 333). There was Jewish +angel lore and Eastern mood and fancy; and there was Christianity so +variously understood and heterogeneously constituted among Syro-Judaic +Hellenic communities. Such Christianity held materials for formula and +creed; also principles of liturgic and sacramental doctrine and priestly +function; also a mass of popular beliefs as to intermediate superhuman +beings who seemed nearer to men than any member of the Trinity. + +Out of this vast spiritual conglomerate, Pseudo-Dionysius formed his +system. It was not juristic,--not Roman, Pauline or Augustinian. Rather +he borrowed his constructive principles from Hellenism in its last great +creation, Neo-platonism. That had been able to gather and arrange within +itself the various elements of latter-day paganism. The Neo-platonic +categories might be altered in name and import, and yet the scheme +remain a scheme; since the general principle of the transmission of life +from the ultimate Source downward through orders of mediating beings +unto men, might readily be adapted to the Christian God and his +ministering angels. Pseudo-Dionysius had lofty thoughts of the sublime +transcendence of the ultimate divine Source. That source was not remote +or inert; but a veritable Source from which life streamed to all lower +orders of existence,--in part directly, and in part indirectly as power +and guidance through the higher orders to the lower. Life, creation, +every good gift, is from God directly; but his flaming ministers also +intervene to guide and aid the life of man; and the life which through +love floods forth from God has its counterflow whereby it draws its own +creations to itself. God is at once absolutely transcendent and +universally immanent. To live is to be united with God; evil is the +nonexistent, that is, severance from God. Whatever is, is part of the +forth-flowing divine life which ever purifies, enlightens and perfects, +and so draws all back to the Source. + +The transcendent Source, as well as the universal immanence, is the +Triune God. Between that and men are ranged the three triads of the +Celestial Hierarchy: Seraphim, Cherubim and Thrones; Dominations, +Virtues, Powers; Principalities, Archangels, Angels. Collectively their +general office is to raise mankind to God through purification, +illumination and perfection; and to all may be applied the term angel. +The highest triad, which is nearest God, contemplates the divine +effulgence, and reflects it onward to the second; the third, and more +specifically angelic triad, immediately ministers to men. The sources of +these names are evident: seraphim and cherubim are from the Old +Testament; later Jewish writings gave names to archangels and angels, +who also fill important functions in the New Testament. The other names +are from Paul (Eph. i. 21; Col. i. 16). + +Such is the system of Pseudo-Dionysius, as presented mainly in _The +Celestial Hierarchy_. That work is followed by _The Ecclesiastical +Hierarchy_, its counterpart on earth. What the primal triune Godhead is +to the former, Jesus is to the latter. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy +likewise is composed of Triads. The first includes the symbolic +sacraments: Baptism, Communion, Consecration of the Holy Chrism. Baptism +signifies purification; Communion signifies enlightening; the Holy +Chrism signifies perfecting. The second triad is made up of the three +orders of Bishops, Presbyters and Deacons, or rather, as the Areopagite +names them: Hierarchs, Light-bearers, Servitors. The third triad +consists of monks, who are in a state of perfection, the initiated +laity, who are in a state of illumination, and the catechumens, in a +state of purification. All worship, in this treatise, is a celebration +of mysteries, and the pagan mysteries are continually suggested by the +terms employed. + +The work _Concerning the Divine Names_ is a noble discussion of the +qualities which may be predicated of God, according to the warrant of +the terms applied to him in Scripture. The work _Concerning Mystic +Theology_ explains the function of symbols, and shows that he who would +know God truly must rise above them and above the conceptions of God +drawn from sensible things. + +The works of Pseudo-Dionysius began to influence theological thought in +the West from the time of their translation into Latin by Erigena. Their +use may be followed through the writings of scholastic philosophers, +e.g. Peter Lombard, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas and many others. In +poetry we find their influence in Dante, Spenser, Milton. The fifteenth +chapter of _The Celestial Hierarchy_ constituted the canon of symbolical +angelic lore for the literature and art of the middle ages. Therein the +author explains in what respect theology ascribes to angels the +qualities of fire, why the thrones are said to be _fiery_ ([Greek: +pyrinous]); why the seraphim are _burning_ ([Greek: emprestas]) as their +name indicates. The fiery form signifies, with Celestial Intelligences, +likeness to God. Dionysius explains the significance of the parts of the +human body when given to celestial beings: feet are ascribed to angels +to denote their unceasing movement on the divine business, and their +feet are winged to denote their celerity. He likewise explains the +symbolism of wands and axes, of brass and precious stones, when joined +to celestial beings; and what wheels and a chariot denote when furnished +to them,--and much more besides. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is an enormous literature on Pseudo-Dionysius. + The reader may be first referred to the articles in Smith's + _Dictionary of Christian Biography_ and Hauck's _Realencyklopadie fur + protestantische Theologie_ (Leipzig, 1898). The bibliography in the + latter is very full. Some other references, especially upon the later + influence of these works, are given in H. O. Taylor's _Classical + Heritage of the Middle Ages_ (Macmillan, 1903). The works themselves + are in Migne's _Patrologia Graeca_, tomes 3 and 4, with a Latin + version. Erigena's version is in Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ t. 122. _Vita + Dionysii_ by Hilduin is in Migne, _Pat. Lat._ 106. There is an English + version by Parker (London, 1894 and 1897). (H. O. T.) + + + + +DIONYSIUS EXIGUUS, one of the most learned men of the 6th century, and +especially distinguished as a chronologist, was, according to the +statement of his friend Cassiodorus, a Scythian by birth, "_Scytha +natione_." This may mean only that he was a native of the region +bordering on the Black Sea, and does not necessarily imply that he was +not of Greek origin. Such origin is indicated by his name and by his +thorough familiarity with the Greek language. His surname "Exiguus" is +usually translated "the Little," but he probably assumed it out of +humility. He was living at Rome in the first half of the 6th century, +and is usually spoken of as abbot of a Roman monastery. Cassiodorus, +however, calls him simply "monk," while Bede calls him "abbot." But as +it was not unusual to apply the latter term to distinguished monks who +were not heads of their houses, it is uncertain whether Dionysius was +abbot in fact or only by courtesy. He was in high repute as a learned +theologian, was profoundly versed in the Holy Scriptures and in canon +law, and was also an accomplished mathematician and astronomer. We owe +to him a collection of 401 ecclesiastical canons, including the +apostolical canons and the decrees of the councils of Nicaea, +Constantinople, Chalcedon and Sardis, and also a collection of the +decretals of the popes from Siricius (385) to Anastasius II. (498). +These collections, which had great authority in the West (see CANON +LAW), were published by Justel in 1628. Dionysius did good service to +his contemporaries by his translations of many Greek works into Latin; +and by these translations some works, the originals of which have +perished, have been handed down to us. His name, however, is now perhaps +chiefly remembered for his chronological labours. It was Dionysius who +introduced the method of reckoning the Christian era which we now use +(see CHRONOLOGY). His friend Cassiodorus depicts in glowing terms the +character of Dionysius as a saintly ascetic, and praises his wisdom and +simplicity, his accomplishments and his lowly-mindedness, his power of +eloquent speech and his capacity of silence. He died at Rome, some time +before A.D. 550. + + His works have been published in Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, tome 67; + see especially A. Tardif, _Histoire des sources du droit canonique_ + (Paris, 1887), and D. Pitra, _Analecta novissima, Spicilegii + Solesmensis continuatio_, vol. i. p. 36 (Paris, 1885). + + + + +DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS ("of Halicarnassus"), Greek historian and +teacher of rhetoric, flourished during the reign of Augustus. He went to +Rome after the termination of the civil wars, and spent twenty-two years +in studying the Latin language and literature and preparing materials +for his history. During this period he gave lessons in rhetoric, and +enjoyed the society of many distinguished men. The date of his death is +unknown. His great work, entitled [Greek: Romaike archaiologia] (Roman +Antiquities), embraced the history of Rome from the mythical period to +the beginning of the first Punic War. It was divided into twenty +books,--of which the first nine remain entire, the tenth and eleventh +are nearly complete, and the remaining books exist in fragments in the +excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus and an epitome discovered by +Angelo Mai in a Milan MS. The first three books of Appian, and +Plutarch's _Life of Camillus_ also embody much of Dionysius. His chief +object was to reconcile the Greeks to the rule of Rome, by dilating upon +the good qualities of their conquerors. According to him, history is +philosophy teaching by examples, and this idea he has carried out from +the point of view of the Greek rhetorician. But he has carefully +consulted the best authorities, and his work and that of Livy are the +only connected and detailed extant accounts of early Roman history. + +Dionysius was also the author of several rhetorical treatises, in which +he shows that he has thoroughly studied the best Attic models:--_The Art +of Rhetoric_ (which is rather a collection of essays on the theory of +rhetoric), incomplete, and certainly not all his work; _The Arrangement +of Words_ ([Greek: Peri syntheseos onomaton]), treating of the +combination of words according to the different styles of oratory; _On +Imitation_ ([Greek: Peri mimeseos]), on the best models in the different +kinds of literature and the way in which they are to be imitated--a +fragmentary work; _Commentaries on the Attic Orators_ ([Greek: Peri ton +archaion rhetoron hypomnematismoi]), which, however, only deal with +Lysias, Isaeus, Isocrates and (by way of supplement) Dinarchus; _On the +admirable Style of Demosthenes_ ([Greek: Peri tes lektikes Demosthenous +deinotetos]); and _On the Character of Thucydides_ ([Greek: Peri tou +Thoukydidou charakteros]), a detailed but on the whole an unfair +estimate. These two treatises are supplemented by letters to Cn. +Pompeius and Ammaeus (two). + + Complete edition by J. J. Reiske (1774-1777); of the _Archaeologia_ by + A. Kiessling and V. Prou (1886) and C. Jacoby (1885-1891); Opuscula by + Usener and Radermacher (1899); Eng. translation by E. Spelman (1758). + A full bibliography of the rhetorical works is given in W. Rhys + Roberts's edition of the Three Literary Letters (1901); the same + author published an edition of the _De compositione verborum_ (1910, + with trans.); see also M. Egger, _Denys d'Halicarnasse_ (1902), a very + useful treatise. On the sources of Dionysius see O. Bocksch, "De + fontibus Dion. Halicarnassensis" in _Leipziger Studien_, xvii. (1895). + Cf. also J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (1906). + + + + +DIONYSIUS PERIEGETES, author of a [Greek: Periegesis tes oikoumenes], a +description of the habitable world in Greek hexameter verse, written in +a terse and elegant style. Nothing certain is known of the date or +nationality of the writer, but there is some reason for believing that +he was an Alexandrian, who wrote in the time of Hadrian (some put him as +late as the end of the 3rd century). The work enjoyed a high degree of +popularity in ancient times as a school-book; it was translated into +Latin by Rufus Festus Avienus, and by the grammarian Priscian. The +commentary of Eustathius is valuable. + + The best editions are by G. Bernhardy (1828) and C. Muller (1861) in + their _Geographici Graeci minores_; see also E. H. Bunbury, _Ancient + Geography_ (ii. p. 480), who regards the author as flourishing from + the reign of Nero to that of Trajan, and U. Bernays, _Studien zu Dion. + Perieg._ (1905). There are two old English translations: T. Twine + (1572, black letter), J. Free (1789, blank verse). + + + + +DIONYSIUS TELMAHARENSIS ("of Tell-Ma[h.]r[=e]"), patriarch or supreme +head of the Syrian Jacobite Church during the years 818-848, was born at +Tell-Ma[h.]r[=e] near Ra[k.][k.]a (ar-Ra[k.][k.]ah) on the Bal[=i]kh. He +was the author of an important historical work, which has seemingly +perished except for some passages quoted by Barhebraeus and an extract +found by Assemani in Cod. _Vat._ 144 and published by him in the +_Bibliotheca orientalis_ (ii. 72-77). He spent his earlier years as a +monk at the convent of [K.]en-neshr[=e] on the upper Euphrates; and when +this monastery was destroyed by fire in 815, he migrated northwards to +that of Kais[=u]m in the district of Samos[=a]ta. At the death of the +Jacobite patriarch Cyriacus in 817, the church was agitated by a dispute +about the use of the phrase "heavenly bread" in connexion with the +Eucharist. An anti-patriarch had been appointed in the person of Abraham +of [K.]artam[=i]n, who insisted on the use of the phrase in opposition +to the recognized authorities of the church. The council of bishops who +met at Ra[k.][k.]a in the summer of 818 to choose a successor to +Cyriacus had great difficulty in finding a worthy occupant of the +patriarchal chair, but finally agreed on the election of Dionysius, +hitherto known only as an honest monk who devoted himself to historical +studies. Sorely against his will he was brought to Ra[k.][k.]a, ordained +deacon and priest on two successive days, and raised to the supreme +ecclesiastical dignity on the 1st of August. From this time he showed +the utmost zeal in fulfilling the duties of his office, and undertook +many journeys both within and without his province. The ecclesiastical +schism continued unhealed during the thirty years of his patriarchate. +The details of this contest, of his relations with the caliph Ma'm[=u]n, +and of his many travels--including a journey to Egypt, on which he +viewed with admiration the great Egyptian monuments,--are to be found in +the _Ecclesiastical Chronicle_ of Barhebraeus.[1] He died in 848, his +last days having been especially embittered by Mahommedan oppression. +We learn from Michael the Syrian that his _Annals_ consisted of two +parts each divided into eight chapters, and covered a period of 260 +years, viz. from the accession of the emperor Maurice (582-583) to the +death of Theophilus (842-843). + +In addition to the lost _Annals_, Dionysius was from the time of +Assemani until 1896 credited with the authorship of another important +historical work--a _Chronicle_, which in four parts narrates the history +of the world from the creation to the year A.D. 774-775 and is preserved +entire in _Cod. Vat._ 162. The first part (edited by Tullberg, Upsala, +1850) reaches to the epoch of Constantine the Great, and is in the main +an epitome of the Eusebian Chronicle.[2] The second part reaches to +Theodosius II. and follows closely the _Ecclesiastical History_ of +Socrates; while the third, extending to Justin II., reproduces the +second part of the _History_ of John of Asia or Ephesus, and also +contains the well-known chronicle attributed to Joshua the Stylite. The +fourth part[3] is not like the others a compilation, but the original +work of the author, and reaches to the year 774-775--apparently the date +when he was writing. On the publication of this fourth part by M. +Chabot, it was discovered and clearly proved by Noldeke (_Vienna +Oriental Journal_, x. 160-170), and Nau (_Bulletin critique_, xvii. +321-327), who independently reached the same conclusion, that Assemani's +opinion was a mistake, and that the chronicle in question was the work +not of Dionysius of Tell-Ma[h.]r[=e] but of an earlier writer, a monk of +the convent of Zu[k.]n[=i]n near [=A]mid (Diarbekr) on the upper Tigris. +Though the author was a man of limited intelligence and destitute of +historical skill, yet the last part of his work at least has +considerable value as a contemporary account of events during the middle +period of the 8th century. (N. M.) + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Ed. Abbeloos and Lamy, i. 343-386; cf. Wright, _Syriac + Literature_, 196-200, and Chabot's introduction to his translation of + the fourth part of the _Chronicle_ of (pseudo) Dionysius. + + [2] See the studies by Siegfried and Gelzer, _Eusebii canonum epitome + ex Dionysii Telmaharensis chronico petita_ (Leipzig, 1884), and von + Gutschmid, _Untersuchungen uber die syrische Epitome der Eusebischen + Canones_ (Stuttgart, 1886). + + [3] Text and translation by J.-B. Chabot (Paris, 1895). + + + + +DIONYSIUS THRAX (so called because his father was a Thracian), the +author of the first Greek grammar, flourished about 100 B.C. He was a +native of Alexandria, where he attended the lectures of Aristarchus, and +afterwards taught rhetoric in Rhodes and Rome. His [Greek: Techne +grammatike], which we possess (though probably not in its original +form), begins with the definition of grammar and its functions. Dealing +next with accent, punctuation marks, sounds and syllables, it goes on to +the different parts of speech (eight in number) and their inflections. +No rules of syntax are given, and nothing is said about style. The +authorship of Dionysius was doubted by many of the early middle-age +commentators and grammarians, and in modern times its origin has been +attributed to the oecumenical college founded by Constantine the Great, +which continued in existence till 730. But there seems no reason for +doubt; the great grammarians of imperial times (Apollonius Dyscolus and +Herodian) were acquainted with the work in its present form, although, +as was natural considering its popularity, additions and alterations may +have been made later. The [Greek: Techne] was first edited by J. A. +Fabricius from a Hamburg MS. and published in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_, +vi. (ed. Harles). An Armenian translation, belonging to the 4th or 5th +century, containing five additional chapters, was published with the +Greek text and a French version, by M. Cirbied (1830). Dionysius also +contributed much to the criticism and elucidation of Homer, and was the +author of various other works--amongst them an account of Rhodes, and a +collection of [Greek: Meletai] (literary studies), to which the +considerable fragment in the _Stromata_ (v. 8) of Clement of Alexandria +probably belongs. + + Editions, with scholia, by I. Bekker in _Anecdota Graeca_, ii. and G. + Uhlig (1884), reviewed exhaustively by P. Egenolff in Bursian's + _Jahresbericht_, vol. xlvi. (1888); Scholia, ed. A. Hilgard (1901); + see also W. Horschelmann, _De Dionysii Thracis interpretibus + veteribus_ (1874); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, i. + (1906). + + + + +DIONYSUS (probably = "son of Zeus," from [Greek: Dios] and [Greek: +nysos], a Thracian word for "son"), in Greek mythology, originally a +nature god of fruitfulness and vegetation, especially of the vine; +hence, distinctively, the god of wine. The names Bacchus ([Greek: +Bakchos], in use among the Greeks from the 5th century), Sabazius, and +Bassareus, are also Thracian names of the god. The two first (like +Iacchus, Bromius and Euios) have been connected with the loud "shout" +([Greek: sabazein = bazein = euazein]) of his worshippers, Bassareus +with [Greek: bassarai], the fox-skin garments of the Thracian +Bacchanals. It has been suggested (J. E. Harrison _Prolegomena to Greek +Religion_) that Sabazius and Bromius = "beer-god," "god of a cereal +intoxicant" (cf. Illyrian _sabaia_ and modern Greek [Greek: bromi], +"oats"), while W. Ridgeway (_Classical Review_, January 1896), comparing +Apollo Smintheus, interprets Bassareus as "he who keeps away the foxes +from the vineyards" (for various interpretations of these and other +cult-titles, see O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. pp. 1408, +1532, especially the notes). + +In Homer, notwithstanding the frequent mention of the use of wine, +Dionysus is never mentioned as its inventor or introducer, nor does he +appear in Olympus; Hesiod is the first who calls wine the gift of +Dionysus. On the other hand, he is spoken of in the _Iliad_ (vi. 130 +foll., a passage belonging to the latest period of epic), as "raging," +an epithet that indicates that in those comparatively early times the +orgiastic character of his worship was recognized. In fact, Dionysus may +be regarded under two distinct aspects: that of a popular national Greek +god of wine and cheerfulness, and that of a foreign deity, worshipped +with ecstatic and mysterious rites introduced from Thrace. According to +the usual tradition, he was born at Thebes--originally the local centre +of his worship in Greece--and was the son of Zeus, the fertilizing rain +god, and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, a personification of earth. +Before the child was mature, Zeus appeared to Semele at her request in +his majesty as god of lightning, by which she was killed, but the infant +was saved from the flames by Zeus (or Hermes). The epithet [Greek: +perikionios], originally referring to an ivy-crowned, pillar-shaped +fetish of the god, afterwards gave rise to the legend of a miraculous +growth of ivy "round the pillars" of the royal palace, whereby the +infant Dionysus was preserved from the flames. Zeus took him up, +enclosed him within his own thigh till he came to maturity, and then +brought him to the light, so that he was twice born; it was to celebrate +this double birth that the _dithyrambus_ (also used as an epithet of the +god) was sung (see _Etym. Mag._ s.v.). It has been suggested that this +is an allusion to the _couvade_ of certain barbarous tribes, amongst +whom it is customary, when a child is born, for the husband to take to +his bed and receive medical treatment, as if he shared the pains of +maternity (see COUVADE, and references there). Dionysus was then +conveyed by Hermes to be brought up by the nymphs of Nysa, a purely +imaginary spot, afterwards localized in different parts of the world, +which claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the god. As +soon as Dionysus was grown up, he started on a journey through the +world, to teach the cultivation of the vine and spread his worship among +men. While so engaged he met with opposition, even in his own country, +as in the case of Pentheus, king of Thebes, who opposed the orgiastic +rites introduced by Dionysus among the women of Thebes, and, having been +discovered watching one of these ceremonies, was mistaken for some +animal of the chase, and slain by his own mother (see A. G. Bather, +_Journ. Hell. Studies_, xiv. 1894). A similar instance is that of +Lycurgus, a Thracian king, from whose attack Dionysus saved himself by +leaping into the sea, where he was kindly received by Thetis. Lycurgus +was blinded by Zeus and soon died, or became frantic and hewed down his +own son, mistaking him for a vine. At Orchomenus, the three daughters of +Minyas refused to join the other women in their nocturnal orgies, and +for this were transformed into birds (see AGRIONIA). These and similar +stories point to the vigorous resistance offered to the introduction of +the mystic rites of Dionysus, in places where an established religion +already existed. On the other hand, when the god was received hospitably +he repaid the kindness by the gift of the vine, as in the case of +Icarius of Attica (see ERIGONE). + +The worship of Dionysus was actively conducted in Asia Minor, +particularly in Phrygia and Lydia. Here, as Sabazius, he was associated +with the Phrygian goddess Cybele, and was followed in his expeditions by +a _thiasos_ (retinue) of centaurs, and satyrs, with Pan and Silenus. In +Lydia his triumphant return from India was celebrated by an annual +festival on Mount Tmolus; in Lydia he assumed the long beard and long +robe which were afterwards given him in his character of the "Indian +Bacchus," the conqueror of the East, who, after the campaigns of +Alexander, was reported to have advanced as far as the Ganges. The other +incidents in which he appears in a purely triumphal character are his +transforming into dolphins the Tyrrhene pirates who attacked him, as +told in the Homeric hymn to Dionysus and represented on the monument of +Lysicrates at Athens, and his part in the war of the gods against the +giants. The former story has been connected with the sailors' custom of +hanging vine leaves, ivy and bunches of grapes round the masts of +vessels in honour of vintage festivals. The adventure with the pirates +occurred on his voyage to Naxos, where he found Ariadne abandoned by +Theseus. At Naxos Ariadne (probably a Cretan goddess akin to Aphrodite) +was associated with Dionysus as his wife, by whom he was the father of +Oenopion (wine-drinker), Staphylus (grape), and Euanthes (blooming), and +their marriage was annually celebrated by a festival. Having compelled +all the world to recognize his divinity, he descended to the underworld +to bring up his mother, who was afterwards worshipped with him under the +name of Thyone ("the raging"), he himself being called after her +Thyoneus. + +Another phase in the myth of Dionysus originated in observing the decay +of vegetation in winter, to suit which he was supposed to be slain and +to join the deities of the lower world. This phase of his character was +developed by the Orphic poets, he having here the name of Zagreus ("torn +in pieces"), and being no longer the Theban god, but a son of Zeus and +Persephone. The child was brought up secretly, watched over by Curetes; +but the jealous Hera discovered where he was, and sent Titans to the +spot, who, finding him at play, tore him to pieces, and cooked and ate +his limbs, while Hera gave his heart to Zeus. The tearing in pieces is +referred by some to the torture experienced by the grape +(_Naturschmerz_) when crushed for making into wine (cf. Burns's _John +Barleycorn_); but it is better to refer it to the tearing of the flesh +of the victim at sacrifices at which the deity or the sacred animal was +slain, and sacramentally eaten raw (cf. the title [Greek: omestes] given +to Dionysus in certain places, probably pointing to human sacrifice.) To +connect this with the myth of the Theban birth of Dionysus, it is said +that Zeus gave the child's heart to Semele, or himself swallowed it and +gave birth to the new Dionysus (called Iacchus from his worshippers' cry +of rejoicing), who was cradled and swung in a winnowing fan ([Greek: +liknos]; see J. E. Harrison, _Journ. Hellenic Studies_, xxiii.), the +swinging being supposed to act as a charm in awakening vegetation from +its winter sleep. The conception of Zagreus, or the winter Dionysus, +appears to have originated in Crete, but it was accepted also in Delphi, +where his grave was shown, and sacrifice was secretly offered at it +annually on the shortest day. The story is in many respects similar to +that of Osiris. According to others, Zagreus was originally a god of the +chase, who became a hunter of men and a god of the underworld, more akin +to Hades than to Dionysus (see also TITANS). + +Dionysus further possessed the prophetic gift, and his oracle at Delphi +was as important as that of Apollo. Like Hermes, Dionysus was a god of +the productiveness of nature, and hence Priapus was one of his regular +companions, while not only in the mysteries but in the rural festivals +his symbol, the phallus, was carried about ostentatiously. His symbols +from the animal kingdom were the bull (perhaps a totemistic attribute +and identified with him), the panther, the lion, the tiger, the ass, the +goat, and sometimes also the dolphin and the snake. His personal +attributes are an ivy wreath, the thyrsus (a staff with pine cone at the +end), the laurel, the pine, a drinking cup, and sometimes the horn of a +bull on his forehead. Artistically he was represented mostly either as a +youth of soft, nearly feminine form, or as a bearded and draped man, but +frequently also as an infant, with reference to his birth or to his +bringing up in "Nysa." His earliest images were of wood with the +branches still attached in parts, whence he was called Dionysus +Dendrites, an allusion to his protection of trees generally (according +to Pherecydes in C. W. Muller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ iv. p. 637, the word +[Greek: nysa] signified "tree"). It is suggested that the cult of +Dionysus absorbed that of an old tree-spirit. He was figured also, like +Hermes, in the form of a pillar or term surmounted by his head. For the +connexion of Dionysus with Greek tragedy see DRAMA. + + See Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, v. (1910); also O. Rapp, + _Beziehungen des Dionysuskultus zu Thrakien_ (1882); O. Ribbeck, + _Anfange und Entwickelung des Dionysuskultes in Attica_ (1869); A. + Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_, ii. p. 241; L. Dyer, _The Gods in + Greece_ (1891); J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek + Religion_ (1903); J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_, ii (1900), pp. + 160, 291, who regards the bull and goat form of Dionysus as + expressions of his proper character as a deity of vegetation; F. A. + Voigt in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; L. Preller, _Griechische + Mythologie_ (4th ed. by C. Robert); F. Lenormant (s.v. "Bacchus") in + Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_; O. Kern in + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_ (with list of cult titles); W. + Pater, _Greek Studies_ (1895); E. Rohde, _Psyche_, ii., who finds the + origin of the Hellenic belief in the immortality of the soul in the + "enthusiastic" rites of the Thracian Dionysus, which lifted persons + out of themselves, and exalted them to a fancied equality with the + gods; O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte_, ii. + (1907), who considers Boeotia, not Thrace, to have been the original + home of Dionysus; P. Foucart, "Le Culte de Dionysos en Attique" in + _Memoires de l'Institut national de France_, xxxvii. (1906), who finds + the prototype of Dionysus in Egypt. _The Great Dionysiak Myth_ + (1877-1878) by R. Brown contains a wealth of material, but is weak in + scholarship. For a striking survival of Dionysiac rites in Thrace + (Bizye), see Dawkins, in _J.H.S._ (1906), p. 191. + + + + +DIOPHANTUS, of Alexandria, Greek algebraist, probably flourished about +the middle of the 3rd century. Not that this date rests on positive +evidence. But it seems a fair inference from a passage of Michael +Psellus (_Diophantus_, ed. P. Tannery, ii. p. 38) that he was not later +than Anatolius, bishop of Laodicea from A.D. 270, while he is not quoted +by Nicomachus (fl. c. A.D. 100), nor by Theon of Smyrna (c. A.D. 130), +nor does Greek arithmetic as represented by these authors and by +Iamblichus (end of 3rd century) show any trace of his influence, facts +which can only be accounted for by his being later than those +arithmeticians at least who would have been capable of understanding him +fully. On the other hand he is quoted by Theon of Alexandria (who +observed an eclipse at Alexandria in A.D. 365); and his work was the +subject of a commentary by Theon's daughter Hypatia (d. 415). The +_Arithmetica_, the greatest treatise on which the fame of Diophantus +rests, purports to be in thirteen Books, but none of the Greek MSS. +which have survived contain more than six (though one has the same text +in seven Books). They contain, however, a fragment of a separate tract +on _Polygonal Numbers_. The missing books were apparently lost early, +for there is no reason to suppose that the Arabs who translated or +commented on Diophantus ever had access to more of the work than we now +have. The difference in form and content suggests that the _Polygonal +Numbers_ was not part of the larger work. On the other hand the +_Porisms_, to which Diophantus makes three references ("we have it in +the Porisms that ..."), were probably not a separate book but were +embodied in the _Arithmetica_ itself, whether placed all together or, as +Tannery thinks, spread over the work in appropriate places. The +"Porisms" quoted are interesting propositions in the theory of numbers, +one of which was clearly that _the difference between two cubes can be +resolved into the sum of two cubes_. Tannery thinks that the solution of +a complete quadratic promised by Diophantus himself (I. def. 11), and +really assumed later, was one of the Porisms. + + Among the great variety of problems solved are problems leading to + determinate equations of the first degree in one, two, three or four + variables, to determinate quadratic equations, and to indeterminate + equations of the first degree in one or more variables, which are, + however, transformed into determinate equations by arbitrarily + assuming a value for one of the required numbers, Diophantus being + always satisfied with a rational, even if fractional, result and not + requiring a solution in integers. But the bulk of the work consists of + problems leading to indeterminate equations of the second degree, and + these universally take the form that one or two (and never more) + linear or quadratic functions of one variable x are to be made + rational square numbers by finding a suitable value for x. A few + problems lead to indeterminate equations of the third and fourth + degrees, an easy indeterminate equation of the sixth degree being + also found. The general type of problem is to find two, three or four + numbers such that different expressions involving them in the first + and second, and sometimes the third, degree are squares, cubes, partly + squares and partly cubes, &c. E.g. _To find three numbers such that + the product of any two added to the sum of those two gives a square_ + (III. 15, ed. Tannery); _To find four numbers such that, if we take + the square of their sum [+-] any one of them singly, all the resulting + numbers are squares_ (III. 22); _To find two numbers such that their + product [+-] their sum gives a cube_ (IV. 29); _To find three squares + such that their continued product added to any one of them gives a + square_ (V. 21). Book VI. contains problems of finding rational + _right-angled triangles_ such that different functions of their parts + (the sides and the area) are squares. A word is necessary on + Diophantus' notation. He has only one symbol (written somewhat like a + final sigma) for an unknown quantity, which he calls [Greek: arithmos] + (defined as "an undefined number of units"); the symbol may be a + contraction of the initial letters [alpha][rho], as [Delta]^[Upsilon], + [Kappa]^[Upsilon], [Delta]^[Upsilon][Delta], &c., are for the powers + of the unknown ([Greek: dynamis], square; [Greek: kubos], cube; + [Greek: dynamodynamis], fourth power, &c.). The only other algebraical + symbol is [graphic: /|\] for minus; plus being expressed by merely + writing terms one after another. With one symbol for an unknown, it + will easily be understood what scope there is for adroit assumptions, + for the required numbers, of expressions in the one unknown which are + at once seen to satisfy some of the conditions, leaving only one or + two to be satisfied by the particular value of x to be determined. + Often assumptions are made which lead to equations in x which cannot + be solved "rationally," i.e. would give negative, surd or imaginary + values; Diophantus then traces how each element of the equation has + arisen, and formulates the auxiliary problem of determining how the + assumptions must be corrected so as to lead to an equation (in place + of the "impossible" one) which can be solved rationally. Sometimes his + x has to do duty twice, for different unknowns, in one problem. In + general his object is to reduce the final equation to a simple one by + making such an assumption for the side of the square or cube to which + the expression in x is to be equal as will make the necessary number + of coefficients vanish. The book is valuable also for the propositions + in the theory of numbers, other than the "porisms," stated or assumed + in it. Thus Diophantus knew that _no number of the form 8n + 7 can be + the sum of three squares_. He also says that, if 2n + 1 is to be the + sum of two squares, "n must not be odd" (i.e. _no number of the form + 4n + 3, or 4n - 1, can be the sum of two squares_), and goes on to + add, practically, the condition stated by Fermat, "and the double of + it [n] increased by one, when divided by the greatest square which + measures it, must not be divisible by a prime number of the form 4n - + 1," except for the omission of the words "when divided ... measures + it." + + # AUTHORITIES.--The first to publish anything on Diophantus in Europe + was Rafael Bombelli, who embodied in his Algebra (1572) all the + problems of Books I.-IV. and some of Book V. interspersing them with + his own problems. Next Xylander (Wilhelm Holzmann) published a Latin + translation (Basel, 1575), an altogether meritorious work, especially + having regard to the difficulties he had with the text of his MS. The + Greek text was first edited by C. G. Bachet (_Diophanti Alexandrini + arithmeticorum libri sex, et de numeris multangulis liber unus, nunc + primum graece et latine editi atque absolutissimis commentariis + illustrati_ ... Lutetiae Parisiorum ... MDCXXI.). A reprint of 1670 is + only valuable because it contains P. de Fermat's notes; as far as the + Greek text is concerned it is much inferior to the other. There are + two German translations, one by Otto Schulz (1822) and the other by G. + Wertheim (Leipzig, 1890), and an English edition in modern notation + (T. L. Heath, _Diophantos of Alexandria: A Study in the History of + Greek Algebra_ (Cambridge, 1885)). The Greek text has now been + definitively edited (with Latin translation, Scholia, &c.) by P. + Tannery (Teubner, vol. i., 1893; vol. ii., 1895). General accounts of + Diophantus' work are to be found in H. Hankel and M. Cantor's + histories of mathematics, and more elaborate analyses are those of + Nesselmann (_Die Algebra der Griechen_, Berlin, 1842) and G. Loria + (_Le Scienze esatte nell' antica Grecia_, libro v., Modena, 1902, pp. + 95-158). (T. L. H.) + + + + +DIOPSIDE, an important member of the pyroxene group of rock-forming +minerals. It is a calcium-magnesium metasilicate, CaMg(SiO3)2, and +crystallizes in the monoclinic system. Usually some iron is present +replacing magnesium, and when this predominates there is a passage to +hedenbergite, CaFe(SiO3)2, a closely allied variety of monoclinic +pyroxene. These are distinguished from augite by containing little or no +aluminium. Diopside is colourless, white, pale green to dark green or +nearly black in colour, the depth of the colour depending on the amount +of iron present. The specific gravity and optical constants also vary +with the chemical composition; the sp. gr. of diopside is 3.2, +increasing to 3.6 in hedenbergite, and the angle of optical extinction +in the plane of symmetry varies between 38 deg. and 47 deg. in the two +extremes of the series. Crystals are usually prismatic in habit with a +rectangular cross-section as shown in the figure: the angle between the +prism faces m, parallel to which there are perfect cleavages, is 92 deg. +50'. + +[Illustration] + +Several varieties, depending on differences in structure and chemical +composition, have been distinguished, viz. coccolite (from [Greek: +kokkos], a grain), a granular variety; salite or sahlite, from Sala in +Sweden; malacolite; diallage; violane, a lamellar variety of a dark +violet-blue colour; chrome-diopside, a bright green variety containing a +small amount of chromium; and many others. Belonging to the same series +with diopside and hedenbergite is a manganese pyroxene, known as +schefierite, which has the composition (Ca, Mg) (Fe, Mn) (Si03)2. + +Diopside is the characteristic pyroxene of metamorphic rocks, occurring +especially in crystalline limestones, and often in association with +garnet and epidote. It is also an essential constituent of some +pyroxene-granites, diorites and a few other igneous rocks, but the +characteristic pyroxene of this class of rocks is augite. Fine +transparent crystals of a pale green colour occur, with crystals of +yellowish-red garnet (hessonite) and chlorite, in veins traversing +serpentine in the Ala valley near Turin in Piedmont: a crystal of this +variety ("alalite") is represented in the accompanying figure. These, as +well as the long, transparent, bottle-green crystals from the Zillerthal +in the Tyrol, have occasionally been cut as gem-stones. Good crystals +have been found also at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals, +Traversella near Ivrea in Piedmont ("traversellite"), Nordmark in +Sweden, Monroe in New York, Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario, and +several other places: at Nordmark the large, rectangular black crystals +occur with magnetite in the iron mines. (L. J. S.) + + + + +DIOPTASE, a rare mineral species consisting of acid copper +orthosilicate, H2CuSiO4, crystallizing in the parallel-faced hemihedral +class of the rhombohedral system. The degree of symmetry is the same as +in the mineral phenacite, there being only an axis of triad symmetry and +a centre of symmetry. The crystals have the form of a hexagonal prism m +terminated by a rhombohedron r, the alternate edges between these being +sometimes replaced by the faces of a rhombohedron s. The faces are +striated parallel to the edges between r, s and m. There are perfect +cleavages parallel to the faces of a rhombohedron which truncate the +polar edges of r: from the cleavage cracks internal reflections are +often to be seen in the crystal, and it was on account of this that the +mineral was named dioptase, by R. J. Hauy in 1797, from [Greek: +diopteuein], "to see into." The crystals vary from transparent to +translucent with a vitreous lustre, and are bright emerald-green in +colour; they thus have a certain resemblance to emerald, hence the early +name emerald-copper (German, _Kupfer-Smaragd_). Hardness 5; sp. gr. 3.3. +The mineral is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with separation of +gelatinous silica. At a red heat it blackens and gives off water. The +fine crystals from Mount Altyn-Tube on the western slopes of the Altai +Mountains in the Kirghiz Steppes, Asiatic Russia, line cavities in a +compact limestone; they were first sent to Europe in 1785 by Achir +Mahmed, a Bucharian merchant, after whom the mineral has been named +archirite. More recently, in 1890, good crystals of similar habit, but +rather darker in colour, have been found with quartz and malachite near +Komba in the French Congo. As drusy crystalline crusts it has been found +at Copiapo in Chile and in Arizona. + +[Illustration] + +Dioptase has occasionally been used as a gem-stone, especially in Russia +and Persia; it has a fine colour, but a low degree of hardness and the +transparency is imperfect. (L. J. S.) + + + + +DIORITE (from the Gr. [Greek: diorizein] to distinguish, from [Greek: +dia] through, [Greek: oros], a boundary), in petrology, the name given +by Hauy to a family of rocks of granitic texture, composed of +plagioclase felspar and hornblende. As they are richer in the dark +coloured ferromagnesian minerals they are usually grey or dark grey, +and have a higher specific gravity than granite. They also rarely show +visible quartz. But there are diorites of many kinds, as the name +applies rather to a family of rocks than to a single species. Some +contain biotite, others augite or hypersthene; many have a small amount +of quartz. Orthoclase is rarely entirely absent, and when it is fairly +common the rock becomes a tonalite; in this way a transition is +furnished between diorites and granites. It is rare to find the pure +types of "hornblende-diorite," "augite-diorite," &c., but in most cases +the rocks contain two or more ferromagnesian silicates, and such +combinations as "hornblende-biotite-diorite" are commonest in nature. + +The felspar of the diorites ranges in composition from oligoclase to +labradorite, and is often remarkably zonal, the external layers being +more alkaline than the internal. Small fluid enclosures and black +grains, probably iron oxides, often occur in it in great numbers. +Weathering produces epidote, calcite, sericite and kaolin. The biotite +is always brown or yellow; the hornblende usually green, but sometimes +brown or yellowish brown in those diorites which have affinities to +lamprophyres. The augite is nearly always green but sometimes has a +reddish tinge; bronzite and hypersthene have their usual green and brown +shades. Apatite, iron oxides and zircon are almost invariably present; +sphene, garnet and orthite are occasionally observed; calcite, chlorite, +muscovite, kaolin, epidote and bastite are secondary. The structure is +not essentially different from that of granite. The ferromagnesian +minerals crystallize comparatively early and have some idiomorphism; the +felspar usually follows and only in part shows good crystalline +outlines. Orthoclase and quartz, if present, are last to separate out, +and fill the spaces between the other minerals; often they +interpenetrate to form micropegmatite. In many diorites the plagioclase +felspar has crystallized before the hornblende, which consequently has +less perfect outlines and forms irregular plates which enclose sharply +formed individuals of felspar. This produces the ophitic structure (very +common also in the dolerites). More rarely biotite and augite exhibit +the same relations to the plagioclase. Orbicular structure also +occasionally appears in these rocks; in fact the orbicular diorite of +Corsica (also called "Napoleonite" or "Corsite") was for a long time the +best-known example of this structure. The rock seems composed of +spheroids, about an inch in diameter, surrounded by a smaller amount of +dark-coloured dioritic matrix. The spheroids have a radiate structure +and often show concentric dark and pale shells. These consist of +hornblende (dark green) and basic plagioclase felspar, labradorite and +bytownite (grey or nearly white). Occasionally diorites have a parallel +banded or foliated structure, but these must not be confounded with the +epidiorites, which are metamorphic rocks and also have a conspicuous +foliation. + +Diorites must also be distinguished from hornblendic gabbros, which +contain more basic felspars, rarely quartz and occasionally olivine; but +the boundary lines between diorites and gabbros are admittedly somewhat +vague, e.g. some authors would call rocks gabbro which others would +regard as augite-diorite. The hornblendites differ from the diorites in +containing little felspar, and consist principally of hornblende. Among +varietal designations given to rocks of the diorite family are +"banatite" for an augite-diorite with or without quartz (from the +Schemnitz district), "granodiorite" for a quartz-hornblende-diorite +(essentially the same as tonalite) from California, &c., "adamellite" +for the quartz-mica-diorite or tonalite of Monte Adamello (Alps), +"ornite" for a hornblende-diorite rich in felspar, from Sweden. + (J. S. F.) + + + + +DIP (Old Eng. _dyppan_, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in +"deep"), the angle which the magnetic needle makes with the horizon. A +freely suspended magnetic needle will not maintain a horizontal position +except at the magnetic equator. Over the N. magnetic pole the +north-seeking end of the needle points directly downwards and dips at an +intermediate angle at intermediate distances between the magnetic poles +and equator. There are secular progressive variations of dip as well as +of declination and the maxima are independent of each other. In 1576 +the dip at London was 71 deg. 50', in 1720 (max.) 74 deg. 42', in 1900 +67 deg. 9'. (For Dip Circle see INCLINOMETER.) + + + + +DIPHENYL (phenyl benzene), C6H5.C6H5, a hydrocarbon found in that +fraction of the coal-tar distillate boiling between 240-300 deg. C., +from which it may be obtained by warming with sulphuric acid, separating +the acid layer and strongly cooling the undissolved oil. It may be +artificially prepared by passing benzene vapour through a red-hot tube; +by the action of sodium on brombenzene dissolved in ether; by the action +of stannous chloride on phenyldiazonium chloride; or by the addition of +solid phenyldiazonium sulphate to warm benzene (R. Mohlau, _Berichte, +1893, 26_, 1997) C6H5N2.HSO4 + C6H6 = H2SO4 + N2 + C6H5.C6H5. L. +Gattermann (_Berichte, 1890, 23_, 1226) has also prepared it by the +decomposition of a solution of phenyldiazonium sulphate with alcohol and +copper powder. It crystallizes in plates (from alcohol) melting at 70-71 +deg. C. and boiling at 254 deg. C. It is oxidized by chromic acid in +glacial acetic acid solution to benzoic acid, dilute nitric acid and +chromic acid mixture being without effect. It is not reduced by +hydriodic acid and phosphorus, but sodium in the presence of amyl +alcohol reduces it to tetrahydrodiphenyl C12H14. + + Many substitution derivatives are known: the monosubstitution + derivatives being capable of existing in three isomeric forms. Of the + disubstitution derivatives the most important are those derived from + diparadiaminodiphenyl or benzidine (q.v.). + + _Orthoaminodiphenyl_, + + NH2 + __ |__ + / \__/ \ , + \__/ \__/ + + is prepared by the action of bromine and caustic soda on + orthophenylbenzamide (R. Hirsch, _Berichte, 1892, 25_, 1974); when its + vapour is passed over heated lime, carbazol (q.v.) is formed. + + _Diorthodiaminodiphenyl_, + + NH2 NH2 + __| |__ + / \__/ \ , + \__/ \__/ + + is obtained by the reduction of the corresponding nitro compound + (obtained by the action of ethyl nitrite at 0 deg. C. on + metadinitrobenzidine hydrochloride). Its tetrazo compound on reduction + gives a hydrazine which, on warming with hydrochloric acid at 150 deg. + C., decomposes into ammonium chloride and _phenazone_, + + N = N + __| |__ + / \___/ \ + \__/ \__/ + + (C12H8N2). One of the most important derivatives of diphenyl, from the + theoretical point of view, is _diphenic acid_ or diorthodiphenyl + carboxylic acid, which can be obtained from + diparadiaminodiphenyldiorthocarboxylic acid, + __ __ + H2N / \__/ \ NH2 , + \__/ \__/ + | | + HOOC COOH + + or from phenanthrene (q.v.), the constitution of which it determines. + See BENZIDINE for diparadiaminodiphenyl. + + + + +DIPHILUS, of Sinope, poet of the new Attic comedy and contemporary of +Menander (342-291 B.C.). Most of his plays were written and acted at +Athens, but he led a wandering life, and died at Smyrna. He was on +intimate terms with the famous courtesan Gnathaena (Athenaeus xiii. pp. +579, 583). He is said to have written 100 comedies, the titles of fifty +of which are preserved. He sometimes acted himself. To judge from the +imitations of Plautus. (_Casina_ from the [Greek: Kleroumenoi], +_Asinaria_ from the [Greek: Onagos], _Rudens_ from some other play), he +was very skilful in the construction of his plots. Terence also tells us +that he introduced into the _Adelphi_ (ii. 1) a scene from the [Greek: +Synapothneskontes], which had been omitted by Plautus in his adaptation +(_Commorientes_) of the same play. The style of Diphilus was simple and +natural, and his language on the whole good Attic; he paid great +attention to versification, and was supposed to have invented a peculiar +kind of metre. The ancients were undecided whether to class him among +the writers of the New or Middle comedy. In his fondness for +mythological subjects (_Hercules_, _Theseus_) and his introduction on +the stage (by a bold anachronism) of the poets Archilochus and Hipponax +as rivals of Sappho, he approximates to the spirit of the latter. + + Fragments in H. Koch, _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, ii.; see J. + Denis, _La Comedie grecque_ (1886), ii. p. 414; R. W. Bond in + _Classical Review_ (Feb. 1910, with trans. of _Emporos_ fragm.). + + + + +DIPHTHERIA (from [Greek: diphthera], a skin or membrane), the term +applied to an acute infectious disease, which is accompanied by a +membranous exudation on a mucous surface, generally on the tonsils and +back of the throat or pharynx. + +In general the symptoms at the commencement of an attack of diphtheria +are comparatively slight, being those commonly accompanying a cold, viz. +chilliness and depression. Sometimes more severe phenomena usher in the +attack, such as vomiting and diarrhoea. A slight feeling of uneasiness +in the throat is experienced along with some stiffness of the back of +the neck. When looked at the throat appears reddened and somewhat +swollen, particularly in the neighbourhood of the tonsils, the soft +palate and upper part of pharynx, while along with this there is +tenderness and swelling of the glands at the angles of the jaws. The +affection of the throat spreads rapidly, and soon the characteristic +exudation appears on the inflamed surface in the form of greyish-white +specks or patches, increasing in extent and thickness until a +yellowish-looking false membrane is formed. This deposit is firmly +adherent to the mucous membrane beneath or incorporated with it, and if +removed leaves a raw, bleeding, ulcerated surface, upon which it is +reproduced in a short period. The appearance of the exudation has been +compared to wet parchment or washed leather, and it is more or less +dense in texture. It may cover the whole of the back of the throat, the +cavity of the mouth, and the posterior nares, and spread downwards into +the air-passages on the one hand and into the alimentary canal on the +other, while any wound on the surface of the body is liable to become +covered with it. This membrane is apt to be detached spontaneously, and +as it loosens it becomes decomposed, giving a most offensive and +characteristic odour to the breath. There is pain and difficulty in +swallowing, but unless the disease has affected the larynx no affection +of the breathing. The voice acquires a snuffling character. When the +disease invades the posterior nares an acrid, fetid discharge, and +sometimes also copious bleeding, takes place from the nostrils. Along +with these local phenomena there is evidence of constitutional +disturbance of the most severe character. There may be no great amount +of fever, but there is marked depression and loss of strength. The pulse +becomes small and frequent, the countenance pale, the swelling of the +glands of the neck increases, which, along with the presence of albumen +in the urine, testifies to a condition of blood poisoning. Unless +favourable symptoms emerge death takes place within three or four days +or sooner, either from the rapid extension of the false membrane into +the air-passage, giving rise to asphyxia, or from a condition of general +collapse, which is sometimes remarkably sudden. In cases of recovery the +change for the better is marked by an arrest in the extension of the +false membrane, the detachment and expectoration of that already formed, +and the healing of the ulcerated mucous membrane beneath. Along with +this there is a general improvement in the symptoms, the power of +swallowing returns, and the strength gradually increases, while the +glandular enlargement of the neck diminishes, and the albumen disappears +from the urine. Recovery, however, is generally slow, and it is many +weeks before full convalescence is established. Even, however, where +diphtheria ends thus favourably, the peculiar sequelae already mentioned +are apt to follow, generally within a period of two or three weeks after +all the local evidence of the disease has disappeared. These secondary +affections may occur after mild as well as after severe attacks, and +they are principally in the form of paralysis affecting the soft palate +and pharynx, causing difficulty in swallowing with regurgitation of food +through the nose, and giving a peculiar nasal character to the voice. +There are, however, other forms of paralysis occurring after diphtheria, +especially that affecting the muscles of the eye, which produces a loss +of the power of accommodation and consequent impairment of vision. There +may be, besides, paralysis of both legs, and occasionally also of one +side of the body (hemiplegia). These symptoms, however, after continuing +for a variable length of time, almost always ultimately disappear. + +Under the name of the _Malum Egyptiacum_, Aretaeus in the 2nd century +gives a minute description of a disease which in all its essential +characteristics corresponds to diphtheria. In the 16th, 17th and 18th +centuries epidemics of diphtheria appear to have frequently prevailed +in many parts of Europe, particularly in Holland, Spain, Italy, France, +as well as in England, and were described by physicians belonging to +those countries under various titles; but it is probable that other +diseases of a similar nature were included in their descriptions, and no +accurate account of this affection had been published till M. Bretonneau +of Tours in 1821 laid his celebrated treatise on the subject before the +French Academy of Medicine. By him the term _La Diphtherite_ was first +given to the disease. + +Great attention has been paid to diphtheria in recent years, with some +striking results. Its cause and nature have been definitely ascertained, +the conditions which influence its prevalence have been elucidated, and +a specific "cure" has been found. In the last respect it occupies a +unique position at the present time. In the case of several other +zymotic diseases much has been done by way of prevention, little or +nothing for treatment; in the case of diphtheria prevention has failed, +but treatment has been revolutionized by the introduction of antitoxin, +which constitutes the most important contribution to practical medicine +as yet made by bacteriology. + + + Causation. + +The exciting cause of diphtheria is a micro-organism, identified by +Klebs and Loffler in 1883 (see PARASITIC DISEASES). It has been shown by +experiment that the symptoms of diphtheria, including the after-effects, +are produced by a toxin derived from the micro-organisms which lodge in +the air-passages and multiply in a susceptible subject. The natural +history of the organism outside the body is not well understood, but +there is some reason to believe that it lives in a dormant condition in +suitable soils. Recent research does not favour the theory that it is +derived from defective drains or "sewer gas," but these things, like +damp and want of sunlight, probably promote its spread, by lowering the +health of persons exposed to them, and particularly by causing an +unhealthy condition of the throat, rendering it susceptible to the +contagion. Defective drainage, or want of drainage, may also act, by +polluting the ground, and so providing a favourable soil for the germ, +though it is to be noted that "the steady increase in the diphtheria +mortality has coincided, in point of time, with steady improvement in +regard of such sanitary circumstances as water supply, sewerage, and +drainage" (Thorne Thorne). Cats and cows are susceptible to the +diphtheritic bacillus, and fowls, turkeys and other birds have been +known to suffer from a disease like diphtheria, but other domestic +animals appear to be more or less resistant or immune. In human beings +the mere presence of the germ is not sufficient to cause disease; there +must also be susceptibility, but it is not known in what that consists. +Individuals exhibit all degrees of resistance up to complete immunity. +Children are far more susceptible than adults, but even children may +have the Klebs-Loffler bacillus in their throats without showing any +symptoms of illness. Altogether there are many obscure points about this +micro-organism, which is apt to assume a puzzling variety of forms. +Nevertheless its identification has greatly facilitated the diagnosis of +the disease, which was previously a very difficult matter, often +determined in an arbitrary fashion on no particular principles. + +Diphtheria, as at present understood, may be defined as sore throat in +which the bacillus is found; if it cannot be found, the illness is +regarded as something else, unless the clinical symptoms are quite +unmistakable. One result of this is a large transference of registered +mortality from other throat affections, and particularly from croup, to +diphtheria. Croup, which never had a well-defined application, and is +not recognized by the College of Physicians as a synonym for diphtheria, +appears to be dying out from the medical vocabulary in Great Britain. In +France the distinction has never been recognized. + + + Prevalence. + +Diphtheria is endemic in all European and American countries, and is +apparently increasing, but the incidence varies greatly. It is far more +prevalent on the continent than in England, and still more so in the +United States and Canada. The following table, compiled from figures +collected by Dr Newsholme, shows how London compares with some foreign +cities. The figures give the mean death-rate from diphtheria and croup +for the term of years during which records have been kept. The period +varies in different cases, and therefore the comparison is only a rough +one. + + _Mean Death-Rates from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living._ + + New York 1610 | Munich 990 + Chicago 1400 | Milan 990 + Buenos Aires 1360 | Florence 830 + Trieste 1300 | Vienna 770 + Dresden 1290 | Stockholm 720 + Berlin 1190 | St Petersburg 650 + Boston 1160 | Moscow 640 + Marseilles 1130 | Paris 630 + Christiania 1090 | Hamburg 490 + Budapest 1880 | London 386 + +There is comparatively little diphtheria in India and Japan, but in +Egypt, the Cape and Australasia it prevails very extensively among the +urban populations. The mortality varies greatly from year to year in all +countries and cities. In Berlin, for instance, it has oscillated between +a maximum of 2420 in 1883 and a minimum of 340 in 1896; in New York +between 2760 in 1877 and 680 in 1868; in Christiania between 3290 in +1887 and 170 in 1871. In some American cities still higher maxima have +been recorded. In other words, diphtheria, though always endemic, +exhibits at times a great increase of activity, and becomes epidemic or +even pandemic. The following table for 1859-99 shows fairly well the +periodical rise and fall in England and Wales. Diphtheria and croup are +given both separately and together, showing the increasing transference +from one to the other of late years. Diphtheria was first entered +separately in the year 1859. + + _Deaths from Diphtheria and Croup per Million living in + England and Wales._ + + +---------------+-------------+----------+-------------+ + | Years. | Diphtheria. | Croup. | Diphtheria | + | | | | and Croup. | + +---------------+-------------+----------+-------------+ + | 1859 | 517 | 286 | 803 | + | 1860 | 261 | 220 | 481 | + | 1861-70 | 185 | 246 | 431 | + | 1871-80 | 121 | 168 | 289 | + | 1881-90 | 163 | 144 | 307 | + | 1891-95 | 254 | 70 | 324 | + | 1896-97 | 269 | 43 | 312 | + | 1898 | 244 | 27 | 271 | + | 1899 | 293 | 32 | 325 | + +---------------+-------------+----------+-------------+ + + The combined figures for diphtheria and croup in later years + are:--(1900) 316; (1901) 296; (1902) 255; (1903) 195; (1904) 184; + (1905) 174; (1906) 190; (1907) 175; (1908) 166. + +Several facts are roughly indicated by the table. It begins with an +extremely severe epidemic, which has not been approached since. Then +follows a fall extending over twenty years. On the whole this diminution +was progressive, though not in reality so steady as the decennial +grouping makes it appear, being interrupted by smaller oscillations in +single years and groups of years. Still the main fact holds good. After +1880 an opposite movement began, likewise interrupted by minor +oscillations, but on the whole progressive, and culminating in the year +1893 with a death-rate of 389, the highest recorded since 1865. After +1896 a marked fall again took place. This is partly accounted for by the +use of antitoxin, which only began on a considerable scale in 1895, and +did not become general until a year or two later at least. Its effects +were only then fully felt. The registrar-general's returns record +mortality, not prevalence--that is to say, the number of deaths, not of +cases. + +On the whole, we get clear evidence of an epidemic rise and fall, which +may serve to dispose of some erroneous conceptions. The belief, held +until recently, that diphtheria is steadily increasing in Great Britain +was obviously premature; it did rise over a series of years, but has now +ebbed again. Moreover, the general prevalence during the last thirty +years has been notably less than in the previous twelve years. Yet it is +during years since 1870 that compulsory education has been in existence +and main drainage chiefly carried out. It follows that neither school +attendance nor sewer gas exercises such an important influence over the +epidemicity of diphtheria as some other conditions. What are those +conditions? Dr Newsholme has advanced the theory, based on an elaborate +examination of statistics in various countries, that the activity of +diphtheria is connected with the rainfall, and he lays down the +following general induction from the facts: "Diphtheria only becomes +epidemic in years in which the rainfall is deficient, and the epidemics +are on the largest scale when three or more years of deficient rainfall +follow each other." He points out that the comparative rarity of +diphtheria in tropical climates, which are characterized by excessive +rainfall, and its greater prevalence in continental than in insular +countries, confirm his theory. His observations seem quite contrary to +the view laid down by various authorities, and hitherto accepted, that +wet weather favours diphtheria. The two, however, are not +irreconcilable. The key to the problem--and possibly to many other +epidemiological problems--may perhaps be found in the movements of the +subsoil water. It has been suggested by different observers, and +particularly by Mr M. A. Adams, who has for some years made a study of +the subsoil water at Maidstone, that there is a definite connexion +between it and diphtheria. In England the underground water normally +reaches its lowest level at the end of the summer; then it gradually +rises, fed by percolation from the winter rains, reaching a maximum +level about the end of March, after which it gradually sinks. This +maximum level Mr Adams calls the annual spring cleaning of the soil, and +his observations go to show that when the normal movement is arrested or +disturbed, diphtheria becomes active. Now that is what happens in +periods of drought. The underground water does not rise to its usual +level, and there is no spring cleaning. The hypothesis, then, is this: +The diphtheria bacillus lives in the soil, but is "drowned out" in wet +periods by the subsoil water. In droughty ones it lives and flourishes +in the warm, dry soil; then when rain comes, it is driven out with the +ground air into the houses. This process will continue for some time, so +that epidemic outbreaks may well seem to be associated with wet. But +they begin in drought, and are stopped by long-continued periods of +copious rainfall. This is quite in keeping with the observed fact that +diphtheria is a seasonal disease, always most prevalent in the last +quarter of the year. The summer develops the poison in the soil, the +autumnal rains bring it out. The fact that the same cause does not +produce the same effect in tropical countries may perhaps be explained +by the extreme violence of the alternations, which are too great to suit +this particular micro-organism, or possibly the regularity of the +rainfall prevents its development. + +The foregoing hypothesis is supported by a good deal of evidence, and +notably by the concurrence of the great epidemic or pandemic prevalence +in Great Britain, culminating in 1859, with a prolonged period of +exceptionally deficient rainfall. Again, the highest death-rate +registered since 1865 was in 1893, a year of similarly exceptional +drought. But it is no more than an hypothesis, and the fate of former +theories is a warning against drawing conclusions from statistics and +records extending over too short a period of time. The warning is +particularly necessary in connexion with meteorological conditions, +which are apt to upset all calculations. As it happens, a period of +deficient rainfall even greater than that of 1854-1858 has recently been +experienced. It began in 1893 and culminated in the extraordinary season +of 1899. The dry years were 1893, 1895, 1896, 1898 and 1899, and the +deficiency of rainfall was not made good by any considerable excess in +1894 and 1897. It surpassed all records at Greenwich; streams and wells +ran dry all over the country, and the flow of the Thames and Lea was +reduced to the lowest point ever recorded. There should be, according to +the theory, at least a very large increase in the prevalence of +diphtheria. To a certain extent it has held good. There was a marked +rise in 1893-1896 over the preceding period, though not so large as +might have been expected, but it was followed by a decided fall in +1897-1898. The experience of 1898 contradicts, that of 1899 supports, +the theory. Further light is therefore required; but perhaps the failure +of the recent drought to produce results at all comparable with the +epidemic of the 'fifties may be due to variations in the resistance of +the disease, which differs widely in different years. It may also be due +in part to improved sanitation, to the notification of infectious +diseases, the use of isolation hospitals, which have greatly developed +in quite recent years, and, lastly, to the beneficial effects of +antitoxin. If these be the real explanations, then scientific and +administrative work has not been thrown away after all in combating this +very painful and fatal enemy of the young. + + + Dissemination. + +The conditions governing the general prevalence of diphtheria, and its +epidemic rise and fall, which have just been discussed, do not touch the +question of actual dissemination. The contagion is spread by means which +are in constant operation, whether the general amount of disease is +great or small. Water, so important in some epidemic diseases, is +believed not to be one of them, though a negative proof based on absence +of evidence cannot be accepted as conclusive. On the other hand, milk is +undoubtedly a means of dissemination. Several outbreaks of an almost +explosive character, besides minor extensions of disease from one place +to another, have been traced to this cause. Milk may be contaminated in +various ways--at the dairy, for instance, or on the way to +customers,--but several cases, investigated by the officers of the Local +Government Board and others, have been thought to point to infection +from cows suffering from a diphtheritic affection of the udder. The part +played by aerial convection is undetermined, but there is no reason to +suppose that the infecting material is conveyed any distance by wind or +air currents. Instances which seem to point to the contrary may be +explained in other ways, and particularly by the fact, now fully +demonstrated, that persons suffering from minor sore throats, not +recognized as diphtheria, may carry the disease about and introduce it +into other localities. Human intercourse is the most important means of +dissemination, the contagion passing from person to person either by +actual contact, as in kissing, or by the use of the same utensils and +articles, or by mere proximity. In the last case the germs must be +supposed to be air-borne for short distances, and to enter with the +breath. Rooms appear liable to become infected by the presence of +diphtheritic cases, and so spread the disease among other persons using +them. At a small outbreak which occurred at Darenth Asylum in 1898 the +infection clung obstinately to a particular ward, in spite of the prompt +removal of all cases, and fresh ones continued to occur until it had +been thoroughly disinfected, after which there were no more. The part +played by human intercourse in fostering the spread of the disease +suggests that it would naturally be more prevalent in urban communities, +where people congregate together more, than in rural ones. This is at +variance with the conclusion laid down by some authorities, that in this +country diphtheria used to affect chiefly the sparsely populated +districts, and though tending to become more urban, is still rather a +rural disease. That view is based upon an analysis of the distribution +by counties in England and Wales from 1855 to 1880, and it has been +generally accepted and repeated until it has become a sort of axiom. Of +course the facts of distribution are facts, but the general inference +drawn from them, that diphtheria peculiarly affects the country and is +changing its _habitat_, may be erroneous. Dr Newsholme, by taking a +wider basis of experience, has arrived at the opposite conclusion, and +finds that diphtheria does not, in fact, flourish more in +sparsely-peopled districts. "When a sufficiently long series of years is +taken," he says, "it appears clear that there is more diphtheria in +urban than in rural communities." The rate for London has always been in +excess of that for the whole of England and Wales. Its distribution at +any given time is determined by a number of circumstances, and by their +incidental co-operation, not by any property or predilection for town or +country inherent in the disease. There are the epidemic conditions of +soil and rainfall, previously discussed, which vary widely in different +localities at different times; there is the steady influence of regular +intercourse, and the accidental element of special distribution by +various means. These things may combine to alter the incidence. In +short, accident plays too great a part to permit any general conclusion +to be drawn from distribution, except from a very wide basis of +experience. The variations are very great and sometimes very sudden. For +instance, the county of London for some years headed the list, having a +far higher death-rate than any other. In 1898 it dropped to the fifth +place, and was surpassed by Rutland, a purely rural county, which had +the lowest mortality of all in the previous year and very nearly the +lowest for the previous ten years. Again, South Wales, which had had a +low mortality for some years, suddenly came into prominence as a +diphtheria district, and in 1898 had the highest death-rate in the +country. Staffordshire and Bedfordshire show a similar rise, the one an +urban, the other a rural, county. All the northern counties, both rural +and urban,--namely, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmorland, +Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lincolnshire,--had a very high rate +in 1861-1870, and a low one in 1896-1898. It is obviously unsafe to draw +general conclusions from distribution data on a small scale. Diphtheria +appears to creep about very slowly, as a rule, from place to place, and +from one part of a large town to another; it forsakes one district and +appears in another; occasionally it attacks a fresh locality with great +energy, presumably because the local conditions are exceptionally +favourable, which may be due to the soil or, possibly, to the +susceptibility of the inhabitants, who are, so to speak, virgin ground. +But through it all personal infection is the chief means of spread. + +The acceptance of this doctrine has directed great attention to the +practical question of school influence. There is no doubt whatever that +it plays a very considerable part in spreading diphtheria. The incidence +of the disease is chiefly on children, and nothing so often and +regularly brings large numbers together in close contact under the same +roof as school attendance. Nothing, in fact, furnishes such constant and +extensive opportunities for personal infection. Many outbreaks have +definitely been traced to schools. In London the subject has been very +fully investigated by Sir Shirley Murphy, the medical officer of health +to the London County Council, and by Dr W. R. Smith, formerly medical +officer of health to the London School Board. Sir Shirley Murphy has +shown that a special incidence on children of school age began to +manifest itself after the adoption of compulsory education, and that the +summer holidays are marked by a distinct diminution of cases, which is +succeeded by an increase on the return to school. Dr W. R. Smith's +observations are directed rather to minimizing the effect of school +influence, and to showing that it is less important than other factors; +which is doubtless true, as has been already remarked. It appears that +the heaviest incidence falls upon infants under school age, and that +liability diminishes progressively after school age is reached. But this +by no means disposes of the importance of school influence, as the +younger children at home may be infected by older ones, who have picked +up the contagion at school, but, being less susceptible, are less +severely affected and exhibit no worse symptoms than a sore throat. From +a practical point of view the problem is a difficult one to deal with, +as it is virtually impossible to ensure the exclusion of all infection, +on account of the deceptively mild forms it may assume; but considering +how very often outbreaks of diphtheria necessitate the closing of +schools, it would probably be to the advantage of the authorities to +discourage, rather than to compel, the attendance of children with sore +throats. A fact of some interest revealed by statistics is that in the +earliest years of life the incidence of diphtheria is greater upon male +than upon female children, but from three years onwards the position is +reversed, and with every succeeding year the relative female liability +becomes greater. This is probably due to the habit of kissing maintained +among females, but more and more abandoned by boys from babyhood +onwards. + +All these considerations suggest the importance of segregating the sick +in isolation hospitals. Of late years this preventive measure has been +carried out with increasing efficiency, owing to the better provision of +such hospitals and the greater willingness of the public to make use of +them; and probably the improvement so effected has had some share in +keeping down the prevalence of the disease to comparatively moderate +proportions. Unfortunately, the complete segregation of infected persons +is hardly possible, because of the mild symptoms, and even absence of +symptoms, exhibited by some individuals. A further difficulty arises +with reference to the discharge of patients. It has been proved that +the bacillus may persist almost indefinitely in the air-passages in +certain cases, and in a considerable proportion it does persist for +several weeks after convalescence. On returning home such cases may, and +often do, infect others. + + + Treatment. + +Since the antitoxin treatment was introduced in 1894 it has overshadowed +all other methods. We owe this drug originally to the Berlin school of +bacteriologists, and particularly to Dr Behring. The idea of making use +of serum arose about 1890, out of researches made in connexion with +Mechnikov's theory of phagocytosis, by which is meant the action of the +phagocytes or white corpuscles of the blood in destroying the bacteria +of disease. It was shown by the German bacteriologists that the serum or +liquid part of the blood plays an equally or more important part in +resisting disease, and the idea of combating the toxins produced by +pathogenic bacteria with resistant serum injected into the blood +presented itself to several workers. The idea was followed up and worked +out independently in France and Germany, so successfully that by the +year 1894 the serum treatment had been tried on a considerable scale +with most encouraging results. Some of these were published in Germany +in the earlier part of that year, and at the International Hygienic +Congress, held in Budapest a little later, Dr Roux, of the Institut +Pasteur, whose experience was somewhat more extensive than that of his +German colleagues, read a paper giving the result of several hundred +cases treated in Paris. When all allowance for errors had been made, +they showed a remarkable and even astonishing reduction of mortality, +fully confirming the conclusions drawn from the German experiments. This +consensus of independent opinion proved a great stimulus to further +trial, and before long one _clinique_ after another told the same tale. +The evidence was so favourable that Professor Virchow--the last man to +be carried away by a novelty--declared it "the imperative duty of +medical men to use the new remedy" (_The Times_, 19th October 1894). +Since then an enormous mass of facts has accumulated from all quarters +of the globe, all testifying to the value of antitoxin in the treatment +of diphtheria. The experience of the hospitals of the London +Metropolitan Asylums Board for five years before and after antitoxin may +be given as a particularly instructive illustration; but the subsequent +reduction in the rate of mortality (12 in 1900, 11.3 in 1901, 10.8 in +1902, 9.3 in 1903, and an average of 9 in 1904-1908) added further +confirmation. + + _Annual Case Mortality in Metropolitan Asylums Board's + Hospitals._ + + Before Antitoxin. | After Antitoxin. + Mortality | Mortality + Year. per cent. | Year. per cent. + | + 1890 33.55 | 1895 22.85 + 1891 30.61 | 1896 21.20 + 1892 29.51 | 1897 17.79 + 1893 30.42 | 1898 15.37 + 1894 29.29 | 1899 13.95 + +The number of cases dealt with in these five antitoxin years was 32,835, +or an average of 6567 a year, and the broad result is a reduction of +mortality by more than one-half. It is a fair inference that the +treatment saves the lives of about 1000 children every year in London +alone. This refers to all cases. Those which occur in the hospitals as a +sequel to scarlet fever, and consequently come under treatment from the +commencement, show very much more striking results. The case mortality, +which was 46.8% in 1892 and 58.8% in 1893, has been reduced to 3.6% +since the introduction of antitoxin. But the evidence is not from +statistics alone. The beneficial effect of the treatment is equally +attested by clinical observation. Dr Roux's original account has been +confirmed by a cloud of witnesses year after year. "One may say," he +wrote, "that the appearance of most of the patients is totally different +from what it used to be. The pale and leaden faces are scarcely seen in +the wards; the expression of the children is brighter and more lively." +Adult patients have described the relief afforded by inoculation; it +acts like a charm, and lifts the deadly feeling of oppression off like a +cloud in the course of a few hours. Finally, the counteracting effect of +antitoxin in preventing the disintegrating action of the diphtheritic +toxin on the nervous tissues has been demonstrated pathologically. There +are some who still affect scepticism as to the value of this drug. They +cannot be acquainted with the evidence, for if the efficacy of antitoxin +in the treatment of diphtheria has not been proved, then neither can the +efficacy of any treatment for anything be said to be proved. +Prophylactic properties are also claimed for the serum; but protection +is necessarily more difficult to demonstrate than cure, and though there +is some evidence to support the claim, it has not been fully made out. + + AUTHORITIES.--Adams, _Public Health_, vol. vii.; Thorne Thorne, + _Milroy Lectures_ (1891); Newsholme, _Epidemic Diphtheria_; W. R. + Smith, _Harben Lectures_ (1899); Murphy, _Report to London County + Council_ (1894); Sims Woodhead, _Report to Metropolitan Asylums Board_ + (1901). + + + + +DIPLODOCUS, a gigantic extinct land reptile discovered in rocks of Upper +Jurassic age in western North America, the best-known example of a +Sauropodous Dinosaur. The first scattered remains of a skeleton were +found in 1877 by Prof. S.W. Williston near Canon City, Colorado; and the +tail and hind-limb of this specimen were described in the following year +by Prof. O.C. Marsh. He noticed that in the part of the tail which +dragged on the ground, each chevron bone below the vertebral column +consisted of a pair of bars; and as so peculiar an arrangement for the +protection of the artery and vein beneath the tail had not previously +been observed in any animal, he proposed the name _Diplodocus_ ("double +beam" or "double bar") for the new reptile, adding the specific name +_longus_ in allusion to the elongated shape of the tail vertebrae. In +1884 Prof. Marsh described the head, vertebrae and pelvis of the same +skeleton, which is now in the National Museum, Washington. In 1897 the +next important specimen, a tail associated with other fragments, +apparently of _Diplodocus longus_, was obtained by the American Museum +of Natural History, New York, from Como Bluffs, Wyoming. In 1899-1900 +large parts of two skeletons of another species, in a remarkable state +of preservation, were disinterred by Messrs J. L. Wortman, O. A. +Peterson and J. B. Hatcher in Sheep Creek, Albany county, Wyo., and +these are now exhibited with minor discoveries in the Carnegie Museum, +Pittsburg. There are also other specimens in New York, Chicago and the +University of Wyoming. In 1901 Mr J. B. Hatcher studied the new species +at Pittsburg, named it _Diplodocus carnegii_, and published the first +restored sketch of a complete skeleton. Shortly afterwards plaster casts +of the finest specimens were prepared under the direction of Mr J. B. +Hatcher and Dr W. J. Holland, and these were skilfully combined to form +the cast of a completely reconstructed skeleton, which was presented to +the British Museum by Andrew Carnegie in 1905. This reconstruction is +based primarily on a well-preserved chain of vertebrae, extending from +the second cervical to the twelfth caudal, associated with the ribs, +pelvis and several limb-bones. The tail is completed from two other +specimens in the Carnegie Museum, having caudals 13 to 36 and 37 to 73 +respectively in apparently unbroken series. Prof. Marsh's specimen in +Washington supplied the greater part of the skull; and the fore-foot is +copied from a specimen in New York. + +[Illustration: Reconstructed Skeleton of _Diplodocus carnegii_, Hatcher, +about one-hundredth natural size. A and B, Caudal Vertebrae Nos. 36 and +70 of the same are about one-quarter natural size.] + +The cast of the reconstructed skeleton of _Diplodocus carnegii_ measures +84 ft. in length and 12 ft. 9 in. in maximum height at the hind-limbs. +It displays the elongated neck and tail and the relatively small head so +characteristic of the Sauropodous Dinosaurs. The skull is inclined to +the axis of the neck, denoting a browsing animal; while the feeble blunt +teeth and flat expanded snout suggest feeding among succulent +water-weeds. The large narial opening at the highest point of the head +probably indicates an aquatic mode of life, and there seems to have been +a soft valve to close the nostrils when under water. The diminutive +brain-cavity, scarcely large enough to contain a walnut, is noteworthy. +There are 104 vertebrae, namely, 15 in the neck, 11 in the back, 5 in +the sacrum and 73 in the tail. The presacral vertebrae are of remarkably +light construction, the plates and struts of bone being arranged to give +the greatest strength with the least weight. The end of the tail is a +flexible lash, which would probably be used as a weapon, like the tail +of some existing lizards. The feet, notwithstanding the weight they had +to support, are as unsymmetrical as those of a crocodile, with claws +only on the three inner toes. There is no external armour. + + See O. C. Marsh, _Amer. Journ. Sci._ ser. 3, vol. xvi. (1878), p. 414, + pl. viii., and loc. cit. vol. xxvii. (1884), p. 161, pls. iii., iv.; + H. F. Osborn, Mem. _Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vol. i. pt. v. (1899); J. + B. Hatcher, _Mem. Carnegie Mus._ vol. i. No. 1 (1901), and vol. ii. + No. 1 (1903); W. J. Holland, _Mem. Carnegie Mus._ vol. ii. No. 6 + (1906). (A. S. Wo.) + + + + +DIPLOMACY (Fr. _diplomatie_), the art of conducting international +negotiations. The word, borrowed from the French, has the same +derivation as Diplomatic (q.v.), and, according to the _New English +Dictionary_, was first used in England so late as 1796 by Burke. Yet +there is no other word in the English language that could supply its +exact sense. The need for such a term was indeed not felt; for what we +know as diplomacy was long regarded, partly as falling under the _Jus +gentium_ or international law, partly as a kind of activity morally +somewhat suspect and incapable of being brought under any system. +Moreover, though in a certain sense it is as old as history, diplomacy +as a uniform system, based upon generally recognized rules and directed +by a diplomatic hierarchy having a fixed international status, is of +quite modern growth even in Europe. It was finally established only at +the congresses of Vienna (1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), while its +effective extension to the great monarchies of the East, beyond the +bounds of European civilization, was comparatively an affair of +yesterday. So late as 1876 it was possible for the writer on this +subject in the 9th edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ to say that +"it would be an historical absurdity to suppose diplomatic relations +connecting together China, Burma and Japan, as they connect the great +European powers." + +_Principles._--Though diplomacy has been usually treated under the head +of international law, it would perhaps be more consonant with the facts +to place international law under diplomacy. The principles and rules +governing the intercourse of states, defined by a long succession of +international lawyers, have no sanction save the consensus of the +powers, established and maintained by diplomacy (see BALANCE OF POWER); +in so far as they have become, by international agreement, more than +mere pious opinions of theorists, they are working rules established for +mutual convenience, which it is the function of diplomacy to safeguard +or to use for its own ends. In any case they by no means cover the whole +field of diplomatic activity; and, were they swept away, the art of +diplomacy, developed through long ages of experience, would survive. + +This experience may perhaps be called the science, as distinct from the +art, of diplomacy. It covers not only the province of international law, +but the vast field of recorded experience which we know as history, of +which indeed international law is but a part; for, as Bielfeld in his +_Institutions politiques_ (La Haye, 1760, t. I. ch. ii. S 13) points +out, "public law is founded on facts. To know it we must know history, +which is the soul of this science as of politics in general." The broad +outlook on human affairs implied in "historical sense" is more necessary +to the diplomatist under modern conditions than in the 18th century, +when international policy was still wholly under the control of princes +and their immediate advisers. Diplomacy was then a game of wits played +in a narrow circle. Its objects too were narrower; for states were +practically regarded as the property of their sovereigns, which it was +the main function of their "agents" to enlarge or to protect, while +scarcely less important than the preservation or rearrangement of +territorial boundaries was that of precedence and etiquette generally, +over which an incredible amount of time was wasted. The _haute +diplomatie_ thus resolved itself into a process of exalted haggling, +conducted with an utter disregard of the ordinary standards of morality, +but with the most exquisite politeness and in accordance with ever more +and more elaborate rules. Much of the outcome of these dead debates has +become stereotyped in the conventions of the diplomatic service; but the +character of diplomacy itself has undergone a great change. This change +is threefold: firstly, as the result of the greater sense of the +community of interests among nations, which was one of the outcomes of +the French Revolution; secondly, owing to the rise of democracy, with +its expression in parliamentary assemblies and in the press; thirdly, +through the alteration in the position of the diplomatic agent, due to +modern means of communication. + +The first of these changes may be dated to the circular of Count Kaunitz +of the 17th of July 1791, in which, in face of the Revolution, he +impressed upon the powers the duty of making common cause for the +purpose of preserving "public peace, the tranquillity of states, the +inviolability of possessions, and the faith of treaties." The duty of +watching over the common interests of Europe, or of the world, was thus +for the first time officially recognized as a function of diplomacy, +since common action could only be taken as the result of diplomatic +negotiations. It would be easy to exaggerate the effective results of +this idea, even when it had crystallized in the Grand Alliance of 1814 +and been proclaimed to the world in the Holy Alliance of the 26th of +September 1815 and the declaration of Aix-la-Chapelle. The cynical +picture given by La Bruyere of the diplomatist of the 18th century still +remained largely true: "His talk is only of peace, of alliances, of the +public tranquillity, and of the public interests; in reality he is +thinking only of his own, that is to say, of those of his master or of +his republic."[1] The proceedings of the congress of Vienna proved how +little the common good weighed unless reinforced by particular +interests; but the conception of "Europe" as a political entity none the +less survived. The congresses, notably the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle +(q.v.) in 1818, were in a certain sense European parliaments, and their +ostensible object was the furtherance of common interests. Had the +imperial dreamer Alexander I. of Russia had his way, they would have +been permanently established on the broad basis of the Holy Alliance, +and would have included, not the great powers only, but representatives +of every state (see ALEXANDER I. and EUROPE: _History_). Whatever the +effective value of that "Concert of Europe" which was the outcome of the +period of the congresses, it certainly produced a great effect on the +spirit and the practice of diplomacy. In the congresses and conferences +diplomacy assumes international functions both legislative and +administrative. The diplomat is responsible, not only to his own +government, but to "Europe." Thus Castlereagh was accused of +subordinating the interests of Great Britain to those of Europe; and the +same charge was brought, perhaps with greater justice, against +Metternich in respect of Austria. Canning's principle of "Every nation +for itself and God for us all!" prevailed, it is true, over that of +Alexander's "Confederation of Europe"; yet, as one outcome of the +congresses, every diplomatic agent, though he represents the interests +of his own state, has behind him the whole body of the treaties which +constitute the public law of the world, of which he is in some sort the +interpreter and the guardian. + +Parallel with this development runs the second process making for +change: the increasing responsibility of diplomacy to public opinion. To +discuss all the momentous issues involved in this is impossible; but the +subject is too important to be altogether passed over, since it is one +of the main problems of modern international intercourse, and concerns +every one who by his vote may influence the policy of the state to which +he belongs. The question, broadly speaking, is: how far has the public +discussion of international affairs affected the legitimate functions of +diplomacy for better or for worse? To the diplomatist of the old school +the answer seems clear. For him diplomacy was too delicate and too +personal an art to survive the glare and confusion of publicity. +Metternich, the last representative of the old _haute diplomatie_, lived +to moralize over the ruin caused by the first manifestations of the "new +diplomacy," the outcome of the rise of the power of public opinion. He +had early, from his own point of view, unfavourably contrasted the +"limited" constitutional monarchies of the west with the "free" +autocracies of the east of Europe, free because they were under no +obligation to give a public account of their actions. He himself was a +master of the old diplomatic art, of intrigue, of veiling his purpose +under a cloud of magniloquence, above all, of the art of personal +fascination. But public opinion was for him only a dangerous force to be +kept under control; and, even had he realized the necessity for +appealing to it, he had none of the qualities that would have made the +appeal successful. In direct antagonism to him was George Canning, who +may be called the great prototype of the "new diplomacy," and to +Metternich was a "malevolent meteor hurled by divine providence upon +Europe." Canning saw clearly the immense force that would be added to +his diplomatic action if he had behind him the force of public opinion. +In answer to Metternich's complaint of the tone of speeches in +parliament and of the popular support given in England to revolutionary +movements, he wrote, "Our influence, if it is to be maintained abroad, +must be secure in its sources of strength at home: and the sources of +that strength are in the sympathy between the people and the government; +in the union of the public sentiment with the public counsels; in the +reciprocal confidence of the House of Commons and the crown."[2] + +It would be a mistake to jump to the conclusion that Canning was wholly +right and Metternich wholly wrong. The conditions of the Habsburg +monarchy were not those of Great Britain,[3] and even if it had been +possible to speak of a public opinion in the Austrian empire at all, it +certainly possessed no such organ as the British parliament. But the +argument may be carried yet further. In the abstract the success of the +policy of a minister in a democratic state must ultimately rest upon the +support of public opinion; yet the necessity for this support has in the +conduct of foreign affairs its peculiar dangers. In the difficult game +of diplomacy a certain reticence is always necessary. Secret sources of +information would be dried up were they to be lightly revealed; a plain +exposition of policy would often give an undue advantage to the other +party to a negotiation. Thus, even in Great Britain, the diplomatic +correspondence laid before parliament is carefully edited, and all +governments are jealous of granting access to their modern archives. Yet +a representative assembly is apt to be resentful of such reservations. +Its members know little or nothing of the conditions under which foreign +affairs are conducted, and they are not unnaturally irritated by +explanations which seem to lack candour or completeness. Canning himself +had experience of this in the affair of the capture of the Danish fleet +at Copenhagen; and Castlereagh's diplomacy was hampered by the bitter +attacks of an opposition which accused him, with little justice, of +pursuing a policy which he dared not reveal in its full scope to +parliament. Moreover, the appeal to public opinion may be used as a +diplomatic weapon for ends no less "selfish" than any aimed at by the +old diplomacy. Bismarck, whose statesmanship was at least as cynical as +that of Metternich, was a master of the art of taking the world into his +confidence--when it suited him to do so; and the "reptile press," hired +to give a seemingly independent support to his policy, was one of his +most potent weapons. So far the only necessary consequence of the growth +of the power of public opinion on the art of diplomacy has been to +extend the sphere of its application; it is but one more factor to be +dealt with; and experience has proved that it is subject to the wiles of +a skilful diplomatist no less than were the princes and statesmen with +whom the old diplomacy was solely concerned. + +The third factor making for change--the revolution in the means of +communication which has brought all the world into closer touch--remains +to be discussed. It is obvious that before the invention of the +telegraph, the diplomatic agent was in a far more responsible position +than he is now, when he can, in most cases, receive immediate +instructions from his government on difficult questions as they arise. +When communication was still slow there was often no time to await +instructions, or the instructions when they arrived were not seldom +already out of date and had to be set aside on the minister's own +responsibility. It would, however, be easy to exaggerate the importance +of this change as affecting the character and status of diplomatic +agents. It is true that the tendency has been for ministers of foreign +affairs to hold the threads of diplomacy in their own hands to a far +greater extent than was formerly the case; but they must still depend +for information and advice on the "man on the spot," and the success of +their policy largely depends upon his qualities of discretion and +judgment. The growth of democracy, moreover, has given to the ambassador +a new and peculiar importance; for he represents not only the sovereign +to the sovereign, but the nation to the nation; and, as a succession of +notable American ambassadors to Great Britain has proved, he may by his +personal qualities do a large amount to remove the prejudices and +ignorances which stand as a barrier between the nations. It marks an +immense advance in the comity of international intercourse when the +representatives of friendly powers are no longer regarded as "spies +rather than ambassadors," to be "quickly heard and dismissed," as +Philippe de Commines would have them, but as agreeable guests to be +parted from with regret. + +As to the qualifications for an ambassador, it is clearly impossible to +lay down a general rule, for the same qualities are obviously not +required in Washington as in Vienna, nor in Paris as in Pekin. Yet the +effort to depict the ideal ambassador bulks largely in the works of the +earlier theorists, and the demands they make are sufficiently alarming. +Ottaviano Maggi, himself a diplomatist of the brilliant age of the +Renaissance, has left us in his _De legato_ (Hanoviae, 1596) his idea of +what an ambassador should be. He must not only be a good Christian but a +learned theologian; he must be a philosopher, well versed in Aristotle +and Plato, and able at a moment's notice to solve in correct dialectical +form the most abstruse problems; he must be well read in the classics, +and an expert in mathematics, architecture, music, physics and civil and +canon law. He must not only know how to write and speak Latin with +classical refinement, but he must be a master of Greek, Spanish, French, +German and Turkish. He must have a sound knowledge of history, geography +and the science of war; but at the same time is not to neglect the +poets, and never to be without his Homer. Add to this that he must be +well born, rich and of a handsome presence, and we have a portrait of a +diplomatist whose original can hardly have existed even in that age of +brilliant versatility. The Dutchman Frederikus de Marselaer, in his +[Greek: kerukeion] _sive legationum insigne_ (Antwerp, 1618), is +scarcely less exacting than the Venetian. His ideal ambassador is a +nobleman of fine presence and in the prime of life, famous, rich, +munificent, abstemious, not violent, nor quarrelsome, nor morose, no +flatterer, learned, eloquent, witty without being talkative, a good +linguist, widely read, prudent and cautious, but brave and--as he adds +somewhat superfluously--many-sided. + +With these theoretical perfections one or two instances of the +qualifications demanded by the exigencies of practical politics may be +cited by way of illuminating contrast. At the court of the empress +Elizabeth of Russia good looks were a surer means of diplomatic success +than all the talents and virtues, and the princess of Zerbst (mother of +the empress Catherine II.) wrote to Frederick of Prussia advising him to +replace his elderly ambassador by a handsome young man with a good +complexion; and the essential qualification for an ambassador to +Switzerland, Germany, Poland, Denmark and Russia used to be that he +should be able to drink the native diplomatists, seasoned from babyhood +to strong liquors, under the table. + +_History._--In its widest sense the history of diplomacy is that of the +intercourse between nations, in so far as this has not been a mere brute +struggle for the mastery;[4] in a narrower sense, with which the present +article is alone concerned, it is that of the methods and spirit of +diplomatic intercourse and of the character and status of diplomatic +agents. Earlier writers on the office and functions of ambassadors, such +as Gentilis or Archbishop Germonius, conscientiously trace their origin +to God himself, who created the angels to be his legates; and they +fortify their arguments by copious examples drawn from ancient history, +sacred and profane. But, whatever the influence upon it of earlier +practice, modern diplomacy really dates from the rise of permanent +missions, and the consequent development of the diplomatic hierarchy as +an international institution. Of this the first beginnings are traceable +to the 15th century and to Italy. There had, of course, during the +middle ages been embassies and negotiations; but the embassies had been +no more than temporary missions directed to a particular end and +conducted by ecclesiastics or nobles of a dignity appropriate to each +occasion; there were neither permanent diplomatic agents nor a +professional diplomatic class. To the evolution of such a class the +Italy of the Renaissance, the nursing-ground of modern statecraft, gave +the first impetus. This was but natural; for Italy, with its numerous +independent states, between which there existed a lively intercourse and +a yet livelier rivalry, anticipated in miniature the modern states' +system of Europe. In feudal Europe there had been little room for +diplomacy; but in northern and central Italy feudalism had never taken +root, and in the struggles of the peninsula diplomacy had early played a +part as great as, or greater than, war. Where all were struggling for +the mastery, the existence of each depended upon alliances and +counter-alliances, of which the object was the maintenance of the +balance of power. In this school there was trained a notable succession +of men of affairs. Thus, in the 13th and 14th centuries Florence counted +among her envoys Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, and later on could boast +of agents such as Capponi, Vettori, Guicciardini and Machiavelli. Papal +Rome, too, as was to be expected, had always been a fruitful +nursing-mother of diplomatists; and some authorities have traced the +beginnings of modern diplomacy to a conscious imitation of her legatine +system.[5] + +It is, however, in Venice, that the origins of modern diplomacy are to +be sought.[6] So early as the 13th century the republic, with a view to +safeguarding the public interests, began to lay down a series of rules +for the conduct of its ambassadors. Thus, in 1236, envoys to the court +of Rome are forbidden to procure a benefice for anyone without leave of +the doge and little council; in 1268 ambassadors are commanded to +surrender on their return any gifts they may have received, and by +another decree they are compelled to take an oath to conduct affairs to +the honour and advantage of the republic. About the same time it was +decided that diplomatic agents were to hand in, on their return, a +written account of their mission; in 1288 this was somewhat expanded by +a law decreeing that ambassadors were to deposit, within fifteen days of +their return, a written account of the replies made to them during their +mission, together with anything they might have seen or heard to the +honour or in the interests of the republic. These provisions, which were +several times renewed, notably in 1296, 1425 and 1533, are the origin of +the famous reports of the Venetian ambassadors to the senate, which are +at once a monument to the political genius of Venetian statesmen and a +mine of invaluable historical material.[7] + +These are but a few examples of a long series of regulations, many +others also dating to the 13th century, by which the Venetian government +sought to systematize its diplomatic service. That permanent diplomatic +agencies were not established by it earlier than was the case is +probably due to the distrust of its agents by which most of this +legislation of the republic is inspired. In the 13th century two or +three months was considered over-long a period for an ambassador to +reside at a foreign court; in the 15th century the period of residence +was extended to two years, and in the 16th century to three. This latter +rule continued till the end of the republic; the embassy had become +permanent, but the ambassador was changed every three years. + +The origin of the change from temporary to permanent missions has been +the subject of much debate and controversy. The theory that it was due, +in the first instance, to the evolution of the Venetian consulates +(_bajulats_) in the Levant into permanent diplomatic posts, and that the +idea was thence transferred to the West, is disproved by the fact that +Venice had established other permanent embassies before the baylo (q.v.) +at Constantinople was transformed into a diplomatic agent of the first +rank. Nor is the first known instance of the appointment of a permanent +ambassador Venetian. The earliest record[8] is contained in the +announcement by Francesco Sforza, duke of Milan, in 1455, of his +intention to maintain a permanent embassy at Genoa[9]; and in 1460 the +duke of Savoy sent Eusebio Margaria, archdeacon of Vercelli, as his +permanent representative to the Curia.[10] Though, however, the early +records of such appointments are rare, the practice was probably common +among the Italian states. Its extension to countries outside Italy was a +somewhat later development. In 1494 Milan is already represented in +France by a permanent ambassador. In 1495 Zacharia Contarini, Venetian +ambassador to the emperor Maximilian, is described by Sanuto (_Diarii_, +i. 294) as _stato ambasciatore_; and from the time of Charles V. +onwards the succession of ambassadors of the republic at the imperial +court is fairly traceable. In 1496 "as the way to the British Isles is +very long and very dangerous," two merchants resident in London, Pietro +Contarini and Luca Valaressa, were appointed by the republic +_subambasciatores_; and in June of the same year Andrea Trevisano +arrived in London as permanent ambassador at the court of Henry VII.[11] +Florence, too, from 1498 onwards, was represented at the courts of +Charles V. and of France by permanent ambassadors. + +During the same period the practice had been growing up among the other +European powers. Spain led the way in 1487 by the appointment of Dr +Roderigo Gondesalvi de Puebla as ambassador in England. As he was still +there in 1500, the Spanish embassy in London may be regarded as the +oldest still surviving post of the new permanent diplomacy. Other states +followed suit, but only fitfully; it was not till late in the 16th +century that permanent embassies were regarded as the norm. The +precarious relations between the European powers during the 16th +century, indeed, naturally retarded the development of the system. Thus +it was not till after good relations had been established with France by +the treaty of London that, in 1519, Sir Thomas Boleyn and Dr West were +sent to Paris as resident English ambassadors, and, after the renewed +breach between the two countries, no others were appointed till the +reign of Elizabeth. Nine years before, Sir Robert Wingfield, whose +simplicity earned him the nickname of "Summer-shall-be-green," had been +sent as ambassador to the court of Charles V., where he remained from +1510 to 1517; and in 1520 the mutual appointment of resident ambassadors +was made a condition of the treaty between Henry VIII. and Charles V. In +1517 Thomas Spinelly, who had for some years represented England at the +court of the Netherlands, was appointed "resident ambassador to the +court of Spain," where he remained till his death on the 22nd of August +1522. These are the most important early instances of the new system. +Alone of the great powers, the emperor remained permanently +unrepresented at foreign courts. In theory this was the result of his +unique dignity, which made him superior to all other potentates; +actually it was because, as emperor, he could not speak for the +practically independent princes nominally his vassals. It served all +practical purposes if he were represented abroad by his agents as king +of Spain or archduke of Austria. + +All the evidence now available goes to prove that the establishment of +permanent diplomatic agencies was not an unconscious and accidental +development of previous conditions, but deliberately adopted as an +obvious convenience. But, while all the powers were agreed as to the +convenience of maintaining such agencies abroad, all were equally agreed +in viewing the representatives accredited to them by foreign states with +extreme suspicion. This attitude was abundantly justified by the +peculiar ethics of the new diplomacy. The old "orators" of the +Summer-shall-be-green type could not long hold their own against the new +men who had studied in the school of Italian statecraft, for whom the +end justified the means. Machiavelli had gathered in _The Prince_ and +_The Discourses on Livy_ the principles which underlay the practice of +his day in Italy; Francis I., the first monarch to establish a +completely organized diplomatic machinery, did most to give these +principles a European extension. By the close of the 16th century +diplomacy had become frankly "Machiavellian," and the ordinary rules of +morality were held not to apply to the intercourse between nations. This +was admitted in theory as well as in practice. Germonius, after a +vigorous denunciation of lying in general, argues that it is permissible +for the safety or convenience (_commodo_) of princes, since _salus +populi suprema lex_, and _quod non permittit naturalis ratio, admittit +civilis_; and he adduces in support of this principle the answer given +by Ulysses to Neoptolemus, in the _Ajax_ of Sophocles, and the examples +of Abraham, Jacob and David. Paschalius, while affirming that an +ambassador must study to speak the truth, adds that he is not such a +"rustic boor" as to say that an "official lie" (_officiosum mendacium_) +is never to be employed, or to deny that an ambassador should be, on +occasion, _splendide mendax_.[12] The situation is summed up in the +famous definition of Sir Henry Wotton, which, though excused by himself +as a jest, was held to be an indiscreet revelation of the truth: "An +ambassador is an honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his +country."[13] The most successful liar, in fact, was esteemed the most +successful diplomatist. "A prime article of the catechism of +ambassadors," says Bayle in his _Dictionnaire critique_ (1699), +"whatever their religion, is to invent falsehoods and to go about making +society believe them." So universally was this principle adopted that, +in the end, no diplomatist even expected to be believed; and the best +way to deceive was--as Bismarck cynically avowed--to tell the truth. + +But, in addition to being a liar _ex officio_, the ambassador was also +"an honourable spy." "The principal functions of an envoy," says +Francois de Callieres, himself an ex-ambassador of Louis XIV., "are two; +the first is to look after the affairs of his own prince; the second is +to discover the affairs of the other." A clever minister, he maintains, +will know how to keep himself informed of all that goes on in the mind +of the sovereign, in the councils of ministers or in the country; and +for this end "good cheer and the warming effect of wine" are excellent +allies.[14] This being so, it is hardly to be wondered at that foreign +ambassadors were commonly regarded as perhaps necessary, but certainly +very unwelcome, guests. The views of Philippe de Commines have already +been quoted above, and they were shared by a long series of theoretical +writers as well as by men of affairs. Gentilis is all but alone in his +protest against the view that all ambassadors were _exploratores magis +quam oratores_, and to be treated as such. So early as 1481 the +government of Venice had decreed the penalty of banishment and a heavy +fine for any one who should talk of affairs of state with a foreign +envoy, and though the more civilized princes did not follow the example +of the sultan, who by way of precaution locked the ambassador of +Ferdinand II., Jerome Laski, into "a dark and stinking place without +windows," they took the most minute precautions to prevent the +ambassadors of friendly powers from penetrating into their secrets. +Charles V. thought it safest to keep them as far away as possible from +his court. So did Francis I.; and, when affairs were critical, he made +his frequent changes of residence and his hunting expeditions the excuse +for escaping from their presence. Henry VII. forbade his subjects to +hold any intercourse with them, and, later on, set spies upon them and +examined their correspondence--a practice by no means confined to +England. If the system of permanent embassies survived, it is clear that +this was mainly due to the belief of the sovereigns that they gained +more by maintaining "honourable spies" at foreign courts than they lost +by the presence of those of foreign courts at their own. It was purely a +question of the balance of advantage. Neither among statesmen nor among +theorists was there any premonition of the great part to be played by +the permanent diplomatic body in the development and maintenance of the +concert of Europe. To Paschalius the permanent embassies were "a +miserable outgrowth of a miserable age."[15] Grotius himself condemned +them as not only harmful, but useless, the proof of the latter being +that they were unknown to antiquity.[16] + +_Development of the Diplomatic Hierarchy._--The history of the +diplomatic body[17] is, like that of other bodies, that of the +progressive differentiation of functions. The middle ages knew no +classification of diplomatic agents; the person sent on mission is +described indifferently as _legatus_, _orator_, _nuntius_, _ablegatus_, +_commissarius_, _procurator_, _mandatarius_, _agens_ or _ambaxator_ +(_ambassator_, &c.). In Gundissalvus, _De legato_ (1485), the oldest +printed work on the subject, the word _ambasiator_, first found in a +Venetian decree of 1268, is applied to any diplomat. Florence was the +first to make distinction; the _orator_ was appointed by the council of +the republic; the _mandatorio_, with inferior powers, by the Council of +Ten. In 1500 Machiavelli, who held only the latter rank, wrote from +France urging the Signoria to send _ambasiadori_. This was, however, +rather a question of powers than of dignity. But the causes which +ultimately led to the elaborate differentiation of diplomatic ranks were +rather questions of dignity than of functions.[18] The breakdown of +feudalism, with the consequent rise of a series of sovereign states or +of states claiming to be sovereign, of very various size and importance, +led to a certain confusion in the ceremonial relation between them, +which had been unknown to the comparatively clearly defined system of +the middle ages. The smaller states were eager to assert the dignity of +their actual or practical independence; the greater powers were equally +bent on "keeping them in their place." If the emperor, as has been +stated above, was too exalted to send ambassadors, certain of the lesser +states were soon esteemed too humble to be represented at the courts of +the great powers save by agents of an inferior rank. By the second half +of the 16th century, then, there are two classes of diplomatists, +ambassadors and residents or agents, the latter being accounted +ambassadors of the second class.[19] At first the difference of rank was +determined by the status of the sovereign by whom or to whom the +diplomatic agent was accredited; but early in the 16th century it became +fairly common for powers of the first rank to send agents of the second +class to represent them at courts of an equal status. The reasons were +various, and not unamusing. First and foremost came the question of +expense. The ambassador, as representing the person of his sovereign, +was bound by the sentiment of the age to display an exaggerated +magnificence. His journeys were like royal progresses, his state entries +surrounded with every circumstance of pomp, and it was held to be his +duty to advertise the munificence of his prince by boundless largesses. +Had this munificence been as unlimited in fact as in theory, all might +have been well, but, in that age of vaulting ambitions, depleted +exchequers were the rule rather than the exception in Europe; the +records are full of pitiful appeals from ambassadors for arrears of pay, +and appointment to an embassy often meant ruin, even to a man of +substance. To give but one example, Sir Richard Morison, Edward VI.'s +ambassador in Germany, had to borrow money to pay his debts before he +could leave Augsburg (_Cal. State Pap. Edw. VI._, No. 467), and later on +he writes from Hamburg (April 9, 1552) that he could buy nothing, +because everyone believed that he had packed up in readiness to flit +secretly, for "How must they buy things, where men know their stuff is +ready trussed up, and they fleeting every day?" (ib. No. 544). But the +dignity of ambassador carried another drawback besides expense; his +function of "honourable spy" was seriously hampered by the trammels of +his position. He was unable to move freely in society, but lived a +ceremonial existence in the midst of a crowd of retainers, through whom +alone it was proper for him to communicate with the world outside. It +followed that, though the office of ambassador was more dignified, that +of agent was more generally useful. + +Yet a third cause, possibly the most immediately potent, encouraged the +growth of the lesser diplomatic ranks: the question of precedence among +powers theoretically equal. Modern diplomacy has settled a difficulty +which caused at one time much heart-burning and even bloodshed by a +simple appeal to the alphabet. Great Britain feels no humiliation in +signing after France, if the reason be that her name begins with G; had +she not been Great, she would sign before. The vexed question of the +precedence of ambassadors, too, has been settled by the rule, already +referred to above, as to seniority of appointment. But while the +question remained unsettled it was obviously best to evade it; and this +was most easily done by sending an agent of inferior rank to a court +where the precedence claimed for an ambassador would have been refused. + +Thus set in motion, the process of differentiation continues until the +system is stereotyped in the 19th century. It is unnecessary to trace +this evolution here in any detail. It is mainly a question of names, and +diplomatic titles are no exception to the general rule by which all +titles tend to become cheapened and therefore, from time to time, need +to be reinforced by fresh verbal devices. The method was the familiar +one of applying terms that had once implied a particular quality in a +fashion that implied actually nothing. The ambassador extraordinary had +originally been one sent on an extraordinary mission; for the time and +purpose of this mission his authority superseded that of the resident +ambassador. But by the middle of the 17th century the custom had grown +up of calling all ambassadors "extraordinary," in order to place them on +an equality with the others. The same process was extended to +diplomatists of the second rank; and envoys (_envoye_ for _ablegatus_) +were always "extraordinary," and as such claimed and received precedence +over mere "residents," who in their day had asserted the same claim +against the agents--all three terms having at one time been synonymous. +Similarly a "minister plenipotentiary" had originally meant an agent +armed with full powers (_plein-pouvoir_); but, by a like process, the +combination came to mean as little as "envoy extraordinary"--though a +plenipotentiary _tout simple_ is still an agent, of no ceremonially +defined dignity, despatched with full powers to treat and conclude. +Finally, the evolution of the title of a diplomatist of the second rank +is crowned by the high-sounding combination, now almost exclusively +used, of "envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary." The +ultimate fate of the simple title "resident" was the same as that of +"agent." Both had been freely sold by needy sovereigns to all and sundry +who were prepared to pay for what gave them a certain social status. The +"agent" fell thus into utter discredit, and those "residents" who were +still actual diplomatic agents became "ministers resident" to +distinguish them from the common herd. + +The classification of diplomatic agents was for the first time +definitively included in the general body of international law by the +_Reglement_ of the 19th of March 1815 at Vienna[20]; and the whole +question was finally settled at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle +(November 21, 1818) when, the proposal to establish precedence by the +status of the accrediting powers having wisely been rejected, diplomatic +agents were divided into four classes: (1) Ambassadors, legates, +nuncios; (2) Envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary, and +other ministers accredited direct to the sovereign; (3) Ministers +resident; (4) Charges d'affaires. With a few exceptions (e.g. Turkey), +this settlement was accepted by all states, including the United States +of America. + +_Rights and Privileges of Diplomatic Agents._--These are partly founded +upon immemorial custom, partly the result of negotiations embodied in +international law. The most important, as it is the most ancient, is the +right of personal _inviolability_ extended to the diplomatic agent and +the members of his suite. This inviolability is maintained after a +rupture between the two governments concerned, and even after the +outbreak of war. The habit of the Ottoman government of imprisoning in +the Seven Towers the ambassador of a power with which it quarrelled was +but an exception which proved the rule. The second important right is +that of exterritoriality (q.v.), a convenient fiction by which the house +and equipages of the diplomatic agent are regarded as the territory of +the power by whom he is accredited. This involves the further principle +that the agent is in no way subject to the receiving government. He is +exempt from taxation and from the payment at least of certain local +rates. He also enjoys immunity (1) from civil jurisdiction, e.g. he +cannot be sued, nor can his goods be seized, for debt; (2) from criminal +jurisdiction, e.g. he cannot be arrested and tried for a criminal +offence. For a crime of violence, however, or for plotting against the +state, he can be placed under the necessary restraint and expelled the +country.[21] These immunities extend to all the members of an envoy's +suite. The difficulties that might be supposed to arise from such +exemptions have not in practice been found very serious; for though, in +the case of crimes committed by servants of agents of the first or +second class the procedure is not clearly defined, each case would +easily be made the subject of arrangement. In certain cases, e.g. +embassies in Turkey, the exterritoriality of ambassadors implies a +fairly extensive criminal jurisdiction; in other cases the dismissal of +the servant would deprive him of his diplomatic immunity and bring him +under the law of the land. The right of granting asylum claimed by +diplomatic agents in virtue of that of exterritoriality, at one time +much abused, is now strictly limited. A political or criminal offender +may seek asylum in a foreign embassy; but if, after a request has been +formally made for his surrender, the ambassador refuses to deliver him +up, the authorities may take the measures necessary to effect his +arrest, and even force an entrance into the embassy for the purpose. The +"right of chapel" (_droit de chapelle_, or _droit de culte_), enjoyed by +envoys in reference to their exterritoriality, i.e. the right of free +exercise of religious worship within their house, formerly of great +importance, has been rendered superfluous by the spread of religious +toleration. (See L. Oppenheim, _Internat. Law_ (London, 1905), i. p. 441, +&c.; A.W. Haffter, _Das europaische Volkerrecht_ (Berlin, 1888), p. 435, +&c.) + +_The Personnel of the "Corps diplomatique."_--The establishment of +diplomacy as a regular branch of the civil service is of modern growth, +and even now by no means universal. From old time states naturally chose +as their agents those who would best serve their interests in the matter +in hand. In the middle ages diplomacy was practically a monopoly of the +clergy, who as a class alone possessed the necessary qualifications: and +in later times, when learning had spread to the laity as well, there +were still potent reasons why the clergy should continue to be employed +as diplomatic agents. Of these reasons the most practical was that of +expense; for the wealth of the church formed an inexhaustible reserve +which was used without scruple for secular purposes. Francis I. of +France, who by the Concordat with Rome had in his hands the patronage of +all the sees and abbeys in France, used this partly to reward his +clerical ministers, partly as a great secret service fund for bribing +the ambassadors of other powers, partly for the payment of those +high-placed spies at foreign courts maintained by the elaborately +organized system known as the _Secret du Roi_.[22] None the less, in +the 16th century, laymen as diplomats are already well in evidence. They +are usually lawyers, rarely soldiers, occasionally even simple +merchants. Not uncommonly they were foreigners, like the Italian Thomas +Spinelly mentioned above, drawn from that cosmopolitan class of +diplomats who were ready to serve any master. Though nobles were often +employed as ambassadors by all the powers, Venice alone made nobility a +condition of diplomatic service. They were professional in the sense +that, for the most part, diplomacy was the main occupation of their +lives; there was, however, no graded diplomatic service in which, as at +present, it was possible to rise on a fixed system from the position of +simple _attache_ to that of minister and ambassador. The "attache to the +embassy" existed[23]; but he was not, as is now the case, a young +diplomat learning his profession, but an experienced man of affairs, +often a foreigner employed by the ambassador as adviser, secret service +agent and general go-between, and he was without diplomatic status.[24] +The 18th century saw the rise of the diplomatic service in the modern +sense. The elaboration of court ceremonial, for which Versailles had set +the fashion, made it desirable that diplomatic agents should be +courtiers, and young men of rank about the court began to be attached to +missions for the express purpose of teaching them the art of diplomacy. +Thus arose that aristocratic diplomatic class, distinguished by the +exquisite refinement of its manners, which survived from the 18th +century into the 19th. Modern democracy has tended to break with this +tradition, but it still widely prevails. Even in Great Britain, where +the rest of the public services have been thrown open to all classes, a +certain social position is still demanded for candidates for the +diplomatic service and the foreign office, and in addition to passing a +competitive examination, they must be nominated by someone of recognized +station prepared to vouch for their social qualifications. In America, +where no regular diplomatic service exists, all diplomatic agents are +nominated by the president. + +The existence of an official diplomatic service, however, by no means +excludes the appointment of outsiders to diplomatic posts. It is, in +fact, one of the main grievances of the regular diplomatic body that the +great rewards of their profession, the embassies, are so often assigned +to politicians or others who have not passed through the drudgery of the +service. But though this practice has, doubtless, sometimes been abused, +it is impossible to criticize the wisdom of its occasional application. + +A word may be added as to the part played by women in diplomacy. So far +as their unofficial influence upon it is concerned, it would be +impossible to exaggerate its importance; it would suffice to mention +three names taken at random from the annals of the 19th century, Madame +de Stael, Baroness von Krudener, and Princess Lieven. Gentz comments on +the "feminine intrigues" that darkened the counsels of the congresses of +Vienna and Aix-la-Chapelle, and from which the powers so happily escaped +in the bachelor seclusion of Troppau. Nor is it to be supposed that +statesmen will ever renounce a diplomatic weapon so easy of disguise and +so potent for use. A brilliant _salon_ presided over by a woman of charm +may be a most valuable centre of a political propaganda; and ladies are +still widely employed in the secret diplomacy of the powers. Their +employment as regularly accredited diplomatic agents, however, though +not unknown, has been extremely rare. An interesting instance is the +appointment of Catherine of Aragon, when princess of Wales, as +representative of her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, at the court of +Henry VII. (G. A. Bergenroth, _Calendar of State Papers ... England and +Spain--in the Archives at Simancas, &c._, i. pp. xxxiii, cxix). + + LITERATURE.--Besides general works on international law (q.v.) which + necessarily deal with the subject of diplomacy, a vast mass of + treatises on diplomatic agents exists. The earliest printed work is + the _Tractatus de legato_ (Rome, 1485) of Gundissalvus (Gonsalvo de + Villadiego), professor of law at Salamanca, auditor for Spain at the + Roman court of the Rota, and bishop of Oviedo; but the first really + systematic writer on the subject was Albericus Gentilis, _De + legationibus libri iii_. (London, 1583, 1585, Hanover, 1596, 1607, + 1612). For a full bibliography of works on ambassadors see Baron + Diedrich H. L. von Ompteda, _Litteratur des gesammten sowohl + naturlichen als positiven Volkerrechts_ (Regensburg, 1785), p. 534, + &c., which was completed and continued by the Prussian minister Karl + Albert von Kamptz, in _Neue Literatur des Volkerrechts seit dem Jahre + 1784_ (Berlin, 1817), p. 231. A list of writers, with critical and + biographical remarks, is also given in Ernest Nys's "Les Commencements + de la diplomatie et le droit d'ambassade jusqu'a Grotius," in the + _Revue de droit international_, vol. xvi. p. 167. Other useful modern + works on the history of diplomacy are: E. C. Grenville-Murray, + _Embassies and Foreign Courts, a History of Diplomacy_ (2nd ed., + 1856); J. Zeller, _La Diplomatie francaise vers le milieu du XVI^e + siecle_ (Paris, 1881); A. O. Meyer, _Die englische Diplomatie in + Deutschland zur Zeit Eduards VI. und Mariens_ (Breslau, 1900); and, + above all, Otto Krauske, _Die Entwickelung der standgien Diplomatie + vom funfzehnten Jahrhundert bis zu den Beschlussen von 1815 und 1818_, + in Gustav Schmoller's _Staats- und socialwissenschaftliche + Forschungen_, vol. v. (Leipzig, 1885). To these may be added, as + admirably illustrating in detail the early developments of modern + diplomacy, Logan Pearsall Smith's _Life and Letters of Sir Henry + Wotton_ (Oxford, 1907). Of works on modern diplomacy the most + important are the _Guide diplomatique_ of Baron Charles de Martens, + new edition revised by F. H. Geffcken, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1866), and P. + Pradier-Fodere, _Cours de droit diplomatique_, 2 vols. (Paris, 1881). + (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] La Bruyere, _Caracteres_, ii. 77 (ed. P. Jouast, Paris, 1881). + + [2] To Wellesley, in Stapleton's _Canning_, i. 374. + + [3] For the motives of Metternich's foreign policy see + AUSTRIA-HUNGARY: _History_ (iii. 332-333). + + [4] e.g. _A History of Diplomacy in the International Development of + Europe_, by D. J. Hill (London and New York, 1905). + + [5] For this see Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i. p. 498. + + [6] The Venetians, however, in their turn, doubtless learned their + diplomacy originally from the Byzantines, with whom their trade + expansion in the Levant early brought them into close contact. For + Byzantine diplomacy see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER: _Diplomacy_. + + [7] See Eugenio Alberi, _Le Relazioni degli ambasciatori Veneti al + senato_, 15 vols. (Florence, 1839-1863). + + [8] The _apocrisiarii_ ([Greek: apokrisiarioi]) or _responsales_ + should perhaps be mentioned, though they certainly did not set the + precedent for the modern permanent missions. They were resident + agents, practically legates, of the popes at the court of + Constantinople. They were established by Pope Leo I., and continued + until the Iconoclastic controversy broke the intimate ties between + East and West. See Luxardo, _Das vordekretalische Gesandtschaftsrecht + der Papste_ (Innsbruck, 1878); also Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, i. + 501. + + [9] N. Bianchi, _Le Materie politiche relative all' estero degli + archivi di stato piemontese_ (Bologna, Modena, 1875), p. 29. + + [10] Ib. Note 2, _teneamus et deputemus ibidem continue mansurum._ + + [11] The first ambassador of Venice to visit England was Zuanne da + Lezze, who came in 1319 to demand compensation for the plundering of + Venetian ships by English pirates. + + [12] Germonius, _De legatis principum et populorum libri tres_ (Rome, + 1627), chap. vi. p. 164; Paschalius, _Legatus_ (Rouen, 1598), p. 302. + Etienne Dolet, who had been secretary to Cardinal Jean du Bellay, and + was burned for atheism in 1546, in his _De officio legati_ (1541) + advises ambassadors to surround themselves with taciturn servants, to + employ vigilant spies, and to set afoot all manner of fictions, + especially when negotiating with the court of Rome or with the + Italian princes. + + [13] See Pearsall Smith, _Sir Henry Wotton_, pp. 49, 126 et seq. + + [14] Francois de Callieres, _De la maniere de negocier avec les + souverains_ (Brussels, 1716). See also A. Sorel, _Recueil des + instructions donnees aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France_ (Paris, + 1884), e.g. vol. _Autriche_, pp. 77, 88, 102, 112. + + [15] "Nova res est, quod sciam, et infelicis hujus aetatis infelix + partus.... Hinc oriri securitatem universorum, hinc stabiliri pacem + gentium. Quae utinam tam vere dicerentur, quam speciose. Ego quidem, + ne quid dissimulem, ab istis seorsum sentio. Nimirum, effoeta + virtutis, foecunda fraudis haec saecula video peperisse spissata haec + imperia, sive summas potestates, unde, ut e vomitariis, hae legationes + undatim se fundunt." Paschalius, _Legatus_ (1598), p. 447. So too + Felix de la Mothe Le Vayer (1547-1625), in his _Legatus_ (Paris, + 1579), says "Legatos tunc primum aut non multum post institutos fuisse + cum Pandora malorum omnium semina in hunc mundum ... demisit." + + [16] _De jure belli et pacis_ (Amsterdam, 1621), ii. c. 18, S 3, n. 2. + + [17] The term _corps diplomatique_ originated about the middle of the + 18th century. "The Chancellor Furst," says Ranke (xxx. 47, note), + "does not use it as yet in his report (1754) but he knows it," and it + would appear that it had just been invented at Vienna. "Corps + diplomatique, nom qu'une dame donna un jour a ce corps nombreux de + ministres etrangers a Vienne." + + [18] So too Pradier-Fodere, vol. i. p. 262. + + [19] Thus Charles V. would not allow the representatives of the duke + of Mantua, Ferrara, &c., to style themselves "ambassadors," on the + ground that this title could be borne only by the agents of kings and + of the republic of Venice, and not by those of states whose + sovereignty was impaired by any feudal relation to a superior power. + (See Krauske p. 155.) + + [20] See Pradier-Fodere, i. 265. + + [21] Gentilis, who had been consulted by the government in the case + of the Spanish ambassador, Don Bernardino de Mendoza, expelled for + intriguing against Queen Elizabeth, lays this down definitely. An + ambassador, he says, need not be received, and he may be expelled. In + actual practice a diplomatic agent who has made himself objectionable + is withdrawn by his government on the representations of that to + which he is accredited, and it is customary, before an ambassador is + despatched, to find out whether he is a _persona grata_ to the power + to which he is accredited. + + [22] See Zeller. + + [23] A. O. Meyer, p. 22. + + [24] See the amusing account of the methods of these agents in + Morysine to Cecil (January 23, 1551-1552), _Cal. State Pap. Edw. + VI._, No. 530. + + + + +DIPLOMATIC, the science of diplomas, founded on the critical study of +the "diplomatic" sources of history: diplomas, charters, acts, treaties, +contracts, judicial records, rolls, chartularies, registers, &c. The +employment of the word "diploma," as a general term to designate an +historical document, is of comparatively recent date. The Roman diploma, +so called because it was formed of two sheets of metal which were shut +together (Gr. [Greek: diploun], to double) like the leaves of a book, +was the passport or licence to travel by the public post; also, the +certificate of discharge, conferring privileges of citizenship and +marriage on soldiers who had served their time; and, later, any imperial +grant of privileges. The word was adopted, rather pedantically, by the +humanists of the Renaissance and applied by them to important deeds and +to acts of sovereign authority, to privileges granted by kings and by +great personages; and by degrees the term became extended and embraced +generally the documents of the middle ages. + +_History of the Study._--The term "diplomatic," the French +_diplomatique_, is a modern adaptation of the Latin phrase _res +diplomatica_ employed in early works upon the subject, and more +especially in the first great text-book, the _De re diplomatica_, issued +in 1681 by the learned Benedictine, Dom Jean Mabillon, of the abbey of +St Germain-des-Pres. Mabillon's treatise was called forth by an earlier +work of Daniel van Papenbroeck, the editor of the _Acta Sanctorum_ of +the Bollandists, who, with no great knowledge or experience of archives, +undertook to criticize the historical value of ancient records and +monastic documents, and raised wholesale suspicions as to their +authenticity in his _Propylaeum antiquarium circa veri ac falsi +discrimen in vetustis membranis_, which he printed in 1675. This was a +rash challenge to the Benedictines, and especially to the congregation +of St Maur, or confraternity of the Benedictine abbeys of France, whose +combined efforts produced great literary works which still remain as +monuments of profound learning. Mabillon was at that time engaged in +collecting material for a great history of his order. He worked silently +for six years before producing the work above referred to. His +refutation of Papenbroeck's criticisms was complete, and his rival +himself accepted Mabillon's system of the study of diplomatic as the +true one. The _De re diplomatica_ established the science on a secure +basis; and it has been the foundation of all subsequent works on the +subject, although the immediate result of its publication was a flood of +controversial writings between the Jesuits and the Benedictines, which, +however, did not affect its stability. + +In Spain, the Benedictine Perez published, in 1688, a series of +dissertations following the line of Mabillon's work. In England, Madox's +_Formulare Anglicanum_, with a dissertation concerning ancient charters +and instruments, appeared in 1702, and in 1705 Hickes followed with his +_Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus_, both accepting the principles +laid down by the learned Benedictine. In Italy, Maffei appeared with +his _Istoria diplomatica_ in 1727, and Muratori, in 1740, introduced +dissertations on diplomatic into his great work, the _Antiquitates +Italicae_. In Germany, the first diplomatic work of importance was that +by Bessel, entitled _Chronicon Gotwicense_ and issued in 1732; and this +was followed closely by similar works of Baring, Eckhard and Heumann. + +France, however, had been the cradle of the science, and that country +continued to be the home of its development. Mabillon had not taken +cognizance of documents later than the 13th century. Arising out of a +discussion relative to the origin of the abbey of St Victor en Caux and +the authenticity of its archives, a more comprehensive work than +Mabillon's was compiled by the two Benedictines, Dom Toustain and Dom +Tassin, viz. the _Nouveau Traite de diplomatique_, in six volumes, +1750-1765, which embraced more than diplomatic proper and extended to +all branches of Latin palaeography. With great industry the compilers +gathered together a mass of details; but their arrangement is faulty, +and the text is broken up into such a multitude of divisions and +subdivisions that it is tediously minute. However, its more extended +scope has given the _Nouveau Traite_ an advantage over Mabillon's work, +and modern compilations have drawn largely upon it. + +As a result of the Revolution, the archives of the middle ages lost in +France their juridical and legal value; but this rather tended to +enhance their historical importance. The taste for historical literature +revived. The Academie des Inscriptions fostered it. In 1821 the Ecole +des Chartes was founded; and, after a few years of incipient inactivity, +it received a further impetus, in 1829, by the issue of a royal +ordinance re-establishing it. Thenceforth it has been an active centre +for the teaching and for the encouragement of the study of diplomatic +throughout the country, and has produced results which other nations may +envy. Next to France, Germany and Austria are distinguished as countries +where activity has been displayed in the systematic study of diplomatic +archives, more or less with the support of the state. In Italy, too, +diplomatic science has not been neglected. In England, after a long +period of regrettable indifference to the study of the national and +municipal archives of the country, some effort has been made in recent +years to remove the reproach. The publications of the Public Record +Office and of the department of MSS. in the British Museum are more +numerous and are issued more regularly than in former times; and an +awakened interest is manifested by the foundation in the universities of +a few lectureships in diplomatic and palaeography, and by the attention +which those subjects receive in such an institution as the London School +of Economics, and in the publications of private literary societies. But +such efforts can never show the systematic results which are to be +attained by a special institution of the character of the French Ecole +des Chartes. + +_Extent of the Science._--The field covered by the study of diplomatic +is so extensive and the different kinds of documents which it takes into +its purview are so numerous and various, that it is impossible to do +more than give a few general indications of their nature. No nation can +have advanced far on the path of civilization before discovering the +necessity for documentary evidence both in public and in private life. +The laws, the constitutions, the decrees of government, on the one hand, +and private contracts between man and man, on the other, must be +embodied in formal documents, in order to ensure permanent record. In +the case of a nation advancing independently from a primitive to a later +stage of civilization we should have to trace the origin of its +documentary records and examine their development from a rudimentary +condition. But in an inquiry into the history of the documents of the +middle ages in Europe we do not begin with primitive forms. Those ages +inherited the documentary system which had been created and developed by +the Romans; and, imperfect and limited in number as are the earliest +surviving charters and diplomas of European medieval history, they +present themselves to us fully developed and cast in the mould and +employing the methods and formulae of the earlier tradition. Based on +this foundation the chanceries of the several countries of Europe, as +they came into existence and were organized, reduced to method and rule +on one general system the various documents which the exigencies of +public and of private life from time to time called into existence, each +individual chancery at the same time following its own line of practice +in detail, and evolving and confirming particular formulas which have +become characteristic of it. + +_Classification of Documents._--If we classify these documents under the +two main heads of public and private deeds, we shall have to place in +the former category the legislative, administrative, judicial, +diplomatic documents emanating from public authority in public form: +laws, constitutions, ordinances, privileges, grants and concessions, +proclamations, decrees, judicial records, pleas, treaties; in a word, +every kind of deed necessary for the orderly government of a civilized +state. In early times many of these were comprised under the general +term of "letters," _litterae_, and to the large number of them which +were issued in open form and addressed to the community the specific +title of "letters patent," _litterae patentes_, was given. In +contradistinction those public documents which were issued in closed +form under seal were known as "close letters," _litterae clausae_. + +Such public documents belong to the state archives of their several +countries, and are the monuments of administrative and political and +domestic history of a nation from one generation to another. In no +country has so perfect a series been preserved as in our own. Into the +Public Record Office in London have been brought together all the +collections of state archives which were formerly stored in different +official repositories of the kingdom. Beginning with the great survey of +Domesday, long series of enrolments of state documents, in many +instances extending from the times of the Angevin kings to our own day +in almost unbroken sequence, besides thousands of separate deeds of all +descriptions, are therein preserved (see RECORD). + +Under the category of private documents must be included, not only the +deeds of individuals, but also those of corporate bodies representing +private interests and standing in the position of individual units in +relation to the state, such as municipal bodies and monastic +foundations. The largest class of documents of this character is +composed of those numerous conveyances of real property and other title +deeds of many descriptions and dating from early periods which are +commonly described by the generic name of "charters," and which are to +be found in thousands, not only in such public repositories as the +Public Record Office and the British Museum, but also in the archives of +municipal and other corporate bodies throughout the country and in the +muniment-rooms of old families. There are also the records of the +manorial courts preserved in countless court-rolls and registers; also +the scattered muniments of the dissolved monasteries represented by the +many collections of charters and the valuable chartularies, or registers +of charters, which have fortunately survived and exist both in public +and in private keeping. + +It will be noticed that in this enumeration of public and private +documents in England reference is made to rolls. The practice of +entering records on rolls has been in favour in England from a very +early date subsequent to the Norman Conquest; and while in other +countries the comprehensive term of "charters" (literally "papers": Gr. +[Greek: chartes]) is employed as a general description of documents of +the middle ages, in England the fuller phrase "charters and rolls" is +required. The master of the rolls, the _Magister Rotulorum_, is the +official keeper of the public records. + +From the great body of records, both public and private, many fall +easily and naturally into the class in which the text takes a simpler +narrative form; such as judicial records, laws, decrees, proclamations, +registers, &c., which tell their own story in formulae and phraseology +early developed and requiring little change. These we may leave on one +side. For fuller description we select those deeds which, conferring +grants and favours and privileges, conform more nearly to the idea of +the Roman diploma and have received the special attention of the +chanceries in the development and arrangement of their formulae and in +their methods of execution. + + + Structure of medieval diplomas. + + All such medieval deeds are composed of certain recognized members or + sections, some essential, others special and peculiar to the most + elaborate and solemn documents. A deed of the more elaborate character + is made up of two principal divisions: 1. the TEXT, in which is set + out the object of the deed, the statement of the considerations and + circumstances which have led to it, and the declaration of the will + and intention of the person executing the deed, together with such + protecting clauses as the particular circumstances of the case may + require; 2. the PROTOCOL (originally, the first sheet of a papyrus + roll; Gr. [Greek: protos], first, and [Greek: kollan], to glue), + consisting of the introductory and of the concluding formulae: + superscription, address, salutation, &c., at the beginning, and date, + formulae of execution, &c., at the end, of the deed. The latter + portion of the protocol is sometimes styled the eschatocol (Gr. + [Greek: eschatos], last, and [Greek: kollan], to glue). While the text + followed certain formulae which had become fixed by common usage, the + protocol was always special and varied with the practices of the + several chanceries, changing in a sovereign chancery with each + successive reign. + + + The Invocation. + + The Superscription. + + The Address. + + The Salutation. + + The different sections of a full deed, taking them in order under the + heads of Initial Protocol, Text and Final Protocol or Eschatocol, are + as follows:--The initial protocol consists of the Invocation, the + Superscription, the Address and the Salutation. 1. The INVOCATION, + lending a character of sanctity to the proceedings, might be either + verbal or symbolic. The verbal invocation consisted usually of some + pious ejaculation, such as _In nomine Dei, In nomine domini nostri + Jesu Christi_; from the 8th century, _In nomine Sanctae et individuae + Trinitatis_; and later, _In nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritus + Sancti_. The symbolic form was usually the _chrismon_, or monogram + composed of the Greek initials [Chi][Rho] of the name of Christ. In + the course of the 10th and 11th centuries this symbol came to be so + scrawled that it had probably lost all meaning with the scribes. From + the 9th century the letter C (initial of _Christus_) came gradually + into use, and in German imperial diplomas it superseded the + _chrismon_. Stenographic signs of the system known as Tironian notes + were also sometimes added to this symbol down to the end of the 10th + century, expressing such a phrase as _Ante omnia Christus_, or + _Christus_, or _Amen_. From the Merovingian period, too, a cross was + often used. The symbol gradually died out after the 12th century for + general use, surviving only in notarial instruments and wills. 2. The + SUPERSCRIPTION (_superscriptio, intitulatio_) expressed the name and + titles of the grantor or person issuing the deed. 3. The ADDRESS. As + diplomas were originally in epistolary form the address was then a + necessity. While in Merovingian deeds the old pattern was adhered to, + in the Carolingian period the address was sometimes omitted. From the + 8th century it was not considered necessary, and a distinction arose + in the case of royal acts, those having the address being styled + letters, and those omitting it, charters. The general form of address + ran in phrase as _Omnibus_ (or _Universis_) _Christi fidelibus + presentes litteras inspecturis_. 4. The SALUTATION was expressed in + such words as _Salutem_; _Salutem et dilectionem_; _Salutem et + apostolicam benedictionem_, but it was not essential. + + + The Preamble. + + The Notification. + + The Exposition. + + The Disposition. + + The Final Clauses. + + Then follows the text in five sections: the Preamble, the + Notification, the Exposition, the Disposition and the Final Clauses. + 5. The PREAMBLE (_prologus_, _arenga_): an ornamental introduction + generally composed of pious or moral sentiments, a _prefatio ad + captandam benevolentiam_ which _facit ad ornamentum_, degenerating + into tiresome platitudes. It became stereotyped at an early age: in + the 10th and 11th centuries it was a most ornate performance; in the + 12th century it was cut short; in the 13th century it died out. 6. The + NOTIFICATION (_notificatio_, _promulgatio_) was the publication of the + purport of the deed introduced by such a phrase as _notum sit_, &c. 7. + The EXPOSITION set out the motives influencing the issue of the deed. + 8. The DISPOSITION described the object of the deed and the will and + intention of the grantor. 9. The FINAL CLAUSES ensured the fulfilment + of the terms of the deed; guarded against infringement, by comminatory + anathemas and imprecations, not infrequently of a vehement + description, or by penalties; guaranteed the validity of the deed; + enumerated the formalities of subscription and execution; reserved + rights, &c. + + + The Date. + + The Appreciation. + + The Authentication. + + Next comes the final protocol or eschatocol comprising: the Date, the + Appreciation, the Authentication. It was particularly in this portion + of the deed that the varying practices of the several chanceries led + to minute and intricate distinctions at different periods. 10. The + DATE. By the Roman law every act must be dated by the day and the year + of execution. Yet in the middle ages, from the 9th to the 12th + century, a large proportion of deeds bears no date. In the most + ancient charters the date clause was frequently separated from the + body of the deed and placed in an isolated position at the foot of the + sheet. From the 12th century it commonly followed the text + immediately. Certain classes of documents, such as decrees of + councils, notarial deeds, &c., began with the date. The usual formula + was _data, datum, actum, factum, scriptum_. In the Carolingian period + a distinction grew up between _datum_ and _actum_, the former applying + to the time, the latter to the place, of date. In the papal chancery + from an early period down to the 12th century the use of a double date + prevailed, the first following the text and being inserted by the + scribe when the deed was written (_scriptum_), the second being added + at the foot of the deed on its execution (_actum_), by the chancellor + or other high functionary. From the Roman custom of dating by the + consular year arose the medieval practice of dating by the regnal year + of emperor, king or pope. Special dates were sometimes employed, such + as the year of some great historical event, battle, siege, pestilence, + &c. 11. The APPRECIATION. The _feliciter_ of the Romans became the + medieval _feliciter in Domino_, or _In Dei nomine feliciter_, or the + more simple _Deo gratias_ or the still more simple _Amen_, for the + auspicious closing of a deed. In Merovingian and Carolingian diplomas + it follows the date; in other cases it closes the text. In the greater + papal bulls it appears in the form of a triple _Amen_. _Benevalete_ + was also employed as the appreciation in early deeds; but in + Merovingian diplomas and in papal bulls this valedictory salutation + becomes a mark of authentication, as will be noticed below. 12. The + AUTHENTICATION was a solemn proceeding which was discharged by more + than one act. The most important was the subscription or subscriptions + of the person or persons from whom the deed emanated. The laws of the + late Roman empire required the subscriptions and the impressions of + the signet seals of the parties and of the witnesses to the deed. The + subscription (_subscriptio_) comprised the name, signature and + description of the person signing. The impression of the signet (not + the signature) was the _signum_, sometimes _signaculum_, rarely + _sigillum_. The practice of subscribing with the autograph signature + obtained in the early middle ages, as appears from early documents + such as those of Ravenna. But from the 7th century it began to + decline, and by the 12th century it had practically ceased. In Roman + deeds an illiterate person affixed his mark, or _signum manuale_, + which was attested. The cross being an easy form for a mark, it was + very commonly used and naturally became connected with the Christian + symbol. Hence, in course of time, it came to be attached very + generally to subscriptions, autograph or otherwise. Great personages + who were illiterate required something more elaborate than a common + mark. Hence arose the use of the monogram, the _caracter nominis_, + composed of the letters of the name. The emperor Justin, who could not + write, made use of a monogram, as did also Theodoric, king of the + Ostrogoths. Those Merovingian kings, likewise, who were illiterate, + had their individual monograms; and at length Charlemagne adopted the + monogram as his regular form of signature. From his reign down to that + of Philip the Fair the monogram was the recognized sign manual of the + sovereigns of France (see AUTOGRAPHS). It was employed by the German + emperors down to the reign of Maximilian I. The royal use of the + monogram was naturally imitated by great officers and ecclesiastics. + But another form of sign manual also arose out of the subscription. + The closing word (usually _subscripsi_), written or abbreviated as + _sub._, or _ss._ or _s._, was often finished off with flourishes and + interlacings, sometimes accompanied with Tironian notes, the whole + taking the shape of a domed structure to which the French have given + the name of _ruche_ or bee-hive. Thus in the early middle ages we have + deeds authenticated by the subscription, usually autograph, giving the + name and titles of the person executing, and stating the part taken by + him in the deed, and closing with the _subscripsi_, often in shape of + the ruche and constituting the _signum manuale_. If not autograph, the + subscription might be impersonal in such form as _signum_ (or _signum + manus_) + N. In the Carolingian period, while phrases were constantly + used in the body of the deed implying that it was executed by + autograph subscription, it did not necessarily follow that such + subscription was actually written in person. The ruche was also + adopted by chancellors, notaries and scribes as their official mark. + While autograph subscriptions continued to be employed, chiefly by + ecclesiastics, down to the beginning of the 12th century, the monogram + was perpetuated from the 10th century by the notaries. Their marks, + simple at first, became so elaborate from the end of the 13th century + that they found it necessary to add their names in ordinary writing, + or also to employ a less complicated design. This was the commencement + of the modern practice of writing the signature which first came into + vogue in the 14th century. + + + The Benevalete. + + The Rota. + + To lend further weight and authority to the subscription, certain + symbols and forms were added at different periods. Imitating, the + corroborative _Legi_ of the Byzantine quaestor and the _Legimus_ of + the Eastern emperors, the Frankish chancery in the West made use of + the same form, notably in the reign of Charles the Bald, in some of + whose diplomas the _Legimus_ appears written in larger letters in red. + The valedictory _Benevalete_, employed in early deeds as a form of + appreciation (see above), appears in Merovingian and in early + Carolingian royal diplomas, and also in papal bulls, as an + authenticating addition to the subscription. In the diplomas it was + written in cursive letters in two lines, _Bene valete_, just to the + right of the incision cut in the sheet to hold fast the seal, which + sometimes even covered part of the word. In the most ancient papal + bulls it was written by the pope himself at the foot of the deed. in + two lines, generally in larger capital or uncial characters, placed + between two crosses. From the beginning of the 11th century it became + the fashion to link the letters; and, dating from the time of Leo IX., + A.D. 1048-1054, the _Benevalete_ was inscribed in form of a monogram. + During Leo's pontificate it was also accompanied with a flourish + called the _Komma_, which was only an exaggeration of the mark of + punctuation (_periodus_) which from the 9th to the 11th century closed + the subscription and generally resembled the modern semicolon. Leo's + successors abandoned the _Komma_, but the monogrammatic _Benevalete_ + continued, invariable in form, but from time to time varying in size. + In Leo IX.'s pontificate also was introduced the _Rota_. This sign, + when it had received its final shape in the 11th century, was in form + of a wheel, composed of two concentric circles, in the space between + which was written the motto or device of the pope (_signum papae_), + usually a short sentence from one of the Psalms or some other portion + of Scripture; preceded by a small cross, which the pontiff himself + sometimes inscribed. The central space within the wheel was divided + (by cross lines) into four quarters, the two upper ones being occupied + by the names of the apostles St Peter and St Paul, and the two lower + ones by the name of the pope. The _Rota_ was placed on the left of the + subscription, the monogrammatic _Benevalete_ on the right. The two + signs were likewise adopted by certain ecclesiastical chanceries and + by feudal lords, particularly in the 12th century. From the same + period also the Spanish and Portuguese monarchs adopted the _Rota_, + the _signo rodado_, which is so conspicuous in the royal charters of + the Peninsula. + + + Sealing. + + Besides the subscription, an early auxiliary method of authentication + was by the impression of the seal which, as noticed above, was + required by the Roman law. But the general use of the signet gradually + failed, and by the 7th century it had ceased. Still it survived in the + royal chanceries, and the sovereigns both of the Merovingian and of + the Carolingian lines had their seals; and, in the 8th century, the + mayors of the palace likewise. It is interesting to find instances of + the use of antique intaglios for the purpose by some of them. In + England too there is proof that the Mercian kings Offa and Coenwulf + used seals, in imitation of the Frankish monarchs. In the 7th century, + and still more so in the 8th and 9th centuries, the royal seals were + of exaggerated size: the precursors of the great seals of the later + sovereigns of western Europe. The waxen seals of the early diplomas + were in all cases _en placard_: that is, they were attached to the + face of the document and not suspended from it, being held in position + by a cross-cut incision in the material, through which the wax was + pressed and then flattened at the back. On the cessation of autograph + signatures in subscriptions, the general use of seals revived, + beginning in the 10th century and becoming the ordinary method of + authentication from the 12th to the 15th century inclusive. Even when + signatures had once again become universal, the seal continued to hold + its place; and thus sealing is, to the present day, required for the + legal execution of a deed. The attachment _en placard_ was + discontinued, as a general practice, in the middle of the 11th + century; and seals thenceforward were, for the most part, suspended, + leathern thongs being used at first, and afterwards silken and hempen + cords or parchment labels. In documents of minor importance it was + sometimes the custom to impress the seal or seals on one or more + strips of the parchment of the deed itself, cut, but not entirely + detached, from the lower margin, and left to hang loose. Besides waxen + impressions of seals, impressions in metal, bearing a device on both + faces, after the fashion of a coin, and suspended, were employed from + an early period. The most widely known instances are the _bullae_ + attached to papal documents, generally of lead. The earliest surviving + papal _bulla_ is one of Pope Zacharias, A.D. 746, but earlier examples + are known from drawings. The papal _bulla_ was a disk of metal stamped + on both sides. From the time of Boniface V. to Leo IV., A.D. 617-855, + the name of the pontiff, in the genitive case, was impressed on the + obverse, and his title as pope on the reverse, e.g. _Bonifati/ papae_. + After that period, for some time, the name was inscribed in a circle + round a central ornament. Other variations followed; but at length in + the pontificate of Paschal II., A.D. 1099, the _bulla_ took the form + which it afterwards retained: on the obverse, the heads of the + apostles St Peter and St Paul; on the reverse, the pope's name, title + and number in succession. In the period of time between his election + and consecration, the pope made use of the half-bull, that is, the + obverse only was impressed. It should be mentioned that, in order to + conform to modern conditions and for convenience of despatch through + the post, Leo XII., in 1878, substituted for the leaden _bulla_ a red + ink stamp bearing the heads of the two apostles with the name of the + pope inscribed as a legend. + + The Carolingian monarchs also used metal _bullae_. None of + Charlemagne's have survived, but there are still extant leaden + examples of Charles the Bald. The use of lead was not persisted in + either in the chancery of France or in that of Germany. Golden + _bullae_ were employed on special occasions by both popes and temporal + monarchs; for example, they were attached to the confirmations of the + elections of the emperors in the 12th and 13th centuries; the bull of + Leo X. conferring the title of Defender of the Faith on Henry VIII. in + 1524, and the deed of alliance between Henry and Francis I. in 1527, + had golden _bullae_; and other examples could be cited. But lead has + always been the common metal to be thus employed. In the southern + countries of Europe, where the warmth of the climate renders wax an + undesirable material, leaden _bullae_ have been in ordinary use, not + only in Italy but also in the Peninsula, in southern France, and in + the Latin East (see SEALS). + + + Formularies. + + The necessity of conforming to exact phraseology in diplomas and of + observing regularity in expressing formulas naturally led to the + compilation of formularies. From the early middle ages the art of + composition, not only of charters but also of general correspondence, + was commonly taught in the monasteries. The teacher was the + _dictator_, his method of teaching was described by the verb + _dictare_, and his teaching was _dictamen_ or the _ars dictaminis_. + For the use of these monastic schools, formularies and manuals + comprising formulas and models for the composition of the various acts + and documents soon became indispensable. At a later stage such + formularies developed into the models and treatises for epistolary + style which have had their imitations even in modern times. The + widespread use of the formularies had the advantage of imposing a + certain degree of uniformity on the phrasing of documents of the + western nations of Europe. Those compilations which are of an earlier + period than the 11th century have been systematically examined and are + published; those of more recent date still remain to be thoroughly + edited. The early formularies are of the simpler kind, being + collections of formulas without dissertation. The _Formulae Marculfi_, + compiled by the monk Marculf about the year 650, was the most + important work of this nature of the Merovingian period and became the + official formulary of the time; and it continued in use in a revised + edition in the early Carolingian chancery. Of the same period there + are extant formularies compiled at various centres, such as Angers, + Tours, Bourges, Sens, Reichenau, St Gall, Salzburg, Passau, + Regensburg, Cordova, &c. (see Giry, _Manuel de diplomatique_, pp. + 482-488). The _Liber diurnus Romanorum Pontificum_ was compiled in the + 7th and 8th centuries, and was employed in the papal chancery to the + end of the 11th century. Of the more developed treatises and manuals + of epistolary rhetoric which succeeded, and which originated in Italy, + the earliest example was the _Breviarium de dictamine_ of the monk + Alberic of Monte Cassino, compiled about the year 1075. Another + well-known work, the _Rationes dictandi_, is also attributed to the + same author. Of later date was the _Ars dictaminis_ of Bernard of + Chartres of the 12th century. Among special works on formularies are: + E. de Roziere, _Recueil general des formules usitees dans l'empire des + Francs_ (3 vols., Paris, 1861-1871); K. Zeumer, _Formulae Merovingici + et Karolini aevi_ (Hanover, 1886); and L. Rockinger, _Briefsteller und + Formelbucher des 11 bis. 14 Jahrhunderts_ (Munich, 1863-1864). + +_Organization._--The formalities observed by the different chanceries of +medieval Europe, which are to be learned from a study of the documents +issued by them, are so varied and often so minute, that it is impossible +to give a full account of them within the limits of the present article. +We can only state some of the results of the investigations of students +of diplomatic. + + + Papal Chancery. + +The chancery which stands first and foremost is the papal chancery. On +account of its antiquity and of its steady development, it has served as +a model for the other chanceries of Europe. Organized in remote times, +it adopted for the structure of its letters a number of formulas and +rules which developed and became more and more fixed and precise from +century to century. The Apostolic court being organized from the first +on the model of the Roman imperial court, the early pontiffs would +naturally have collected their archives, as the emperors had done, into +_scrinia_. Pope Julius I., A.D. 337-353, reorganized the papal archives +under an official _schola notariorum_, at the head of which was a +_primicerius notariorum_. Pope Damasus, A.D. 366-384, built a record +office at the Lateran, _archivium sanctae Romanae ecclesiae_, where the +archives were kept and registers of them compiled. The collection and +orderly arrangement of the archives provided material for the +establishment of regular diplomatic usages, and the science of formulae +naturally followed. + +For the study of papal documents four periods have been defined, each +successive period being distinguished from its predecessor by some +particular development of forms and procedure. The first period is +reckoned from the earliest times to the accession of Leo IX., A.D. 1048. +For almost the whole of the first eight centuries no original papal +documents have survived. But copies are found in canonical works and +registers, many of them false, and others probably not transcribed in +full or in the original words; but still of use, as showing the growth +of formulas. The earliest original document is a fragment of a letter of +Adrian I., A.D. 788. From that date there is a series, but the documents +are rare to the beginning of the 11th century, all down to that period +being written on papyrus. The latest existing papyrus document in +France is one of Sergius IV., A.D. 1011; in Germany, one of Benedict +VIII., A.D. 1022. The earliest document on vellum is one of John XVIII., +A.D. 1005. The nomenclature of papal documents even at an early period +is rather wide. In their earliest form they are Letters, called in the +documents themselves, _litterae_, _epistola_, _pagina_, _scriptum_, +sometimes _decretum_. A classification, generally accepted, divides them +into: 1. Letters or Epistles: the ordinary acts of correspondence with +persons of all ranks and orders; including constitutions (a later term) +or decisions in matters of faith and discipline, and encyclicals giving +directions to bishops of the whole church or of individual countries. 2. +Decrees, being letters promulgated by the popes of their own motion. 3. +Decretals, decisions on points of ecclesiastical administration or +discipline. 4. Rescripts (called in the originals _preceptum_, +_auctoritas_, _privilegium_), granting requests to petitioners. But +writers differ in their terms, and such subdivisions must be more or +less arbitrary. The comprehensive term "bull" (the name of the leaden +papal seal, _bulla_, being transferred to the document) did not come +into use until the 13th century. + +Copies of papal deeds were collected into registers or _bullaria_. Lists +showing the chronological sequence of documents are catalogues of acts. +When into such lists indications from narrative sources are introduced +they become _regesta_ (_res gestae_): a term not to be confused with +"register." + +Clearness and conciseness have been recognized as attributes of early +papal letters; but even in those of the 4th century certain rhythmical +periods have been detected in their composition which became more marked +under Leo the Great, A.D. 440-461, and which developed into the _cursus_ +or prose rhythm of the pontifical chancery of the 11th and 12th +centuries. + +In the most ancient deeds the pope styles himself _Episcopus_, sometimes +_Episcopus Catholicae Ecclesiae_, or _Episcopus Romanae Ecclesiae_, +rarely _Papa_. Gregory I, A.D. 590, was the first to adopt the form +_Episcopus, servus servorum Dei_, which became general in the 9th +century, and thenceforth was invariable. + +The second period of papal documents extends from Leo IX. to the +accession of Innocent III., A.D. 1048-1198. At the beginning of the +period formulae tended to take more definite shape and to become fixed. +In the superscription of bulls a distinction arose: those which +conferred lasting privileges employing the words _in perpetuum_ to close +this clause; those whose benefaction was of a transitory character using +the form of salutation, _salutem et apostolicam benedictionem_. But it +was under Urban II., A.D. 1088-1099, that the principal formulae became +stereotyped. Then the distinction between documents of lasting, and +those of transitory, value became more exactly defined; the former class +being known as greater bulls, _bullae majores_ (also called +_privilegia_), the latter lesser bulls, _bullae minores_. The leading +characteristics of the greater bulls were these: The first line +containing the superscription and closing with the words _in perpetuum_ +(or, sometimes, _ad perpetuam_, or _aeternam_, _rei memoriam_) was +written in tall and slender ornamental letters, close packed; the final +clauses of the text develop with tendency to fixity; the pope's +subscription is accompanied with the _rota_ on the left and the +_benevalete_ monogram on the right; and certain elaborate forms of +dating are punctiliously observed. The introduction of subscriptions of +cardinals as witnesses had gradually become a practice. Under Victor +II., A.D. 1055-1057, the practice became more confirmed, and after the +time of Innocent II., A.D. 1130-1145, the subscriptions of the three +orders were arranged according to rank, those of the cardinal bishops +being placed in the centre under the papal subscription, those of the +priests under the _rota_ on the left, and those of the deacons under the +_benevalete_ on the right. In the lesser bulls simpler forms were +employed; there was no introductory line of stilted letters; the +salutation, _salutem et apostolicam benedictionem_, closed the +superscription; the final clauses were shortened; there was neither +papal subscription, nor _rota_, nor _benevalete_; the date was simple. + +From the time of Adrian I., A.D. 772-795, the system of double dating +was followed in the larger bulls. The first date was written by the +scribe of the document, _scriptum per manum N._ with the month (rarely +the day of the month) and year of the indiction. The second, the actual +date of the execution of the deed, was entered (ostensibly) by some high +official, _data_, or _datum, per manum N._, and contained the day of the +month (according to the Roman calendar), the year of indiction, the year +of pontificate (in some early deeds, also the year of the empire and the +post-consulate year), and the year of the Incarnation, which, however, +was gradually introduced and only became more common in the course of +the 11th century. For example, a common form of a full date would run +thus: _Datum Laterani, per manum N., sanctae Romanae ecclesiae diaconi +cardinalis, xiiii. kl. Maii, indictione V., anno dominicae Incarnationis +mxcvii., pontificatus autem domini papae Urbani secundi X^o_. The simpler +form of the date of a lesser bull might be: _Datum Laterani, iii. non. +Jan., pontificatus nostri anno iiii_. + +By degrees the use of the lesser bulls almost entirely superseded that +of the greater bulls, which became exceptional in the 13th century and +almost ceased after the migration to Avignon in 1309. In modern times +the greater bulls occasionally reappear for very solemn acts, as _bullae +consistoriales_, executed in the consistory. + +The third period of papal documents extends from Innocent III. to +Eugenius IV., A.D. 1198-1431. The pontificate of Innocent III. was a +most important epoch in the history of the development of the papal +chancery. Formulas became more exactly fixed, definitions more precise, +the observation of rules and precedents more constant. The staff of the +chancery was reorganized. The existing series of registers of papal +documents was then commenced. The growing use of lesser bulls for the +business of the papal court led to a further development in the 13th +century. They were now divided into two classes: _Tituli_ and +_Mandamenta_. The former conferred favours, promulgated precepts, +judgments, decisions, &c. The latter comprised ordinances, commissions, +&c., and were executive documents. There are certain features which +distinguish the two classes. In the _tituli_, the initial letter of the +pope's name is ornamented with openwork and the other letters are +stilted. In the _mandamenta_, the initial is filled in solid and the +other letters are of the same size as the rest of the text. In the +_tituli_, enlarged letters mark the beginnings of the text and of +certain clauses; but not in the _mandamenta_. In the former the mark of +abbreviation is a looped sign; in the latter it is a horizontal stroke. +In the former the old practice of leaving a gap between the letters s +and t, and c and t, whenever they occur together in a word (e.g. _is +te_, _sanc tus_), and linking them by a coupling stroke above the line +is continued; in the latter it disappears. The leaden bulla attached to +a _titulus_ (as a permanent deed) is suspended by cords of red and +yellow silks; while that of a _mandamentum_ (a temporary deed) hangs +from a hempen cord. + +In the fourth period, extending from 1431 to the present time, the +_tituli_ and _mandamenta_ have continued to be the ordinary documents in +use; but certain other kinds have also arisen. Briefs (_brevia_), or +apostolic letters, concerning the personal affairs of the pope or the +administration of the temporal dominion, or conceding indulgences, came +into general use in the 13th century in the pontificate of Eugenius IV. +They are written in the italic hand on thin white vellum; and the name +of the pope with his style as _papa_ is written at the head of the +sheet, e.g. _Eugenius papa iiii_. They are closed and sealed with Seal +of the Fisherman, _sub anulo Piscatoris_. Briefs have almost superseded +the _mandamenta_. The documents known as Signatures of the court of Rome +or Latin letters, and used principally for the expedition of +indulgences, were first introduced in the 15th century. They were drawn +in the form of a petition to the pope, which he granted by the words +_fiat ut petatur_ written across the top. They were not sealed; and only +the pontifical year appears in the date. Lastly, the documents to which +the name of _Motu proprio_ is given are also without seal and are used +in the administration of the papal court, the formula _placet et ita +motu proprio mandamus_ being signed by the pope. + +The character of the handwriting employed by the papal chancery is +discussed in the article PALAEOGRAPHY. Here it will be enough to state +that the early style was derived from the Lombardic hand, and that it +continued in use down to the beginning of the 12th century; but that, +from the 10th century, owing to the general adoption of the Caroline +minuscule writing, it began to fall and gradually became so unfamiliar +to the uninitiated, that, while it still continued in use for papal +bulls, it was found necessary to accompany them with copies written in +the more intelligible Caroline script. The intricate, fanciful +character, known as the _Litera sancti Petri_, was invented in the time +of Clement VIII., A.D. 1592-1605, was fully developed under Alexander +VIII., 1689-1691, and was only abolished at the end of the year 1878 by +Leo XIII. + + + Merovingian chancery. + +Of the chancery of the Merovingian line of kings as many as ninety +authentic diplomas are known, and, of these, thirty-seven are originals, +the earliest being of the year 625. The most ancient examples were +written on papyrus, vellum superseding that material towards the end of +the 7th century. All these diplomas are technically letters, having the +superscription and address and, at the foot, close to the seal, the +valedictory _benevalete_. They commence with a monogrammatic invocation, +which, together with the superscription and address written in fanciful +elongated letters, occupies the first line. The superscription always +runs in the form, _N. rex Francorum_. The most complete kinds of +diplomas were authenticated by the king's subscription, that of the +_referendarius_ (the official charged with the custody of the royal +seal), the impression of the seal, and exceptionally by subscriptions of +prelates and great personages. The royal subscription was usually +autograph; but, if the sovereign were too young or too illiterate to +write, a monogram was traced by the scribe. The referendary, if he +countersigned the royal subscription, added the word _optulit_ to his +own signature; if he subscribed independently, he wrote _recognovit et +subscripsit_, the end of the last word being usually lost in flourishes +forming a _ruche_. The date gave the place, day, month and year of the +reign. The Merovingian royal diplomas are of two classes: (1) Precepts, +conferring gifts, favours, immunities and confirmations, entitled in the +documents themselves as _praeceptum_, _praeceptio_, _auctoritas_; some +drawn up in full form, with preamble and ample final clauses; others +less precise and formal. (2) Judgments (_judicia_), which required no +preamble or final clauses as they were records of the sovereign's +judicial decisions; they were subscribed by the referendary and were +sealed with the royal seal. Other classes of documents were the _cartae +de mundeburde_, taking persons under the royal protection, and +_indiculi_ or letters transmitting orders or notifying decisions; but no +examples have survived. + + + Carolingian chancery. + +The diplomas of the early Carolingians differed, as was natural, but +little from those of their predecessors. As mayors of the palace, +Charles Martel and Pippin took the style of _vir inluster_. On becoming +king, Pippin retained it; _Pippinus, vir inluster, rex Francorum_, and +it continued to be part of the royal title till Charlemagne became +emperor. The royal subscription was in form of a sign-manual or mark, +but Charlemagne elaborated this into a monogram of the letters of his +name built up on a cross. In 775 the royal title of Charlemagne became +_Carolus, gratia Dei rex Francorum et Langobardorum, ac patricius +Romanorum_, the last words being assumed on his visit to Rome in 774. On +becoming emperor in 800, he was styled _Imperator, Romanum gubernans +imperium, rex Francorum et Langobardorum_. It is to be noticed that +thenceforth his name was spelt with initial K (as it was on the +monogram), having previously been written with C in the deeds. Most of +his diplomas were authenticated by the subscription of the chancellor +and impression of the seal. A novelty in the form of dating was also +introduced, two words, _datum_ (for time) and _actum_ (for place), being +now employed. The character of the writing of the diplomas, founded on +the Roman cursive hand, which had become very intricate under the +Merovingians, improved under their successors, yet the reform which was +introduced into the literary script hardly affected the cursive writing +of diplomatic until the latter part of Charlemagne's reign. The archaic +style was particularly maintained in judgments, which were issued by the +private chancery of the palace, a department more conservative in its +methods than the imperial chancery. It was in the reign of Louis +Debonair, A.D. 814-840, that the Carolingian diploma took its final +shape. A variation now appears in the monogram, that monarch's +sign-manual being built up, not on a cross as previously, but on the +letter H., the initial of his name Hludovicus, and serving as the +pattern for successive monarchs of the name of Louis. + +In the Carolingian chancery the staff was exclusively ecclesiastical; at +its head was the chancellor, whose title is traced back to the +_cancellarius_, or petty officer under the Roman empire, stationed at +the bar or lattice (_cancelli_) of the basilica or other law court and +serving as usher. As keeper of the royal archives his subscription was +indispensable for royal acts. The diplomas were drawn up by the +notaries, an important body, upon whom devolved the duty of maintaining +the formulae and traditions of the office. It has been observed that in +the 9th century the documents were drawn carefully, but that in the 10th +century there was a great degeneration in this respect. Under the early +Capetian kings there was great confusion and want of uniformity in their +diplomas; and it was not until the reign of Louis VI., A.D. 1108, that +the formulae were again reduced to rules. + + + Imperial German chancery. + +The acts of the imperial chancery of Germany followed the patterns of +the Carolingian diplomas, with little variation down to the reign of +Frederick Barbarossa, A.D. 1152-1190. The sovereign's style was _N. +divina favente clementia rex_; after coronation at Rome he became +_imperator augustus_. At the end of the 10th century, Otto III. +developed the latter title into _Romanorum imperator augustus_. Under +Henry III., and regularly from the time of Henry V., A.D. 1106-1125, the +title before coronation has been _Romanorum rex_. The royal monogram did +not necessarily contain all the letters of the name; but, on the other +hand, from the year 976, it became more complicated and combined the +imperial title with the name. For example, the monogram of Henry II. +combines the words _Henricus Romanorum imperator augustus_. The +flourished _ruches_ also, as in the Frankish chanceries, were in vogue. +Eventually they were used by certain of the chancellors as a sign-manual +and took fanciful shapes, such as a building with a cupola, or even a +diptych. They disappear early in the 12th century, the period when in +other respects the chancery of the Holy Roman Empire largely adopted a +more simple style in its diplomas. Lists of witnesses, in support of the +royal and official subscriptions, were sometimes added in the course of +the 11th century, and they appear regularly in documents a hundred years +later. + + + Diplomatic in England. + +For the study of diplomatic in England, material exists in two distinct +series of documents, those of the Anglo-Saxon period, and those +subsequent to the Norman Conquest. The Anglo-Saxon kings appear to have +borrowed, partially, the style of their diplomas from the chanceries of +their Frankish neighbours, introducing at the same time modifications +which give those documents a particular character marking their +nationality. In some of the earlier examples we find that the lines of +the foreign style are followed more or less closely; but very soon a +simpler model was adopted which, while it varied in formulas from reign +to reign, lasted in general construction down to the time of the Norman +Conquest. The royal charters were usually drawn up in Latin, sometimes +in Anglo-Saxon, and began with a preamble or exordium (in some instances +preceded by an invocation headed with the chrismon or with a cross), in +the early times of a simple character, but, later, drawn out not +infrequently to great length in involved and bombastic periods. Then +immediately followed the disposing or granting clause, often accompanied +with a few words explaining the motive, such as, for the good of the +soul of the grantor; and the text was closed with final clauses of +varying extent, protecting the deed against infringement, &c. In early +examples the dating clause gave the day and month (often according to +the Roman calendar) and the year of the indiction; but the year of the +Incarnation was also immediately adopted; and, later, the regnal year +also. The position of this clause in the charter was subject to +variation. The subscriptions of the king and of the personages +witnessing the deed, each preceded by a cross, but all written by the +hand of the scribe, usually closed the charter. A peculiarity was the +introduction, in many instances, either in the body of the charter, or +in a separate paragraph at the end, of the boundaries of the land +granted, written in the native tongue. The sovereigns of the several +kingdoms of the Heptarchy, as well as those of the United Kingdom, +usually styled themselves _rex_. But from the time of AEthelstan, A.D. +825-840, they also assumed fantastic titles in the text of their +charters, such as: _rex et primicerius_, _rex et rector_, _gubernator et +rector_, _monarchus_, and particularly the Greek _basileus_, and +_basileus industrius_. At the same time the name of Albion was also +frequently used for Britain. + +A large number of documents of the Anglo-Saxon period, dating from the +7th century, has survived, both original and copies entered in +chartularies. Of distinct documents there are nearly two hundred; but a +large proportion of these must be set aside as copies (both contemporary +and later) or as spurious deeds. + +Although there is evidence, as above stated, of the use of seals by +certain of the Mercian kings, the method of authentication of diplomas +by seal impression was practically unknown to the Anglo-Saxon +sovereigns, save only to Edward the Confessor, who, copying the custom +which obtained upon the continent, adopted the use of a great seal. + +With the Norman Conquest the old tradition of the Anglo-Saxons +disappeared. The Conqueror brought with him the practice of the Roman +chancery, which naturally followed the Capetian model; and his diplomas +of English origin differed only from those of Normandy by the addition +of his new style, _rex Anglorum_, in the superscription. But even from +the first there was a tendency to simplicity in the new English +chancery, not improbably suggested by the brief formalities of +Anglo-Saxon charters, and, side by side with the more formal royal +diplomas, others of shorter form and less ceremony were issued, which by +the reign of Henry II. quite superseded the more solemn documents. These +simpler charters began with the royal superscription, the address, and +the salutation, e.g. _Willelmus, Dei gratia rex Anglorum, N. episcopo et +omnibus baronibus et fidelibus suis Francis et Anglis salutem_. Then +followed the notification and the grant, e.g. _Sciatis me concessisse_, +&c., generally without final clauses, or, if any, brief clauses of +protection and warranty; and, at the end, the list of witnesses and the +date. The regnal year was usually cited; but the year of the Incarnation +was also sometimes given. The great seal was appended. To some of the +Conqueror's charters his subscription and those of his queen and sons +are attached, written by the scribe, but accompanied with crosses which +may or may not be autograph. By the reign of John the simpler form of +royal charters had taken final shape, and from this time the acts of the +kings of England have been classified under three heads: viz. (1) +Charters, generally of the pattern described above; (2) Letters patent, +in which the address is general, _Universis presentes litteras +inspecturis_, &c.; the corroborative clause describes the character of +the document, _In cujus rei testimonium has literas nostras fieri +fecimus patentes_; the king himself is his own witness, _Teste me ipso_; +and the great seal is appended; (3) Close letters, administrative +documents conveying orders, the king witnessing, _Teste me ipso_. + +The style of the English kings down to John was, with few exceptions, +_Rex Anglorum_; thenceforward, _Rex Angliae_. Henry II. added the feudal +titles, _dux Normannorum et Aquitanorum et comes Andegavorum_, which +Henry III. curtailed to _dux Aquitaniae_. John added the title _dominus +Hiberniae_; Edward III., on claiming the crown of France, styled himself +rex _Angliae et Franciae_, the same title being borne by successive +kings down to the year 1801; and Henry VIII., in 1521, assumed the title +of _fidei defensor_. The formula _Dei gratia_ does not consistently +accompany the royal title until the reign of Henry II., who adopted it +in 1173 (see L. Delisle, _Memoire sur la chronologie des chartes de +Henri II._, in the _Bibl. de l'Ecole des Chartes_, lxvii. 361-401). + + + Private deeds. + +The forms adopted in the royal chanceries were naturally imitated in the +composition of private deeds which in all countries form the mass of +material for historical and diplomatic research. The student of English +diplomatic will soon remark how readily the private charters, especially +conveyances of real property, fall into classes, and how stereotyped the +phraseology and formulae of each class become, only modified from time +to time by particular acts of legislation. The brevity of the early +conveyances is maintained through successive generations, with only +moderate growth as time progresses through the 12th, 13th and 14th +centuries. The different kinds of deeds which the requirements of +society have from time to time called into existence must be learned by +the student from the text-books. But a particular form of document which +was especially in favour in England should be mentioned. This was the +chirograph (Gr. [Greek: cheir], a hand, [Greek: graphein], to write), +which is found even in the Anglo-Saxon period, and which got its name +from the word _chirographum_, _cirographum_ or _cyrographum_ being +written in large letters at the head of the deed. At first the word was +written, presumably, at the head of each of the two authentic copies +which the two parties to a transaction would require. Then it became the +habit to use the word thus written as a tally, the two copies of the +deed being written on one sheet, head to head, with the word between +them, which was then cut through longitudinally in a straight, or more +commonly waved or indented (_in modum dentium_) line, each of the two +copies thus having half of the word at the head. Any other word, or a +series of letters, might thus be employed; and more than two copies of a +deed could thus be made to tally. The chirograph was the precursor of +the modern indenture, the commonest form of English deeds, though no +longer a tally. In other countries, the notarial instrument has +performed the functions which the chirograph and indenture have +discharged for us. + + AUTHORITIES.--General treatises, handbooks,, &c., are J. Mabillon, _De + re diplomatica_ (1709); Tassin and Toustain, _Nouveau Traite de + diplomatique_ (1750-1765); T. Madox, _Formulare Anglicanum_ (1702); G. + Hickes, _Linguarum septentrionalium thesaurus_ (1703-1705); F. S. + Maffei, _Istoria diplomatica_ (1727); G. Marini, _I Papiri + diplomatici_ (1805); G. Bessel, _Chronicon Gotwicense (De diplomatibus + imperatorum ac regum Germaniae)_ (1732); A. Fumagalli, _Delle + istituzioni diplomatiche_ (1802); M. F. Kopp, _Palaeographia critica_ + (1817-1829); K. T. G. Schonemann, _Versuch eines vollstandigen Systems + der Diplomatik_ (1818); T. Sickel, _Lehre von den Urkunden der ersten + Karolinger_ (1867); J. Ficker, _Beitrage zur Urkundenlehre_ + (1877-1878); A. Gloria, _Compendio delle lezioni di paleografia e + diplomatica_ (1870); C. Paoli, _Programma scolastico di paleografia + Latina e di diplomatica_ (1888-1890); H. Bresslau, _Handbuch der + Urkundenlehre fur Deutschland und Italien_ (1889); A. Giry, _Manuel de + diplomatique_ (1894); F. Leist, _Urkundenlehre_ (1893); E. M. + Thompson, _Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography_, cap. xix. + (1906); J. M. Kemble, _Codex diplomaticus aevi Saxonici_ (1839-1848); + W. G. Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_ (1885-1893); J. Munoz y Rivero, + _Manuel de paleografia diplomatica Espanola_ (1890); M. Russi, + _Paleografia e diplomatica de' documenti delle provincie Napolitane_ + (1883). Facsimiles are given in J. B. Silvestrestre _Paleographie + universelle_ (English edition, 1850); and in the _Facsimiles_, &c., + published by the Palaeographical Society (1873-1894) and the New + Palaeographical Society (1903, &c.); and also in the following + works:--A. Champollion-Figeac, _Chartes et manuscrits sur papyrus_ + (1840); J. A. Letronne, _Diplomes et chartes de l'epoque + merovingienne_ (1845-1866); J. Tardif, _Archives de l'Empire: + Facsimile de chartes et diplomes merovingiens et carlovingiens_ + (1866); G. H. Pettz, _Schrifttafeln zum Gebrauch bei diplomatischen + Vorlesungen_ (1844-1869); H. von Sybel and T. Sickel, _Kaiserurkunden + in Abbildungen_ (1880-1891); J. von Pflugk-Harttung, _Specimina + selecta chartarum Pontificum Romanorum_ (1885-1887); _Specimina + palaeographica regestorum Romanorum pontificum_ (1888); _Recueil de + fac-similes a l'usage de l'Ecole des Chartes_ (not published) (1880, + &c.); J. Munoz y Rivero, _Chrestomathia palaeographica: scripturae + Hispanae veteris specimina_ (1890); E. A. Bond, _Facsimiles of Ancient + Charters in the British Museum_ (1873-1878): W. B. Sanders, + _Facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts_ (charters) (1878-1884); G. F. + Warner and H. J. Ellis, _Facsimiles of Royal and other Charters in the + British Museum_ (1903). (E. M. T.) + + + + +DIPOENUS and SCYLLIS, early Greek sculptors, who worked together, and +are said to have been pupils of Daedalus. Pliny assigns to them the date +580 B.C., and says that they worked at Sicyon, which city from their +time onwards became one of the great schools of sculpture. They also +made statues for Cleonae and Argos. They worked in wood, ebony and +ivory, and apparently also in marble. It is curious that no inscription +bearing their names has come to light. + + + + +DIPPEL, JOHANN KONRAD (1673-1734), German theologian and alchemist, son +of a Lutheran pastor, was born at the castle of Frankenstein, near +Darmstadt, on the 10th of August 1673. He studied theology at Giessen. +After a short visit to Wittenberg he went to Strassburg, where he +lectured on alchemy and chiromancy, and occasionally preached. He gained +considerable popularity, but was obliged after a time to quit the city, +owing to his irregular manner of living. He had up to this time espoused +the cause of the orthodox as against the pietists; but in his two first +works, published under the name "Christianus Democritus," _Orthodoxia +Orthodoxorum_ (1697) and _Papismus vapulans Protestantium_ (1698), he +assailed the fundamental positions of the Lutheran theology. He held +that religion consisted not in dogma but exclusively in love and +self-sacrifice. To avoid persecution he was compelled to wander from +place to place in Germany, Holland, Denmark and Sweden. He took the +degree of doctor of medicine at Leiden in 1711. He discovered Prussian +blue, and by the destructive distillation of bones prepared the +evil-smelling product known as Dippel's animal oil. He died near +Berleburg on the 25th of April 1734. + + An enlarged edition of Dippel's collected works was published at + Berleburg in 1743. See the biographies by J. C. G. Ackermann (Leipzig, + 1781), H. V. Hoffmann (Darmstadt, 1783), K. Henning (1881) and W. + Bender (Bonn, 1882); also a memoir by K. Bucher in the _Historisches + Taschenbuch_ for 1858. + + + + +DIPSOMANIA (from [Gr. dipsa], thirst, and [Greek: mania], madness), a +term formerly applied to the attacks of delirium (q.v.) caused by +alcoholic poisoning. It is now sometimes loosely used as equivalent to +the condition of incurable inebriates, but strictly should be confined +to the pathological and insatiable desire for alcohol, sometimes +occurring in paroxysms. + + + + +DIPTERA ([Greek: dis], double, [Greek: ptera], wings), a term (first +employed in its modern sense by Linnaeus, _Fauna Suecica_, 1st ed., +1746, p. 306) used in zoological classification for one of the Orders +into which the _Hexapoda_, or Insecta, are divided. The relation of the +Diptera (two-winged flies, or flies proper) to the other Orders is dealt +with under Hexapoda (q.v.). + +The chief characteristic of the Diptera is expressed in the name of the +Order, since, with the exception of certain aberrant and apterous forms, +flies possess but a single pair of membranous wings, which are attached +to the meso-thorax. Wing-covers and hind-wings are alike absent, and the +latter are represented by a pair of little knobbed organs, the halteres +or balancers, which have a controlling and directing function in flight. +The other structural characters of the Order may be briefly summarized +as:--mouth-parts adapted for piercing and sucking, or for suction alone, +and consisting of a proboscis formed of the labium, and enclosing +modifications of the other usual parts of the mouth, some of which, +however, may be wanting; a thorax fused into a single mass; and legs +with five-jointed tarsi. The wings, which are not capable of being +folded, are usually transparent, but occasionally pigmented and adorned +with coloured spots, blotches or bands; the wing-membrane, though +sometimes clothed with minute hairs, seldom bears scales; the +wing-veins, which are of great importance in the classification of +Diptera, are usually few in number and chiefly longitudinal, there being +a marked paucity of cross-veins. In a large number of Diptera an +incision in the posterior margin of the wing, near the base, marks off a +small lobe, the posterior lobe or alula, while connected with this but +situated on the thorax itself there is a pair of membranous scales, or +squamae, which when present serve to conceal the halteres. The antennae +of Diptera, which are also extremely important in classification, are +thread-like in the more primitive families, such as the _Tipulidae_ +(daddy-long-legs), where they consist of a considerable number of +joints, all of which except the first two, and sometimes also the last +two, are similar in shape; in the more specialized families, such as the +_Tabanidae_ (horse-flies), _Syrphidae_ (hover-flies) or _Muscidae_ +(house-flies, blue-bottles and their allies), the number of antennal +joints is greatly reduced by coalescence, so that the antennae appear to +consist of only three joints. In these forms, however, the third joint +is really a complex, which in many families bears in addition a jointed +bristle (arista) or style, representing the terminal joints of the +primitive antenna. Although in the case of the majority of Diptera the +body is more or less clothed with hair, the hairy covering is usually so +short that to the unaided eye the insects appear almost bare; some +forms, however, such as the bee-flies (_Bombylius_) and certain +robber-flies (_Asilidae_) are conspicuously hairy. Bristles are usually +present on the legs, and in the case of many families on the body also; +those on the head and thorax are of great importance in classification. + +Between 40,000 and 50,000 species of Diptera are at present known, but +these are only a fraction of those actually in existence. The species +recognized as British number some 2700, but to this total additions are +constantly being made. As a rule flies are of small or moderate size, +and many, such as certain blood-sucking midges of the genus +_Ceratopogon_, are even minute; as extremes of size may be mentioned a +common British midge, _Ceratopogon varius_, the female of which measures +only 1-1/4 millimetre, and the gigantic _Mydaidae_ of Central and South +America as well as certain Australian robber-flies, which have a body +1-3/4 in. long, with a wing-expanse of 3-1/4 in. In bodily form Diptera +present two main types, either, as in the case of the more primitive and +generalized families, they are gnat- or midge-like in shape, with +slender bodies and long, delicate legs, or else they exhibit a more or +less distinct resemblance to the common house-fly, having compact and +stoutly built bodies and legs of moderate length. Diptera in general are +not remarkable for brilliancy of coloration; as a rule they are dull and +inconspicuous in hue, the prevailing body-tints being browns and greys; +occasionally, however, more especially in species (_Syrphidae_) that +mimic Hymenoptera, the body is conspicuously banded with yellow; a few +are metallic, such as the species of _Formosia_, found in the islands of +the East Indian Archipelago, which are among the most brilliant of all +insects. The sexes in Diptera are usually alike, though in a number of +families with short antennae the males are distinguished by the fact +that their eyes meet together (or nearly so) on the forehead. +Metamorphosis in Diptera is complete; the larvae are utterly different +from the perfect insects in appearance, and, although varying greatly in +outward form, are usually footless grubs; those of the _Muscidae_ are +generally known as maggots. The pupa either shows the appendages of the +perfect insect, though these are encased in a sheath and adherent to the +body, or else it is entirely concealed within the hardened and +contracted larval integument, which forms a barrel-shaped protecting +capsule or puparium. + +Diptera are divided into some sixty families, the exact classification +of which has not yet been finally settled. The majority of authors, +however, follow Brauer in dividing the order into two sections, +Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha, according to the manner in which the +pupa-case splits to admit of the escape of the perfect insect. The +general characteristics of the pupae in these two sections have already +been described. + +In the Orthorrhapha, in the pupae of which the appendages of the perfect +insect are usually visible, the pupa-case generally splits in a straight +line down the back near the cephalic end; in front of this longitudinal +cleft there may be a small transverse one, the two together forming a +T-shaped fissure. In the Cyclorrhapha on the other hand, in which the +actual pupa is concealed within the hardened larval skin, the imago +escapes through a circular orifice formed by pushing off or through the +head end of the puparium. The Diptera Orthorrhapha include the more +primitive and less specialized families such as the _Tipulidae_ +(daddy-long-legs), _Culicidae_ (gnats or mosquitoes), _Chironomidae_ +(midges), _Mycetophilidae_ (fungus-midges), _Tabanidae_ (horse-flies), +_Asilidae_ (robber-flies), &c. The Diptera Cyclorrhapha on the other +hand consist of the most highly specialized families, such as the +_Syrphidae_ (hover-flies), _Oestridae_ (bot and warble flies), and +_Muscidae_ (_sensu latiore_--the house-fly and its allies, including +tsetse-flies, flesh-flies, _Tachininae_, or flies the larvae of which +are internal parasites of caterpillars, &c). It is customary to divide +the Orthorrhapha into the two divisions Nematocera and Brachycera, in +the former of which the antennae are elongate and in a more or less +primitive condition, as described above, while in the latter these +organs are short, and, as already explained, apparently composed of only +three joints. + +Within the divisions named--Orthorrhapha Nematocera, Orthorrhapha +Brachycera and Cyclorrhapha--the constituent families are usually +grouped into a series of "superfamilies," distinguished by features of +structure or habit. Certain extremely aberrant Diptera, which, in +consequence of the adoption of a parasitic mode of life, have undergone +great structural modification, are further remarkable for their peculiar +mode of reproduction, on account of which the families composing the +group are often termed Pupipara. In these forms the pregnant female, +instead of laying eggs, as Diptera usually do, or even producing a +number of minute living larvae, gives birth at one time but to a single +larva, which is retained within the oviduct of the mother until adult, +and assumes the pupal state immediately on extrusion. The Pupipara are +also termed Eproboscidea (although they actually possess a +well-developed and functional proboscis), and by some dipterists the +Eproboscidea are regarded as a suborder and contrasted as such with the +rest of the Diptera, which are styled the suborder Proboscidea. By other +writers Proboscidea and Eproboscidea are treated as primary divisions of +the Cyclorrhapha. In reality, however, the families designated +Eproboscidea (_Hippoboscidae_, _Braulidae_, _Nycteribiidae_ and +_Streblidae_), are not entitled to be considered as constituting either +a suborder, or even a main division of the Cyclorrhapha; they are simply +Cyclorrhapha much modified owing to parasitism, and in view of the +closely similar mode of reproduction in the tsetse-flies the special +designation Pupipara should be abandoned. Before leaving the subject of +classification it may be noted in passing that in 1906 Professor +Lameere, of Brussels, proposed a scheme for the classification of +Diptera which as regards both the limits of the families and their +grouping into higher categories differs considerably from that in +current use. + +Little light on the relationship and evolution of the various families +of Diptera is afforded by fossil forms, since as a rule the latter are +readily referable to existing families. With the exception of a few +species from the Solenhofen lithographic Oolite, fossil Diptera belong +to the Tertiary Period, during which the members of this order attained +a high degree of development. In amber, as proved by the deposits on the +shores of the Baltic, the proverbial "fly" is more numerous than any +other creatures, and with very few exceptions representatives of all the +existing families have been found. The famous Tertiary beds at +Florissant, Colorado, have yielded a considerable number of remarkably +well-preserved _Tipulidae_ (in which family are included the most +primitive of existing Diptera), as also species belonging to other +families, such as _Mycetophilidae_ and even _Oestridae_. + +Diptera as an order are probably more widely distributed over the +earth's surface than are the representatives of any similar division of +the animal kingdom. Flies seem capable of adapting themselves to +extremes of cold equally as well as to those of heat, and species +belonging to the order are almost invariably included in the collections +brought back by members of Arctic expeditions. Others are met with in +the most isolated localities; thus the Rev. A. E. Eaton discovered on +the desolate shores of Kerguelen's Island apterous and semi-apterous +Diptera (_Tipulidae_ and _Ephydridae_) of a degraded type adapted to the +climatic peculiarities of the locality. Many bird parasites belonging to +the _Hippoboscidae_ have naturally been carried about the world by their +hosts, while other species, such as the house-fly, blow-fly and +drone-fly, have in like manner been disseminated by human agency. Most +families and a large proportion of genera are represented throughout the +world, but in some cases (e.g. _Glossina_--see TSETSE-FLY) the +distribution of a genus is limited to a continent. As a rule the general +_facies_ as well as dimensions are remarkably uniform throughout a +family, so that tropical species often differ little in appearance from +those inhabiting temperate regions. Many instances of exaggerated and +apparently unnatural structure nevertheless occur, as in the case of the +genera _Pangonia_, _Nemestrina_, _Achias_, _Diopsis_ and the family +_Celyphidae_, and, as might be expected, it is chiefly in tropical +species that these peculiarities are found. To a geographical +distribution of the widest extent, Diptera add a range of habits of the +most diversified nature; they are both animal and vegetable feeders, an +enormous number of species acting, especially in the larval state, as +scavengers in consuming putrescent or decomposing matter of both kinds. +The phytophagous species are attached to various parts of plants, dead +or alive; and the carnivorous in like manner feed on dead or living +flesh, or its products, many larvae being parasitic on living animals of +various classes (in Australia the larva of a species of _Muscidae_ is +even a parasite of frogs), especially the caterpillars of Lepidoptera, +which are destroyed in great numbers by _Tachininae_. The recent +discovery of a bloodsucking maggot, which is found in native huts +throughout the greater part of tropical and subtropical Africa, and +attacks the inmates when asleep, is of great interest. + +It may confidently be asserted that, of insects which directly or +indirectly affect the welfare of man, Diptera form the vast majority, +and it is a moot point whether the good effected by many species in the +rapid clearing away of animal and vegetable impurities, and in keeping +other insect enemies in check, counterbalances the evil and annoyance +wrought by a large section of the Order. The part played by certain +blood-sucking Diptera in the dissemination of disease is now well known +(see MOSQUITO and TSETSE-FLY), and under the term _myiasis_ medical +literature includes a lengthy recital of instances of the presence of +Dipterous larvae in various parts of the living human body, and the +injuries caused thereby. That Diptera of the type of the common +house-fly are often in large measure responsible for the spread of such +diseases as cholera and enteric fever is undeniable, and as regards +blood-sucking forms, in addition to those to which reference has already +been made, it is sufficient to mention the vast army of pests +constituted by the midges, sand-flies, horse-flies, &c., from the +attacks of which domestic animals suffer equally with man, in addition +to being frequently infested with the larvae of the bot and warble flies +(_Gastrophilus_, _Oestrus_ and _Hypoderma_). Lastly, as regards the +phytophagous forms, there can be no doubt that the destruction of +grass-lands by "leather-jackets" (the larvae of crane-flies, or +daddy-long-legs,--_Tipula oleracea_ and _T. paludosa_), of divers fruits +by _Ceratitis capitata_ and species of _Dacus_, and of wheat and other +crops by the Hessian-fly (_Mayetiola destructor_) and species of +_Oscinis_, _Chlorops_, &c., is of very serious consequence. + +With many writers it is customary to treat the fleas as a sub-order of +Diptera, under the title Aphaniptera or Siphonaptera. Since, however, +although undoubtedly allied to the Diptera, they must have diverged from +the ancestral stem at an early period, before the existing forms of +Diptera became so extremely specialized, it seems better to regard the +fleas as constituting an independent order (see FLEA). (E. E. A.) + + + + +DIPTERAL (Gr. for "double-winged"), the architectural term applied to +those temples which have a double range of columns in the peristyle, as +in the temple of Diana at Ephesus. + + + + +DIPTYCH (Gr. [Greek: diptychos], two-folding), (1) A tablet made with a +hinge to open and shut, used in the Roman empire for letters (especially +love-letters), and official tokens of the commencement of a consul's, +praetor's or aedile's term of office. The latter variety of diptych was +inscribed with the magistrate's name and bore his portrait, and was +issued to his friends and the public generally. They were made of +boxwood or maple. More costly examples were in cedar, ivory (q.v.), +silver or sometimes gold. They were often sent as New Year gifts. + +(2)In the primitive church when the worshippers brought their own +offerings of bread and wine, from which were taken the Communion +elements, the names of the contributors were recorded on diptychs and +read aloud. To these names were early added those of deceased members of +the community whom it was desired to commemorate. This custom rapidly +developed into a kind of commemoration of saints and benefactors, living +and dead; especially, in each church, were the names of those who had +been its bishops recorded. The custom was maintained until the lists +became so long that it was impossible to read them through, and the +observance in this form had to be abandoned. The insertion of a name on +the diptych, thereby securing the prayers of the church, was a privilege +from which a person could be excluded on account of suspicion of heresy +or by the intrigues of enemies. His name could, if written, be expunged +under similar circumstances. The names thus written were read from the +ambo, in which the diptych was kept. The reading of these names during +the canon of the mass gave rise to the term _canonization_. By various +councils it was ordained that the name of the pope should always be +inserted in the diptych list. + +The addition of _dates_ resulted from the custom of recording baptisms +and deaths; and thus the diptych developed into a calendar and formed +the germ of the elaborate system of festologies, martyrologies and +calendars which developed in the church. + +The diptych went by various names in the early church--mystical tablets, +anniversary books, ecclesiastical matriculation registers or books of +the living. According to the names inscribed, bishops, the dead or the +living, a diptych might be a _diptycha episcoporum_, _diptycha +mortuorum_ or _diptycha vivorum_. + +In course of time the list of the names swelled to such proportions that +the space afforded by the diptych was insufficient. A third fold was +consequently provided, and the tablet became a _triptych_ (though the +name _diptych_ was retained as a general term for the object). Further +room was afforded by the insertion of leaves of parchment or wood +between the folds. The custom of reading names from the diptychs died +out about the 8th century. The diptychs, however, were retained as altar +ornaments. From the original consular documents onwards, the outsides of +the folds had always been richly ornamented, and when they ceased to be +of immediate practical use they became merely decorative. Instead of the +list of names the inside was ornamented like the outer, and in the +middle ages the best painters of the day would often paint them. When +folded, the portraits of the donor and his wife might be shown; when +open there would be three paintings, one on each fold, of a religious +character. (R. A. S. M.) + + + + +DIR, an independent state in the North-West Frontier Province of India, +lying to the north-east of Swat. Its importance chiefly arises from the +fact that it commands the greater part of the route between Chitral and +the Peshawar frontier. The quarrels and intrigues between the khan of +Dir and Umra Khan of Jandol were among the chief events that led up to +the Chitral Campaign of 1895. During that expedition the khan made an +agreement with the British Government to keep the road to Chitral open +in return for a subsidy. Including the Bashkars, an aboriginal tribe +allied to the Torwals and Garhuis, who inhabit Panjkora Kohistan, the +population is estimated at about 100,000. + + + + +DIRCE, in Greek legend, daughter of Helios the sun-god, the second wife +of Lycus, king of Thebes. She sorely persecuted Antiope, his first wife, +who escaped to Mount Cithaeron, where her twin sons Amphion and Zethus +were being brought up by a herdsman who was ignorant of their parentage. +Having recognized their mother, the sons avenged her by tying Dirce to +the horns of a wild bull, which dragged her about till she died. Her +body was cast into a spring near Thebes, which was ever afterwards +called by her name. Her punishment is the subject of the famous group +called "The Farnese Bull," by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, in +the Naples museum (see GREEK ART, Plate I. fig. 51). + + + + +DIRECT MOTION, in astronomy, the apparent motion of a body of the solar +system on the celestial sphere in the direction from west to east; so +called because this is the usual direction of revolution and rotation of +the heavenly bodies. + + + + +DIRECTORS, in company law, the agents by whom a trading or public +company acts, the company itself being a legal abstraction and unable to +do anything. As joint-stock companies have multiplied and their +enterprise has extended, the position of directors has become one of +increasing influence and importance. It is they who control the colossal +funds now invested in trading companies, and who direct their policy +(for shareholders are seldom more than dividend-drawers). Upon their +uprightness, vigilance and sound judgment depends the welfare of the +greatest part of the trade of the country concerned. It is not to be +wondered at that in view of this influence and independence of action +the law courts have held directors to a strict standard of duty, and +that the parliament of the United Kingdom has singled out directors from +other agents for special legislation in the Directors Liability Act +1890, the Larceny Act 1861, the Companies Act 1867 and the Winding-up +Act 1890. + +The first directors of a company are generally appointed by the articles +of association. Their consent to act must now, under the Companies Act +1908, be filed with the registrar of joint-stock companies. Directors +other than the first are elected at the annual general meeting, a +certain proportion of the acting directors--usually one-third--retiring +under the articles by rotation each year, and their places being filled +up by election. A share qualification is nearly always required, on the +well-recognized principle that a substantial stake in the undertaking is +the best guarantee of fidelity to the company's interests. A director +once appointed cannot be removed during his term of office by the +shareholders, unless there is a special provision for that purpose in +the articles of association; but a company may dismiss a director if the +articles--as is usually the case--authorize dismissal. The authority and +powers of directors are prima facie those necessary for carrying on the +ordinary business of the company, but it is usual to define the more +important of such powers in the articles of association. For instance, +it is commonly prescribed how and when the directors may make calls, to +what amount they may borrow, how they may invest the funds of the +company, in what circumstances they may forfeit shares, or veto +transfers, in what manner they shall conduct their proceedings, and what +shall constitute a quorum of the board. Whenever, indeed, specific +directions are desirable they may properly be given by the articles. But +superadded to and supplementing these specific powers there is usually +inserted in the articles a general power of management in terms similar +to those of clause 55 of the model regulations for a company, known as +Table A (clause 71 of the revised Table). The powers, whether general or +specific, thus confided to directors are in the nature of a trust, and +the directors must exercise them with a single eye to the benefit of the +company. For instance, in allotting shares they must consult the +interests of the company, not favour their friends. So in forfeiting +shares they must not use the power collusively for the purpose of +relieving the shareholder from liability. To do so is an abuse of the +power and a fraud on the other shareholders. + +It would give a very erroneous idea of the position and functions of +directors to speak of them--as is sometimes done--as trustees. They are +only trustees in the sense that every agent is. They are "commercial men +managing a trading concern for the benefit of themselves and the other +shareholders." They have to carry on the company's business, to extend +and consolidate it, and to do this they must have a free hand and a +large discretion to deal with the exigencies of the commercial +situation. This large discretion the law allows them so long as they +keep within the limits set by the company's memorandum and articles. +They are not to be held liable for mere errors of judgment, still less +for being defrauded. That would make their position intolerable. All +that the law requires of them is that they should be faithful to their +duties as agents--"diligent and honest," to use the words of Sir George +Jessel, formerly master of the rolls. Thus in the matter of diligence it +is a director's duty to attend as far as possible all meetings of the +board; at the same time non-attendance, unless gross, will not amount to +negligence such as to render a director liable for irregularities +committed by his co-directors in his absence. A director again must not +sign cheques without informing himself of the purpose for which they are +given. A director, on the same principle, must not delegate his duties +to others unless expressly authorized to do so, as where the company's +articles empower the directors to appoint a committee. Directors may, it +is true, employ skilled persons, such as engineers, valuers or +accountants, to assist them, but they must still exercise their judgment +as business men on the materials before them. Then in the matter of +honesty, a director must not accept a present in cash or shares or in +any other form whatever from the company's vendor, because such a +present is neither more nor less than a bribe to betray the interests of +the company, nor must he make any profit in the matter of his agency +without the knowledge and consent of his principal, the company. He must +not, in other words, put himself in a position in which his duty to the +company and his own interest conflict or even may conflict. This rule +often comes into play in the case of contracts between a company and a +director. There is nothing in itself invalid in such a contract, but the +onus is on the director if he would keep such a contract to show that +the company assented to his making a profit out of the contract, and for +that purpose he must show that he made full and fair disclosure to the +company of the nature and extent of his interest under the contract. It +is for this reason that when a company's vendor is also a director he +does not join the board until his co-directors have exercised an +independent judgment on the propriety of the purchase. + +A director must also bear in mind--what is a fundamental principle of +company management--that the funds of the company are entrusted to the +directors for the objects of the company as defined by the company's +memorandum of association and authorized by the general law, and that +they must not be diverted from those objects or applied to purposes +which are outside the objects of the company, _ultra vires_, as it is +commonly called, or outside the powers of management given by the +shareholders to the directors. This does not abridge the large +discretion allowed to directors in carrying on the business of the +company. The funds embarked in a trading company are intended to be +employed for the acquisition of gain, and risk, greater or less +according to circumstances, is necessarily incidental to such +employment; but it is quite another matter when directors pay dividends +out of capital, or return capital to the shareholders, or spend money of +the company in "rigging" the market, or in buying the company's shares +or paying commission for underwriting the shares of the company except +where such commission is authorized under acts of 1900 and 1907, +incorporated in the Companies Act 1908. Directors who in these or any +other ways misapply the funds of the company are guilty of what is +technically known as "misfeasance" or breach of trust, and all who join +in the misapplication are jointly and severally liable to replace the +sums so misapplied. The remedy of the company for misfeasance, if the +company is a going concern, is by action against the delinquent +directors; but where a company is being wound up, the legislature has, +under the Winding-up Act 1890, provided a summary mode of proceeding, by +which the official receiver or liquidator, or any creditor or +contributory of the company, may take out what is known as a misfeasance +summons, to compel the delinquent director or officer to repay the +misapplied moneys or make compensation. The departmental committee of +the Board of Trade in its report (July 1906) recommended that the court +should be given a discretionary power, analogous to that it already +possesses in the case of trustees under the Judicial Trustees Act 1896, +s. 3, to relieve a director (or a promoter) in certain cases from +liability. This recommendation has been given effect to by s. 279 of the +Companies Act 1908, which provides that, "If in any proceeding against a +director of a company for negligence or breach of trust it appears to a +court that the director is or may be liable in respect of the negligence +or breach of trust, but has acted honestly and reasonably and ought +fairly to be excused for the negligence or breach of trust, the court +may relieve him either wholly or partly from his liability on such terms +as the court may think proper." + +Directors who circulate a prospectus containing statements which they +know to be false, with intent to induce any person to become a +shareholder, may be prosecuted under S 84 of the Larceny Act 1861. They +are also liable criminally for falsification of the company's books, and +for this or any other criminal offence the court in winding up may, on +the application of the liquidator, direct a prosecution. As to the +liability of directors for statements or omissions in a prospectus see +COMPANY. + +In managing the affairs of the company directors must meet together and +act as a body, for the company is entitled to their collective wisdom in +council assembled. Board meetings are held at such intervals as the +directors think expedient. Notice of the meeting must be given to all +directors who are within reach, but the notice need not specify the +particular business to be transacted. The articles usually fix, or give +the directors power to fix, what number shall constitute a quorum for a +board meeting. They also empower the directors to elect a chairman of +the board. The directors exercise their powers by a resolution of the +board which is recorded in the directors' minute-book. + +The court will not as a rule interfere with the discretion of directors +honestly exercised in the management of the affairs of the company. The +directors have prima facie the confidence of the shareholders, and it is +not for the court to say that such confidence is misplaced. If the +stockholders are dissatisfied with the management the remedy is in their +own hands--they can call a meeting and elect a new board. + +A company's articles usually provide for the payment of a certain sum to +each director for his services during the year. When this is the case it +is an authority to the directors to pay themselves the amount of such +remuneration. The remuneration, unless otherwise expressly provided, +covers all expenses incidental to the directors' duties. A director, for +instance, cannot claim to be paid in addition to his fixed remuneration +his travelling expenses for attending board meetings. + +When a company winds up, the directors' powers of management come to an +end. Their agency is superseded in favour of that of the liquidator. + (E. MA.) + + + + +DIRECTORY, a term meaning literally that which guides or directs, and so +applied to a book or set of rules giving directions for public worship. +The _directorium_ or _ordo_ of the Roman Church contains regulations as +to the Mass and office to be used on each day throughout the year, and +the word is found in the _Directory for the Publick Worship of God_ +drawn up in 1644 at the Westminster Assembly. The term now usually +signifies a book containing the names, addresses and occupations, &c. of +the inhabitants of a town or district, or of a similar list of the users +of a telephone supply, or of the members of a particular profession or +trade. The name _Directoire_ or Directory was given to the body which +held the executive power in France from October 1795 until November 1799 +(see FRENCH REVOLUTION). + + + + +DIRGE, a song or hymn of mourning, particularly one sung at funerals or +at a Service in commemoration of the dead. It is derived from the first +word of the antiphon _"Dirige, Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam +meam"_ (Guide, O Lord, my God, my way in Thy sight), of the opening +psalm in the office for the dead in the Roman Church. The antiphon is +adapted from verse 8 of Psalm v. + + + + +DIRK, a dagger, particularly the heavy dagger carried by the Highlanders +of Scotland. The dirk as worn in full Highland costume is an elaborately +ornamented weapon, with cairngorms or other stones set in the head of +the handle, which has no guard. Inserted in the sheath there may be two +small knives. The dirk, in the shape of a straight blade, with a small +guard, some 18 in. long, is worn by midshipmen in the British navy. The +origin of the word is doubtful. The earlier forms were _dork_ and +_durk_, and the spelling _dirk_, adopted by Johnson, represents the +pronunciation of the second form. The name seems to have been early +applied to the daggers of the Highlanders, but the Gaelic word is +_biodag_, and the Irish _duirc_, often stated to be the origin, is only +an adaptation of the English word. It may be a corruption of the German +_Dolch_, a dagger. The suggestion that it is an application of the +Christian name "Dirk," the short form of "Dieterich," is not borne out, +according to the _New English Dictionary_, by any use of this name for a +dagger, and is further disproved by the earlier English spelling. + + + + +DIRSCHAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, province of West +Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 20 m. S. from Danzig and at +the junction of the important lines of railway Berlin-Konigsberg and +Danzig-Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 14,185. It has a Roman Catholic and a +Protestant church and several schools. The river is here crossed by two +fine iron bridges. The older structure dating from the year 1857, +originally used for the railway, is now given up to road traffic, and +the railway carried by a new bridge completed in 1891. Dirschau has +railway workshops and manufactories of sugar, agricultural implements +and cement. During the war with Poland, Gustavus Adolphus made it his +headquarters for many months after its capture in 1626. + + + + +DISABILITY, a term meaning, in general, want of ability, and used in law +to denote an incapacity in certain persons or classes of persons for the +full enjoyment of duties or privileges, which, but for their +disqualification, would be open to them; hence, legal disqualification. +Thus, married women, persons under age, insane persons, convicted felons +are under disability to do certain legal acts. This disability may be +absolute, wholly disabling the person so long as it continues, or +partial, ceasing on discontinuation of the disabling state, as +attainment of full age. + + + + +DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. _descharge_, modern _decharge_, from +a med. Lat. _discargare_, to unload, _dis-_ and _carricare_, to load, +cf. "charge"), a word meaning relief from a load or burden, hence +applied to the unloading of a ship, the firing of a weapon, the passage +of electricity from an electrified body, the issue from a wound, &c. +From the sense of relief from an obligation, "discharge" is also applied +to the release of a soldier or sailor from military or naval service, or +of the crew of a merchant vessel, or to the dismissal from an office or +situation. In law, it is used of a document or other evidence that can +be accepted as proof of the release from an obligation, as of a receipt, +on payment of money due. Similarly it is applied to the release in +accordance with law of a person in custody on a criminal charge, and to +the legal release of a bankrupt from further liability for debts +provable in the bankruptcy except those incurred by fraud or debts to +the crown. It is also applied to the reversal of an order of a court. In +the case of divorce, where the rule _nisi_ is not made absolute, the +rule is said to be discharged. + + + + +DISCHARGING ARCH, in architecture, an arch built over a lintel or +architrave to take off the superincumbent weight. The earliest example +is found in the Great Pyramid, over the lintels of the entrance passage +to the tomb: it consisted of two stones only, resting one against the +other. The same object was attained in the Lion Gate and the tomb of +Agamemnon, both in Mycenae, and in other examples in Greece, where the +stones laid in horizontal courses, one projecting over the other, left a +triangular hollow space above the lintel of the door, which was +subsequently filled in by vertical sculptured stone panels. The Romans +frequently employed the discharging arch, and inside the portico of the +Pantheon the architraves have such arches over them. In the Golden +Gateway of the palace of Diocletian at Spalato the discharging arches, +semicircular in form, were adopted as architectural features and +decorated with mouldings. The same is found in the synagogues in +Palestine of the 2nd century; and later, in Byzantine architecture, +these moulded archivolts above an architrave constitute one of the +characteristics of the style. In the early Christian churches in Rome, +where a colonnade divided off the nave and aisles, discharging arches +are turned in the frieze just above the architraves. + + + + +DISCIPLE, properly a pupil, scholar (Lat. _discipulus_, from _discere_, +to learn, and root seen in _pupillus_), but chiefly used of the personal +followers of Jesus Christ, including the inner circle of the Apostles +(q.v.). + + + + +DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or CHRISTIANS, an American Protestant denomination, +founded by Thomas Campbell, his son Alexander Campbell (q.v.) and Barton +Warren Stone (1772-1844). Stone had been a Presbyterian minister +prominent in the Kentucky revival of 1801, but had been turned against +sectarianism and ecclesiastical authority because the synod had +condemned Richard McNemar, one of his colleagues in the revival, for +preaching (as Stone himself had done) counter to the Westminster +Confession, on faith and the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion. He +had organized the Springfield Presbytery, but in 1804 with his five +fellow ministers signed "The Last Will and Testament of the Springfield +Presbytery," giving up that name and calling themselves "Christians." +Like Stone, Alexander Campbell had adopted (in 1812) immersion, and, +like him, his two great desires were for Christian unity and the +restoration of the ancient order of things. But the Campbellite +doctrines differed widely from the hyper-Calvinism of the Baptists whom +they had joined in 1813, especially on the points on which Stone had +quarrelled with the Presbyterians; and after various local breaks in +1825-1830, when there were large additions to the Restorationists from +the Baptist ranks, especially under the apostolic fervour and +simplicity of the preaching of Walter Scott (1796-1861), in 1832 the +Reformers were practically all ruled out of the Baptist communion. The +Campbells gradually lost sight of Christian unity, owing to the +unfortunate experience with the Baptists and to the tone taken by those +clergymen who had met them in debates; and for the sake of Christian +union it was peculiarly fortunate that in January 1832 at Lexington, +Kentucky, the followers of the Campbells and those of Stone (who had +stressed union more than primitive Christianity) united. Campbell +objected to the name "Christians" as sectarianized by Stone, but +"Disciples" never drove out of use the name "Christians." + +During the Civil War the denomination escaped an actual scission by +following the neutral views of Campbell, who opposed slavery, war and +abolition. In 1849 the American Christian Missionary Society was formed; +it was immediately attacked as a "human innovation," unwarranted by the +New Testament, by literalists led in later years by Benjamin Franklin +(secretary of the missionary society in 1857), who opposed all church +music also. Isaac Errett (1820-1888) was the most prominent leader of +the progressive party, which was considered corrupt and worldly by the +literalists, many of whom, in spite of his efforts, broke off from the +main body, especially in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas and +Texas. + +The main body appointed in 1890 a standing committee on Christian union; +their aim in this respect is not for absorption, as was clearly shown by +their answer in 1887 to overtures from the Protestant Episcopal Church +regarding Christian unity. The credal position of the Disciples is +simple: great stress is put upon the phrase "the Christ, the Son of the +living God," and upon the recognition by Jesus of this confession as the +foundation of His church; as to baptism, agreement with Baptists is only +as to the mode, immersion; this is considered "the primitive confession +of Christ and a gracious token of salvation," and as being "for the +remission of sins"; the Disciples generally deny the authority over +Christians of the Old Covenant, and Alexander Campbell in particular +held this view so forcibly that he was accused by Baptists of "throwing +away the Old Testament." The Lord's Supper is celebrated every Sunday, +the bread being broken by the communicants. The Disciples are not +Unitarian in fact or tendency, but they urge the use of simple New +Testament phraseology as to the Godhead. Their church government is +congregational. + + The growth of the denomination has been greatest in the states along + the Ohio river, whence they have spread throughout the Union. In 1908 + there were 6673 ministers and 1,285,123 communicants in the United + States. There are churches in Canada, in Great Britain and in + Australia. Bethany College, at Bethany, West Virginia, was chartered + in 1840, and Alexander Campbell, who had founded it as Buffalo + Seminary, was its president until his death in 1866; other colleges + founded by the sect are: Kentucky University, Lexington, Ky.; Hiram + College, Hiram, Ohio (1850, until 1867 known as Western Reserve + Eclectic Institute); Butler College, Indianapolis, Indiana (1855); + Christian University, Canton, Missouri (1851; coeducational); Eureka + College, in Woodford county, Illinois (1855; coeducational); Union + Christian College, Merom, Ind. (1859); Texas Christian University, + Waco, Texas (1873, founded as Add Ran College at Thorpe's Springs, + removing to Waco in 1895); Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa (1881); + Milligan College, Milligan, Tennessee (1882); Defiance College, + Defiance, O. (1885); Cotner University, Lincoln, Nebraska (1889); Elon + College, Elon, North Carolina (1890); American University, Harriman, + Tenn. (1893); the Virginia Christian College, Lynchburg, Virginia + (1903), and for negroes, the Southern Christian Institute, Edwards, + Mississippi (1877), and the Christian Bible College, Newcastle, Henry + County, Ky. Theological seminaries are the Berkeley Bible Seminary, + Berkeley, California (1896); the Disciples' Divinity House, Chicago, + Ill. (1894); and the Eugene Divinity School, Eugene, Oregon (1895). + "Bible chairs" were established in state universities and elsewhere by + the Disciples,--at the University of Michigan (1893), at the + University of Virginia (1899), at the University of Calcutta (1900) + and at the University of Kansas (1901). The denomination has + publishing houses in Cincinnati, St Louis, Louisville and Nashville. + + See Errett Gates's _History of the Disciples of Christ_ (New York, + 1905), in "The Story of the Churches" series, and his _Early Relation + and Separation of Baptists and Disciples_ (Chicago, 1904), a + University of Chicago doctoral thesis; and B. B. Tyler's _History of + the Disciples of Christ_ in vol. xii. of "The American Church History + Series" (New York, 1894). + + + + +DISCLAIMER, a renunciation, denial or refusal; a disavowal of claims. In +law the term is used more particularly in the following senses:--(1) In +the law of landlord and tenant, the direct repudiation of that relation +by some act on the part of the tenant. A disclaimer may be verbal or +written, but in such case it must be something more than a mere +renunciation of the tenant's title, or it may be an act which is wholly +inconsistent with the existence of such relation, as the setting up by +the tenant of a distinct title either in himself or some third party. +(2) In the law of bankruptcy, where any part of the property of a +bankrupt consists of land of any tenure burdened with onerous covenants, +of stocks or shares in companies, of unprofitable contracts, or of any +property that is unsaleable, or not readily saleable, by reason of its +binding the possessor to the performance of any onerous act, the +trustee, notwithstanding that he has endeavoured to sell or has taken +possession of the property, or exercised any act of ownership in +relation to it, may, subject to certain provisions, by writing signed by +him, at any time within twelve months after the first appointment of a +trustee, "disclaim" the property (see BANKRUPTCY). (3) In the law of +trusts, disclaimer is the refusal or renunciation of the office or +duties of a trustee. It is an undisputed rule that no one is compellable +to undertake a trust, so that as soon as a person knows he has been +appointed a trustee under some instrument, he should determine whether +he will accept the office or not. Disclaimer of trust should be by deed, +as admitting of no ambiguity, but it may be by conveyance to other +accepting trustees, or orally, or by written declaration, or even by +conduct. (4) In the law of patents, disclaimer is the renunciation, by +amendment of specifications, of the portion of an inventor's claim to +protection. + + + + +DISCOUNT. (1) A money-market term for the price paid in order to obtain +immediate realization of a bill not yet due. If a bill for L100 due six +months hence is discounted at the rate of 3% per annum, its holder will +obtain L98, 10s. in cash for it. (2) A Stock-Exchange term applied to a +security, not fully paid, which has fallen below its issue price, and so +is said to stand at so much discount. See PREMIUM. + + + + +DISCOVERY, in law, the revealing or disclosing of any matter. The +English common law courts were originally unable to compel a litigant +before a trial to disclose the facts and documents on which he relied. +In equity, however, a different rule prevailed, there being an absolute +right to discovery of all material facts on which a case was founded. +Now the practice is regulated by the Rules of the Supreme Court, 1883, +Order 31. Discovery is of two kinds, namely, by interrogatories and by +affidavit of documents, provision being also made for the production and +inspection of documents. Where a party to a suit can make an affidavit +stating that in his belief certain specified documents are or have been +in the possession of some other party, the court may make an order that +such party state on affidavit whether he has or ever had any of those +documents in his possession, or if he has parted with them or what has +become of them. A further application may then be made by notice to the +party who has admitted possession of the documents for production and +inspection. Copies also may be taken of the more important documents. +There is also discovery of facts obtained by means of interrogatories, +i.e. written questions addressed on behalf of one party, before trial, +to the other party, who is bound to answer them in writing upon oath. In +order to prevent needless expense the party seeking discovery must first +secure the cost of it by paying into court a sum of money, generally not +less than five pounds. See also EVIDENCE. + + + + +DISCUS (Gr. [Greek: diskos], disk), a circular plate of stone, later of +metal, which was used by the ancient Greeks for throwing to a distance +as a gymnastic exercise. Judging from specimens found by excavators, the +ancient discus was about 8 or 9 in. in diameter and weighed from 4 to 5 +lb., although one of bronze, preserved in the British Museum, weighs +over 8 lb. Sometimes a kind of quoit, spherical in form, was used, +through a hole in which a thong was passed to assist the athlete in +throwing it. The sport of throwing the discus was common in the time of +Homer, who mentions it repeatedly. It formed a part of the _pentathlon_, +or quintuple games, in the ancient Olympic Games. Statius, in _Thebais_, +646-721, fully describes the use of the discus. In the British Museum +there is a restored copy of a statue by Myron (see GREEK ART, Plate IV. +fig. 68) of a discus-thrower (_discobolus_) in the act of hurling the +missile; but the investigations of N. E. Norman Gardiner show that a +wrong attitude has been adopted by the restorer. + +Throwing the discus was introduced as an event in modern athletics at +the revived Olympic Games, first held at Athens in 1896, and since that +time it has become a recognized event in the athletic championship +meetings of several European nations, as well as in the United States, +where it has become very popular. According to the American rules the +discus must be of a smooth, hard-wood body without finger-holes, +weighted in the centre with lead disks and capped with polished brass +disks, with a steel ring on the outside. Its weight must be 4-1/2 lb., +its outside diameter 8 in. and its thickness at the centre 2 in. It must +be thrown from a 7-ft. circle, which may not be overstepped in throwing, +and the throw is measured from the spot where the discus first strikes +the ground to the point in the circumference of the circle on a line +between the centre and the point of striking. + + + + +DISINFECTANTS, substances employed to neutralize the action of +pathogenic organisms, and prevent the spread of contagious or infectious +disease. The efficiency of any disinfectant is due to its power of +destroying, or of rendering inert, specific poisons or disease germs. +Therefore antiseptic substances generally are to this extent +disinfectants. So also the deodorizers, which act by oxidizing or +otherwise changing the chemical constitution of volatile substances +disseminated in the air, or which prevent noxious exhalations from +organic substances, are in virtue of these properties effective +disinfectants in certain diseases. A knowledge of the value of +disinfectants, and the use of some of the most valuable agents, can be +traced to very remote times; and much of the Levitical law of cleansing, +as well as the origin of numerous heathen ceremonial practices, are +clearly based on a perception of the value of disinfection. The means of +disinfection, and the substances employed, are very numerous, as are the +classes and conditions of disease and contagion they are designed to +meet. Nature, in the oxidizing influence of freely circulating +atmospheric air, in the purifying effect of water, and in the powerful +deodorizing properties of common earth, has provided the most potent +ever-present and acting disinfecting media. Of the artificial +disinfectants employed or available three classes may be +recognized:--1st, volatile or vaporizable substances, which attack +impurities in the air; 2nd, chemical agents, for acting on the diseased +body or on the infectious discharges therefrom; and 3rd, the physical +agencies of heat and cold. In some of these cases the destruction of the +contagium is effected by the formation of new chemical compounds, by +oxidation, deoxidation or other reaction, and in others the conditions +favourable to life are removed or life is destroyed by high temperature. +Among the first class, aerial or gaseous disinfectants, formic aldehyde +has of late years taken foremost place. The vapour is a powerful +disinfectant and deodorant, and for the surface disinfection of rooms, +fulfils all requirements when used in sufficient amount. It acts more +rapidly than equal quantities of sulphurous acid, and it does not affect +colours. It is non-poisonous, though irritating to the eyes and throat. +With the exception of iron and steel it does not attack metals. It can +be obtained in paraform tabloids, and with a specially constructed +spirit lamp disinfection can be carried out by any one. Twenty tabloids +must be employed for every 1000 cubic ft. of space. Disinfection by +sulphurous acid fumes is of great antiquity, and is still in very +general use; for the purpose of destroying vermin it is more powerful +than formic aldehyde. Camphor and some volatile oils have also been +employed as air disinfectants, but their virtues lie chiefly in masking, +not destroying, noxious effluvia. In the 2nd class--non-gaseous +disinfecting compounds--all the numerous antiseptic substances may be +reckoned; but the substances principally employed in practice are +oxidizing agents, as potassium manganates and permanganates, "Condy's +fluid," and solutions of the so-called "chlorides of lime," soda and +potash, with the chlorides of aluminium and zinc, soluble sulphates and +sulphites, solutions of sulphurous acid, and the tar products--carbolic, +cresylic and salicylic acids. Of the physical agents heat and cold, the +latter, though a powerful natural disinfectant, is not practically +available by artificial means; heat is a power chiefly relied on for +purifying and disinfecting clothes, bedding and textile substances +generally. Different degrees of temperature are required for the +destruction of the virus of various diseases; but as clothing, &c., can +be exposed to a heat of about 250 deg. Fahr. without injury, provision is +made for submitting articles to nearly that temperature. For the +thorough disinfection of a sick-room the employment of all three classes +of disinfectants, for purifying the air, for destroying the virus at its +point of origin, and for cleansing clothing, &c., may be required. + + + + +DISMAL, an adjective meaning dreary, gloomy, and so a name given to +stretches of swampy land on the east coast of the United States, as the +Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Carolina. The derivation has been +much discussed. In the early examples of the use the word is a +substantive, especially in the expression "in the dismal," i.e. in the +dismal time or days. Later it became adjectival, especially in +combination with "days." It has been connected with "decimal," med. +Latin _decimalis_, belonging to a tithe or tenth, and thus the "dismal +days" are the unpleasant days connected with the extortion and +oppression of exacting payment of tithes. According to the _New English +Dictionary_, quoting Professor W. W. Skeat, "dismal" is derived, through +an Anglo-Fr. _dis mal_, from the Lat. _dies mali_, evil or unpropitious +days. This Anglo-French expression, explained as _les mal jours_, is +found in a MS. of Rauf de Linham's _Art de Kalender_, 1256. These days +of evil omen were known as _Dies Aegyptiaci_ (Du Cange, _Glossarium_, +s.v.) or Egyptian days, either as having been instituted by Egyptian +astrologers or with reference to the "ten plagues"; so Chaucer, "I trowe +hit was in the dismal, That were the ten woundes of Egipte" (_Book of +the Duchesse_, 1206). There were two such days in each month. + + See Skeat, Trans. _Philol. Soc._ (1888), p. 2, and note on the line in + the "Book of the Duchesse," _The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer_, + vol. i. (1894). + + + + +DISORDERLY HOUSE, in law, a house in which the conduct of its inmates is +such as to become a public nuisance, or a house where persons congregate +to the probable disturbance of the public peace or other commission of +crime. In England, by the Disorderly Houses Act 1751, the term includes +common bawdy houses or brothels,[1] common gaming houses, common betting +houses and disorderly places of entertainment. The keeping of such is a +misdemeanour punishable by fine or imprisonment, and in the case of a +brothel also punishable on summary conviction by the Criminal Law +Amendment Act 1885; the letting out for gain for indiscriminate +prostitution of a room or rooms in a house will make it as much a +brothel in law as if the whole house were let out for the purpose. +Where, however, a woman occupies a house or room which is frequented by +men for the purpose of committing fornication with her, she cannot be +convicted of keeping a disorderly house. See also PROSTITUTION. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The etymology of this word has been confused by the early + adoption into English usage of the O. Fr. _bordel_. The two words are + in origin quite distinct. Brothel is an O. Eng. word for a person, + not a place. It meant an abandoned vagabond, one who had gone to ruin + (_abreothan_). _Bordel_, on the contrary, is a place, literally a + small hut or shelter, especially for fornication, Med. Lat. + _bordellum_, diminutive of the Late Lat. _borda_, board. The words + were early confused, and brothel-house, bordel-house, bordel or + brothel, are all used for a disorderly house, while bordel was + similarly misused, and, like brothel in its proper meaning, was + applied to a disorderly person. + + + + +DISPATCH, or DESPATCH, to send off immediately, or by express; +particularly in the case of the sending of official messages, or of the +immediate sending of troops to their destination, or the like. The word +is thus used as a substantive of written official reports of events, +battles and the like, sent by ambassadors, generals, &c., by means of a +special messenger, or of express correspondence generally. From the +primary meaning of the prompt sending of a message, &c., the word is +used of the quick disposal of business, or of the disposal of a person +by violence; hence the word means to execute or murder. The etymology of +the word has been obscured by the connexion with the Fr. _depecher_, and +_depeche_, which are in meaning the equivalents of the Eng. verb and +substantive. The Fr. word is made up of the prefix _de-_, Lat. _dis-_, +and the root which appears in _empecher_, to embarrass, and means +literally to disentangle. The Lat. origin of _depecher_ and _empecher_ +is a Low Lat. _pedicare_, _pedica_, a fetter. The Fr. word came into +Eng. as _depeach_, which was in use from the 15th century until +"despatch" was introduced. This word is certainly direct from the Ital. +_dispacciare_, or Span, _despachar_, which must be derived from the Lat. +root appearing in _pactus_, fixed, fastened, from _pangere_. The _New +English Dictionary_ finds the earliest instance of "dispatch" in a +letter to Henry VIII. from Bishop Tunstall, commissioner to Spain in +1516-1517. + + + + +DISPENSATION, a term with two main applications, (1) to the action of +administering, arranging or dealing out, and (2) to the action of +allowing certain things, rules, &c., to be done away with, relaxed. Of +these two meanings the first is to be derived from the classical Latin +use of _dispensare_, literally, to weigh out, hence to distribute, +especially of the orderly arrangement of a household by a steward; thus +_dispensatio_ was, in theology, the word chosen to translate the Greek +[Greek: oikonomia], economy, i.e. divine or religious systems, as in the +Jewish, Mosaic, Christian dispensations. Dispensation in law is, +strictly speaking, the suspension by competent authority of general +rules of law in particular cases. Its object is to modify the hardships +often arising from the rigorous application of general laws to +particular cases, and its essence is to preserve the law by suspending +its operation, i.e. making it non-existent, in such cases. It follows, +then, that dispensation, in its strict sense, is anticipative, i.e. it +does not absolve from the consequences of a legal obligation already +contracted, but avoids a breach of the law by suspending the obligation +to conform to it, e.g. a dispensation or licence to marry within the +prohibited degrees, or to hold benefices in plurality. The term is, +however, frequently used of the power claimed and exercised by the +supreme legislative authority of altering or abrogating in particular +cases conditions established under the existing law and of releasing +individuals from obligations incurred under it, e.g. dispensations +granted by the pope _ex plenitudine potestatis_ from the obligation of +celibacy, from religious and other vows, from _matrimonium ratum_, _non +consummatum_, &c. + +1. _Ecclesiastical Law._--In the theory of the canon law the dispensing +power is the corollary of the legislative, the authority that makes +laws, and no other, having power to suspend them. It follows that the +law of nature (_jus naturae_) and _a fortiori_ the law of God (_jus +divinum_) are not subject to dispensation of any earthly authority, and +that it is only the disciplinary laws made by the Church that the Church +is empowered to suspend or to abrogate. Thus, not even the pope could +grant a dispensation for a marriage between persons related in the +direct line of ascent or descent, e.g. father and daughter, or between +brother and sister, while dispensations are granted for marriages within +other prohibited degrees, e.g. uncle and niece. + +The dispensing power, like the legislative authority, was formerly +invested in general councils and even in provincial synods; but in the +West, with the gradual centralization of authority at Rome, it became +ultimately vested in the pope as the supreme lawgiver of the Church. +Subject, however, to the supreme jurisdiction of the pope, the power of +dispensation continued to reside in the other organs of the Church in +exact proportion to their legislative capacities, i.e. in provincial +synods in respect of regional rules laid down by them, and in bishops in +respect of rules laid down by them for their dioceses. According to Du +Cange, the earliest record of the use of the word _dispensatio_ in this +connexion is in the letter of Pope Gelasius I. of the 11th of March 494, +to the bishops of Lucania (in Jaffe, _Reg. Pont. Rom._, ed. 2, tom. i. +no. 636): necessaria rerum Dispensatione constringimur, ... sic canonum +paternorum decreta librare, ... ut quae praesentium necessitas temporum +restaurandis Ecclesiis relaxanda deposcit, adhibita consideratione +diligenti, quantum fieri potest temperemus.[1] Dispensations from the +observance of traditional rules were, however, during the early +centuries exceedingly rare, and there are more instances of the popes +repudiating than of their exercising the power to grant them. Thus +Celestine I. (d. 432) wrote: "The rules govern us, not we the rules: we +are subject to the canons, since we are the servants of the precepts of +the canons" (_Epist. 3 ad Episcopos Illyrici_); and Pope Zozimus wrote +even more strongly: "This see possesses no authority to make any +concession or change; for with us abides antiquity firmly rooted +(_inconvulsis radicibus_), reverence for which the decrees of the +Fathers enjoined." As time went on, however, and the Church expanded, +this rigidly conservative attitude proved impossible to maintain, and +the principle of "tempering" the law when forced to do so "by the +exigencies of affairs or of the times" (_rerum vel temporum angustia_), +as laid down by Gelasius, was adopted into the canon law itself. The +principle was, of course, singularly open to abuse. In theory it was +laid down from the first that dispensations were only to be granted in +cases of urgent necessity and in the highest interests of the Church; in +practice, from the 11th century onwards, the power of dispensation was +used by the popes as one of the most potent instruments for extending +their influence. Dispensations to hold benefices in plurality formed, +with provisions and the papal claim to the right of direct appointment, +a powerful means for extending the patronage of the Holy See and +therefore its hold over the clergy, and from the 13th century onwards +this abuse assumed vast proportions (Hinschius iii. p. 250). Even more +scandalous was the almost unrestrained traffic in licences and +dispensations at Rome, which grew up, at least as early as the 14th +century, owing to the fees charged for such dispensations having come to +be regarded by the Curia as a regular source of revenue (Woker, _Das +kirchliche Finanzwesen der Papste_, Nordlingen, 1878, pp. 75, 160). Loud +complaints of these abuses were raised in the reforming councils of +Constance and Basel in the 15th century, but nothing was done +effectually to check them. + +The actual practice of the Roman Catholic Church is based upon the +decisions of the council of Trent, which left the medieval theory intact +while endeavouring to guard against its abuses. The proposal put forward +by the Gallican and Spanish bishops to subordinate the papal power of +dispensation to the consent of the Church in general council was +rejected, and even the canons of the council of Trent itself, in so far +as they affected reformation of morals or ecclesiastical discipline, +were decreed "saving the authority of the Holy See" (_Sess._ xxv. cap. +21, de ref.). At the same time it was laid down in respect of all +dispensations, whether papal or other, that they were to be granted only +for just and urgent causes, or in view of some decided benefit to the +Church (urgens justaque causa et major quandoque utilitas), and in all +cases _gratis_. The payment of money for a dispensation was _ipso facto_ +to make the dispensation void (_Sess._ xxv. cap. 18, de ref.). + +Though verbal dispensations are valid, papal dispensations are given in +writing. Before the constitution _Sapienti_ of Pius X. (1908) all +dispensations in _foro externo_, especially in matrimonial causes, were +dealt with by the Dataria Apostolica, those _in foro interno_ by the +Penitentiary, which latter also possessed _in foro externo_ the right to +grant dispensations in matrimonial causes to poor people. Since 1908 the +Dataria only deals with dispensations in matters concerning benefices, +dispensations in matrimonial matters having been transferred to the new +Congregation on the discipline of the sacraments (see CURIA ROMANA). + +The regular form of dispensation is the _forma commissaria_ (_Trid. +Sess._ xxii. cap. 5, de ref.), i.e. a mandate to the bishop to grant the +dispensation, after due inquiry, in the pope's name. In exceptional +cases, e.g. sovereigns or bishops, the dispensation is sent direct to +the petitioner (_forma gratiosa_). Dispensations are nominally +gratuitous; but the officials are entitled to fees for drawing them up, +and there are customary "compositions" (_compositiones_) which are +destined for charitable objects in Rome. These fees were and are +regulated according to the capacity of the petitioners to pay, the +result being that the abuses which the council of Trent had sought to +abolish continued to flourish. In the 17th century a specially +privileged class of bankers (_banquiers expeditionnaires_) existed at +Rome whose sole business was obtaining dispensations on commission, and +one of these, named Pelletier, published at Paris in 1677, under the +royal _imprimatur_, a regular tariff of the sums for which in any given +case a dispensation might be obtained. That the "urgent and just cause" +was, in the circumstances, a very minor consideration was to be +expected, and the enlightened pope Benedict XIV., himself a canon lawyer +of eminence, complained "Dispensationem non raro concedi in Dataria, +sine causa, nempe ob eleemosynam quae praestatur" (Inst. 87, No. 26). It +may be added that the worst abuses of this system have long since +disappeared. The bishops have their own correspondents at Rome, and one +of the duties of the diplomatic representatives of foreign states at the +Curia is to see that their nationals receive their dispensations without +overcharge. + +Bishops are by right (_jure ordinario_) competent to dispense in all +cases expressly reserved to them by the canon law, e.g. in the matter of +publication of banns of marriage. They possess besides special powers +delegated to them by the pope and renewed every five years (_facultates +quinquennales_), or by virtue of faculties granted to them personally +(_facultates extraordinariae_), e.g. to dispense from rules of +abstinence, from simple vows, and with some exceptions from the +prohibition of marriage within prohibited degrees. + +_Church of England._--By 25 Henry VIII. cap. 21. sec 2 (1534), it was +enacted that neither the king, his successors, nor any of his subjects +should henceforth sue for licences, dispensations, &c., to the see of +Rome, and that the power to issue such licences, dispensations, &c., +"for causes not being contrary or repugnant to the Holy Scriptures and +laws of God," should be vested in the archbishop of Canterbury for the +time being, who at his own discretion was to issue such dispensations, +&c., under his seal, to the king and his subjects. The power of +dispensation thus vested in the archbishops partly fell obsolete, partly +has been curtailed by subsequent statutes, e.g. the Pluralities Act of +1838. It is now confined to granting dispensations for holding two +benefices at once, to issuing licences for non-residence, and in +matrimonial cases to the issuing of special licences. The dispensing +power of bishops in the Church of England survives only in the right to +grant marriage licences, i.e. dispensations from the obligation to +publish the banns. Though, however, these licences and dispensations are +given under the archiepiscopal and episcopal seals, they are actually +issued by the commissaries of faculties and vicars-general +(chancellors), independently, in virtue of the powers conferred on them +by their patents. This has led, since the passing of the Divorce Acts +and the Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister Act, to a curiously +anomalous position, licences for the remarriage of divorced persons +having been issued under the bishop's seal, while the bishop himself +publicly protested that such marriages were contrary to "the law of +God," but that he himself had no power to prevent his chancellor +licensing them. + + See Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_ (Berlin, 1883), iii. 250, &c.; article + "Dispensation" by Hinschius in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ + (Leipzig, 1898); article "Dispensation" in Wetzer and Welte's + _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed. Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882-1901); F. + Lichtenberger, _Encyclopedie des sciences religieuses_ (Paris, 1878), + s.v. "Dispense"; Phillimore, _Eccl. Law_. + +2. _Constitutional Law._--The power of dispensation from the operation +of the ordinary law in particular cases is, of course, everywhere +inherent in the supreme legislative authority, however rarely it may be +exercised. Divorce (in Ireland) by act of parliament may be taken as an +example which still actually occurs. On the other hand, the dispensing +power once vested in the crown in England is now merely of historical +interest, though of great importance in the constitutional struggles of +the past. This power possessed by the crown of dispensing with the +statute law is said to have been copied from the dispensations or non +obstante clauses granted by the popes in matters of canon law; the +parallel between them is certainly very striking, and there can be no +doubt that the principles of the canon law influenced the decisions of +the courts in the matter. It was, for instance, very generally laid down +that the king could by dispensation make it lawful to do what was _malum +prohibitum_ but not to do what was _malum in se_, a principle of the +canon law, but one difficult to reconcile with English legal principles, +since no act is legally _malum_ unless forbidden by law. This was +pointed out by Chief Justice Vaughan in the celebrated judgment in the +case of _Thomas_ v. _Sorrell_, when he rejected the distinction between +_mala in se_ and _mala prohibita_ as confusing, and attempted to define +the dispensing power of the crown by limiting it to cases of individual +breaches of penal statutes where no third party loses a right of action, +and where the breach is not continuous, at the same time denying the +power of the crown to dispense with any general penal law. This +judgment, as Sir William Anson points out, only showed the extreme +difficulty of limiting the power ascribed to the crown, a standing +grievance from the time that parliament had risen to be a constituent +part of the state. So long as the legal principle by which the law was +"the king's law" survived there was in fact no theoretical basis for +such limitation, and the matter resolved itself into one of the great +constitutional questions between crown and parliament which issued in +the Revolution of 1688. The supreme crisis came owing to the use made by +James II. of the dispensing power. His action in dispensing with the +Test Act, in order to enable Roman Catholics to hold office under the +crown, was supported by the courts in the test case of _Godden_ v. +_Hales_, but it made the Revolution inevitable. By the Bill of Rights +the exercise of the dispensing power was forbidden, except as might be +permitted by statute. At the same time the legality of its exercise in +the past was admitted by the clause maintaining the validity of +dispensations granted in a certain form before the 23rd of October 1689. + + See Anson, _Law and Custom of the Constitution_, part i. "Parliament," + 3rd ed. pp. 311-319; F. W. Maitland, _Const. Hist. of England_ + (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 302, &c.; Stubbs, _Const. Hist._ ss. 290, 291. + (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] In this quotation the word _dispensatio_ still has its meaning of + "economy": "we are bound by the necessary economy of things." + Possibly its use by the pope in this connexion may have led to the + technical meaning of the word _dispensatio_ in the medieval canon + law. + + + + +DISPERSION (from Lat. _dispergere_, to scatter), the act or process of +separation and distribution. Apart from the technical use of the term, +especially in optics (see below), the expression particularly applied to +the settlements of Jews in foreign countries outside Palestine. These +were either voluntary, for purposes of trade and commerce, or the +results of conquest, such as the captivities of Assyria and Babylonia. +The word _diaspora_ (Gr. [Greek: diaspora]) is also used of these +scattered communities, but is usually confined to the dispersion among +the Hellenic and Roman peoples, or to the body of Christian Jews outside +Palestine (see JEWS). + +DISPERSION, in OPTICS. When a beam of light which is not homogeneous in +character, i.e. which does not consist of simple vibrations of a +definite wave-length, undergoes refraction at the surface of any +transparent medium, the different colours corresponding to the different +wave-lengths become separated or _dispersed_. Thus, if a ray of white +light AO (fig. 1) enters obliquely into the surface of a block of glass +at O, it gives rise to the divergent system of rays ORV, varying +continuously in colour from red to violet, the red ray OR being least +refracted and the violet ray OV most so. The order of the successive +colours in all colourless transparent media is red, orange, yellow, +green, blue, indigo and violet. Dispersion is therefore due to the fact +that rays of different colours possess different refrangibilities. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The simplest way of showing dispersion is to refract a narrow beam of +sunlight through a prism of glass or prismatic vessel containing water +or other clear liquid. As the light is twice refracted, the dispersion +is increased, and the rays, after transmission through the prism, form a +divergent system, which may be allowed to fall on a sheet of white +paper, forming the well-known solar spectrum. This method was employed +by Sir Isaac Newton, whose experiments constitute the earliest +systematic investigation of the phenomenon. Let O (fig. 2) represent a +small hole in the shutter of a darkened room, and OS a narrow beam of +sunlight which is allowed to fall on a white screen so as to form an +image of the sun at S. If now the prism P be interposed as in the +figure, the whole beam is not only refracted upward, but also spread out +into the spectrum RV, the horizontal breadth of the band of colours +being the same as that of the original image S. In an experiment similar +to that here represented, Newton made a small hole in the screen and +another small hole in a second screen placed behind the first. By +slightly turning the prism P, the position of the spectrum on the first +screen could be shifted sufficiently to cause light of any desired +colour to pass through. Some of this light also passed through the +second hole, and thus he obtained a narrow beam of practically +homogeneous light in a fixed direction (the line joining the apertures +in the two screens). Operating on this beam with a second prism, he +found that the homogeneous light was not dispersed, and also that it was +more refracted the nearer the point from which it was taken approached +to the violet end of the spectrum RV. This confirmed his previous +conclusion that the rays increase in refrangibility from red to violet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Newton also made use of the method of crossed prisms, which has been +found of great use in studying dispersion. The prism P (fig. 3) refracts +upwards, while the prism Q, which has its refracting edge perpendicular +to that of P, refracts towards the right. The combined effect of the two +is to produce a spectrum sloping up from left to right. The spectrum +will be straight if the two prisms are similar in dispersive property, +but if one of them is constructed of a material which possesses any +peculiarity in this respect it will be revealed by the curvature of the +spectrum. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Method of Crossed Prisms.] + +The coloured borders seen in the images produced by simple lenses are +due to dispersion. The explanation of the colours of the rainbow, which +are also due to dispersion, was given by Newton, although it was known +previously to be due to refraction in the drops of rain (see RAINBOW). + +According to the wave-theory of light, refraction (q.v.) is due to a +change of velocity when light passes from one medium to another. The +phenomenon of dispersion shows that in dispersive media the velocity is +different for lights of different wave-lengths. In free space, light of +all wave-lengths is propagated with the same velocity, as is shown by +the fact that stars, when occulted by the moon or planets, preserve +their white colour up to the last moment of disappearance, which would +not be the case if one colour reached the eye later than another. The +absence of colour changes in variable stars or in the appearance of new +stars is further evidence of the same fact. All material media, however, +are more or less dispersive. In air and other gases, at ordinary +pressures, the dispersion is very small, because the refractivity is +small. The dispersive powers of gases are, however, generally comparable +with those of liquids and solids. + + _Dispersive Power._--In order to find the amount of dispersion caused + by any given prism, the deviations produced by it on two rays of any + definite pure colours may be measured. The angle of difference between + these deviations is called the dispersion for those rays. For this + purpose the C and F lines in the spark-spectrum of hydrogen, situated + in the red and blue respectively, are usually employed. If [delta]F + and [delta]C are the angular deviations of these rays, then [delta]F - + [delta]C is called the mean dispersion of the prism. If the refracting + angle of the prism is small, then the ratio of the dispersion to the + mean deviation of the two rays is the dispersive power of the material + of the prism. Instead of the mean deviation, 1/2 ([delta]F + [delta]C), + it is more usual to take the deviation of some intermediate ray. The + exact position of the selected ray does not matter much, but the + yellow D line of sodium is the most convenient. If we denote its + deviation by [delta]D, then we may put + + _Dispersive power_ = ([delta]F - [delta]C)/[delta]D (1). + + This quantity may readily be expressed in terms of the refractive + indices for the three colours, for if A is the angle of the prism + (supposedly small) + + [delta]C = ([mu]C - 1)A, + [delta]D = ([mu]D - 1)A, + [delta]F = ([mu]F - 1)A, + + where [mu]C,[mu]D,[mu]F are the respective indices of refraction. This + gives at once + + _Dispersive power_ = ([mu]F - [mu]C)/([mu]D - 1) (2). + + The second of these two expressions is generally given as the + definition of dispersive power. It is more useful than (1), as the + refractive indices may be measured with a prism of any convenient + angle. + + By studying the dispersion of colours in water, turpentine and crown + glass Newton was led to suppose that dispersion is proportional to + refraction. He concluded that there could be no refraction without + dispersion, and hence that achromatism was impossible of attainment + (see ABERRATION). This conclusion was proved to be erroneous when + Chester M. Hall in 1733 constructed achromatic lenses. Glasses can now + be made differing considerably both in refractivity and dispersive + power. + + _Irrationality of Dispersion._--If we compare the spectrum produced by + refraction in a glass prism with that of a diffraction grating, we + find not only that the order of colours is reversed, but also that the + same colours do not occupy corresponding lengths on the two spectra, + the blue and violet being much more extended in the refraction + spectrum. The refraction spectra for different media also differ + amongst themselves. This shows that the connexion between the + refrangibility of light and its wave-length does not obey any simple + law, but depends on the nature of the refracting medium. This property + is referred to as the "irrationality of dispersion." In a diffraction + spectrum the diffraction is proportional to the wave-length, and the + spectrum is said to be "normal." If the increase of the angle of + refraction were proportional to the diminution of wave-length for a + prism of any material, the resulting spectrum would also be normal. + This, however, is not the case with ordinary refracting media, the + refrangibility generally increasing more and more rapidly as the + wave-length diminishes. + + The irrationality of dispersion is well illustrated by C. + Christiansen's experiments on the dispersive properties of white + powders. If the powder of a transparent substance is immersed in a + liquid of the same refractive index, the mixture becomes transparent + and a measurement of the refractive index of the liquid gives the + refractivity of the powder. Christiansen found, in an investigation of + this kind, that the refractivity of the liquid could only be got to + match that of the powder for mono-chromatic light, and that, if white + light were used, brilliant colour effects were obtained, which varied + in a remarkable manner when small changes occurred in the refractive + index of the liquid. These effects are due to the difference in + dispersive power of the powder and the liquid. If the refractive index + is, for instance, the same for both in the case of green light, and a + source of white light is viewed through the mixture, the green + component will be completely transmitted, while the other colours are + more or less scattered by multiple reflections and refractions at the + surfaces of the powdered substance. Very striking colour changes are + observed, according to R. W. Wood, when white light is transmitted + through a paste made of powdered quartz and a mixture of carbon + bisulphide with benzol having the same refractive index as the quartz + for yellow light. In this case small temperature changes alter the + refractivity of the liquid without appreciably affecting the quartz. + R. W. Wood has studied the iridescent colours seen when a precipitate + of potassium silicofluoride is produced by adding silicofluoric acid + to a solution of potassium chloride, and found that they are due to + the same cause, the refractive index of the minute crystals + precipitated being about the same as that of the solution, which + latter can be varied by dilution. + + _Anomalous Dispersion._--In some media the usual order of the colours + is changed. This curious phenomenon was noticed by W. H. Fox Talbot + about 1840, but does not seem to have become generally known. In 1860 + F. P. Leroux discovered that iodine vapour refracted the red rays more + than the violet, the intermediate colours not being transmitted; and + in 1870 Christiansen found that an alcoholic solution of fuchsine + refracted the violet less than the red, the order of the successive + colours being violet, red, orange, yellow; the green being absorbed + and a dark interval occurring between the violet and red. A. Kundt + found that similar effects occur with a large number of substances, in + particular with all those which possess the property of "surface + colour," i.e., which strongly reflect light of a definite colour, as + do many of the aniline dyes. Such bodies show strong absorption bands + in those colours which they reflect, while of the transmitted light + that which is of a slightly greater wave-length than the absorbed + light has an abnormally great refrangibility, and that of a slightly + shorter wave-length an abnormally small refrangibility. The name given + to this phenomenon,--"anomalous dispersion"--is an unfortunate one, as + it has been found to obey a regular law. + + In studying the dispersion of the aniline dyes, a prism with a very + small refracting angle is made of two glass plates slightly inclined + to each other and enclosing a very thin wedge of the dye, which is + either melted between the plates, or is in the form of a solution + retained in position by surface-tension. Only very thin layers are + sufficiently transparent to show the dispersion near or within an + absorption band, and a large refracting angle is not required, the + dispersion usually being very considerable. Another method, which has + been used by R. W. Wood and C. E. Magnusson, is to introduce a thin + film of the dye into one of the optical paths of a Michelson + interferometer, and to determine the consequent displacement of the + fringes. E. Mach and J. Arbes have used a method depending on total + reflection (Drude's _Theory of Optics_, p. 394). + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Anomalous Dispersion of Sodium Vapour.] + + A very remarkable example of anomalous dispersion, which was first + observed by A. Kundt, is that exhibited by the vapour of sodium. It + has not been found practicable to make a prism of this vapour in the + ordinary way by enclosing it in a glass vessel of the required shape, + as sodium vapour attacks glass, quickly rendering it opaque. A. E. + Becquerel, however, investigated the character of the dispersion by + using prism-shaped flames strongly coloured with sodium. But the best + way of exhibiting the effect is by making use of a remarkable property + of sodium vapour discovered by R. W. Wood and employed for this + purpose in a very ingenious manner. He found that when sodium is + heated in a hard glass tube, the vapour which is formed is + extraordinarily cohesive, only slowly spreading out in a cloud with + well-defined borders, which can be rendered visible by placing the + tube in front of a sodium flame, against which the cloud appears + black. If a long glass tube with plane ends, and containing some + pellets of sodium is heated in the middle by a row of burners, the + cool ends remain practically vacuous and do not become obscured. The + sodium vapour in the middle is very dense on the heated side, the + density diminishing rapidly towards the upper part of the tube, so + that, although not prismatic in form, it refracts like a prism owing + to the variation in density. Thus if a horizontal slit is illuminated + by an arc lamp, and the light-rendered parallel by a collimating + lens--is transmitted through the sodium tube and focused on the + vertical slit of a spectroscope, the effect of the sodium vapour is to + produce its refraction spectrum vertically on the slit. The image of + this seen through the glass prism of the spectroscope will appear as + in fig. 4. The whole of the light, with the exception of a small part + in the neighbourhood of the D lines, is practically undeviated, so + that it illuminates only a very short piece of the slit and is spread + out into the ordinary spectrum. But the light of slightly greater + wave-length than the D lines, being refracted strongly downward by the + sodium vapour, illuminates the bottom of the slit; while that of + slightly shorter wave-length is refracted upward and illuminates the + top of the slit. Fig. 4 represents the inverted image seen in the + telescope. The light corresponding to the D lines and the space + between them is absorbed, as evidenced by the dark interval. If the + sodium is only gently heated, so as to produce a comparatively + rarefied vapour, and a grating spectroscope employed, the spectrum + obtained is like that shown in fig. 5, which was the effect noticed by + Becquerel with the sodium flame. Here the light corresponding to the + space between the D lines is transmitted, being strongly refracted + upward near D1, and downward near D2. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + The theory of anomalous dispersion has been applied in a very + interesting way by W. H. Julius to explain the "flash spectrum" seen + during a solar eclipse at the moment at which totality occurs. The + conditions of this phenomenon have been imitated in the laboratory by + Wood, and the corresponding effect obtained. + + _Theories of Dispersion._--The first attempt at a mathematical theory + of dispersion was made by A. Cauchy and published in 1835. This was + based on the assumption that the medium in which the light is + propagated is discontinuous and molecular in character, the molecules + being subject to a mutual attraction. Thus, if one molecule is + disturbed from its mean position, it communicates the disturbance to + its neighbours, and so a wave is propagated. The formula arrived at by + Cauchy was + + B C + n = A + --------- + --------- + .... + [lambda]2 [lambda]4 + + n being the refractive index, [lambda] the wave-length, and A, B, C, + &c., constants depending on the material, which diminish so rapidly + that only the first three as here written need be taken into account. + If suitable values are chosen for these constants, the formula can be + made to represent the dispersion of ordinary transparent media within + the visible spectrum very well, but when extended to the infra-red + region it often departs considerably from the truth, and it fails + altogether in cases of anomalous dispersion. There are also grave + theoretical objections to Cauchy's formula. + + The modern theory of dispersion, the foundation of which was laid by + W. Sellmeier, is based upon the assumption that an interaction takes + place between ether and matter. Sellmeier adopted the elastic-solid + theory of the ether, and imagined the molecules to be attached to the + ether surrounding them, but free to vibrate about their mean positions + within a limited range. Thus the ether within the dispersive medium is + loaded with molecules which are forced to perform oscillations of the + same period as that of the transmitted wave. It can be shown + mathematically that the velocity of propagation will be greatly + increased if the frequency of the light-wave is slightly greater, and + greatly diminished if it is slightly less than the natural frequency + of the molecules; also that these effects become less and less marked + as the difference in the two frequencies increases. This is exactly in + accordance with the observed facts in the case of substances showing + anomalous dispersion. Sellmeier's theory did not take account of + absorption, and cannot be applied to calculate the dispersion within a + broad absorption band. H. von Helmholtz, working on a similar + hypothesis, but with a frictional term introduced into his equations, + obtained formulae which are applicable to cases of absorption. A + modified form of Helmholtz's equation, due to E. Ketteler and known as + the Ketteler-Helmholtz formula, has been much used in calculating + dispersion, and expresses the facts with remarkable accuracy. P. Drude + has obtained a similar formula based on the electromagnetic theory, + thus placing the theory of dispersion on a much more satisfactory + basis. The fundamental assumption is that the medium contains + positively and negatively charged ions or electrons which are acted on + by the periodic electric forces which occur in wave propagation on + Maxwell's theory. The equations finally arrived at are + ____ + \ D[lambda]^2([lambda]^2 - [lambda]_m^2) + n^2(1 - [kappa]^2) = 1 + > ------------------------------------------, + /___ ([lambda^2 - [lambda]_m^2) + g^2[lmabda]^2 + ____ + \ Dg[lambda]^3 + 2n^2[kappa]^2 = > -------------------------------------------, + /___ ([lambda]^2 - [lambda]_m^2) + g^2[lmabda]^2 + + where [lambda] is the wave-length in free ether of light whose + refractive index is n, and [lambda]_m the wave-length of light of the + same period as the electron, [kappa] is a coefficient of absorption, + and D and g are constants. The sign of summation [Sigma] is used in + cases where there are several absorption bands, and consequently + several similar terms on the right-hand side, each with a different + value of [lambda]_m. This would occur if there were several kinds of + ions, each with its own natural period. + + In a region where there is no absorption, we have [kappa] = 0 and + therefore g = 0, and we have only one equation, namely, + + ____ + \ D[lambda]^2 + n^2 = 1 + > --------------------------, + /___ ([lambda]^2 - [lambda]_m^2) + + which is identical with Sellmeier's result. As [lambda]_m, is a + wave-length corresponding to an absorption band, this formula can be + used to find values of [lambda]_m which satisfy the observed values + of n within the region of transparency, and so to determine where the + absorption bands are situated. In this way the existence of bands in + the infrared part of the spectrum has been predicted in the case of + quartz and detected by experiments on the selective reflection of the + material. + + _References._--For the theory of dispersion see P. Drude, _Theory of + Optics_ (Eng. trans.); R. W. Wood, _Physical Optics_; and A. Schuster, + _Theory of Optics_. For descriptive accounts, see Wood's _Physical + Optics_, T. Preston's _Theory of Light_, E. Edser's _Light_. The last + work contains an elementary treatment of Sellmeier's theory. + (J. R. C.) + + + + +D'ISRAELI (or DISRAELI), ISAAC (1766-1848), English man of letters, +father of the earl of Beaconsfield (q.v.), was born at Enfield in May +1766. He belonged to a Jewish family which, having been driven by the +Inquisition from Spain, towards the end of the 15th century, settled as +merchants at Venice, and assumed the name which has become famous; it +was generally spelt D'Israeli until the middle of the 19th century. In +1748 his father, Benjamin D'Israeli, then only about eighteen years of +age, removed to England, where, before passing the prime of life, he +amassed a competent fortune, and retired from business. He belonged to +the London congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, of which his son +also remained a nominal member until after Benjamin D'Israeli died at +the end of 1816. + +The strongly marked characteristics which determined Isaac D'Israeli's +career were displayed to a singular degree even in his boyhood. He spent +his time over books and in long day-dreams, and evinced the strongest +distaste for business and all the more bustling pursuits of life. These +idiosyncrasies met with no sympathy from either of his parents, whose +ambitious plans for his future career they threatened to disappoint. +When he was about fourteen, in the hope of changing the bent of his +mind, his father sent him to live with his agent at Amsterdam, where he +worked under a tutor for four or five years. Here he studied Bayle and +Voltaire, and became an ardent disciple of Rousseau. Here also he wrote +a long poem against commerce, which he produced as an exposition of his +opinions when, on his return to England, his father announced his +intention of placing him in a commercial house at Bordeaux. Against such +a destiny D'Israeli's mind strongly revolted; and he carried his poem, +with a letter earnestly appealing for advice and assistance, to Samuel +Johnson; but when he called again a week after to receive an answer, the +packet was returned unopened--the great Doctor was on his death-bed. He +also addressed a letter to Dr Vicesimus Knox, master of Tonbridge +Grammar School, begging to be received into his family, that he might +enjoy the benefit of his learning and experience. How this application +was answered we do not know. The evident firmness of his resolve, +however, was not without effect. His parents gave up their purpose for a +time. He was sent to travel in France, and allowed to occupy himself as +he wished; and he had the happiness of spending some months in Paris, in +the society of literary men, and devoted to the literary pursuits in +which he delighted. + +In the beginning of 1788 he returned home, and in the next year he +attacked Peter Pindar (John Wolcot) in _The Gentleman's Magazine_ in a +poem in the manner of Pope, "On the Abuse of Satire." The authorship of +the poem was much debated, and it was attributed by some to William +Hayley, upon whom it was actually avenged, with characteristic +savageness, by its victim. It is greatly to Wolcot's credit that, on +learning his mistake, he sought the acquaintance of his young opponent, +whose friend he remained to the end of his life. Through the success of +this satire D'Israeli made the acquaintance of Henry James Pye, who +helped to persuade his father that it would be a mistake to force him +into a business career, and introduced him into literary circles. +D'Israeli dedicated his first book, _A Defence of Poetry_, to Pye in +1790. Henceforth his life was passed in the way he best liked--in quiet +and almost uninterrupted study. In 1802 he married Maria Basevi, by whom +he had five children, of whom Benjamin (afterwards Lord Beaconsfield and +Prime Minister of England) was the second. He was able to maintain his +strenuous habits of study till he reached the advanced age of +seventy-two, when he was forced, by paralysis of the optic nerve, to +give up work almost entirely. He lived ten years longer, and died at his +seat at Bradenham House, Buckinghamshire, on the 19th of January 1848. + +Isaac D'Israeli is most celebrated as the author of the _Curiosities of +Literature_ (1791, subsequent volumes in 1793, 1817, 1823 and 1834). It +is a miscellany of literary and historical anecdotes, of original +critical remarks, and of interesting and curious information of all +kinds, animated by genuine literary feeling, taste and enthusiasm. With +the _Curiosities of Literature_ may be classed D'Israeli's +_Miscellanies, or Literary Recreations_ (1796), the _Calamities of +Authors_ (1812-1813), and the _Quarrels of Authors_ (1814). Towards the +close of his life D'Israeli projected a continuous history of English +literature, three volumes of which appeared in 1841 under the title of +the _Amenities of Literature_. But of all his works the most delightful +is his _Essay on the Literary Character_ (1795), which, like most of his +writings, abounds in illustrative anecdotes. In the famous "Pope +controversy" he supported Byron and Campbell against Bowles and Hazlitt +by a defence of Pope in the form of a criticism of Joseph Spence's +_Anecdotes_ contributed to the _Quarterly Review_ (July 1820). In 1797 +D'Israeli published three novels; one of these, _Mejnoun and Leila, the +Arabian Petrarch and Laura_, was said to be the first oriental romance +in English. His last novel, _Despotism, or the Fall of the Jesuits_, +appeared in 1811, but none of his romances was popular. He also +published a slight sketch of Jewish history, and especially of the +growth of the Talmud, entitled the _Genius of Judaism_ (1833). + +He was the author of two historical works--a brief defence of the +literary merit and personal and political character of James I. (1816), +and a learned _Commentary on the Life and Reign of King Charles I._ +(1828-1831). This was recognized by the University of Oxford, which +conferred upon the author the honorary degree of D.C.L. As an historian +D'Israeli is distinguished by two characteristics. In the first place, +he had small interest in politics, and no sympathy with the passionate +fervour, or adequate appreciation of the importance, of political +struggles. And, secondly, with a laborious zeal then less common than +now among historians, he sought to bring to light fresh historical +material by patient search for letters, diaries and other manuscripts of +value which had escaped the notice of previous students. Indeed, the +honour has been claimed for him of being one of the founders of the +modern school of historical research. + + Of the amiable personal character and the placid life of Isaac + D'Israeli a charming picture is to be found in the brief memoir + prefixed to the 1849 edition of _Curiosities of Literature_, by his + son Lord Beaconsfield. + + + + +DISS, a market town in the southern parliamentary division of Norfolk, +England; near the river Waveney (the boundary with Suffolk), 95 m. N.E. +by N. from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 3745. The town lies pleasantly upon a hill rising above a mere, +which drains to the Waveney, having its banks laid out as public +gardens. The church of St Mary exhibits Decorated and Perpendicular +stone and flint work. There is a corn exchange and the agricultural +trade is considerable; brushes and matting are manufactured. The poet +and satirist, John Skelton (d. 1529), was rector here in the later part +of his life, and is doubtfully considered a native. + + + + +DISSECTION (from Lat. _dissecare_, to cut apart), the separation into +parts by cutting, particularly the cutting of an animal or plant into +parts for the purpose of examination or display of its structure. + + + + +DISSENTER (Lat. _dis-sentire_, to disagree), one who dissents or +disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, &c. The term "dissenter" is, +however, practically restricted to the special sense of a member of a +religious body in England which has, for one reason or another, +separated from the Established Church. Strictly, the term includes the +English Roman Catholics, who in the original draft of the Relief Act of +1791 were styled "Protesting Catholic Dissenters." It is in practice, +however, restricted to the "Protestant Dissenters" referred to in sec. +ii. of the Toleration Act of 1688. The term is not applied to those +bodies who dissent from the Established Church of Scotland; and in +speaking of members of religious bodies which have seceded from +established churches abroad it is usual to employ the term "dissidents" +(Lat. _dissidere_, to dissent). In this connotation the terms +"dissenter" and "dissenting," which had acquired a somewhat contemptuous +flavour, have tended since the middle of the 19th century to be replaced +by "nonconformist," a term which did not originally imply secession, but +only refusal to conform in certain particulars (e.g. the wearing of the +surplice) with the authorized usages of the Established Church. Still +more recently the term "nonconformist" has in its turn, as the political +attack on the principle of a state establishment of religion developed, +tended to give place to the style of "Free Churches" and "Free +Churchman." All three terms are now in use, "nonconformist" being the +most usual, as it is the most colourless. (See CONGREGATIONALISM, &c.) + + + + +DISSOCIATION, a separation or dispersal, the opposite of association. In +chemistry the term is given to chemical reactions in which a substance +decomposes into two or more substances, and particularly to cases in +which associated molecules break down into simpler molecules. Thus the +reactions NH4Cl <=> NH3 + HCl, and PCl5 <=> PCl3 + Cl2 are instances of the +first type; N2O4 <=> 2NO2, of the second (see CHEMICAL ACTION). +Electrolytic or ionic dissociation is the separation of a substance in +solution into ions (see ELECTROLYSIS; SOLUTION). + + + + +DISSOLUTION (from Lat. _dissolvere_, to break up into parts), the act of +dissolving or reducing to constituent parts, especially of the bringing +to an end an association such as a partnership or building society, and +particularly of the termination of an assembly. A dissolution of +parliament in England is thus the end of its existence, brought about by +the efflux of time in accordance with the Septennial Act 1716, or by an +exercise of the royal prerogative. This is done either in person, or by +commission, if parliament is sitting; if prorogued, then by +proclamation. The word is used as a synonym for end or death. + + + + +DISTAFF, in the early forms of spinning, the "rock" or short stick round +one end of which the flax, cotton or wool is loosely wound, and from +which it is spun off by the spindle. The word is derived from the Old +English _distaef_, the first part of which is connected with _dizen_, +in modern English seen in "bedizen," to deck out or embellish, +originally "to equip the distaff with flax, &c.," cf. the German +dialectal word _Diesse_, flax. The last part of the word is "staff." +"Distaff" from early times has been used to symbolize woman's work (cf. +the use of "spinster" for an unmarried woman); thus the "distaff" or +"spindle" side of a family refers to the female branch, as opposed to +the "spear" or male branch. The 7th of January, the day after Epiphany, +was formerly known as St Distaff's day, as women then began work again +after the Christmas holiday. + + + + +DISTILLATION (from the Lat. _distillare_, more correctly _destillare_, +to drop or trickle down), an operation consisting in the conversion of a +substance or mixture of substances into vapours which are afterwards +condensed to the liquid form; it has for its object the separation or +purification of substances by taking advantage of differences in +volatility. The apparatus consists of three parts:--the "retort" or +"still," in which the substance is heated; the "condenser," in which the +vapours are condensed; and the "receiver," in which the condensed +vapours are collected. Generally the components of a mixture will be +vaporized in the order of their boiling-points; consequently if the +condensates or "fractions" corresponding to definite ranges of +temperature be separately collected, it is obvious that a more or less +partial separation of the components will be effected. If the substance +operated upon be practically pure to start with, or the product of +distillation be nearly of constant composition, the operation is termed +"purification by distillation" or "rectification"; the latter term is +particularly used in the spirit industry. If a complex mixture be +operated upon, and a separation effected by collecting the distillates +in several portions, the operation is termed "fractional distillation." +Since many substances decompose either at, or below, their +boiling-points under ordinary atmospheric pressure, it is necessary to +lower the boiling-point by reducing the pressure if it be desired to +distil them. This variation is termed "distillation under reduced +pressure or in a vacuum." The vaporization of a substance below its +normal boiling-point can also be effected by blowing in steam or some +other vapour; this operation is termed "distillation with steam." "Dry +distillation" is the term used when solid substances which do not +liquefy on heating are operated upon; "sublimation" is the term used +when a solid distils without the intervention of a liquid phase. + +Distillation appears to have been practised at very remote times. The +Alexandrians prepared oil of turpentine by distilling pine-resin; +Zosimus of Panopolis, a voluminous writer of the 5th century A.D., +speaks of the distillation of a "divine water" or "panacea" (probably +from the complex mixture of calcium polysulphides, thiosulphate, &c., +and free sulphur, which is obtained by boiling sulphur with lime and +water) and advises "the efficient luting of the apparatus, for otherwise +the valuable properties would be lost." The Arabians greatly improved +the earlier apparatus, naming one form the alembic (q.v.); they +discovered many ethereal oils by distilling plants and plant juices, +alcohol by the distillation of wine, and also distilled water. The +alchemists gave great attention to the method, as is shown by the many +discoveries made. Nitric, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, all more or +less impure, were better studied; and many ethereal oils were +discovered. Prior to about the 18th century three forms of distillation +were practised: (1) _destillatio per ascensum_, in which the retort was +heated from the bottom, and the vapours escaped from the top; (2) +_destillatio per latus_, in which the vapours escaped from the side; (3) +_destillatio per descensum_, in which the retort was heated at the top, +and the vapours led off by a pipe passing through the bottom. According +to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of destillatio per descensum +occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician who flourished at +about the end of the 5th century. + +In modern times the laboratory practice of distillation was greatly +facilitated by the introduction of the condenser named after Justus von +Liebig; A. Kolbe and E. Frankland introduced the "reflux condenser," +i.e. a condenser so placed that the condensed vapours return to the +distilling flask, a device permitting the continued boiling of a +substance with little loss; W. Dittmar and R. Anschutz, independently +of one another, introduced "distillation under reduced pressure"; and +"fractional distillation" was greatly aided by the columns of Wurtz +(1855), E. Linnemann (1871), and of J. A. Le Bel and A. Henninger +(1874). In chemical technology enormous strides have been made, as is +apparent from the coal-gas, coal-tar, mineral oil, spirits and mineral +acids industries. + +The subject is here treated under the following subdivisions: (1) +ordinary distillation, (2) distillation under reduced pressure, (3) +fractional distillation, (4) distillation with steam, (5) theory of +distillation, (6) dry distillation, (7) distillation in chemical +technology and (8) commercial distillation of water. + + 1. _Ordinary Distillation._--The apparatus generally used is shown in + fig. 1. The substance is heated in a retort a, which consists of a + large bulb drawn out at the top to form a long neck; it may also be + provided with a tubulure, or opening, which permits the charging of + the retort, and also the insertion of a thermometer b. The retort may + be replaced by a distilling flask, which is a round-bottomed flask + (generally with a lengthened neck) provided with an inclined side + tube. The neck of the retort, or side tube of the flask, is connected + to the condenser c by an ordinary or rubber cork, according to the + nature of the substance distilled; ordinary corks soaked in paraffin + wax are very effective when ordinary or rubber corks cannot be used. + Sometimes an "adapter" is used; this is simply a tapering tube, the + side tube being corked into the wider end, and the condenser on to the + narrower end. The thermometer is placed so that the bulb is near the + neck of the retort or the side tube of the distilling flask. It + generally happens that much of the mercury column is outside the flask + and consequently at a lower temperature than the bulb, hence a + correction of the observed temperature is necessary. If N be the + length of the unheated mercury column in degrees, t the temperature of + this column (generally determined by a small thermometer placed with + its bulb at the middle of the column), and T the temperature recorded + by the thermometer, then the corrected temperature of the vapour is T + + 0.000143 (T - t) N (T. E. Thorpe, _Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1880, p. + 159). + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + The mode of heating varies with the substance to be distilled. For + highly volatile liquids, e.g. ether, ligroin, &c., immersion of the + flask in warm water suffices; for less volatile liquids a directly + heated water or sand bath is used; for other liquids the flask is + heated through wire gauze or asbestos board, or directly by a Bunsen. + The condensing apparatus must also be conditioned by the volatility. + With difficulty volatile substances, e.g. nitrobenzene, air cooling of + the retort neck or of a straight tube connected with the distilling + flask will suffice; or wet blotting-paper placed on the tube and the + receiver immersed in water may be used. For less volatile liquids the + Liebig condenser is most frequently used. In its original form, this + consists of a long tube surrounded by an outer tube so arranged that + cold water circulates in the annular space between the two. The + vapours pass through the inner tube, and the cold water enters at the + end farthest from the distilling flask. For more efficient + condensation--and also for shortening the apparatus--the central tube + may be flattened, bent into a succession of V's, or twisted into a + spiral form, the object in each case being to increase the condensing + surface. Of other common types of condenser, we may notice the + "spiral" or "worm" type, which consists of a glass, copper or tin worm + enclosed in a vessel in which water circulates; and the ball + condenser, which consists of two concentric spheres, the vapour + passing through the inner sphere and water circulating in the space + between this and the outer (in another form the vapour circulates in a + shell, on the outside and inside of which water circulates). A very + effective type is shown in fig. 2. The condensing water enters at the + top and is conducted to the bottom of the inner tube, which it fills + and then flows over the outside of the outer tube; it collects in the + bottom funnel and is then led off. The vapours pass between the inner + and outer tubes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + Practically any vessel may serve as a receiver--test tube, flask, + beaker, &c. If noxious vapours come over, it is necessary to have an + air-tight connexion between the condenser and receiver, and to provide + the latter with an outlet tube leading to an absorption column or + other contrivance in which the vapours are taken up. If the substances + operated upon decompose when heated in air, as, for example, the zinc + alkyls which inflame, the air within the apparatus is replaced by some + inert gas, e.g. nitrogen, carbon dioxide, &c., which is led in at the + distilling flask before the process is started, and a slow current + maintained during the operation. + + 2. _Distillation under Reduced Pressure._--This method is adopted for + substances which decompose at their boiling-points under ordinary + pressure, and, generally, when it is desirable to work at a lower + temperature. The apparatus differs very slightly from that employed in + ordinary distillation. The "receiver" must be connected on the one + side to the condenser, and on the other to the exhaust pump. A safety + vessel and a manometer are generally interposed between the pump and + receiver. For the purpose of collecting the distillates in fractions, + many forms of receivers have been devised. Bruhl's is one of the + simplest. It consists of a number of tubes mounted vertically on a + horizontal circular disk which rotates about a vertical axis in a + cylindrical vessel. This vessel has two tubulures: through one the end + of the condenser projects so as to be over one of the receiving tubes; + the other leads to the pump. By rotating the disk the tubes may be + successively brought under the end of the condenser. Boiling under + reduced pressure has one very serious drawback, viz. the liquid boils + irregularly or "bumps." W. Dittmar showed that this may be avoided by + leading a fine, steady stream of dry gas-air, carbon dioxide, + hydrogen, &c., according to the substance operated upon--through the + liquid by means of a fine capillary tube, the lower end of which + reaches to nearly the bottom of the flask. "Bumping" is common in open + boiling when the liquid is free from air bubbles and the interior of + the vessel is very smooth. It may be diminished by introducing + clippings of platinum foil, pieces of porcelain, glass beads or + garnets into the liquid. "Frothing" is another objectionable feature + with many liquids. When cold, froth can be immediately dissipated by + adding a few drops of ether. In boiling liquids its formation may be + prevented by adding paraffin wax; the wax melts and forms a ring on + the surface of the liquid, which boils tranquilly in the centre. + + [Illustration: Wurtz. Linnemann. Le Bel-Henninger. Glynsky. Young. + Kreusler. + + FIG. 3.] + + 3. _Fractional Distillation._--By fractional distillation is meant the + separation of a mixture having components which boil at neighbouring + temperatures. The distilling flask has an elongated neck so that the + less volatile vapours are condensed and return to the flask, while the + more volatile component passes over. The success of the operation + depends upon two factors: (1) that the heating be careful, slow and + steady, and (2) that the column attached to the flask be efficient to + sort out, as it were, the most volatile vapour. Three types of columns + are employed: (1) the elongation is simply a straight or bulb tube; + (2) the column, properly termed a "dephlegmator," is so constructed + that the vapours have to traverse a column of previously condensed + vapour; (3) the column is encircled by a jacket through which a liquid + circulates at the same temperature as the boiling-point of the most + volatile component. To the first type belongs the simple straight + tube, and the Wurtz tube (see fig. 3), which is simply a series of + bulbs blown on a tube. These forms are not of much value. Several + forms of the second type are in use. In the Linnemann column the + condensed vapours temporarily collect on platinum gauzes (a) placed at + the constrictions of a bulbed tube. In the Le Bel-Henninger form a + series of bulbs are connected consecutively by means of syphon tubes + (b) and having platinum gauzes (a) at the constrictions, so that when + a certain amount of liquid collects in any one bulb it syphons over + into the next lower bulb. The Glynsky form is simpler, having only one + syphon tube; at the constrictions it is usual to have a glass bead. + The "rod-and-disk" form of Sidney Young is a series of disks mounted + on a central spindle and surrounded by a slightly wider tube. The + "pear-shaped" form of the same author consists of a series of + pear-shaped bulbs, the narrow end of one adjoining the wider end of + the next lower one. In this class may also be placed the Hempel tube, + which is simply a straight tube filled with glass beads. Of the third + type is the Warren column consisting of a spiral kept at a constant + temperature by a liquid bath. Improved forms were devised by F. D. + Brown. Kreusler's form is easily made and manipulated. A tube closed + at the bottom is traversed by an open narrower tube, and the + arrangement is fitted in the neck of the distilling flask. Water is + led in by the inner tube, and leaves by a side tube fused on the wider + tube. Many comparisons of the effectiveness of dephlegmating columns + have been made (see Sidney Young, _Fractional Distillation_, 1903). + The pear-shaped form is the most effective, second in order is the Le + Bel-Henninger, which, in turn, is better than the Glynsky. The main + objection to the Hempel is the retention of liquid in the beads, and + the consequent inapplicability to the distillation of small + quantities. + + 4. _Distillation with Steam._--In this process a current of steam, + which is generated in a separate boiler and superheated, if necessary, + by circulation through a heated copper worm, is led into the + distilling vessel, and the mixed vapours condensed as in the ordinary + processes. This method is particularly successful in the case of + substances which cannot be distilled at their ordinary boiling-points + (it will be seen in the following section that distilling with steam + implies a lowering of boiling-point), and which can be readily + separated from water. Instances of its application are found in the + separation of ortho- and para-nitrophenol, the o-compound distilling + and the p- remaining behind; in the separation of aniline from the + mixture obtained by reducing nitrobenzene; of the naphthols from the + melts produced by fusing the naphthalene monosulphonic acids with + potash; and of quinoline from the reaction between aniline, + nitrobenzene, glycerin, and sulphuric acid (the product being first + steam distilled to remove any aniline, nitrobenzene, or glycerin, then + treated with alkali, and again steam distilled when quinoline comes + over). With substances prone to discolorization, as, for example, + certain amino compounds, the operation may be conducted in an + atmosphere of carbon dioxide, or the water may be saturated with + sulphuretted hydrogen. Liquids other than water may be used: thus + alcohol separates [alpha]-pipecoline and ether nitropropylene. + + 5. _Theory of Distillation._--The general observation that under a + constant pressure a pure substance boils at a constant temperature + leads to the conclusion that the distillate which comes over while the + thermometer records only a small variation is of practically constant + composition. On this fact depends "rectification or purification by + distillation." A liquid boils when its vapour pressure equals the + superincumbent pressure (see VAPORIZATION); consequently any process + which diminishes the external pressure must also lower the + boiling-point. In this we have the theory of "distillation under + reduced pressure." The theory of fractional distillation, or the + behaviour of liquid mixtures when heated to their boiling-points, is + more complex. For simplicity we confine ourselves to mixtures of two + components, in which experience shows that three cases are to be + recognized according as the components are (1) completely immiscible, + (2) partially miscible, (3) miscible in all proportions. + + When the components are completely immiscible, the vapour pressure of + the one is not influenced by the presence of the other. The mixture + consequently distils at the temperature at which the sum of the + partial pressures equals that of the atmosphere. Both components come + over in a constant proportion until one disappears; it is then + necessary to raise the temperature in order to distil the residue. The + composition of the distillate is determinate (by Avogadro's law) if + the molecular weights and vapour pressure of the components at the + temperature of distillation be known. If M1, M2, and P1, P2 be the + molecular weights and vapour pressures of the components A and B, then + the ratio of A to B in the distillate is M1P1/M2P2. Although, as is + generally the case, one liquid (say A) is more volatile than the other + (say B), i.e. P1 greater than P2, if the molecular weight of A be much + less than that of B, then it is obvious that the ratio M1P1/M2P2 need + not be very great, and hence the less volatile liquid B would come + over in fair amount. These conditions pertain in cases where + distillation with steam is successfully practised, the relatively high + volatility of water being counterbalanced by the relatively high + molecular weight of the other component; for example, in the case of + nitrobenzene and water the ratio is 1 to 5. In general, when the + substance to be distilled has a vapour pressure of only 10 mm. at 100 + deg. C., distillation with steam can be adopted, if the product can be + subsequently separated from the water. + + When distilling a mixture of partially miscible components a + distillate of constant composition is obtained so long as two layers + are present, i.e. A dissolved in B and B dissolved in A, since both of + these solutions emit vapours of the same composition (this follows + since the same vapour must be in equilibrium with both solutions, for + if it were not so a cyclic system contradicting the second law of + thermodynamics would be realizable). The composition of the vapour, + however, would not be the same as that of either layer. As the + distillation proceeded one layer would diminish more rapidly than the + other until only the latter would remain; this would then distil as a + completely miscible mixture. + + The distillation of completely miscible mixtures is the most common + practically and the most complex theoretically. A coordination of the + results obtained on the distillation of mixtures of this nature with + the introduction of certain theoretical considerations led to the + formation of three groups distinguished by the relative solubilities + of the vapours in the liquid components. + + (i.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in the liquid B, and the + vapour of B readily soluble in the liquid A, there will exist a + mixture of A and B which will have a lower vapour pressure than any + other mixture. The vapour pressure composition curve will be convex to + the axis of compositions, the maximum vapour pressures corresponding + to pure A and pure B, and the minimum to some mixture of A and B. On + distilling such a mixture under constant pressure, a mixture of the + two components (of variable composition) will come over until there + remains in the distilling flask the mixture of minimum vapour + pressure. This will then distil at a constant temperature. Thus nitric + acid, boiling-point 68 deg., forms a mixture with water, boiling point + 100 deg., which boils at a constant temperature of 126 deg., and + contains 68% of acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a similar mixture which + boils at 110 deg. and contains 20.2% of acid. Another mixture of this + type is formic acid and water. + + (ii.) If the vapours be sparingly soluble in the liquids there will + exist a mixture having a greater vapour pressure than that of any + other mixture. The vapour pressure-composition curve will now be + concave to the axis of composition, the minima corresponding to the + pure components. On distilling such a mixture, a mixture of constant + composition will distil first, leaving in the distilling flask one or + other of the components according to the composition of the mixture. + An example is propyl alcohol and water. At one time it was thought + that these mixtures of constant boiling-point (an extended list is + given in Young's _Fractional Distillation_) were definite compounds. + The above theory, coupled with such facts as the variation of the + composition of the constant boiling-point fraction with the pressure + under which the mixture is distilled, the proportionality of the + density of all mixtures to their composition, &c., shows this to be + erroneous. + + (iii.) If the vapour of A be readily soluble in liquid B, and the + vapour of B sparingly soluble in liquid A, and if the vapour pressure + of A be greater than that of B, then the vapour pressures of mixtures + of A and B will continually diminish as one passes from 100% A to 100% + B. The vapour tension may approximate to a linear function of the + composition, and the curve will then be practically a straight line. + On distilling such a mixture pure A will come over first, followed by + mixtures in which the quantity of B continually increases; + consequently by a sufficient number of distillations A and B can be + completely separated. Examples are water and methyl or ethyl alcohol. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + Van't Hoff (_Theoretical and Physical Chemistry_, vol. i. p. 51) + illustrates the five cases on one diagram. In fig. 4 let AB be the + axis of composition, AP be the vapour pressure of pure A, BQ the + vapour pressure of pure B. For immiscible liquids the vapour pressure + curve is the horizontal line ab, described so that aP = QB and bQ = + AP. For partially miscible liquids the curve is Pa1b1Q. The horizontal + line a1b1 corresponds to the two layers of liquid, and the inclined + lines Pa1Qb1 to solutions of B in A and of A in B. The curves Pa4Q, + having a minimum at a4, Pa3Q, having a maximum at a3, and Pa5Q, with + neither a maximum nor minimum, correspond to the types i., ii., iii. + of completely miscible mixtures. + + 6. _Dry Distillation._--In this process the substance operated upon is + invariably a solid, the vapours being condensed and collected as in + the other methods. When the substance operated upon is of uncertain + composition, as, for example, coal, wood, coal-tar, &c., the term + destructive distillation is employed. A more general designation is + "pyrogenic processes," which also includes such operations as leading + vapours through red-hot tubes and condensing the products. We may also + consider here cases of sublimation wherein a solid vaporizes and the + vapour condenses without the occurrence of the liquid phase. + + Dry distillation is extremely wasteful even when definite substances + or mixtures, such as calcium acetate which yields acetone, are dealt + with, valueless by-products being obtained and the condensate usually + requiring much purification. Prior to 1830, little was known of the + process other than that organic compounds generally yielded tarry and + solid matters, but the discoveries of Liebig and Dumas (of acetone + from acetates), of Mitscherlich (of benzene from benzoates) and of + Persoz (of methane from acetates and lime) brought the operation into + common laboratory practice. For efficiency the operation must be + conducted with small quantities; caking may be prevented by mixing the + substance with sand or powdered pumice, or, better, with iron filings, + which also renders the decomposition more regular by increasing the + conductivity of the mass. The most favourable retort is a shallow iron + pan heated in a sand bath, and provided with a screwed-down lid + bearing the delivery tube. Sidney Young has suggested conducting the + operation in a current of carbon dioxide which sweeps out the vapours + as they are evolved, and also heating in a vapour bath, e.g. of + sulphur. + + One of the earliest red-hot tube syntheses of importance was the + formation of naphthalene from a mixture of alcohol and ether vapours. + Such condensations were especially studied by M. P. E. Berthelot, and + shown to be very fruitful in forming hydrocarbons. Sometimes reagents + are placed in the combustion tube, for example lead oxide (litharge), + which takes up bromine and sulphur. In its simplest form the apparatus + consists of a straight tube, made of glass, porcelain or iron + according to the temperature required and the nature of the reacting + substances, heated in an ordinary combustion furnace, the mixture + entering at one end and the vapours being condensed at the other. + Apparatus can also be constructed in which the unchanged vapours are + continually circulated through the tube. Operating in a current of + carbon dioxide facilitates the process by preventing overheating. + + 7. _Distillation in Chemical Technology._--In laboratory practice use + is made of a fairly constant type of apparatus, only trifling + modifications being generally necessary to adapt the apparatus for any + distillation or fractionation; in technology, on the other hand, many + questions have to be considered which generally demand the adoption of + special constructions for the economic distillation of different + substances. The modes of distillation enumerated above all occur in + manufacturing practice. Distillation in a vacuum is practised in two + forms:--if the pump draws off steam as well as air it is termed a + "wet" air-pump; if it only draws off air, it is a "dry" air-pump. In + the glycerin industry the lyes obtained by saponifying the fats are + first evaporated with "wet vacuum" and finally distilled with closed + and live steam and a "dry vacuum." Two forms of steam distillation may + be distinguished:--in one the still is simply heated by a steam coil + wound inside or outside the still--this is termed heating by dry + steam; in the other steam is injected into the mass within the + still--this is the distillation with live steam of laboratory + practice. The details of the plant--the material and fittings of the + still, the manner of heating, the form of the condensing plant, + receivers, &c.--have to be determined for each substance to be + distilled in order to work with the maximum economy. + + For the distillation of liquids the retort is usually a cylindrical + pot placed vertically; cast iron is generally employed, in which case + the bottom is frequently incurved and thicker than the sides in order + to take up the additional wear and tear. Sometimes linings of + enamelled iron or other material are employed, which when worn can be + replaced at a far lower cost than that of a new still. Glass stills + heated by a sand bath are sometimes employed in the final distillation + of sulphuric acid; platinum, and an alloy of platinum and iridium with + a lining of gold rolled on (a discovery due to Heraeus), are used for + the same purpose. Cast iron stills are provided with a hemispherical + head or dome, generally attached to the body of the still by bolts, + and of sufficient size to allow for any frothing. It is invariably + provided with an opening to carry off the vapours produced. In its + more complete form a still has in addition the following + fittings:--The dome is provided with openings to admit (1) the axis of + the stirring gear (in some stills the stirring gear rotates on a + horizontal axis which traverses the side and not the head of the + still), (2) the inlet and outlet tubes of a closed steam coil, (3) a + tube reaching to nearly the bottom of the still to carry live steam, + (4) a tube to carry a thermometer, (5) one or more manholes for + charging purposes, (6) sight-holes through which the operation can be + watched, and (7) a safety valve. The body of the still is provided + with one or more openings at different heights to serve for the + discharge of the residue in the still, and sometimes with a glass + gauge to record the quantity of matter in the still. For dry + distillations the retorts are generally horizontal cylinders, the + bottom or lower surface being sometimes flattened. Iron and fireclay + are the materials commonly employed; wrought iron is used in the + manufacture of wood-spirit, fireclay for coal-gas (see GAS: + _Manufacture_), phosphorus, zinc, &c. The vertical type, however, is + employed in the manufacture of acetone and of iodine. + + Several modes of heating are adopted. In some cases, especially in dry + distillations, the furnace flames play directly on the retorts, in + others, such as in the case of nitric acid, the whole still comes + under the action of the furnace gases to prevent condensation on the + upper part of the still, while in others the furnace gases do not play + directly on the base or upper portion of the still but are conducted + around it by a system of flues (see COAL-TAR). Steam heating, dry or + live, is employed alone and also as an auxiliary to direct firing. + + The condensing plant varies with the volatility of the distillate. Air + cooling is adopted whenever possible. For example, in the less modern + methods for manufacturing nitric acid the vapours were conducted + directly into double-necked bottles (_bombonnes_) immersed in water. A + more efficient arrangement consists of a stack of vertical pipes + standing up from a main or collecting trough and connected at the top + in consecutive pairs by a cross tube. By an arrangement of diaphragms + in the lower trough the vapours are circulated through the system. As + an auxiliary to air cooling the stack may be cooled by a slow stream + of water trickling down the outside of the pipes, or, in certain + cases, cold water may be injected into the condenser in the form of a + spray, where it meets the ascending vapours. Horizontal air-cooling + arrangements are also employed. A common type of condenser consists of + a copper worm placed in a water bath; but more generally straight + tubes of copper or cast iron which cross and recross a rectangular + tank are employed, since this form is more readily repaired and + cleansed. Wood-spirit, petroleum and coal-tar distillates are + condensed in plant of the latter type. In cases where the condenser is + likely to become plugged there is a pipe by means of which live steam + can be injected into the condenser. The supply of water to the + condenser is regulated according to the volatility of the condensate. + When the vapours readily condense to a solid form the condensing plant + may take the form of large chambers; such conditions prevail in the + manufacture of arsenic, sulphur and lampblack: in the latter case + (which, however, is not properly one of distillation) the chamber is + hung with sheets on which the pigment collects. Large chambers are + also used in the condensation of mercury. + + Dephlegmation of the vapours arising from such mixtures as coal-tar + fractions, petroleum and the "wash" of the spirit industry, is very + important, and many types of apparatus are employed in order to effect + a separation of the vapours. The earliest form, invented by C. B. + Mansfield to facilitate the fractionation of paraffin and coal-tar + distillates, consisted in having a pipe leading from the inclined + delivery tube of the still to the still again, so that any vapour + which condensed in the delivery tube was returned to the still. Of + really effective columns Coupier's was one of the earliest. The + vapours rising from the still traverse a tall vertical column, and are + then conveyed through a series of bulbs placed in a bath kept at the + boiling-point of the most volatile constituent. The more volatile + vapours pass over to the condensing plant, while the less volatile + ones condense in the bulbs and are returned to the column at varying + heights by means of connecting tubes. The French column is similar in + action. The Coffey still is one of the most effective and is employed + in the spirit, ammonia, coal-tar and other industries. It consists of + a vertical column divided into a number of sections by horizontal + plates, which are perforated so that the ascending vapours have to + traverse a layer of liquid. Above this "separator" is a reflux + condenser, termed the "cooler," maintained at the correct temperature + so that only the more volatile component passes to the receiver. The + success of the operation chiefly depends upon the proper management of + the cooler. + + 8. _Commercial Distillation of Water._--Distilled water, i.e. water + free from salts and to some extent of the dissolved gases which are + always present in natural waters, is of indispensable value in many + operations both of scientific and industrial chemistry. The apparatus + and process for distilling ordinary water are very simple. The body of + the still is made of copper, with a head and worm, or condensing + apparatus, either of copper or tin. The still is usually fed + continuously by the heated water from the condenser. The first portion + of the distillate brings over the gases dissolved in the water, + ammonia and other volatile impurities, and is consequently rejected; + scarcely two-fifths of the entire quantity of water can be safely used + as pure distilled water. + + Apparatus for the economic production of a potable water from + sea-water is of vital importance in the equipment of ships. The simple + distillation of sea-water, and the production thereby of a certain + proportion of chemically fresh water, is a very simple problem; but it + is found that water which is merely evaporated and recondensed has a + very disagreeable flat taste, and it is only after long exposure to + pure atmospheric air, with continued agitation, or repeated pouring + from one vessel to another, that it becomes sufficiently aerated to + lose its unpleasant taste and smell and become drinkable. The water, + moreover, till it is saturated with gases, readily absorbs noxious + vapours to which it may be exposed. For the successful preparation of + potable water from sea-water, the following conditions are + essential:--1st, aeration of the distilled product so that it may be + immediately available for drinking purposes; 2nd, economy of coal to + obtain the maximum of water with the minimum expenditure of fuel; and + 3rd, simplicity of working parts, to secure the apparatus from + breaking down, and enable unskilled attendants to work it with safety. + The problem is a comparatively old one, for we find that R. Fitzgerald + patented a process in 1683 having for its purpose the "sweetening of + sea-water." A history of early attempts is given in S. Hales's + _Philosophical Experiments_, published in 1739. Among the earlier of + the modern forms of apparatus which came into practical adoption are + the inventions of Dr Normandy and of Chaplin of Glasgow, the apparatus + of Rocher of Nantes, and that patented by Galle and Mazeline of Havre. + Normandy's apparatus, although economical and producing water of good + quality, is very complex in its structure, consisting of very numerous + working parts, with elaborate arrangements of pipes, cocks and other + fittings. It is consequently expensive and requires careful attention + for its working. It was extensively adopted in the British navy, the + Cunard line and many other important emigrant and mercantile lines. + Chaplin's apparatus, which was invented and patented later, has also + since 1865 been sanctioned for use on emigrant, troop and passenger + vessels. The apparatus possesses the great merit of simplicity and + compactness, in consequence of which it is comparatively cheap and not + liable to derangement. It was adopted by many important British and + continental shipping companies, among others by the Peninsular & + Oriental, the Inman, the North German Lloyd and the Hamburg American + companies. + + The modern distilling plant consists of two main parts termed the + evaporator and condenser; in addition there must be a boiler + (sometimes steam is run off the main boilers, but this practice has + several disadvantages), pumps for circulating cold water in the + condenser and for supplying salt water to the evaporator, and a filter + through which the aerated water passes. The evaporator consists of a + cylindrical vessel having in its lower half a horizontal copper coil + connected to the steam supply. The cylindrical vessel is filled to a + certain level with salt water and the steam turned on. The water + vaporizes and is led from the dome of the evaporator to the head of + the condenser. The water level is maintained in the evaporator until + it contains a certain amount of salt. It is then run off, and replaced + by fresh sea-water. The condenser consists of a vertical cylinder + having manifolds at the head and foot and through which a number of + tubes pass. In some types, e.g. the Weir, the condensing water + circulates upwards through the tubes; in others, e.g. the Quiggins, + the water circulates around the tubes. Various forms of the tubes have + been adopted. In the Pape-Henneberg condenser, which has been adopted + in the German navy, they are oval in section and tend to become + circular under the pressure of the steam; this alteration in shape + makes the tubes self-scaling. In the Quiggins condenser, which has + been widely adopted, e.g. in the "Lusitania," the steam traverses + vertical copper coils tinned inside and outside; the coils are + crescent-shaped, a form which gives a greater condensing surface and + makes the coils self-scaling. The aeration of the water is effected by + blowing air into the steam before it is condensed; as an auxiliary, + the storage tanks have a false bottom perforated by fine holes so that + if air be injected below it, the water is efficiently aerated by the + air which traverses it in fine streams. After condensation the water + is filtered through charcoal. The filter is either a separate piece of + plant, or, as in the Quiggins form, it may be placed below the coils + in the same outer vessel. In this plant the aeration is conducted by + blowing in air at the base of the condenser. After filtration the + water is pumped to the storage tanks. Many types of distilling plant + are in use in addition to those mentioned above, for example the + Rayner, Kirkaldy, Merlees, Normand; the United States navy has adopted + a form designed by the Bureau of Engineering. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The general practice of laboratory distillation is + discussed in all treatises on practical organic chemistry; reference + may be made to Lassar-Cohn, _Manual of Organic Chemistry_ (1896), and + _Arbeitsmethoden fur organisch-chemische Laboratorien_ (1901); Hans + Meyer, _Analyse und Konstitutionermittlung organischer Verbindungen_ + (1909). The theory of distillation finds a place in all treatises on + physical chemistry. Of especial importance is Sidney Young, + _Fractional Distillation_ (1903). The history of distillation is to be + studied in E. Gildemeister and F. Hoffmann, _Die atherischen Ole_ + (Berlin, 1899; Eng. tr. by E. Kremers, Milwaukee Press, 1900). The + technology of distillation is best studied in relation to the several + industries in which it is employed; reference should be made to the + articles COAL-TAR, GAS, PETROLEUM, SPIRITS, NITRIC ACID, &c. + (C. E.*) + + + + +DISTRACTION (from Lat. _distrahere_, to pull asunder), a drawing away or +apart; a word now used generally of a state of mind, to mean a diversion +of attention, or a violent emotion amounting almost to madness. + + + + +DISTRESS (from the O. Fr. _destrece_, _destresse_, from the past +participle of the Lat. _distringere_, to pull apart, used in Late Lat. +in the sense of to punish, hence to distrain), pressure, especially of +sorrow, pain or ill-fortune. As a legal term, the action of distraining +or distraint, the right which a landlord has of seizing the personal +chattels of his tenant for non-payment of rent. Cattle _damage feasant_ +(doing damage or trespassing upon a neighbour's land) may also be +_distrained_, i.e. may be detained until satisfaction be rendered for +injury they have done. The cattle or other animals thus distrained are a +mere pledge in the hands of the injured person, who has only power to +retain them until the owner appear to make satisfaction for the mischief +they have done. "Distress damage feasant" is also applicable to +inanimate things on the land if doing damage thereto or to its produce; +things in actual use, however, are exempt. Such distress must be made +during the actual trespass, and by whoever is aggrieved by the damage. +Distress for rent was also at one time regarded as a mere pledge or +security; but the remedy, having been found to be speedy and +efficacious, was rendered more perfect by enactments allowing the thing +taken to be sold. Blackstone notes that the law of distresses in this +respect "has been greatly altered within a few years last past." The +legislature, in fact, converted an ancient right of personal redress +into a powerful remedy for the exclusive benefit of a single class of +creditors, viz. landlords. Now that the relation of landlord and tenant +in England has come to be regarded as purely a matter of contract, the +language of the law-books seems to be singularly inappropriate. The +defaulting tenant is a "wrong-doer," the landlord is the "injured +party,"; any attempt to defeat the landlord's remedy by carrying off +distrainable goods is denounced as "fraudulent and knavish." The +operation of the law has, as we shall point out, been mitigated in some +important respects, but it still remains an almost unique specimen of +one-sided legislation. + +At common law distress was said to be incident to _rent service_, and by +particular reservation to rent charges; but by 4 Geo. II. c. 28 it was +extended to _rent seck_, _rents of assize_ and chief rents (see RENT). +It is therefore a general remedy for rent certain in arrear. All +personal chattels are distrainable with the following exceptions:--(1) +things in which there can be no property, as animals _ferae naturae_; +(2) ledgers, daybooks, title-deeds, &c.; (3) things delivered to a +person following a public trade, as a horse sent to be shod, &c.; (4) +things already in the custody of the law; (5) things which cannot be +restored in as good a plight as when distrained, that is, perishable +articles; (6) fixtures; (7) beasts of the plough and instruments of +husbandry while there is other sufficient distress to be found; (8) +instruments of a man's trade or profession in actual use at the time the +distress is made. If not in actual use they are only privileged in case +there is other sufficient distress upon the premises. These exceptions, +it will be seen, imply that the thing distrained is to be held as a +pledge merely--not to be sold. They also imply that in general any +chattels found on the land in question are to be available for the +benefit of the landlord, whether they belong to the tenant or not. This +principle worked with peculiar harshness in the case of lodgers, whose +goods might be seized and sold for the payment of the rent due by their +landlord to his superior landlord. By the Lodgers' Goods Protection Act +1871, however, where a lodger's goods have been seized by the superior +landlord the lodger may serve him with a notice stating that the +intermediate landlord has no interest in the property seized, but that +it is the property or in the lawful possession of the lodger, and +setting forth the amount of the rent due by the lodger to his immediate +landlord. On payment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed +with the distress against the goods in question. By the Law of Distress +Amendment Act 1908 this protection was extended to under tenants liable +to pay rent by equal quarterly instalments, as well as to any person +whatsoever who is not a tenant of the premises or any part thereof nor +has any beneficial interest therein. The act, however, excludes certain +goods, particularly goods belonging to the husband or wife of the tenant +whose rent is in arrear, goods comprised in any bill of sale, hire +purchase agreement or settlement made by the tenant, goods in the +possession or disposition of a tenant by the consent and permission of +the true owner under such circumstances as to make the tenant reputed +owner, goods of the partner of an immediate tenant, and goods (not being +goods of a lodger) upon premises where any trade or business is carried +on in which both the immediate tenant and the under tenant have an +interest. The act does not apply where an under tenancy has been created +in breach of a covenant or agreement between the landlord and his +immediate tenant. The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 also absolutely +exempted from distress the tools and implements of trade and wearing +apparel and bedding of a tenant and his family to the value of five +pounds, and the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895 gave power to a court +of summary jurisdiction to direct that such goods, when distrained upon, +should be restored if not sold, or, if sold, to order their value to be +paid by the persons who levied the distress or directed it to be levied. +Originally the landlord could only seize things actually on the +premises, so that the remedy might be defeated by the things being taken +away. But by an act of 1710, and by the Distress for Rent Act 1737, he +may follow things fraudulently or clandestinely removed off the premises +within thirty days after their removal, unless they have been in the +meantime bona fide sold for a valuable consideration. The sixth +exception mentioned above was held to extend to sheaves of corn; but by +an act of 1690 corn, when reaped, as well as hay, was made subject to +distress. That act was modified by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1851, +under which growing crops seized by the sheriff and sold under an +execution are liable to distress for rent which becomes due after the +seizure and sale, if there is no other sufficient distress on the +premises. + +Excessive or disproportionate distress exposes the distrainer to an +action, and any irregularity formerly made the proceedings void _ab +initio_, so that the remedy was attended with considerable risk. The +Distress for Rent Act 1737, before alluded to, in the interests of +landlords, protected distresses for _rent_ from the consequences of +irregularity. In all cases of distress for rent, if the owner do not +within five days (by the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, fifteen +days, if the tenant make a request in writing to the person levying the +distress and also give security for any additional cost that may be +occasioned by such extension of time) replevy the same with sufficient +security, the thing distrained may be sold towards satisfaction of the +rent and charges, and the surplus, if any, must be returned to the +owner. To "replevy" is when the person distrained upon applies to the +proper authority (the registrar of the county court) to have the thing +returned to his own possession, on giving security to try the right of +taking it in an action of replevin. + +Duties and penalties imposed by act of parliament (e.g. payment of rates +and taxes) are sometimes enforced by distress. + + + + +DISTRIBUTION (Lat, _distribuere_, to deal out), a term used in various +connexions with the general meaning of spreading out. In law, the word +is used for the division of the personal estate of an intestate among +the next-of-kin (see INTESTACY). The important scientific question as to +the distribution of plants and animals on the earth is treated under +PLANTS: _Distribution_, and ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. In economics the +word is used generally for the transference of commodities from person +to person or from place to place, or the dividing up of large quantities +of commodities into smaller quantities; and in a more technical sense, +for the division of the product of industry amongst the various members +or classes of the community. The theory of economic distribution, i.e. +the causes which determine rent, wages, profits and interest, forms an +important subject-matter in all text-books. Among recent works, see E. +Cannan's _History of Theories of Production and Distribution, 1776-1848_ +(1893), J. R. Common's _Distribution of Wealth_ (1893), and H. J. +Davenport's _Value and Distribution_ (Chicago, 1908). + + + + +DISTRICT, a word denoting in its more general sense, a tract or extent +of a country, town, &c., marked off for administrative or other +purposes, or having some special and distinguishing characteristics. The +medieval Latin _districtus_ (from _distringere_, to distrain) is defined +by Du Cange as _Territorium feudi, seu tractus, in quo Dominus vassallos +et tenentes suos distringere potest_; and as _justitiae exercendae in eo +tractu facultas_. It was also used of the territory over which the +feudal lord exercised his jurisdiction generally. It may be noted that +_distringere_ had a wider significance than "to distrain" in the English +legal sense (see DISTRESS). It is defined by Du Cange as _compellere ad +aliquid faciendum per mulctam, poenam, vel capto pignore_. In English +usage, apart from its general application in such forms as postal +district, registration district and the like, "district" has specific +usages for ecclesiastical and local government purposes. It is thus +applied to a division of a parish under the Church Building Acts, +originally called a "perpetual curacy," and the church serving such a +division is properly a "district chapel." Under the Local Government Act +of 1894 counties are divided for the purposes of the act into urban and +rural districts. In British India the word is used to represent the +_zillah_, an administrative subdivision of a province or presidency. In +the United States of America the word has many administrative, judicial +and other applications. In South Carolina it was used instead of +"county" for the chief division of the state other than in the coast +region. In the Virginias, Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky and Maryland it +answers to "township" or precinct, elsewhere the principal subdivision +of a county. It is used for an electoral "division," each state being +divided into Congressional and senatorial districts; and also for a +political subdivision ranking between an unorganized and an organized +Territory--e.g., the District of Columbia and Alaska. + + + + +DISTYLE (from Gr. [Greek: di-], two, and [Greek: stylos], column), the +architectural term given to a portico which has two columns between +antae, known as _distyle-in-antis_ (see TEMPLE). + + + + +DITHMARSCHEN, or DITMARSH (in the oldest form of the name +_Thiatmaresgaho_, Dietmar's Gau), a territory between the Eider, the Elbe +and the North Sea, forming the western part of the old duchy of Holstein, +and now included in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It +contains about 550 sq. m. with 90,000 inhabitants. The territory consists +to the extent of one half of good pasture land, which is preserved from +inroads of the sea by banks and dams, the other half being mostly waste. +It was originally colonized mainly from Friesland and Saxony. The district +was subjugated and Christianized by Charlemagne in 804, and ranked as a +separate _Gau_, included perhaps in the countship of Stade, or _Comitalus +utriusque ripae_. From the same century, according to one opinion, or from +the year 1182, when the countship was incorporated with their see, +according to another, the archbishops of Bremen claimed supremacy over the +land; but the inhabitants, who had developed and consolidated a systematic +organism for self-government, made obstinate resistance, and rather +attached themselves to the bishop of Schleswig. Ditmarsken, to use the +Scandinavian form of the name, continued part of the Danish dominions till +the disastrous battle of Bornhoved in 1227, when its former independence +was regained. The claims of the archbishop of Bremen were now so far +recognized that he exercised the royal rights of _Heerbann_ and +_Blutbann_,[1] enjoyed the consequent emoluments, and was represented +first by a single _advocatus_, or _Vogt_, and afterwards by one for each +of the five Doffts, or marks, into which the land was divided after the +establishment of Meldorf. The community was governed by a _Landrath_ of +forty-eight elective consuls, or twelve from each of the four marks; and +even in the 14th century the power of the episcopal _advocati_ was so +slight that a chronicler quoted by Conrad von Maurer says, _De Ditmarschen +leven sunder Heren und Hovedt unde dohn wadt se willen_, "the Ditmarschen +live without lord and head, and do what they will." In 1319 and in 1404 +they succeeded in defeating the invasions of the Holstein nobles; and +though in 1474 the land was nominally incorporated with the duchy by the +emperor Frederick III., the attempt of the Danish king Hans and the duke +of Gottorp to enforce the decree in 1500 resulted only in their complete +rout in the marshes of the Dussend-Duwels-Warf. During the early part of +the century which began with such prestige for Ditmarsh, it was the scene +of violent internal conflict in regard to the religious questions of the +time; and, thus weakened, it was obliged in 1559 to submit to partition +among its three conquerors--King Frederick II. of Denmark and Dukes John +and Adolphus. A new division took place on Duke John's death in 1581, by +which Frederick obtained South Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Meldorf, +and Adolphus obtained North Ditmarsh, with its chief town of Heide; and +this arrangement continued till 1773, when all the Gottorp possessions +were incorporated with the Danish crown. + + See Dahlmann's edition of Neocorus, _Chronik von Dithmarschen_ (Kiel, + 1827), and _Geschichte Danemarks_ (1840-1844); Michelsen, + _Urkundenbuch zur Geschichte des Landes Dithmarschen_ (1834), + _Sammlung altdithmarscher Rechtsquellen_ (1842), and _Dithmarschen im + Verhaltniss zum bremischen Erzstift_; Kolster, _Geschichte + Dithmarschens, nach F. R. Dahlmanns Vorlesungen_ (1873). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] That is, the right of claiming military service, and the right of + bringing capital offenders to justice. + + + + +DITHYRAMBIC POETRY, the description of poetry in which the character of +the dithyramb is preserved. It remains quite uncertain what the +derivation or even the primitive meaning of the Greek word [Greek: +dithyrambos] is, although many conjectures have been attempted. It was, +however, connected from earliest times with the choral worship of +Dionysus. A dithyramb is defined by Grote as a round choric dance and +song in honour of the wine-god. The earliest dithyrambic poetry was +probably improvised by priests of Bacchus at solemn feasts, and +expressed, in disordered numbers, the excitement and frenzy felt by the +worshippers. This element of unrestrained and intoxicated vehemence is +prominent in all poetry of this class. The dithyramb was traditionally +first practised in Naxos; it spread to other islands, to Boeotia and +finally to Athens. Arion is said to have introduced it at Corinth, and +to have allied it to the worship of Pan. It was thus "merged," as +Professor G. G. Murray says, "into the Satyr-choir of wild +mountain-goats" out of which sprang the earliest form of tragedy. But +when tragic drama had so far developed as to be quite independent, the +dithyramb did not, on that account, disappear. It flourished in Athens +until after the age of Aristotle. So far as we can distinguish the form +of the ancient Greek dithyramb, it must have been a kind of irregular +wild poetry, not divided into strophes or constructed with any evolution +of the theme, but imitative of the enthusiasm created by the use of +wine, by what passed as the Dionysiac delirium. It was accompanied on +some occasions by flutes, on others by the lyre, but we do not know +enough to conjecture the reasons of the choice of instrument. Pindar, in +whose hands the ode took such magnificent completeness, is said to have +been trained in the elements of dithyrambic poetry by a certain Lasus of +Hermione. Ion, having carried off the prize in a dithyrambic contest, +distributed to every Athenian citizen a cup of Chian wine. In the +opinion of antiquity, pure dithyrambic poetry reached its climax in a +lost poem. _The Cyclops_, by Philoxenus of Cythera, a poet of the 4th +century B.C. After this time, the composition of dithyrambs, although +not abandoned, rapidly declined in merit. It was essentially a Greek +form, and was little cultivated, and always without success, by the +Latins. The dithyramb had a spectacular character, combining verse with +music. In modern literature, although the adjective "dithyrambic" is +often used to describe an enthusiastic movement in lyric language, and +particularly in the ode, pure dithyrambs have been extremely rare. There +are, however, some very notable examples. The _Baccho in Toscana_ of +Francesco Redi (1626-1698), which was translated from the Italian, with +admirable skill, by Leigh Hunt, is a piece of genuine dithyrambic +poetry. _Alexander's Feast_ (1698), by Dryden, is the best example in +English. But perhaps more remarkable, and more genuinely dithyrambic +than either, are the astonishing improvisations of Karl Mikael Bellman +(1740-1795), whose Bacchic songs were collected in 1791 and form one of +the most remarkable bodies of lyrical poetry in the literature of +Sweden. (E. G.) + + + + +DITTERSBACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 3 +m. by rail S.E. from Waldenburg and 50 m. S. W. from Breslau. It has +coal-mines, bleach-fields and match factories. Population (1905) 9371. + + + + +DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON (1739-1799), Austrian composer and +violinist, was born in Vienna on the 2nd of November 1739, his father's +name being Ditters. Having shown as a child marked talent for the +violin, he was allowed to play in the orchestras of St Stephen's and the +_Schottenkirche_, where he attracted the attention of a notable patron +of music, Prince Joseph Frederick of Hildburghausen (1702-1787), who is +also remembered as a soldier for his disastrous leading of the forces of +the Empire at Rossbach. The prince gave the boy, now eleven years old, a +place in his private orchestra--the first of the kind established in +Vienna,--and also saw to it that he received an excellent general +education. The Seven Years' War proved disastrous to both music and +morals; and young Ditters, who had fallen into evil ways, fled from +Hildburghausen, whither he had gone with the prince, to avoid the +payment of his gambling debts. His patron generously forgave and +recalled him, but soon afterwards gave up his orchestra at Vienna. +Ditters now obtained a place in the Vienna opera; but he was not +satisfied, and in 1761 eagerly accepted an invitation to accompany +Gluck, whose acquaintance, as well as that of Haydn, he had made while +in the service of the prince, on a professional journey to Italy. His +success as a violinist on this occasion was equal to that of Gluck as +composer; and on his return to Vienna he was recognized as the superior +of Antonio Lolli, who as virtuoso had hitherto held the palm. In 1764 he +was again associated with Gluck in the musical part of the ceremonies at +Frankfort, attending the coronation of the archduke Joseph as King of +the Romans. His next appointment was that of conductor of the orchestra +of the bishop of Grosswardein, a Hungarian magnate, at Pressburg. He set +up a private stage in the episcopal palace, and wrote for it his first +"opera buffa," _Amore in musica_. His first oratorio, _Isacco figura del +Redentore_, was also written during this time; but the scandal of +performances of light opera by the bishop's company, even on fast days +and during Advent, outweighed this pious effort; the empress Maria +Theresa sharply called the worldly prelate to order; and he, in a huff, +dismissed his orchestra (1769). After a short interlude, Ditters was +again in the service of an ecclesiastical patron, count von Schafgotsch, +prince bishop of Breslau, at his estate of Johannesberg in Silesia. Here +he displayed so much skill as a sportsman, that the bishop procured for +him the office of forester (_Forstmeister_) of the principality of +Neisse. He had already, by the same influence, been made knight of the +Golden Spur (1770). At Johannesberg Ditters also produced a comic opera, +_Il Viaggiatore americano_, and an oratorio, _Davide_. The title role of +the latter was taken by a pretty Italian singer, Signora Nicolini, whom +Ditters married. In 1773 he was ennobled as Karl von Dittersdorf, and at +the same time was appointed administrator (_Amtshauptmann_) of +Freyenwaldau, an office which he performed by deputy. In the same year +his oratorio _Ester_ was produced in Vienna. During the War of Bavarian +Succession the prince bishop's orchestra was dissolved, and Dittersdorf +employed himself in his office at Freyenwaldau; but after the peace of +Tetschen (1779) he again became conductor of the reconstituted +orchestra. From this time forward his output was enormous. In 1780 ten +months sufficed for the production of his _Giobbe_ (Job) and four +operas, three of which were successful; and besides these he wrote a +large number of "characterized symphonies," founded on the +_Metamorphoses_ of Ovid. He was now at the height of his fame, and spent +the fortune which it brought him in much luxury. But after a time his +patron fell on evil days, the famous orchestra had to be reduced, and +when the bishop died in 1795 his successor dismissed the composer with a +small money gift. Poor and broken in health, he accepted the asylum +offered to him by Ignaz Freiherr von Stillfried, on his estate near +Neuhaus in Bohemia, where he spent what strength was left him in a +feverish effort to make money by the composition of operas, symphonies +and pianoforte pieces. He died on the 1st of October 1799, praying +"God's reward" for whoever should save his family from starvation. On +his death-bed he dictated to his son his _Lebensbeschreibung_ +(autobiography). + +Dittersdorf's chief talent was for comic opera and instrumental music in +the sonata forms. In both of these branches his work still shows signs +of life, and it is of great historical interest, since he was not only +an excellent musician and a friend of Haydn but also a thoroughly +popular writer, with a lively enough musical wit and sense of effect to +embody in an amusing and fairly artistic form exactly what the best +popular intelligence of the times saw in the new artistic developments +of Haydn. Thus, while in the amiable monotony and diffuseness of +Boccherini we may trace Haydn as a force tending to disintegrate the +polyphonic suite-forms of instrumental music, in Dittersdorf on the +other hand we see the popular conception of the modern sonata and +dramatic style. Yet, with all his popularity, the reality of his +progressive outlook may be gauged from the fact that, though he was at +least as famous a violinist as Boccherini was a violoncellist, there is +in his string quartets no trace of that tendency to sacrifice the +ensemble to an exhibition of his own playing which in Boccherini's +chamber music puts the violoncello into the same position as the first +violin in the chamber music of Spohr. In Dittersdorf's quartets (at +least six of which are worthy of their survival at the present day) the +first violin leads indeed, but not more than is inevitable in such +unsophisticated music where the normal place for melody is at the top. +The appearance of greater vitality in the texture of Boccherini's +quintets is produced merely by the fact that, his special instrument +being the violoncello, his displays of brilliance inevitably occur in +the inner parts. Six of Dittersdorf's symphonies on the _Metamorphoses_ +of Ovid were republished in 1899, the centenary of his death. In them we +have an amusing and sometimes charming illustration of the way in which +at transitional periods music, as at the present day, is ready to make +crutches of literature. The end of the representation of the conversion +of the Lycian peasants into frogs is prophetically and ridiculously +Wagnerian in its ingenious expansion of rhythm and eminently expert +orchestration. Every external feature of Dittersdorf's style seems +admirably apt for success in German comic opera on a small scale; and an +occasional experimental performance at the present day of his _Doktor +und Apotheker_ is not less his due than the survival of his best +quartets. + + See his _Lebensbeschreibung_, published at Leipzig, 1801 (English + translation by A. D. Coleridge, 1896); an article in the _Rivista + musicale_, vi. 727; and the article "Dittersdorf" in Grove's + _Dictionary of Music and Musicians_. + + + + +DITTO (from the Lat. _dictum_, something said, Ital. _detto_, +aforesaid), that which has been said before, the same thing. The word is +frequently abbreviated into "do." In accounts, "ditto" is indicated by +two dots or a dash under the word or figure that would otherwise be +repeated. A "suit of dittos," a trade or slang phrase, is a suit in +which coat, trousers and waistcoat are all of the same material. + + + + +DITTON, HUMPHRY (1675-1715), English mathematician, was born at +Salisbury on the 29th of May 1675. He studied theology, and was for some +years a dissenting minister at Tonbridge, but on the death of his father +he devoted himself to the congenial study of mathematics. Through the +influence of Sir Isaac Newton he was elected mathematical master in +Christ's hospital. He was author of the following memoirs and +treatises:--"Of the Tangents of Curves, &c.," _Phil. Trans._ vol. +xxiii.; "A Treatise on Spherical Catoptrics," published in the _Phil. +Trans._ vol. xxiv., from which it was copied and reprinted in the _Acta +Eruditorum_ (1707), and also in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences +at Paris; _General Laws of Nature and Motion_ (1705), a work which is +commended by Wolfius as illustrating and rendering easy the writings of +Galileo and Huygens, and the _Principia_ of Newton; _An Institution of +Fluxions, containing the First Principles, Operations, and Applications +of that admirable Method, as invented by Sir Isaac Newton_ (1706). In +1709 he published the _Synopsis Algebraica_ of John Alexander, with many +additions and corrections. In his _Treatise on Perspective_ (1712) he +explained the mathematical principles of that art; and anticipated the +method afterwards elaborated by Brook Taylor. In 1714 Ditton published +his _Discourse on the Resurrection of Jesus Christ;_ and _The New Law of +Fluids, or a Discourse concerning the Ascent of Liquids in exact +Geometrical Figures, between two nearly contiguous Surfaces_. To this +was annexed a tract ("Matter not a Cogitative Substance") to demonstrate +the impossibility of thinking or perception being the result of any +combination of the parts of matter and motion. There was also added an +advertisement from him and William Whiston concerning a method for +discovering the longitude, which it seems they had published about half +a year before. Although the method had been approved by Sir Isaac Newton +before being presented to the Board of Longitude, and successfully +practised in finding the longitude between Paris and Vienna, the board +determined against it. This disappointment, aggravated as it was by +certain lines written by Dean Swift, affected Ditton's health to such a +degree that he died in the following year, on the 15th of October 1715. + + + + +DIU, an island and town of India, belonging to Portugal, and situated at +the southern extremity of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area of district, +20 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 14,614. The anchorage is fairly protected from the +sea, but the depth of water is only 3 to 4 fathoms. The channel between +the island on Diu and the mainland is navigable only by fishing boats +and small craft. The town is well fortified on the old system, being +surrounded by a wall with towers at regular intervals. Many of the +inhabitants are the well-known Banyan merchants of the east coast of +Africa and Arabia. Native spirits are distilled from the palm, salt is +made and fish caught. The trade of the town, however, is decayed. There +are remains of several fine ancient buildings. The cathedral or Se +Matriz, dating from 1601, was formerly a Jesuit college. The mint, the +arsenal and several convents (now ruined or converted to other uses) are +also noteworthy. The Portuguese, under treaty with Bahadur Shah of +Gujarat, built a fort here in 1535, but soon quarrelled with the natives +and were besieged in 1538 and 1545. The second siege is one of the most +famous in Indo-Portuguese history, and is the subject of an epic by +Jeronymo Corte Real (q.v.). + + See R. S. Whiteway, _Rise of the Portuguese Power in India_ (1898). + + + + +DIURETICS (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: ourein], pass +urine), the name given to remedies which, under certain conditions, +stimulate an increased flow of urine. Their mode of action is various. +Some are absorbed into the blood, carried to the secretory organs (the +kidneys), and stimulate them directly, causing an increased flow of +blood; others act as stimulants through the nervous system. A second +class act in congested conditions of the kidneys by diminishing the +congestion. Another class, such as the saline diuretics, are effectual +by virtue of their osmotic action. A fourth class are diuretic by +increasing the blood pressure within the vessels in general, and the +Malpighian tufts in particular,--some, as digitalis, by increasing the +strength of the heart's contractions, and others, as water, by +increasing the amount of fluid circulating in the vessels. Some +remedies, as mercury, although not diuretic themselves, when prescribed +along with those which have this action, increase their effect. The same +remedy may act in more than one way, e.g. alcohol, besides stimulating +the secretory organs directly, is a stimulant to the circulation, and +thus increases the pressure within the vessels. Diuretics are prescribed +when the quantity of urine is much diminished, or when, although the +quantity may be normal, it is wished to relieve some other organ or set +of organs of part of their ordinary work, or to aid in carrying off some +morbid product circulating in the blood, or to hasten the removal of +inflammatory serous exudations, or of dropsical collections of fluid. +Caffeine, which is far the best true diuretic, acts in nearly every way +mentioned above. Together with digitalis it is the most efficient remedy +for cardiac dropsy. A famous diuretic pill, known as Guy's pill, +consists of a grain each of mercurial pill, digitalis leaves and squill, +made up with extract of henbane. Digitalis, producing its diuretic +effect by its combined action on heart, vessels and kidneys, is much +used in the oedema of mitral disease, but must be avoided in chronic +Bright's disease, as it increases the tension of the pulse, already +often dangerously high. Turpentine and cantharides are not now +recommended as diuretics, as they are too irritating to the kidneys. + + + + +DIURNAL MOTION, the relative motion of the earth and the heavens, which +results from the rotation of our globe on its axis in a direction from +west toward east. The actual motion consists in this rotation. But the +term is commonly applied to the resultant apparent revolution of the +heavens from east to west, the axis of which passes through the +celestial poles, and is coincident in direction with the axis of the +earth. + + + + +DIVAN (Arabic _d[=i]w[=a]n_), a Persian word, derived probably from +Aramaic, meaning a "counting-house, office, bureau, tribunal"; thence, +on one side, the "account-books and registers" of such an office, and, +on another, the "room where the office or tribunal sits"; thence, again, +from "account-book, register," a "book containing the poems of an +author," arranged in a definite order (alphabetical according to the +rhyme-words), perhaps because of the saying, "Poetry is the register +(_d[=i]w[=a]n_) of the Arabs," and from "bureau, tribunal," "a long +seat, formed of a mattress laid against the side of the room, upon the +floor or upon a raised structure or frame, with cushions to lean +against" (Lane, _Lexicon_, 930 f.). All these meanings existed and +exist, especially "bureau, tribunal," "book of poems" and "seat"[1]; but +the order of derivation may have been slightly different. The word first +appears under the caliphate of Omar (A.D. 634-644). Great wealth, gained +from the Moslem conquests, was pouring into Medina, and a system of +business management and administration became necessary. This was copied +from the Persians and given the Persian name, "divan." Later, as the +state became more complicated, the term was extended over all the +government bureaus. The divan of the Sublime Porte was for long the +council of the empire, presided over by the grand vizier. + + See Von Kremer, _Culturgeschichte des Orients_, i. 64, 198. + (D. B. MA.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The divan in this sense has been known in Europe certainly since + about the middle of the 18th century. It was fashionable, roughly + speaking, from 1820 to 1850, wherever the romantic movement in + literature penetrated. All the boudoirs of that generation were + garnished with divans; they even spread to coffee-houses, which were + sometimes known as "divans" or "Turkish divans"; and a "cigar divan" + remains a familiar expression. + + + + +DIVER, a name that when applied to a bird is commonly used in a sense +even more vague than that of loom, several of the sea ducks or +_Fuligulinae_ and mergansers being frequently so called, to say nothing +of certain of the auks or _Alcidae_ and grebes; but in English +ornithological works the term diver is generally restricted to the +Family known as _Colymbidae_, a very well-marked group of aquatic birds, +possessing great, though not exceptional, powers of submergence, and +consisting of a single genus _Colymbus_ which is composed of three, or +at most four, species, all confined to the northern hemisphere. This +Family belongs to the _Cecomorphae_ of T. H. Huxley, and is usually +supposed to occupy a place between the _Alcidae_ and _Podicipedidae_; +but to which of these groups it is most closely related is undecided. +Professor Brandt in 1837 (_Beitr. Naturgesch. Vogel_, pp. 124-132) +pointed out the osteological differences of the grebes and the divers, +urging the affinity of the latter to the auks; while, thirty years +later, Professor Alph. Milne-Edwards (_Ois. foss. France_, i. pp. +279-283) inclined to the opposite view, chiefly relying on the +similarity of a peculiar formation of the tibia in the grebes and +divers,[1] which indeed is very remarkable, and, in the latter group, +attracted the attention of Willughby more than 230 years ago. On the +other hand Professor Brandt, and Rudolph Wagner shortly after (Naumann's +_Vogel Deutschlands_, ix. p. 683, xii. p. 395), had already shown that +the structure of the knee-joint in the grebes and divers differs in that +the former have a distinct and singularly formed _patella_ (which is +undeveloped in the latter) in addition to the prolonged, pyramidally +formed, procnemial process--which last may, from its exaggeration, be +regarded as a character almost peculiar to these two groups.[2] The +evidence furnished by oology and the newly-hatched young seems to favour +Brandt's views. The abortion of the _rectrices_ in the gerbes, while +these feathers are fairly developed in the divers, is another point that +helps to separate the two Families. + +The commonest species of _Colymbus_ is _C. septentrionalis_, known as +the red-throated diver from an elongated patch of dark bay which +distinguishes the throat of the adult in summer dress. Immature birds +want the bay patch, and have the back so much more spotted that they are +commonly known as "speckled divers." Next in size is the black-throated +diver, _C. arcticus_, having a light grey head and a gular patch of +purplish-black, above which is a semicollar of white striped vertically +with black. Still bigger is the great northern diver, _C. glacialis_ or +_torquatus_, with a glossy black head and neck, two semicollars of white +and black vertical stripes, and nearly the whole of the black back and +upper surface of the wings beautifully marked with white spots, varying +in size and arranged in belts.[3] Closely resembling this bird, so as to +be most easily distinguished from it by its yellow bill, is _C. adamsi_. +The divers live chiefly on fish, and are of eminently marine habit, +though invariably resorting for the purpose of breeding to freshwater +lakes, where they lay two dark brown eggs on the very brink; but they +are not unfrequently found far from the sea, being either driven inland +by stress of weather, or exhausted in their migrations. Like most birds +of their build, they chiefly trust to swimming, whether submerged or on +the surface, as a means of progress, but once on the wing their flight +is strong and they can mount to a great height. In winter their range is +too extensive and varied to be here defined, though it is believed never +to pass, and in few directions to approach, the northern tropic; but the +geographical distribution of the several forms in summer requires +mention. While _C. septentrionalis_ inhabits the north temperate zone of +both hemispheres, _C. arcticus_ breeds in suitable places from the +Hebrides to Scandinavia, and across the Russian empire, it would seem, +to Japan, reappearing in the north-west of North America,[4] though its +eastern limit on that continent cannot be definitely laid down; but it +is not found in Greenland, Iceland, Shetland or Orkney. _C. glacialis_, +on the contrary, breeds throughout the north-eastern part of Canada, in +Greenland and in Iceland. It has been said to do so in Scotland as well +as in Norway, but the assertion seems to lack positive proof, and it may +be doubted whether, with the exception of Iceland, it is indigenous to +the Old World,[5] since the form observed in North-eastern Asia is +evidently that which has been called _C. adamsi_, and is also found in +North-western America; but it may be remarked that one example of this +form has been taken in England (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1859, p. 206) and +at least one in Norway (_Nyt Mag. for Naturvidenskaberne_, 1877, p. +134). (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The remains of _Colymboides minutus_, from the Miocene of Langy, + described by this naturalist in the work just cited, seem to show it + to have been a generalized form. Unfortunately its tibia is unknown. + + [2] A. H. Garrod, in his tentative and chiefly myological arrangement + of Birds (_Proc Zool. Society_, 1874, p. 117), placed the + _Colymbidae_ and _Podicipedidae_ in one order (_Anseriformes_) and + the _Alcidae_ in another (_Charadriiformes_); but the artificial + nature of this assignment may be realized by the fact of his + considering the other families of the former order to be _Anatidae_ + and _Spheniscidae_. + + [3] The osteology and myology of this species are described by Dr + Coues (_Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. History_, i. pp. 131-172, pl. 5). + + [4] Lawrence's _C. pacificus_ seems hardly to deserve specific + recognition. + + [5] In this connexion should be mentioned the remarkable occurrence + in Europe of two birds of this species which had been previously + wounded by a weapon presumably of transatlantic origin. One had "an + arrow headed with copper sticking through its neck," and was shot on + the Irish coast, as recorded by J. Vaughan Thompson (_Nat. Hist. + Ireland_, iii. p. 201); the other, says Herr H. C. Muller (_Vid. + Medd. nat. Forening_, 1862, p. 35), was found dead in Kalbaksfjord in + the Faeroes with an iron-tipped bone dart fast under its wing. + + + + +DIVERS and DIVING APPARATUS. To "dive" (Old Eng. _dufan_, _d['y]fan_; +cf. "dip") is to plunge under water, and in the ordinary procedure of +swimmers is distinguished from simple plunging in that it involves +remaining under the water for an interval of more or less duration +before coming to the surface. In the article SWIMMING the sport of +diving in this sense is considered. Here we are only concerned with +diving as the function of a "diver," whose business it is to go under +water (in modern times, assisted by specially devised apparatus) in +order to work. + +_Unassisted or Natural Diving._--The earliest reference to the practice +of the art of diving for a purpose of utility occurs in the _Iliad_, 16, +745-750, where Patroclus compares the fall of Hector's charioteer to the +action of a diver diving for oysters. Thus it would seem that the art +was known about 1000 years before the Christian era. Thucydides is the +first to mention the employment of divers for mechanical work under +water. He relates that divers were employed during the siege of Syracuse +to saw down the barriers which had been constructed below the surface of +the water with the object of obstructing and damaging any Grecian war +vessels which might attempt to enter the harbour. At the siege of Tyre, +divers were ordered by Alexander the Great to impede or destroy the +submarine defences of the besieged as they were erected. The purpose of +these obstructions was analogous to that of the submarine mine of +to-day. + +The employment of divers for the salvage of sunken property is first +mentioned by Livy, who records that in the reign of Perseus considerable +treasure was recovered from the sea. By a law of the Rhodians, their +divers were allowed a proportion of the value recovered, varying with +the risk incurred, or the depth from which the treasure was salved. For +instance, if the diver raised it from a depth of eight cubits (12 ft.) +he received one-third for himself; if from sixteen cubits (24 ft.) one +half; but upon goods lost near the shore, and recovered from a depth of +two cubits (36 in.), his share was only one tenth. + +These are examples of unassisted diving as practised by the Ancients. +Their primitive method, however, is still in vogue in some parts of the +world--notably in the Ceylon pearl fisheries and in the Mediterranean +sponge fisheries, and it may, therefore, be as well to mention the +system adopted by the natural, or naked, diver of to-day. + +The volume and power of respiration of the lungs vary in different +individuals, some persons being able to hold their breath longer than +others, so that it naturally follows that one man may be able to stay +longer under water than another. The longest time that a natural diver +has been known to remain beneath the surface is about two minutes. Some +pearl and sponge divers rub their bodies with oil, and put wool, +saturated with oil, in their ears. Others hold in their mouth a piece of +sponge soaked in oil, which they renew every time they descend. It is +doubtful, however, whether these expedients are beneficial. The men who +dive in this primitive fashion take with them a flat stone with a hole +in the centre; to this is attached a rope, which is secured to the +diving boat and serves to guide them to particular spots below. When the +diver reaches the sea bottom he tears off as much sponge within reach as +possible, or picks up pearl shells, as the case may be, and then pulls +the rope to indicate to the man in the boat that he wishes to be hauled +up. But so exhausting is the work, and so severe the strain on the +system, that, after a number of dives in deep water, the men often +become insensible, and blood sometimes bursts from nose, ears and mouth. + +_Early Diving Appliances._--The earliest mention of any appliance for +assisting divers is by Aristotle, who says that divers are sometimes +provided with instruments for respiration through which they can draw +air from above the water and which thus enable them to remain a long +time under the sea (_De Part. Anim._ 2, 16), and also that divers +breathe by letting down a metallic vessel which does not get filled with +water but retains the air within it (_Problem._ 32, 5). It is also +recorded that Alexander the Great made a descent into the sea in a +machine called a _colimpha_, which had the power of keeping a man dry, +and at the same time of admitting light. Pliny also speaks of divers +engaged in the strategy of ancient warfare, who drew air through a tube, +one end of which they carried in their mouths, whilst the other end was +made to float on the surface of the water. Roger Bacon in 1240, too, is +supposed to have invented a contrivance for enabling men to work under +water; and in Vegetius's _De Re Militari_ (editions of 1511 and 1532, +the latter in the British Museum) is an engraving representing a diver +wearing a tight-fitting helmet to which is attached a long leathern pipe +leading to the surface, where its open end is kept afloat by means of a +bladder. This method of obtaining air during subaqueous operations was +probably suggested by the action of the elephant when swimming; the +animal instinctively elevates its trunk so that the end is above the +surface of the water, and thus is enabled to take in fresh air at every +inspiration. + +A certain Repton invented "water armour" in the year 1617, but when +tried it was found to be useless. G. A. Borelli in the year 1679 +invented an apparatus which enabled persons to go to a certain depth +under water, and he is credited with being the first to introduce means +of forcing air down to the diver. For this purpose he used a large pair +of bellows. John Lethbridge, a Devonshire man, in the year 1715 +contrived "a watertight leather case for enclosing the person." This +leather case held about half a hogshead of air, and was so adapted as to +give free play to arms and legs, so that the wearer could walk on the +sea bottom, examine a sunken vessel and salve her cargo, returning to +the surface when his supply of air was getting exhausted. It is said +that Lethbridge made a considerable fortune by his invention. The next +contrivance worthy of mention, and most nearly resembling the modern +diving-dress, was an apparatus invented by Kleingert, of Breslau, in +1798. This consisted of an egg-ended metallic cylinder enveloping the +head and the body to the hips. The diver was encased first of all in a +leather jacket having tight-fitting arms, and in leather drawers with +tight-fitting legs. To these the cylinder was fastened in such a way as +to render the whole equipment airtight. The air supply was drawn through +a pipe which was connected with the mouth of the diver by an ivory +mouthpiece, the surface end being held above water after the manner +mentioned in Vegetius, viz. by means of a floating bladder attached to +it. The foul air escaped through another pipe held in a similar manner +above the surface of the water, inhalation being performed by the mouth +and exhalation by the nose, the act of inhalation causing the chest to +expand and so to expel the vitiated air through the escape pipe. The +diver was weighted when going under water, and when he wished to ascend +he released one of his weights, and attached it to a rope which he held, +and it was afterwards hauled up. + +_Modern Apparatus._--This, or equally cumbersome apparatus, was the +only diving gear in use up till 1819, in which year Augustus Siebe (the +founder of the firm of Siebe, Gorman & Co.), invented his "open" dress, +worked in conjunction with an air force pump. This dress consisted of a +metal helmet and shoulder-plate attached to a watertight jacket, under +which, fitting more closely to the body, were worn trousers, or rather a +combination suit reaching to the armpits. The helmet was fitted with an +air inlet valve, to which one end of a flexible tube was attached, the +other end being connected at the surface with a pump which supplied the +diver with a constant stream of fresh air. The air, which kept the water +well down, forced its way between the jacket and the under-garment, and +escaped to the surface on exactly the same principle as that of the +diving bell; hence the term "open" as applied to this dress. + +Although most excellent work was accomplished with this dress--work +which could not be attempted before its introduction--it was still far +from perfect. It was absolutely necessary for the diver to maintain an +upright, or but very slightly stooping, position whilst under water; if +he stumbled and fell, the water filled his dress, and, unless quickly +brought to the surface, he was in danger of being drowned. To overcome +this and other defects, Siebe carried out a large number of experiments +extending over several years, which culminated, in the year 1830, in the +introduction of his "close" dress in combination with a helmet fitted +with air inlet and regulating outlet valves. + +Though, of course, vast improvements have been introduced since Siebe's +death, in 1872, the fact remains that his principle is in universal use +to this day. The submarine work which it has been instrumental in +accomplishing is incalculable. But some idea of the importance of the +invention may be gathered from the fact that diving apparatus on Siebe's +principle is universally used to-day in harbour, dock, pier and +breakwater construction, in the pearl and sponge fisheries, in +recovering sunken ships, cargo and treasure, and that every ship in the +British navy and in most foreign navies carries one set or more of +diving apparatus. + +A modern set of diving apparatus consists essentially of six parts:--(1) +an air pump, (2) a helmet with breastplate, (3) a diving dress, (4) a +pair of heavily weighted boots, (5) a pair of back and chest weights, +(6) a flexible non-collapsible air tube. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Pump out of chest. + + Two-cylinder, Double-action Air Pump for Two Divers. + + A, Air-distributing arrangement, for one diver or two divers. + B, Water jacket. + C, Suction and discharge valves. + D, Cylinders. + E, Pressure gauges. + F, Nozzles to which divers' air pipes are attached.] + + _Air Pumps._--The type of air pump varies with the depth of water to + which the diver has to descend; it will be readily understood that the + greater the depth the greater the quantity of air required by the + diver. The pattern most generally in favour amongst divers of all + classes is a three-cylinder single-acting pump, which is suitable for + almost every description of work which the diver may be called upon to + perform, either in deep or shallow water. Another most useful type is + a two-cylinder double-acting pump (figs. 1 and 2), which is designed + to supply two divers working simultaneously in moderate depths of + water, or one diver only in deep water. An air-distributing + arrangement is fitted, whereby, when it is desired to send two men + down together, each cylinder supplies air independently of the other; + and when it is required to send one diver into deep water, the two + cylinders are connected and the full volume of air from both is + delivered to the one man. The same duty is also performed by a + four-cylinder single-acting pump. Smaller pumps, having one + double-acting or two single-acting cylinders, are also used for + shallow water work. + + In most cases these air pumps are worked by manual power; this method + of working is rendered necessary by the fact that the machines are + usually placed in small boats from which the divers work and on which + other motive power is not available. In cases, however, where steam or + electric power is available the pumps are sometimes worked by their + means--more particularly on harbour and dock works. In such instances + the air is not delivered direct from the pump to the diver, but is + delivered into an intermediate steel receiver to which the diver's air + pipe is connected, the object being to ensure a reserve supply of air + in case of a breakdown of the pump. Some of these combinations of + pumps and motors are so arranged that, in the event of an accident to + the motor, the pump can be thrown out of gear with it, and be + immediately worked by hand power. Each pump is fitted with a gauge (or + gauges), indicating not only the pressure of air which the pump is + supplying, but also the depth of water at which the diver is working. + The cylinders are water-jacketed to ensure the air delivered to the + diver being cool, the water being drawn in and circulated round the + cylinders by means of a small metal pump worked from an eccentric on + the main crank-shaft. Filters are sometimes attached to the suction + and delivery sides of the pumps to ensure the inlet of air being free + from dirt, and the discharge of air free from dirt and oil. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pump in chest, ready for work.] + + _Helmet._--The helmet and breastplate (fig. 3) are made from highly + planished tinned copper, with gun-metal valves and other fittings. The + helmet is provided with a non-return air inlet valve to which the + diver's air pipe is connected; the air when it lifts the inlet valve + passes through three conduits--one having its outlet over the front + glass, the others their outlets over the side glasses. In this way the + diver gets the air fresh as it enters the helmet, and at the same time + it prevents condensation of his breath on the glasses and keeps them + clear. There is a regulating air outlet valve by which the diver + adjusts his supply of air according to his requirements in different + depths of water; the valve is usually made to be adjusted by hand, but + sometimes it is so constructed as to be operated by the diver knocking + his head against it, the spindle being extended through to the inside + of the helmet and fitted at its inner extremity with a button or disk. + By unscrewing the valve, the diver allows air to escape, and thus the + dress is deflated; by screwing it up the air is retained and the dress + inflated. Thus the diver can control his specific gravity and rise or + sink at will. In case by any chance the diver should inflate the dress + inadvertently, and wish to get rid of the superfluous air quickly, he + can do so by opening an emergency cock, which is fitted on the helmet. + Plate glasses in gun-metal frames are also fitted to the helmet, two, + one on each side, being permanently fixed, while one in front is made + either to screw in and out, or to work on a hinged joint like a ship's + scuttle; the side glasses are usually protected by metal cross-bars, + as is also sometimes the front glass. Some divers prefer unprotected + glasses at the side of the helmet, instead of protected oval ones. + + The breastplate is fitted on its outer edge with metal screws and + bands. The disposition of the screws corresponds with that of the + holes in the india-rubber collar of the diving dress described below. + There are other methods of making a watertight joint between the + diver's breastplate and the diving dress, but, as these are only + mechanical differences, it will suffice to describe the Siebe-Gorman + apparatus, as exclusively adopted by the British government. Whatever + the shape or design of the helmet or dress, Siebe's principle is the + one in universal use to-day. + + The metal tabs are for carrying the diver's lead weights, which are + fitted with suitable clips; the hooks--one on each side of the + helmet--are for keeping the ropes attached to the back weight in + position. The helmet and breastplate are fitted at their lower and + upper parts respectively with gun-metal segmental neck rings, which + make it possible to connect these two main parts together by + one-eighth of a turn, a catch at the back of the helmet preventing any + chance of unscrewing. The small eyes at the top of the helmet are for + securing the diver's air pipe and life line in position and preventing + them from swaying. + + [Illustration: + + Front view of Helmet. + + A, Helmet. + B, Breastplate. + F, Emergency cock. + G, Glasses in frames. + H, Metal screws and bands. + I, Metal tabs. + J, Hooks for keeping weight ropes in position. + L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured. + + Side sectional view of Helmet. + + K, Segmental neck rings. + D, Air conduits. + M, Telephone receiver. + N, Transmitter. + O, Contact piece to ring bell. + + Back view of Helmet. + + Plan of Helmet. + C, Air inlet valve. + E, Regulating outlet valve. + G, Glasses in frames. + L, Eyes to which air pipe and life line are secured. + P, Connexion for telephone cable. + + FIG. 3.] + + The _Diving Dress_ is a combination suit which envelops the whole body + from feet to neck. It is made of two layers of tanned twill with pure + rubber between, and is fitted at the neck with a vulcanized + india-rubber collar, or band, with holes punched in it corresponding + to the screws in the breastplate. This collar, when clamped tightly + between the bands and the breastplate by means of the nuts, ensures a + watertight joint. The sleeves of the dress are fitted with vulcanized + india-rubber cuffs, which, fitting tightly round the diver's wrists, + prevent the ingress of water at these parts also. + + _Boots._--These are generally made with leather uppers, beechwood + inner soles and leaden outer soles, the latter being secured to the + others by copper rivets. Heavy leather straps with brass buckles + secure the boot to the foot. Each boot weighs about 16 lb. Sometimes + the main part of the boot-golosh, toe and heel, are in one brass + casting, with leather upper part, heavy straps and brass buckles. + + _Lead Weights._--These weigh 40 lb. each, and the diver wears one on + his back, another on his chest. These weights and the heavy boots + ensure the diver's equilibrium when under water. + + _Belt and Knife and Small Tools._--Every diver wears a heavy + waist-belt in which he carries a strong knife in metal case, and + sometimes other small tools. + + _Air Pipe._--The diver's air pipe is of a flexible, non-collapsible + description, being made of alternate layers of strong canvas and + vulcanized india-rubber, with steel or hard drawn metal wire embedded. + At the ends are fitted gun-metal couplings, for connecting the pipe + with the diver's pump and helmet. + + _Signal Line._--The diver's signal line (sometimes called life line) + consists of a length of reverse laid Manila rope. In cases where the + telephone apparatus is not used, the diver gives his signals by means + of a series of pulls on the signal line in accordance with a + prearranged code. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diver's Telephone Communication with the + Surface. + + Q, Battery, with switch and bell in case. + R, Attendant's receiver and transmitter.] + + _Telephonic Apparatus._--Without doubt one of the most useful adjuncts + to the modern diving apparatus is the loud-sounding telephone (fig. + 4), introduced by Siebe, Gorman & Co., which enables the diver to + communicate viva voce with his attendant, and vice versa. In the + British navy the type of submarine telephonic apparatus used is the + Graham-Davis system. This is made on two plans, (1) a single set of + instruments, for communication between one diver and his attendant + direct, (2) an intercommunication set which is used where two divers + are employed. With this type the attendant can speak to No. 1 or No. 2 + diver separately, or with both at the same time, and vice versa; and + No. 1 can be put in communication with No. 2 whilst they are under + water, the attendant at the surface being able to hear what the men + are saying. The advantages of such a system are obvious. It is more + particularly useful where two divers are working one either side of a + ship, or where the divers may be engaged upon the same piece of work, + but out of sight of one another, or out of touch. It would prove its + utility in a marked degree in cases where a diver got into + difficulties; a second diver sent down to his assistance could receive + and give verbal directions and thus greatly expedite the work of + rescue. + + The telephone instruments in the helmet consist of one or more + loud-sounding receivers placed either in the crown of the helmet, or + one on each side in close proximity to the diver's ears. A transmitter + of a special watertight pattern is placed between the front glass and + one of the side glasses, and a contact piece, which, when the diver + presses his chin against it, rings a bell at the surface, is fitted + immediately below the front glass. A buzzer is sometimes fixed in the + helmet to call the diver's attention when the attendant wishes to + speak, but as a rule the voice is transmitted so loudly that this + device is unnecessary. A connexion, through which the insulated wires + connecting the instruments pass, terminates in contact pieces, and the + telephone cable, embedded in the diver's signal line, is connected + with it. The other end of the signal line is connected to a battery + box at the surface. This box contains, besides the cells, a receiver + and transmitter for the attendant, an electric bell, a terminal box, + and a special switch, by means of which various communications between + diver, or divers, and attendant are made. If, as is sometimes the + case, the diver happens to be somewhat deaf, he can, whilst he is + taking a message, stop the vibration of the outlet valve and the noise + made by the escaping air, by merely pressing his finger on a spindle + which passes through the disk of the valve, and thus momentarily + ensure absolute silence. + + _Speaking Tube._--The rubber speaking tube which was the forerunner of + the telephonic apparatus is now practically obsolete, though it is + still used in isolated cases. + + _Submarine Electric Lamps._--Various forms of submarine lamps are + used, from a powerful arc light to a self-contained hand lamp, the + former giving about 2000 or 3000 candle-power, and requiring a + steam-driven dynamo to supply the necessary current, the latter (fig. + 5) giving a light of about 10 candle-power and having its own + batteries, so that the diver carries both the light and its source in + his hand. These submarine lamps are all constructed on the same + principle, having the incandescent lamps, or carbons as the case may + be, enclosed in a strong glass globe, the mechanism and connexions + being fitted in a metal case above the globe, which is flanged and + secured watertightly to the case. + + _Self-contained Diving Dress._--The object of the self-contained diving + dress is to make the diver independent of air supply from the surface. + The dress, helmet, boots and weights are of the ordinary pattern + already described, but instead of obtaining his air supply by means of + pumps and pipes, the diver is equipped with a knapsack consisting of a + steel cylinder containing oxygen compressed to a pressure of 120 + atmospheres (= about 1800 lb.) to the square inch, and chambers + containing caustic soda or caustic potash. The helmet is connected to + the chambers by tubes, and the oxygen cylinder is similarly connected + to the chambers. The breath exhaled by the diver passes through a + valve into the caustic soda, which absorbs the carbonic acid, and it + is then again inhaled through another valve. This process of + regeneration goes on automatically, the requisite amount of oxygen + being restored to the breathed air in its passage through the + chambers. This type of apparatus has been used for shallow water work, + but the great majority of divers prefer the apparatus using pumps as + the source of the air supply. + + An emergency dress, using this self-contained system for breathing, + has been designed by Messrs Fleuss and Davis, of the firm of Siebe, + Gorman & Co., primarily as a life-saving apparatus, for enabling men + to escape from disabled submarine boats. + + The helmet diver is indispensable in connexion with harbour and dock + construction, bridge-building, pearl and sponge fishing, wreck raising + and the recovery of sunken cargo and treasure. Every ship in the + British navy carries one set or more of diving apparatus, for use in + ease of emergency, for clearing fouled propellers, cleaning valves or + ship's hull below the water line, repairing hulls if necessary, and + recovering lost anchors, chains, torpedoes, &c. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Submarine Electric Lamp, with and without + Reflector. + + A, Metal case containing electrical fittings. + B, Glass globe and incandescent lamp. + C, Stand, which also protects the globe. + D, Ring for suspending lamp. + E, Reflector.] + +_Greatest Depths attained._--The greatest depth at which useful work has +been performed by a diver is 182 ft. From this depth a Spanish diver, +Angel Erostarbe, recovered L9000 in silver bars from the wreck of the +steamer "Skyro," sunk off Cape Finisterre; Alexander Lambert succeeded +in salving L70,000 from the Spanish mail steamer "Alphonso XII," sunk in +162 ft. of water off Las Palmas, Grand Canary; W. Ridyard recovered +L50,000 in silver dollars from the "Hamilton Mitchell," sunk off +Leuconna Reef, China, in 150 ft. There are individual cases where much +larger sums have been recovered, but those mentioned are particularly +notable by reason of the great depth involved and stand out as the +greatest depths at which good work has been done. The sponge fishers of +the Mediterranean work at a maximum depth of about 150 ft., and the +pearl divers of Australia at 120 ft. But submarine operations on the +great majority of the harbour and dock works of the world are conducted +at a depth of from 30 to 60 ft. + +The weighted tools employed by divers differ very little from those used +by the workmen on _terra firma_. Pneumatic tools, worked by compressed +air conveyed from the surface through flexible tubes, are great aids, +particularly in rock removal work. With the rock drill the diver bores a +number of holes to a given depth, inserts in these the charges of +dynamite or other explosive used, attaches one end of a wire to a +detonator which is inserted in the charge, and then comes to the +surface. The boat from which he works is then moved away from the scene +of operations, paying out the wire attached to the detonators, and when +at a safe distance the free end of the wire is connected to a magneto +exploding machine, which is then set in motion. + +A complete set of diving apparatus costs from L75 to L200, varying with +the depth of water for which it is required. + +The pay of a diver depends upon the nature of the work upon which he is +engaged, and also upon the depth of the water. On harbour and dock work +the average wage is 2s. to 2s. 6d. per hour; on wreck work from 3s. to +5s. an hour, according to depth; on treasure and cargo recovery so much +per day, with a percentage on the value recovered, generally about 5%. +The pearl fishers of Australia get so much per ton of shell, and the +sponge fishers are also paid by results. + +A problem which has been exercising the minds of those engaged in +submarine work is the greatest depth at which it is possible to work, +for, as is well known, many a fine vessel with valuable cargo and +treasure is lying out of reach of the diver owing to the pressure which +he would have to sustain were he to attempt to reach her. Mr Leonard +Hill, and Drs Greenwood and J. J. R. Macleod conducted experiments in +conjunction with Messrs Siebe, Gorman & Co., with a view to solving this +problem, and their efforts have been attended with some considerable +success. Dr J. S. Haldane has also carried out practical experiments for +the British Admiralty, and under his supervision two naval officers have +succeeded in reaching the unprecedented depth of 210 ft., at which depth +the pressure is about 90 lb. to the square inch. + +_Diving Bells._--Every one is familiar with the experiment of placing an +inverted tumbler in a bowl of water, and seeing the water excluded from +the tumbler by the air inside it. Perhaps it was to some such experiment +as this that the conception of the diving bell was due. As is well +known, the pressure of water increases with the depth, and for all +practical purposes this pressure can be taken at 4-1/4 lb. to every 10 ft. +The following table shows the pressure at different depths below the +surface of the water:-- + + Depth. Pressure. + + 20 ft. 8-1/2 lb to the sq. in. + 40 " 17-1/4 " " + 80 " 34-3/4 " " + 120 " 52-1/2 " " + 160 " 69-3/4 " " + 200 " 87 " " + +If a diving bell be sunk to a depth of, say, 33 ft., the air inside it +will be compressed to about half its original volume, and the bell +itself will be about half filled with water. But if a supply of air be +maintained at a pressure equal to the depth of water at which the bell +is submerged, not only will the water be kept down to the cutting edge, +but the bell will be ventilated and it will be possible for its +occupants to work for hours at a stretch. + +Tradition gives Roger Bacon, in 1250, the credit for being the +originator of the diving bell, but actual records are lost in antiquity. +Of the records preserved to us, probably one of the most trustworthy is +an account given in Kaspar Schott's work, _Technica curiosa_, published +in the year 1664, which quoted from one John Taisnier, who was in the +service of Charles V. This account describes an experiment which took +place at Toledo, Spain, in the year 1538, before the emperor and some +thousands of spectators, when two Greeks descended into the water in a +large "kettle," suspended by ropes, with its mouth downwards. The +"kettle" was equipoised by lead fixed round its mouth. The men came up +dry, and a lighted candle, which they had taken down with them, was +still burning. + +Francis Bacon, in the _Novum Organum_, lib. ii., makes the following +reference to a machine, or reservoir, of air to which labourers upon +wrecks might resort whenever they required to take breath:-- + + "A hollow vessel, made of metal, was let down equally to the surface + of the water, and thus carried with it to the bottom of the sea the + whole of the air which it contained. It stood upon three feet--like a + tripod--which were in length something less than the height of a man, + so that the diver, when he was no longer able to contain his breath, + could put his head into the vessel, and having filled his lungs again, + return to his work." + +But it was to Dr Edmund Halley, secretary of the Royal Society, that +undoubtedly the honour is due of having invented the first really +practical diving bell. This is described in the _Philosophical +Transactions_, 1717, in a paper on "The Art of Living Under Water by +means of furnishing air at the bottom of the sea in any ordinary depth." +Halley's bell was constructed of wood, and was covered with lead, which +gave it the necessary sinking weight, and was so distributed as to +ensure that it kept a perpendicular position when in the water. It was +in the form of a truncated cone, 3 ft. in diameter at the top, 5 ft. at +the bottom and 8 ft. high. In the roof a lens was introduced for +admitting light, and also a tap to let out the vitiated air. Fresh air +was supplied to the bell by means of two lead-lined barrels, each +having a bung-hole in the top and bottom. To the hole in the top was +fixed a leathern tube, weighted in such a manner that it always fell +below the level of the bottom of the barrel so that no air could escape. +When, however, the tube was turned up by the attendant in the bell, the +pressure of the water rising through the hole in the bottom of the +barrel, forced the air through the tube at the top and into the diving +bell. These barrels were raised and lowered alternately, with such +success that Halley says that he, with four others, remained at the +bottom of the sea, at a depth of 9 to 10 fathoms, for an hour and a half +at a time without inconvenience of any sort. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Ordinary Diving Bell.] + +This type of bell was used by John Smeaton in repairing the foundations +of Hexham Bridge in 1778, but instead of weighted barrels, he introduced +a force pump for supplying the necessary air. To Smeaton too we are +indebted for the first diving bell plant in the form with which we are +familiar to-day, that celebrated engineer having designed a square bell +of iron, for use on the Ramsgate harbour works, in 1788. This bell, +which measured 4-1/2 ft. in length, 3 ft. in width and 4-1/2 ft. in height, +and weighed 2-1/2 tons, was made sufficiently heavy to sink by its own +weight. It afforded room enough for two men to work, and was supplied +with air by a force pump worked from a boat at the surface. + +Though the diving bell has been largely superseded by the modern diving +apparatus, it is still used on certain classes of work the magnitude of +which justifies the expense entailed, for it is not only a question of +the cost of the bell, but of the powerful steam-driven crane which is +needed to lower and raise it, and also of the gantry on which the crane +travels. Sometimes a barge or other vessel is used for working the bell. + +At the present day, two types of diving bell are employed--the ordinary +bell, and the air-lock bell, which, however, is not so largely used. + + On the new national harbour works at Dover, four large diving bells of + the ordinary type (fig. 6) were employed. These bells, in each of + which from four to six men descended at a time, consisted of steel + chambers, open at the bottom, measuring 17 ft. long by 10-1/2 ft. wide by + 7 ft. high, and each weighed 35 tons. The ballast, which at once gives + the necessary sinking weight to the bell and maintains its + equilibrium, consisted of slabs of cast iron bolted to the walls of + the bell, inside. Each bell was fitted with loud-sounding telephonic + apparatus, by means of which the occupants could communicate either + with the men attending the crane or the men looking after the air + compressors at the surface. Electric lamps, supplied with current by a + dynamo in the compressor room, gave the necessary light inside the + bell. Seats and foot rails were provided for the men, and there were + racks and hooks for the various tools. Suspended from the roof was an + iron skip into which the men threw the excavated material, which was + emptied out when the bell was brought to the surface. Air was supplied + to the bells by means of steam-driven compressors worked in a house + erected on the gantry. The air was delivered into a steel air + receiver, and thence it passed through a flexible tube connected to a + gun-metal inlet valve in the roof of the diving bell; the pressure of + air was regulated according to the depth at which the bell happened to + be working. The maximum depth on the Dover works was between 60 and 70 + ft., = about 25-30 lb. to the square inch. A bell was lowered by + means of powerful steam-driven cranes, travelling on a gantry, to + within a few feet of the water, and the men entered it from a boat. + The bell then continued its descent to the bottom, where the men, with + pick and shovel, levelled the sea bed ready to receive the large + concrete blocks, weighing from 30 to 42 tons apiece. Having completed + one section, the bell was moved along to another. The concrete blocks + were then lowered and placed in position by helmet divers. The bell + divers, clad in thick woollen suits and watertight thigh boots, worked + in shifts of about three hours each, and were paid at the rate of from + 1s. to 15d. per hour. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Air-lock Diving Bell. + + A, Working chamber. + B, Air-lock. + C, Pulleys and wire ropes for lowering and raising bell. + D, Iron ladder. + E, Tackles suspended from roof for raising and lowering objects. + F, Air supply pipe.] + + The cost of an ordinary diving bell, including air compressor, + telephonic apparatus and electric light, is from L600 to L1500, + according to size. + + The _Air-lock Diving Bell_ (fig. 7) comprises an iron or steel working + chamber similar to the ordinary diving bell, but with the addition of + a shaft attached to its roof. At the upper end of the shaft is an + airtight door, and about 8 ft. below this is another similar door. + When the bell divers wish to enter the bell, they pass through the + first door and close it after them, and then open a cock or valve and + gradually let into the space between the two doors compressed air from + the working chamber in order to equalize the pressure; they then open + the second door and pass down into the working chamber, closing the + door after them. When returning to the surface they reverse the + operation. It can readily be imagined that, owing to its unwieldy + character, the employment of the air-lock bell is resorted to only in + those cases where the nature of the sea bed necessitates its remaining + on a given spot for some considerable time, as for instance in the + excavation of hard rock to a given depth. + + An air-lock bell supplied to the British Admiralty, for use in + connexion with the laying of moorings at Gibraltar, has a working + chamber measuring 15 ft. long by 10-1/2 ft. wide, by 7-1/2 ft. high, + and a shaft 37-1/2 ft. high by 3 ft. in diameter. It is built of steel + plates, with cast-iron ballast, and its total weight is about 46 tons. + The bell is electrically lighted, and is fitted with telephonic + apparatus communicating with the air-compressor room and lifting-winch + room. It is worked through a well in the centre of a specially + constructed steel barge 85 ft. long by 40 ft. beam, having a draught + of 7 ft. 6 in. The wire ropes, for lowering and raising the bell, work + over pulleys which are carried on a superstructure erected over the + well. Two sets of air compressors are fitted on the barge--one set for + supplying air to the bell, the other set for working a pneumatic rock + drill inside the bell. The greatest depth at which this particular + bell will work is 40 ft. The cost of the whole plant, including barge, + was about L14,000. + + The diving dress has, however, to a great extent supplanted the diving + bell. This is due not only to the heavier cost of the latter, but more + particularly to the greater mobility of the helmet diver. Bell divers + are naturally limited to the area which their bell for the time being + covers, whereas helmet divers can be distributed over different parts + of a contract and work entirely independently of one another. The use + of the diving bell is, therefore, practically limited to the work of + levelling the sea bed, and the removal of rock. + + See also the article CAISSON DISEASE as regards the physiological + effects of compressed air. (R. H. D.*) + + + + +DIVES-SUR-MER, a small port and seaside resort of north-western France on +the coast of the department of Calvados, on the Dives, 15 m. N.E. of +Caen by road. Pop. (1906) 3286. Dives is celebrated as the harbour +whence William the Conqueror sailed to England in 1066. In the porch of +its church (14th and 15th centuries) a tablet records the names of some +of his companions. The town has a picturesque inn, adapted from a +building dating partly from the 16th century, and market buildings +dating from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The coast in the vicinity of +Dives is fringed with small watering-places, those of Cabourg (to the +west) and of Beuzeval and Houlgate (to the east) being practically +united with it. There are large metallurgical works with electric motive +power close to the town. + + + + +DIVIDE, a word used technically as a noun in America and the British +colonies for any high ridge between two valleys, forming a +water-parting; a dividing range. For special senses of the verb "to +divide" (Lat. _di-videre_, the latter part of the word coming from a +root seen in Lat. _vidua_, Eng. "widow"), meaning generally to split up +in two or more parts, see DIVISION. In a parliamentary sense, to divide +(involving a separation into two sides, Aye and No) is to take the sense +of the House by voting on the subject before it. + + + + +DIVIDEND (Lat. _dividendum_, a thing to be divided), the net profit +periodically divisible among the proprietors of a joint-stock company in +proportion to their respective holdings of its capital. Dividend is not +interest, although the word dividend is frequently applied to payments +of interest; and a failure to pay dividends to shareholders does not, +like a failure to pay interest on borrowed money, lay a company open to +being declared bankrupt. In bankruptcy a dividend is the proportionate +share of the proceeds of the debtor's estate received by a creditor. In +England, the Companies Act 1862 provided that no dividend should be +payable except out of the profits arising from the business of the +company, but, in the case of companies incorporated by special act of +parliament for the construction of railways and other public works which +cannot be completed for a considerable time, it is sometimes provided +that interest may during construction be paid to the subscribers for +shares out of capital. Dividends (excluding occasional distributions in +the form of shares) are ordinarily payable in cash. Most companies +divide their capital into at least two classes, called "preference" +shares and "ordinary" shares, of which the former are entitled out of +the profits of the company to a preferential dividend at a fixed rate, +and the latter to whatever remains after payment of the preferential +dividend and any fixed charges. Before, however, a dividend is paid, a +part of the profits is often carried to a "reserve fund." The dividend +on preference shares is either "cumulative" or contingent on the profits +of each separate year or half year. When cumulative, if the profits of +any one year are insufficient to pay it in full, the deficiency has to +be made good out of subsequent profits. A cumulative preferential +dividend is sometimes said to be "guaranteed," and preferential +dividends payable by all English companies registered under the +Companies Acts 1862 to 1908 are cumulative unless stipulated to be +otherwise. Certain public companies are forbidden by parliament to pay +dividends in excess of a prescribed maximum rate, but this restriction +has been happily modified in some instances, notably in the case of gas +companies, by the institution of a sliding scale, under which a gas +company may so regulate the price of gas to be charged to consumers that +any reduction of an authorized standard price entitles the company to +make a proportionate increase of the authorized dividend, and any +increase above the standard price involves a proportionate decrease of +dividend. Dividends are usually declared yearly or half-yearly; and +before any dividend can be paid it is, as a rule, necessary for the +directors to submit to the shareholders, at a general meeting called for +the purpose, the accounts of the company, with a report by the directors +on its position and their recommendation as to the rate of the proposed +dividend. The articles of association of a company usually provide that +the shareholders may accept the director's recommendation as to dividend +or may declare a lower one, but may not declare a higher one than the +directors recommend. Directors frequently have power to pay on account +of the dividend for the year, without consulting the shareholders, an +"interim dividend," which on ordinary shares is generally at a much +lower rate than the final or regular dividend. An exceptionally high +dividend is often distributed in the shape of a dividend at the usual +rate supplemented by an additional dividend or "bonus." Payment of +dividends is made by means of cheques sent by post, called "dividend +warrants." All dividends are subject to income-tax, and by most +companies dividends are paid "less income-tax," in which case the tax is +deducted from the amount of dividend payable to each proprietor. When +paid without such deduction a dividend is said to be "free of +income-tax." In the latter case, however, the company has to make +provision for payment of the tax before declaring the dividend, and the +amount of its divisible profits and the rate of dividend which it is +able to declare are consequently to that extent reduced. In respect of +consols and certain other securities, holders of amounts of less than +L1000 may instruct the Bank of England or Bank of Ireland to receive and +invest their dividends. With few exceptions, the prices of securities +dealt in on the London Stock Exchange include any accruing dividend not +paid up to the date of purchase. At a certain day, after the dividend is +declared, the stock or share is dealt in on the Stock Exchange, as _ex +dividend_ (or "x. d."), which means that the current dividend is paid +not to the buyer but to the previous holder, and the price of the stock +is lower to that extent. The expression "cum dividend" is used to +signify that the price of the security dealt in includes a dividend +which, in the absence of any stipulation, might be supposed to belong to +the seller of the security. On the New York Stock Exchange the +invariable practice is to sell stock with the "dividend on" until the +company's books are closed, after which it is usually sold "ex +dividend." (S. D. H.) + + + + +DIVIDIVI, the native and commercial name for the astringent pods of +_Caesalpinia coriaria_, a leguminous shrub of the suborder +_Caesalpinieae_, which grows in low marshy tracts in the West Indies and +the north of South America. The plant is between 20 and 30 ft. in +height, and bears white flowers. The pods are flattened, and curl up in +drying; they are about 3/4 in. broad, from 2 to 3 in. long and of a rich +brown colour. Dividivi was first brought to Europe from Caracas in 1768. +It contains about 30% of ellagitannic acid, whence its value in leather +manufacture. + + + + +DIVINATION, the process of obtaining knowledge of secret or future +things by means of oracles, omens or astrology. The root of the word, +_deus_ (god) or _divus_, indicates the supposed source of the +soothsayer's information, just as the equivalent Greek term, [Greek: +mantike], indicates the spiritual source of the utterances of the seer, +[Greek: mantis]. In classical times the view was, in fact, general, as +may be seen by Cicero's _De divinatione_, that not only oracles but also +omens were signs sent by the gods; even the astrologer held that he +gained his information, in the last resort, from the same source. On the +side of the Stoics it was argued that if divination was a real art, +there must be gods who gave it to mankind; against this it was argued +that signs of future events may be given without any god. + +Divination is practised in all grades of culture; its votaries range +from the Australian black to the American medium. There is no general +agreement as to the source of the information; commonly it is held that +it comes from the gods directly or indirectly. In the Bornean cult of +the hawk it seems that the divine bird itself was regarded as having a +foreknowledge of the future. Later it is regarded as no more than a +messenger. Among the Australian blacks, divination is largely employed +to discover the cause of death, where it is assumed to be due to magic; +in some cases the spirit of the dead man is held to give the +information, in others the living magician is the source of the +knowledge. We find moreover a semi-scientific conception of the basis of +divination; the whole of nature is linked together; just as the +variations in the height of a column of mercury serve to foretell the +weather, so the flight of birds or behaviour of cattle may help to +prognosticate its changes; for the uncultured it is merely a step to the +assumption that animals know things which are hidden from man. +Haruspication, or the inspection of entrails, was justified on similar +grounds, and in the case of omens from birds or animals, no less than in +astrology, it was held that the facts from which inferences were drawn +were themselves in part the causes of the events which they foretold, +thus fortifying the belief in the possibility of divination. + +From a psychological point of view divinatory methods may be classified +under two main heads: (A) autoscopic, which depend simply on some change +in the consciousness of the soothsayer; (B) heteroscopic, in which he +looks outside himself for guidance and perhaps infers rather than +divines in the proper sense. + +(A) Autoscopic methods depend on (i.) sensory or (ii.) motor +automatisms, or (iii.) mental impressions, for their results. (i.) +Crystal-gazing (q.v.) is a world-wide method of divining, which is +analogous to dreams, save that the vision is voluntarily initiated, +though little, if at all, under the control of the scryer. Corresponding +to crystal-gazing we have _shell-hearing_ and similar methods, which +are, however, less common; in these the information is gained by hearing +a voice. (ii.) The divining rod (q.v.) is the best-known example of this +class; divination depending on automatic movements of this sort is found +at all stages of culture; in Australia it is used to detect the magician +who has caused the death of a native; in medieval and modern times +water-divining or _dowsing_ has been largely and successfully used. +Similar in principle is _coscinomancy_, or divining by a sieve held +suspended, which gives indications by turning; and the equally common +divination by a suspended ring, both of which are found from Europe in +the west to China and Japan in the east. The ordeal by the Bible and key +is equally popular; the book is suspended by a key tied in with its +wards between the leaves and supported on two persons' fingers, and the +whole turns round when the name of the guilty person is mentioned. +Confined to higher cultures on the other hand, for obvious reasons, is +divination by automatic writing, which is practised in China more +especially. The sand divination so widely spread in Africa seems to be +of a different nature. _Trance speaking_, on the other hand, may be +found in any stage of culture and there is no doubt that in many cases +the procedure of the magician or shaman induces a state of +auto-hypnotism; at a higher stage these utterances are termed oracles +and are believed to be the result of inspiration (q.v.). (iii.) Another +method of divination is by the aid of mental impressions; observation +seems to show that by some process of this sort, akin to clairvoyance +(q.v.), fortunes are told successfully by means of palmistry or by +laying the cards; for the same "lie" of the cards may be diversely +interpreted to meet different cases. In other cases the impression is +involuntary or less consciously sought, as in dreams (q.v.), which, +however, are sometimes induced, for purposes of divination, by the +process known as incubation or temple sleep. Dreams are sometimes +regarded as visits to or from gods or the souls of the dead, sometimes +as signs to be interpreted symbolically by means of dream-books, which +are found not only in Europe but in less cultured countries like Siam. + +(B) In heteroscopic divination the process is rather one of inference +from external facts. The methods are very various. (i.) The casting of +lots, _sortilege_, was common in classical antiquity; the Homeric heroes +prayed to the gods when they cast lots in Agamemnon's leather cap, and +Mopsus divined with sacred lots when the Argonauts embarked. Similarly +dice are thrown for purposes of sortilege; the _astragali_ or +knucklebones, used in children's games at the present day, were +implements of divination in the first instance. In Polynesia the +coco-nut is spun like a teetotum to discover a thief. Somewhat different +are the omens drawn from books; in ancient times the poets were often +consulted, more especially Virgil, whence the name _sortes virgilianae_, +just as the Bible is used for drawing texts in our own day, especially +in Germany. (ii.) In _haruspication_, or the inspection of entrails, in +_scapulomancy_ or divination by the speal-bone or shoulder-blade, in +divination by footprints in ashes, found in Australia, Peru and +Scotland, the voluntary element is prominent, for the diviner must take +active steps to secure the conditions necessary to divination. (iii.) In +the case of _augury_ and _omens_, on the other hand, that is not +necessary. The behaviour and cries of birds, and _angang_ or meeting +with ominous animals, &c., may be voluntarily observed, and +opportunities for observation made; but this is not necessary for +success. (iv.) In _astrology_ we have a method which still finds +believers among people of good education. The stars are held, not only +to prognosticate the future but also to influence it; the child born +when Mars is in the ascendant will be war-like; Venus has to do with +love; the sign of the Lion presides over places where wild beasts are +found. (v.) In other cases the tie that binds the subject of divination +with the omen-giving object is sympathy. The name of the life-index is +given to a tree, animal or other object believed to be so closely united +by sympathetic ties to a human being that the fate of the latter is +reflected in the condition of the former. The Polynesians set up sticks +to see if the warriors they stood for were to fall in battle; on +Hallowe'en in our own country the behaviour of nuts and other objects +thrown into the fire is held to prognosticate the lot of the person to +whom they have been assigned. Where, as in the last two cases, the +sympathetic bond is less strong, we find symbolical interpretation +playing an important part. + +Sympathy and symbolism, association of ideas and analogy, together with +a certain amount of observation, are the explanation of the great mass +of heteroscopic divinatory formulae. But where autoscopic phenomena play +the chief part the question of the origin of divination is less simple. +The investigations of the Society for Psychical Research show that +premonitions, though rare in our own day, are not absolutely unknown. +Pseudo-premonitions, due to hallucinatory memory, are not unknown; there +is also some ground for holding that crystal-gazers are able to perceive +incidents which are happening at a distance from them. Divination of +this sort, therefore, may be due to observation and experiment of a rude +sort, rather than to the unchecked play of fancy which resulted in +heteroscopic divination. + + See also the articles AUGURS, ORACLE, ASTROLOGY, OMEN, &c. + + AUTHORITIES.--Bouche Leclercq, _Histoire de la divination dans + l'antiquite_; Tylor, _Primitive Culture_, passim; Maury, "La Magie et + l'astrologie," _Journ. Anth. Inst._ i. 163, v. 436; _Folklore_, iii. + 193; Ellis, _Tshi-speaking Peoples_, p. 202; _Dictionnaire + encyclopedique des sciences medicales_, xxx. 24-96; _Journ. of + Philology_, xiii. 273, xiv. 113; Deubner, _De incubatione_; Lenormant, + _La Divination, et la science de presages chez les Chaldeens_; Skeat, + _Malay Magic_; J. Johnson, _Yoruba Heathenism_ (1899). (N. W. T.) + + + + +DIVINING-ROD. As indicated in the article MAGIC, _Rhabdomancy_, or the +art of using a divining-rod for discovering something hidden, is +apparently of immemorial antiquity, and the Roman _virgula divina_, as +used in taking auguries by means of casting bits of stick, is described +by Cicero and Tacitus (see also DIVINATION); but the special form of +_virgula furcata_, or forked twig of hazel or willow (see also HAZEL), +described by G. Agricola (_De re metallica_, 1546), and in Sebastian +Munster's _Cosmography_ in the early part of the 16th century, used +specially for discovering metallic lodes or water beneath the earth, +must be distinguished from the general superstition. The "dowsing" or +divining-rod, in this sense, has a modern interest, dating from its use +by prospectors for minerals in the German (Harz Mountains) mining +districts; the French chemist M.E. Chevreul[1] assigns its first mention +to Basil Valentine, the alchemist of the late 15th century. On account +of its supposed magical powers, it may be taken perhaps as an historical +analogue to such fairy wands as the _caduceus_ of Mercury, the golden +arrow of Herodotus's "Abaris the Hyperborean," or the medieval witch's +broomstick. But the existence of the modern water-finder or dowser makes +the divining-rod a matter of more than mythological or superstitious +interest. The _Schlagruthe_ (striking-rod), or forked twig of the German +miners, was brought to England by those engaged in the Cornish mines by +the merchant venturers of Queen Elizabeth's day. Professor W. F. +Barrett, F.R.S., the chief modern investigator of this subject, regards +its employment, dating as it does from the revival of learning, as based +on the medieval doctrine of "sympathy," the drooping of trees and +character of the vegetation being considered to give indications of +mineral lodes beneath the earth's surface, by means of a sort of +attraction; and such critical works as Robert Boyle's (1663), or the +_Mineralogia Cornubiensis_ of Pryce (1778), admitted its value in +discovering metals. But as mining declined in Cornwall, the use of the +dowser for searching for lodes almost disappeared, and was transferred +to water-finding. The divining-rod has, however, also been used for +searching for any buried objects. In the south of France, in the 17th +century, it was employed in tracking criminals and heretics. Its abuse +led to a decree of the Inquisition in 1701, forbidding its employment +for purposes of justice. + +In modern times the professional dowser is a "water-finder," and there +has been a good deal of investigation into the possibility of a +scientific explanation of his claims to be able to locate underground +water, where it is not known to exist, by the use of a forked hazel-twig +which, twisting in his hands, leads him by its directing-power to the +place where a boring should be made. Whether justified or not, a +widespread faith exists, based no doubt on frequent success, in the +dowser's power; and Professor Barrett (_The Times_, January 21, 1905) +states that "making a liberal allowance for failures of which I have not +heard, I have no hesitation in saying that where fissure water exists +and the discovery of underground water sufficient for a domestic supply +is a matter of the utmost difficulty, the chances of success with a good +dowser far exceed mere lucky hits, or the success obtained by the most +skilful observer, even with full knowledge of the local geology." Is +this due to any special faculty in the dowser, or has the twig itself +anything to do with it? Held in balanced equilibrium, the forked twig, +in the dowser's hands, moves with a sudden and often violent motion, and +the appearance of actual life in the twig itself, though regarded as +mere stage-play by some, is popularly associated with the cause of the +water-finder's success. The theory that there is any direct connexion +("sympathy" or electrical influence) between the divining-rod and the +water or metal, is however repudiated by modern science. Professor +Barrett, who with Professor Janet and others is satisfied that the rod +twists without any intention or voluntary deception on the part of the +dowser, ascribes the phenomenon to "motor-automatism" on the part of the +dowser (see AUTOMATISM), a reflex action excited by some stimulus upon +his mind, which may be either a subconscious suggestion or an actual +impression (obscure in its nature) from an external object or an +external mind; both sorts of stimulus are possible, so that the dowser +himself may make false inferences (and fail) by supposing that the +stimulus is an external object (like water). The divining-rod being thus +"an indicator of any sub-conscious suggestion or impression," its +indications, no doubt, may be fallacious; but Professor Barrett, basing +his conclusions upon observed successes and their greater proportion to +failures than anything that chance could produce, advances the +hypothesis that some persons (like the professional dowsers) possess "a +genuine super-normal perceptive faculty," and that the mind of a good +dowser, possessing the idiosyncrasy of motor-automatism, becomes a blank +or _tabula rasa_, so that "the faintest impression made by the object +searched for creates an involuntary or automatic motion of the +indicator, whatever it may be." Like the "homing instinct" of certain +birds and animals, the dowser's power lies beneath the level of any +conscious perception; and the function of the forked twig is to act as +an index of some material or other mental disturbance within him, which +otherwise he could not interpret. + +It should be added that dowsers do not always use any rod. Some again +use a willow rod, or withy, others a hazel-twig (the traditional +material), others a beech or holly twig, or one from any other tree; +others even a piece of wire or watch-spring. The best dowsers are said +to have been generally more or less illiterate men, usually engaged in +some humble vocation. + +Sir W. H. Preece (_The Times_, January 16, 1905), repudiating as an +electrician the theory that any electric force is involved, has recorded +his opinion that water-finding by a dowser is due to "mechanical +vibration, set up by the friction of moving water, acting upon the +sensitive ventral diaphragm of certain exceptionally delicately framed +persons." Another theory is that water-finders are "exceptionally +sensitive to hygrometric influences." In any case, modern science +approaches the problem as one concerning which the facts have to be +accepted, and explained by some natural, though obscure, cause. + + See for further details Professor Barrett's longer discussion in parts + 32 (1897) and 38 (1900) of the _Proceedings of the Society for + Psychical Research_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _La Baguette divinatoire_ (Paris, 1845). + + + + +DIVISION (from Lat. _dividere_, to break up into parts, separate), a +general term for the action of breaking up a whole into parts. Thus, in +political economy, the phrase "division of labour" implies the +assignment to particular workmen of the various portions of a whole +piece of work; in mathematics division is the process of finding how +many times one number or quantity, the "divisor," is contained in +another, the "dividend" (see ARITHMETIC and ALGEBRA); in the musical +terminology of the 17th and 18th centuries, the term was used for rapid +passages consisting of a few slow notes amplified into a florid passage, +i.e. into a larger number of quick ones. The word is used also in +concrete senses for the parts into which a thing is divided, e.g. a +division of an army, an administrative or electoral division; similarly, +a "division" is taken in a legislative body when votes are recorded for +and against a proposed measure. + +In logic, division is a technical term for the process by which a +_genus_ is broken up into its _species_. Thus the genus "animal" may be +divided, according to the habitat of the various kinds, into animals +which live on land, those which live in water, those which live in the +air. Each of these may be subdivided according to whether their +constituent members do or do not possess certain other qualities. The +basis of each of these divisions is called the _fundamentum divisionis_. +It is clear that there can be no division in respect of those qualities +which make the genus what it is. The various species are all alike in +the possession of the generic attributes, but differ in other respects; +they are "variations on the same theme" (Joseph, _Introduction to +Logic_, 1906); each one has the generic, and also certain peculiar, +qualities (_differentiae_), which latter distinguish them from other +species of the same genus. The process of division is thus the obverse +of classification (q.v.); it proceeds from genus to species, whereas +classification begins with the particulars and rises through species to +genus. In the exact sciences, and indeed in all argument both practical +and theoretical, accurate division is of great importance. It is +governed by the following rules. (1) _Division must be exhaustive_; all +the members of the genus must find a place in one or other of the +species; a captain who selects for his team skilful batsmen and bowlers +only is guilty of an incomplete division of the whole function of a +cricket team by omitting to provide himself with good fielders. +Rectilinear figures cannot be divided into triangles and quadrilaterals +because there are rectilinear figures which have more than four sides. +On the other hand, triangles can be divided into equilateral, isosceles +and scalene, since no other kind of triangle can exist. (2) Division +_must be exclusive_, that is, each species must be complete in itself +and not contain members of another species. No member of a genus must be +included in more than one of the species. (3) In every division _there +must be but one principle (fundamentum divisionis)_. The members of a +genus may differ from one another in many respects, e.g. books may be +divided according to external form into quarto, octavo, &c., or +according to binding into calf, cloth, paper-backed and so on. They +cannot, however, be divided logically into quarto, paper-backed, novels +and remainders. When more than one principle is used in a division it is +called "cross division." (4) _Division must proceed gradually_ ("Divisio +non facit saltum"), i.e. the genus must be resolved into the next +highest ("proximate") species. To go straight from a _summum genus_ to +very small species is of no scientific value. + +It is to be observed that logical division is concerned exclusively with +universals or concepts; division is of genus and species, not of +particulars. Two other kinds of division are recognized:--_metaphysical +division_, the separation in thought of the various qualities possessed +by an individual thing (a piece of lead has weight, colour, &c), and +_physical division_ or _partition_, the breaking up of an object into +its parts (a watch is thought of as being composed of case, dial, works, +&c.). Logical division is closely allied with logical definition (q.v.). + + + + +DIVORCE (Lat. _divortium_, derived from dis-, apart, and vertere, to +turn), the dissolution, in whole or in part, of the tie of marriage. It +includes both the complete abrogation of the marriage relation known as +a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_, which carries with it a power on the +part of both parties to the marriage to remarry other persons or each +other, and also that incomplete severance not involving powers to +remarry, which was formerly known as divorce a _mensa et thoro_, and has +in England been termed "judicial separation." Less strictly, divorce is +commonly understood to include judicial declarations of nullity of +marriage, which, while practically terminating the marriage relation, +proceed in law on the basis of the marriage never having been legally +established. + +The conditions under which, in different communities, divorce has at +different times been permitted, vary with the aspects in which the +relation of marriage (q.v.) has been regarded. When marriage has been +deemed to be the acquisition by the husband of property in the wife, or +when it has been regarded as a mere agreement between persons capable +both to form and to dissolve that contract, we find that marriage has +been dissoluble at the will of the husband, or by agreement of the +husband and wife. Yet even in these cases the interest of the whole +community in the purity of marriage relations, in the pecuniary bearings +of this particular contract, and the condition of children, has led to +the imposition of restrictions on, and the attachment of conditions to, +the termination of the obligations consequent on a marriage legally +contracted. But the main restrictions on liberty of divorce have arisen +from the conception of marriage entertained by religions, and especially +by one religion. Christianity has had no greater practical effect on the +life of mankind than in its belief that marriage is no mere civil +contract, but a vow in the sight of God binding the parties by +obligations of conscience above and beyond those of civil law. +Translating this conception into practice, Christianity not only +profoundly modified the legal conditions of divorce as formulated in the +Roman civil law, but in its own canon law defined its own rule of +divorce, going so far as in the Western (at least in its unreformed +condition), though not the Eastern, branch of Christendom to forbid all +complete divorces, that is to say, all dissolutions of marriage carrying +with them the right to remarry. + + +HISTORY + +_The Roman Law of Divorce before Justinian._--The history of divorce, +therefore, practically begins with the law of Rome. It took its earliest +colour from that conception of the _patria potestas_, or the power of +the head of the family over its members, which enters so deeply into the +jurisprudence of ancient Rome. The wife was transferred at marriage to +the authority of her husband, _in manus_, and consequently became so far +subject to him that he could, at his will, renounce his rule over her, +and terminate his companionship, subject at least to an adjustment of +the pecuniary rights which were disturbed by such action. So clearly was +the power of the husband derived from that of the father, that for a +long period a father, in the exercise of his _potestas_, could take his +daughter from her husband against the wishes of both. It may be presumed +that this power, anomalous as it appears, was not unexercised, as we +find that a constitution of Antoninus Pius prohibited a father from +disturbing a harmonious union, and Marcus Aurelius afterwards limited +this prohibition by allowing the interference of a father for strong and +just cause--_magna et justa causa interveniente_. Except in so far as it +was restrained by special legislation, the authority of a husband in the +matter of divorce was absolute. As early indeed, however, as the time of +Romulus, it is said that the state asserted its interest in the +permanence of marriage by forbidding the repudiation of wives unless +they were guilty of adultery or of drinking wine, on pain of forfeiture +of the whole of an offender's property, one-half of which went to the +wife, the other to Ceres. But the law of the XII. Tables, in turn, +allowed freedom of divorce. It would appear, however, that the sense of +the community was so far shocked by the inhumanity of treating a wife as +mere property, or the risk of regarding marriage as a mere terminable +contract, that, without crystallizing into positive enactment, it +operated to prevent the exercise of so harsh and dangerous a power. It +is said that for 500 years no husband took advantage of his power, and +it was then only by an order of a censor, however obtained, that Spurius +Carvilius Ruga repudiated his wife for barrenness. We may, however, be +permitted to doubt the genuineness of this censorial order, or at least +to conjecture the influence under which the censor was induced to +intervene, when we find that in another instance, that of L. Antonius, a +censor punished an unjust divorce by expulsion from the senate, and that +the exercise of their power by husbands increased to a great and +alarming extent. Probably few of the admirers of the greatest of Roman +orators have not regretted his summary and wholly informal repudiation +of Terentia. At last the _lex Julia de adulteriis_, while recognizing a +power of divorce both in the husband and in the wife, imposed on it, in +the public interest, serious restrictions and consequences. It required +a written bill of divorce (_libellus repudii_) to be given in the +presence of seven witnesses, who must be Roman citizens of age, and the +divorce must be publicly registered. The act was, however, purely an act +of the party performing it, and no idea of judicial interference or +contract seems to have been entertained. It was not necessary for either +husband or wife giving the bill to acquaint the other with it before its +execution, though it was considered proper to deliver the bill, when +made, to the other party. In this way a wife could divorce a lunatic +husband, or the _paterfamilias_ of a lunatic wife could divorce her from +her husband. But the _lex Julia_ was also the first of a series of +enactments by which pecuniary consequences were imposed on divorce both +by husbands and wives, whether the intention was to restrain divorce by +penalties of this nature, or to readjust pecuniary relations settled on +the basis of marriage and disturbed by its rupture. It was provided that +if the wife was guilty of adultery, her husband in divorcing her could +retain one-sixth of her _dos_, but if she had committed a less serious +offence, one-eighth. If the husband was guilty of adultery, he had to +make immediate restitution of her dowry, or if it consisted of land, the +annual proceeds for three years; if he was guilty of a less serious +offence, he had six months within which to restore the _dos_. If both +parties were in fault, no penalty fell on either. The _lex Julia_ was +followed by a series of acts of legislation extending and modifying its +provisions. The legislation of Constantine, A.D. 331, specified certain +causes for which alone a divorce could take place without the imposition +of pecuniary penalties. There were three causes for which a wife could +divorce her husband with impunity: (1) murder, (2) preparation of +poisons, (3) violation of tombs; but if she divorced him for any other +cause, such as drunkenness, or gambling or immoral society, she +forfeited her dowry and incurred the further penalty of deportation. +There were also three causes for which a husband could divorce his wife +without incurring any penalty: (1) adultery, (2) preparation of poisons, +(3) acting as a procuress. If he divorced her for any other cause, he +forfeited all interest in her dowry; and if he married again, the first +wife could take the dowry of the second. + +In A.D. 421 the emperors Honorius and Theodosius enacted a law of +divorce which introduced limitations on the power of remarriage as an +additional penalty in certain cases. As regards a wife: (1) if she +divorced her husband for grave reasons or crime, she retained her dowry +and could remarry after five years; (2) if she divorced him for criminal +conduct or moderate faults, she forfeited her dowry, became incapable of +remarriage, and liable to deportation, nor could the emperor's +prerogative of pardon be exerted in her favour. As regards a husband: if +he divorced his wife (1) for serious crime, he retained the dowry and +could remarry immediately; (2) for criminal conduct, he did not retain +the dowry, but could remarry; (3) for mere dislike, he forfeited the +property brought into the marriage and could not remarry. + +In A.D. 449 the law of divorce was rendered simpler and certainly more +facile by Theodosius and Valentinian. It was provided that a wife could +divorce her husband without incurring any penalty if he was convicted of +any one of twelve offences: (1) treason, (2) adultery, (3) homicide, (4) +poisoning, (5) forgery, (6) violating tombs, (7) stealing from a church, +(8) robbery, (9) cattle-stealing, (10) attempting his wife's life, (11) +beating his wife, (12) introducing immoral women to his house. If the +wife divorced her husband for any other cause, she forfeited her dowry, +and could not marry again for five years. A husband could divorce his +wife without incurring a penalty for any of these reasons except the +last, and also for the following reasons: (1) going to dine with men +other than her relations without the knowledge or against the wish of +her husband; (2) going from home at night against his wish without +reasonable cause; (3) frequenting the circus, theatre or amphitheatre +after being forbidden by her husband. If a husband divorced his wife for +any other reason, he forfeited all interest in his wife's dowry, and +also any property he brought into the marriage. + +The above sketch of the legislation prior to the time of Justinian, +while it indicates a desire to place the husband and wife on something +like terms of equality as regards divorce, indicates also, by its +forbidding remarriage and by its pecuniary provisions in certain cases, +a sense in the community of the importance in the public interest of +restraining the violation of the contract of marriage. But to the Roman +marriage was primarily a contract, and therefore side by side with this +legislation there always existed a power of divorce by mutual consent. +We must now turn to those principles of the Christian religion which, in +combination with the legislation above described, produced the law +formulated by Justinian. + +_The Christian View of Divorce._--The Christian law of divorce as +enunciated by its Founder was expressed in a few words, but these, +unfortunately, by no means of agreed interpretation. To appreciate them +it is necessary to consider the enactment of the Mosaic law, which also +was expressed in few words, but of a meaning involved in much doubt. The +phrase in Deut. xxiv. 1-4, which is translated in the Authorized Version +"some uncleanness," but in the Revised Version, "some unseemly thing," +and which is the only cause stated to justify the giving of a "bill of +divorcement," was limited by the school of Shanmai to moral delinquency, +but was extended by the rival school of Hillel to causes of trifling +importance or even to motives of caprice. The wider interpretation would +seem to be supported by the words of Christ (Matt. v. 31), who, in +indicating His own doctrine in contradistinction to the law of Moses, +said, "Whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for the cause of +fornication ([Greek: porneias]), causeth her to commit adultery; and +whosoever shall marry her that is divorced committeth adultery." The +meaning of these words of Christ Himself has been involved in +controversy, which perhaps was nowhere carried on with greater acuteness +or under more critical conditions than within the walls of the British +parliament during the passage of the Divorce Act of 1857. That they +justify divorce of a complete kind for moral delinquency of some nature +is supported by the opinion probably of every competent scholar. But +scholars of eminence have sought to restrict the meaning of the [Greek: +logos porneias] to antenuptial incontinence concealed from the husband, +and to exclude adultery. The effect of this view commends itself to the +adherents of the Church of Rome, because it places the right to +separation between husband and wife, not on a cause supervening after a +marriage, which that Church seeks to regard as absolutely indissoluble, +but on invalidity in the contract of marriage itself, and which may +therefore render the marriage liable to be declared void without +impugning its indissoluble character when rightly contracted. The +narrower view of the meaning of [Greek: porneias] has been maintained +by, among others, Dr Dollinger (_First Ages of the Church_, ii. 226); +but those who will consider the arguments of Professor Conington in +reply to Dr Dollinger (_Contemp. Review_, May 1869) will probably assign +the palm to the English scholar. A more general view points in the same +direction. It is quite true that under the Mosaic law antenuptial +incontinence was, as was also adultery, punishable with death. But when +we consider the effect of adultery not only as a moral fault, but as +violating the solemn contract of marriage and vitiating its objects, it +is inconceivable that Christ, in employing a term of general import, +intended to limit it to one kind, and that the less serious, of +incontinence. + +_Effect of Christianity on the Law of Rome._--The modification in the +civil law of Rome effected by Justinian under the joint influence of the +previous law of Rome and that of Christianity was remarkable. Gibbon has +summed up the change effected in the law of Rome with characteristic +accuracy: "The Christian princes were the first who specified the just +causes of a private divorce; their institutions from Constantine to +Justinian appear to fluctuate between the customs of the empire and the +wishes of the Church; and the author of the Novels too frequently +reforms the jurisprudence of the Code and Pandects." Divorce by mutual +consent, hitherto, as we have seen, absolutely free, was prohibited +(Nov. 117) except in three cases: (1) when the husband was impotent; (2) +when either husband or wife desired to enter a monastery; and (3) when +either of them was in captivity for a certain length of time. It is +obvious that the two first of these exceptions might well commend +themselves to the mind of the Church, the former as being rather a +matter of nullity of marriage than of divorce, the latter as admitting +the paramount claims of the Church on its adherents, and not +inconsistent with the spirit of the words of St Paul himself, who +clearly contemplated a separation between husband and wife as allowable +in case either of them did not hold the Christian faith (1 Cor. vii. +12). At a later period Justinian placed a further restriction or even +prohibition on divorce by consent by enacting that spouses dissolving a +marriage by mutual consent should forfeit all their property, and be +confined for life in a monastery, which was to receive one-third of the +forfeited property, the remaining two-thirds going to the children of +the marriage. The cause stated for this remarkable alteration of the +law, and the abandonment of the conception of marriage as a civil +contract _ut non Dei judicium contemnatur_ (Nov. 134), indicates the +influence of the Christian idea of marriage. That influence, however, +did not long continue in its full force. The prohibitions of Justinian +on divorce by consent were repealed by Justin (Nov. 140), his successor. +"He yielded," says Gibbon, "to the prayers of his unhappy subjects, and +restored the liberty of divorce by mutual consent; the civilians were +unanimous, the theologians were divided, and the ambiguous word which +contains the precept of Christ is flexible to any interpretation that +the wisdom of a legislature can demand." It was difficult, the enactment +stated, "to reconcile those who once came to hate each other, and who, +if compelled to live together, frequently attempted each other's lives." + +Justinian further re-enacted, with some modifications, the power of +divorce by a husband or wife against the will of the other. Divorce by a +wife was allowed in five cases (Nov. 117): (1) the husband being party +or privy to conspiracy against the state; (2) attempting his wife's +life, or failing to disclose to her plots against it; (3) attempting to +induce his wife to commit adultery; (4) accusing his wife falsely of +adultery; (5) taking a woman to live in the house with his wife, or, +after warning, frequenting a house in the same town with any woman other +than his wife. If a wife divorced her husband for one of these reasons, +she recovered her dowry and any property brought into the marriage by +her husband for life with reversion to her children, or if there were no +children, absolutely. But if she divorced him for any other reason, the +provisions of the enactment of Theodosius and Valentinian were to apply. +A husband was allowed to divorce his wife for any one of seven reasons: +(1) failure to disclose to her husband plots against the state; (2) +adultery; (3) attempting or failing to disclose plots against her +husband's life; (4) frequenting dinners or balls with other men against +her husband's wishes; (5) remaining from home against the wishes of her +husband except with her parents; (6) going to the circus, theatre or +amphitheatre without the knowledge or contrary to the prohibition of her +husband; (7) procuring abortion. If the husband divorced his wife for +any one of these reasons he retained the dowry absolutely, or if there +were children, with reversion to them. If he divorced her for any other +reason, the enactments of Theodosius and Valentinian applied. In any +case of a divorce, if the father or mother of either spouse had advanced +the dowry and it would be forfeited by an unreasonable divorce, the +consent of the father or mother was necessary to render the divorce +valid. + +_Effect of Divorce on Children in the Law of Rome._--The custody of the +children of divorced parents was dealt with by the Roman law in a +liberal manner. A constitution of Diocletian and Maximian left it to the +judge to determine in his discretion to which of the parents the +children should go. Justinian enacted that divorce should not impair the +rights of children either as to inheritance or maintenance. If a wife +divorced her husband for good cause, and she remained unmarried, the +children were to be in her custody, but to be maintained by the father; +but if the mother was in fault, the father obtained the custody. If he +was unable, from want of means, to support them, but she was able to do +so, she was obliged to take them and support them. It is interesting to +compare these provisions as to children with the practice at present +under English law, which in this respect reflects so closely the spirit +of the law of Rome. + +_The Canon Law of Divorce._--The canon law of Rome was based on two main +principles: (1) That there could be no divorce a _vinculo matrimonii_, +but only _a mensa et thoro_. The rule was stated in the most absolute +terms: _"Quamdiu vivit vir licet adulter sit, licet sodomita, licet +flagitiis omnibus coopertus, et ab uxore propter haec scelera +derelictus, maritus ejus reputatur, cui alterum vivum accipere non +licet"_ (Caus. 32, Quaest. 7, c. 7). (2) That no divorce could be had at +the will of the parties, but only by the sentence of a competent, that +is to say, an ecclesiastical, court. In this negation of a right to +divorce a _vinculo matrimonii_ lies the broad difference between the +doctrines of the Eastern and Western Churches of Christendom. The Greek +Church, understanding the words of Christ in the broader sense above +mentioned, has always allowed complete divorce with a right to remarry +for the cause of adultery. And it is said that the form at least of an +anathema of the council of Trent was modified out of respect to +difference on the part of the Greek Church (see Pothier 5. 6. 21). The +papal canon law allowed a divorce a _mensa et thoro_ for six causes: (1) +adultery or unnatural offences; (2) impotency; (3) cruelty; (4) +infidelity; (5) entering into religion; (6) consanguinity. The Church, +however, always assumed to itself the right to grant licences for an +absolute divorce; and further, by claiming the power to declare +marriages null and void, though professedly this could be done only in +cases where the original contract could be said to be void, it was, and +is to this day, undoubtedly extended in practice to cases in which it is +impossible to suppose the original contract really void, but in which a +complete divorce is on other grounds desirable. + + +DIVORCE IN ENGLAND + +In England the law of divorce, originally based on the canon law of +Rome, underwent some, though little, permanent change at the +Reformation, but was profoundly modified by the exercise of the power of +the state through legislation. From the canon law was derived the +principle that divorce could legally take place only by sentence of the +court, and never at the will of the parties. Complete divorce has never +been governed by any other principle than this; and in so far as an +incomplete divorce has become practicable at the will of the parties, it +has been by the intervention of civil tribunals and contrary to the law +of the ecclesiastical courts. Those courts adopted as ground for divorce +_a mensa et thoro_ the main grounds allowed by Roman canon law, adultery +and cruelty (Ayliffe, 22; Co. Lit. 102; 1 Salk. 162; Godolphin Abridg. +495). The causes of heresy and of entering into religion, if ever they +were recognized in England, ceased to exist at the Reformation. + +The principles upon which the English ecclesiastical courts proceeded in +divorce _a mensa et thoro_ are those which are still in force, and which +(with some modification by statutory enactment) have been administered +by judicial tribunals down to the present day. The courts by which the +ecclesiastical law, and therefore the law of divorce, was administered +were, until 1857, the courts of the various dioceses, including that of +the archbishop of Canterbury, known as the Court of Arches, and that of +the archbishop of York, known as the Consistory Court of York; but by +statute a suitor was prevented from taking proceedings in any court +except that determined by the residence of the person against whom +proceedings were taken (23 Hen. VIII. c. 9). From these courts an appeal +lay to delegates appointed in each case by the crown, until the +establishment of the judicial committee of the privy council in 1836, +when the appeal was given to the crown as advised by that body. + +The proof of adultery (to which Isidore in his _Book of Etymologies_ +gives the fanciful derivation of "_ad alterius thorum_") was not by the +canon law as received in England restricted by the operation of +arbitrary rules. It was never, for example, required, as by the law of +Mahomet, that the act should have been actually seen by competent +witnesses, nor even that the case should be based on any particular kind +of proof. It was recognized that the nature of the offence almost +inevitably precluded direct evidence. One rule, however, appears to have +commended itself to the framers of the canon law as too general in its +application not to be regarded as a principle. The mere confession of +the parties was not regarded as a safe ground of conviction; and this +rule was formulated by a decretal epistle of Pope Celestine III., and, +following it, by the 105th of the Canons of 1604. This rule has now been +abrogated; and no doubt it is wiser not to fetter the discretion of the +tribunal charged with the responsibility of deciding particular cases, +but experience of divorce proceedings tends to confirm the belief that +this rule of the canon law was founded on an accurate appreciation of +human nature. + +Although, therefore, with the above exception, no strict rules of the +evidence necessary to establish adultery have ever been established in +the English courts, experience has indicated, and in former days judges +of the ecclesiastical courts often expressed, the lines upon which such +proof may be expected to proceed. It is necessary and sufficient, in +general, to prove two things--first the guilty affection towards each +other of the persons accused, and, secondly, an opportunity or +opportunities of which, if so minded, their passion may have been +gratified. It is obvious that any strong proof on either of these points +renders strict proof on the other less needful; but when proof on both +is afforded, the common sense of a tribunal, acting with a knowledge of +human nature, may be trusted to draw the inevitable conclusion. + +The definition of cruelty accepted by the ecclesiastical courts as that +of the canon law is the same as that which prevails at the present time; +and the view of the law taken by the House of Lords in _Russell_ v. +_Russell_ (1897 App. Cas. 395) was expressly based on the view of +cruelty taken by the authorities of the ecclesiastical law. The best +definition by older English writers is probably to be found in Clarke's +_Praxis_ (p. 144): "Si maritus fuerit erga uxorem crudelis et ferax ac +mortem comminatus et machinatus fuerit, vel eam inhumaniter verbis et +verberibus tractaverit, et aliquando venenum loco potus paraverit vel +aliquod simile commiserit, propter quod sine periculo vitae cum marito +cohabitare aut obsequia conjugalia impendere non audeat ... consimili +etiam causa competit viro contra mulierem." Lord Stowell, probably the +greatest master of the civil and canon law who ever sat in an English +court of justice, has in one of his most famous judgments (_Evans_ v. +_Evans_, 1790, 1 Hagg. _Consist._ 35) echoed the above language in words +often quoted, which have constituted the standard exposition of the law +to the present day. "In the older cases," he said, "of this sort which I +have had the opportunity of looking into, I have observed that the +danger of life, limb or health is usually insisted as the ground upon +which the court has proceeded to a separation. This doctrine has been +repeatedly applied by the court in the cases which have been cited. The +court has never been driven off this ground. It has always been jealous +of the inconvenience of departing from it, and I have heard no one case +cited in which the court has granted a divorce without proof given of a +reasonable apprehension of bodily hurt. I say an apprehension, because +assuredly the court is not to wait till the hurt is actually done; but +the apprehension must be reasonable: it must not be an apprehension +arising from an exquisite and diseased sensibility of mind. Petty +vexations applied to such a constitution of mind may certainly in time +wear out the animal machine, but still they are not cases of legal +relief; people must relieve themselves as well as they can by prudent +resistance, by calling in the succours of religion and the consolation +of friends; but the aid of courts is not to be resorted to in such cases +with any effect." The risk of personal danger in cohabitation +constituted, therefore, the foundation of legal cruelty. But this does +not exclude such conduct as a course of persistent ill-treatment, though +not amounting to personal violence, especially if such ill-treatment has +in fact caused injury to health. But the person complaining must not be +the author of his or her own wrong. If, accordingly, one of the spouses +by his or her conduct is really the cause of the conduct complained of, +recourse to the court would be had in vain, the true remedy lying in a +reformation of the real cause of the disagreement. + +In addition to a denial of the charge or charges, the canon law allowed +three grounds of answer: (1) _Compensatio criminis_, a setoff of equal +guilt or recrimination. This principle is no doubt derived from the +Roman law and it had the effect of refusing to one guilty spouse the +remedy of divorce against the other although equally guilty. It was +always accepted in England, although not in other countries, such as +France and Scotland, which also followed the canon or civil law. In +strictness, recrimination applied to a similar offence having been +committed by the party charging that offence. But a decision (1888) of +the English courts shows that a wife who had committed adultery could +not bring a suit against her husband for cruelty (_Otway_ v. _Otway_ 13 +P. D. 141). (2) _Condonation._ If the complaining spouse has, in fact, +forgiven the offence complained of, that constitutes a conditional bar +to any proceedings. The main and usual evidence of such forgiveness is +constituted by a renewal of marital intercourse, and it is +difficult-perhaps impossible-to imagine any case in which such +intercourse would not be held to establish condonation. But condonation +may be proved by other acts, or by words, having regard to the +circumstances of each case. Condonation is, however, always presumed to +be conditional on future good behaviour, and misconduct even of a +different kind revives the former offence. (3) _Connivance_ constitutes +a complete answer to any charge. Nor need the husband be the active +agent of the misconduct of the wife. Indifference or neglect imputable +to a corrupt intention are sufficient. It will be seen presently that +modern statute law has gone further in this direction. It is to be added +that the connivance need not be of the very act complained of, but may +be of an act of a similar kind. A learned judge, recalling the classical +anecdote of Maecenas and Galba, said, "A husband is not permitted to say +_non omnibus dormio_." The ecclesiastical courts also considered +themselves bound to refuse relief if there was shown to be _collusion_ +between the parties. In its primary and most general sense collusion was +understood to be an agreement between the parties for the purpose of +deceiving the court by false or fictitious evidence; for example, an +agreement to commit, or appear to commit, an act of adultery. Collusion, +however, is not limited to the imposing of other than genuine evidence +on the court. It extends to an agreement to withhold any material +evidence; and indeed is carried further, and held to extend to any +agreement which may have the effect of concealing the real and complete +truth from the court (see _Churchward_ v. _Churchward_, 1894, p. 161). +This doctrine was of considerable importance even in the days when only +divorces _a mensa et thoro_ were granted, because at that time the +parties were not permitted to separate by consent. At the present day it +has become, with regard to divorce a _vinculo matrimonii_, a rule of +greater and of more far-reaching importance. + +The canon law as accepted in England, while allowing divorces of the +nature and for the causes above mentioned, actively interfered to +prevent separation between husband and wife in any other manner. A suit +known as a suit for restitution of conjugal rights could be brought to +compel cohabitation; and on evidence of the desertion of either spouse, +the court ordered a return to the matrimonial home, though it carried no +further its authority as to the matrimonial relations within the home. +To this suit an agreement between the parties constituted no answer. But +an answer was afforded by any conduct which would have supported a +decree of divorce _a mensa et thoro_. It is a question whether, indeed, +the ecclesiastical courts would not have gone further, and refused a +decree of restitution of conjugal rights on grounds which might appear +adequate to justify such refusal, though not sufficient on which to +ground a decree of divorce. The view of the court of appeal and the +House of Lords has given some colour to this opinion, and certainly the +court of appeal has held, although perhaps somewhat hastily, that the +effect of a modern statute has been to allow the court to refuse +restitution of conjugal rights for causes falling short of what would +constitute ground for divorce (_Russell_ v. _Russell_, 1895, p. 315). + +The ecclesiastical courts provided for the pecuniary rights of the wife +by granting to her alimony during the progress of the suit, and a proper +allowance after its termination in cases in which she was successful. +Such payments were dependent on the pecuniary means, or _faculties_, as +they were termed, of the husband, and were subject to subsequent +increase or diminution in proper cases. But the ecclesiastical courts +did not deal with the custody of the children of the marriage, it being +probably considered that that matter could be determined by the common +law rights of the father, or by the intervention of the court of +chancery. + +The canon law fixed no period of limitation, either in respect of a suit +for divorce or for restitution of conjugal rights; but, as regards at +least suits for divorce, any substantial delay might lead to the +imputation of acquiescence or even condonation. To that extent, at +least, the maxim _vigilantibus non dormientibus jura subveniunt_ +applied. + +It is remarkable that desertion by either party to a marriage, except as +giving rise to a suit for restitution, was not treated as an offence by +canon law in England. It formed no ground for a suit for divorce, and +constituted no answer to such a suit by way of recrimination. It might +indeed deprive a husband of his remedy if it amounted to connivance, or +perhaps even if it amounted only to culpable neglect. + +The canon law, as administered in England, has kept clear the logical +distinction which exists between dissolving a marriage and declaring it +null and void. The result has been that, in England at least, the two +proceedings have never been allowed to pass into one another, and a +complete divorce has not been granted on pretence of a cause really one +for declaring the marriage void _ab initio_. But for certain causes the +courts were prepared to declare a marriage null and void on the suit of +either party. There is, indeed, a distinction to be drawn between a +marriage void or only voidable, though in both cases it became the +subject of a similar declaration. It was void in the cases of incapacity +of the parties to contract it, arising from want of proper age, or +consanguinity, or from a previous marriage, or from absence of consent, +a state of things which would arise if the marriage were compelled by +force or induced by fraud as to the nature of the contract entered into +or the personality of the parties. It is to be remarked that, in England +at least, the idea of fraud as connected with the solemnization of +marriage has been kept within these narrow limits. Fraud of a different +kind, such as deception as to the property or position of the husband or +wife, or antecedent impurity of the wife, even if resulting in a +concealed pregnancy, has not in England (though the last-mentioned cause +has in other countries) been held a ground for the vitiation of a +marriage contract. A marriage was voidable, and could be declared void, +on the ground of physical incapacity of either spouse, the absence of +intercourse between the parties after a sufficient period of opportunity +being almost, if not quite, conclusive on this subject. + +With regard to one cause of nullity the legislation interfered from +consideration, it is said, of a case of special hardship. Before the +Marriage Act of 1835 marriages within the prohibited degrees of +consanguinity and affinity were only voidable by a decree of the court, +and remained valid unless challenged during the lifetime of both the +parties. But this act, while providing that no previous marriage between +persons within the prohibited degrees should be annulled by a decree of +the ecclesiastical court pronounced in a suit depending at the time of +the passing of the act, went on to render all such marriages thereafter +contracted in England "absolutely null and void to all intents and +purposes whatever." + +Another suit was allowed by the ecclesiastical courts which should be +mentioned, although its bearing on divorce is indirect. This was the +suit for _jactitation of marriage_, which in the case of any person +falsely asserting his or her marriage to another, allowed such person to +be put to perpetual silence by an order of the court. This suit, which +has been of rare occurrence (though there was an instance, _Thompson_ v. +_Rourke_, in 1892), does not appear to have been used for the purpose of +determining the validity of a marriage. The legislature, has, however, +in the Legitimacy Declaration Act of 1858, provided a ready means by +which the validity of marriages and the legitimacy of children can be +determined, and the procedure provided has repeatedly been utilised. + +It should be added, as a matter closely akin to the proceedings in the +ecclesiastical courts, that the common law took cognizance of one phase +of matrimonial relations by allowing an action by the husband against a +paramour, known as an action for criminal conversation. In such an +action a husband could recover damages estimated according to the loss +he was supposed to have sustained by the seduction and loss of his wife, +the punishment of the seducer not being altogether excluded from +consideration. Although this action was not unfrequently (and indeed, +for the purposes of a divorce, necessarily) brought, it was one which +naturally was regarded with disfavour. + +_Effect of the Reformation._--Great as was the indirect effect of the +Reformation upon the law of divorce in England, the direct effect was +small. It might, indeed, have been supposed that the disappearance of +the sacramental idea of marriage entertained by the Roman Church would +have ushered in the greater freedom of divorce which had been associated +with marriage regarded as a civil contract. And to some extent this was +the case. It was for some time supposed that the sentences of divorce +pronounced by the ecclesiastical courts acquired the effect of allowing +remarriage, and such divorces were in some cases granted. In _Lord +Northampton's_ case in the reign of Edward VI. the delegates pronounced +in favour of a second marriage after a divorce _a mensa et thoro_. It +was, however, finally decided in _Foljambe's_ case, in the 44th year of +Elizabeth, that a marriage validly contracted could not be dissolved for +any cause. But the growing sense of the right to a complete divorce for +adequate cause, when no longer any religious law to the contrary could +be validly asserted, in time compelled the discovery of a remedy. The +commission appointed by Henry VIII. and Edward VI. to reform the +ecclesiastical law drew up the elaborate report known as the +_Reformatio Legum_, and in this they recommended that divorces _a mensa +et thoro_ should be abolished, and in their place complete divorce +allowed for the causes of adultery, desertion and cruelty. These +proposals, however, never became law. In 1669 a private act of +parliament was granted in the case of Lord de Roos, and this was +followed by another in the case of the duke of Norfolk in 1692. Such +acts were, however, rare until the accession of the House of Hanover, +only five acts passing before that period. Afterwards their number +considerably increased. Between 1715 and 1775 there were sixty such +acts, in the next twenty-five years there were seventy-four, and between +1800 and 1850 there were ninety. In 1829 alone there were seven, and in +1830 nine. + +The jurisdiction thus assumed by parliament to grant absolute divorces +was exercised with great care. The case was fully investigated before a +committee of the House of Lords, and not only was the substance of +justice so secured, but the House of Lords further required that +application to parliament should be preceded by a successful suit in the +ecclesiastical courts resulting in a decree of divorce _a mensa et +thoro_, and in the case of a husband being the applicant, a successful +action at common law and the recovery of damages against the paramour. +In this way, and also, if needful, on its own initiative, the House of +Lords provided that there should be no connivance or collusion. Care was +also taken that a proper allowance was secured to the wife in cases in +which she was not the offending party. This procedure is still pursued +in the case of Irish divorces. + +It is obvious, however, that the necessity for costly proceedings before +the Houses of Parliament imposed great hardship on the mass of the +population, and there can be little doubt that this hardship was deeply +felt. Repeated proposals were made to parliament with a view to reform +of the law, and more than one commission reported on the subject. It is +said that the final impetus was given by an address to a prisoner by Mr +Justice Maule. The prisoner's wife had deserted him with her paramour, +and he married again during her lifetime. He was indicted for bigamy, +and convicted, and Mr Justice Maule sentenced him in the following +words:--"Prisoner at the bar: You have been convicted of the offence of +bigamy, that is to say, of marrying a woman while you had a wife still +alive, though it is true she has deserted you and is living in adultery +with another man. You have, therefore, committed a crime against the +laws of your country, and you have also acted under a very serious +misapprehension of the course which you ought to have pursued. You +should have gone to the ecclesiastical court and there obtained against +your wife a decree _a mensa et thoro_. You should then have brought an +action in the courts of common law and recovered, as no doubt you would +have recovered, damages against your wife's paramour. Armed with these +decrees, you should have approached the legislature and obtained an act +of parliament which would have rendered you free and legally competent +to marry the person whom you have taken on yourself to marry with no +such sanction. It is quite true that these proceedings would have cost +you many hundreds of pounds, whereas you probably have not as many +pence. But the law knows no distinction between rich and poor. The +sentence of the court upon you, therefore, is that you be imprisoned for +one day, which period has already been exceeded, as you have been in +custody since the commencement of the assizes." The grave irony of the +learned judge was felt to represent truly a state of things well-nigh +intolerable, and a reform in the law of divorce was felt to be +inevitable. The hour and the man came in 1857, the man in the person of +Sir Richard Bethell (afterwards Lord Westbury), then attorney-general. + +_The Act of 1857._--Probably few measures have been conceived with such +consummate skill and knowledge, and few conducted through parliament +with such dexterity and determination. The leading opponent of the +measure was Mr Gladstone, backed by the zeal of the High Church party +and inspired by his own matchless subtlety and resource. But the contest +proved to be unequal, and after debates in which every line, almost +every word, of the measure was hotly contested, especially in the House +of Commons, the measure emerged substantially as it had been +introduced. Not the least part of the merit and success of the act of +1857 is due to the skill which, while effecting a great social change, +did so with the smallest possible amount of innovation. The act (which +came into operation on the 1st of January 1858) embodied two main +principles: 1. The constitution of a lay court for the administration of +all matters connected with divorce. 2. The transfer to that court, with +as little change as possible, of the powers exercised in matrimonial +matters by (a) the House of Lords, (b) the ecclesiastical courts, (c) +the courts of common law. + +_The Constitution of the Court._--The new court, termed "The Court for +Divorce and Matrimonial Causes," was constituted by the lord chancellor, +the chiefs and the senior puisne judges of the three courts of common +law, and the judge of the court of probate (which was also established +in 1857), but the functions of the court were practically entrusted to +the judge of the court of probate, termed the "Judge Ordinary," who thus +in matters of probate and divorce became the representative of the +former ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The judge ordinary was empowered +either to sit alone or with one or more of the other judges to +constitute a full court. The parties to a suit obtained the right of +trial by jury of all disputed questions of fact; and the rules of +evidence of the common law courts were made to apply. An appeal to the +full court was given in all matters, which the judge ordinary was +enabled to hear sitting alone. + +1. To this court were transferred all the powers of the ecclesiastical +courts with regard to suits for divorce _a mensa et thoro_, to which the +name was given of suits for "judicial separation," nullity, restitution +of conjugal rights, and jactitation of marriage, and in all such +proceedings it was expressly enacted (sec. 22) that the court should act +on principles and rules as nearly as possible conformable to the +principles and rules of the ecclesiastical courts. Judicial separation +could be obtained by either husband or wife for adultery, or cruelty, or +desertion continued for two or more years. + +2. There were also transferred to the court powers equivalent to those +exercised by the legislature in granting absolute divorce. The husband +could obtain a divorce for adultery, the wife could obtain a divorce for +adultery coupled with cruelty or desertion for two or more years, and +also for incestuous or bigamous adultery, or rape, or unnatural +offences. The same conditions as had been required by the legislature +were insisted on. A petition for dissolution (sec. 30) was to be +dismissed in case of connivance, condonation or collusion; and further, +the court had power, though it was not compelled, to dismiss such +petition if the petitioner had been guilty of adultery, or if there had +been unreasonable delay in presenting or prosecuting the petition, or if +the petitioner had been guilty of cruelty or desertion without +reasonable excuse, or of wilful neglect or misconduct conducing to the +adultery. The exercise of these discretionary powers of the court, just +and valuable as they undoubtedly are, has been attended with some +difficulty. But the view of the legislature has on the whole been +understood to be that the adultery of a petitioner should not constitute +a bar to his or her proceeding, if it has been caused by the misconduct +of the respondent, and that cruelty should not constitute such a bar +unless it has caused or contributed to the misconduct of the respondent. +But the court, while regarding its powers as those of a judicial and not +an arbitrary discretion, has declined to fetter itself by any fixed rule +of interpretation or practice. + +It is to be observed that this act assigned a new force to desertion. +The ecclesiastical law regarded it only as suggestive of connivance or +culpable neglect. But the act of 1857 made it (1) a ground of judicial +separation if continued for two years, (2) a ground in part of +dissolution of marriage if continued for the same period, (3) a bar, in +the discretion of the court, to a petition for dissolution, though it +was not made in a similar way any bar to a suit for judicial separation. +It is also to be observed that the act was confined to causes of divorce +recognized by the ecclesiastical law as administered in England. It did +not either extend the causes of a suit for nullity by adding such +grounds as antenuptial incontinence, even if accompanied with +pregnancy, nor did it borrow from the civil law of Rome either lunacy or +crime as grounds for divorce. + +Much comment has been made on the different grounds on which divorce is +allowed to a husband and to a wife,--it being necessary to prove +infidelity in both cases, but a wife being compelled to show either an +aggravation of that offence or an addition to it. Opinions probably will +always differ whether the two sexes should be placed on an equality in +this respect, abstract justice being invoked, and the idea of marriage +as a mere contract pointing in one direction, and social considerations +in the other. But the reason of the legislature for making the +distinction is clear. It is that the wife is entitled to an absolute +divorce only if her reconciliation with her husband is neither to be +expected nor desired. This was no doubt the view taken by the House of +Lords. In 1801 a Mrs Addison claimed an absolute divorce on the ground +of her husband's incest with her sister. The matter was long debated, +but Lord Thurlow, who appeared in the House of Lords for the last time +in order to support the bill, turned the scale by arguing that it was +improper that the wife should under such circumstances return to her +husband (see Campbell, _Lives of the Chancellors_, vii. 145). "Why do +you," he said, "grant to the husband a divorce for the adultery of the +wife? Because he ought not to forgive her, and separation is inevitable. +Where the wife cannot forgive, and separation is inevitable by reason of +the crime of the husband, the wife is entitled to the like remedy." + +The act (sec. 32) provided, in case of dissolution, for maintenance of +the wife by the husband on principles similar to those recognized by the +ecclesiastical courts, and (sec. 45) for the settlement of the property +of a guilty wife on her husband or children; but this enactment was +imperfect, as provision was made only for a settlement and not for +payment of an allowance, and none was made for altering settlements made +in view or in consequence of a marriage. The act (sec. 35) provides also +in all divorce proceedings, and also in those of nullity, for provision +for the custody, maintenance and education of children by the court: +provisions of great value, which were unfortunately for some time +limited by an erroneous view of the court that the age of the children +to which such provisions applied should be considered limited to +sixteen. The act of 1857 also transferred to the new court the powers +exercised by the common law courts in the action for criminal +conversation. It was made obligatory to join an alleged adulterer in the +suit, and damages (sec. 33) might be claimed against him, and he might +be ordered to pay the cost of the proceedings (sec. 34), the extent +depending upon the circumstances of each case.[1] + +The act of 1857 in one respect went beyond a transfer of the powers +exercised by the ecclesiastical courts or the legislature. It provided +(sec. 21) that a wife deserted by her husband might apply to a +magistrate in petty sessions and obtain an order which had the effect of +protecting her earnings and property, and during the currency of such +order of protection a wife was to be in the same position as if she had +obtained an order for judicial separation. The effect of this section +appears to have been small; but the Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) +Act 1895 has afforded a cheap and speedy remedy to all classes. + +The framers of the act of 1857 were careful to avoid offending the +scruples of clergymen who disapproved of the complete dissolution of +marriage by a lay court. It was provided (secs. 57 and 58) that no +clergyman should be compelled to solemnize the marriage of any person +whose former marriage had been dissolved on the ground of his or her +adultery, but should permit any other clergyman to solemnize the +marriage in any church or chapel in which the parties were entitled to +be married. It is to be feared that this concession, ample as it +appears, has not allayed conscientious objections, which are perhaps +from their nature insuperable. The act made no provision as to the name +to be borne by a wife after a divorce; and this omission led to +litigation in the case of a peer's wife, in _Cowley_ v. _Cowley_, in +which Lady Cowley was allowed to retain her status. + +_Modifications of the Act of 1857._--Subsequent legislation has made +good many of the defects of the act of 1857. In 1859 power was given to +the court, after a decree of dissolution or of nullity of marriage, to +inquire into the existence of ante- and post-nuptial settlements, and to +make orders with respect to the property settled either for the benefit +of children of the marriage or their parents; and a subsequent act (41 & +42 Vict. c. 19, s. 3) removed a doubt which was entertained whether +these powers could be exercised if there were no children of the +marriage. In 1860 a very important change was made, having for its +object a practical mode of preventing divorces in cases of connivance +and collusion or of misconduct of the petitioner. It was provided that a +claim of dissolution (a provision afterwards extended to decrees of +nullity) should in the first instance be a decree nisi, which should not +be made absolute until the expiration of a period then fixed at not less +than three, but by subsequent legislation enlarged to not less than six, +months. During the interval which elapsed between the decree nisi and +such decree being made absolute, power was given to any person to +intervene in the suit and show cause why the decree should not be made +absolute, by reason of the same having been obtained by collusion, or by +reason of material facts not brought before the court; and it was also +provided that, at any time before the decree was made absolute, the +queen's proctor, if led to suspect that the parties were acting in +collusion for the purpose of obtaining a divorce contrary to the justice +of the case, might under the direction of the attorney-general intervene +and allege such case of collusion. This enactment (extended in the year +1873 to suits for nullity) was ill drawn and unskilfully conceived. The +power given to any person whomsoever to intervene is no doubt too wide, +and practically has had little or no useful effect as employed by +friends or enemies of parties to a suit. The limitation in terms of the +express power of the queen's proctor to intervene in cases of collusion +was undoubtedly too narrow. But the queen's proctor, or the official by +whom that officer was afterwards represented, has in practice availed +himself of the general authority given to any person to show cause why a +decree _nisi_ should not be made absolute, and has thus been enabled to +render such important service to the administration of justice that it +is difficult to imagine the due execution of the law of divorce by a +court without such assistance. By the Matrimonial Causes Act 1866 power +was given to the court to order an allowance to be paid by a guilty +husband to a wife on a dissolution of marriage. This act also can hardly +be considered to have been drawn with sufficient care, inasmuch as while +it provides that if the husband's means diminish, the allowance may be +diminished or suspended, it makes no corresponding provision for +increase of the allowance if the husband's means increase; nor, +apparently, does it permit of an allowance in addition to, but only in +substitution for, a settlement. The act makes no provision for allowance +to a guilty wife, and it certainly is a serious defect that the power to +grant an allowance does not extend to cases of nullity. In 1868 an +appeal to the House of Lords was given in cases of decree for +dissolution or nullity of marriage. + +The great changes effected by the Judicature Acts included the court for +divorce and matrimonial causes. Under their operation a division of the +high court of justice was constituted, under the designation of the +probate division and admiralty division, to which was assigned that +class of legal administration governed mainly by the principles and +practice of the canon and civil law. The division consists of a +president, and a justice of the high court, with registrars +representing each branch of the jurisdiction. Appeals lie to the court +of appeal, and thence to the House of Lords. + +In 1884 the legislature interfered to prevent imprisonment being the +result of disobedience to an order for restitution of conjugal rights. +That mode of enforcing the order of the court was abolished, and the +matter was left to a proper adjustment of the pecuniary relations of the +husband and wife; and a respondent disobeying such an order was held to +be guilty of desertion without reasonable cause, such desertion having +further given to it a similar effect to that assigned to desertion for +two years or upwards. The effect of this provision has been that the +suit for restitution of conjugal rights is most frequently brought for +the purpose of shortening the time within which a wife can obtain a +decree for dissolution of marriage. + +Proceedings in the divorce court have shown the improvement in the law +of evidence which has been effected with regard to other legal +proceedings. The act of 1857 made an inroad on the former law, which +prohibited evidence being given by parties interested in the +proceedings, by allowing a petitioner (sec. 43) to be called and +examined by order of the court, absolving such petitioner, however, from +the necessity of answering any question tending to show that he or she +had been guilty of adultery. In the next year power was given to the +court to dismiss any person, with whom a party to the suit was alleged +to have committed adultery, from the suit if there should not appear to +be sufficient evidence against him or her, the object being to allow +such person to give evidence; and in 1859 it was provided that, on a +petition by a wife for a divorce on the grounds of cruelty or desertion +with adultery, the husband and wife could be competent and compellable +witnesses as to the cruelty or desertion. A few years later, however, in +1869, the subject was finally dealt with by repealing all previous rules +which limited the powers to give evidence on questions of adultery with +the safeguard that no witness in any proceeding can be asked or bound to +answer any question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of +adultery, unless in the same proceeding such witness shall have given +evidence in disproof of his or her alleged adultery. It has been held +that the principles of these enactments apply to interrogatories as well +as to evidence given in court. + +It is a most remarkable omission in the act of 1857, especially when we +remember the high legal authority from whom it proceeded, that the act +nowhere defines the class of persons with regard to whom the +jurisdiction of the court should be exercised. This omission has given +rise to a misapprehension of the law which, though now set at rest, +prevailed for a considerable period, and has undoubtedly led to the +granting of divorce in several cases in which it could not legally be +given. It was supposed that the court could grant a dissolution of +marriage to all persons who had anything more than a casual and fleeting +residence within the jurisdiction of the court; and this view, although +its correctness was doubted by Lord Penzance, the judge of the divorce +court, was upheld by a majority of the judges of the court of appeal in +the case of _Niboyet_ v. _Niboyet_ (4 P. D. 1). It was supposed that +such residence gave what was termed a matrimonial domicile. But this +view was undoubtedly erroneous as regards dissolution of marriage, +although probably correct as regards judicial separation, and the true +view is no doubt that indicated with great learning and ability by Lord +Watson in a judgment given by him in the privy council in the case of +_Le Mesurier_ v. _Le Mesurier_ (1895, App. Cas. 517), that the only true +test of jurisdiction for a decree of divorce altering the status of the +parties to a marriage is to be found in the domicile of the +spouses--that is to say, of the husband, as the domicile of a wife +follows that of her husband--at the time of the divorce. Domicile means +a person's permanent home, the place at which he resides with no +intention of making his home elsewhere, and, if he leaves it, with the +intention of returning to it. + +It is now also clearly recognized as the law of England that the English +courts will not recognize a divorce purporting to be made by a foreign +tribunal with regard to persons domiciled in England. For a considerable +time doubt appears to have clouded the law on this subject. In a famous +case known as _Lolley's_ case, decided in 1812, the judges of England +(the point arose in connexion with a criminal charge) unanimously held +"that no sentence or act of any foreign country or any state could +dissolve an English marriage _a vinculo matrimonii_ for grounds on which +it was not liable to be dissolved _a vinculo matrimonii_ in England." +This case has been frequently understood as deciding that a marriage +celebrated in England cannot be dissolved elsewhere, and on this point +the courts of Scotland differ from the view supposed to be taken by the +English judges. But the matter has been fully explained in one of the +most masterly of Lord Hannen's judgments (_Harvey_ v. _Fairnie_, 5. P. +D. 154), afterwards upheld by the House of Lords in 1882 (8 App. Cas. +43); and it is now clear that while the parties are domiciled in this +country no decree of any foreign court dissolving their marriage will be +recognized here, unless it proceed on the grounds on which a divorce may +be obtained in this country, and even the exception just mentioned +appears to rest rather on reasoning and principle than on the authority +of any decided case. This principle received the highest sanction in the +prosecution of Earl Russell for bigamy before the House of Lords (1901), +in which it was held that, where a divorce had been refused him in +England, an American divorce would not relieve a man from the guilt of +marrying again. + +_Summary Proceedings for Separation._--The legislature has sought to +extend the relief afforded by the courts in matrimonial causes by a +procedure fairly to be considered within the reach of all classes. In +1895 an act was passed which re-enacted in an improved form the +provisions of an act of 1878 of similar effect. By the act of 1895 power +was given to a married woman whose husband (1) has been guilty of an +aggravated assault upon her within the Offences against the Person Act +1861, or (2) convicted on indictment of an assault on her and sentenced +to pay a fine of more than L5 or to imprisonment for more than two +months, or (3) shall have deserted her, or (4) been guilty of persistent +cruelty to her or wilful neglect to maintain her or her infant children, +and by such cruelty or neglect shall have caused her to leave and live +apart from him, to apply to a court of summary jurisdiction and to +obtain an order containing all or any of the following provisions:--(1) +that the applicant be not forced to cohabit with her husband, (2) that +the applicant have the custody of any children under sixteen years of +age, (3) that the husband pay to her an allowance not exceeding L2 a +week. The act provides that no married woman guilty of adultery should +be granted relief, but with the very important proviso, altering as it +does the rule of the common law, that the husband has not conduced or +connived at, or by wilful neglect or misconduct conduced to, such +adultery. The provisions of this act[2] have been largely put in force, +and no doubt to the great advantage of the poorer classes of the +community. It will be observed that the act is unilateral, and affords +no relief to a husband against a wife; and the complaint is often heard +that no misconduct of the wife, except adultery, relieves the husband +from the necessity of maintaining her and allowing her to share his +home, unless he can obtain access to the high court.[3] + +_Separation Deeds._--Although nothing in the development of the law of +divorce has tended to give to married persons the right absolutely to +dissolve their marriage by consent, and, on the contrary, any such +agreement would be held to be strong evidence of collusion, the view of +the Church expressed in the ecclesiastical law has been entirely +departed from as regards agreements for separation. Such agreements were +embodied in deeds, and usually contained mutual covenants not to sue in +the ecclesiastical courts for restitution of conjugal rights. The +ecclesiastical courts, however, wholly disregarded such agreements, and +considered them as affording no answer to a suit for restitution of +conjugal rights. For a considerable period the court of chancery refused +to enforce the covenant in such deeds by restraining the parties from +proceeding to the ecclesiastical courts. But at last a memorable +judgment of Lord Westbury (1861) asserted the right (_Hunt_ v. _Hunt_, 4 +De G. F. & J. 221; see also _Marshall_ v. _Marshall_, 5 P. D. 19) of the +court of chancery to maintain the claim of good faith in this as in +other cases, and restrained a petitioner from suing in the +ecclesiastical court contrary to his covenant. Thereafter these deeds +became common, and no doubt often afford a solution of matrimonial +difficulties of very great value. When the courts of the country became +united under the Judicature Acts, it became practicable to set up in the +divorce division a separation deed in answer to a suit for restitution +of conjugal rights without the necessity of recourse to any other +tribunal. + + _Statistics._--The statistics of divorce in England have for some + years been regularly published in the volumes of judicial statistics + published annually by the Home Office. + + The number of petitions for divorce (including in the term both + divorce _a mensa et thoro_ and divorce _a vinculo_) for the years from + 1858 to 1905 inclusive are as follows:-- + + 1858 326 | 1874 469 | 1890 644 + 1859 291 | 1875 451 | 1891 632 + 1860 272 | 1876 536 | 1892 629 + 1861 236 | 1877 551 | 1893 645 + 1862 248 | 1878 632 | 1894 652 + 1863 298 | 1879 555 | 1895 683 + 1864 297 | 1880 615 | 1896 772 + 1865 284 | 1881 589 | 1897 781 + 1866 279 | 1882 481 | 1898 750 + 1867 294 | 1883 561 | 1899 727 + 1868 303 | 1884 647 | 1900 698 + 1869 351 | 1885 541 | 1901 848 + 1870 351 | 1886 708 | 1902 987 + 1871 384 | 1887 662 | 1903 914 + 1872 374 | 1888 680 | 1904 822 + 1873 416 | 1889 654 | 1905 844 + + It is probably impossible to account for the variations which the + above table discloses. It was no doubt natural that the year + immediately succeeding the passing of the act which originated + facilities for divorces _a vinculo_ should exhibit a larger number of + divorces than its successors for a considerable period. But there does + not appear to be any adequate cause for the comparative increase which + seems to have prevailed in the decade between 1878 and 1888, unless it + be found in the increase of marriages which culminated in 1873 and + 1883, falling after each of those years. The number of marriages again + rose high in 1891 and 1892, and this may account for the increased + number of divorces in 1896 and the following years. But it may + certainly be said with confidence that as compared with the growth of + population the number of divorces in England has shown no alarming + increase. + + The total number of petitions in matrimonial causes presented by + husbands exceed those presented by wives, but in no marked degree. + This excess would seem to be due to the fact that the larger number of + petitions for dissolution presented by husbands, owing no doubt to the + difference in the law affecting the two sexes, is not entirely + counterbalanced by the much larger number of petitions for judicial + separation presented by wives. The following figures for various years + may be taken as typical:-- + + +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1905 | + +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Petitions for Dissolution-- | | | | | | | + | Presented by husbands | 353 | 393 | 414 | 401 | 383 | 429 | + | Presented by wives | 220 | 280 | 269 | 243 | 262 | 323 | + | Petitions for Judicial Separation--| | | | | | | + | Presented by husbands | 4 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 5 | + | Presented by wives | 106 | 96 | 96 | 102 | 78 | 87 | + | Totals-- | | | | | | | + | Presented by husbands | 357 | 396 | 416 | 405 | 387 | 434 | + | Presented by wives | 326 | 376 | 365 | 345 | 340 | 410 | + +------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + + Speaking generally, it may be said that about 70% of the petitions + presented are successful and result in decrees. This percentage has a + tendency, however, to rise. + + Attempts have been made to ascertain the classes which supply the + petitioners for divorce, but this cannot be done with such certainty + as to warrant any but the most general conclusions. It may, however, + safely be said that while all classes, professions and occupations are + represented, it is certainly not those highest in the scale that are + the largest contributors. The principles of the act of 1857 have + beyond question been justified by the relief required by and afforded + to the general community. + + +OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES + +We may now turn to the law of divorce as administered in the other +countries of the modern world. On the main question whether marriage is +to be considered indissoluble they will be found to range themselves on +one side or the other according to the influence upon them of the Church +of Rome and its canon law. + +In _Scotland_ it has long been the law that marriage can be dissolved at +the instance of either party by judicial sentence on the grounds of +adultery or of desertion, termed non-adherence, and the spouses could in +such case remarry, except with the paramour,--at all events if the +paramour was named in the decree (and the name is sometimes omitted for +that reason). A divorce _a mensa et thoro_ could also be granted for +cruelty. By the Court of Session Act 1830, the jurisdiction in divorce +was transferred from a body of commissaries to the court of session. + +By the law of _Holland_ complete divorce could be granted by judicial +sentence on the grounds of adultery or of wilful and malicious +desertion, to which were added unnatural offences and imprisonment for +life, and such divorce gave the power of remarriage, except with the +person with whom adultery was proved to have been committed, but there +would seem to be a doubt whether this power extended to the guilty party +(Voet, _De divortiis_, lit. 24, tit. 2). Divorce _a mensa et thoro_ +could be granted on the grounds allowed by the canon law. + +The Code of _Prussia_ of 1794 contained elaborate provisions which gave +great facility of divorce. A complete divorce could be obtained by +judicial sentence for the following causes:--(1) Adultery or unnatural +offences; and adultery by a husband formed no bar to his obtaining a +divorce against his wife for adultery; and even an illicit intimacy, +from which a presumption of adultery might arise, was held sufficient +for a divorce. (2) Wilful desertion. (3) Obstinate refusal of the rights +of marriage, which was considered as equivalent to desertion. (4) +Incapacity to perform the duties of marriage, even if arising subsequent +to the marriage; and the same effect was assigned to other incurable +bodily defects that excited disgust and horror. (5) Lunacy, if after a +year there was no reasonable hope of recovery. (6) An attempt on the +life of one spouse by the other, or gross and unlawful attack on the +honour or personal liberty. (7) Incompatibility of temper and +quarrelsome disposition, if rising to the height of endangering life or +health. (8) Opprobrious crime for which either spouse has suffered +imprisonment, or a knowingly false accusation of such crime by one +spouse of the other. (9) If either spouse by unlawful transactions +endangers the life, honour, office or trade of the other, or commences +an ignominious employment. (10) Change of religion. In addition to these +causes, marriages, when there were no children, could be dissolved by +mutual consent if there be no reason to suspect levity, precipitation or +compulsion; and a judge had also power to dissolve a marriage in cases +in which a strongly rooted dislike appeared to him to exist. In all +cases of divorce, but sometimes subject to the necessity of obtaining a +licence, remarriage was permissible (see Burge, _Commentaries on +Colonial and Foreign Law_, vol. i. 649). + +Before 1876 only a divorce _a vinculo_ could be obtained in some of the +German states, especially if the petitioner were a Roman Catholic. The +only relief afforded was a "perpetual separation." By the Personal +Status Act 1875 perpetual separation orders were abolished and divorce +decrees allowed in cases where the petitioners would, under the former +law, have been entitled to a perpetual separation order. However, two +Drafting Commissions under the act declined to alter the new rule, but +under pressure from the Roman Catholic party the Reichstag passed a law +introducing a modified separation order, termed "dissolution of the +conjugal community" (_Aufhebung der ehelichen Gemeinschaft_). This order +can be converted into a dissolution of the marriage at the option of +either party. Under the Civil Code of 1900 a petitioner can obtain a +divorce or judicial separation on "absolute" or "relative" grounds. In +the former case if the facts are established the petitioner is entitled +to the relief prayed for; in the latter case, it is left to judicial +discretion. The absolute grounds are adultery, bigamy, sodomy, an +attempt against the petitioner's life or wilful desertion. The relative +grounds are (a) such grave breach of marital duty or dishonourable or +immoral conduct as would disturb the marital relation to such an extent +that the marriage could not reasonably be expected to continue; (b) +insanity, continued for more than three years during the marriage, and +of so severe a nature that intellectual community between the parties +has ceased and is not likely to be re-established. A divorced wife, if +not exclusively the guilty party, may retain her husband's name; but if +exclusively guilty, her former husband may compel her to resume her +maiden name. + +By the law of _Denmark_, according to the Code of King Christian the +Fifth, complete divorce could be obtained for incest; for leprosy, +whether contracted before or after marriage; for transportation for +crime or flight from justice, after three years, though not for crime +itself; and for exile not arising from crime, after seven years. + +In _Sweden_ complete divorce is granted by judicial sentence for +adultery, and in _Russia_ for that cause and also for incompatibility of +temper (Ayliffe, Par. 49). On the other hand, in _Spain_ marriage is +indissoluble, and the ecclesiastical courts have retained their +exclusive cognizance of matrimonial causes. In _Italy_ certain articles +of the Civil Code deal with separation, voluntary and judicial, but +divorce is not allowed in any form. + +In _France_ the law of divorce has had a chequered history. Before the +Revolution the Roman canon law prevailed, marriage was considered +indissoluble, and only divorce _a mensa et thoro_, known as _la +separation d'habitation_, was permitted; though it would appear that in +the earliest age of the monarchy divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ was +allowed. _La separation d'habitation_ was granted at the instance of a +wife for cruelty by her husband or false accusation of a capital crime, +or for habitual treatment with contempt before the inmates of the house; +but a wife could not obtain a separation for adultery by her husband, +although he had his remedy in case of adultery by his wife. In every +case the sentence of a judicial tribunal, which took precautions against +collusion, was necessary. But the Revolution may be said to have swept +away marriage among the institutions which it overwhelmed, and by the +law of the 20th of September 1792 so great facility was given for +divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ as practically to terminate the +obligations of marriage. A reaction came with the Code Napoleon, yet +even under that system of law divorce remained comparatively easy. +Mutual consent, expressed in the manner and continued for a period +specified by the law, was cause for a divorce (the principle of the +Roman law being adopted on this point), but such consent could not take +place unless the husband was twenty-five years of age and the wife +twenty-one, unless they had been married for two years, nor after twenty +years of marriage, nor after the wife had completed her forty-fifth +year; and further, the approval of the parents of both parties was +required. In case of divorce by consent, the law required that a proper +agreement should be made for the maintenance of the wife and the custody +of the children. A husband could obtain a divorce _a vinculo matrimonii_ +for adultery, but the wife had no such power unless the husband had +brought his mistress to the home. Both husband and wife could claim +divorce on the ground of outrage, or grievous bodily injury, or +condemnation for an infamous crime. If the divorce was for adultery, the +erring party could not marry the partner of his or her guilt. A divorce +_a mensa et thoro_ could be obtained on the same grounds as a divorce _a +vinculo_, but not by mutual consent; and if the divorce _a mensa et +thoro_ continued in force for three years, the defendant party could +claim a divorce _a vinculo_. On the restoration of royalty in 1816 +divorce _a vinculo_ was abolished, and pending suits for divorce _a +vinculo_ were converted into suits for separation only. + +Divorce in France, after the repeal of the provisions respecting it in +the Code Napoleon in 1816, was re-enacted by a law of the 27th of July +1884, the provisions of which were simplified by laws of 1886 and 1907. +But a wide departure was made by these laws from the terms of the Code +Napoleon. Divorce by consent disappeared, and the following became the +causes for which divorce was allowed: (1) Adultery by either party to +the marriage at the suit of the other, without, in the case of adultery +by the husband, the aggravation of introduction of the concubine into +the home required by the Code; (2) violence (_exces_) or cruelty +(_sevices_); (3) _injures graves_; and (4) _peine afflictive et +infamante_. _Exces_ is defined by Locie as "a generic expression +comprising all acts tending to compromise the safety of the person, +without distinction as to their object or motive, premeditation as well +as furious anger, attempts upon life as well as serious woundings." +_Sevices_ are acts of ill-treatment less grave in character, which, +while not endangering life, render existence in common intolerable +(Kelly's _French Law of Marriage_, p. 122). _Injures graves_, as to +which the courts have considered themselves entitled to exercise a wide +discretion, have been defined as acts, writings or words which reflect +upon the honour or the reputation of the party against whom they are +directed. The courts have held that retraction at the trial does not +relieve the party from the consequences of an _injure grave_, and that +publicity is an aggravating but not a necessary element. A letter from +one spouse to the other may constitute an _injure_ and the courts have +further held themselves at liberty to consider letters written after +divorce proceedings have been commenced. _Injures graves_ have also been +considered to include material injuries, and among these have been +classed habitual and groundless refusal of matrimonial rights, +communication of disease and refusal to consent to a religious ceremony +of marriage. Habitual but not occasional drunkenness has also been held +to fall within the definition of an _injure grave_. _Peine afflictive et +infamante_ signifies a legal punishment involving corporal confinement +and moral degradation.[4] + +In addition to its recognition of full divorce, the French law +recognizes separation of two kinds, one _separation de biens_ and the +other _separation de corps_. The effect of _separation de biens_ is +merely to put an end to the community of goods between the spouses. It +necessarily follows, but may be decreed independently of _separation de +corps_. The grounds of _separation de corps_ are the same as those for a +divorce; and if a _separation de corps_ has existed for three years, it +may be turned into a divorce upon the application of either party to the +court. + +Until 1893 a wife _separee de corps_ obtained only the capacity +attaching to a concomitant _separation de biens_; that is to say, she +recovered the enjoyment and management of her separate property, but +could not deal with real property, nor take legal proceedings, without +the sanction of her husband or of the court. But by a law of the 6th of +February 1893 a wife _separee de corps_ obtains "the full exercise of +her civil capacity, so that she shall not need to resort to the +authority of her husband or of the court." In case of reconciliation, +the wife returns to the limited capacity of a wife _separee de biens_, +and after the prescribed notification of such change of status it +becomes binding on third persons. + +The provisions of French law with regard to the custody of the children +of a dissolved marriage, and with regard to property, do not differ +materially from those prescribed by the English acts. The custody of +children is given to the party who has obtained the divorce, unless the +court, on the application of the family, or the _ministere public_, +consider it better, in the interests of the children, that custody +should be given to the other party or a third person; but in every case +the right of both father and mother to supervise the maintenance and +education of the children, and their liability to contribute to their +support, are continued. + +The law in France as to property on a divorce has been accurately stated +as follows:-- + + "Divorce in France effects a dissolution of the matrimonial regime of + property as well as of the marriage itself. The decree appoints a + notary, who is charged with the settlement of the pecuniary interests + of the parties. By a stereotyped form of procedure the appointment is + made invariably for the purpose of liquidating _la communaute ayant + existe entre les epoux_, irrespective of whether the regime really was + that of community or another. In the case of aliens, therefore, + married under the rule of separate property, it is necessary carefully + to set this out in the notarial deed of liquidation, in order to + defeat the presumption which might be raised by the wording of the + decree that a community really did exist. The party against whom the + divorce has been pronounced loses the benefit of all settlements made + upon him or her by the other party, either by the marriage contract or + since the marriage. On the other hand, the party in whose favour the + divorce has been pronounced preserves the benefit of all settlements + made in his or her favour by the unsuccessful party. If no such + settlements were made, or if those made appear inadequate to ensure + the subsistence of the successful party, the court may grant him or + her permanent alimony out of the property of the other party, not to + exceed one-third of the income, and revocable in case it ceases to be + necessary" (Kelly, p. 130). + +On a divorce both parties are at liberty to remarry. The husband could +remarry at once; but the wife (art. 296 of the Code) was only allowed to +remarry after an interval of ten months. By the act of 1907, this +article was abolished, and the wife allowed to remarry as soon as the +judgment or decree granting the divorce has been entered, providing 300 +days have elapsed since the first judgment was pronounced. A divorced +husband may remarry his divorced wife, but if he does so, he cannot be +again divorced, except on the ground of a sentence to a _peine +afflictive et infamante_ passed on one of them since their remarriage. +There is, however, this limitation on the power of remarriage of +divorced persons, that the party to the marriage against whom the decree +has been pronounced is not allowed to marry the person with whom his or +her guilt has been established. Such person, however, has no such rights +as are recognized in him or her according to English law, and cannot +take any part in the proceedings. But his or her name is referred to in +the proceedings only by an initial; and French law goes even further in +the avoidance of publicity, inasmuch as the publication of divorce +proceedings in the press is forbidden, under heavy penalties. + +By a law of the 6th of February 1893 French jurisprudence, more complete +at least, and perhaps wiser, than English, dealt with a matter +previously in controversy, and decided that after a divorce the wife +shall resume her maiden name, and may not continue to use the name of +her divorced husband; nor may the husband, for business or other +purposes, continue to use the name of his wife. + +By the law of 1886 the special procedure in divorce previously in force +under the Code and under the law of 1884 was abolished, and it was +provided that matrimonial causes should be tried according to the +ordinary rules of procedure. The action therefore, when brought, follows +the methods of procedure common to other civil proceedings. But there +still remain certain necessary preliminaries to an action of divorce. A +petition must be presented by a petitioner in person to the president of +the court sitting in chambers, with the object of a reconciliation being +effected. This is known as the _premiere comparation_. If the petitioner +still determines to proceed, there follows the _seconde comparation_, on +which occasion both parties appear before the president. If the +president fails to effect a reconciliation, he makes an order permitting +the petitioner to proceed, and deals with the matters necessary to be +dealt with _pendente lite_, such matters being (1) separate residence, +(2) alimony, (3) possession of personal effects, (4) custody of +children. As regards residence, the wife is compelled to adhere during +the proceedings to the residence assigned to her, but no similar +restriction is placed on the husband. Alimony _pendente lite_ is in the +discretion of the court, having regard to the means of the parties, and +includes a proper provision for costs. As regards the custody of +children, the Code and the law of 1884 gave it to the husband, unless +the court otherwise orders, but the law of 1886 leaves the matter wholly +in the discretion of the court. + +There are certain technical rules of evidence on the trial of a divorce +action. It is a general principle of the French law of evidence that +documentary evidence is the best evidence, and oral testimony only +secondary. In divorce cases adultery _flagrante delicto_ can be proved +by the official certificate of the commissary of police. Letters between +the husband and wife are admissible in evidence. As to letters between +the parties and third persons, the law, which has been doubtful, now +appears to be that the wife may produce only such letters from third +parties to her husband as have come into her possession accidentally, +and without any ruse or artifice on her part; but the husband may put in +evidence any letters written to or by his wife which he has obtained by +any, short of criminal, means. If the documents put in evidence are not +sufficient to satisfy the court, there follows an investigation by means +of witnesses, termed an _enquete_. A schedule of allegations is drawn +up, and a judge, termed a _juge-commissaire_, is specially appointed to +conduct the inquiry. Relatives and servants, though not competent +witnesses in ordinary civil actions, are so in divorce proceedings. +Cross petitions may be entered; the substantiation of a cross petition, +however, does not have the effect, in some cases given to it by English +law, of barring a divorce, but a divorce may be, and often is, granted +in favour of and against both parties _pour torts reciproques_. When a +case comes on for trial, it is in the power of the court to order an +adjournment for a period not exceeding six months, which is termed a +_temps d'epreuve_, in order to afford an opportunity for reconciliation. +It is said, however, that this power is seldom exercised. An appeal may +be brought against a decree of divorce within two months; and a decree +made on appeal is subject to revision by the court of cassation within +two months. Both references to the court of appeal and the court of +cassation operate as a stay of execution. A decree must, by the law of +1886, be transcribed on the register of marriages within two months from +its date, and failing this transcription, the decree is void. The +transcription must be made at the place of celebration of the marriage, +or, if the parties are married abroad, at the place where the parties +were last domiciled in France. If the parties, after having married +abroad, return to France, it has been provided, by a circular of the +_Procureur de la Republique_ in 1887, that the transcription may be made +at the place of their actual domicile at the time of action brought, a +rule which has been held to apply to the divorce of aliens in France. +The effect of transcription does not relate back to the date of the +decree. + + Opinions may differ as to the relative merits of the English and + French law relating to divorce. But it cannot be denied that the + French law presents a singularly complete and well-considered system, + and one which, obviously with the English system in view, has + endeavoured to graft on it provisions supplementing its omissions, and + modifying certain of its terms in accordance with the light afforded + by experience and the changed feelings of the modern world. The effect + of the laws of 1884 and 1886 in France has been great. The act of 1907 + dealing with divorce, coupled with that of the 21st of July of the + same year dealing with marriage, may also be said to mark an epoch in + the laws relating to women. During the five years from 1884 to 1888 + the courts granted divorces in 21,064 cases, rejecting applications + for divorce in 1524. In addition, there were 12,242 applications for + judicial separation, of which 10,739 were granted. A distinguished + French writer, the author of a work of singular completeness and + accuracy on the judicial system of Great Britain has compared these + figures with the corresponding result of the English act of 1857. His + conclusion is expressed in these words: "On voit qu'en cinq annees nos + tribunaux out prononce trois fois plus de divorces que la haute cour + d'Angleterre n'en a prononce en trente ans. Je n'insiste pas sur les + conclusions morales a tirer de ce rapprochement" (Comte de + Franqueville, _Le Systeme judiciaire de la Grande-Bretagne_, ii. p. + 171). It is, however, practically impossible to compare the number of + divorces in France and in England with exact justice, because, as will + have been seen above, the causes of divorce in France materially + exceed those recognized by English law; and the absence in France of + any official performing the functions assigned to the king's proctor + in England cannot but have great influence on the number of + applications for divorce, as well as on their results. (ST H.) + + +UNITED STATES + +According to American practice, divorce is the termination by proper +legal authority, sometimes legislatively but usually judicially, of a +marriage which up to the time of the decree was legal and binding. It is +to be distinguished from a decree of nullity of marriage, which is +simply a legal determination that no legal marriage has ever existed +between the two parties. It is also to be distinguished from a decree of +separation, which permits or commands the parties to live apart, but +does not completely and for all purposes sever the marriage tie. The +matrimonial law of England, as at the time of the declaration of +independence, forms part of the common law of the United States. But as +no ecclesiastical courts have ever existed there, the law must be +considered to have been inoperative. There is no Federal jurisdiction in +divorce, and it is a question for the law of each separate state; and +though it is competent to Congress to authorize divorces in the +Territories, still it appears that this subject like others is usually +left to the territorial legislature. In the different states, and in +England, divorces were at first granted by the legislatures, whether +directly or by granting special authority to the tribunals to deal with +particular cases. This practice fell into general disrepute, and by the +constitution of some states such divorces are expressly prohibited. + +Upon the subject of divorce in the United States, and, to some extent, +in foreign countries, a careful investigation was made by the American +Bureau of Labour, and its report covered the years 1867 to 1886; a +further report for the period 1887 to 1906 has also been published by +the Federal Census Bureau. The number of divorces was in 1886 over +25,000, and in 1906 was over 72,000, about double the number reported +for that year from all the rest of the Christian world. As divorce +presupposes a legal marriage, the amount of divorce, or the +divorce-rate, is best stated as the ratio between the number of divorces +decreed during a year and the number of subsisting marriages or married +couples. The usual basis is 100,000 married couples. In 1898-1902 the +divorce-rate was 200 divorces (400 people) to 100,000 married couples. +This is equivalent to more than one divorce annually to each 1400 +people. The several states differ in divorce-rate, from South Carolina, +with no provision for legal divorce, to Montana and Washington, where +the rate is two and a half times the average for the country. In general +the rate is about the same in the North as in the South, but greater in +the Central states than in the East, and in the Western than in the +Central states; but to this rule the New England states, Louisiana, New +Mexico and Arizona are exceptions. The New England states have a higher +rate than their geographical position would lead one to expect, and the +other three, owing doubtless, in part at least, to the influence of the +Roman Catholic Church, have a lower rate than the states about them. The +several state groups had in 1900 the following divorce-rates per +100,000: South Atlantic, 196; North Atlantic, 200; South Central, 558; +North Central, 510; Western, 712. The divorce-rate in the United States +increased rapidly and steadily in forty years from 27 in 1867 to 86 in +1906. But distinct tendencies are traceable in different regions. In the +North Atlantic group the rate rose by 58%, in the North Central by 158%, +in the Western by 223%, in the South Atlantic by 437%, and in the South +Central by 685%. The great increase in the South was mainly due to the +spread of divorce among the emancipated negroes. Each state determines +for itself the causes for which divorce may be granted, and no general +statement is therefore possible. + +The ground pleaded for a divorce is seldom an index to the motives which +caused the suit to be brought. This is determined by the character of +the law rather than by the state of mind of the parties; and so far as +the individuals are concerned, the ground alleged is thus a cloak rather +than a clue or revelation. Still those causes which have been enacted +into law by the various state legislatures do indicate the pleas which +have been endorsed by the social judgment of the respective communities. +In the United States exclusive of Alaska and the recent insular +accessions there are forty-nine different jurisdictions in the matter of +divorce. Six out of every seven allow divorce for desertion, adultery or +cruelty; and of the 945,625 divorces reported with their causes during +the twenty years 1887-1906 nearly 78% were granted for some one of these +three causes, viz. 39% for desertion, 22% for adultery, and 16% for +cruelty. Probably nearly 9% more were for some combination of these +causes. Three other grounds for divorce are admitted as legal in many or +most American states, viz. imprisonment in 39, habitual drunkenness in +38, and neglect to provide in 22. About 98% of American divorces are +granted on some one or more of these six grounds. In general the +legislation on the subject of the causes allowed for divorce is most +restrictive in the states on the Atlantic coast, from New York to South +Carolina inclusive, and is least so in the Western states. The slight +expense of obtaining a divorce in many of the states, and the lack of +publicity which is given to the suit, are also important reasons for the +great number of decrees issued. The importance of the former +consideration is reflected in the fact that the divorce-rate for the +United States as a whole shows clearly, in its fluctuations, the +influences of good and bad times. When times are good and the income of +the working and industrial classes likely to be assured, the +divorce-rate rises. In periods of industrial depression it falls, +fluctuating thus in the same way and probably for the same reason that +the marriage-rate in industrial communities fluctuates. In two-thirds of +the divorce suits the wife is the plaintiff, and the proportion slightly +increased in the forty years. In the Northern states the percentage +issued to wives (1887-1906) was 71, while in the Southern states it was +only 56. But where both parties desire a decree, and each has a legal +ground to urge, a jury will usually listen more favourably to a woman's +suit. + +Divorce is probably especially frequent among the native population of +the United States, and among these probably more common in the city than +in the country. This statement cannot be established absolutely, since +statistics afford no means of distinguishing the native from the +foreign-born applicants. It is, however, the most obvious reason for +explaining the fact that, while in Europe the city divorce-rate is from +three to five times as great as that of the surrounding country, the +difference in the United States between the two regions is very much +less. In other words, the great number of foreigners in American cities +probably tends to obscure by a low divorce-rate the high rate of the +native population. Divorce is certainly more common in the New England +states than in any others on the Atlantic coast north of Florida, and it +is not unlikely that wherever the New England families have gone divorce +is more frequent than elsewhere. For example, it is much more common in +the northern counties of Ohio settled largely from New England than in +the southern counties settled largely from the Middle Atlantic states. + +There are two statements frequently made regarding divorce in the United +States which do not find warrant in the statistics on the subject. The +first is, that the real motive for divorce with one or both parties is +the desire for marriage to a third person. The second is, that a very +large proportion of divorces are granted to persons who move from one +jurisdiction to another in order to avail themselves of lax divorce +laws. On the first point the American statistics are practically silent, +since, in issuing a marriage licence to parties one or both of whom have +been previously divorced, no record is generally made of the fact. In +Connecticut, however, for a number of years this information was +required; and, if the statements were trustworthy, the number of persons +remarrying each year was about one-third the total number of persons +divorcing, which is probably a rate not widely different from that of +widows and widowers of the same age. Foreign figures for Switzerland, +Holland and Berlin indicate that in those regions the proportion of the +divorced who remarry speedily is about the same as that of widows and +widowers. What statistical evidence there is on the subject therefore +tends to discredit this popular opinion. The evidence on the second +point is more conclusive, and has gone far towards decreasing the demand +for a constitutional amendment allowing a federal marriage and divorce +law. About four-fifths of all the divorces granted in the United States +were issued to parties who were married in the state in which the decree +of divorce was later made; and when from the remaining one-fifth are +deducted those in which the parties migrated for other reasons than a +desire to obtain an easy divorce, the remainder would constitute a very +small, almost a negligible, fraction of the total number. + +It is difficult, perhaps impossible, to say how far the frequency of +divorce in the United States has been or is a social injury; how far it +has weakened or undermined the ideal of marriage as a lifelong union +between man and woman. In this respect the question is very like that of +illegitimacy; and as the most careful students of the latter subject +agree that almost no trustworthy inference regarding the moral condition +of a community can be derived from the proportion of illegitimate +children born, so one may say regarding the prevalence of divorce that +from this fact almost no inferences are warranted regarding the moral or +social condition of the population. It is by no means impossible, for +example, that the spread of divorce among the negro population in the +South marks a step in advance from the condition of largely unregulated +and illegal unions characteristic of the race immediately after the war. +The prevalence of divorce in the United States among the native +population, in urban communities, among the New England element, in the +middle classes of society, and among those of the Protestant faith, +indicates how closely this social phenomenon is interlaced with much +that is characteristic and valuable in American civilization. In this +respect, too, the United States perhaps represent the outcome of a +tendency which has been at work in Europe at least since the +Reformation. Certainly the divorce-rate is increasing in nearly every +civilized country. Decrees of nullity of marriage and decrees of +separation not absolutely terminating the marriage relation are +relatively far less prevalent than they were in the medieval and early +modern period, and many persons who under former conditions would have +obtained relief from unsatisfactory unions through one or the other of +these avenues now resort to divorce. The increasing proportion of the +community who have an income sufficient to pay the requisite legal fees +is also a factor of great importance. The belief in the family as an +institution ordained of God, decreed to continue "till death us do +part," and in its relations typifying and perpetuating many holy +religious ideas, probably became weakened in the United States during +the 19th century, along with a weakening of other religious conceptions; +and it is yet to be determined whether a substitute for these ideas can +be developed under the guidance of the motive of social utility or +individual desire. In this respect the United States is, as Mr Gladstone +once wrote, a _tribus praerogativa_, but one who knows anything of the +family and home life of America will not readily despond of the outcome. + + The great source of American statistical information is the + governmental report of over 1000 pages, _A Report on Marriage and + Divorce in the United States 1867 to 1886, including an Appendix + relating to Marriage and Divorce in Certain Countries of Europe_, by + Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labour; together with the further + report for 1887 to 1906. The statistics contained in the former volume + have been analysed and interpreted in W. F. Willcox's _The Divorce + Problem: A Study in Statistics_ (Columbia University, New York, 1891, + 1897). Further interpretations are contained in an article in the + _Political Science Quarterly_ for March 1893, entitled "A Study in + Vital Statistics." The best legal treatise is probably Bishop on + _Marriage, Divorce, and Judicial Separation_. See also J. P. + Lichtenberger, _Divorce: A Study in Social Causation_ (New York, + 1909). (W. F. W.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] In _Constantinidi_ v. _Constantinidi and Lance_ (1903), in which + both parties were guilty of misconduct, it was held by Sir Francis + Jeune (Lord St Helier) that where a wife has by her misconduct broken + up the home (the husband's misconduct not having conduced to the + wife's adultery) the court would exercise its discretion in favour of + the husband petitioner, and, further, the wife being a rich woman, it + was justifiable to give her husband a portion of her income, in order + to preserve to him the position he would have occupied as her + husband, the broad principle being that a guilty respondent should + not be allowed to profit by divorce. But further litigation + concerning this case occurred as to the variation of the marriage + settlements in favour of the husband, and the decision of the court + of appeal in July 1905 considerably modified the decision of Sir + Francis Jeune.--Ed. _E. B._ + + [2] It is to be noted that by a decision of the court of appeal in + _Harriman_ v. _Harriman_ in 1909, where a wife has been deserted by + her husband and has obtained a separation order within two years from + the time when the desertion commenced, she loses her right to plead + desertion under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, and is therefore not + entitled to a divorce after two years' desertion, upon proof of + adultery. See also _Dodd_ v. _Dodd_, 1906, 22 T. L. R. 484. + + [3] In 1909 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the law + of divorce, with special reference to the position of the poorer + classes. + + [4] It is interesting to observe how, according to the latest + decisions of the House of Lords, cruelty, according to English law, + includes some but not others of the forms of injury for which, under + the term of _injures graves_, the French law affords a remedy. It may + well be doubted whether the view taken by the minority of the peers + in _Russell_ v. _Russell_, which would have included in the + definition of cruelty all, or nearly all, of that which the French + law deems either _sevices_ or _injures graves_, would not have better + satisfied both the principles of English jurisprudence and the + feelings of modern life. + + + + +DIWANIEH, a small town in Turkish Asia, about 40 m. below Hillah, on +both banks of the Euphrates (31 deg. 58' 47" N., 44 deg. 58' 18" E.), +which is here spanned by a floating bridge. Formerly a military post for +the control of the Affech territory, and a telegraph station, it was in +1893 made the capital of the sanjak, instead of Hillah, on account of +its more strategical position. This transfer of the seat of government +represented a step in the development of Turkish control over the +central regions of Irak. + + + + +DIX, DOROTHEA LYNDE (1802-1887), American philanthropist, was born at +Hampden, Maine, on the 4th of April 1802. Her parents were poor and +shiftless, and at an early age she was taken into the home in Boston of +her grandmother, Dorothea Lynde, wife of Dr Elijah Dix. Here she was +reared in a distinctly Puritanical atmosphere. About 1821 she opened a +school in Boston, which was patronized by the well-to-do families; and +soon afterwards she also began teaching poor and neglected children at +home. But her health broke down, and from 1824 to 1830 she was chiefly +occupied with the writing of books of devotion and stories for children. +Her _Conversations on Common Things_ (1824) had reached its sixtieth +edition by 1869. In 1831 she established in Boston a model school for +girls, and conducted this successfully until 1836, when her health +again failed. In 1841 she became interested in the condition of gaols +and almshouses, and spent two years in visiting every such institution +in Massachusetts, investigating especially the treatment of the pauper +insane. Her memorial to the state legislature dealing with the abuses +she discovered resulted in more adequate provision being made for the +care and treatment of the insane, and she then extended her work into +many other states. By 1847 she had travelled from Nova Scotia to the +Gulf of Mexico, and had visited 18 state penitentiaries, 300 county +gaols and houses of correction, and over 500 almshouses. Her labours +resulted in the establishment of insane asylums in twenty states and in +Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, and in the founding of many additional +gaols and almshouses conducted on a reformed plan. In 1853 she secured +more adequate equipment for the life-saving service on Sable Island, +then rightly called "the graveyard of ships." In 1854 she secured the +passage by Congress of a bill granting to the states 12,250,000 acres of +public lands, to be utilized for the benefit of the insane, deaf, dumb +and blind; but the measure was vetoed by President Pierce. After this +disappointment she went to England for rest, but at once became +interested in the condition of the insane in Scotland, and her report to +the home secretary opened the way for sweeping reforms. She extended her +work into the Channel Islands, and then to France, Italy, Austria, +Greece, Turkey, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and a +part of Germany. Her influence over Arinori Mori, the Japanese _charge +d'affaires_ at Washington, led eventually to the establishment of two +asylums for the insane in Japan. At the outbreak of the Civil War she +offered her services to the Federal government and was appointed +superintendent of women nurses. In this capacity she served throughout +the war, without a day's furlough; and her labours on behalf of +defectives were continued after the war. After a lingering illness of +six years she died at Trenton, New Jersey, on the 17th of July 1887. + + See Francis Tiffany, _Life of Dorothea Lynde Dix_ (Boston, 1892). + + + + +DIX, JOHN ADAMS (1798-1879), American soldier and political leader, was +born at Boscawen, New Hampshire, on the 24th of July 1798. He studied at +Phillips Exeter Academy in 1810-1811 and at the College of Montreal in +1811-1812, and as a boy took part in the War of 1812, becoming a second +lieutenant in March 1814. In July 1828, having attained the rank of +captain, he resigned from the army, and for two years practised law at +Cooperstown, New York. In 1830-1833 he was adjutant-general of New York. +He soon became prominent as one of the leaders of the Democratic party +in the state, and for many years was a member of the so-called "Albany +Regency," a group of Democrats who between about 1820 and 1850 exercised +a virtual control over their party in New York, dictating nominations +and appointments and distributing patronage. From 1833 to 1839 he was +secretary of state and superintendent of schools in New York, and in +this capacity made valuable reports concerning the public schools of the +state, and a report (1836) which led to the publication of the _Natural +History of the State of New York_ (1842-1866). In 1842 he was a member +of the New York assembly. In 1841-1843 he was editor of _The Northern +Light_, a literary and scientific journal published in Albany. From 1845 +to 1849 he was a United States senator from New York; and as chairman of +the committee on commerce was author of the warehouse bill passed by +Congress in 1846 to relieve merchants from immediate payment of duties +on imported goods. In 1848 he was nominated for governor of New York by +the Free Soil party, but was defeated by Hamilton Fish. His acceptance +of the nomination, however, earned him the enmity of the southern +Democrats, who prevented his appointment by Pierce as secretary of state +and as minister to France in 1853. In this year Dix was for a few weeks +assistant U.S. treasurer in New York city. In May 1860 he became +postmaster of New York city, and from January until March 1861 he was +secretary of the treasury of the United States, in which capacity he +issued (January 29, 1861) to a revenue officer at New Orleans a famous +order containing the words, "if any one attempts to haul down the +American flag, shoot him on the spot." He rendered important services +in hurrying forward troops in 1861, was appointed major-general of +volunteers in June 1861, and during the Civil War commanded successively +the department of Maryland (July 1861-May 1862), Fortress Monroe (May +1862-July 1863), and the department of the East (July 1863-July 1865). +He was minister to France from 1866 to 1869, and in 1872 was elected by +the Republicans governor of New York, but was defeated two years later. +He had great energy and administrative ability, was for a time president +of the Chicago & Rock Island and of the Mississippi & Missouri railways, +first president of the Union Pacific in 1863-1868, and for a short time +in 1872 president of the Erie. He died in New York city on the 21st of +April 1879. Among his publications are _A Winter in Madeira and a Summer +in Spain and Florence_ (1850), and _Speeches and Occasional Addresses_ +(1864). He wrote excellent English versions of the _Dies irae_ and the +_Stabat mater_. + +His son, MORGAN DIX (1827-1908), graduated at Columbia in 1848 and at +the General Theological Seminary in 1852, and was ordained deacon (1852) +and priest (1853) in the Protestant Episcopalian church. In 1855-1859 he +was assistant minister, and in 1859-1862 assistant rector, of Trinity +Church, New York city, of which he was rector from 1862 until his death. +He published sermons and lectures; _A History of the Parish of Trinity +Church, New York City_ (4 vols., 1898-1905); and a biography of his +father. _Memoirs of John Adams Dix_ (2 vols., New York, 1883). + + + + +DIXON, GEORGE (1755?-1800), English navigator. He served under Captain +Cook in his third expedition, during which he had an opportunity of +learning the commercial capabilities of the north-west coast of North +America. After his return from Cook's expedition he became a captain in +the royal navy. In the autumn of 1785 he sailed in the "Queen +Charlotte," in the service of the King George's Sound Company of London, +to explore the shores of the present British Columbia, with the special +object of developing the fur trade. His chief discoveries were those of +Queen Charlotte's Islands and Sound (the latter only partial), Port +Mulgrave, Norfolk Bay, and Dixon's Entrance and Archipelago. After +visiting China, where he disposed of his cargo, he returned to England +(1788), and published (1799) _A Voyage round the World, but more +particularly to the North-West Coast of America_, the bulk of which +consists of descriptive letters by William Beresford, his supercargo. +His own contribution to the work included valuable charts and +appendices. He is usually, though not with absolute certainty, +identified with the George Dixon who was author of _The Navigator's +Assistant_ (1791) and teacher of navigation at Gosport. + + + + +DIXON, HENRY HALL (1822-1870), English sporting writer over the _nom de +plume_ "The Druid," was born at Warwick Bridge, Cumberland, on the 16th +of May 1822, and was educated at Rugby and at Trinity College, +Cambridge, where he graduated in 1846. He took up the profession of the +law, but, though called to the bar in 1853, soon returned to sporting +journalism, in which he had already made a name for himself, and began +to write regularly for the _Sporting Magazine_, in the pages of which +appeared three of his novels, _Post and Paddock_ (1856), _Silk and +Scarlet_ (1859), and _Scott and Sebright_ (1862). He also published a +legal compendium entitled _The Law of the Farm_ (1858), which ran +through several editions. His other more important works were _Field and +Fern_ (1865), giving an account of the herds and flocks of Scotland, and +_Saddle and Sirloin_ (1870), treating in the same manner those of +England. He died at Kensington on the 16th of March 1870. + + See Hon. Francis Lawley, _Life and Times of "The Druid"_ (London, + 1895). + + + + +DIXON, RICHARD WATSON (1833-1900), English poet and divine, son of Dr +James Dixon, a Wesleyan minister, was born on the 5th of May 1833. He +was educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham, and on proceeding to +Pembroke College, Oxford, became one of the famous "Birmingham group" +there who shared with William Morris and Burne-Jones in the +Pre-Raphaelite movement. He took only a second class in moderations in +1854, and a third in _Literae Humaniores_ in 1856; but in 1858 he won +the Arnold prize for an historical essay, and in 1863 the English Sacred +Poem prize. He was ordained in 1858, was second master of Carlisle high +school, 1863-1868, and successively vicar of Hayton, Cumberland, and +Warkworth, Northumberland. He became minor canon and honorary librarian +of Carlisle in 1868, and honorary canon in 1874, he was proctor in +convocation (1890-1894), and received the honorary degree of D.D. from +Oxford in 1899. He died at Warkworth on the 23rd of January 1900. Canon +Dixon's first two volumes of verse, _Christ's Company_ and _Historical +Odes_, were published in 1861 and 1863 respectively; but it was not +until 1883 that he attracted conspicuous notice with _Mano_, an +historical poem in _terza rima_, which was enthusiastically praised by +Mr Swinburne. This success he followed up by three privately printed +volumes. _Odes and Eclogues_ (1884), _Lyrical Poems_ (1886), and _The +Story of Eudocia_ (1888). Dixon's poems were during the last fifteen +years of his life recognized as scholarly and refined exercises, touched +with both dignity and a certain severe beauty, but he never attained any +general popularity as a poet, the appeal of his poetry being directly to +the scholar. A great student of history, his studies in that direction +colour much of his poetry. The romantic atmosphere is remarkably +preserved in _Mano_, a successful metrical exercise in the difficult +_terza rima_. His typical poems have charm and melody, without +introducing any new note or variety of rhythm. He is contemplative, +sober and finished in literary workmanship, a typical example of the +Oxford school. Pleasant as his poetry is, however, he will probably be +longest remembered by the work to which he gave the best years of his +life, his _History of the Church of England from the Abolition of the +Roman Jurisdiction_ (1878-1902). At the time of his death he had +completed six volumes, two of which were published posthumously. This +fine work, covering the period from 1529 to 1570, is built upon +elaborate research, and presents a trustworthy and unprejudiced survey +of its subject. + + Dixon's _Selected Poems_ were published in 1909 with a memoir of the + author by Robert Bridges. + + + + +DIXON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (1821-1879), English author and traveller, was +born at Great Ancoats, Manchester, on the 30th of June 1821, a member of +an old Lancashire family. Beginning life as a clerk at Manchester, he +decided, in 1846, to take up literature as a career. After gaining some +journalistic experience at Cheltenham he settled in London, on the +recommendation of Douglas Jerrold, and contributed to the _Athenaeum_ +and _Daily News_. His series of papers--"The Literature of the Lower +Orders"--in the last-named journal, and a further series, "London +Prisons," were widely noticed. In 1849 appeared his _John Howard and the +Prison World of Europe_, which proved a great popular success. These +were followed by a _Life of William Penn_ (1851), in which he replied to +Macaulay's attack on Penn; _Life of Blake_ (1852); and _Personal History +of Lord Bacon_ (1861), supplemented by _The Story of Lord Bacon's Life_ +(1862). From 1853 to 1869 he was editor of the _Athenaeum_. In 1863 he +visited the East, and on his return helped to found the Palestine +Exploration Fund, and published (1865) _The Holy Land_. In 1866 he +travelled through the United States, publishing, in 1867, _New America_, +and, the following year, _Spiritual Wives_, two supplementary volumes. +In the autumn of 1867 he journeyed through the Baltic Provinces, +publishing an account of his trip in _Free Russia_ (1870). In 1871 he +was in Switzerland, and in 1872 in Spain, where he wrote the greater +part of his _History of Two Queens_. In 1874 he revisited the United +States, giving the impressions of his tour in _The White Conquest_ +(1875). His other works, besides some fiction, were _British Cyprus_ +(1879) and _Royal Windsor_. He died on the 26th of December 1879. His +daughter, Ella N. Hepworth Dixon, became known as a journalist and +novelist. + + + + +DIXON, a city and the county seat of Lee county, Illinois, U.S.A., on +the Rock river, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 5161; (1900) +7917 (879 foreign-born); (1910) 7216. It is served by the Chicago & +North-Western and the Illinois Central railways, and is connected with +Sterling by an electric line; freight is shipped over the Hennepin +Canal. The city has two parks of 159 and 6 acres respectively, and +there is a Chautauqua Park, where an annual Chautauqua Assembly is held. +Dixon is the seat of the Northern Illinois normal school (incorporated +in 1884), and of the Rock River military academy. The river furnishes +water power for the street railways, electric lighting and a number of +manufacturing establishments. Among the manufactures are condensed milk, +boxes, wire screens and wire cloth, lawn mowers, gas engines, cement, +agricultural implements, shoes and wagons. The place was laid out in +1835 by John Dixon (1784-1876), the first white settler of Lee county. A +bronze tablet in the Howells Building, at the intersection of First and +Peoria Streets, marks the site of his cabin, and in the city cemetery a +granite shaft has been erected to his memory. Dixon was chartered as a +city in 1859. + + + + +DIZFUL, or DIZ-PUL ("fort-bridge"), a town of Persia, in the province of +Arabistan, 36 m. N.W. of Shushter, in 32 deg. 25' N., 48 deg. 28' E. +Pop. about 25,000. It has post and telegraph offices. It is situated on +the left bank of the Dizful river, a tributary of the Karun, crossed by +a fine bridge of twenty-two arches, 430 yds. in length, constructed on +ancient foundations. Dizful is the chief place of a small district of +the same name and the residence of the governor of Arabistan during the +winter months. The district has twelve villages and a population of +about 35,000 (5000 Arabs of the Ali i Keth[=i]r tribe), and pays a +yearly tribute of about L6000. The city was formerly known as Andamish, +and in its vicinity are many remains of ancient canals and buildings +which afford conclusive proof of former importance. 16 m. S.W. are the +ruins of Susa, and east of them and half-way between Dizful and Shushter +stood the old city of Junday Shapur. + + + + +DJAKOVO (sometimes written _Djakovar_, Hungarian _Diakovar_), a city of +Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary; in the county of Virovitica, 100 m. E. by S. +of Agram. Pop. (1900) 6824. Djakovo is a Roman Catholic episcopal see, +whose occupant bears the title "Bishop of Bosnia, Slavonia and Sirmium." +During the life of Bishop Strossmayer (1815-1905) it was one of the +chief centres of religious and political activity among the Croats. The +cathedral, a vast basilica built of brick and white stone, with a +central dome and two lofty spires above the north entrance, was founded +in 1866 and consecrated in 1882. Its style is Romanesque, chosen by +Strossmayer as symbolical of the position of his country midway between +east and west. The interior is magnificently decorated with mosaics, +mural paintings and statuary, chiefly the work of local artists. Other +noteworthy buildings are the nunnery, ecclesiastical seminary and +episcopal palace. Djakovo has a thriving trade in agricultural produce. +Many Roman remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood, but the +earliest mention of the city is in 1244, when Bela IV. of Hungary +confirmed the title-deeds of its owners, the bishops of Bosnia. + + For a full description of the cathedral, in Serbo-Croatian and French, + see the finely illustrated folio _Stolna Crkva u Djakovu_, published + by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1900). + + + + +DLUGOSZ, JAN [JOHANNES LONGINUS] (1415-1480), Polish statesman and +historian, was the son of Jan Dlugosz, burgrave of Bozeznica. Born in +1415, he graduated at the university of Cracow and in 1431 entered the +service of Bishop Zbygniew Olesnicki (1389-1455), the statesman and +diplomatist. He speedily won the favour of his master, who induced him +to take orders and made him his secretary. His preferment was rapid. In +1436 we find him one of the canons of Cracow and the administrator of +Olesnicki's vast estates. In 1440, on returning from Hungary, whither +his master had escorted King Wladislaus II., Dlugosz saved the life of +Olesnicki from robbers. The prelate now employed Dlugosz on the most +delicate and important political missions. Dlugosz brought Olesnicki the +red hat from Rome in 1449, and shortly afterwards was despatched to +Hungary to mediate between Hunyadi and the Bohemian condottiere Giszkra, +a difficult mission which he most successfully accomplished. Both these +embassies were undertaken contrary to the wishes of King Casimir IV., +who was altogether opposed to Olesnicki's ecclesiastical policy. But +though he thus sacrificed his own prospects to the cardinal's good +pleasure, Dlugosz was far too sagacious to approve of the provocative +attitude of Olesnicki, and frequently and fearlessly remonstrated with +him on his conduct. In his account, however, of the quarrel between +Casimir and Olesnicki concerning the question of priority between the +cardinal and the primate of Poland he warmly embraced the cause of the +former, and even pronounced Casimir worthy of dethronement. Such +outbursts against Casimir IV. are not infrequent in Dlugosz's _Historia +Polonica_, and his strong personal bias must certainly be taken into +consideration in any critical estimate of that famous work. Yet as a +high-minded patriot Dlugosz had no sympathy whatever with Olesnicki's +opposition to Casimir's Prussian policy, and steadily supported the king +during the whole course of the war with the Teutonic knights. When +Olesnicki died in 1455 he left Dlugosz his principal executor. The +office of administering the cardinal's estate was a very ungrateful one, +for the family resented the liberal benefactions of their kinsman to the +Church and the university, and accused Dlugosz of exercising undue +influence, from which charge he triumphantly vindicated himself. It was +in the year of his patron's death that he began to write his _Historia +Polonica_. This great book, the first and still one of the best +historical works on Poland in the modern sense of the word, was only +undertaken after mature consideration and an exhaustive study of all the +original sources then available, some of which are now lost. The +principal archives of Poland and Hungary were ransacked for the purpose, +and in his account of his own times Dlugosz's intimate acquaintance with +the leading scholars and statesmen of his day stood him in good stead. +The style is modelled on that of Livy, of whom Dlugosz was a warm +admirer. As a proof of the thoroughness and conscientiousness of Dlugosz +it may be mentioned that he learned the Cyrillic alphabet and took up +the study of Ruthenian, "in order that this our history may be as plain +and perfect as possible." The first of the numerous imprints of the +_Historia Polonica_ appeared in 1614, the first complete edition in +1711. + +Dlugosz's literary labours did not interfere with his political +activity. In 1467 the generous and discerning Casimir IV. entrusted +Dlugosz with the education of his sons, the eldest of whom, Wladislaus, +at the urgent request of the king, he accompanied to Prague when in 1471 +the young prince was elected king of Bohemia. Dlugosz refused the +archbishopric of Prague because of his strong dislike of the land of the +Hussites; but seven years later he accepted the archbishopric of +Lemberg. His last years were devoted to his history, which he completed +in 1479. He died on the 19th of May 1480, at Piatek. + + See Aleksander Semkowicz, _Critical Considerations of the Polish Works + of Dlugosz_ (Pol.; Cracow, 1874); Michael Bobrzynski and Stanislaw + Smolka, _Life of Dlugosz and his Position in Literature_ (Pol.; + Cracow, 1893). (R. N. B.) + + + + +DMITRIEV, IVAN IVANOVICH (1760-1837), Russian statesman and poet, was +born at his father's estate in the government of Simbirsk. In +consequence of the revolt of Pugachev the family had to flee to St +Petersburg, and there Ivan was entered at the school of the Semenov +Guards, and afterwards obtained a post in the military service. On the +accession of Paul to the imperial throne he quitted the army with the +title of colonel; and his appointment as procurator for the senate was +soon after renounced for the position of privy councillor. During the +four years from 1810 to 1814 he served as minister of justice under the +emperor Alexander; but at the close of this period he retired into +private life, and though he lived more than twenty years, he never again +took office, but occupied himself with his literary labours and the +collection of books and works of art. In the matter of language he sided +with Karamsin, and did good service by his own pen against the Old +Slavonic party. His poems include songs, odes, satires, tales, epistles, +&c., as well as the fables--partly original and partly translated from +Fontaine, Florian and Arnault--on which his fame chiefly rests. Several +of his lyrics have become thoroughly popular from the readiness with +which they can be sung; and a short dramatico-epic poem on Yermak, the +Cossack conqueror of Siberia, is well known. + + His writings occupy three volumes in the first five editions; in the + 6th (St Petersburg, 1823) there are only two. His memoirs, to which he + devoted the last years of his life, were published at Moscow in 1866. + + + + +DNIEPER, one of the most important rivers of Europe (the _Borysthenes_ +of the Greeks, _Danapris_ of the Romans, _Uzi_ or _Uzu_ of the Turks, +Eksi of the Tatars, _Elice_ of Visconti's map (1381), _Lerene_ of +Contarini (1437), _Luosen_ of Baptista of Genoa (1514), and _Lussem_ in +the same century). It belongs entirely to Russia, and rises in the +government of Smolensk, in a swampy district (alt. 930 ft.) at the foot +of the Valdai Hills, not far from the sources of the Volga and the +Dvina, in 55 deg. 52' N. and 33 deg. 41' E. Its length is about 1410 m. +and it drains an area of 202,140 sq. m. In the first part of its course, +which may be said to end at Dorogobuzh, it flows through an undulating +country of Carboniferous formation; in the second it passes west to +Orsha, south through the fertile plain of Chernigov and Kiev, and then +south-east across the rocky steppe of the Ukraine to Ekaterinoslav. +About 45 m. S. of this town it has to force its way across the same +granitic offshoot of the Carpathian mountains which interrupts the +course of the Dniester and the Bug, and for a distance of about 25 m. +rapid succeeds rapid. The fall of the river in that distance is 155 ft. +The Dnieper, having got clear of the rocks, continues south-west through +the grassy plains of Kherson and Taurida, and enters the Black Sea, or +rather a _liman_ or bay of the Black Sea, by a considerable estuary in +46 deg. 30' N. and 32 deg. 20' E. On this ramifying _liman_, into which +the Bug also pours its waters, stand Nikolaiev and the fortified town of +Ochakov. Navigation extends as far up as Dorogobuzh, where the depth is +about 12 ft., and rafts are floated down from the higher reaches. The +banks are generally high, more particularly the left bank. About the +town of Smolensk the breadth is 455 ft., at the confluence of the Pripet +1400, and in some parts of the Ekaterinoslav district more than 1-1/4 m. +In the course above the rapids the channel varies very greatly in nature +and depth, and it is not infrequently interrupted by shallows. The +rapids, or _porogs_, form a serious obstacle to navigation; it is only +for a few weeks when the river is in flood that they are passable, and +even then the venture is not without risk and can only be undertaken +with the assistance of special pilots. It is from these falls that the +Cossacks of the Ukraine came to be known as Zaporogian Cossacks. As +early as 1732 an attempt was made to improve the channel. A canal, which +ultimately proved too small for use, was constructed at Nenasitets in +1780 at private expense; blastings were carried out in 1798 and 1799 at +various parts; in 1805 a canal was formed at Kaindatski, and the channel +straightened at Sursk; by 1807 a new canal was completed at Nenasitets; +in 1833 a passage was cleared through the Staro-kaindatski porog; and in +the period 1843 to 1853 numerous ameliorations were effected. The result +has been not only to diminish greatly the dangers of the natural +channel, but also to furnish a series of artificial canals by which +vessels can make their way when the river is low. Of the tributaries of +the Dnieper the following are navigable,--the Berezina and the Pripet +from the right, and the Sozh and the Desna from the left. By means of +the Dnieper-Bug (King's) canal, and the Berezina and Oginski canals, +this river has a sort of water connexion with the Baltic Sea. In the +estuary the fisheries give employment to large numbers of people. At +Kiev the river is free from ice on an average of 234 days in the year, +at Ekaterinoslav 270 and at Kherson 277. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) + + + + +DNIESTER (_Tyras_ and _Danaster_ or _Danastris_ of classical authors, +_Nistrul_ of the Rumanians, and _Turla_ of the Turks), a river of +south-eastern Europe belonging to the basin of the Black Sea. It rises +on the northern slope of the Carpathian mountains in Austrian Galicia, +and belongs for the first 350 m. of its course to Austrian, for the +remaining 515 m. to Russian, territory. It drains an area of 29,670 sq. +m., of which 16,500 sq. m. belong to Russia. It is excessively +meandering, and the current in most parts even during low water is +decidedly rapid as compared with Russian rivers generally, the mean rate +being calculated at 1-7/11 m. per hour. The average width of the channel +is from 500 to 750 ft., but in some places it attains as much as 1400 +ft.; the depth is various and changeable. The principal interruption in +the navigable portion of the river, besides a sprinkling of rocks in the +bed and the somewhat extensive shallows, is occasioned by a granitic +spur from the Carpathians, which gives rise to the Yampol Rapids. For +ordinary river craft the passage of these rapids is rendered possible, +but not free from danger, by a natural channel on the left side, and by +a larger and deeper artificial channel on the right; for steamboats they +form an insuperable barrier. The river falls into the sea by several +arms, passing through a shallow _liman_ or lagoon, a few miles S.W. of +Odessa. There are two periodical floods,--the earlier and larger caused +by the breaking up of the ice, and occurring in the latter part of +February or in March; and the later due to the melting of the snows in +the Carpathians, and taking place about June. The spring flood raises +the level of the water 20 ft., and towards the mouth of the river +submerges the gardens and vineyards of the adjacent country. In some +years the general state of the water is so low that navigation is +possible only for three or four weeks, while in other years it is so +high that navigation continues without interruption; but in recent years +considerable improvements have been effected at government expense. In +consequence the traffic has increased, the Dniester tapping regions of +great productiveness, especially in cereals and timber, namely, Galicia, +Podolia and Bessarabia. Steamboat traffic was introduced in the lower +reaches in 1840. The fisheries of the lower course and of the estuary +are of considerable importance; and these, together with those of the +lakes which are formed by the inundations, furnish a valuable addition +to the diet of the people in the shape of carp, pike, tench, salmon, +sturgeon and eels. Its tributaries are numerous, but not of individual +importance, except perhaps the Sereth in Galicia. + (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) + + + + +DOAB, DUAB or DOOAB, a name, like the Greek Mesopotamia, applied in +India, according to its derivation (_do_, two, and _ab_, river), to the +stretch of country lying between any two rivers, as the Bari Doab +between the Sutlej and the Ravi, the Rechna Doab between the Ravi and +the Chenab, the Jech Doab between the Chenab and Jhelum, and the Sind +Sagar Doab between the Jhelum and the Indus, but frequently employed, +without any distinctive adjunct, as the proper name for the region +between the Ganges and its great tributary the Jumna. In like manner the +designation of Doab canal is given to the artificial channel which +breaks off from the Jumna near Fyzabad, and flows almost parallel with +the river till it reunites with it at Delhi. + + + + +DOANE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1799-1859), American churchman, Protestant +Episcopal bishop of New Jersey, was born in Trenton, New Jersey, on the +27th of May 1799. He graduated at Union College, Schenectady, New York, +in 1818, studied theology and, in 1821, was ordained deacon and in 1823 +priest by Bishop Hobart, whom he assisted in Trinity church, New York. +With George Upfold (1796-1872), bishop of Indiana from 1849 to 1872, +Doane founded St Luke's in New York City. In 1824-1828 he was professor +of belles-lettres in Washington (now Trinity) College, Hartford, +Connecticut, and at this time he was one of the editors of the +_Episcopal Watchman_. He was assistant in 1828-1830 and rector in +1830-1832 of Christ church, Boston, and was bishop of New Jersey from +October 1832 to his death at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 27th of +April 1859. The diocese of New Jersey was an unpromising field, but he +took up his work there with characteristic vigour, especially in the +foundation of St Mary's Hall (1837, for girls) and Burlington College +(1846) as demonstrations of his theory of education under church +control. His business management of these schools got him heavily into +debt, and in the autumn of 1852 a charge of lax administration came +before a court of bishops, who dismissed it. The schools showed him an +able and wise disciplinarian, and his patriotic orations and sermons +prove him a speaker of great power. He belonged to the High Church party +and was a brilliant controversialist. He published _Songs by the Way_ +(1824), a volume of poems; and his hymns beginning "Softly now the light +of day" and "Thou art the Way" are well known. + + See _Life and Writings of George Washington Doane_ (4 vols., New York, + 1860-1861), edited by his son, William Croswell Doane (b. 1832), first + bishop of Albany. + + + + +DOBBS FERRY, a village of Westchester county, New York, on the E. bank +of the Hudson river 2 m. N. of Yonkers. Pop. (1890) 2083; (1900) 2888; +(1910 U. S. census) 3455. Dobbs Ferry is served by the Hudson River +division of the New York Central railway. There are many fine country +places, two private schools--the Mackenzie school for boys and the +Misses Masters' school for girls--and the children's village (with about +thirty cottages) of the New York juvenile asylum. The name of the +village was derived from a Swede, Jeremiah Dobbs, whose family probably +moved hither from Delaware, and who at the beginning of the last quarter +of the 18th century had a skiff ferry, which was kept up by his family +for a century afterwards. Because Dobbs Ferry had been a part of +Philipse Manor all lands in it were declared forfeit at the time of the +War of American Independence (see YONKERS), and new titles were derived +from the commissioners of forfeitures. The position of the village +opposite the northernmost end of the Palisades gave it importance during +the war. The region was repeatedly raided by camp followers of each +army; earthworks and a fort, commanding the Hudson ferry and the ferry +to Paramus, New Jersey, were built; the British army made Dobbs Ferry a +rendezvous, after the battle of White Plains, in November 1776, and the +continental division under General Benjamin Lincoln was here at the end +of January 1777. The American army under Washington encamped near Dobbs +Ferry on the 4th of July 1781, and started thence for Yorktown in the +following month. In the Van Brugh Livingston house on the 6th of May +1783, Washington and Governor George Clinton met General Sir Guy +Carleton, afterwards Lord Dorchester, to negotiate for the evacuation by +the British troops of the posts they still held in the United States. In +1873 the village was incorporated as Greenburgh, from the township of +the same name which in 1788 had been set apart from the manor of +Phillipsburgh; but the name Dobbs Ferry was soon resumed. + + + + +DOBELL, SYDNEY THOMPSON (1824-1874), English poet and critic, was born +on the 5th of April 1824 at Cranbrook, Kent. His father was a wine +merchant, his mother a daughter of Samuel Thompson (1766-1837), a London +political reformer. The family moved to Cheltenham when Dobell was +twelve years old. He was educated privately, and never attended either +school or university. He refers to this in some lines on Cheltenham +College in imitation of Chaucer, written in his eighteenth year. After a +five years' engagement he married, in 1844, Emily Fordham, a lady of +good family. An acquaintance with Mr (subsequently Sir James) Stansfeld +and with the Birmingham preacher-politician, George Dawson (1821-1876), +which afterwards led to the foundation of the Society of the Friends of +Italy, fed the young enthusiast's ardour for the liberalism of the day. +Meanwhile, Dobell wrote a number of minor poems, instinct with a +passionate desire for political reform. _The Roman_ appeared in 1850, +under the _nom de plume_ of "Sydney Yendys." Next year he travelled +through Switzerland with his wife; and after his return he formed +friendships with Robert Browning, Philip Bailey, George MacDonald, +Emanuel Deutsch, Lord Houghton, Ruskin, Holman Hunt, Mazzini, Tennyson +and Carlyle. His second long poem, _Balder_, appeared in 1854. The three +following years were spent in Scotland. Perhaps his closest friend at +this time was Alexander Smith, in company with whom he published, in +1855, a number of sonnets on the Crimean War, which were followed by a +volume on _England in Time of War_. Although by no means a rich man he +was always ready to help needy men of letters, and it was through his +exertions that David Gray's poems were published. In 1869 a horse, which +he was riding, fell and rolled over with him. His health, which had for +several years necessitated his wintering abroad, was seriously affected +by this accident, and he was from this time more or less of an invalid, +until his death on the 22nd of August 1874. + +As a poet Dobell belongs to the "spasmodic school," as it was named by +Professor Aytoun, who parodied its style in _Firmilian_. The epithet, +however, was first applied by Carlyle to Byron. The school includes +George Gilfillan, Philip James Bailey, John Stanyan Bigg (1826-1865), +Dobell, Alexander Smith, and, according to some critics, Gerald Massey. +It was characterized by an under-current of discontent with the mystery +of existence, by vain effort, unrewarded struggle, sceptical unrest, and +an uneasy straining after the unattainable. It thus faithfully +reflected a certain phase of 19th century thought. The productions of +the school are marked by an excess of metaphor and a general +extravagance of language. On the other hand, they exhibit freshness and +originality often lacking in more conventional writings. Dobell's poem, +_The Roman_, dedicated to the interests of political liberty in Italy, +is marked by pathos, energy and passionate love of freedom, but it is +overlaid with monologue, which is carried to a dreary excess in +_Balder_, relieved though the latter is by fine descriptive passages, +and by some touching songs. Dobell's suggestive, but too ornate prose +writings were collected and edited with an introductory note by +Professor J. Nichol (_Thoughts on Art, Philosophy and Religion_) in +1876. In his religious views Dobell was a Christian of the Broad Church +type; and socially he was one of the most amiable and true-hearted of +men. His early interest in the cause of oppressed nationalities, shown +in his friendship with Kossuth, Emanuel Deutsch and others, never +lessened, although his views of home politics underwent some change from +the radical opinions of his youth. In Gloucestershire Dobell was well +known as an advocate of social reform, and he was a pioneer in the +application of the co-operative system to private enterprise. + + The standard edition of his poems (1875) by Professor Nichol includes + a memoir. + + + + +DOBELN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, on the (Freiberg) +Mulde, two arms of which embrace the town as an island, 35 m. S.E. from +Leipzig by rail, and at the junction of lines to Dresden, Chemnitz, +Riesa and Oschatz. Pop. (1905) including the garrison, 18,907. It has +two Evangelical churches, of which the Nikolai-kirche, dating in its +present form from 1485, is a handsome edifice; a medieval town hall, a +former Benedictine nunnery and a monument to Luther. There are an +agricultural and a commercial school. The industries include +wool-spinning, iron-founding, carriage, agricultural implement, and +metal-printing and stamping works. + + + + +DOBERAN, or DOBBERAN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of +Mecklenburg-Schwerin, about 2 m. from the shores of the Baltic and 7 W. +of Rostock by rail. Pop. 5000. Besides the ruins of a Cistercian abbey +founded by Pribislaus, prince of Mecklenburg, in 1173, and secularized +in 1552, it possesses an Evangelical Gothic church of the 14th century, +one of the finest in north Germany, a grand-ducal palace, a theatre, an +exchange and a concert hall. Owing to its delightful situation amid +beech forests and to its chalybeate waters, Doberan has become a +favourite summer resort. Numerous villa residences have been erected and +promenades and groves laid out. In 1793 Duke Frederick Francis caused +the first seaside watering-place in Germany to be established on the +neighbouring coast, 4 m. distant, at the spot where the Heiligen-Damm, a +great bank of rocks about 1000 ft. broad and 15 ft. high, stretches out +into the sea and forms an excellent bathing ground. Though no longer so +popular as in the early part of the 19th century, it is still +frequented, and is connected with Doberan by a tramway. + + + + +DOBEREINER, JOHANN WOLFGANG (1780-1849), German chemist, was born near +Hof in Bavaria on the 15th of December 1780. After studying pharmacy at +Munchberg, he started a chemical manufactory in 1803, and in 1810 was +appointed professor of chemistry, pharmacy and technology at Jena, where +he died on the 24th of March 1849. The Royal Society's _Catalogue_ +enumerates 171 papers by him on various chemical topics, but his name is +best known for his experiments on platinum in a minute state of division +and on the oxidation products of alcohol. In 1822 he showed that when a +mass of platinum black, supplied with alcohol by a wick is enclosed in a +jar to which the air has limited access, acetic acid and water are +produced; this experiment formed the basis of the Schutzenbach Quick +Vinegar Process. A year later he noticed that spongy platinum in +presence of oxygen can bring about the ignition of hydrogen, and +utilized this fact to construct his "hydrogen lamp," the prototype of +numerous devices for the self-ignition of coal-gas burners. He studied +the formation of aldehyde from alcohol by various methods, also +obtaining its crystalline compound with ammonia, and he was the +discoverer of furfurol. An early observation of the diffusion of gases +was recorded by him in 1823 when he noticed the escape of hydrogen from +a cracked jar, attributing it to the capillary action of fissures. His +works included treatises on pneumatic chemistry (1821-1825) and the +chemistry of fermentation (1822). + + A correspondence which he carried on with Goethe and Charles August, + grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, was collected and published at Weimar by + Schade in 1856. + + + + +DOBREE, PETER PAUL (1782-1825), English classical scholar and critic, +was born in Guernsey. He was educated at Reading school under Richard +Valpy and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected fellow. He +was appointed regius professor of Greek in 1823, and died in Cambridge +on the 24th of September 1825. He was an intimate friend of Porson, whom +he took as his model in textual criticism, although he showed less +caution in conjectural emendation. After Porson's death (1808) Dobree +was commissioned with Monk and Blomfield to edit his literary remains, +which had been bequeathed to Trinity College. Illness and a subsequent +journey to Spain delayed the work until 1820, when Dobree brought out +the _Plutus_ of Aristophanes (with his own and Porson's notes) and all +Porson's _Aristophanica_. Two years later he published the _Lexicon_ of +Photius from Porson's transcript of the Gale MS. in Trinity College +library, to which he appended a _Lexicon rhetoricum_ from the margin of +a Cambridge MS. of Harpocration. James Scholefield, his successor in the +Greek professorship, brought out selections from his notes +(_Adversaria_, 1831-1833) on Greek and Latin authors (especially the +orators), and a reprint of the _Lexicon rhetoricum_, together with notes +on inscriptions (1834-1835). The latest edition of the _Adversaria_ is +by William Wagner (in Bohn's _Collegiate Series_, 1883). + + An appreciative estimate of Dobree as a scholar will be found in J. + Bake's _Scholica hypomnemata_, ii. (1839) and in the _Philological + Museum_, i. (1832) by J. C. Hare. + + + + +DOBRENTEI, GABOR [GABRIEL] (1786-1851), Hungarian philologist and +antiquary, was born at Nagyszollos in 1786. He completed his studies at +the universities of Wittenberg and Leipzig, and was afterwards engaged +as a tutor in Transylvania. At this period he originated and edited the +_Erdelyi Muzeum_, which, notwithstanding its important influence on the +development of the Magyar language and literature, soon failed for want +of support. In 1820 Dobrentei settled at Pest, and there he spent the +rest of his life. He held various official posts, but continued +zealously to pursue the studies for which he had early shown a strong +preference. His great work is the _Ancient Monuments of the Magyar +Language_ (_Regi Magyar Nyelvemlekek_), the editing of which was +entrusted to him by the Hungarian Academy. The first volume was +published in 1838 and the fifth was in course of preparation at the time +of his death. Dobrentei was one of the twenty-two scholars appointed in +1825 to plan and organize, under the presidency of Count Teleki, the +Hungarian Academy. In addition to his great work he wrote many valuable +papers on historical and philological subjects, and many biographical +notices of eminent Hungarians. These appeared in the Hungarian +translation of Brockhaus's _Conversations-Lexikon_. He translated into +Hungarian _Macbeth_ and other plays of Shakespeare, Sterne's letters +from Yorick to Eliza (1828), several of Schiller's tragedies, and +Moliere's _Avare_, and wrote several original poems. Dobrentei does not +appear to have taken any part in the revolutionary movement of 1848. He +died at his country house, near Pest, on the 28th of March 1851. + + + + +DOBRITCH, or HAJIOLUPAZARJIK, the principal town in the Bulgarian +Dobrudja. Pop. (1901) 13,436. The town is noted for its _panair_ or +great fair, chiefly for horses and cattle, held annually in the summer, +which formerly attracted a large concourse from all parts of eastern +Europe, but has declined in importance. + + + + +DOBRIZHOFFER, MARTIN (1717-1791), Austrian Roman Catholic missionary, +was born at Gratz, in Styria. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1736, +and in 1749 proceeded to Paraguay, where for eighteen years he worked +devotedly first among the Guaranis, and then among the Abipones. +Returning to Europe on the expulsion of the Jesuits from South America, +he settled at Vienna, obtained the friendship of Maria Theresa, survived +the extinction of his order, composed the history of his mission, and +died on the 17th of July 1791. The lively if rather garrulous book on +which his title to remembrance rests, appeared at Vienna in 1784, in the +author's own Latin, and in a German translation by Professor Krail of +the university of Pest. Of its contents some idea may be obtained from +its extended title:--_Historia de Abiponibus, Equestri Bellicosaque +Paraguariae Natione, locupletata Copiosis Barbararum Gentium, Urbium, +Fluminum, Ferarum, Amphibiorum, Insectorum, Serpentium praecipuorum, +Piscium, Avium, Arborum, Plantarum aliarumque ejusdem Provinciae +Proprietatum Observationibus_. In 1822 there appeared in London an +anonymous translation sometimes ascribed to Southey, but really the work +of Sara Coleridge, who had undertaken the task to defray the college +expenses of one of her brothers. A delicate compliment was paid to the +translator by Southey in the third canto of his _Tale of Paraguay_, the +story of which was derived from the pages of Dobrizhoffer's narrative:-- + + "And if he could in Merlin's glass have seen + By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught, + The old man would have felt as pleased, I ween, + As when he won the ear of that great Empress Queen." + + + + +DOBROWSKY, JOSEPH (1753-1829), Hungarian philologist, was born of +Bohemian parentage at Gjermet, near Raab, in Hungary. He received his +first education in the German school at Bischofteinitz, made his first +acquaintance with Bohemian at the Deutschbrod gymnasium, studied for +some time under the Jesuits at Klattau, and then proceeded to the +university of Prague. In 1772 he was admitted among the Jesuits at +Brunn; but on the dissolution of the order in 1773 he returned to Prague +to study theology. After holding for some time the office of tutor in +the family of Count Nostitz, he obtained an appointment first as +vice-rector, and then as rector, in the general seminary at Hradisch; +but in 1790 he lost his post through the abolition of the seminaries +throughout Austria, and returned as a guest to the house of the count. +In 1792 he was commissioned by the Bohemian Academy of Sciences to visit +Stockholm, Abo, Petersburg and Moscow in search of the manuscripts which +had been scattered by the Thirty Years' War; and on his return he +accompanied Count Nostitz to Switzerland and Italy. His reason began to +give way in 1795, and in 1801 he had to be confined in a lunatic asylum; +but by 1803 he had completely recovered. The rest of his life was mainly +spent either in Prague or at the country seats of his friends Counts +Nostitz and Czernin; but his death took place at Brunn, whither he had +gone in 1828 to make investigations in the library. While his fame rests +chiefly on his labours in Slavonic philology his botanical studies are +not without value in the history of the science. + + The following is a list of his more important works, _Fragmentum + Pragense evangelii S. Marci, vulgo autographi_ (1778); a periodical + for Bohemian and Moravian Literature (1780-1787); _Scriptores rerum + Bohemicarum_ (2 vols., 1783); _Geschichte der bohm. Sprache und altern + Literatur_ (1792); _Die Bildsamkeit der slaw. Sprache_ (1799); a + _Deutsch-bohm. Worterbuch_ compiled in collaboration with + Leschka-Puchmayer and Hanka (1802-1821); _Entwurf eines + Pflanzensystems nach Zahlen und Verhaltnissen_ (1802); _Glagolitica_ + (1807); _Lehrgebaude der bohm. Sprache_ (1809); _Institutiones linguae + slavicae dialecti veteris_ (1822); _Entwurf zu einem allgemeinen + Etymologikon der slaw. Sprachen_ (1813); _Slowanka zur Kenntniss der + slaw. Literatur_ (1814); and a critical edition of Jordanes, _De rebus + Geticis_, for Pertz's _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. See Palacky, + _J. Dobrowskys Leben und gelehrtes Wirken_ (1833). + + + + +DOBRUDJA (Bulgarian _Dobritch_, Rumanian _Dobrogea_), also written +DOBRUDSCHA, and DOBRUJA, a region of south-eastern Europe, bounded on +the north and west by the Danube, on the east by the Black Sea, and on +the south by Bulgaria. Pop. (1900) 267,808; area, 6000 sq. m. The +strategic importance of this territory was recognized by the Romans, who +defended it on the south by "Trajan's Wall," a double rampart, drawn +from Constantza, on the Black Sea, to the Danube. In later times it was +utilized by Russians and Turks, as in the wars of 1828, 1854 and 1878, +when it was finally wrested from Turkey. By the treaty of Berlin, in +1878, the Russians rewarded their Rumanian allies with this land of +mountains, fens and barren steppes, peopled by Turks, Bulgarians, +Tatars, Jews and other aliens; while, to add to the indignation of +Rumania, they annexed instead the fertile country of Bessarabia, largely +inhabited by Rumans. After 1880, however, the steady decrease of aliens, +and the development of the Black Sea ports, rendered the Dobrudja a +source of prosperity to Rumania. + + + + +DOBSINA (Ger. _Dobschau_), a town of Hungary, 165 m. N.E. of Budapest by +rail. Pop. (1900) 5109. It is situated in the county of Gomor, at the +foot of the Radzim (3200 ft. high) in the central Carpathians, and lies +to the south of the beautiful Straczena valley, watered by the river +Gollnitz, and enclosed on all sides by mountains. In the vicinity are +mines of iron, cobalt, copper and mercury, some of them being very +ancient. But the most remarkable feature is a large cavern some 3-3/4 m. +N.W., in which is an icefield nearly 2 acres in extent, containing +formations which are at once most curious and strikingly beautiful. This +cavern, which lies in the above-mentioned Straczena valley, was +discovered in 1870. The place was founded in the first half of the 14th +century by German miners. + + + + +DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN (1840- ), English poet and man of letters, was +born at Plymouth on the 18th of January 1840, being the eldest son of +George Clarisse Dobson, a civil engineer, and on his grandmother's side +of French descent. When he was about eight years old the family moved to +Holyhead, and his first school was at Beaumaris, in the Isle of +Anglesea. He was afterwards educated at Coventry, and the Gymnase, +Strassburg, whence he returned at the age of sixteen with the intention +of becoming a civil engineer. He had a taste for art, and in his earlier +years at the office continued to study it at South Kensington, at his +leisure, but without definite ambition. In December 1856 he entered the +Board of Trade, gradually rising to a principalship in the harbour +department, from which he withdrew in the autumn of 1901. He married in +1868 Frances Mary, daughter of Nathaniel Beardmore of Broxbourne, Herts, +and settled at Ealing. His official career was industrious though +uneventful, but as poet and biographer he stands among the most +distinguished of his time. The student of Mr Austin Dobson's work will +be struck at once by the fact that it contains nothing immature: there +are no _juvenilia_ to criticize or excuse. It was about 1864 that Mr +Dobson first turned his attention to composition in prose and verse, and +some of his earliest known pieces remain among his best. It was not +until 1868 that the appearance of _St Paul's_, a magazine edited by +Anthony Trollope, afforded Mr Dobson an opportunity and an audience; and +during the next six years he contributed to its pages some of his +favourite poems, including "Tu Quoque," "A Gentleman of the Old School," +"A Dialogue from Plato," and "Une Marquise." Many of his poems in their +original form were illustrated--some, indeed, actually written to +support illustrations. By the autumn of 1873 Mr Dobson had produced +sufficient verse for a volume, and put forth his _Vignettes in Rhyme_, +which quickly passed through three editions. During the period of their +appearance in the magazine the poems had received unusual attention, +George Eliot, among others, extending generous encouragement to the +anonymous author. The little book at once introduced him to a larger +public. The period was an interesting one for a first appearance, since +the air was full of metrical experiment. Swinburne's bold and +dithyrambic excursions into classical metre had given the clue for an +enlargement of the borders of English prosody; and, since it was +hopeless to follow him in his own line without necessary loss of vigour, +the poets of the day were looking about for fresh forms and variations. +It was early in 1876 that a small body of English poets lit upon the +French forms of Theodore de Banville, Marot and Villon, and determined +to introduce them into English verse. Mr Austin Dobson, who had already +made successful use of the triolet, was at the head of this movement, +and in May 1876 he published in _The Prodigals_ the first original +ballade written in English. This he followed by English versions of the +rondel, rondeau and villanelle. An article in the _Cornhill Magazine_ by +Mr Edmund Gosse, "A Plea for Certain Exotic Forms of Verse," appearing +in July 1877, simultaneously with Mr Dobson's second volume, _Proverbs +in Porcelain_, drew the general eye to the possibilities and +achievements of the movement. The experiment was extremely fortunate in +its introduction. Mr Dobson is above all things natural, spontaneous and +unaffected in poetic method; and in his hands a sheaf of metrical forms, +essentially artificial and laborious, was made to assume the colour and +bright profusion of a natural product. An air of pensive charm, of +delicate sensibility, pervades the whole of these fresh revivals; and it +is perhaps this personal touch of humanity which has given something +like stability to one side of a movement otherwise transitory in +influence. The fashion has faded, but the flowers of Mr Dobson's French +garden remain bright and scented. + +In 1883 Mr Dobson published _Old-World Idylls_, a volume which contains +some of his most characteristic work. By this time his taste was +gradually settling upon the period with which it has since become almost +exclusively associated; and the spirit of the 18th century is revived in +"The Ballad of Beau Brocade" and in "The Story of Rosina," as nowhere +else in modern English poetry. In "Beau Brocade," indeed, the pictorial +quality of his work, the dainty economy of eloquent touches, is at its +very best: every couplet has its picture, and every picture is true and +vivacious. The touch has often been likened to that of Randolph +Caldecott, with which it has much in common; but Mr Dobson's humour is +not so "rollicking," his portraiture not so broad, as that of the +illustrator of "John Gilpin." The appeal is rather to the intellect, and +the touches of subdued pathos in the "Gentleman" and "Gentlewoman of the +Old School" are addressed directly to the heart. We are in the 18th +century, but see it through the glasses of to-day; and the soft +intercepting sense of change which hangs like a haze between ourselves +and the subject is altogether due to the poet's sympathy and +sensibility. _At the Sign of the Lyre_ (1885) was the next of Mr +Dobson's separate volumes of verse, although he has added to the body of +his work in a volume of _Collected Poems_ (1897). _At the Sign of the +Lyre_ contains examples of all his various moods. The admirably fresh +and breezy "Ladies of St James's" has precisely the qualities we have +traced in his other 18th-century poems; there are ballades and rondeaus, +with all the earlier charm; and in "A Revolutionary Relic," as in "The +Child Musician" of the _Old-World Idylls_, the poet reaches a depth of +true pathos which he does not often attempt, but in which, when he seeks +it, he never fails. At the pole opposite to these are the light +occasional verses, not untouched by the influence of Praed, but also +quite individual, buoyant and happy. But the chief novelty in _At the +Sign of the Lyre_ was the series of "Fables of Literature and Art," +founded in manner upon Gay, and exquisitely finished in scholarship, +taste and criticism. It is in these perhaps, more than in any other of +his poems, that we see how with much felicity Mr Dobson interpenetrates +the literature of fancy with the literature of judgment. After 1885 Mr +Dobson was engaged principally upon critical and biographical prose, by +which he has added very greatly to the general knowledge of his +favourite 18th century. His biographies of _Fielding_ (1883), _Bewick_ +(1884), _Steele_ (1886), _Goldsmith_ (1888), _Walpole_ (1890) and +_Hogarth_ (1879-1898) are studies marked alike by assiduous research, +sympathetic presentation and sound criticism. It is particularly +noticeable that Mr Dobson in his prose has always added something, and +often a great deal, to our positive knowledge of the subject in +question, his work as a critic never being solely aesthetic. In _Four +Frenchwomen_ (1890), in the three series of _Eighteenth-Century +Vignettes_ (1892-1894-1896), and in _The Paladin of Philanthropy_ +(1899), which contain unquestionably his most delicate prose work, the +accurate detail of each study is relieved by a charm of expression which +could only be attained by a poet. In 1901 he collected his hitherto +unpublished poems in a volume entitled _Carmina Votiva_. Possessing an +exquisite talent of defined range, Mr Austin Dobson may be said in his +own words to have "held his pen in trust for Art" with a service sincere +and distinguished. + + + + +DOBSON, WILLIAM (1610-1646), English portrait and historical painter, +was born in London. His father was master of the alienation office, but +by improvidence had fallen into reduced circumstances. The son was +accordingly bound an apprentice to a stationer and picture dealer in +Holborn Bridge; and while in his employment he began to copy the +pictures of Titian and Van Dyck. He also took portraits from life under +the advice and instruction of Francis Cleyn, a German artist of +considerable repute. Van Dyck, happening to pass a shop in Snow Hill +where one of Dobson's pictures was exposed, sought out the artist, and +presented him to Charles I., who took Dobson under his protection, and +not only sat to him several times for his own portrait, but caused the +prince of Wales, Prince Rupert and many others to do the same. The king +had a high opinion of his artistic ability, styled him the English +Tintoretto, and appointed him serjeant-painter on the death of Van Dyck. +After the fall of Charles, Dobson was reduced to great poverty, and fell +into dissolute habits. He died at the early age of thirty-six. Excellent +examples of Dobson's portraits are to be seen at Blenheim, Chatsworth +and several other country seats throughout England. The head in the +"Decollation of St John the Baptist" at Wilton is said to be a portrait +of Prince Rupert. + + + + +DOCETAE, a name applied to those thinkers in the early Christian Church +who held that Christ, during his life, had not a real or natural, but +only an apparent ([Greek: dokein], to appear) or phantom body. Other +explanations of the [Greek: dokesis] or appearance have, however, been +suggested, and, in the absence of any statement by those who first used +the word of the grounds on which they did so, it is impossible to +determine between them with certainty. The name Docetae is first used by +Theodoret (_Ep._ 82) as a general description, and by Clement of +Alexandria as the designation of a distinct sect,[1] of which he says +that Julius Cassianus was the founder. Docetism, however, undoubtedly +existed before the time of Cassianus. The origin of the heresy is to be +sought in the Greek, Alexandrine and Oriental philosophizing about the +imperfection or rather the essential impurity of matter. Traces of a +Jewish Docetism are to be found in Philo; and in the Christian form it +is generally supposed to be combated in the writings of John,[2] and +more formally in the epistles of Ignatius.[3] It differed much in its +complexion according to the points of view adopted by the different +authors. Among the Gnostics and Manichaeans it existed in its most +developed type, and in a milder form it is to be found even in the +writings of the orthodox teachers. The more thoroughgoing Docetae +assumed the position that Christ was born without any participation of +matter; and that all the acts and sufferings of his human life, +including the crucifixion, were only apparent. They denied accordingly, +the resurrection and the ascent into heaven. To this class belonged +Dositheus, Saturninus, Cerdo, Marcion and their followers, the Ophites, +Manichaeans and others. Marcion, for example, regarded the body of +Christ merely as an "umbra," a "phantasma." His denial (due to his +abhorrence of the world) that Jesus was born or subjected to human +development, is in striking contrast to the value which he sets on +Christ's death on the cross. The other, or milder school of Docetae, +attributed to Christ an ethereal and heavenly instead of a truly human +body. Amongst these were Valentinus, Bardesanes, Basilides, Tatian and +their followers. They varied considerably in their estimation of the +share which this body had in the real actions and sufferings of Christ. +Clement and Origen, at the head of the Alexandrian school, took a +somewhat subtle view of the Incarnation, and Docetism pervades their +controversies with the Monarchians. Hilary especially illustrates the +prevalence of naive Docetic views as regards the details of the +Incarnation. Docetic tendencies have also been developed in later +periods of ecclesiastical history, as for example by the Priscillianists +and the Bogomils, and also since the Reformation by Jacob Boehme, Menno +Simons and a small fraction of the Anabaptists. Docetism springs from +the same roots as Gnosticism, and the Gnostics generally held Docetic +views (see GNOSTICISM). + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Not a distinct sect, but a continuous type of Christology. + Hippolytus, however (_Philosophumena_, viii. 8-11), speaks of a + definite party who called themselves Docetae. + + [2] 1 _Ep._ iv. 2, ii. 22, v. 6, 20; 2 _Ep._ 7, cf. Jerome (_Dial. + adv. Lucifer_. S 23 "Apostolis adhuc in saeculo superstitibus, adhuc + apud Judaeam Christi sanguine recenti, phantasma Domini corpus + asserebatur"). + + [3] _Ad Trall._ 9 f., _Ad Smyrn._ 2, 4, _Ad Ephes._ 7. Cf. Polycarp, + _Ad Phil._ 7. + + + + +DOCHMIAC (from Gr. [Greek: dochme], a hand's breadth), a form of verse, +consisting of _dochmii_ or pentasyllabic feet (usually o _ _ o -). + + + + +DOCK, a word applied to (1) a plant (see below), (2) an artificial basin +for ships (see below), (3) the fleshy solid part of an animal's tail, +and (4) the railed-in enclosure in which a prisoner is placed in court +at his trial. Dock (1) in O.E. is _docce_, represented by Ger. +_Dockea-blatter_, O.Fr. _docque_, Gael. _dogha_; Skeat compares Gr. +[Greek: daukos], a kind of parsnip. Dock (2) appears in Dutch (_dok_) +and English in the 16th century; thence it was adopted into other +languages. It has been connected with Med. Lat. _doga_, cap, Gr. [Greek: +doche], receptacle, from [Greek: dechesthai], to receive. Dock (3), +especially used of a horse or dog, appears in English in the 14th +century; a parallel is found in Icel. _docke_, stumpy tail, and Ger. +_Docke_, bundle, skein, is also connected with it. This word has given +the verb "to dock," to cut short, curtail, especially used of the +shortening of an animal's tail by severing one or more of the vertebrae. +The English Kennel Club (Rules, 1905, revised 1907) disqualifies from +prize-winning dogs whose tails have been docked; several breeds are, +however, excepted, e.g. varieties of terriers and spaniels, poodles, +&c., and such foreign dogs as may from time to time be determined by the +club. The prisoners' dock (4) is apparently to be referred to Flem. +_dok_, pen or hutch. It was probably first used in thieves' slang; +according to the _New English Dictionary_ it was known after 1610 in +"bail-dock," a room at the corner of the Old Bailey left open at the +top, "in which during the trials are put some of the malefactors" +(_Scots. Mag._, 1753). + + + + +DOCK, in botany, the name applied to the plants constituting the section +_Lapathum_ of the genus _Rumex_, natural order Polygonaceae. They are +biennial or perennial herbs with a stout root-stock, and glabrous +linear-lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate leaves with a rounded, obtuse or +hollowed base and a more or less wavy or crisped margin. The flowers are +arranged in more or less crowded whorls, the whole forming a denser or +looser panicle; they are generally perfect, with six sepals, six stamens +and a three-sided ovary bearing three styles with much-divided stigmas. +The fruit is a triangular nut enveloped in the three enlarged leathery +inner sepals, one or all of which bear a tubercle. In the common or +broad-leaved dock, _Rumex obtusifolius_, the flower-stem is erect, +branching, and 18 in. to 3 ft. high, with large radical leaves, +heart-shaped at the base, and more or less blunt; the other leaves are +more pointed, and have shorter stalks. The whorls are many-flowered, +close to the stem and mostly leafless. The root is many-headed, black +externally and yellow within. The flowers appear from June to August. In +autumn the whole plant may become of a bright red colour. It is a +troublesome weed, common by roadsides and in fields, pastures and waste +places throughout Europe. The great water dock, _R. hydrolapathum_, +believed to be the _herba britannica_ of Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxv. 6), is +a tall-growing species; its root is used as an antiscorbutic. Other +British species are _R. crispus_; _R. conglomeratus_, the root of which +has been employed in dyeing; _R. sanguineus_ (bloody dock, or +bloodwort); _R. palustris_; _R. pulcher_ (fiddle dock), with +fiddle-shaped leaves; _R. maritimus_; _R. aquaticus_; _R. pratensis_. +The naturalized species, _R. alpinus_, or "monk's rhubarb," was early +cultivated in Great Britain, and was accounted an excellent remedy for +ague, but, like many other such drugs, is now discarded. + + + + +DOCK, in marine and river engineering. Vessels require to lie afloat +alongside quays provided with suitable appliances in sheltered sites in +order to discharge and take in cargoes conveniently and expeditiously; +and a basin constructed for this purpose, surrounded by quay walls, is +known as a dock. The term is specially applied to basins adjoining tidal +rivers, or close to the sea-coast, in which the water is maintained at a +fairly uniform level by gates, which are closed when the tide begins to +fall, as exemplified by the Liverpool and Havre docks (figs. 1 and 2). +Sometimes, however, at ports situated on tidal rivers near their tidal +limit, as at Glasgow (fig. 3), Hamburg and Rouen, and at some ports near +the sea-coast, such as Southampton (fig. 4) and New York, the tidal +range is sufficiently moderate for dock gates to be dispensed with, and +for open basins and river quays to serve for the accommodation of +vessels. For ports established on the sea-coast of tideless seas, such +as the Mediterranean, on account of the rivers being barred by deltas at +their outlets, like the Rhone and the Tiber, and thus rendered +inaccessible, open basins, provided with quays and protected by +breakwaters, furnish the necessary commercial requirements for sea-going +vessels, as for example at Marseilles (fig. 5), Genoa, Naples and +Trieste. These open basins, however, are precisely the same as closed +docks, except for the absence of dock gates, and the accommodation for +shipping at the quays round basins in river ports is so frequently +supplemented by river quays, that closed docks, open basins and river +quays are all naturally included in the general consideration of dock +works. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Liverpool Docks, North End] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Havre Docks and Outer Harbour.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Glasgow Docks.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Southampton Docks and River Quays.] + + + Sites for Docks. + +Low-lying land adjoining a tidal river or estuary frequently provides +suitable sites for docks; for the position, being more or less inland, +is sheltered; the low level reduces the excavation required for forming +the docks, and enables the excavated materials to be utilized in raising +the ground at the sides for quays, and the river furnishes a sheltered +approach channel. Notable instances of these are the docks of the ports +of London, Liverpool, South Wales, Southampton, Hull, Belfast, St +Nazaire, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Hamburg. Sometimes docks are partially +formed on foreshores reclaimed from estuaries, as at Hull, Grimsby, +Cardiff, Liverpool, Leith and Havre; whilst at Bristol, a curved portion +of the river Avon was appropriated for a dock, and a straight cut made +for the river. By carrying docks across sharp bends of tidal rivers, +upper and lower entrances can be provided, thereby conveniently +separating the inland and sea-going traffic; and of this the London, +Surrey Commercial, West India, and Victoria and Albert docks are +examples on the Thames and Chatham dockyard on the Medway. Occasionally, +when a small tidal river has a shallow entrance, or an estuary exhibits +signs of silting up, docks alongside, formed on foreshores adjoining the +sea-coast, are provided with a sheltered entrance direct from the sea, +as exemplified by the Sunderland docks adjacent to the mouth of the +river Wear, and the Havre docks at the outlet of the Seine estuary (fig. +2). Some old ports, originally established on sandy coasts where a +creek, maintained by the influx and efflux of the tide from low-lying +spaces near the shore, afforded some shelter and an outlet to the sea +across the beach, have had their access improved by parallel jetties and +dredging; and docks have been readily formed in the low-lying land only +separated by sand dunes from the sea, as at Calais, Dunkirk (fig. 6) and +Ostend (see HARBOUR). In sheltered places on the sea-coast, docks have +sometimes been constructed on low-lying land bordering the shore, with +direct access to the sea, as at Barrow and Hartlepool; whilst at +Mediterranean ports open basins have been formed in the sea, by +establishing quays along the foreshore, from which wide, solid jetties, +lined with quay walls, are carried into the sea at intervals at right +angles to the shore, being sheltered by an outlying breakwater parallel +to the coast, and reached at each end through the openings left between +the projecting jetties and the breakwater, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and +Trieste, and at the extensions at Genoa (see HARBOUR) and Naples. Where, +however, the basins are formed within the partial protection of a bay, +as in the old ports of Genoa and Naples, the requisite additional +shelter has been provided by converging breakwaters across the opening +of the bay; and an entrance to the port is left between the breakwaters. +The two deep arms of the sea at New York, known as the Hudson and East +rivers, are so protected by Staten Island and Long Island that it has +been only necessary to form open basins by projecting wide jetties or +quays into them from the west and east shores of Manhattan Island, and +from the New Jersey and Brooklyn shores, at intervals, to provide +adequate accommodation for Atlantic liners and the sea-going trade of +New York. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Port of Marseilles. Basins and Extensions.] + + + Approach channels. + +The accessibility of a port depends upon the depth of its approach +channel, which also determines the depth of the docks or basins to which +it leads; for it is useless to give a depth to a dock much in excess of +the depth down to which there is a prospect of carrying the channel by +which it is reached. The great augmentation, however, in the power and +capacity for work of modern dredgers, and especially of suction dredgers +in sand (see DREDGE), together with the increasing draught of vessels, +has resulted in a considerable increase being made in the available +depth of rivers and channels leading to docks, and has necessitated the +making of due allowance for the possibility of a reasonable improvement +in determining the depth to be given to a new dock. On the other hand, +there is a limit to the deepening of an approach channel, depending upon +its length, the local conditions as regards silting, and the resources +and prospects of trade of the port, for every addition to the depth +generally involves a corresponding increase in the cost of maintenance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Dunkirk Docks and Jetty Channel.] + +At tidal ports the available depth for vessels should be reckoned from +high water of the lowest neap tides, as the standard which is certain to +be reached at high tide; and the period during which docks can be +entered at each tide depends upon the nature of the approach channel, +the extent of the tidal range and the manner in which the entrance to +the docks is effected. Thus where the tidal range is very large, as in +the Severn estuary, the approach channels to some of the South Wales +ports are nearly dry at low water of spring tides, and it would be +impossible to make these ports accessible near low tide; whereas at high +water, even of neap tides, vessels of large draught can enter their +docks. At Liverpool, with a rise of 31 ft. at equinoctial spring tides, +owing to the deep channel between Liverpool and Birkenhead and into the +outer estuary of the Mersey in Liverpool Bay, maintained by the +powerful tidal scour resulting from the filling and emptying of the +large inner estuary, access to the river by the largest vessels has been +rendered possible, at any state of the tide, by dredging a channel +through the Mersey bar; but the docks cannot be entered till the water +has risen above half-tide level, and the gates are closed directly after +high water. A large floating landing-stage, however, about half a mile +in length, in front of the centre of the docks, connected with the shore +by several hinged bridges and rising and falling with the tide, enables +Atlantic liners to come alongside and take on board or disembark their +passengers at any time. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Tilbury Docks.] + +Comparatively small tidal rivers offer the best opportunity of a +considerable improvement in the approach channel to a port; for they can +be converted into artificially deep channels by dredging, and their +necessary maintenance is somewhat aided by the increased influx and +efflux of tidal water due to the lowering of the low-water line by the +outflow of the ebb tide being facilitated by the deepening. Thus +systematic, continuous dredging in the Tyne and the Clyde has raised the +Tyne ports and Glasgow into first-class ports. In large tidal rivers and +estuaries, docks should be placed alongside a concave bank which the +deep navigable channel hugs, as effected at Hull and Antwerp, or close +to a permanently deep channel in an estuary, such as chosen for Garston +and the entrance to the Manchester ship canal at Eastham in the inner +Mersey estuary, and for Grimsby and the authorized Illingham dock in the +Humber estuary; for a channel carried across an estuary to deep water +requires constant dredging to maintain its depth. Occasionally, +extensive draining works and dredging have to be executed to form an +adequately deep channel through a shifting estuary and shallow river to +a port, as for instance on the Weser to Bremerhaven and Bremen, on the +Seine to Honfleur and Rouen, on the Tees to Middlesborough and Stockton, +on the Ribble to Preston, on the Maas to Rotterdam and on the Nervion to +Bilbao (see RIVER ENGINEERING). Southampton possesses the very rare +combination of advantages of a well-sheltered and fairly deep estuary, a +rise of only 12 ft. at spring tides, and a position at the head of +Southampton Water at the confluence of two rivers (fig. 4), so that, +with a moderate amount of dredging and the construction of quays along +the lower ends of the river with a depth of 35 ft. in front of them at +low water, it is possible for vessels of the largest draught to come +alongside or leave the quays at any state of the tide. This circumstance +has enabled Southampton to attract some of the Atlantic steamers +formerly running to Liverpool. + +Ports on tideless seas have to be placed where deep water approaches the +shore, and where there is an absence of littoral drift. The basins of +such ports are always accessible for vessels of the draught they provide +for; but they require most efficient protection, and, unlike tidal +ports, they are not able on exceptional occasions to admit a vessel of +larger draught than the basins have been formed to accommodate. +Occasionally, an old port whose approach channel has become inadequate +for modern vessels, or from which the sea has receded, has been provided +with deep access from the sea by a ship canal, as exemplified by +Amsterdam and Bruges; whilst Manchester has become a seaport by similar +works (see MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL). In such cases, however, perfectly +sheltered open basins are formed inland at the head of the ship canal, +in the most convenient available site; and the size of vessels that can +use the port depends wholly on the dimensions and facility of access of +the ship canal. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Barry Docks.] + + + Design of Docks. + + Docks require to be so designed that they may provide the maximum + length of quays in proportion to the water area consistent with easy + access for vessels to the quays; but often the space available does + not admit of the adoption of the best forms, and the design has to be + made as suitable as practicable under the existing conditions. On this + account, and owing to the small size of vessels in former times, the + docks of old ports present a great variety in size and arrangement, + being for the most part narrow and small, forming a sort of string of + docks communicating with one another, and provided with locks or + entrances at suitable points for their common use, as noticeable in + the older London and Liverpool docks. Though narrow timber jetties + were introduced in some of the wider London docks for increasing the + length of quays by placing vessels alongside them, no definite + arrangement of docks was adopted in carrying out the large Victoria + and Albert docks between 1850 and 1880; whilst the Victoria dock was + made wide with solid quays, provided with warehouses, projecting from + the northern quay wall, thereby affording a large accommodation for + vessels lying end on to the north quay, the Albert dock subsequently + constructed was given about half the width of the earlier dock, but + made much longer, so that vessels lie alongside the north and south + quays in a long line. This change of form, however, was probably + dictated by the advantage of stretching across the remainder of the + wide bend, in order to obtain a second entrance in a lower reach of + the river. The Tilbury docks, the latest and lowest docks on the + Thames, were constructed on the most approved modern system, + consisting of a series of branch docks separated by wide, + well-equipped solid quays, and opening straight into a main dock or + basin communicating with the entrance lock, in which vessels can turn + on entering or leaving the docks (fig. 7). The most recently + constructed Liverpool docks, also, at the northern end have been given + this form; and the older docks adjoining them to the south have been + transformed by reconstruction into a similar series of branch docks + opening into a dock alongside the river wall, leading to a half-tide + basin or river entrances (fig. 1). The Manchester and Salford docks + were laid out on a precisely similar system, which was also adopted + for the most recent docks at Dunkirk (fig. 6) and Prince's dock at + Glasgow (fig. 3), and at some of the principal Rhine ports; whilst the + Alexandra dock at Hull resembles it in principle. The basins in + tideless seas have naturally been long formed in accordance with this + system (fig. 5). The Barry docks furnish an example of the special + arrangements for a coal-shipping port, with numerous coal-tips served + by sidings (fig. 8). + + + Tidal and half-tide basins. + + Tidal basins, as they are termed, are generally interposed in the + docks of London between the entrance locks and the docks, with the + object of facilitating the passage of vessels out of and into the + docks before and after high water, by lowering the water in the basin + as soon as the tide has risen sufficiently, and opening the lock gates + directly a level has been formed with the tide in the river. Then the + vessels which have collected in the basin, when level with the dock, + are readily passed successively into the river. The incoming vessels + are next brought into the basin, and the gates are closed; and the + water in the basin having been raised to the level in the dock, the + gates shutting off the basin from the dock when the water was lowered + are opened, and the vessels are admitted to the dock. In this manner, + by means of an inner pair of gates, the basin can be used as a large + lock without unduly altering the water-level in the dock, and saves + the delay of locking most of the vessels out and in, the lock being + only used for the smaller vessels leaving early or coming in late on + the tide. Similar tidal basins have also been provided at Cardiff, + Penarth, Barry (fig. 8), Sunderland, Antwerp and other docks. + + The large half-tide docks introduced at the most modern Liverpool + docks (fig. 1) serve a similar purpose as tidal basins; but being much + larger, and approached by entrances instead of locks, the exit and + entrance of vessels are effected by lowering their water-level on a + rising tide, and opening the gates, which are then closed at high + water to prevent the lowering of the water-level in the dock, and to + avoid closing the gates against a strong issuing current. + + The tidal basins outside the locks at Tilbury and Barry are quite open + to the tide, and have been carried down to 24 ft. and 16 ft. + respectively below low water of spring tides, in order to afford + vessels a deep sheltered approach to the lock in each case, available + at or near low water (figs. 7 and 8). Such basins, however, open to a + considerable tidal range where the water is densely charged with silt, + are exposed to a large deposit in the fairly still water, and their + depth has to be constantly maintained by sluicing or dredging. + + + River quays. + + Where the range of tide is moderate, or on large inland rivers, docks + or basins are usefully supplemented by river quays, which though + subject to changes in the water-level, and exposed to currents in the + river, are very convenient for access, and are sometimes very + advantageously employed in regulating a river and keeping up its banks + when deepened by dredging. Generally 10 to 12 ft. is the limit of the + tidal range convenient for the adoption of open basins and river + quays; but the banks of the Tyne have been utilized for quays, jetties + and coal-staiths, with a somewhat larger maximum tidal range; and a + long line of quays stretching along the right bank of the Scheldt in + front of Antwerp, constructed so as to regulate this reach of the + river, accommodates a large sea-going traffic, with a rise at spring + tides of 15 ft. + + + Excavations for docks. + + When a dock has to be formed on land, the excavation is effected by + men with barrows and powerful steam navvies, loading into wagons drawn + in trains by locomotives to the place of deposit, usually to raise the + land at the sides for forming quays. Directly the underground + water-level is reached, the water has to be removed from the + excavations by pumps raising the inflowing water from sumps, lined + with timber, sunk down below the lowest foundations at suitable + positions, so that the lower portions of the dock walls and sills of + the lock or entrance may be built out of water. A cofferdam has to be + constructed extending out from the bank of the river or approach + channel in front of the site of the proposed entrance or lock, so that + the excavations for the entrance to the dock may be pushed forwards, + and the lock or entrance built under its protection. Sometimes the + lowest portion of the excavation for the dock can be accomplished + economically by dredging, after the dock walls and lock have been + completed and the water admitted. + + Where a dock is partially or wholly constructed on reclaimed land, the + reclamation bank for enclosing the site and excluding the tide has to + be undertaken first by tipping an embankment from each end with + wagons, protected and consolidated along its outer toe by rubble stone + or chalk. When the ends of the embankments are approaching one + another, it is essential to connect them by a long low bank of + selected materials brought up gradually in successive layers, and + retaining the water in the enclosure to the level of this bank, so + that the influx and efflux of the tide, filling and emptying the + reclaimed area, may take place over a long length, and in smaller + volume as the low bank is raised. In this way a reduction is effected + of the tidal current in and out, which in the case of a large + enclosure and a considerable tidal range, would create such a scour in + the narrowing gap between two high embankments as to wash away their + ends and prevent the closing of the gap. Occasionally the final + closure is effected by lowering timber panels in grooves between a + series of piles driven down at intervals across the gap. On the + closing of the reclamation bank the water is pumped out; and the + excavation is carried on in the ordinary manner. It is very important + that such an embankment should be carried well above the level of the + highest tide which might be raised by a high wind; and in exposed + sites, the outer slope of the bank should be protected by pitching + from the action of waves, for any overtopping or erosion of the bank + might result in a large breach through it, and the flooding of the + works inside. + + + Foundations for dock walls. + + Docks are generally surrounded by walls retaining the quays, alongside + which vessels lie for discharging and taking in cargoes. In order to + ascertain the nature of the strata upon which these walls have to be + founded, borings are taken at the outset to the requisite depth at + intervals near the line of the walls, but inside the dock area if the + piercing of quicksand is anticipated, as in excavating for the + foundations, these holes might give rise to the outflow, under + pressure, of underlying quicksand into the foundations. As docks are + generally formed near rivers or estuaries, these strata are commonly + alluvial; but being situated at some depth below the surface, they are + usually fairly hard. When they consist of gravel, clay or firm sand, + the walls can be founded on the natural bottom excavated a few feet + below the bottom of the dock, their weight being somewhat distributed + by making them rest on a broad bed of concrete filling up the + excavation at the bottom. When, however, fine sand or silt charged + with water, or quicksand is met with at the required depth, the + necessary pumping and excavation for the foundations might occasion + the influx of sand or silt with the water into the excavations, + leading to settlement and slips; or the soft stratum might be too + thick to remove. The wall may then be founded on bearing piles driven + down to a solid stratum, and having their tops joined together by + walings and planking, or by a layer of concrete, upon which the wall + is built. Or the soft stratum can be enclosed with a double row of + sheet piling along the front and back of the line of wall, by which it + sometimes becomes sufficiently confined and consolidated to sustain + the weight of the wall on a broad foundation of concrete; or it can be + excavated without any danger of sand or silt running in from outside; + whilst the sheet piling at the back relieves the wall to some extent + from the pressure of the earth behind it, and in front retains the + wall from sliding forwards. Firmer foundations have been obtained by + sinking brick, concrete or masonry wells through soft ground to a + solid stratum, upon which the dock wall is built. Clusters of small + concrete cylinders, in sets of three in front, and a line of double + cylinders at the back, were used for the foundations of the walls of + Prince's dock at Glasgow. Wells of rubble masonry were sunk in the + silty foreshore of the Seine estuary for the walls of the Bellot docks + at Havre; and they served as piers, connected by arches, for the + foundations of a continuous dock wall above, being carried down to a + considerable depth through alluvium at the St Nazaire, Bordeaux and + Rochefort docks. These well foundations, derived from the old Indian + system, are built up upon a curb, sometimes furnished with a cutting + edge underneath, and gradually sunk by excavating inside; and + eventually the central hollow is filled up solid with concrete or + masonry. + + + Dock walls. + + The walls round a dock serve as retaining walls to keep up the quays; + and though they have the support of the water in front of them when + the docks are in use, they have to sustain the full pressure of the + filling at the back on the completion of the dock before the water is + admitted. They have, accordingly, to be increased in thickness + downwards to support the pressure increasing with the depth. This + pressure, with perfectly dry material, would be represented by the + weight of half the prism of filling between the natural slope of the + material behind and the back of the wall; but the pressure is often + increased by the accumulation of water at the back, which, with fine + silty backing, is liable to exert a sort of fluid pressure against the + wall proportionate to the density of the mixture of silt and water. + The increase of thickness towards the base used formerly to be + effected by a batter on the face, as well as by steps out at the back; + but the vertical form now given to the sides of large vessels + necessitates a corresponding fairly vertical face for the wall, to + prevent the upper part of the vessel being kept unduly away from the + quay. Examples of the most modern types of dock walls are given in + figs. 9 to 12. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Havre Bellot Dock Wall.] + + The height of a dock wall depends upon the depth of water always + available for vessels, at tideless sea-ports and at ports removed from + tidal influences, such as Manchester, Bruges and the ports on the + Rhine; this depth should not be less than 28 to 30 ft. for large + sea-going vessels, together with a margin of 5 to 8 ft. above the + normal water-level for the quays, and the foundations below. At tidal + ports, however, an addition has to be made equal to the difference in + height between the high-water levels of spring and neap tides; so that + at ports with a large tidal range, such as the South Wales ports on + the Severn estuary and Liverpool, specially high dock walls are + necessary. Under normal conditions, a dock wall should be given a + width at a height half-way between dock-bottom and quay-level, equal + to one-third of its height above dock-bottom, and a width of half this + height at dock-bottom. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Liverpool Dock Wall.] + + Dock walls are constructed of masonry, brickwork or concrete, or of + concrete with a facing of masonry or brickwork. Masonry is adopted + where large stone quarries are readily accessible, in the form of + rubble masonry with dressed stone on the face, as for instance at the + Hull and Barry docks, and forms a very durable wall; but strong + overhead staging carrying powerful gantries is necessary for laying + large blocks. Brickwork has been often used where bricks are the + ordinary building material of the district or can be made on the + works, and requires only ordinary scaffolding; and harder or pressed + bricks are employed for the facework. Concrete is very commonly + resorted to now where sand and stones are readily procured; and where + clean, sharp sand and gravel are found in thick layers in the + excavations for a dock, as in the alluvial strata bordering the + Thames, dock walls can be constructed cheaply and economically with + concrete deposited within timber framing, dispensing with regular + scaffolding and skilled labour. Such walls require to be given a + facing of stronger concrete, or of blue bricks, as at Tilbury, to + guard against abrasion by vessels, chains and ropes; and dock walls + are commonly provided at the top with granite or other hard stone + coping where the wear is greatest. The foundations for dock walls are + excavated in a trench below dock-bottom, only lined with timbering + where the faces of the trench cannot stand for a short time without + support, and with sheet piling through very unstable silt or sand; and + the trench is conveniently filled up solid with concrete, carried out + in short lengths in untrustworthy ground. To reduce the amount of + filling behind the wall, the excavation at the back above dock-bottom, + preparatory for the trench, is given as steep a slope as practicable, + supported sometimes towards the base by timbering and struts; but + occasionally the wall is built within a timbered trench carried down + to the required depth, before the excavation for the dock in front of + it has been executed, as effected at Tilbury. The filling at the back + is thus reduced to a minimum, and the lower portion of the excavation + can be accomplished by dredging, if expedient, after the admission of + the water, the dock wall in this way being exposed to the least + possible pressure behind. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Tilbury Basin Wall.] + + The walls of open basins are often constructed out of water precisely + like dock walls, as in the case of the basins forming the Manchester, + Bruges and Glasgow docks; and basin walls open to the tide, as at + Glasgow and in the tidal basin outside Tilbury docks (fig. 7), differ + only from dock walls in being exposed to variations in the pressure at + the back resulting from the lowering of the water-level in front, + which is, indeed, shared to some extent by the walls round closed + docks where the difference in the high-water levels of springs and + neaps is considerable. The walls, however, round basins in tideless + seas, such as Marseilles, occasionally those inside harbours, and + especially quay walls along rivers and round open basins alongside + rivers, have to be constructed under water. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Barry Dock Wall.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Marseilles Quay Wall.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Antwerp Quay Wall, founded by compressed + air.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Caracciolo Jetty Quay Wall, Genoa.] + + + Open basin and river quay walls founded under water. + + At Marseilles, the simple expedient was long ago adopted of + constructing the quay walls lining the basins formed in the sea, by + depositing tiers of large concrete blocks on a rubble foundation, one + on top of the other, till they reached sea-level, and then building a + solid masonry quay wall out of water on the top up to quay-level, + faced with ashlar (fig. 13), the wall being backed by rubble for some + distance behind up to the water-level. The same system was employed + for the quay walls at Trieste, and at Genoa and other Italian ports. A + quay wall inside Marmagao harbour, on the west coast of India, was + erected on a foundation layer of rubble by the sloping-block system, + to provide against unequal settlement on the soft bottom (see + BREAKWATER). The quay walls alongside the river Liffey, and round the + adjacent basins below Dublin, were erected under water by building + rubble-concrete blocks of 360 tons on staging carried out into the + water, from which they were lifted one by one by a powerful floating + derrick, which conveyed the block to the site, and deposited it on a + levelled bottom at low tide in a depth of 28 ft., raising the wall a + little above low water. After a row of these blocks had been laid, and + connected together by filling the grooves formed at the sides and the + interstices between the blocks with concrete, a continuous masonry + wall faced with ashlar was built on the top out of water. A quay wall + was built up to a little above low water on a similar principle at + Cork, with three smaller blocks as a foundation, in lengths of 8 ft. + Cylindrical well foundations have been extensively used for the + foundations of the quay walls along the Clyde, formerly made of brick, + but subsequently of concrete, sunk through a considerable variety of + alluvial strata, but mostly sand and gravel fully charged with water. + Compressed air in bottomless caissons has been increasingly employed + in recent years for carrying down the subaqueous foundations of river + quay walls, through alluvial deposits, to a solid stratum. About 1880, + a long line of river quays was commenced in front of Antwerp, + extending in the central portion a considerable distance out into the + Scheldt, with the object of regulating the width of the river + simultaneously with the provision of deep quays for sea-going vessels; + and the quay wall was erected, out of water, on the flat tops of a + series of wrought-iron caissons, 82 ft. long and 29-1/2 ft. wide, + constructed on shore, floated out one by one to their site in the + river between two barges, and gradually lowered as the wall was built + up inside a plate-iron enclosure round the roof of the caisson, which + was eventually sunk by aid of compressed air through the bed of the + river to a compact stratum (fig. 14). The weight of the wall + counteracted the tendency of the caisson and the enclosure above it to + float; and the caisson, furnished with seven circular wrought-iron + shafts, provided with air-locks at the top for the admission of men + and materials and for the removal of the excavations, was gradually + carried down by excavating inside the working chamber at the bottom, + 6-1/4 ft. high, till a good foundation was reached. The working chamber + was then filled with concrete through some of the shafts, the + plate-iron sides of the upper enclosure were removed to be used for + another length of wall, the shafts were drawn out and the hollows left + by them filled with concrete, the apertures between adjacent lengths + were closed at each face with wooden panels and filled with concrete, + and a continuous quay wall was completed above. The most recent quay + walls constructed in the old harbour at Genoa were founded under + water on a rubble mound in a similar manner by the aid of compressed + air (fig. 15). Quay walls also on the Clyde have been founded on + caissons, consisting of a bottomless steel structure, surmounted by a + brick superstructure having hollows filled with concrete, in lengths + of 80 ft. and 27 ft., and widths of 18 ft. and 21 ft. respectively, + carried down by means of compressed air from 54 to 70 ft. below + quay-level, on the top of which a continuous wall of concrete, faced + with brickwork, and having a granite coping, was built up from near + low-water level (fig. 16). In many cases where soft strata extend to + considerable depths, river quays and basin walls have been constructed + by building a light quay wall upon a series of bearing and raking + piles driven into, and if possible through, the soft alluvium. Thus + the walls along the Seine, and round the basins at Rouen, were built + upon bearing piles carried down through the alluvial bed of the river + to the chalk. The lower portion of the quay wall was constructed of + concrete faced with brickwork within water-tight timber caissons, + resting upon the piles at a depth of 9-3/4 ft. below low water; and upon + this a rubble wall faced with bricks was erected from low water to + quay-level, backed by rubble stone laid on a timber flooring supported + by piles, together with chalk, to form a quay right back to the top of + the slope of the bank of the deepened river (fig. 17). The quay walls + of the open basins bordering the Hudson river at New York have had, in + certain parts, to be founded on bearing piles combined with raking + piles, driven into a thick bed of soft silt where no firm stratum + could be reached, and where, therefore, the weight could only be borne + by the adherence of the long piles in the silt. Before driving the + piles, however, the silt round the upper part of the piles and under + the quay wall was consolidated by depositing small stones in a trench + dredged to a depth of 30 ft. below low water; the piles were driven + through these stones, and were further kept in place by a long toe of + rubble stone in front and a backing of rubble stone behind carried + nearly up to quay-level, behind which a light filling of ashes and + earth was raised to quay-level. The slight quay wall resting upon the + front rows of bearing piles was carried up under water by 70-ton + concrete blocks deposited by means of a floating derrick; and the + upper part of the wall was built of concrete faced with ashlar masonry + (fig. 18). The basin and quay walls at Bremen, Bremerhaven and Hamburg + were built on a series of bearing and raking piles driven down to a + firm stratum, the wall being begun a few feet below low water. At + Southampton, ferro-concrete piles were employed in constructing the + deep quays; and a wharfing of timber pilework has been frequently used + for river quays. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Glasgow River Quay Wall.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Rouen Quay Wall.] + + Where the increase of trade is moderate and the conditions of the + traffic permit, and also at coal-shipping ports, economy in + construction is obtained by giving sloping sides to a portion of a + dock in place of dock walls, the slope being pitched where necessary + with stone; and the length of the slope projecting into a dock is + sometimes reduced by substituting sheet piling for the slope at the + toe up to a certain height. By this arrangement jetties can be carried + out across the slope as required, enabling vessels to lie against + their ends; and coal-tips are very conveniently extended out across + the slope at suitable intervals (fig. 8). + + + Failures of dock walls. + + As dock walls, especially before the admission of water into the dock, + constitute high retaining walls, not infrequently founded upon soft or + slippery strata, and backed up with the excavated materials from + alluvial beds, into which water is liable to percolate, they are + naturally exposed under unfavourable conditions to the danger of + failure. A dock wall erected on unsatisfactory foundations is liable, + where the bottom is soft, to settle down at its toe, owing to the + pressure at the back, and to fall forwards into the dock, as occurred + at Belfast; or where the silty bottom slips forward under the weight + of the backing, the wall may follow the slip at the bottom and settle + down at the back, falling to some extent backwards, as exemplified by + the failure of the Empress basin wall at Southampton. The most common + form, however, of failure is the sliding forwards of a dock wall, with + little or no subsidence, on a silty or slippery stratum under the + pressure imposed by the backing. Thus the Kidderpur dock walls furnish + an instance of sliding forwards on muddy silt, and part of the South + West India dock walls on two underlying, detached, slippery seams of + London clay. + + To avoid these failures with untrustworthy foundations, great care has + to be exercised in selecting the best hard material available, + unaffected by water, for the backing, which should be brought up in + thin, horizontal layers carefully consolidated; and where there is a + possibility of water accumulating at the back, pipes should be + introduced at intervals near the bottom right through the wall in + building it, and rubble stone deposited close to the back of the wall, + so as to carry off any water from behind, these pipes being stopped up + just before the water is let into the dock. These precautions, + moreover, are assisted by reducing the amount of backing to a minimum + in the construction of the wall, best effected by building the wall + inside a timbered trench. The liability to slide forwards can be + obviated by carrying down the foundations of the wall sufficiently + below dock-bottom to provide an efficient buttress of earth in front + of the wall, and also by making the base of the wall slope down + towards the back, thereby forcing the wall in sliding forwards to + mount the slope, or to push forward a larger mass of earth; whilst a + row of sheet piling in front of the foundations offers a very + effectual impediment to a forward movement, and, in combination with + bearing piles, prevents settlement at the toe in soft ground. In very + treacherous foundations it may be advisable to defer the completion of + the backing till after the admission of the water; but the additional + stability given to a retaining wall or reservoir dam by an ample + batter in front, is precluded in dock walls by the modern requirements + of vessels. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--New York Quay Wall, Hudson river.] + + + Maintenance of depth. + + Silt accumulates in docks where the lowering of the water-level by + locking, the drawing down of half-tide basins, and the raising of the + water at spring tides, involve the admission of considerable volumes + of tidal water heavily charged with silt, which is deposited in still + water and has to be periodically removed by dredging. To avoid this, + the water is sometimes replenished from some clear inland source, an + arrangement adopted at some of the South Wales ports opening into the + muddy Severn estuary, and at the Alexandra dock, Hull, to exclude the + silty waters of the Humber. At the Kidderpur docks on the Hugli, the + water from the river for replenishing the docks is conducted by a + circuitous canal, in which it deposits its burden of silt before it is + pumped into the docks. + + + Equipment on quays. + +In order to deal expeditiously with the cargoes and goods brought into +and despatched from docks, numerous sidings communicating with the +railways of the district are arranged along the quays, which are also +provided with steam, hydraulic or electric travelling cranes at +intervals alongside the docks, basins or river, for discharging or +loading vessels, and with sheds and warehouses for the storage of +merchandise, &c., the arrangements depending largely upon the special +trade of the port. Though different sources of power are sometimes made +use of at different parts of the same port, as for example at Hamburg, +where the numerous cranes are worked by steam, hydraulic power or most +recently by electricity, and a few by gas engines, it is generally most +convenient to work the various installations by one form of power from a +central station. Water-pressure has been very commonly used as the +motive power at docks, being generated by a steam-engine and stored up +by one or more accumulators, from which the water is transmitted under +pressure through strong cast-iron pipes to the hydraulic engines which +actuate the cranes, lifts, coal-tips, capstans, swing-bridges and gate +machinery throughout the docks (see POWER TRANSMISSION: _Hydraulic_). +The intermittent working of the machinery in docks results in a +considerable variation in the power needed at different times; but +economical working is secured by arranging that when the accumulators +are full, steam is automatically shut off from the pumping engines, but +is supplied again as soon as water is drawn off. Electricity affords +another means for the economical transmission of power to a distance +suited for intermittent working; as far back as 1902 it was being +adopted at Hamburg as the source of power for the machinery of the +extensive additional basins then recently opened for traffic. + + + Coal-tips. + +At ports where the principal trade is the export of coal from +neighbouring collieries, special provision has to be made for its rapid +shipment. Coal-tips, accordingly, are erected at the sides of the dock +in these ports, with sidings on the quays at the back for receiving the +trains of coal trucks, from which two lines of way diverge to each +coal-tip, one serving for the conveyance of the full wagons one by one +to the tip, after passing over a weigh-bridge, and the other for the +return of the empty wagons to the siding where the empty train is made +up for returning to the colliery (fig. 8). Each full wagon is either run +at a low level upon a cradle at the tip, then raised on the cradle +within a wrought-iron lattice tower to a suitable height, and lastly, +tipped up at the back for discharging the coal; or it is brought along a +high-level road on to a cradle raised to this level on the tower, and +tipped up at this or some slightly modified level. The coal is +discharged down an adjustable iron shoot, gradually narrowed so as to +check the fall; and on first discharging into the hold of a vessel, an +anti-breakage box is suspended below the mouth of the shoot. When full, +this is lowered to the bottom of the hold and emptied, thereby gradually +forming a cone of coal upon which the coal can be discharged directly +from the shoot without danger of breakage. Other contrivances are also +adopted with the same object. + + + Dock extensions. + + In designing dock works, it is expedient to make provision, as far as + possible, for future extensions as the trade of the port increases. + Generally this can be effected alongside tidal rivers and estuaries by + utilizing sites lower down the river, as carried out on the Thames for + the port of London, or reclaiming unoccupied foreshores of an estuary, + as adopted for extensions of the ports of Liverpool, Hull and Havre. + At ports on the sea-coast of tideless seas, it is only necessary to + extend the outlying breakwater parallel to the shore line, and form + additional basins under its shelter, as at Marseilles (fig. 5) and + Genoa (see HARBOUR). Quays also along rivers furnish very valuable + opportunities of readily extending the accommodation of ports. Ports, + however, established inland like Manchester, though extremely + serviceable in converting an inland city into a seaport, are at the + disadvantage of having to acquire very valuable land for any + extensions that may be required; but, nevertheless, some compensation + is afforded by the complete shelter in which the extensions can be + carried out, when compared with Liverpool, where the additions to the + docks can only be effected by troublesome reclamation works along the + foreshore to the north, in increasingly exposed situations. + +_Dock Entrances and Locks._--The size of vessels which a port can admit +depends upon the depth and width of the entrance to the docks; for, +though the access of vessels is also governed by the depth of the +approach channel, this channel is often capable of being further +deepened to some extent by dredging; whereas the entrance, formed of +solid masonry or concrete, cannot be adapted, except by troublesome and +costly works sometimes amounting to reconstruction, to the increasing +dimensions of vessels. Accordingly, in designing new dock works with +entrances and locks, it is essential to look forward to the possible +future requirements of vessels. The necessity for such forethought is +illustrated by the rapid increase which has taken place in the size of +the largest ocean liners. Thus the "City of Rome," launched in 1881, is +560 ft. long, and 52-1/4 ft. beam, and has a maximum recorded draught of +27-1/2 ft.; the "Campania" and "Lucania," in 1893, measure 600 ft. by 65 +ft.; the "Oceanic," in 1899, 685-1/2 ft. by 68-1/4 ft., with a maximum +draught of 31-1/3 ft.; the "Baltic," in 1903, 709 ft. by 75 ft., with a +maximum draught of 31-3/4 ft.; and the "Lusitania" and "Mauretania," +launched in 1906, 787-1/2 ft. by 88 ft. + + + Dimensions of entrances and locks. + +The width and depth of access to docks are of more importance than the +length of locks; for docks which are reached through entrances with a +single pair of gates have to admit vessels towards high water when the +water-level in the dock is the same as in the approach channel, or +through a half-tide basin drawn down to the level of the water outside, +and are therefore accessible to vessels of any length, provided the +width of the entrance and depth over the sill are adequate; whilst at +docks which are entered through locks, vessels which are longer than the +available length of the lock can get in at high water when both pairs of +gates of the lock are open. Open basins are generally given an ample +width of entrance, and river quays also are always accessible to the +longest and broadest vessels; but in a tidal river the available depth +has to be reckoned from the lowest low water of spring tides, instead of +from the lowest high water of neap tides, if the vessels in the open +basins and alongside the river quays have to be always afloat. + +Many years ago the Canada lock at Liverpool, the outer North lock at +Birkenhead, the Ramsden lock and entrance at Barrow-in-Furness, and the +Eure entrance at Havre, were given a width of 100 ft. Probably this was +done with the view of admitting paddle steamers, since subsequent +entrances at Liverpool were given widths of 80 and 65 ft.; whereas none +of the locks in the port of London has been made wider than 80 ft., +which has been the standard maximum width since the completion of the +Victoria dock in 1866. The widest locks at Cardiff are 80 ft., and the +entrance to the Barry docks is the same; but the lock of the Alexandra +dock, Hull, opened in 1885, was made 85 ft. wide. At Liverpool, where +the access to the docks is mainly through entrances, on account of the +small width between the river and the high ground rising at the back, +and where ample provision has to be made for the largest Atlantic +liners, though the entrances to the Langton dock, completed in 1881, +leading to the latest docks at the northern end were made 65 ft. wide, +with their sills 3 ft. below low water of spring tides and 20-1/2 ft. +below high water of the lowest neap tides, the two new entrances to the +deepened Brunswick dock near the southern end, giving access to the +adjacent reconstructed docks, completed in 1906, were made 80 and 100 +ft. wide, with sills 28 ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides. +Moreover, the three new entrances to the new Sandon half-tide dock, +completed in 1906, communicating with the reconstructed line of docks to +the south of the Canada basin, and with the latest northern extensions +of the Liverpool docks, were made 40 ft. wide with a depth over the sill +of 24-1/2 ft., and 80 and 100 ft. wide on each end of the central +entrance, with sills 29 ft. below high water of the lowest neap tides, +each entrance being provided with two pairs of gates, in case of any +accident occurring to one pair, according to the regular custom at +Liverpool. Powers were also obtained in 1906 for the construction of a +half-tide dock and two branch docks to the north of the Hornby dock, +which are to be reached from the river by two entrances designed to be +130 ft. wide, with sills 38-1/2 ft. below high water of the lowest neap +tides, so as to meet fully the assumed future increase in the beam and +draught of the largest vessels; whilst the authorized extension of the +river wall northwards will enable additional docks to be constructed in +communication with these entrances when required. + +Though, with the exception of Southampton and Dover, other British ports +do not aim, like Liverpool, at accommodating the largest Atlantic liners +at all times, the depths of the sills at the principal ports have been +increased in the most recent extensions. Thus at the port of London the +sills of the first lock of the Albert dock were 26-1/2 ft. below high water +of neap tides, and of the second lock adjoining, 32-1/2 ft. deep; whilst +the sills of the lock of the Tilbury docks are 40-1/2 ft. below high water +of neap tides. Moreover, in spite of the great range of tide at the +South Wales ports on the Severn estuary, the available depth at high +water of neap tides of 25 ft. at the Roath lock, Cardiff, was increased +in the lock of the new dock to 31-1/2 ft.; the depth at the entrance to +the Barry docks, opened in 1889, was 29-1/2 ft., but at the lock opened in +1896 was made 41-1/3 ft.; whilst a depth of 34 ft. has been proposed for +the new lock of the Alexandra dock extension at Newport, nearly 10 ft. +deeper than the existing lock sills there. Similar improvements in depth +have also been made or designed at other ports to provide for the +increasing draught of vessels. + +The length of locks has also been increased, from 550 ft. at the Albert +dock, to 700 ft. at Tilbury in the port of London, from 300 ft. to 550 +ft. at Hull, and from 350 ft. to 660 ft. at Cardiff. The lock at the +Barry docks is 647 ft. long, though only 65 ft. wide. A lock constructed +in connexion with the improvement works at Havre, carried out in +1896-1907, was given an available length of 805 ft. and a width of +98-1/2 ft., with a depth over the sills of 34-3/4 ft. at high water of +neap tides. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Barry Docks, Entrance.] + + + Entrances to docks. + + Entrances with a single pair of gates, closing against a raised sill + at the bottom and meeting in the centre, have to be made long enough + to provide a recess in each side wall at the back to receive the gates + when they are opened, and to form a buttress in front on each side to + bear the thrust of the gates when closed against a head of water + inside. A masonry floor is laid on the bottom in continuation of the + sill, serving as an apron against erosion by water leaking between or + under the gates, and by the current through the sluiceways in the + gates, when opened for scouring the entrance channel or to assist in + lowering the water in a half-tide dock for opening the gates (fig. + 19). A sluiceway in each side wall, closed by a vertical sluice-gate, + generally provided in duplicate in case of accidents and worked by a + machine actuated by hydraulic pressure, enables the half-tide basin to + be brought down to the level of the approach channel outside with a + rising tide, so that vessels may be brought into or passed out of the + basin towards high water. The advantages of these entrances are, that + they occupy comparatively little room where the space is limited, and + are much less costly than locks; whilst in conjunction with a + half-tide basin they serve the same purpose as a lock with a rising + tide. Vessels also pass more readily through the short entrances than + through locks; and as entrances are only used towards high water, + their sills need not be placed so low as the outer sills of locks to + accommodate vessels of large draught. On the other hand, they are + accessible for a more limited period at each tide than locks; and they + do not allow of the exclusion of silt-bearing tidal water, and + therefore necessitate a greater amount of dredging in the docks, and + especially in half-tide basins, for maintenance. Entrances, however, + at large ports are frequently supplemented by the addition of a lock + at some convenient site, rendering the ports accessible for the + smaller class of vessels for some time before and after high water, as + for instance at Liverpool, Barry, Havre and St Nazaire. A small basin + with an entrance at each end--an arrangement often adopted--is in + reality, for all practical purposes, a lock with a very large + lock-chamber. An entrance or passage with gates has also to be + provided at the inner end of a large half-tide basin like the basins + adopted at Liverpool, to shut off the half-tide basin from the docks + to which it gives access, and maintain their water-level when the + water is drawn down in the basin to admit vessels before high tide. + + Reverse gates pointing outwards are sometimes added in passages to + docks and at entrances, to render the water-level in one set of docks + independent of adjacent docks, to exclude silty tidal water and very + high tides, and also to protect the gates of outer entrances in + exposed situations from swell, which might force them open slightly + and lead to a damaging shock on their closing again. + + + Locks at docks. + + Locks differ from entrances in having a pair of gates with + arrangements similar to an entrance at each end, separated from one + another by a lock-chamber, which should be large enough to receive the + longest and broadest vessel coming regularly to the port. These dock + locks are similar in principle to locks on canals and canalized + rivers, but are on a much larger scale. The lock-chamber has its water + raised or lowered in proportion to the difference in level between the + water-level in the dock and the water in the entrance channel, by + passing water, when the gates are closed at both ends, from the dock + into the lock-chamber or from the lock-chamber into the entrance + channel, through large sluiceways in the side walls, controlled, as at + entrances, by vertical sluice-gates. In this way the vessel is raised + or lowered in the chamber, till, when a level has been reached, the + intervening pair of gates is opened and the vessel is passed into the + dock or out to the channel. Generally the upper and lower sills of a + lock are at the same level, a foot or two higher than dock-bottom; and + the depth at which they are laid is governed by the same + considerations as the sill of an entrance. Vessels longer than the + available length between the two pairs of gates can be admitted close + to high water, when the water in the dock and outside is at the same + level, and both pairs of gates can be opened. When the range of tide + at a port is large, and the depth in the approach channel is + sufficient to allow vessels to come up or go out some time before and + after high water, and also where the water in the dock is kept up to a + high level from an inland source to exclude very silty tidal water, it + is expedient to reduce the cost of construction by limiting the depth + of the excavations for the dock, and consequently also the height of + the dock walls, to what is necessary to provide a sufficient depth of + water below high water of the lowest neap tides, or below the + water-level to which the water in the dock is always maintained, for + the vessels of largest draught frequenting the port, or those which + may be reasonably expected in the near future. The upper sill of the + lock is then determined by the level of dock-bottom; but the lower + sill is taken down approximately to the depth of the bottom of the + approach channel, or to the depth to which it can be carried by + dredging, so as to enable the lock to admit or let out at any time all + vessels which can navigate the approach channel. Thus, for instance, + the outer and intermediate sills of the lock at the Barry docks are 9 + ft. lower then the upper sill. + + The foundations for the sill and side walls at each end of a lock, and + also for the side walls and invert commonly enclosing the lock-chamber + at the sides and bottom, are generally constructed simultaneously with + the dock works, under shelter of a cofferdam across the entrance + channel, and in the excavations kept dry by means of pumps. The + foundations under the sills and adjacent side walls are carried down + to a lower level than the rest, and if possible to a water-tight + stratum, to prevent infiltration of water under them owing to the + water-pressure on the upper side of the gates; or sometimes one or two + rows of sheet piling have been driven across the lock under the sills + to an impermeable stratum, to stop any flow. The foundations for the + sills consist usually of concrete deposited in a trench extended out + under the adjoining side walls. The sill, projecting generally about 2 + ft. above the adjacent gate floor over which the gates turn, is built + of granite; and the same material is also used for the hollow quoins + in which the heelpost, or pivot, of the dock gates turns, and which, + together with the sills, are exposed to considerable wear. The side + walls of the lock-chamber are very similar in construction to the dock + walls; but they are strengthened against the loss of water-pressure in + front of them when the water is lowered in the chamber by an inverted + arch of masonry, brickwork or concrete, termed an "invert," laid + across the bottom of the chamber along its whole length, against which + the toe of each side wall abuts and effectually prevents any forward + movement. The side walls also, alongside the gates at each end, abut + against a thick level gate floor and apron, and, moreover, are + considerably widened to provide space for the sluiceways and gate + machinery. + + The new Florida lock (fig. 20), forming the main entrance through the + new approach harbour and tidal harbour to the Eure dock and other + docks of the port of Havre, is the largest lock hitherto constructed. + It has an available length of chamber between the gates of 805 ft., a + width of 98-1/2 ft., and depths over the sills of 15-3/4 ft. at the + lowest low water of spring tides, 23-1/2 ft. at low water of neap + tides, 35 ft. at high water of neap tides, and 40-1/2 ft. at high + water of spring tides. Owing to the alluvial stratum at the site of + the lock close to the Seine estuary, of which it doubtless at one time + formed part, the foundations for the sill and side walls or heads at + each end of the lock were executed by aid of compressed air. The + foundations for these heads were carried down to an impermeable + stratum by means of two bottomless caissons, filled eventually with + concrete, 213-1/2 ft. long across the lock and 105 ft. wide in the + line of the lock at the upper end, and 206-3/4 ft. long and 116-1/2 + ft. wide at the lower end, to a depth of 18 ft. below the sill at the + upper end, and 41 ft. at the lower end, owing to the dip down seawards + and southward of the water-tight stratum. These caissons were provided + for their sinkage with temporary dams of masonry closing the opening + of the lock at the extremities of each caisson, enabling the gates to + be subsequently erected under their shelter. The junctions between the + foundations of the heads and the adjacent foundations were effected by + small movable caissons carried down in recesses provided in the buried + caissons. The connexions with the adjacent quay walls were + accomplished by two supplementary side caissons at the end of each + head; and the north side wall of the lock was founded by means of + seven bottomless caissons sunk by aid of compressed air, on account of + the proximity of the tidal harbour on that side. The south side wall + was founded for a length of about 200 ft. at its western end in an + excavated trench kept dry by pumping; but the greater portion was + founded in a dredged trench in which bearing piles were driven under + water, on which the masonry was built in successive layers, about + 3-1/4 ft. thick, in a movable caisson 93-1/2 ft. long and 37-3/4 ft. + wide; whilst a bottomless caisson, left in the work, was employed for + founding about 100 ft. of wall at the eastern end. The bed of concrete + also, 10 ft. thick, forming the floor of the chamber, was carried out + for 82 ft. at the western end in the open air, and the remainder in + the same movable caisson as used for the south wall. Two sluiceways on + each side running the whole length of the lock, differing 6-1/2 ft. in + level, communicate with the lock-chamber through openings in the side + walls, 67-1/4 ft. apart, and provide for the filling and emptying of + the chamber. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Florida Lock, Havre Docks, Sections and + Plan.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Wooden Dock Gate.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Iron Segmental Dock Gate.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Straight Iron Dock Gate.] + + + Dock gates. + + The gates closing the entrances and locks at docks are made of wood or + of iron. In iron gates, the heelpost, or a vertical closing strip + attached to the outer side of the gate close to the heelpost, the + meeting-post at the end of each gate closing against each other when + the gates are shut, and the sill piece fitting against the sill are + generally made of wood. Wooden gates consist of a series of horizontal + framed beams, made thicker and put closer together towards the bottom + to resist the water-pressure increasing with the depth, fastened to + the heelpost and meeting-post at the two ends and to intermediate + uprights, and supporting water-tight planking on the inner face (fig. + 21). Iron gates have generally an outer as well as an inner skin of + iron plates braced vertically and horizontally by plate-iron ribs, the + horizontal ribs being placed nearer together and the plates made + thicker towards the bottom (figs. 22 and 23). Greenheart is the wood + used for gates exposed to salt water, as it resists the attack of the + teredo in temperate climates. As cellular iron gates are made + water-tight, and have to be ballasted with enough water to prevent + their flotation, or are provided with air chambers below and are left + open to the rising tide on the outer side above, the gates are light + in the water and are easily moved; whereas greenheart gates with their + fastenings are considerably heavier than water, so that a considerable + weight has to be moved when the water is somewhat low in the dock and + the gates therefore only partially immersed. On the other hand, wooden + gates are less liable than iron gates to be seriously damaged if run + into by a vessel. + + Dock gates are sometimes made straight, closing against a straight + sill (figs. 20 and 23); and occasionally they are made segmental with + the inner faces forming a continuous circular arc and closing against + a sill corresponding to the outer curves of the gates (fig. 22), or by + means of a projecting sill piece against a straight sill (fig. 21). + More frequently the gates, curved on both faces, meet at an angle + forming a Gothic arch in plan, and close by aid of a projecting piece + against a straight sill, which in the Barry entrance gates is modified + by making the outer faces nearly straight (fig. 19), giving an unusual + width to the centre of the gates. The pressures produced by a head of + water against these gates when closed depends not only on the form of + the gates, but also upon the projection given to the angle of the sill + in proportion to the width of the lock, which is known as the rise, + and is generally placed at a distance along the centre line of the + lock, from a line joining the centres of the heel-posts, of about + one-fourth the width. With straight gates, the stresses consist, first + of a transverse stress due to the water-pressure against the gate, + which increases with the head of water and length of the gate; and + secondly, of a compressive stress along the gate, resulting from the + pressure of the other gate against its meeting-post, which is equal to + half the water-pressure on the gate multiplied by the tangent of half + the angle between the closed gates, varying inversely with the rise. + Though an increase in the rise reduces this stress, it increases the + length of the gate and the transverse stress, and also the length of + the lock. By curving the gates suitably, the transverse stress is + reduced and the longitudinal compressive stress is augmented, till at + last, when the gates form a horizontal segmental arch, the stresses + become wholly compressive and uniform in each horizontal section, + increasing with the depth; and the total stress is equal to the + pressure on a unit of surface multiplied by the radius of curvature. + Though the water-pressure is most uniformly and economically borne by + cylindrical gates, they are longer, and encroach more upon the lines + of quay with their curved recesses than straighter gates; and, + consequently, Gothic-arched gates are often preferred. Straight gates + afford the greatest simplicity in construction. + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Sliding Caisson.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Ship Caisson.] + + Gates in wide entrances or locks are generally supported towards their + outer end by a roller running along a castiron roller-path on the gate + floor (figs. 19, 21 and 22), as well as by the heelpost, fitted over a + steel pivot at the bottom, and tied back against the hollow quoins at + the top by anchor straps and bolts, on which the gate turns. In some + cases, by placing the water ballast in iron gates close to the + heelpost, a roller has been dispensed with, even, for instance, at the + wide entrance at Havre (fig. 23). The gates are opened and closed, + either by an opening and a closing chain for each gate, fastened on + either side and worked from opposite side walls by hydraulic power, or + by a single hydraulic piston or bar hinged to the inner side of each + gate (figs. 19 and 20). The latter system has the advantages of being + simpler and occupying less space in the side walls, of avoiding the + slight loss of available depth over the sill due to the two closing + chains crossing on the sill when the gates are open, and especially of + keeping the gates closed against a swell in exposed sites. + + + Caissons for docks. + + A sliding or rolling caisson is occasionally placed across each end of + a lock in place of a pair of dock gates, being Caissons drawn back + into a recess at the side for opening docks. the lock. As a caisson + chamber has to be covered for over to provide a continuous quay or + roadway on the top, a lowering platform is supplied to enable the + caisson to pass under the small girders spanning the top of the + chamber, or the caisson is sunk down sufficiently (fig. 24). The + caisson is furnished with an air chamber to give it flotation, which + is adjusted by ballast according to the depth of water. The advantages + of a caisson, as compared with a pair of gates, are that the gate + recesses, gate floor, hollow quoins and arrangements for working in + the side walls are dispensed with, so that the lock can be made + shorter, and the work at each head is rendered less complicated. The + caisson itself also serves as a very strong movable bridge, and + therefore is often preferred at dockyards to dock gates. By + improvements in the hauling machinery, a caisson can open or close a + lock as quickly as dock gates; the caissons at Zeebrugge lock, at the + entrance to the Bruges ship canal, are drawn across the lock or into + their chamber by electricity in two minutes. A caisson is specially + useful in cases where there may be a head of water on either side, as + then it takes the place of two pairs of gates pointing in opposite + directions, or for closing an entrance against a current. A caisson, + however, requires a much larger amount of material than a pair of dock + gates, and a considerable width on one side for its chamber, so that + under ordinary conditions gates are generally used at docks. + + A ship caisson, so called from its presenting some resemblance in + section to the hull of a vessel, occupies too much time in being + towed, floated into position, and sunk into grooves at the bottom and + sides of an entrance for closing it, and then refloated and towed away + for opening the entrance again, to be used at entrances and locks to + docks (fig. 25). Being, however, simple in construction, taking up + little space, and requiring no chamber or machinery for moving it, + this form of caisson is generally used for closing the entrance to a + graving dock, where it remains for several days in place during the + execution of repairs to a vessel in the dock. A ship caisson only + requires the admission of sufficient water to sink it when in position + across the entrance to a graving dock; and this water has to be pumped + out before it can be floated, and removed to some vacant position in + the neighbouring dock till it is again required. Like a sliding or + rolling caisson, it provides a bridge for crossing over the entrance + of the graving dock when in position. + +_Graving Docks._ - Provision has to be made at ports for the repairs of +vessels frequenting them. The simplest arrangement is a timber gridiron, +on which a vessel settles with a falling tide, and can then be inspected +and slightly cleaned and repaired till the tide floats it again. +Inclined slipways are sometimes provided, up which a vessel resting in a +cradle on wheels can be drawn out of the water; and they are also used +for shipbuilding, the vessel when ready for launching being allowed to +slide down them into the water. Graving or dry docks, however, opening +out of a dock, are the usual means provided for enabling the cleaning +and repairs of vessels to be carried out. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Plan of Southampton Graving Dock.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Cross Section of Southampton Graving Dock.] + + A graving dock consists of an enclosure, surrounded by side walls + stepped on the face, and paved at the bottom with a thick floor + sloping slightly down from the centre to drains along the sides, long + enough to receive the longest vessel likely to come to the port. Its + entrance, at the end adjoining the dock, is just wide enough to admit + the vessel of greatest beam, and deep enough over the sill to receive + the vessel of greatest draught, when light, at the lowest water-level + of the dock (figs. 26 and 27). Graving docks are constructed of + masonry, brickwork or concrete, or formerly in America of timber; they + should be founded on a solid impervious stratum, or, where that is + impracticable, they should be built upon bearing piles and enclosed + within sheet piling, to prevent settlement and the infiltration of + water under pressure below the dock. Keel blocks are laid along the + centre line of the dock, for the keel of the vessel to rest on when + the water is pumped out; and the vessel is further supported on each + side by timber shores supported on the steps or "altars" of the side + walls, which are lined with granite or other hard stone, or blue + bricks, or, when constructed of concrete, with a facing of stronger + concrete, to enable these altars to withstand the wear and shocks to + which they are subjected. Steps and slides are provided at convenient + places at the sides to give access for men and materials to the bottom + of the dock; and culverts and drains lead the water to pumps for + removing the water from the dock when the entrance has been closed, + and to keep it dry whilst a vessel is under repair. Culverts in the + side walls of the entrance enable water to be admitted for filling the + dock to let the vessel out. Graving docks are generally closed by ship + caissons; but where they open direct on to a tidal river, and there is + some exposure, gates are adopted, or sometimes sliding caissons. + + The dimensions of graving docks vary considerably with the nature of + the trade and the date of construction; and sometimes an intermediate + entrance is provided to accommodate two smaller vessels. The sizes of + some of the largest graving docks are as follows: Liverpool, Canada + dock, 925-1/2 ft. long, 94 ft. width of entrance, and 29 ft. depth at + the ordinary water-level in the dock; Southampton, 851-3/4 ft. by 90 + ft., and 29-1/2 ft. depth at high-water neaps (figs. 26 and 27); + Tilbury, 875 ft. by 70 ft. by 31-1/2 ft.; and Glasgow, 880 ft. by 80 + ft. by 26-1/2 ft. + + _Floating Dry Docks._--Where there is no site available for a graving + dock, or the ground is very treacherous, floating dry docks, built + originally of wood, but more recently of iron or steel, have + occasionally been resorted to. The first Bermuda dock towed across the + Atlantic in 1869, and the new dock launched in 1902, 545 ft. by 100 + ft., are notable examples. Water is admitted into the pontoon at the + bottom to sink the dock sufficiently to admit a vessel at its open + end; and then the water is pumped out of compartments in the pontoon + till the vessel is raised out of water. It is only necessary to find a + sheltered site, with a sufficient depth of water, for conducting the + operations. (L. F. V.-H.) + + + + +DOCKET (perhaps from "dock," to curtail or cut short, with the +diminutive suffix _et_, but the origin of the word is obscure; it has +come into use since the 15th century), in law, a brief summary or digest +of a case, or a memorandum of legal decisions; also the alphabetical +list of cases down for trial, or of suits pending. Such cases are said +to be "on the docket." In commercial use, a docket is a warrant from the +custom-house, stating that the duty on goods entered has been paid, or +the label fastened to goods, showing their destination, value, contents, +&c., and, generally, any indorsement on the back of a document, briefly +setting out its contents. + + + + +DOCK WARRANT, in law, a document by which the owner of a marine or river +dock certifies that the holder is entitled to goods imported and +warehoused in the docks. In the Factors Act 1889 it is included in the +phrase "document of title" and is defined as any document or writing, +being evidence of the title of any person therein named ... to the +property in any goods or merchandise lying in any warehouse or wharf and +signed or certified by the person having the custody of the goods. It +passes by indorsement and delivery and transfers the absolute right to +the goods described in it. A dock warrant is liable to a stamp duty of +threepence, which may be denoted by an adhesive stamp, to be cancelled +by the person by whom the instrument is executed or issued. + + + + +DOCKYARDS. In the fullest meaning of the word, a "dock-yard" (or "navy +yard" in America) is a government establishment where warships of every +kind are built and repaired, and supplied with the men and stores +required to maintain them in a state of efficiency for war. Thus a +dockyard in this extended sense would include slips for building ships, +workshops for manufacturing their machinery, dry docks for repairing +them, stores of arms, ammunition, coal, provisions, &c., with basins in +which they may lie while being supplied with such things, and an +establishment for providing the _personnel_ necessary for manning them. +But in practice few, if any, existing dockyards are of so complete a +nature; many of them, for instance, do not undertake the building of +ships at all, while others are little more than harbours where a ship +may replenish her stores of coal, water and provisions and carry out +minor repairs. Private firms are relied upon for the construction of +many ships down to an advanced stage, the government dockyards +completing and equipping them for commission. + +_Great Britain._--Previous to the reign of Henry VIII., the kings of +England had neither naval arsenals nor dockyards, nor any regular +establishment of civil or naval officers to provide ships of war, or to +man them. There are, however, strong evidences of the existence of +dockyards, or of something answering thereto, at very early dates, at +Rye, Shoreham and Winchelsea. In November 1243 the sheriff of Sussex was +ordered to enlarge the house at Rye in which the king's galleys were +kept, so that it might contain seven galleys. In 1238 the keepers of +some of the king's galleys were directed to cause those vessels to be +breamed, and a house to be built at Winchelsea for their safe custody. +In 1254 the bailiffs of Winchelsea and Rye were ordered to repair the +buildings in which the king's galleys were kept at Rye. At Portsmouth +and at Southampton there seem to have been at all times depots for both +ships and stores, though there was no regular dockyard at Portsmouth +till the middle of the 16th century. It would appear, from a curious +poem in Hakluyt's _Collection_ called "The Policie of Keeping the Sea," +that Littlehampton, unfit as it now is, was the port at which Henry +VIII. built + + "his great _Dromions_ + Which passed other great shippes of the commons." + +The "dromion," "dromon," or "dromedary" was a large warship, the +prototype of which was furnished by the Saracens. Roger de Hoveden, +Richard of Devizes and Peter de Longtoft celebrate the struggle which +Richard I., in the "Trench the Mer," on his way to Palestine, had with a +huge dromon,--"a marvellous ship! a ship than which, except Noah's ship, +none greater was ever read of." This vessel had three masts, was very +high out of the water, and is said to have had 1500 men on board. It +required the united force of the king's galleys, and an obstinate fight, +to capture the dromon. + +The foundation of a regular British navy, by the establishment of +dockyards, and the formation of a board, consisting of certain +commissioners for the management of its affairs, was first laid by Henry +VIII., and the first dockyard erected during his reign was that of +Woolwich. Those of Portsmouth, Deptford, Chatham and Sheerness followed +in succession. Plymouth was founded by William III. Pembroke was +established in 1814, a small yard having previously existed at Milford. + +The most important additions yet made at any one period to the dockyard +and harbour works required to meet the necessities of the British fleet +were those sanctioned by the Naval Works Acts of 1895 and subsequent +years, the total estimated cost, as stated in the act of 1899, being +over 23-1/2 millions sterling. The works proposed under these acts were +classified under three heads, viz. (a) the enclosure and defence of +harbours against torpedo attacks; (b) adapting naval ports to the +present needs of the fleet; (c) naval barracks and hospitals. Under the +first heading were included the defensive harbours at Portland, Dover +and Gibraltar. Under heading (b) were included the deepening of harbours +and approaches, the dockyard extensions at Gibraltar, Keyham +(Devonport), Simons Bay, and Hong-Kong, with sundry other items. Under +heading (c) were included the naval barracks at Chatham, Portsmouth and +Keyham; the naval hospitals at Chatham, Haslar and Haulbowline; the +colleges at Keyham and Dartmouth; and other items. + +Great Britain possesses dockyards at Portsmouth, Devonport, Chatham, +Malta and Gibraltar, each in charge of an admiral-superintendent, and at +Sheerness and Pembroke in charge of a captain-superintendent, together +with establishments at Ascension, Bermuda, Simons Town (Cape of Good +Hope), Queenstown (Haulbowline); Hong-Kong, Portland, Sydney and +Weihaiwei. The Indian Government has dockyards at Bombay and Calcutta. +The medical establishments include Ascension, Bermuda, Cape of Good +Hope, Chatham, Dartmouth, Deal, Gibraltar, Haslar, Haulbowline, +Hong-Kong, Malta, Osborne, Plymouth, Portland, Portsmouth, Sheerness, +Sydney, Yarmouth, Yokohama and Weihaiwei. + +The arrangements for the administrative control of the dockyards have +varied with those adopted for the regulation of the navy as a whole. +(See ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION; and NAVY: _History_.) At the present +time, whether at home or abroad, they lie within the province of the +controller of the navy (the third lord of the board of admiralty); and +the director of dockyards, whose office, replacing that of surveyor of +dockyards was created in December 1885, is responsible to the +controller for the building of ships, boats, &c., in dockyards, and for +the maintenance and repair of ships and boats, and of all steam +machinery in ships, boats, dockyards and factories. The director of +naval construction, who is also deputy-controller, is responsible, not +only for the design of ships, but for their construction, in the sense +that he approves great numbers of working drawings of structural parts +prepared at the dockyards. But the director of dockyards is the +admiralty official under whose instructions the work goes on, involving +the employment and supervision of an army of artisans and labourers. +Instructions, therefore, emanate from the admiralty, but the details lie +with the dockyard officials, and in practice there is a considerable +decentralization of duties. + +The chief function of a dockyard is the building and maintaining of +ships in efficiency. The constructive work is carried out under the care +of the chief constructor of the yard, in accordance with plans sent down +from the admiralty. The calculations for displacement, involving the +draught of water forward and aft, have already been made, and, in order +to ensure accuracy in the carrying out of the design, an admirable +system has been devised for weighing everything that is built into the +new ships or that goes on board; and it is astonishing how very closely +the actual displacement approximates to that which was intended, +particularly when the tendency of weights to increase, in perfecting a +ship for commission, is considered. + +The ship having been built to her launching weight, the duty of putting +her into the water devolves upon the chief constructor of the yard, and +failures in this matter are so extremely rare that it may almost be said +they do not occur. As soon as the ship is water-borne the responsibility +falls upon the king's harbour master, who has charge of her afloat and +of moving her into the fitting basins. When the ship has been brought +alongside the wharf, the responsibility of the chief constructor of the +yard is resumed, and the ship is carried forward to completion by the +affixing of armour plating (if that has not been done before launching), +the mounting of guns, the instalment of engines, boilers, and electrical +and hydraulic gear, and the fitting of cabins for officers, mess places +for men, and storerooms, and a vast volume of other work unnecessary to +be specified. In regard to the complicated details of guns and +torpedoes, the captains of the gunnery and torpedo schools have a +function of supervision. The captain of the fleet reserve also closely +watches the work, because, when the heads of all departments have +reported the ship to be ready, she has to be inspected by the +commander-in-chief at the port, and then passed into the fleet reserve +as ready for sea, and there the captain of the fleet reserve is +responsible for her efficiency. Other important officers of a dockyard +are the chief engineer; the superintendent civil engineer, who has +charge of the work involved in keeping all buildings, docks, basins, +caissons, roads, &c., in repair; the naval store officer, who has charge +of most of the stores in the dockyard; and the cashier of the yard, +whose name sufficiently expresses his duties. + +The system of conducting business at the dockyards is analogous to that +which prevails at the admiralty. There is personal communication between +the officers responsible for the work, and facilities are afforded for +coming to rapid decisions upon matters that are in hand, and the +operations are conducted with an ease which contributes much to +efficiency. In 1844 the custom was introduced of all the principal +officers of the dockyard meeting at the superintendent's office at 9.30 +A.M. every day, to hear the orders from the admiralty and discuss the +work of the day. But this system of "readings" was abolished at the +beginning of 1906, the naval establishments inquiry committee +considering that the assembling of the officials was unnecessary since +the communications after reception are copied and sent to the +departments concerned. + +The police force necessary in a dockyard is in some cases supplied from +the London metropolitan police, and is under the orders of the +superintendent of the yard for duties connected with it, and under the +commissioner of police for the discipline and disposition of the force. +The charges are, of course, paid by the admiralty, and the system +answers well. + +_United States._--The shore stations under control of the Navy +Department (see also ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION), and collectively known +as naval stations, are under different names according to their nature. +Of those called _Navy Yards_, and intended for the general purpose of +sources of supply and for repairs of ships, there are within the United +States eight in number. Two of them are on the Pacific coast, situated +on Puget Sound, at Bremerton, Washington; and at Mare Island, near San +Francisco. The other six are on the Atlantic coast, and are situated at +Portsmouth, N.H.; Boston, Mass.; Brooklyn, N.Y.; Philadelphia, Pa.; +Washington, D.C.; and Norfolk, Va. There are also naval stations at Port +Royal and Charleston, S.C.; Key West and Pensacola, Fla.; New Orleans, +La.; Guantanamo, Cuba; Culebra and San Juan, Porto Rico; Honolulu, H.I.; +Cavite, P.I.; Tutuila, Samoa; and Island of Guam, in the Ladrones +Islands. The floating dock Dewey, having a lifting capacity of 18,500 +gross tons with a free-board of 2 ft., was stationed in the Philippine +Islands in 1906. + +Besides these, there are important naval stations established for +special purposes, which in some cases are also available for ports of +supply and for repairs. These are: the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, +Md., for the instruction of naval cadets; the training stations at +Newport, R.I., and Yerba Buena Island, Cal., for the instruction of +apprentices; the proving ground at Indian Head, Md., on the Potomac +river, where all government-built ordnance is tested; the War College at +Newport, R.I., for the instruction of officers; the torpedo station at +Newport, for the instruction of officers and men in torpedoes, +electricity and submarine diving; the naval observatory at Washington; +and the marine post at Sitka, Alaska. Coaling depots have been +established at Honolulu, Pago Pago, Samoan Islands, and at Manila, P.I. +Naval hospitals are located at the Portsmouth, Boston, New York, +Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk and Mare Island yards; at Las Animas, +Colo.; at Newport, R.I.; Canacao, P.I.; Sitka, Alaska; and Yokohama, +Japan. + +The commandant of a navy yard and station, who is usually a +rear-admiral, is its commander-in-chief. His official assistants are +called heads of departments. The captain of the yard, who is next in +succession to command, has general charge of the water front and the +ships moored there, and of the police of the navy yard; it is his duty +to keep the commandant informed as to the nature and efficiency of all +work in progress. The equipment officer has charge of anchors, chains, +rigging, sails and the electric generating plant. The other heads of +departments are the ordnance officer, the naval constructor, the +engineering officer, the general storekeeper, the paymaster of the yard, +the surgeon and the civil engineer. The clerks and draughtsmen employed +by these officers are appointed under civil service rules, and their +employment is continuous so long as funds are available. The foremen are +selected by competitive examination, and their number is fixed. In the +employment of mechanics and labourers, veterans are given preference, +after which follow persons previously employed who have displayed +especial efficiency and good conduct. The rates of wages are determined +semi-annually by a board of officers, who ascertain the wages paid by +private establishments in the vicinity of the navy yard. Eight hours +constitute the legal work day. When emergencies necessitate longer hours +the workmen are paid at the ordinary rate plus 50%. + +The nature and extent of work to be performed upon naval vessels is +determined by the secretary of the navy; the commandant then issues the +necessary orders. The material required is obtained by a system of +requisitions, which provide for the purchase from the lowest bidder +after open competition. Heads of departments initiate the purchase of +materials which are peculiar to their own work; ordinary commercial +articles, however, are usually carried in a special stock called the +"Naval Supply Fund," which may be drawn upon by any head of department. +All materials are inspected, both as to quantity and quality, by a board +of inspectors consisting of three officers. + + _France._--The French coast is divided into five naval + arrondissements, which have their headquarters at the five naval ports + of which Cherbourg, Brest and Toulon are the most important, Lorient + and Rochefort being of lesser degree. All are building and fitting-out + yards. Corsica, which has naval stations at Ajaccio, Porto Vecchio, + Bonifacio and other places, is a dependency of the arsenal at Toulon. + On the African coast there are docking facilities in Algeria. Bizerta, + the Tunisian port, has been made a naval base by the deepening and + fortifying of the canal which is the approach to the inner lake. There + are arsenals also at Saigon and Hai-phong, and an establishment at + Diego Suarez. + + The subsidiary establishments in France are the gun foundry at Ruelle; + the steel and iron works at Guerigny, where anchors, chains and + armour-plate are made; and the works at Indret, on an island in the + lower Loire, where machinery is constructed. There are many private + shipbuilding establishments in the country, the most important being + the Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee at La Seyne, on the lesser + roadstead at Toulon where many French and foreign warships of the + largest classes have been built. The same company has a building yard + at Havre. Other establishments are the Ateliers et Chantiers de la + Loire, at Saint Nazaire; the Normand Yard, at Havre; and the Chantiers + de la Gironde, near Bordeaux. + + Each of the arrondissements above mentioned is divided into + sous-arrondissements, having their centres in the great commercial + ports, but this arrangement is purely for the embodiment of the men of + the Inscription Maritime, and has nothing to do with the dockyards as + naval arsenals. In each arrondissement the vice-admiral, who is naval + prefect, is the immediate representative of the minister of marine, + and has full direction and command of the arsenal, which is his + headquarters. He is thus commander-in-chief, as also + governor-designate for time of war, but his authority does not extend + to ships belonging to organized squadrons or divisions. The naval + prefect is assisted by a rear-admiral as chief of the staff (except at + Lorient and Rochefort, where the office is filled by a captain), and a + certain number of officers, the special functions of the chief of the + staff having relation principally to the efficiency and _personnel_ of + the fleet, while the "major-general," who is usually a rear-admiral, + is concerned chiefly with the _materiel_. There are also directors of + stores, of naval construction, of the medical service and of the + submarine defences (which are concerned with torpedoes, mines and + torpedo-boats), as well as of naval ordnance and works. The prefect + directs the operations of the arsenal, and is responsible for its + efficiency and for that of the ships which are there in reserve. In + regard to the constitution and maintenance of the naval forces, the + administration of the arsenals is divided into three principal + departments, the first concerned with naval construction, the second + with ordnance, including gun-mountings and small-arms, and the third + with the so-called submarine defences, dealing with all torpedo + _materiel_. + + _Germany._--With the expansion of the German navy considerable + additions have been made to the two principal dockyards. These are + Wilhelmshaven, the naval headquarters on the North Sea, and Kiel, the + headquarters on the Baltic, Danzig being an establishment of lesser + importance, and Kiao-chau an undeveloped base in the Shantung + peninsula, China. The chief official at each home dockyard is the + superintendent (_Oberwerftdirektor_), who is a rear-admiral or senior + captain directly responsible to the naval secretary of state. Under + the superintendent's orders are the chief of the Ausrustung + department, or captain of the fleet reserve, the directors of + ordnance, torpedoes, navigation, naval construction, engineering and + harbour works, with some other officers. The chiefs of the + constructive and engineering departments are responsible for the + building of ships and machinery, and for the maintenance of the hulls + and machinery of existing vessels; while the works department has + charge of all work on the quays, docks, &c., in the dockyard and port. + A great advance has been made in increasing the efficiency and + capabilities of the imperial dockyards by introducing a system of + continuous work in the building of new ships and effecting alterations + in others, and German material is exclusively used. The Schichau Works + at Elbing and Danzig, the Vulkan Yard at Bredow, near Stettin, the + Weser Company at Bremen, and the establishment of Blohm and Voss at + Hamburg, are important establishments which have built many vessels + for the German navy, as well as for foreign states. + + _Italy._--The principal Italian state dockyards are Spezia, Naples and + Venice, the first named being by far the most important. It covers an + area, including the water spaces, of 629 acres, and there are five dry + docks, three being 433 ft. long and 105 ft. wide, and two 361 ft. long + and 98 ft. 6 in. wide. The dockyard is very completely equipped with + machinery of the best British, German and Italian makes, and it has + built several of the finest Italian ships. The number of hands + employed in the yard averages 4000. There are two building slips, and + for smaller vessels there are two in the neighbouring establishment of + San Bartolommeo (which is the headquarters for submarine mining), and + one at San Vito, where is a Government gun factory. Castellammare di + Stabia is subsidiary to Naples. A large dry dock has been built at + Taranto. There is a small naval establishment at Maddalena Island on + the Strait of Bonifacio. The Italian Government has no gun or torpedo + factories, nearly all the ordnance coming from the Armstrong factory + at Pozzuoli near Naples, and the torpedoes from the Schwarzkopf + factory at Venice, while armour-plates are produced at the important + works at Terni. Machinery is supplied by the firms of Ansaldo, Odero, + Orlando, Guppy & Hawthorn and Pattison. The three establishments + first named have important shipbuilding yards, and have constructed + vessels for the Italian and foreign navies. The Orlando Yard at + Leghorn is Government property, but is leased by the firm, and + possesses five building slips. + + _Austria-Hungary._--The naval arsenal is on the well-protected harbour + of Pola, in Istria, which is the headquarters of the national navy, + and includes establishments of all kinds for the maintenance of the + fleet. There are large building and docking facilities, and a number + of warships have been built there. There is a construction yard also + at Trieste. A new coaling and torpedo station is at Teodo, large + magazines and stores are at Vallelunga, and the mining establishment + is at Ficella. The shipbuilding branch of the navy is under the + direction of a chief constructor (_Oberster-Ingenieur_), assisted by + seven constructors, of whom two are of the first class. The + engineering and ordnance branches are similarly organized. + + _Spain._--The Spanish dockyards are of considerable antiquity, but of + diminishing importance. There is an establishment at Ferrol, another + at Cartagena, and a third at Cadiz. They are well equipped in all + necessary respects, but are not provided with continuous work. A + recent arrangement is the specialization of the yards, Ferrol being + designed for larger, and Carthagena for smaller, building work. The + ordnance establishment is at Carraca. + + _Russia._--In Russia the naval ports are of two classes. The most + important are Kronstadt, St Petersburg and Nikolayev. Of lesser + importance are Reval, Sveaborg, Sevastopol, Batum, Baku and + Vladivostok. The administration of the larger ports, except St + Petersburg, which is under special regulations, is in the hands of + vice-admirals, who are commanders-in-chief, while the smaller ports + are under the direction of rear-admirals. All are directly under the + minister of marine, except that the Black Sea ports and Astrabad, on + the Caspian, are subordinate to the commander-in-chief at Nikolayev. + Sevastopol has grown in importance, and become mainly a naval harbour, + the commercial harbour being removed to Theodosia. The Russian + government has also proposed to remodel the harbour works at St + Petersburg and Kronstadt. The Emperor Alexander III. Port at Libau, on + the Baltic, is in a region less liable to be icebound in the winter. + There are no strictly private yards for the building of large vessels + in Russia, except that of the Black Sea Company at Nikolayev. Messrs + Creighton build torpedo-boats at Abo in Finland, and the admiralty has + steel works at Ijora, where some torpedo-boats have been built. Other + ordnance and steel works are at Obukhov and Putilov. + + _Japan._--The principal Japanese dockyard, which was established by + the Shogunate in 1866, is Yokosuka. French naval constructors and + engineers were employed, and several wooden ships were built. The + Japanese took the administration into their own hands in 1875, and + built a number of vessels of small displacement in the yard. The limit + of size was about 5000 tons, but the establishment has been enlarged + so that vessels of the first class may be built there. There is a + first-class modern dry dock which will take the largest battleship. + Shipbuilding would be undertaken to a larger extent but for the fact + that nearly all material has to come from abroad. Down to 1905 all the + important vessels of the Japanese navy were built in Great Britain, + France, Germany and the United States, but at the end of that year a + first-class cruiser of 13,500 tons (the "Tsukuba") was launched from + the important yard at Kure. There are other yards at Sassebo and + Maisuru. + + + + +DOCTOR (Lat. for "teacher"), the title conferred by the highest +university degree. Originally there were only two degrees, those of +bachelor and master, and the title doctor was given to certain masters +as a merely honorary appellation. The process by which it became +established as a degree superior to that of master cannot be clearly +traced. At Bologna it seems to have been conferred in the faculty of law +as early as the 12th century. Paris conferred the degree in the faculty +of divinity, according to Antony Wood, some time after 1150. In England +it was introduced in the 13th century; and both in England and on the +continent it was long confined to the faculties of law and divinity. +Though the word is so commonly used as synonymous with "physician," it +was not until the 14th century that the doctor's degree began to be +conferred in medicine. The tendency since has been to extend it to all +faculties; thus in Germany, in the faculty of arts, it has replaced the +old title of _magister_. The doctorate of music was first conferred at +Oxford and Cambridge. + +_Doctors of the Church_ are certain saints whose doctrinal writings have +obtained, by the universal consent of the Church or by papal decree, a +special authority. In the case of the great schoolmen a characteristic +qualification was added to the title doctor, e.g. "angelicus" (Aquinas), +"mellifluus" (Bernard). The doctors of the Church are: for the East, SS. +Athanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom; for +the West, SS. Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Gregory the Great, +Anselm, Bernard, Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas. To these St Alphonso +dei Liguori was added by Pope Pius IX. + + + + +DOCTORS' COMMONS, the name formerly applied to a society of +ecclesiastical lawyers in London, forming a distinct profession for the +practice of the civil and canon laws. Some members of the profession +purchased in 1567 a site near St Paul's, on which at their own expense +they erected houses (destroyed in the great fire, but rebuilt in 1672) +for the residence of the judges and advocates, and proper buildings for +holding the ecclesiastical and admiralty courts. In 1768 a royal charter +was obtained by virtue of which the then members of the society and +their successors were incorporated under the name and title of "The +College of Doctors of Law exercent in the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty +Courts." The college consisted of a president (the dean of Arches for +the time being) and of those doctors of law who, having regularly taken +that degree in either of the universities of Oxford or Cambridge, and +having been admitted advocates in pursuance of the rescript of the +archbishop of Canterbury, were elected fellows in the manner prescribed +by the charter. There were also attached to the college thirty-four +proctors, whose duties were analogous to those of solicitors. The judges +of the archiepiscopal courts were always selected from this college. By +the Court of Probate Act 1857 the college was empowered to sell its real +and personal estate and to surrender its charter, and it was enacted +that on such surrender the college should be dissolved and the property +thereof belong to the then existing members as tenants in common for +their own use and benefit. The college was accordingly dissolved, and +the various ecclesiastical courts which sat at Doctors' Commons (the +Court of Arches, the Prerogative Court, the Faculty Court and the Court +of Delegates) are now open to the whole bar. + + + + +DOCTRINAIRES, the name given to the leaders of the moderate and +constitutional Royalists in France after the second restoration of Louis +XVIII. in 1815. The name, as has often been the case with party +designations, was at first given in derision, and by an enemy. In 1816 +the _Nain jaune refugie_, a French paper published at Brussels by +Bonapartist and Liberal exiles, began to speak of M. Royer-Collard as +the "doctrinaire" and also as _le pere Royer-Collard de la doctrine +chretienne_. The _peres de la doctrine chretienne_, popularly known as +the "doctrinaires," were a French religious order founded in 1592 by +Cesar de Bus. The choice of a nickname for M. Royer-Collard does credit +to the journalistic insight of the contributors to the _Nain jaune +refugie_, for he was emphatically a man who made it his business to +preach a doctrine and an orthodoxy. The popularity of the name and its +rapid extension to M. Royer-Collard's colleagues is the sufficient proof +that it was well chosen and had more than a personal application. These +colleagues came, it is true, from various quarters. The duc de Richelieu +and M. de Serre had been Royalist _emigres_ during the revolutionary and +imperial epoch. MM. Royer-Collard himself, Laine, and Maine de Biran had +sat in the revolutionary Assemblies. MM. Pasquier, Beugnot, de Barante, +Cuvier, Mounier, Guizot and Decazes had been imperial officials. But +they were closely united by political principle, and also by a certain +similarity of method. Some of them, notably Guizot and Maine de Biran, +were theorists and commentators on the principles of government. M. de +Barante was an eminent man of letters. All were noted for the doctrinal +coherence of their principles and the dialectical rigidity of their +arguments. The object of the party as defined by M. (afterwards the duc) +Decazes was to "nationalize the monarchy and to royalize France." The +means by which they hoped to attain this end were a loyal application of +the charter granted by Louis XVIII., and the steady co-operation of the +king with the moderate Royalists to defeat the extreme party known as +the Ultras, who aimed at the complete undoing of the political and +social work of the Revolution. The Doctrinaires were ready to allow the +king a large discretion in the choice of his ministers and the direction +of national policy. They refused to allow that ministers should be +removed in obedience to a hostile vote in the chamber. Their ideal in +fact was a combination of a king who frankly accepted the results of +the Revolution, and who governed in a liberal spirit, with the advice of +a chamber elected by a very limited constituency, in which men of +property and education formed, if not the whole, at least the very great +majority of the voters. Their views were set forth by Guizot in 1816 in +his treatise _Du gouvernement representatif et de l'etat actuel de la +France._ The chief organs of the party in the press were the +_Independent_, renamed the _Constitutionnel_ in 1817, and the _Journal +des debats_. The supporters of the Doctrinaires in the country were +chiefly ex-officials of the empire,--who believed in the necessity for +monarchical government but had a lively memory of Napoleon's tyranny and +a no less lively hatred of the _ancien regime_--merchants, manufacturers +and members of the liberal professions, particularly the lawyers. The +history of the Doctrinaires as a separate political party began in 1816 +and ended in 1830. In 1816 they obtained the co-operation of Louis +XVIII., who had been frightened by the violence of the Ultras in the +_Chambre introuvable_ of 1815. In 1830 they were destroyed by Charles X. +when he took the Ultra prince de Polignac as his minister and entered on +the conflict with Liberalism in France which ended in his overthrow. +During the revolution of 1830 the Doctrinaires became absorbed in the +Orleanists, from whom they had never been separated on any ground of +principle (see FRANCE: _History_). + +The word "doctrinaire" has become naturalized in English terminology, as +applied, in a slightly contemptuous sense, to a theorist, as +distinguished from a practical man of affairs. + + See Duvergier de Hauranne, _Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire en + France_ (Paris, 1857-1871), vol. iii. + + + + +DOCUMENT, strictly, in law, that which can serve as evidence or proof, +and is written or printed, or has an inscription or any significance +that can be "read"; thus a picture, authenticated photograph, seal or +the like would furnish "documentary evidence." More generally the word +is used for written or printed papers that provide information or +evidence on a subject. The Latin _documentum_, from which the word is +derived, meant, in classical times, a lesson, example or proof +(_docere_, to teach), and only in medieval Latin came to be applied to +an _instrumentum_, or record in writing. The classical Latin use is +found in English; thus Jeremy Taylor (Works, ed. 1835, i. 815) speaks of +punishment being a "single and sudden document if instantly inflicted" +(see DIPLOMATIC; and EVIDENCE). + + + + +DODD, WILLIAM (1729-1777), English divine, was born at Bourne in +Lincolnshire in May 1729. He was admitted a sizar of Clare Hall, +Cambridge, in 1745, and took the degree of B.A. in 1750, being fifteenth +wrangler. On leaving the university he married a young woman of a more +than questionable reputation, whose extravagant habits helped to ruin +him. In 1751 he was ordained deacon, and in 1753 priest, and he soon +became a popular and celebrated preacher. His first preferment was the +lectureship of West-Ham and Bow. In 1754 he was also chosen lecturer of +St Olave's, Hart Street; and in 1757 he took the degree of M.A. at +Cambridge, subsequently becoming LL.D. He was a strenuous supporter of +the Magdalen hospital, founded in 1758, and soon afterwards became +preacher at the chapel of that charity. In 1763 he obtained a prebend at +Brecon, and in the same year he was appointed one of the king's +chaplains,--soon after which the education of Philip Stanhope, +afterwards earl of Chesterfield, was committed to his care. In 1768 he +had a fashionable congregation and was held in high esteem, but +indiscreet ambition led to his ruin. On the living of St George's, +Hanover Square, becoming vacant in 1774, Mrs Dodd wrote an anonymous +letter to the wife of the lord chancellor, offering three thousand +guineas if, by her assistance, Dodd were promoted to the benefice. This +letter having been traced, a complaint was immediately made to the king, +and Dodd was dismissed from his office as chaplain. After residing for +some time at Geneva and Paris, he returned to England in 1776. He still +continued to exercise his clerical functions, but his extravagant habits +soon involved him in difficulties. To meet his creditors he forged a +bond on his former pupil Lord Chesterfield for L4200, and actually +received the money. He was detected, committed to prison, tried at the +Old Bailey, found guilty, and sentenced to death; and, in spite of +numerous applications for mercy, he was executed at Tyburn on the 27th +of June 1777. Samuel Johnson was very zealous in pleading for a pardon, +and a petition from the city of London received 23,000 signatures. Dr +Dodd was a voluminous writer and possessed considerable abilities, with +but little judgment and much vanity. He wrote one or two comedies, and +his _Beauties of Shakespeare_, published in 1752, was long a well-known +work; while his _Thoughts in Prison_, a poem in blank verse, written +between his conviction and execution, naturally attracted much +attention. He published a large number of sermons and other theological +works, including a _Commentary on the Bible_ (1765-1770). A list of his +fifty-five writings and an account of the writer is included in the +_Thoughts in Prison_. + + See also P. Fitzgerald, _A Famous Forgery_ (1865). + + + + +DODDER (Frisian _dodd_, a bunch; Dutch _dot_, ravelled thread), the +popular name of the annual, leafless, twining, parasitic plants forming +the genus _Cuscuta_, formerly regarded as representing a distinct +natural order Cuscutaceae, but now generally ranked as a tribe of the +natural order Convolvulaceae. The genus contains nearly 100 species and +is widely distributed in the temperate and warmer parts of the earth. +The slender thread-like stem is white, yellow, or red in colour, bears +no leaves, and attaches itself by suckers to the stem or leaves of some +other plant round which it twines and from which it derives its +nourishment. It bears clusters of small flowers with a four- or +five-toothed calyx, a cup-shaped corolla with four or five stamens +inserted on its tube, and sometimes a ring of scales below the stamens; +the two-celled ovary becomes when ripe a capsule splitting by a ring +just above the base. The seeds are angular and contain a thread-like +spirally coiled embryo which bears no cotyledons. On coming in contact +with the living stem of some other plant the seedling dodder throws out +a sucker, by which it attaches itself and begins to absorb the sap of +its foster-parent; it then soon ceases to have any connexion with the +ground. As it grows, it throws out fresh suckers, establishing itself +firmly on the host-plant (fig. 2). After making a few turns round one +stem the dodder finds its way to another, and thus it continues twining +and branching till it resembles "fine, closely-tangled, wet catgut." The +injury done to flax, clover, hop and bean crops by species of dodder is +often very great. _C. europaea_, the greater dodder (fig. 1) is found +parasitic on nettles, thistles, vetches and the hop; _C. Epilinum_, on +flax; _C. Epithymum_, on furze, ling and thyme. _C. Trifolii_, the +Clover Dodder, is perhaps a subspecies of the last mentioned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Cuscuta europaea_, Dodder. + + 1. Flower removed from 2, Calyx. + 3. Ovary cut across. + 4. Fruit enveloped by a persistent corolla. + 5. Seed. + 6. Embryo. + + 1-6 enlarged.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_Cuscuta glomerata_. Section through union +between parasite and host. + + c, stem of host. + d, stem of _Cuscuta_. + h, haustoria. + + (After Dodel-Port.)] + + + + +DODDRIDGE, PHILIP (1702-1751), English Nonconformist divine, was born in +London on the 26th of June 1702. His father, Daniel Doddridge, was a +London merchant, and his mother the orphan daughter of the Rev. John +Bauman, a Lutheran clergyman who had fled from Prague to escape +religious persecution, and had held for some time the mastership of the +grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. Before he could read, his mother +taught him the history of the Old and New Testament by the assistance of +some blue Dutch chimney-tiles. He afterwards went to a private school in +London, and in 1712 to the grammar school at Kingston-upon-Thames. About +1715 he was removed to a private school at St Albans, where he was much +influenced by the Presbyterian minister, Samuel Clarke. He declined +offers which would have led him into the Anglican ministry or the bar, +and in 1719 entered the very liberal academy for dissenters at Kibworth +in Leicestershire, taught at that time by the Rev. John Jennings, whom +Doddridge succeeded in the ministry at that place in 1723, declining +overtures from Coventry, Pershore and London (Haberdashers' Hall). In +1729, at a general meeting of Nonconformist ministers, he was chosen to +conduct the academy established in that year at Market Harborough. In +the same year he received an invitation from the independent +congregation at Northampton, which he accepted. Here he continued his +multifarious labours; but the church seems to have decreased, and his +many engagements and bulky correspondence interfered seriously with his +pulpit work, and with the discipline of his academy, where he had some +200 students to whom he lectured on philosophy and theology in the +mathematical or Spinozistic style. In 1751 his health, which had never +been good, broke down, and he sailed for Lisbon on the 30th of September +of that year; but the change was unavailing, and he died there on the +26th of October. His popularity as a preacher is said to have been +chiefly due to his "high susceptibility, joined with physical advantages +and perfect sincerity." His sermons were mostly practical in character, +and his great aim was to cultivate in his hearers a spiritual and +devotional frame of mind. He laboured for the attainment of a united +Nonconformist body, which should retain the cultured element without +alienating the uneducated. His principal works are, _The Rise and +Progress of Religion in the Soul_ (1745), which best illustrates his +religious genius, and has been widely translated; _The Family Expositor_ +(6 vols., 1739-1756), _Life of Colonel Gardiner_ (1747); and a _Course +of Lectures on Pneumatology, Ethics and Divinity_ (1763). He also +published several courses of sermons on particular topics, and is the +author of many well-known and justly admired hymns, e.g. "O God of +Bethel, by whose hand." In 1736 both the universities at Aberdeen gave +him the degree of D.D. + + See _Memoirs_, by Rev. Job Orton (1766); _Letters to and from Dr + Doddridge_, by Rev. Thomas Stedman (1790); and _Correspondence and + Diary_, in 5 vols., by his grandson, John Doddridge Humphreys (1829). + The best life is Stanford's _Philip Doddridge_ (1880). Doddridge's + academy is now represented by New College, Hampstead, in the library + of which there is a large collection of his manuscripts. + + + + +DODDS, ALFRED AMEDEE (1842- ), French general, was born at St Louis, +Senegal, on the 6th of February 1842; his father's family was of +Anglo-French origin. He was educated at Carcassonne and at St Cyr, and +in 1864 joined the marine infantry as a sub-lieutenant. He was promoted +captain for his services during the disturbances in Reunion in 1868-69, +in the course of which he was wounded. He served as a company commander +in the Franco-German War, was taken prisoner at Sedan but escaped, and +took part in the campaigns of the Loire and of the East. In 1872 he was +sent to West Africa, and, except when on active service in Cochin China +(1878) and Tong-King (1883), he remained on duty in Senegal for the next +twenty years, taking a prominent part in the operations which brought +the countries of the Upper Senegal and Upper Niger under French rule. He +led the expeditions against the Boal and Kayor (1889), the Serreres +(1890) and the Futa (1891), and from 1888 to 1891 was colonel commanding +the troops in Senegal. At the close of 1891 he returned to France to +command the eighth marine infantry at Toulon. In April 1892 Dodds was +selected to command the expeditionary force in Dahomey; he occupied +Abomey, the hostile capital, in November, and in a second campaign +(1894) he completed the subjugation of the country. He was then +appointed inspector-general of the marine infantry, and after a tour of +the French colonies was given the command of the XX. (Colonial) Army +Corps, subsequently becoming inspector-general of colonial troops and a +member of the _Conseil superieur de guerre_. + + + + +DODECAHEDRON (Gr. [Greek: dodeka], twelve, and [Greek: hedra], a face or +base), in geometry, a solid enclosed by twelve plane faces. The +"ordinary dodecahedron" is one of the Platonic solids (see POLYHEDRON). +The Greeks discovered that if a line be divided in extreme and mean +proportion, then the whole line and the greater segment are the lengths +of the edge of a cube and dodecahedron inscriptible in the same sphere. +The "small stellated dodecahedron," the "great dodecahedron" and the +"great stellated dodecahedron" are Kepler-Poinsot solids; and the +"truncated" and "snub dodecahedra" are Archimedean solids (see +POLYHEDRON). In crystallography, the regular or ordinary dodecahedron is +an impossible form since the faces cut the axes in irrational ratios; +the "pentagonal dodecahedron" of crystallographers has irregular +pentagons for faces, while the geometrical solid, on the other hand, has +regular ones. The "rhombic dodecahedron," one of the geometrical +semiregular solids, is an important crystal form. Many other dodecahedra +exist as crystal forms, for which see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. + + + + +DODECASTYLE (Gr. [Greek: dodeka], twelve, and [Greek: stylos], column), +the architectural term given to a temple where the portico has twelve +columns in front, as in the portico added to the temple of Demeter at +Eleusis, designed by Philo, the architect of the arsenal at the +Peiraeus. + + + + +DODERLEIN, JOHANN CHRISTOPH WILHELM LUDWIG (1791-1863), German +philologist, was born at Jena on the 19th of December 1791. His father, +Johann Christoph Doderlein, professor of theology at Jena, was +celebrated for his varied learning, for his eloquence as a preacher, and +for the important influence he exerted in guiding the transition +movement from strict orthodoxy to a freer theology. Ludwig Doderlein, +after receiving his preliminary education at Windsheim and Schulpforta +(Pforta), studied at Munich, Heidelberg, Erlangen and Berlin. He devoted +his chief attention to philology under the instruction of such men as F. +Thiersch, G. F. Creuzer, J. H. Voss, F. A. Wolf, August Bockh and P. K. +Buttmann. In 1815, soon after completing his studies at Berlin, he +accepted the appointment of ordinary professor of philology in the +academy of Bern. In 1819 he was transferred to Erlangen, where he became +second professor of philology in the university and rector of the +gymnasium. In 1827 he became first professor of philology and rhetoric +and director of the philological seminary. He died on the 9th of +November 1863. Doderlein's most elaborate work as a philologist was +marred by over-subtlety, and lacked method and clearness. He is best +known by his _Lateinische Synonymen und Etymologien_ (1826-1838), and +his _Homerisches Glossarium_ (1850-1858). To the same class belong his +_Lateinische Wortbildung_ (1838), _Handbuch der lateinischen Synonymik_ +(1839), and the _Handbuch der lateinischen Etymologie_ (1841), besides +various works of a more elementary kind intended for the use of schools +and gymnasia. Most of the works named have been translated into English. +To critical philology Doderlein contributed valuable editions of Tacitus +(_Opera_, 1847; _Germania_, with a German translation) and Horace +(_Epistolae_, with a German translation, 1856-1858; _Satirae_, 1860). +His _Reden und Aufsatze_ (Erlangen, 1843-1847) and _Offentliche Reden_ +(1860) consist chiefly of academic addresses dealing with various +subjects in paedagogy and philology. + + + + +DODGE, THEODORE AYRAULT (1842-1909), American soldier and military +writer, was born at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of May 1842. +He received a military education in Germany and subsequently studied at +Heidelberg and London University, returning to the United States in +1861. At the outbreak of the Civil War he at once enlisted in the +federal army, and he soon rose to commissioned rank. He served in the +Army of the Potomac until Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. Incapacitated +for further active service, he continued to be employed in +administrative posts to the end of the war, and for several years +thereafter he served at army headquarters, becoming captain in 1866 and +brevet lieutenant-colonel in 1867. He retired in 1870. His works include +_The Campaign of Chancellorsville_ (1881), _A Bird's Eye View of our +Civil War_ (1882, later edition 1897), a complete, accurate and +remarkably concise account of the whole war, _Patroclus and Penelope, a +Chat in the Saddle_ (1883), _Great Captains_ (1886), a series of +lectures, _Riders of Many Lands_ (1893), and a series of large +illustrated volumes entitled _A History of the Art of War_, being lives +of "Great Captains," including _Alexander_ (2 vols., 1888), _Hannibal_ +(2 vols., 1889), _Caesar_ (2 vols., 1892), _Gustavus Adolphus_ (2 vols., +1896) and _Napoleon_ (4 vols., 1904-1907). He died in France, at +Versailles, on the 26th of October 1909. + + + + +DODGSON, CHARLES LUTWIDGE ["LEWIS CARROLL"] (1832-1898), English +mathematician and author, son of the Rev. Charles Dodgson, vicar of +Daresbury, Cheshire, was born in that village on the 27th of January +1832. The literary life of "Lewis Carroll" became familiar to a wide +circle of readers, but the private life of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson was +retired and practically uneventful. After four years' schooling at +Rugby, Dodgson matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford, in May 1850; and +from 1852 till 1870 held a studentship there. He took a first class in +the final mathematical school in 1854, and the following year was +appointed mathematical lecturer at Christ Church, a post he continued to +fill till 1881. In 1861 he was ordained deacon, but he never took +priest's orders, possibly because of a stammer which prevented reading +aloud. His earliest publications, beginning with _A Syllabus of Plane +Algebraical Geometry_ (1860) and _The Formulae of Plane Trigonometry_ +(1861), were exclusively mathematical; but late in the year 1865 he +published, under the pseudonym of "Lewis Carroll," _Alice's Adventures +in Wonderland_, a work that was the outcome of his keen sympathy with +the imagination of children and their sense of fun. Its success was +immediate, and the name of "Lewis Carroll" has ever since been a +household word. A dramatic version of the "Alice" books by Mr Savile +Clarke was produced at Christmas, 1886, and has since enjoyed many +revivals. Mr Dodgson was always very fond of children, and it was an +open secret that the original of "Alice" was a daughter of Dean Liddell. +_Alice_ was followed (in the "Lewis Carroll" series) by +_Phantasmagoria_, in 1869; _Through the Looking-Glass_, in 1871; _The +Hunting of the Snark_ (1876); _Rhyme and Reason_ (1883); _A Tangled +Tale_ (1885); and _Sylvie and Bruno_ (in two parts, 1889 and 1893). He +wrote skits on Oxford subjects from time to time. _The Dynamics of a +Particle_ was written on the occasion of the contest between Gladstone +and Mr Gathorne Hardy (afterwards earl of Cranbrook); and _The New +Belfry_ in ridicule of the erection put up at Christ Church for the +bells that were removed from the Cathedral tower. While "Lewis Carroll" +was delighting children of all ages, C. L. Dodgson periodically +published mathematical works--_An Elementary Treatise on Determinants_ +(1867); _Euclid, Book V., proved Algebraically_ (1874); _Euclid and his +Modern Rivals_ (1879), the work on which his reputation as a +mathematician largely rests; and _Curiosa Mathematica_ (1888). +Throughout this dual existence Mr Dodgson pertinaciously refused to +acquiesce in being publicly identified with "Lewis Carroll." Though the +fact of his authorship of the "Alice" books was well known, he +invariably stated, when occasion called for such a pronouncement, that +"Mr Dodgson neither claimed nor acknowledged any connexion with the +books not published under his name." He died at Guildford, on the 14th +of January 1898. His memory is appropriately kept green by a cot in the +Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London, which was endowed +perpetually by a public subscription. + + See S. D. Collingwood, _Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll_ (1898). + + + + +DODO (from the Portuguese _Doudo_, a simpleton), a large bird formerly +inhabiting the island of Mauritius, but now extinct--the _Didus ineptus_ +of Linnaeus. When, in 1507, the Portuguese discovered the island which +we now know as Mauritius they named it _Ilha do Cerne_, from a notion +that it must be the island of that name mentioned by Pliny; but most +authors have insisted that it was known to the seamen of that nation as +_Ilha do Cisne_--perhaps but a corruption of Cerne, and brought about by +their finding it stocked with large fowls, which, though not aquatic, +they likened to swans, the most familiar to them of bulky birds. In 1598 +the Dutch, under Van Neck, took possession of the island and renamed it +Mauritius. A narrative of this voyage was published, in 1601, if not +earlier, and has been often reprinted. Here we have birds spoken of as +big as swans or bigger, with large heads, no wings, and a tail +consisting of a few curly feathers. The Dutch called them _Walgvogels_ +(the word is variously spelled), i.e. nauseous birds, either because no +cooking made them palatable, or because this island-paradise afforded an +abundance of fare so much superior. De Bry gives two admirably quaint +prints of the doings of the Hollanders, and in one of them the +_Walgvogel_ appears, being the earliest published representation of its +unwieldy form, with a footnote stating that the voyagers brought an +example alive to Holland. Among the company there was a draughtsman, and +from a sketch of his, Clusius, a few years after, gave a figure of the +bird, which he vaguely called "_Gallinaceus Gallus peregrinus_," but +described rather fully. Meanwhile two other Dutch fleets had visited +Mauritius. One of them had rather an accomplished artist on board, and +his drawings fortunately still exist (see article BIRD). Of the other a +journal kept by one of the skippers was subsequently published. This in +the main corroborates what has been before said of the birds, but adds +the curious fact that they were now called by some _Dodaarsen_ and by +others _Dronten_.[1] + +Henceforth Dutch narrators, though several times mentioning the bird, +fail to supply any important fact in its history. Their navigators, +however, were not idle, and found work for their naturalists and +painters. Clusius says that in 1605 he saw at Pauw's House in Leyden a +dodo's foot,[2] which he minutely describes. In a copy of Clusius's work +in the high school of Utrecht is pasted an original drawing by Van de +Venne superscribed "Vera effigies huius avis _Walghvogel_ (quae & a +nautis _Dodaers_ propter foedam posterioris partis crassitiem +nuncupatur), qualis viua Amsterodamum perlata est ex insula Mauritii. +Anno M.DC.XXVI." Now a good many paintings of the dodo drawn from life +by Roelandt Savery (1576-1639) exist; and the paintings by him at Berlin +and Vienna--dated 1626 and 1628--as well as the picture by Goiemare, +belonging to the duke of Northumberland, dated 1627, may be with greater +plausibility than ever considered portraits of a captive bird. It is +even probable that this was not the first example painted in Europe. In +the private library of the emperor Francis I. of Austria was a series of +pictures of various animals, supposed to be by the Dutch artist +Hoefnagel, who was born about 1545. One of these represents a dodo, and, +if there be no mistake in Von Frauenfeld's ascription, it must almost +certainly have been painted before 1626, while there is reason to think +that the original may have been kept in the _vivarium_ of the emperor +Rudolf II., and that the portion of a dodo's head, which was found in +the museum at Prague about 1850, belonged to this example. The other +pictures by Roelandt Savery, like those in the possession of the +Zoological Society of London and others, are undated, but were probably +all painted about the same time--1626-1628. The large picture in the +British Museum, once belonging to Sir Hans Sloane, by an unknown artist, +but supposed to be by Roelandt Savery, is also undated; while the still +larger one at Oxford (considered to be by the younger Savery) bears a +much later date, 1651. Undated also is a picture in Holland said to be +by Pieter Holsteyn. + +In 1628 we have the evidence of the first English observer of the +bird--one Emanuel Altham, who mentions it in two letters written on the +same day from Mauritius to his brother at home (_Proc. Zool. Soc._ 1874, +pp. 447-449). In one he says: "You shall receue ... a strange fowle: +which I had at the Iland Mauritius called by ye portingalls a Do Do: +which for the rareness thereof I hope wilbe welcome to you." The passage +in the other letter is to the same effect, with the addition of the +words "if it liue." In the same fleet with Altham sailed Sir Thomas +Herbert, whose _Travels_ ran through several editions. It is plain that +he could not have reached Mauritius till 1629, though 1627 has been +usually assigned as the date of his visit. The fullest account he gives +of the bird is in his edition of 1638: "The Dodo comes first to a +description: here, and in _Dygarrois_[3] (and no where else, that ever I +could see or heare of) is generated the Dodo (a Portuguize name it is, +and has reference to her simpleness,) a Bird which for shape and +rareness might be call'd a Phoenix (wer't in Arabia:)" &c. Herbert was +weak as an etymologist, but his positive statement, corroborated as it +is by Altham, cannot be set aside, and hence we do not hesitate to +assign a Portuguese derivation for the word.[4] Herbert also gave a +figure of the bird. + +Proceeding chronologically we next come upon a curious bit of evidence. +This is contained in a MS. diary kept between 1626 and 1640, by Thomas +Crossfield of Queen's College, Oxford, where, under the year 1634, +mention is casually made of one Mr Gosling "who bestowed the Dodar (a +blacke Indian bird) vpon ye Anatomy school." Nothing more is known of +it. About 1638, Sir Hamon Lestrange tells us, as he walked London +streets he saw the picture of a strange fowl hung out on a cloth canvas, +and going in to see it found a great bird kept in a chamber "somewhat +bigger than the largest Turky cock, and so legged and footed, but +shorter and thicker." The keeper called it a dodo and showed the +visitors how his captive would swallow "large peble stones ... as bigge +as nutmegs." + +In 1651 Morisot published an account of a voyage made by Francois +Cauche, who professed to have passed fifteen days in Mauritius, or +"l'isle de Saincte Apollonie," as he called it, in 1638. According to De +Flacourt the narrative is not very trustworthy, and indeed certain +statements are obviously inaccurate. Cauche says he saw there birds +bigger than swans, which he describes so as to leave no doubt of his +meaning dodos; but perhaps the most important facts (if they be facts) +that he relates are that they had a cry like a gosling ("il a un cry +comme l'oison"), and that they laid a single white egg ("gros comme un +pain d'un sol") on a mass of grass in the forests. He calls them +"oiseaux de Nazaret," perhaps, as a marginal note informs us, from an +island of that name which was then supposed to lie more to the +northward, but is now known to have no existence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Skeleton of a Dodo, _Didus ineptus_, Museum of +Zoology, Cambridge, and cast of a Head in Oxford.] + +In the catalogue of Tradescant's _Collection of Rarities, preserved at +South Lambeth_, published in 1656, we have entered among the "Whole +Birds," a "Dodar from the island _Mauritius_; it is not able to flie +being so big." This specimen may well have been the skin of the bird +seen by Lestrange some eighteen years before, but anyhow we are able to +trace the specimen through Willughby, Edward Llwyd and Thomas Hyde, till +it passed in or before 1684 to the Ashmolean collection at Oxford. In +1755 it was ordered to be destroyed, but, in accordance with the +original orders of Ashmole, its head and right foot were preserved, and +still ornament the museum of that university. In the second edition of a +_Catalogue of many Natural Rarities_, &c., "to be seen at the place +formerly called the Music House, near the West End of St Paul's Church," +collected by one Hubert _alias_ Forbes, and published in 1665, mention +is made of a "legge of a Dodo, a great heavy bird that cannot fly; it is +a Bird of the Mauricius Island." This is supposed to have subsequently +passed into the possession of the Royal Society. At all events such a +specimen is included in Grew's list of their treasures which was +published in 1681. This was afterwards transferred to the British +Museum. It is a left foot, without the integuments, but it differs +sufficiently in size from the Oxford specimen to forbid its having been +part of the same individual. In 1666 Olearius brought out the +_Gottorffische Kunst Kammer_, wherein he describes the head of a +_Walghvogel_ which some sixty years later was removed to the museum at +Copenhagen, and is now preserved there, having been the means of first +leading zoologists, under the guidance of Prof. J. Th. Reinhardt, to +recognize the true affinities of the bird. + +We have passed over all but the principal narratives of voyagers or +other notices of the bird. A compendious bibliography, up to the year +1848, will be found in Strickland's classical work,[5] and the list was +continued by Von Frauenfeld[6] for twenty years later. The last +evidence we have of the dodo's existence is furnished by a journal kept +by Benj. Harry, and now in the British Museum (_MSS. Addit. 3668._ II. +D). This shows its survival till 1681, but the writer's sole remark upon +it is that its "fflesh is very hard." The successive occupation of the +island by different masters seems to have destroyed every tradition +relating to the bird, and doubts began to arise whether such a creature +had ever existed. Dr Henry Duncan, Scottish minister and journalist, in +1828, showed how ill-founded these doubts were, and some ten years later +William John Broderip with much diligence collected all the available +evidence into an admirable essay, which in its turn was succeeded by +Strickland's monograph just mentioned. But in the meanwhile little was +done towards obtaining any material advance in our knowledge, Prof. +Reinhardt's determination of its affinity to the pigeons (_Columbae_) +excepted; and it was hardly until George Clark's discovery in 1865 of a +large number of dodos' remains in the mud of a pool (the Mare aux +Songes) that zoologists generally were prepared to accept that affinity +without question. The examination of bone after bone by Sir R. Owen +(_Trans. Zool. Soc._ vi. p. 49) confirmed the judgment of the Danish +naturalist. + +In 1889 Th. Sauzier, acting for the government of Mauritius, sent a +great number of bones from the same swamp to Sir Edward Newton.[7] From +these the first correctly restored and properly mounted skeleton was +prepared and sent to Paris, to be forwarded to the museum of Mauritius. +Good specimens are in the British Museum, at Paris and at Cambridge, +England. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Solitaire of Rodriguez (_Pezophaps +solitarius_). From Leguat's figure.] + +The huge blackish bill of the dodo terminated in a large, horny hook; +the cheeks were partly bare, the stout, short legs yellow. The plumage +was dark ash-coloured, with whitish breast and tail, yellowish white +wings (incapable of flight). The short tail formed a curly tuft. + +The dodo is said to have inhabited forests and to have laid one large +white egg on a mass of grass. Besides man, hogs and other imported +animals seem to have exterminated it. But the dodo is not the only +member of its family that has vanished. The little island which has +successively borne the name of Mascaregnas, England's Forest, Bourbon +and Reunion, and lies to the southward of Mauritius, had also an allied +bird, now dead and gone. Of this not a relic has been handled by any +naturalist. The latest description of it, by Du Bois in 1674, is very +meagre, while Bontekoe (1646) gave a figure, apparently intended to +represent it. It was originally called the "solitaire," but this name +was also applied to _Pezophaps solitarius_ of Rodriguez by the Huguenot +exile Leguat, who described and figured it about 1691. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Skeleton of a male Solitaire, _Pezophaps +solitarius_, Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.] + +The solitaire, Didus solitarius of Gmelin, referred by Strickland to a +district genus Pezophaps, is supposed to have lingered in the island of +Rodriguez until about 1761. Leguat[8] has given a delightful description +of its quaint habits. The male stood about 2 ft. 9 in. high; its colour +was brownish grey, that of its mate more inclined to brown, with a +whitish breast. The wings were rudimentary, the tail very small, almost +hidden, and the thigh feathers were thick and curled "like shells." A +round mass of bone, "as big as a musket ball," was developed on the +wings of the males, and they used it as a weapon of offence while they +whirled themselves about twenty or thirty times in four or five minutes, +making a noise with their pinions like a rattle. The mien was fierce and +the walk stately, the birds living singly or in pairs. The nest was a +heap of palm leaves a foot high, and contained a single large egg which +was incubated by both parents. The food consisted of seeds and leaves, +and the birds aided digestion by swallowing large stones; these were +used by the Dutch sailors to sharpen their knives with. One of these +stones, nearly an inch and a half in length, of extremely hard volcanic +rock, is in the Cambridge museum. The fighting knobs mentioned above, +are very interesting, large exostoses on one of the wrist-bones of +either wing; they were undoubtedly covered with a thick, callous skin. +Thousands of bones of this curious flightless pigeon were collected +through Sir E. Newton's[9] exertions, and by H. H. Sclater on behalf of +the Royal Society of London. The results are several almost complete +skeletons of both sexes, composed however out of the enormous mass of +the dissociated bones. (A. N.; H. F. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The etymology of these names has been much discussed. That of the + latter, which has generally been adopted by German and French + authorities, seems to defy investigation, but the former has been + shown by Prof. Schlegel (_Versl. en Mededeel. K. Akad. Wetensch._ ii. + pp. 255 et seq.) to be the homely name of the dabchick or little + grebe (_Podiceps minor_), of which the Dutchmen were reminded by the + round stern and tail diminished to a tuft that characterized the + dodo. The same learned authority suggests that dodo is a corruption + of _Dodaars_, but, as will presently be seen, we herein think him + mistaken. + + [2] What has become of the specimen (which may have been a relic of + the bird brought home by Van Neck's squadron) is not known. Broderip + and Dr Gray have suggested its identity with that now in the British + Museum, but on what grounds is not apparent. + + [3] i.e. Rodriguez; an error. + + [4] Hence we venture to dispute Prof. Schlegel's supposed origin of + "Dodo." The Portuguese must have been the prior nomenclators, and if, + as is most likely, some of their nation, or men acquainted with their + language, were employed to pilot the Hollanders, we see at once how + the first Dutch name _Walghvogel_ would give way. The meaning of + _Doudo_ not being plain to the Dutch, they would, as is the habit of + sailors, convert it into something they did understand. Then + _Dodaers_ would easily suggest itself. + + [5] _The Dodo and its Kindred_, by H. E. Strickland and A. G. + Melville (London, 1848, 4to). + + [6] _Neu aufgefundene Abbildung des Dronte_, by Georg Ritter von + Frauenfeld (Wien, 1868, fol.). + + [7] E. Newton and H. Gadow, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ xiii. (1893) pp. + 281-302, pls. + + [8] _Voyage et aventures de Francois Leguat_, &c. (2 vols., London, + 1708). An English translation, edited with many additional + illustrations by Captain Oliver, has been published by the Hakluyt + Society (2 vols., 1891). + + [9] E. Newton and J. W. Clark, _Phil. Trans._ clix. (1869), pp. + 327-362; clxviii. (1879), pp. 448-451. + + + + +DODONA, in Epirus, the seat of the most ancient and venerable of all +Hellenic sanctuaries. Its ruins are at Dramisos, near Tsacharovista. In +later times the Greeks of the south looked on the inhabitants of Epirus +as barbarians; nevertheless for Dodona they always preserved a certain +reverence, and the temple there was the object of frequent missions from +them. This temple was dedicated to Zeus, and connected with the temple +was an oracle which enjoyed more reputation in Greece than any other +save that at Delphi, and which would seem to date from earlier times +than the worship of Zeus; for the normal method of gathering the +responses of the oracle was by listening to the rustling of an old oak +tree, which was supposed to be the seat of the deity. We seem here to +have a remnant of the very ancient and widely diffused tree-worship. +Sometimes, however, auguries were taken in other manners, being drawn +from the moaning of doves in the branches, the murmur of a fountain +which rose close by, or the resounding of the wind in the brazen +caldrons which formed a circle all round the temple. Croesus proposed to +the oracle his well-known question; Lysander sought to obtain from it a +sanction for his ambitious views; the Athenians frequently appealed to +its authority during the Peloponnesian War. But the most frequent +votaries were the neighbouring tribes of the Acarnanians and Aetolians, +together with the Boeotians, who claimed a special connexion with the +district. + +Dodona is not unfrequently mentioned by ancient writers. It is spoken of +in the _Iliad_ as the stormy abode of Selli who sleep on the ground and +wash not their feet, and in the _Odyssey_ an imaginary visit of Odysseus +to the oracle is referred to. A Hesiodic fragment gives a complete +description of the Dodonaea or Hellopia, which is called a district full +of corn-fields, of herds and flocks and of shepherds, where is built on +an extremity ([Greek: ep eschatie]) Dodona, where Zeus dwells in the +stem of an oak ([Greek: phegos]). The priestesses were called doves +([Greek: peleiai]) and Herodotus tells a story which he learned at +Egyptian Thebes, that the oracle of Dodona was founded by an Egyptian +priestess who was carried away by the Phoenicians, but says that the +local legend substitutes for this priestess a black dove, a substitution +in which he tries to find a rational meaning. From inscriptions and +later writers we learn that in historical times there was worshipped, +together with Zeus, a consort named Dione (see further ZEUS; ORACLE; +DIONE). + +The ruins, consisting of a theatre, the walls of a town, and some other +buildings, had been conjectured to be those of Dodona by Wordsworth in +1832, but the conjecture was changed into ascertained fact by the +excavations of Constantin Carapanos. In 1875 he made some preliminary +investigations; soon after, an extensive discovery of antiquities was +made by peasants, digging without authority; and after this M. Carapanos +made a systematic excavation of the whole site to a considerable depth. +The topographical and architectural results are disappointing, and show +either that the site always retained its primitive simplicity, or else +that whatever buildings once existed have been very completely +destroyed. + +To the south of the hill, on which are the walls of the town, and to the +east of the theatre, is a plateau about 200 yds. long and 50 yds. wide. +Towards the eastern end of this terrace are the scanty remains of a +building which can hardly be anything but the temple of Zeus; it appears +to have consisted of pronaos, naos or cella, and opisthodomus, and some +of the lower drums of the internal columns of the cella were still +resting on their foundations. No trace of any external colonnade was +found. The temple was about 130 ft. by 80 ft. It had been converted into +a Christian church, and hardly anything of its architecture seems to +have survived. In it and around it were found the most interesting +products of excavation--statuettes and decorative bronzes, many of them +bearing dedications to Zeus Naius and Dione, and inscriptions, including +many small tablets of lead which contained the questions put to the +oracle. Farther to the west, on the same terrace, were two rectangular +buildings, which M. Carapanos conjectures to have been connected with +the oracle, but which show no distinguishing features. + +Below the terrace was a precinct, surrounded by walls and flanked with +porticoes and other buildings; it is over 100 yds. in length and +breadth, and of irregular shape. One of the buildings on the +south-western side contained a pedestal or altar, and is identified by +M. Carapanos as a temple of Aphrodite, on the insufficient evidence of a +single dedicated object; it does not seem to have any of the +characteristics of a temple. In front of the porticoes are rows of +pedestals, which once bore statues and other dedications. At the +southern corner of the precinct is a kind of gate or propylaeum, flanked +with two towers, between which are placed two coarse limestone drums. If +these are _in situ_ and belong to the original gateway, it must have +been of a very rough character; it does not seem probable that they +carried, as M. Carapanos suggests, the statuette and bronze bowl by +which divinations were carried on. + +The chief interest of the excavation centres in the smaller antiquities +discovered, which have now been transferred from M. Carapanos's +collection to the National Museum in Athens. Among the dedications, the +most interesting historically are a set of weapons dedicated by King +Pyrrhus from the spoils of the Romans, including characteristic +specimens of the pilum. The leaden tablets of the oracle contain no +certain example of a response, though there are many questions, varying +from matters of public policy or private enterprise to inquiries after +stolen goods. + +The temple of Dodona was destroyed by the Aetolians in 219 B.C., but the +oracle survived to the times of Pausanias and even of the emperor +Julian. + + See C. Wordsworth, _Greece_ (1839), p. 247; Constantin Carapanos, + _Dodone et ses ruines_ (Paris, 1878). For the oracle inscriptions, see + E. S. Roberts in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, vol. i. p. 228. (E. + GR.) + + + + +DODS, MARCUS (1834-1909), Scottish divine and biblical scholar, was born +at Belford, Northumberland, the youngest son of Rev. Marcus Dods, +minister of the Scottish church of that town. He was trained at +Edinburgh Academy and Edinburgh University, graduating in 1854. Having +studied theology for five years he was licensed in 1858, and in 1864 +became minister of Renfield Free Church, Glasgow, where he worked for +twenty-five years. In 1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament +Exegesis in the New College, Edinburgh, of which he became principal on +the death of Dr Rainy in 1907. He died in Edinburgh on the 26th of April +1909. Throughout his life, both ministerial and professorial, he devoted +much time to the publication of theological books. Several of his +writings, especially a sermon on Inspiration delivered in 1878, incurred +the charge of unorthodoxy, and shortly before his election to the +Edinburgh professorship he was summoned before the General Assembly, but +the charge was dropped by a large majority, and in 1891 he received the +honorary degree of D.D. from Edinburgh University. He edited Lange's +_Life of Christ_ in English (Edinburgh, 1864, 6 vols.), Augustine's +works (1872-1876), and, with Dr Alexander Whyte, Clark's "Handbooks for +Bible Classes" series. In the Expositor's Bible series he edited Genesis +and 1 Corinthians, and he was also a contributor to the 9th edition of +the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_. +Among other important works are: _The Epistle to the Seven Churches_ +(1865); _Israel's Iron Age_ (1874); _Mohammed, Buddha and Christ_ +(1877); _Handbook on Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi_ (1879); _The Gospel +according to St John_ (1897), in the Expositor's Greek Testament; _The +Bible, its Origin and Nature_ (1904), the Bross Lectures, in which he +gave an able sketch of the use of Old Testament criticism, and finally +set forth his Theory of Inspiration. Apart from his great services to +Biblical scholarship he takes high rank among those who have sought to +bring the results of technical criticism within the reach of the +ordinary reader. + + + + +DODSLEY, ROBERT (1703-1764), English bookseller and miscellaneous +writer, was born in 1703 near Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, where his +father was master of the free school. He is said to have been +apprenticed to a stocking-weaver in Mansfield, from whom he ran away, +taking service as a footman. In 1729 Dodsley published his first work, +_Servitude; a Poem ... written by a Footman_, with a preface and +postscript ascribed to Daniel Defoe; and a collection of short poems, _A +Muse in Livery, or the Footman's Miscellany_, was published by +subscription in 1732, Dodsley's patrons comprising many persons of high +rank. This was followed by a satirical farce called _The Toyshop_ +(Covent Garden, 1735), in which the toyman indulges in moral +observations on his wares, a hint which was probably taken from Thomas +Randolph's _Conceited Pedlar_. The profits accruing from the sale of his +works enabled Dodsley to establish himself with the help of his +friends--Pope lent him L100--as a bookseller at the "Tully's Head" in +Pall Mall in 1735. His enterprise soon made him one of the foremost +publishers of the day. One of his first publications was Dr Johnson's +_London_, for which he gave ten guineas in 1738. He published many of +Johnson's works, and he suggested and helped to finance the _English +Dictionary_. Pope also made over to Dodsley his interest in his letters. +In 1738 the publication of Paul Whitehead's _Manners_, voted scandalous +by the Lords, led to a short imprisonment. Dodsley published for Edward +Young and Mark Akenside, and in 1751 brought out Thomas Gray's _Elegy_. +He also founded several literary periodicals: _The Museum_ (1746-1767, 3 +vols.); _The Preceptor containing a general course of education_ (1748, +2 vols.), with an introduction by Dr Johnson; _The World_ (1753-1756, 4 +vols.); and _The Annual Register_, founded in 1758 with Edmund Burke as +editor. To these various works, Horace Walpole, Akenside, Soame Jenyns, +Lord Lyttelton, Lord Chesterfield, Burke and others were contributors. +Dodsley is, however, best known as the editor of two collections: +_Select Collection of Old Plays_ (12 vols., 1744; 2nd edition with notes +by Isaac Reed, 12 vols., 1780; 4th edition, by W. C. Hazlitt, 1874-1876, +15 vols.); and _A collection of Poems by Several Hands_ (1748, 3 vols.), +which passed through many editions. In 1737 his _King and the Miller of +Mansfield_, a "dramatic tale" of King Henry II., was produced at Drury +Lane, and received with much applause; the sequel, _Sir John Cockle at +Court_, a farce, appeared in 1738. In 1745 he published a collection of +his dramatic works, and some poems which had been issued separately, in +one volume under the modest title of _Trifles_. This was followed by +_The Triumph of Peace, a Masque occasioned by the Treaty of +Aix-la-Chapelle_ (1749); a fragment, entitled _Agriculture_, of a long +tedious poem in blank verse on _Public Virtue_ (1753); _The Blind Beggar +of Bethnal Green_ (acted at Drury Lane 1739, printed 1741); and an ode, +_Melpomene_ (1757). His tragedy of _Cleone_ (1758) had a long run at +Covent Garden, 2000 copies being sold on the day of publication, and it +passed through four editions within the year. Lord Chesterfield is, +however, almost certainly the author of the series of mock chronicles of +which _The Chronicle of the Kings of England_ by "Nathan ben Saddi" +(1740) is the first, although they were included in the _Trifles_ and +"ben Saddi" was received as Dodsley's pseudonym. _The Economy of Human +Life_ (1750), a collection of moral precepts frequently reprinted, is +also by Lord Chesterfield. In 1759 Dodsley retired, leaving the conduct +of the business to his brother James (1724-1797), with whom he had been +many years in partnership. He published two more works, _The Select +Fables of Aesop translated by R. D._ (1764) and the _Works of William +Shenstone_ (3 vols., 1764-1769). He died at Durham while on a visit to +his friend the Rev. Joseph Spence, on the 23rd of September 1764. + + See also _Shadows of the Old Booksellers_, by Charles Knight (1865), + pp. 189-216; "At Tully's Head" in _Eighteenth Century Vignettes_, 2nd + series, by Austin Dobson (1894); E. Solly in _The Bibliographer_, v. + (1884) pp. 57-61. Dodsley's poems are reprinted with a memoir in A. + Chalmers's _Works of English Poets_, vol. xv. (1810). + + + + +DODSWORTH, ROGER (1585-1654), English antiquary, was born near +Oswaldkirk, Yorkshire. He devoted himself early to antiquarian research, +in which he was greatly assisted by the fact that his father, Matthew +Dodsworth, was registrar of York cathedral, and could give him access to +the records preserved there. He married the widow of Laurence Rawsthorne +of Hutton Grange, where he subsequently resided till his death in August +1654. At various times in his life he was enabled to study the records +in the library of Sir Robert Cotton, in Skipton Castle, and in the Tower +of London. He collected a vast store of materials for a history of +Yorkshire, a _Monasticon Anglicanum_, and an English baronage. The +second of these was published with considerable additions by Sir William +Dugdale (2 vols., 1655 and 1661). The MSS. were left to Thomas, third +Lord Fairfax, who by his will bequeathed them (160 volumes in all) to +the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Portions have been printed by the +Yorkshire Archaeological Society (_Dodsworth's Yorkshire Notes_, 1884) +and the Chetham Society (copies of Lancashire postmortem inquisitions, +1875-1876). + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 5, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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